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diff --git a/old/41111-0.txt b/old/41111-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 191c680..0000000 --- a/old/41111-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20882 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wonder Book of Knowledge, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Wonder Book of Knowledge - The Marvels of Modern Industry and Invention the Interesting - Stories of Common Things the Mysterious Processes of Nature - Simply Explained - -Author: Various - -Editor: Henry Chase Hill - -Release Date: October 19, 2012 [EBook #41111] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WONDER BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES | - | | - | Transcriptions used: italic and bold texts are transcribed between | - | underscores and equal signs respectively: _text_ and =text=. Texts | - | printed in small capitals are transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. | - | Fractions are represented as, for example, 2-1/3 for two and one- | - | third. | - | | - | Depending on the software used and its settings, not all characters| - | may display properly. | - | | - | Footnotes [1], [2], etc. have been moved to the end of the text, | - | before the Index. All footnotes contain credits for illustrations | - | and/or text. | - | | - | More transcriber’s notes may be found at the end of this document. | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -[Illustration: HOW COLOR PRINTING IS DONE - -A plate is made for each of the three printing colors, yellow, red -and blue, as explained on page 382. First, yellow is printed, then -red on the yellow, and last, blue on the yellow and red combination. -Combinations of these three colors in various proportions produce all -the other tints which appear in the original subject. Above are shown -the separate plates and also the combined result of all three. Extreme -care is necessary to make all the plates register exactly together.] - - - - - THE WONDER BOOK - OF KNOWLEDGE - - THE MARVELS OF MODERN INDUSTRY AND INVENTION - THE INTERESTING STORIES OF COMMON THINGS - THE MYSTERIOUS PROCESSES OF NATURE - SIMPLY EXPLAINED - - COMPILED AND EDITED - BY - HENRY CHASE HILL - WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF EXPERTS - REPRESENTING EACH INDUSTRY - - Illustrated with - 780 Photographs and Drawings - - PHILADELPHIA - THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - COPYRIGHT, 1921 - BY L. T. MYERS - COPYRIGHT, 1917-19 - - - - -Preface - - -This book is presented to those, both young and old, who wish to have a -non-technical account of the history, evolution and production of some -of the every-day wonders of the modern industrial age; coupled with -occasional glimpses of the wonderful object-lessons afforded by nature -in her constructive activities in the animal, vegetable and mineral -kingdoms; and simple, understandable answers to the myriad puzzling -questions arising daily in the minds of those for whom the fascination -of the “Why” and “How” is always engrossing. - -Although not intended primarily as a child’s book, the -interest-compelling pictures and clear, illuminating answers to the -constant avalanche of questions suggested by the growing mind, unite in -making far happier children in the home and brighter children at school. -Parents and teachers will also recognize the opportunity to watch for -subjects by which the child’s interest appears to be more than -ordinarily attracted, and, in so doing, will be enabled to guide the -newly-formed tendencies into the proper channels. With the greatest -thinkers of the age advocating vocational training, and leading -educators everywhere pointing out that the foundation of a practical -education for life must be laid in the home, thoughtful parents will not -overlook the fact that a book which both entertains and instructs is of -supreme importance in the equipment of their children. - -In the preparation of this book its function has been considered as that -of gathering up some of the multitudinous bits of information of -interest, both to the inquiring child and the older reader, and putting -them in shape to be digested by the ordinary searcher after knowledge. -The book is intended, not for a few technical specialists, but for the -larger number of men, women and children who are not interested in -exhaustive treatises, but who are seeking to gain some fair idea about -the numberless every-day subjects that arise in ordinary conversation, -or that they meet with in reading and about which they desire some -definite and satisfactory information. - -Most of us realize that we live in a world of wonders and we recognize -progress in industries with which we come in personal contact, but the -daily routine of our lives is ordinarily so restricted by circumstances -that many of us fail to follow works which do not come within our own -experience or see beyond the horizon of our own specific paths. - -The workman who tends the vulcanizer in the rubber factory has come to -take his work as a matter of course; the man who assembles a watch, or a -camera, is not apt to appreciate the fact that there have been marvelous -developments in his line of manufacturing; the operator of a shoe -machine, or of an elevator, does not see anything startling or absorbing -in the work--and so we find it almost throughout the entire list of -industries. - -The tendency of the seemingly almost imperceptible movement marking -onward development in the work that is familiar is to dull the mind -toward opportunities for improvement in the accustomed task. With the -exception of the man who is at times impressed with the remarkable -advances made in some strikingly spectacular industry, because such -knowledge comes to him suddenly, the average workman is often too much -inclined to regard himself as a machine, and performs his duties more or -less automatically, without attempting to exercise imagination or those -powers of adaptation upon which all progress has been builded. - -A single volume is of necessity too limited a space for anything -approximating a complete record of the vast progress which has been made -in American Industry. Consequently it has only been possible to select -the more characteristic features of the twentieth century and point out -the strides by which some of the prominent industries have advanced to -their present proportions. If the hitherto undisputed maxim that “the -more the individual knows the more he is worth to himself and his -associates” still prevails, the chronicling of the developments in some -fields should stimulate thought and experiment toward the adaptation of -similar methods in others. It is to that end that authorities in each of -the industries presented have co-operated in the compilation of this -interesting and instructive volume. - -THE EDITOR. - - - - -Table of Contents - - - PAGE - - =THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE= =9= - - Origin of Submarine Navigation, 9. The American Types, 10. Twentieth - Century Submarines, 11. Engine Power, 12. The Periscope, 13. Voyage of - the “Deutschland,” 14. Submarine Dredging, 15. - - - =THE STORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL= =17= - - The United States to the Rescue, 17. The Canal and the Navy, 20. The - Great Canal, 20. The Hydroelectric Station, 20. Gigantic Obstacles, - 30. Gatun Dam, 33. Meeting all Emergencies, 33. A Battle Won, 36. - - =What is a Geyser? 40. What Kind of Dogs are Prairie-Dogs? 42. What is - Spontaneous Combustion? 42.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE TALKING MACHINE= =43= - - The Early Machines, 43. Invention of the Spring Motor, 47. Change from - Cylinder to Disc, 47. Making the Record, 49. - - =What are Petrified Forests? 49. What Animals are the Best Architects? - 51.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE MOTORCYCLE= =52= - - Austin’s Steam Velocipede, 52. Motor-paced Racing, 55. First Practical - Machine, 54. Modern Refinements, 57. Side Cars and Commercial Bodies, - 58. - - =How is the Weather Man Able to Predict Tomorrow’s Weather? 58. How - does a Siren Fog Horn Blow? 60.= - - - =THE STORY IN A WATCH= =61= - - The Standard of Time, 61. Candles as Time-Keepers, 63. Galileo’s - Pendulum, 63. Balance Wheel as a Pendulum, 65. The Time Train, 65. How - a Watch Works, 67. What Causes Variation in Watches, 71. - - =How does a Monorail Gyroscope Railway Operate? 72. Why are - Finger-prints used for Identification? 74.= - - - =THE STORY IN A RIFLE= =75= - - The Earliest Hunters, 75. The Use of Slings, 77. A Fortunate Accident; - 77. As to Arrows, 81. A Shooting Machine, 81. And Now for Chemistry, - 81. Playing with Fire, 83. The Coming of the Matchlock, 83. Caps and - Breech-Loaders, 85. From Henry VIII to Cartridges, 85. The Beginning - of Precision in Mechanics, 87. Making Barrels, 92. Taking off 2/1000 - of an Inch, 92. The Making of Ammunition Today, 94. Handling Deadly - Explosives, 96. Extreme Precautions, 96. - - =How does an Artesian Well Keep up its Supply of Water? 96. Where do - Dates come from? 97.= - - - =THE STORY OF RUBBER= =98= - - How was Rubber First Used? 98. What is a Rubber Camp Like? 100. How is - Rubber Gathered by the Natives? 103. How is Rubber Smoked? 104. How - was Vulcanizing Discovered? 105. How did Rubber Growing Spread to Other - Places? 108. How is Rubber Cured on Modern Plantations? 110. How is - Crude Rubber Received Here? 112. How is Rubber Prepared for Use? 112. - How are Rubber Shoes Made? 116. How are Automobile Tires Made? 119. - - =How did the Expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” Originate? - 119. What is an Aerial Railway Like? 119. Why are they called - Newspapers? 121. How did the Cooking of Food Originate? 121. How Far - away is the Sky-Line? 121.= - - - =THE STORY OF ROPE= =122= - - Civilized Rope Makers, 122. Hand Spinning, 124. Machine-made Ropes, - 128. American Hemp, 128. Manila and Sisal Fibers, 130. Wire Ropes, - 132. Pine Tar for Ropes, 134. Why does Rope Cling Together? 136. What - is Rope Used for? 136. - - =How did the Expression “A-1” Originate? 136. How has Man Helped - Nature give us Apples? 136. What kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? 138. How - are Files Made? 138.= - - - =THE STORY OF SELF-LOADING PISTOLS= =139= - - Colt Pistols, 139. Machine Guns, 145. - - =How does the Poisonous Tarantula Live? 146. How do the Indians Live - Now? 146. How does the Beach get its Sand? 149. How did Nodding the - Head Up and Down Come to Mean “Yes”? 149. Why do We Call a Man “a - Benedict” When He Marries? 149.= - - - =THE STORY IN FIRECRACKERS AND SKY-ROCKETS= =150= - - The Need for Noisemakers, 150. Chinese Firecrackers, 150. Popular ever - since the Invention of Gunpowder, 154. Beautiful Displays, 158. - - =What makes a Chimney Smoke? 158. What are Dry Docks Like? 161. Why - does a Lightning Bug Light Her Light? 161.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PICTURE= =162= - - The Image is Upsidedown, 162. Effect of Light on the Film, 163. Early - Photographic Efforts, 164. Modern Photography, 168. - - =How Deep is the Deepest Part of the Ocean? 169. Why do We say “Get - the Sack”? 169. Why do We call them X-Rays? 169. How did the Term - “Yankee” Originate? 171. Why do We say “Kick the Bucket”? 171. When - does a Tortoise move Quickly? 171.= - - - =THE STORY IN A NEWSPAPER= =172= - - Gutenberg’s Press in 1450, 172. Cylinder Presses, 173. Curved Plates, - 175. Printing, Folding and Counting 216,000 Papers an Hour, 175. Color - Printing, 180. - - =What do We Mean by the “Flying Dutchman”? 180. Why does a Duck’s Back - Shed Water? 180. Why doesn’t the Sky ever Fall Down? 180. How are - Sand-Dunes Formed? 180. What do We Mean by an Eclipse? 181. What are - Dreams? 182. What makes Our Teeth Chatter? 182.= - - - =THE STORY IN A HONEY COMB= =183= - - Sixty Thousand Bees in a Hive, 183. Modern Bee-Keeping, 187. - Profitable Anywhere, 193. - - =Where do Figs Come from? 199. What are Fighting Fish? 199. How is the - Exact Color of the Sky Determined? 199. What is a Divining Rod? 199.= - - - =THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME= =200= - - A Modern Aladdin’s Lamp, 200. Electric Hot Irons the First Appliances, - 201. How They are Made, 202. Electric Cooking Appliances, 205. - Electric Toaster, 206. Electric Coffee Percolator, 206. Baking and - Roasting, 210. Vacuum Cleaners, 212. - - =Why is there Always a Soft Spot in a Cocoanut Shell? 214. How does a - Gasoline Motor Run an Electric Street Car? 214. How do Carrier Pigeons - Carry Messages? 216. What Family has Over 9,000,000 Members? 216.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE TELEPHONE= =217= - - Invention, 217. Essential Factor in American Life, 218. America Leads - in Telephone Growth, 220. American Telephone Practice Superior, 222. - The First Transcontinental Line, 225. Wireless Speech Transmission, - 226. The Mobilization of Communication, 228. - - =Why do they Call Them “Fiddler-Crabs”? 229. How Far can a Powerful - Searchlight Send its Rays? 229. What Started the Habit of Touching - Glasses Before Drinking? 231. Why are Windows Broken by Explosions? - 231. What does the Expression “Showing the White Feather” come from? - 231.= - - - =THE STORY IN ELEVATORS AND ESCALATORS= =232= - - From Novelty to Necessity, 232. The Escalator, 235. The Cleat - Escalator, 239. The Moving Platform, 239. - - =What Happens when Animals Hibernate? 241. How do Peanuts get in the - Ground? 241. How did Your State get its Name? 243.= - - - =THE STORY OF COAL MINING= =244= - - The World Depends on Coal, 244. Dangers of Mining, 244. How Coal Grew, - 247. The Vast Quantities Produced, 253. - - =How can We Hear through the Walls of a Room? 251. What is a Diesel - Engine Like? 252. What does the Sheep-grower get for the Wool in a - Suit of Clothes? 252.= - - - =THE STORY IN A SILVER TEASPOON= =253= - - The Spoon is Older than History, 253. Development of Various Shapes, - 254. Plating Re-Discovered, 256. Electro-plating, 257. Stages in - Manufacture, 258. Evolution of a Knife, 259. - - =How do Chimes Strike the Hour? 260. How is Electricity Brought into a - House? 262. What was the Origin of Masonic Signs? 262. What is a - Dictograph? 262.= - - - =STORY OF THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH= =263= - - Stretching a Dog, 263. Marconi’s Method, 263. Tuning the Instruments, - 264. Interferences, 265. - - =What is Forestry Work? 267. How did the Fashion of Wearing Cravats - Commence? 270. How does the Gas Meter Measure Your Gas? 270. What is a - Game Preserve? 270.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE BUILDING OF A SILO= =271= - - What is a Silo? 271. The First Silo, 271. What is put in a Silo? 271. - Elements of Success or Failure, 271. - - - =THE STORY OF THE ADVANCE OF ELECTRICITY= =273= - - The First Commercial Central Station, 273. Edison and the Electric - Light, 273. Electricity a Living Factor, 279. In the Printing Trade, - 279. Construction, 279. Loft Manufacturing, 281. Electric Heating, - 281. Electricity and Safety, 281. Electricity in Medicine, 281. - Electric Vehicles, 282. Electricity and the Home, 282. Decreased Cost - of Electricity, 285. - - =How is Die-Sinking Done? 285.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A MAGAZINE= =286= - - Printing in Millions, 286. Color Printing, 289. - - =How Did the Ringing of Curfew Originate? 289.= - - - =THE STORY OF AMERICA’S FIRST HORSELESS CARRIAGE= =290= - - The Problems of Weight and Vibration, 290. The First Demonstration, - 290. - - - =THE STORY IN A SAUSAGE= =292= - - The First “Roast Pig,” 292. Smoking Ham, 292. Salt Pork, 293. The Era - of Refrigeration, 295. An Up-to-date Packing Plant, 295. Dressing - Meat, 298. By-Products, 298. - - =Why do We call them “Dog Days?” 301. How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece - Made? 303. How does a Bird Fly? 303.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE BIG REDWOOD TREES= =304= - - Long Life of the Great Trees, 304. Valuable Qualities of the Redwood, - 304. Fire Retardance, 306. Magnificent Tones for Decoration, 306. - - =How did the Expression “Forlorn Hope” Originate? 306. Why is “Wall - Street” known Around the World? 308. What makes a Stick Seem To Bend - in Water? 308. What causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? 308. How are - We Able to Hear through Speaking Tubes? 308. Why do We Always Shake - Hands with our Right Hand? 308.= - - - =THE STORY IN A BILLIARD TABLE= =309= - - An Ancient Game, 309. Modern Manufacture, 311. The Cue is a work of - Art, 314. The Finest Ivory for Balls, 314. - - =What is the Hottest Place in the United States? 315. What are White - Blackberries Like? 317. Why do They Have a Dog-Watch on Shipboard? - 317. How Much Gold has a 14-Carat Ring? 317. What is an Electro - Magnet? 317.= - - - =THE STORY IN A PIN= =318= - - Once a Luxury of the Wealthy, 318. Formerly made in Parts, 319. Making - 25,000,000 Pins a Year, 321. - - =How are Glaciers Formed? 324. How Large are Molecules? 324.= - - - =PICTORIAL STORY OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY= =325= - - Episodes in the Game, 325. Modern Fishing Vessels, 326. The Trawl, - 327. Drawing the Net, 328. Fish Curing, 329. Preparing for Market, - 330. - - - =THE STORY IN A BOX OF CALIFORNIA ORANGES= =331= - - Picked with Gloves, 331. Grading, 331. Shipped in Refrigerators, 333. - - =What Kind of Steel Knives do not Stain or Rust? 333. Why is it - Necessary to Keep Quiet when Fishing? 333. First Apartment Houses in - this Country, 336. Why do we Call 32° above Zero Freezing? 336. How is - Fresco Painting Done? 336.= - - - =THE STORY OF A PIECE OF CHEWING GUM= =337= - - Juice of the Chicle Tree, 337. Treatment in the Factory, 342. - - =Where did the Ferris Wheel get its Name? 342. What is Done to Keep - Railroad Rails from Breaking? 342. How does a “Master Clock” Control - others by Electricity? 342.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE CALCULATING MACHINE= =345= - - How did Men Learn to Count? 345. The First Adding Machine, 345. The - Slide Rule Principle, 348. The “Difference Engine,” 348. Present-Day - Models, 349. The Largest Adding Machine, 354. How are Adding Machines - Used? 355. - - =Where does Ermine Come from? 356. What is the Principle of “Foreign - Exchange?” 356. What do We Mean by “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s - Arms”? 356.= - - - =THE STORY IN A BOWLING ALLEY= =357= - - Bowling Green, New York City, 357. How the Alley is Built, 358. - Composition Balls, 361. - - =How are Artificial Precious Stones Made? 361. What is a Mexican - Bull-Fight Like? 363. What is the Difference between “Alternating” and - “Direct” Current? 363. What was the “Court of Love”? 363.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE ADDRESSOGRAPH= =364= - - Birth of Mechanical Addressing, 364. The First Addressograph, 364. - Greater Speed, 366. A Card Index that Addresses Itself, 367. - - =What is Dry Farming? 372. What is a Drying Machine Like? 372. How - does the New York Stock Exchange Operate? 374. How did the term - “Cowboys” Originate? 374.= - - - =THE STORY IN A CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER= =375= - - Smothering Fire with a Gas Blanket, 375. The Soda and Acid - Extinguisher, 376. - - =How is Gold Leaf Made? 377. What is the Natural Color of Goldfish? - 377. When was “Liquid Fire” first used in Warfare? 377. How did the - Greyhound get his Name? 377. Why is It Called “Battery Park”? 379. How - do we Know that the Earth is Round? 379. What were “Ducking Stools?” - 379.= - - - =THE STORY IN PHOTO-ENGRAVING= =380= - - Pictures are the Universal Language, 380. What a Halftone is, 380. - Line Engravings, 381. Color Engraving, 382. - - =Where are Milk-Pails Filled from Trees? 383. How did the Wearing of a - Crown Originate? 384. Why do Lobsters change Color? 384. How do Fishes - Swim? 384. Where do Pearls Come from? 385. What is Cork? 385.= - - - =THE STORY IN A GIANT CANNON= =386= - - Origin of the Cannon, 386. Modern Cannon, 392. How Cannon are Now - Made, 393. Built-Up and Wire-Wound Guns, 394. Feats of Modern Guns, - 406. - - =What is a Deep-Sea Diver’s Dress Like? 411. Why do We Smile when We - are Pleased? 412. Why do Some of Us have Freckles? 412.= - - - =PICTORIAL STORY OF THE STEEL INDUSTRY= =413= - - Mining Ore, 413. Open-Hearth Furnaces, 416. Blast Furnaces, 417. A - 15,000 Ton Forge, 418. Oil-Tempering, 420. Bending Armor Plate, 422. - Largest Steel Casting in the World, 424. Casting Steel, 431. Rolling - Rails, 432. - - =What do We Mean by “Deviation of the Compass?” 435.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PAIR OF SHOES= =436= - - Shoemaking by Machine, 436. Cross-Section of a Shoe, 437. Lasting - Machine, 440. Details of the Process, 442. Evolution of a Shoe, 447. - - =What is Standard Gold? 448. What are Cyclones? 450. What Metals can - be Drawn into Wire Best? 450. How are Cocoanuts Used to Help our - Warships? 450. How did the Dollar Sign Originate? 450.= - - - =PICTORIAL STORY OF FIRE APPARATUS= =451= - - Aerial Truck, 451. Motor Fire Engine, 451. Old-time Apparatus, 452. - Chemical Engine, 455. - - - =STORY OF THE TAKING OF FOOD FROM THE AIR= =458= - - Nitrogen and Oxygen in the Air, 458. Fixation of Nitrogen, 459. Liquid - Air, 460. Fertilizer, 461. Ammonia, 466. - - =What is a Drawbridge Like Today? 466.= - - - =THE STORY OF A DEEP-SEA MONSTER= =468= - - A Thirty-nine Hour Battle, 468. Five Harpoons and 151 Bullets needed, - 468. An Unknown Leviathan, 470. - - =What is an Armored Railway Car Like? 470. What is an Electric Eel? - 472.= - - - =THE STORY OF SALT= =473= - - Natural Salt, 473. The Polish Mines, 474. Refining, 476. - - =Why do We Call it “Denatured Alcohol”? 478. What is the Difference - between a Cruiser and a Battleship? 478.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE MOTOR TRUCK= =481= - - Practically Developed since 1905, 481. Cheaper Transportation, 489. - - =What is a Diving Bell? 489. How are Harbors Dredged Out? 491. How is - a Razor Blade Made? 491.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE TUNNELS UNDER THE HUDSON RIVER= =492= - - Bold Engineering, 492. 40,000 Men, 492. How the Tunneling Shield - Works, 494. Air Pressure, 496. Extraordinary Adventures under the - River, 501. - - =What Causes Floating Islands? 504.= - - - =PICTORIAL STORY OF THE AIRSHIP= =505= - - Well-known Aviators, 505. Military Monoplane, 506. NC-4, First Plane - to Cross the Atlantic, 507. Vickers-Vimy, First Flier to make - Non-Stop Atlantic Flight, 508. Chart of Transatlantic Fliers, 509. The - Wright Brothers, 510. British Transatlantic Dirigible, R-34, 511. - Examples of Military Uses, 512. - - - =THE STORY OF AN AUTOMOBILE FACTORY= =518= - - A half-million Cars a year, 518. Overhead Cranes Cut Costs, 520. - Safety First, 521. One thing at a Time, 524. Quick Assembling, 526. - The Body Chute, 530. Motion Picture Advertising, 537. - - =How do Big Buildings get their Granite? 539.= - - - =RAILROAD SCENES FROM SHOP AND ROAD= =541= - - All Steel Train, 541. Electric Train, 542. Train of 120 Cars, 543. An - Observation Car, 544. Electric Baggage Truck, 545. Terminal Stations, - 546. Paint Drying Oven, 547. Locomotive Building, 548. Types of - Locomotives, 550. - - - =THE STORY OF AN UP-TO-DATE FARM= =556= - - Luxuries of Farm Life, 556. Plenty of Food, 557. Reaping Hook, 558. - The Cradle, 559. Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines, 561. The - First Successful Reaper, 563. Development of the Reaper, 564. The - Self-Binder, 568. The Twine Binder, 570. Other Machines Follow, 574. - - =What Causes an Echo? 574.= - - - =THE STORY OF THE MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTING MACHINE= =575= - - Spectacular Rise of Motion Pictures, 575. How the Projector Operates, - 578. Varied Uses of the Pictures, 579. - - - =THE STORY OF LEATHER= =580= - - Tanning, 580. Oiling, 582. Finishing Coats, 583. Currying, 583. - - =What is a “Glass Snake?” 583.= - - - =THE STORY IN DIAMOND-CUTTING= =584= - - Where Diamonds Come from, 584. Famous Diamonds, 585. Methods of - Cutting, 585. Defects in Diamonds, 586. Brilliancy, 587. - - =Why do We get Hungry? 588.= - - - =THE STORY IN THE MODERN LIFTING MAGNET= =589= - - What a Magnet is, 589. How an Electric Magnet Works, 590. Will Lift 30 - Tons, 592. - - =Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? 593. How are Animals - Identified on Cattle Ranges? 594. How is Glue Made? 594. Why does a - Hot Dish Crack if we put Ice Cream in It? 594.= - - - =ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF TITLES AND SUBJECTS= =595= - - - =ACKNOWLEDGMENTS= =607= - - - - -The Story of the Submarine[1] - -Origin of Submarine Navigation. - - -The history of invention has no chapter more interesting than that of -sailing under the ocean’s waves. The navigation of the air approaches it -in character, but does not present the vital problems of undersea -travel. Both these new fields of navigation have been notably developed -within recent years, largely as a result of the great European war. It -is the story of sailing in the depths beneath the ocean’s surface with -which we here propose to deal. The problem was settled easily enough for -his purpose by Jules Verne, in his “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the -Sea.” But that was pure fiction without scientific value. It is with -fact, not fiction, that we are here concerned. - -[Illustration: A SUBMARINE ABOUT TO SUBMERGE] - -The story takes us back three hundred years, to the reign of James I, of -England, when a crude submarine boat was built, to be moved by oars, but -one of no value other than as a curiosity. At a later date a man named -Day built a similar boat, wagering that he would go down one hundred -yards and remain there twenty-four hours. So far as is known, he still -remains there, winning the wager which he has not come up to claim. - -Other such boats were constructed at intervals, but the first undersea -boat of any historical importance was the “American Turtle,” built by a -Yankee named David Bushnell during the time that the British held New -York in the Revolutionary War. He sought to blow up the British frigate -“Eagle” with the aid of a torpedo and nearly succeeded in doing so, -seriously scaring the British shippers by the explosion of his torpedo. - -The next to become active in this line of discovery was Robert Fulton, -the inventor of the first practical steamboat. He, like Bushnell, was an -American, but his early experiments were in France, where Napoleon -patronized him. With his boat, the “Nautilus,” he made numerous -descents, going down twenty-five feet in the harbor of Brest and -remaining there an hour. He said that he could build a submarine that -could swim under the water and destroy any war vessel afloat. But the -French Admiralty refused to sustain him, one old admiral saying, “Thank -God, France still fights her battles on the surface, not beneath it.” - -Fulton finally went to England and there built a boat with which he -attached a torpedo to a condemned brig, set aside for that purpose. The -brig was blown up in the presence of an immense throng, and Fulton -finally sold his invention to the British government for $75,000. -Nothing further came of it. - -The submarine next came into practical view during the American Civil -War, when the Confederate government built several such vessels, known -usually as “Davids” from their inventor. Now, for the first time, did -such a craft demonstrate its powers. On the night of February 17, 1864, -one of the “Davids,” the “Hunley,” blew up the steamship “Housatonic” in -Charleston harbor. The wave caused by the explosion swamped the -submarine and it and its crew found a watery grave. - -Other submarines were built and experimented with, not only in the -United States but in European countries. One of the later inventors was -an Irish-American named John P. Holland, who, in 1876, built a submarine -called the “Fenian Ram.” The “Ram” collapsed with the collapse of the -Fenian movement. Other boats were built and tried, but the successful -period of the submarine was deferred until after 1893, when the United -States Congress appropriated $200,000 to encourage such an enterprise -and invited inventors to submit designs. This, and a similar movement in -France, formed the first official recognition of the value of vessels of -this class. - -The prize offered by Congress brought out three designs, one by Mr. -Holland, the “Ram” inventor, one by George C. Barker, and a third by -Simon Lake. The names of Holland and Lake have since been closely -associated with the history of the submarine. Mr. Holland’s device -secured approval and in 1894 he received a contract to build a submarine -vessel. This, named the “Plunger,” was begun in 1895, but was finally -abandoned and a vessel of different type, the “Holland,” was built in -its place. It was accepted by the government in 1900. A number of others -similar to the “Holland” were subsequently built. - - -The American Types. - -The type of these vessels was what became known as the “diving.” They -were controlled by a rudder placed at the stern of the vessel and acting -in both a horizontal and a vertical direction, the force of the screw -propeller driving the boat forward in the direction desired. In 1904 the -navy of the United States possessed eight Holland boats and there were -also a number of them in the British navy. - -Mr. Lake’s design, offered in 1893 but not accepted, had as its novel -feature a plan by which a door could be opened in the bottom of the ship -and the crew leave and enter it in diving suits, the water being kept -out by the force of compressed air. To maintain the vessel on an even -keel he introduced four vanes, called “hydroplanes,” for regulating the -depth of descent. By aid of these and the horizontal rudder it was found -that the vessel would run for hours at a constant depth and on a level -keel. There were other devices for diving or rising to the surface. - -In 1901 Mr. Lake built a large vessel of this type which was sold to the -Russian government and was in commission at Vladivostock during the -Russian-Japanese War. He afterwards received orders from this and other -governments for a number of vessels of the even-keel type, and his -principles of control have since been generally adopted as the safest -and most reliable controlling agency for under-water craft. - -We have not in the above brief statement described all the efforts to -invent a satisfactory under-water boat. In several of the nations of -Europe experiments, more or less available, had been tried, but the most -practical results were achieved by the American inventors, Bushnell, -Fulton, Davy, Holland and Lake. It will suffice here to say that the -most successful of submarines were those constructed by Holland and -Lake. An important addition was made in 1901 in a French boat, the -“Morse,” built at Cherbourg. The difficulty of navigators telling where -they were when under water, and of changing their course safely without -coming to the surface to reconnoitre, was in a large measure overcome by -the addition of a “periscope.” This, rising above the water, and -provided with reflecting lenses, enabled the steersman to discover the -surface conditions and see any near vessel or other object. The “Morse” -was able to sink in seventy seconds and her crew could remain under -water for sixteen hours without strain. - -[Illustration: A MINE-PLANTING SUBMARINE DESIGNED IN BERLIN BY SIMON -LAKE IN 1895 FOR THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT] - - -Twentieth Century Submarines. - -We have given an epitome of the development of the submarine vessel up -to the opening of the twentieth century. It had now reached a successful -status of achievement and during the early years of that century was to -display a remarkable progress. Holland and Lake may be looked upon as -the parents of the modern development of the submersible boat, their -designs being at the base of the great European progress. - -France took up the work actively, its most successful early vessel being -the “Narval,” built in 1899. This was 118 feet long by 8 feet 3 inches -beam, 106 tons surface and 168 submerged displacement. She was a -double-deck vessel controlled by Lake hydroplanes, and had installed -steam power for surface travel and electric power for undersea work. The -French at this time kept their methods secret, and no useful type had -been developed in England, the result being that a plant was provided -for the building of Holland boats in that country. Germany used the Lake -devices, which had not been patented in that country and were made use -of by the Krupps. Thus it appears that the modern submarines, as now -built and used in the navies of the world, owe their success to -principles of construction and devices for control originated and -developed by American inventors. - - -Engine Power. - -The internal-combustion engine is the heart of the submarine. Steam, -with its heavy engine, has been long set aside, and electricity, derived -from the storage battery, yet awaits sufficient development. Gasoline -succeeded them. The internal-combustion engine became essential from its -light weight and the fact that it could be started and shut down -instantly. This is of prime importance, as permitting quick submergence -or emergence, either to escape from a high-speed destroyer or to capture -a merchantman. It weighs less per horse power, takes up less room and -requires less fuel per hour than any other reliable motor. It was early -used in both the Holland and Lake boats and is still the chief prime -motor. - -[Illustration: A PROTECTOR FITTED FOR EXPERIMENTAL WORK UNDER ICE] - -The difficulty with the early boats was that they were slow in speed, -making only from eight to nine knots per hour. Increased speed was -demanded by governments and more powerful engines, within a fixed limit -of weight, were demanded. In doing this engines were built of such -flimsy construction that they soon went to pieces. The gasoline used -also gave off a gas of highly explosive character and one very likely to -escape from leaky tanks or joints. Several explosions took place in -consequence, in one of which twenty-three men were killed. As a result -all the nations demanded that a non-explosive fuel should be used, and -builders turned to the Diesel engine as offering a solution to the -difficulty. - -This heavy oil engine, weighing about five hundred pounds per -horse-power, was not adapted to the submarine, and efforts have been -made to decrease the weight. These have not as yet had a satisfactory -result and experiments are still going on. - - -The Periscope. - -As the engine is the heart of the submarine, the periscope is its eye. -This is, in its simpler forms, a stiff, detachable tube from fifteen to -twenty feet long and about four inches in diameter. On its top is an -object glass which takes in all objects within its range and transmits -an image of them through a right-angled prism and down the tube. By -means of other lenses and prisms an image of the external object is thus -made visible to those within the submarine. In this process of -transmission there is a certain loss of light, and to allow for that the -image is magnified to about one-quarter above natural size. - -[Illustration: A SUBMARINE UNDER ICE] - -To obtain in this manner a correct idea of the distance of the object -seen proved difficult, but by continued experiment this difficulty has -been overcome. Mr. Lake developed an instrument suited to this purpose -and one which gave a simultaneous view of the entire horizon. There is -one fault in the periscope not easy to obviate. It is an instrument for -day use only. When dark comes on it becomes useless, and this does away -with the possibility of a successful submarine attack by night. - -The periscope is the one part of the submarine scout equipment that is -open to vision from the surface. But while the outlook of the undersea -captain, aided by his telescopic sights, has a radius of several miles, -the periscope tube, of only four or five-inch diameter and painted of a -neutral tint, is not easily seen. If the sea is a little choppy it is -difficult to discover it with the naked eye at about 300 or 400 yards -away, or in a smooth sea at over 500 yards. - -The idea that a submarine may be located by an aeroplane is looked upon -by Mr. Lake as a fallacy, except in water of crystal-like clearness, -like that of the Mediterranean or the Caribbean, and periscopes are now -being made to scour the heavens as well as the horizon, so that the -presence of an enemy aeroplane can easily be seen. An attack by an -aeroplane bomb, therefore, can readily be avoided, in view of the -difficulty of hitting such an object from the upper air. - -The submarine is the guerrilla of the sea. Its tactics are like those of -the Indian who fights under cover or lies in ambush for his enemy. It is -the weaker party and can hope for success only through strategy. The old -adage that “all is fair in love and war” applies to this new weapon of -destruction as to every warlike instrument. It is its invisibility that -makes the submarine the terror of the seas. This has been well proved -during the European war. The North Sea and the English Channel have been -invaded by German submarines which have made great havoc among merchant -ships. And it is well to draw attention to the fact that submarines are -safe from each other. In no case has a battle taken place between two of -these armed sharks except in the one instance reported of an Austrian -sinking an Italian submarine. But in this case the Italian boat was on -the surface and was at the time practically a surface ship. - -During the war the Germans were especially active in the use of the -submarine, and did much in making them an effective terror of the seas. -With no mercantile marine of their own to guard, they had a free field -for attack in the abundant shipping of their foes. The loss of ships was -so numerous and became such a common occurrence that little attention -was finally paid to them except when great loss of life took place, as -in the signal instance of the “Lusitania.” - -[Illustration: TYPE OF HIGH SPEED OCEAN-GOING SUBMARINE] - - -The Voyage of the “Deutschland.” - -The great mission of the submarine during the European war was as a -commerce destroyer. Many ships were sunk and many lives, with cargoes of -great value, were lost, and it was not until the summer of 1916 that the -submarine appeared in a new rôle, that of a commerce carrier. On July -9th of that year the people of Baltimore were astounded by the -appearance in their port of a submarine vessel of unusual size and novel -errand. Instead of being a destroyer of merchandise, this new craft was -an unarmed carrier of merchandise. It had crossed the Atlantic on a -voyage of 4,000 miles in extent, laden with dyestuffs to supply the -needs of American weavers. - -This new type of vessel, the “Deutschland,” was an undersea craft of 315 -feet length and a gross tonnage of 701 tons, its cargo capacity being -more than 1,000 tons. It had crossed the ocean in defiance of the wide -cordon of enemy warships which swarmed over part of its route, and -reached port in safety after a memorable voyage, to the surprise and -interest of the world. Leaving the port of Bremenhaven on June 18th, and -halting at Heligoland for four days to train its crew, it made its way -across the Atlantic in sixteen days. During this voyage it lay for two -hours on the ocean bottom in the English Channel and was submerged in -all not over ninety hours, the remainder of the voyage being made on the -surface. - -Its crew, composed of twenty-six men and three officers, found their -novel voyage rather agreeable than otherwise. Supplied with plenty of -good food, a well-selected library, a graphophone with an abundance of -music records, and other means of convenience and enjoyment, their -voyage was more of a holiday then a hardship, and they reached their -transatlantic port none the worse for their hazardous trip. It was not -the longest that had been made. Other submarines had voyaged from German -ports to the eastern limit of the Mediterranean, but it was the most -notable and attracted the widest attention. - -[Illustration: THE GERMAN MERCHANT SUBMARINE “DEUTSCHLAND” WHICH CROSSED -THE ATLANTIC IN 1916, AFTER ELUDING THE BRITISH BLOCKADE - -_Courtesy of Baltimore American and C. & P. Telephone Co._] - -The return voyage promised to be more perilous then the outgoing one. A -fleet of British and French ships gathered around the outlet of -Chesapeake Bay, alert to capture the daring mariners and their ship, if -possible. Ready to leave Baltimore on July 20th, with a return cargo of -gold, nickel and rubber, the captain of the “Deutschland” shrewdly -awaited a favorable opportunity and on August 1st began his voyage, -plunging under sea as he left the American coast-line and easily evading -the line of floating foemen. The return to its home port a success, a -second round-trip voyage was made and completed on December 11th, in the -course of which a convoying tug-boat was rammed and sunk with the loss -of several lives, shortly after leaving New London, Conn. The -“Deutschland” was sent out by private parties, for purely commercial -purposes, not as a military enterprise. - -Such is the story of a pioneer enterprise, that of the use of submarine -vessels as commerce carriers. It is one not likely to be supplemented in -times of peace, since surface boats would be cheaper and more available. -But in future wars--if such there are to be--it may point to a future of -advantageous trade. - - -Submarine Dredging. - -Commerce is not the only peaceful mission of the submarine. In 1895 was -organized an association known as the Lake Submarine Company, its -purpose being to use the Lake type of submarine boat for the recovery of -lost treasures from the sea bottom and for other possibilities of -undersea work. This company is still in existence, its various purposes -being to recover sunken ships and their cargoes, to build breakwaters -and other submerged constructions, to aid in submarine tunnel building, -to dredge for gold, to fish for pearls and sponges, and for similar -operations. - -The first vessel adapted to these purposes was the “Argonaut,” built by -Simon Lake in 1894. The important feature of this boat was a diver’s -compartment, enabling divers to leave the vessel when submerged, for the -purpose of operating on wrecks or performing other undersea duties. This -vessel and its successors have bottom doors for the use of divers, as -previously stated. They are now used for numerous purposes for which -they are much better adapted then the old system of surface diving, the -sea bottom being under direct observation and within immediate reach. - -This sea bottom, in localities near land, is abundantly sown with -wrecks, old and new, and in many cases bearing permanently valuable -cargoes, such as gold and coal. The Lake system greatly simplifies the -work of search for sunken ships, the vessels being able in a few hours’ -time to search over regions which would have taken months in the old -method. Many wrecks have been found by these bottom-prowling scouts and -valuable material recovered. Thus vessels laden with coal have been -traced that had been many years under the water and deeply covered with -sand and silt, and their cargoes brought to the surface. - -[Illustration: A SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE WRECKING APPARATUS] - -The gold-dredging spoken of refers to the working of gold-bearing sands -found at the mouth of certain rivers in Alaska and South America. Places -on the Alaskan coast, laid bare at high tide, are said to have yielded -as much as $12,000 per cubic yard. With the Lake system it is possible -to gather material from such localities to a depth of 150 or more feet, -the material being drawn up by suction pumps into the vessel and its -gold recovered. - -Another important application is that of fishing for pearl shells, -sponges and coral. This is blind work when done by divers from the -surface, the returns being largely matters of chance. By aid of -submerged boats, with their powerful electric lights, the work becomes -one of certainty rather than of chance. The recovery of the oyster, clam -and other edible shell-fish is also a feature of the work which the Lake -Company has in view. The present method of dredging is of the “hit or -miss” character, while the submarine method is capable of thorough work. -Vessels have been designed for this purpose with a capacity of gathering -oysters from good ground at the rate of 5,000 bushels per hour. In -regard to submarine engineering, of its many varieties, the Lake system -is likely to be a highly useful aid and assistance. - -These particulars are given to show that the submarine vessel is not -wholly an instrument of “frightfulness,” as indicated by its use in war, -but is capable of being made useful for many purposes in peace. Some of -these have here been very briefly stated. With continued practice its -utility will grow, and by its aid the sea bottom up to a certain depth -may become as open to varied operations as is the land surface. - - - - -The Story of the Panama Canal - - -America has captured the forces of Nature, harnessed the floods and made -the desert bloom, builded gigantic bridges and arrogant skyscrapers and -bored roadways through solid rock and beneath water, but the most -spectacular of all spectacular accomplishments is the Panama Canal. - -Some four centuries ago, Balboa, the intrepid, the persevering, led his -little band of adventurers across the Isthmus of Darien, as it was then -called, and, leaving their protection, gave rein to his impatience by -going on ahead and climbing alone, slowly and painfully, the continental -divide, from which vantage point he discovered the world’s largest -ocean. - -We are told that, later, gathering his followers, he walked out into the -surf and with his sword in his right hand and the banner of Castile in -his left gave the vast expanse of water its present name and claimed all -the land washed by its waves the lawful property of the proud country to -which he owed allegiance. - -The narrowness of the Isthmus naturally suggested the cutting of a -waterway through it. It interposed between Atlantic and Pacific a -barrier in places less than fifty miles wide. To sail from Colon to -Panama--forty-five miles as the bird flies--required a voyage around -Cape Horn--some ten thousand miles. Yet it was nearly four centuries -before any actual effort was made to construct such a canal. - -In 1876 an organization was perfected in France for making surveys and -collecting data on which to base the construction of a canal across the -Isthmus of Panama, and in 1878, a concession for prosecuting the work -was secured from the Colombian Government. In May, 1879, an -international congress was convened, under the auspices of Ferdinand de -Lesseps, to consider the question of the best location and plan of the -canal. - -The Panama Canal Company was organized, with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its -president, and the stock of this company was successfully floated in -December, 1880. The two years following were devoted largely to surveys, -examinations and preliminary work. In 1889 the company went into -bankruptcy and operations were suspended until the new Panama Canal -Company was organized in 1894. - - -The United States to the Rescue. - -The United States, not unmindful of the advantages of an Isthmian Canal, -had from time to time, made surveys of the various routes. With a view -to government ownership and control, Congress directed an investigation, -with the result that the Commission reported, on November 16, 1901, in -favor of Panama and recommended the lock type of canal, appraising the -value of the rights, franchises, concessions, lands, unfinished work, -plans and other property, including the railroad of the new Panama Canal -Company, at $40,000,000. An act of Congress, approved June 28, 1902, -authorized the President of the United States to acquire this property -at this figure, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia -perpetual control of a strip of land not less than six miles wide across -the Isthmus and the right to excavate, construct and operate and protect -thereon a canal of such depth and capacity as would afford convenient -passage to the largest ships now in use or which might be reasonably -anticipated. - -Later on a treaty was made with the Republic of Panama whereby the -United States was granted control of a ten-mile strip constituting the -Canal Zone. This was ratified by the Republic of Panama on December 2, -1903, and by the United States on February 23, 1904. On May 4, 1904, -work was begun under United States control. - -[Illustration: UNCLE SAM’S BIG WORK AT PANAMA - -A bird’s-eye view of the great canal, showing how the Atlantic and -Pacific Oceans are here joined.] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Ingersoll Rand Company._ - -DRILLING ROCK, PANAMA CANAL - -These powerful steam drills are capable of sinking holes in the solid -rock at the rate of seven feet per hour.] - - -The Canal and the Navy. - -The opening of the canal has greatly increased the effectiveness of the -Navy of the United States. It has reduced the distance between the -central points of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts from 13,000 to 5,000 -miles and greatly reduced the problem of coaling on a cruise from coast -to coast. It has made possible the concentration of a fleet at either -entrance of the canal which, with a cruising speed of fifteen knots, -could reach the center of the Pacific coast in nine days and the center -of the Atlantic coast in five days. - -Where, formerly, the fleets stationed opposite the middle of each coast -were, from a cruising point of view, as far apart as opposite sides of -the world, they are now as near as if one were off New York and the -other off Buenos Aires. - -With regard to the monetary saving to the United States resulting from -the availability of the canal for naval use, it is apparent that the -distance and time between the coasts have been reduced to less than -two-fifths of the former figures. The cost of coast-to-coast movements -is reduced accordingly, for though vessels of the Navy pay tolls, such -payment is in effect a transfer of money from one branch of the -government to another. - -The strategic importance of the canal is inestimable from a monetary -standpoint. - - -The Great Canal. - -The Isthmus of Panama runs east and west and the canal traverses it from -Colon on the north to Panama on the south in a general direction from -northwest to southeast, the Pacific terminus being twenty-two miles east -of the Atlantic entrance. The principal features of the canal are a -sea-level entrance channel from the east through Limon Bay to Gatun, -about seven miles long, five-hundred-foot bottom width and -forty-one-foot depth at mean tide. At Gatun the eighty-five-foot lake -level is obtained by a dam across the valley. The lake is confined on -the Pacific side by a dam between the hills at Pedro Miguel, thirty-two -miles away. The lake thus formed has an area of 164 square miles and a -channel depth of not less than forty-five feet at normal stage. - -At Gatun ships pass from the sea to the lake level, and vice versa, by -three locks in flight. On the Pacific side there is one lowering of -thirty feet at Pedro Miguel to a small lake fifty-five feet above sea -level, held by dam at Miraflores, where two lowerings overcome the -difference of level to the sea. The channel between the locks on the -Pacific side is five hundred feet wide at the bottom and forty-five feet -deep, and below the Miraflores locks the sea-level section, about eight -miles in length, is five hundred feet wide at the bottom and forty-five -feet deep at mean tide. Through the lake the bottom widths are not less -than one thousand feet for about sixteen miles, eight hundred feet for -about four miles, five hundred feet for about three miles and through -the continental divide from Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel, a distance of -about nine miles, the bottom width is three hundred feet. The total -length of the canal from deep water in the Caribbean, forty-one-foot -depth at mean tide to deep water in the Pacific, forty-five-foot depth -at mean tide, is practically fifty miles, fifteen miles of which are at -sea level. - - -The Hydroelectric Station. - -The hydroelectric station uses water from Gatun Lake for driving three -turbo-generators of 2,000-kilowatt capacity each, which supply -electricity for the operation of the lock and spillway machinery, the -terminal shops and adjacent facilities, and for the lighting of the -locks and the canal villages and fortifications. Transmission over the -Zone is effected through four substations and a connecting high voltage -transmission line which follows the main line of the Panama Railroad. - -[Illustration: SUBMARINES USED IN DEFENDING THE PANAMA CANAL - -The vessels here shown are used in defense of the Pacific side of the -canal. They appear as anchored in the new concrete docks at Colon, -preparatory to their passage through the canal, after having made the -longest sea voyage then on record for submarines. - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by the International News Service._ - -THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL - -The U. S. battleship “Ohio” in the east chamber of the Pedro Miguel -Locks. On the left is seen the electric locomotive used in drawing -vessels through.] - -[Illustration: LADDER DREDGE, PANAMA CANAL] - -[Illustration: SUCTION DREDGE, PANAMA CANAL - -The upper view shows a ladder dredge, which operates by means of buckets -on a continuous chain, dipping the contents of the buckets into the scow -which lies alongside. The lower view shows a suction dredge, which -operates on soft mud or sands, pumping the discharge through the pipe -seen at the left of the illustration. The pipe may be carried to any -desired point and used for filling.] - -[Illustration: _Copyright, C. H. Graves Co._ - -GATUN LOCKS - -A. Sea-level section of canal, seven miles long, from Atlantic Ocean to -Gatun Locks, where by a series of three locks vessels are raised to -Gatun Lake, eighty-five feet above sea level. B. Small area of land -dredged away as soon as Gatun Locks were completed. C. Electric towing -motor, four of which tow each vessel entirely through the locks. They -run on cog rail along the lock walls. D. Lock gate under construction. -E. Floor of first lock from Atlantic side. Note holes in floor for -admitting the water. F. Lock for vessels coming from Pacific side. G. -Base on which concrete posts were erected for electric lights. A row of -lights on all sides of the locks making operation at night as safe as -day. H. Incline from locks of different levels up and down which the -towing motors run on cog rails.] - -[Illustration: GAILLARD CUT LOOKING SOUTH FROM BEND IN EAST BANK NEAR -GAMBOA - -The train and shovel are standing on the bottom of the cut. The water in -the drainage canal is about ten feet below the bottom of the canal, or -at elevation +30.] - -[Illustration: A CYLINDRICAL VALVE MACHINE, MOTOR AND LIMIT SWITCH - -This machine is one of many which are used to regulate the flow of water -to the locks. All valves are controlled from a central operating station -on each of the three sets of locks. The limit switch automatically shuts -off the power and stops the motor when the valve is entirely open or -shut.] - -[Illustration: CUCARACHA SLIDE ATTACKED BY A FLEET OF DREDGES - -This great slide was the source of much trouble to the engineers. At one -time it entirely blocked the canal at the narrow point shown in this -photograph, but the seven dredges of the ladder, suction and dipper -type, made short work of cutting the 150-foot channel shown here, and -then proceeded with the work of entirely clearing the cut. The view -looks north from the slide past Gold and Contractor’s Hills. - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - -[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL BURIED UNDER FALL OF ROCK] - -[Illustration: THE GREAT GAILLARD CUT - -At this point the canal is cut through what is practically a mountain -range. The material excavated consisted largely of rock and formed one -of the hugest engineering problems in the world’s history. The cut is -nine miles long, 300 feet wide, 272 feet greatest depth and required the -excavation of 100,000,000 cubic yards of material.] - -Gatun Lake, impounded by Gatun Dam, has an area of 164 square miles when -its surface is at the normal elevation of eighty-five feet above sea -level, and is the largest artificially-formed lake in the world. The -area of the water-shed tributary to the lake is 1,320 square miles. -During the rainy season, from April to the latter part of December, the -run-off from this basin exceeds considerably the consumption of water, -and the surplus is discharged through the spillway of Gatun Dam. Toward -the end of the rainy season the surface of the lake is raised to about -eighty-seven feet above sea level, in order to afford a surplus or -reserve supply to keep the channel full to operating depth during the -dry season, in part of which the consumption and evaporation are in -excess of the supply. It is calculated that when this level has been -attained at the beginning of the dry season the reserve is sufficient to -assure a surface elevation of at least seventy-nine feet at the end of -the dry season in spite of the consumption at the hydroelectric station, -and allowing forty-one passages of vessels through the locks each day -with the use of the full length of the chambers, or fifty-eight lockages -a day when the shorter sections of the chambers are used and cross -filling is employed, which would usually be the case. This is a greater -number of lockages than can be made in one day. - -[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL LOADING ROCK - -These great machines, which are able to dig out and load several tons of -material at each operation, made the rapid progress in digging the canal -possible.] - - -Gigantic Obstacles. - -The greatest difficulty encountered in the excavation of the canal was -due to slides and breaks which caused large masses of material to slide -or move into the excavated area, closing off the drainage, upsetting -steam shovels and tearing up the tracks. The greatest slide was at -Cucaracha, and gave trouble when the French first began cutting in 1884. -Though at first confined to a length of 800 feet, the slide extended to -include the entire basin south of Gold Hill, or a length of about 3,000 -feet. Some idea of the magnitude of these slides can be obtained from -the fact that during the fiscal year 1910 of 14,921,750 cubic yards that -were removed, 2,649,000 yards, or eighteen per cent, were from slides or -breaks that had previously existed or that had developed during the -year. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE GUARD GATES, GATUN LOCKS, PANAMA CANAL - -Each lock is provided with four gates. This shows the method of -construction, the gate being only partially finished.] - -[Illustration: GATUN UPPER LOCKS, EAST CHAMBER - -The view is looking north from the forebay showing the upper guard gates -and emergency dam.] - -The one greatest undertaking of the whole excavation was the Gaillard -Cut. Work had been in progress on this since 1880, and during the French -control over 20,000,000 cubic yards were removed. On May 4, 1904, when -the United States took charge, it was estimated that there was left to -excavate 150,000,000 cubic yards. Some idea of the size of this big cut -may be formed from the fact that this division has within its -jurisdiction over 200 miles of five-foot-gage track laid, about -fifty-five miles of which is within the side slopes of the Gaillard Cut -alone. - - -Gatun Dam. - -The great dam at Gatun is a veritable hill--7,500 feet over all, 2,100 -feet wide at the base, 398 feet through at the water surface, and 100 -feet wide at the top, which is 115 feet above sea level. The dimensions -of the dam are such as to assure that ample provision is made against -every force which may affect its safety, and while it is made of dirt, a -thing before unheard of, it is of such vast proportions that it is as -strong and firm as the everlasting hills themselves. - -Fluctuations in the lake due to floods are controlled by an immense -spillway dam built of concrete. The front of the dam is the arc of a -circle 740 feet long with fourteen openings which, when the gates are -raised to the full height, permit a discharge of 140,000 cubic feet per -second. The water thus discharged passes through a diversion channel in -the old bed of the Chagres River, generating, by an enormous electric -plant, the power necessary for operating the locks. - -The locks of the canal are in pairs, so that if any lock is out of -service navigation will not be interrupted, also, when all the locks are -in use the passage of shipping is expedited by using one set of locks -for the ascent and the other for descent. These locks are 110 feet wide -and have usable lengths of 1,000 feet. The system of filling adopted -consists of a culvert in each side wall feeding laterals from which are -openings upward into the lock chamber. The entire lock can be filled or -emptied in fifteen minutes and forty-two seconds when one culvert is -used and seven minutes and fifty-one seconds, using both culverts. It -requires about ten hours for a large ship to make the entire trip -through the canal. - - -Meeting all Emergencies. - -Many extraordinary feats of engineering were accomplished to overcome -the difficulties presented. Special contrivances, wonderful in their -operation, were invented to meet exigencies and emergencies. - -The first and greatest problem attempted by the United States was to -make the Canal Zone healthful. This strip of land from ocean to ocean -abounded in disease-breeding swamps and filthy habitations unfit for -human beings. The death-rate was appalling and the labor conditions -terrible. During the first two and a half years, therefore, all energies -were devoted to ridding the Isthmus of disease by sanitation, to -recruiting and organizing a working force and providing for it suitable -houses, hotels, messes, kitchens and an adequate food supply. This work -included clearing lands, draining and filling pools and swamps for the -extermination of the mosquito, the establishment of hospitals for the -care of the sick and injured and the building of suitable quarantine -quarters. Municipal improvements were undertaken in Panama and Colon and -the various settlements in the Canal Zone, such as the construction of -reservoirs, pavements and a system of modern roads. Over 2,000 buildings -were constructed besides the remodeling of 1,500 buildings turned over -by the French company. - -[Illustration: LOCK GATE OPERATING MACHINERY - -_Photograph, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -The great gear wheel, known as a “bull wheel,” is connected with one -leaf of the gate on the right by means of a strut so that revolving the -bull wheel by means of an electric motor through a train of gears -results in opening or closing the gate.] - -[Illustration: PANAMA, PAST AND PRESENT - -Scene showing the repaving of one of Panama’s old muddy streets with -vitrified brick. Sewers and water pipes were laid throughout the city, -resulting in a great reduction of disease.] - -It was only after all this preliminary sanitation was accomplished that -the real work of digging the canal could go forward with any hope of -success. These hygienic conditions had the result of making the Canal -Zone one of the most healthful spots in the world, and work on the canal -became so popular that it was no longer necessary to enlist recruits -from the West Indies, the good pay, fair treatment and excellent living -conditions bringing thousands of laborers from Spain and Italy. The -greatest number employed at any one time was 45,000, of which 5,000 were -American. - - -A Battle Won. - -The completion of this herculean task marked an epoch in the history of -the world. A gigantic battle against floods and torrents, pestilence and -swamps, tropical rivers, jungles and rock-ribbed mountains had been -fought--and won! Well worthy a place in the halls of immortal fame are -the names of the thousands of sturdy sons who, with ingenuity, pluck and -perseverance never before equaled, succeeded in making a pathway for the -nations of the world from ocean to ocean. - -This great and daring undertaking, which had for its object the opening -up of new trade routes and lines of commerce, annihilating distance and -wiping out the width of two continents between New York and Yokohama and -making the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific coast close neighbors, is -the climax of man’s achievement and the greatest gift to civilization. -It will help in the consummation of man’s loftiest dreams of world -friendship and world peace.[2] So far, in the use of the canal, over -forty per cent of the vessels which have passed through it have been -engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States--each of them saving -about 7,800 miles on each trip. If their average speed be taken at ten -knots, they have averaged a saving of over a month at sea on each voyage -from coast to coast. Where formerly the round trip of a ten-knot vessel -required about fifty-five days’ actual steaming, the time at sea for the -same trip for the same vessel is now reduced to about twenty-two days. - -The canal makes San Francisco nearer to Liverpool by 5,666 miles, a -saving of two-fifths of the old journey by Magellan. The distance -between San Francisco and Gibraltar has been reduced from 12,571 miles -to 7,621 miles, a saving of 4,950 miles, or thirty-nine per cent of the -former distance. - -From San Francisco to Buenos Aires, via Valparaiso and Magellan, is -approximately 7,610 miles, which is shorter than the route through the -canal, by which the distance is 8,941 miles. To Rio de Janeiro, the -distance via Magellan is 8,609 miles; by the canal 7,885 miles. To -Pernambuco, on the eastern promontory of South America, the distance via -Magellan is 9,748 miles; via the canal 6,746 miles. To Para the -distances via Magellan and via the canal are 10,852 and 5,642 miles, -respectively. - -From San Francisco to Freetown, on the west coast of middle Africa, the -distance by the most practicable route, using the Strait of Magellan, is -11,380 miles. Through the canal and by way of the island of Barbados, -the distance is 7,277 miles. The new route is less than two-thirds of -the former. - -With reference to the trade between the Atlantic coast of the United -States and the west coast of South America, New York is nearer to -Valparaiso by 3,717 miles by virtue of the canal; to Iquique, one of the -great nitrate ports, by 4,139 miles; and to Guayaquil by 7,405 miles. -From New York to Guayaquil the present distance of 2,765 miles is -approximately twenty-seven per cent of the former distance--10,270 -miles. - -[Illustration: FORTY TONS OF DYNAMITE DESTROY THE LAST BARRIER BETWEEN -THE OCEANS - -The blowing up of Gamboa Dike, the last of the dikes in the Panama -Canal. This dike separated the water in the Gatun locks from Gaillard -Cut. The removal of the dike by a discharge of forty tons of dynamite, -set off by President Wilson, from Washington, was the last stage in the -completion of the great waterway. Dredges were put to work immediately -widening the channel at Cucaracha slide in Gaillard Cut, so that within -a short time the canal was ready for use throughout its entire length. - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood._] - -[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL AT WORK IN GAILLARD CUT, WITH LARGE ROCK IN -MOUTH OF SHOVEL - -The great progress made in digging the Panama Canal was largely due to -the steam shovels.] - -As to the Far East, New York is nearer to Yokohama by 3,768 miles than -formerly by way of the Suez Canal, but the latter route is eighteen -miles shorter than the Panama route for vessels plying between New York -and Hongkong. New York is forty-one miles nearer Manila by Panama than -by Suez, and 3,932 miles nearer Sydney by Panama. New York is now, by -virtue of the Panama Canal, nearer than Liverpool to Yokohama by 1,880 -miles, and nearer than Liverpool to Sydney by 2,424 miles. - -When the ship enters the harbor of either of the terminal ports it is -boarded by officers of the canal who examine its bill of health and -clearance, see that its certificate of canal measurement is properly -made out, and ascertain any of the vessel’s needs in the matters of -fuel, supplies, extra men to handle the lines during the passage of the -locks, etc. These matters are immediately reported to the Captain of the -Port, who gives the necessary orders to insure proper attendance on the -vessel’s needs and directs its start through the canal whenever it is -ready. - -In all stages of its transit of the canal the vessel must have on board -a government pilot. There is no charge for pilotage on vessels going -directly through the canal without stopping to discharge cargo or -passengers at the terminal ports. The pilot is on board in an advisory -capacity and is required to confer with the master of the vessel, giving -him the benefit of his knowledge and advice as to the handling of the -vessel in the various reaches, but the master, who is best acquainted -with the peculiarities of his vessel and her ways of answering the helm, -is responsible for the navigation of the vessel, except when she is -passing through the locks. - -The handling of a vessel during its transit of the canal is like the -handling of a railway train on its “run.” The course is equipped with -all requisite signals, facilities for mooring, like sidings, and a -system of communication between points along the line, which includes a -special telephone system connecting all the important points of control -in series. - -As soon as the vessel starts on its transit of the canal, the Captain of -the Port at the point of entrance telephones its starting to the other -stations along the course. As the vessel arrives and departs from each -of these points, the fact is telephoned along the line, so that there is -exact knowledge at each station all the time of the status of traffic, -and complete co-operation from the several points of control. - -The transit of the canal requires about ten hours, of which -approximately three hours are spent in the locks. In the sea-level -channels and Gaillard (formerly “Culebra”) Cut the speed of vessels is -limited to six knots; through Gatun Lake they may make ten, twelve and -fifteen knots, according to the width of the channel. A vessel may clear -from the canal port at which it enters and, after passing through the -last of the locks, put direct to sea without further stop. - -The handling of a vessel all through the canal, except in the locks, is -essentially the same as its handling through any charted channel where -observance of signals, ranges and turns is necessary. The canal channel -throughout is very accurately charted, fully equipped with aids to -navigation, and governed by explicit rules with which the pilots, of -course, are thoroughly familiar. - -In the locks, the vessel is under the control of the lock-operating -force. As the vessel approaches the locks, the operator in charge at the -control house indicates by an electrically operated signal at the outer -end of the approach wall if the vessel shall enter the locks and, if so, -on which side; or if it shall keep back or moor alongside the approach -wall. If everything is ready for the transit of the locks, the vessel -approaches the center approach wall, which is a pier extending about a -thousand feet from the locks proper, lines are thrown out, and -connections are made with the electric towing locomotives on the -approach wall. - -The vessel then moves forward slowly until it is in the entrance -chamber, when lines are thrown out on the other side and connections are -made with towing locomotives on the side wall. Six locomotives are used -for the larger vessels, three on each wall of the lock chamber. Two keep -forward of the vessel, pulling and holding her head to the center of the -chamber; two aft, holding the vessel in check; and two slightly forward -of amidships, which do most of the towing of the vessel through the -chamber. The locomotives are powerful affairs, secured against slipping -by the engagement of cogs with a rack running along the center of the -track, and equipped with a slip drum and towing windlass, which allow -the prompt paying out and taking in of hawser as required. No trouble -has been experienced in maintaining absolute control over the vessels. - -The water within the lock chamber proper, beyond the entrance chamber, -is brought to the level of that in the approach, the gates toward the -vessel are opened, the fender chain is lowered, and the locomotives -maneuver the vessel into the chamber and bring it to rest. The gates are -then closed, the water raised or lowered, as the case may be, to the -level of that in the next chamber, the gates at the other end are -opened, and the vessel moved forward. Three such steps are made at -Gatun, two at Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel. - -When the vessel has passed into the approach chamber at the end of the -locks, the lines from the towing locomotives on the side wall are first -cast off, then those from the locomotives on the approach wall, and the -vessel clears under its own power. - -Towing is not ordinarily required in any part of the canal, except in -the locks, for steam or motor vessels. Tug service for sailing ships or -vessels without motive power is at the rate of $15 per hour. If the -channel in the cut has been disturbed by a slide, tugs may be used to -handle vessels past the narrow places, but in such cases there is no -charge for the service to vessels of less than 15,000 gross tonnage. - - * * * * * - - -What is a Geyser? - -The famous geyser shown in the illustration is called “Old Faithful” -because of the clock-like regularity of its eruptions. For over twenty -years it has been spouting at average intervals of sixty-five minutes. - -Geysers were first observed in Iceland and the name, therefore, comes -from that language, being derived from the word “geysa,” meaning “to -gush” or “rush forth.” That is just what they do. - -There are really three different kinds of geysers; one which throws up -hot water, either continually or, like “Old Faithful,” at intervals; one -which simply emits steam and no water and one which is a sort of a -hot-water cistern. - -The “Grand Geyser” at Firehole Basin in Yellowstone Park is the most -magnificent natural fountain in the whole world. The “Great Geyser” and -the “New Geyser” are the most remarkable ones in Iceland, where there -are about a hundred altogether. The basin of the former is about seventy -feet in diameter, and at times it throws up a column of hot water to the -height of from eighty to two hundred feet in the air. - -The hot-lake district of Auckland, New Zealand, is also famous in -possessing some of the most remarkable geyser scenery in the world. It -was formerly noted for the number of natural terraces containing hot -water pools, and its lakes all filled at intervals by boiling geysers -and hot springs, but the formation of the country was considerably -altered by a disastrous volcanic outbreak in 1886, its beautiful pink -and white terraces being destroyed. It still has, however, a circular -rocky basin, forty feet in diameter, in which a violent geyser is -constantly boiling up to the height of ten to twelve feet, emitting -dense clouds of steam. This is one of the natural wonders of the -southern hemisphere and is much visited by tourists traveling through -New Zealand. - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -“OLD FAITHFUL” IN ERUPTION] - - -What Kind of Dogs are Prairie-Dogs? - -Prairie-dogs are not really dogs at all, but a kind of a squirrel called -a marmot. As the visitors to city Zoological Parks already know, these -animals make little mounds of earth, and a great many of these are found -in one locality, which is known as a “dog-town.” It is possible to -travel for days at a time through country which is dotted over with -mounds, every one of which is the home of a pair or more of -prairie-dogs. These mounds are usually about eighteen feet apart, and -consist of about as much earth as would fill a very large wheelbarrow. -This is thrown up by the prairie-dog when he digs out his subterranean -home. His dwelling sometimes has one entrance and sometimes two, and -there are many much-traveled paths between the different hillocks, -showing that they are very neighborly and sociable with one another. - -In choosing a town site, they select one which is covered with short, -coarse grass, such as is found especially in fields on high ground and -mountain sides, for it is on this grass and certain roots that the -prairie-dogs feed. On the plains of New Mexico, where for miles you will -not find a drop of water unless you dig down into the earth for a -hundred feet or so, with no rain for several months at a time, there are -many very large “dog-towns,” and it is, therefore, clear that they are -able to live without drinking, obtaining enough moisture for their needs -from a heavy fall of dew. - -At about the end of October, when the grass dries up and the ground -becomes frozen hard, so that digging is out of the question, the -prairie-dog creeps into his burrow, blocking up the opening in order to -keep out the cold and make everything snug, and goes to sleep until the -following spring, without having had to lay up a store of food, as some -animals do, to last him through the long, hard winter months. If he -opens up his house again before the end of cold weather, the Indians say -it is a sure sign that warmer days are near at hand. - -If one approaches very cautiously so as not to be observed, a large -“dog-town” presents a very curious sight. A happy, animated scene -stretches away as far as the eye can see. Little prairie-dogs are found -everywhere, on the top of their mounds, sitting up like squirrels, -waving their tails from side to side and yelping to each other, until a -most cheerful-sounding concert is produced. If you listen carefully, as -you draw nearer, however, you will notice a different tone in the calls -of the older and more experienced animals, and that is the warning -signal for the whole population to disappear from view into their -burrows. Then, if one hides quietly in the background and waits -patiently for some time, sentinels will mount up to their posts of -observation on top of the mounds and announce that it is safe to come -out of their burrows and play about again, as the danger is past. - - -What is Spontaneous Combustion? - -Spontaneous combustion is the burning of a substance or body by the -internal development of heat without the application of fire. - -It not infrequently takes place among heaps of rags, wool and cotton -when sodden with oil; hay and straw when damp or moistened with water; -and coal in the bunkers of vessels. - -In the first case, the oil rapidly combines with the oxygen of the air, -this being accompanied by great heat. In the second case, the heat is -produced by a kind of fermentation; and in the third, by the pyrites of -the coal rapidly absorbing and combining with the oxygen of the air. - -The term is also applied to the extraordinary phenomenon of the human -body, which has been told of some people, whereby it is reduced to ashes -without the application of fire. It is said to have occurred in the aged -and persons that were fat and hard drinkers, but most chemists reject -the theory and altogether discredit it. - - - - -The Story in the Talking Machine[3] - - -As far back as 1855 inventors were experimenting with talking machines; -but nothing practical was accomplished till 1877, when Thomas A. Edison -constructed a primitive machine capable of recording and reproducing -sounds. In the early Edison phonograph the sound vibrations were -registered on a tinfoil-covered cylinder. Busy with other inventions, he -postponed developing the idea of a talking machine; and meantime other -brains were at work on the problem. - -[Illustration: FIRST PRACTICAL TALKING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE EARLIER TYPES OF SPRING MOTOR GRAPHOPHONES] - -In 1885 Chichester A. Bell (cousin of Alexander Graham Bell, of -telephone fame) and Charles Sumner Tainter invented the “graphophone.” -This was the first practical and commercially usable talking machine. -The experiments and discoveries resulting in the production of the Bell -and Tainter graphophone were made in the laboratories of Alexander -Graham Bell, near Washington, D. C., and the latter assisted and advised -with the inventors, and on his own behalf conducted experiments which -were productive of highly important results in the art of recording and -reproducing sound. - -The Bell and Tainter patent was granted in 1886, and although the -subject of much controversy, it has been repeatedly sustained by the -United States courts, and in one case (87 F. R. 873) Judge Shipman had -to consider all that other inventors had done or attempted to do, and he -there decided that Bell and Tainter were the first to make “an actual -living invention which the public was able to use.” - -[Illustration: OSCAR SEAGLE, THE WELL-KNOWN SOLOIST, RECORDING - -The artist stands before the horn and his every note is recorded with a -fidelity startling in the extreme.] - -This method covered “a method of engraving records of sound, producing -records of sound by engraving in a wax-like material which would permit -of the handling, using and transporting of the record.” Another United -States patent, covering a method of duplicating or copying sound -records, was granted to Charles Sumner Tainter in 1886. - -[Illustration: THE MACDONALD GRAPHOPHONE GRAND] - -Of course the talking machine of to-day is a long way removed from the -early Edison and the early Bell and Tainter machines, because many -master minds have been working on the problem of developing and maturing -the art of sound recording and reproducing, and in perfecting machines -to be used in reproducing the sound records after they have been made. - -Disk records have taken the place of the old-style cylinder records, the -latter being confined for the most part to dictating machines for office -use, as the Dictaphone, which has largely displaced the shorthand writer -in many business houses. - -[Illustration: IN BAND AND ORCHESTRA RECORDING EACH INSTRUMENT IS AT A -DIFFERENT ELEVATION] - -[Illustration: LEOPOLD GODOWSKY, ONE OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST PIANISTS, -MAKING A RECORD - -The bell at the left is rung to advise the artist that the recorder is -ready and the flashing of the light at the right is the signal to begin -playing.] - -Since the original Thomas A. Edison patents and the Bell and Tainter -patent there have been many thousands granted, but only a few need be -referred to as constituting the milestones in the evolution and -development of the art and industry. - -First in point of time and importance is the Macdonald Spring Motor, the -invention of Thomas Hood Macdonald, a prolific inventor and contributor -of many valuable improvements to the talking machine art and industry. -The Bell and Tainter machine was operated by a storage battery and this -was an inconvenient and expensive form of power. To meet this condition -the Macdonald Spring Motor was invented and from the start proved a -tremendous success. Today most of the clockwork motor talking machines -are built upon the principles disclosed in the Macdonald Spring Motor -patent. - -[Illustration: AN UP-TO-DATE TALKING MACHINE MODEL] - -The next important step was the discovery by Macdonald that a critical -speed for the surface of the record must be obtained in order to secure -best results, and this wonderful principle in the art of sound recording -was protected by United States patent issued to Macdonald covering what -is known as the Macdonald Graphophone Grand. This discovery and -invention has been largely instrumental in the rapid development of -sound recording. - -Although Bell and Tainter disclosed a method of recording sound on a -flat surface, all of the earlier forms of talking-machine records were -what are known as cylindrical, records in a cylindrical form. Later the -disc record came into use and is now the most popular form. Relatively -very few cylinder records are manufactured at the present time. The -process of sound recording, as applied to disc records, is covered by -United States patent to J. W. Jones, and marks a further important stage -in the development of the art and industry. - -In present-day sound recording the operation is briefly as follows: A -recording machine is employed on which is mounted a rotating turntable -carrying a wax-like disc blank. Suspended above, but in contact with the -surface of the blank, is a recording needle or stylus, attached to a -diaphragm which, in turn, is connected to an amplifying horn. The horn -extends beyond the machine and the singer, band or orchestra is -stationed in front of the mouth of this horn. As the singer interprets -the song the vibrations set up by the singer’s voice are communicated to -the diaphragm by the passage of the sound through the horn. These -vibrations, striking upon the diaphragm, set in motion the recording -needle or stylus, causing it to move rapidly, and its motion is traced -upon the surface of the rotating disc in a line which is known as the -sound line. Looked at with the naked eye this line has the appearance of -a spiral traced upon the surface of the wax-like blank, but examined -under a magnifying glass it shows myriad little indentations or grooves -in the wall of the sound line. These indentations correspond to the -vibrations imparted to the needle through the diaphragm, and are the -recorded sounds made by the singer or band. When the song or selection -is finished the surface of the wax-like blank has been covered over with -this spiral sound line. The blank has become the “master record,” and -the first stage of producing a talking-machine record has been passed. -The next step is to secure from this master record a metallic -counterpart or shell. This is done by the electro-plating process. When -the shell is secured the next step is to provide a matrix which serves -as a die or stamp from which to press copies or duplicates of the master -record. These copies or duplicates are the talking-machine records which -the public ultimately purchases. The matrix or die is placed in a power -press and the records pressed from the material used in making the sound -records. This material is prepared in a plastic form so that it can be -forced under pressure into every line and indentation on the face of the -matrix. - -[Illustration: INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IS RECORDED AS FAITHFULLY AS VOCAL - -Barrere, the great flute player and orchestra leader, is shown making a -popular record.] - -The discovery of the art of recording and reproducing sound; the -development of that art into a giant industry, and the present-day -universal sovereignty of the talking machine are tributes to American -inventive genius and American industrial enterprise. The contributions -to the art and the improvements in the manufacture of talking machines -and talking-machine records from sources outside of the United States -have been very unimportant. The industry employs many thousands of -people in the manufacture of these instruments and records which afford -entertainment, instruction and amusement to the entire world. - - * * * * * - - -What are Petrified Forests? - -In the first place, petrification is the name we give to the animal and -vegetable bodies which have, by slow process, been converted into stone. -We mean very much the same thing when we refer to “Fossil Forests.” - -Although in most instances there are comparatively few traces of its -vegetable origin left, coal owes its existence primarily to the vast -masses of vegetable matter deposited through the luxuriant growth of -plants in former epochs of the earth’s history, and since slowly -converted into a petrified state. - -Coal fields today present abundant indications of the existence of huge -ancient forests, usually in the form of coal formed from the roots of -the trees. Several such forests have been uncovered, of which one in -Nova Scotia is a good example, remains of trees having been found there, -six to eight feet high, one tree even measuring twenty-five feet in -height and four feet in diameter. - -The remains of a fossil forest have been found in an upright position in -France, and in a colliery in England, in a space of about one-quarter of -an acre, there have been found the fossilized stumps of seventy-three -trees, with roots attached, and broken-off trunks lying about, one of -them thirty feet long and all of them turned into coal. - -A remarkable group of petrified trees, some of them twelve feet in -diameter, exists in California, and another in Yellowstone Park, in -which the trees are still erect, though converted into stone. An -extraordinary forest of such trees has been found in Arizona, lying over -a wide space of ground, some of them six feet in diameter and perfectly -preserved. - -These trees are rather mineralized than fossilized. They are found in -volcanic regions and are supposed to be due to the action of hot water, -which carried off the organic material and deposited dissolved silica in -its place. In some instances the wood has been converted into solid -jasper or has been changed into opal or agate, or filled with chalcedony -or crystallized quartz, with beautifully variegated colors. - -[Illustration: TREES THAT HAVE TURNED TO STONE - -A scene in one of the Petrified Forests of Arizona. Broken trunks of -trees are lying all about.] - - -What Animals are the Best Architects? - -Animals of a great many different kinds have helped show man the way, in -taking advantage of the opportunities which nature affords him to feed, -clothe and protect himself, but one of the smallest of the animal -kingdom is probably the cleverest of all--the spider. Spiders have many -different kinds of enemies, ranging from man down to the very smallest, -but dangerous, insects, and most of their enemies possess enormous -advantages over them in either strength or agility, or both combined; -enemies with wings, swift in movement and able to retreat where the -spider cannot follow them; enemies clad in an impenetrable coat of -armor, against which the spider’s weapons are powerless, while the -spider’s own body is soft and vulnerable. These handicaps have been met -by the spider with a multitude of clever contrivances, and if invention -and skill are to be regarded as an index to intellectual development, it -should be very significant to realize how far spiders are ahead of our -near relatives, the almost human members of the monkey family. - -One of the most interesting of the spider race is the “trap-door” spider -which inhabits warm countries all over the earth. The “trap-door” spider -not only builds a home for herself by digging a deep hole in the ground -and lining it with silk to prevent the sides from falling in, but she -also adds a neat little door to keep out the rain and other troublesome -things. She usually chooses sloping ground for her homestead so that the -door, which she fastens at the edge of its highest point by a strong -silk-elastic hinge, swings shut of its own weight after being opened. -She disguises the entrance to her home in a manner superior to the -famous art of concealment practiced by the Indians, by planting moss on -the outside of the door--living moss taken from the immediate -neighborhood--so that the entrance to her house harmonizes perfectly -with its surroundings, its discovery being made more difficult by the -fact that in her careful selection of a site for her dwelling she also -appears to be influenced by the presence of patches of white lichen -which distract the eye. - -The male spider does not seem to take any part in designing, -constructing or decorating the home and does not even share its -occupancy, leaving it to the mother and her family--often forty or more -children at a time--and living a vagrant life, camping out in holes and -ditches when he is not tramping around over the whole countryside. The -mother spider, however, like many other animals, takes excellent charge -of her children, and guards them carefully from all harm. At the first -sign of a commotion going on outside her front door she is known to -invariably assemble her family behind her, out of harm’s way, and then -place her back against the swinging door, holding it shut with some of -her feet and clinging tightly to the inner walls of her home with the -others. - -There is one kind of spider which has developed an even more elaborate -style of architecture, digging another room and adding an upper side -gallery to her main residence, and placing a second door at the junction -of the two tunnels. The doors are made to swing back and forth in both -directions, and she constructs a handle on the outer one, by which she -fastens it open with a few threads attached to any convenient grass -stems or little stones, when she expects to come home from a hunting -expedition with her arms full. If a dangerous enemy threatens her home -she usually retreats to the second room, in the hope that he will decide -she is out and depart in search of another victim elsewhere, but if he -discovers her secret, she slams the second swinging door in his face. -Should she be beaten in the pushing match at that point, she slips into -the upper side gallery opening above the door, and her enemy’s presence -within the inner room automatically blocks the entrance to her hiding -place by holding up the swinging door across its only opening. - - - - -The Story of the Motorcycle[4] - - -Interest in the development of mechanically propelled two-wheel vehicles -began soon after the introduction of the bicycle in its first -practicable form. Man’s natural dislike for manual labor quickly found -objection to the physical effort of bicycle travel, and accordingly -sought to devise mechanical means of overcoming it. - -[Illustration: COPELAND MODEL, 1884] - -The earliest known attempt to construct a two-wheel vehicle which would -proceed under its own power was made by W. W. Austin, of Winthrop, -Mass., in the year 1868. This crude affair consisted of a small -velocipede upon which was mounted a crude coal-burning steam engine. The -piston rods of the engine were connected directly with cranks on the -rear wheel. The boiler was hung between the two wheels and directly back -of the saddle, while the engine cylinders were placed slightly above -horizontal just behind the boiler. Despite the crudity of this outfit, -Austin claimed that he had traveled some 2,200 miles on this, the -“granddaddy” of all motorcycles. - -[Illustration: AUSTIN STEAM VELOCIPEDE, 1868] - -[Illustration: ROPER’S MACHINE, 1886] - -L. D. and W. E. Copeland, two Californian experimenters, are credited -with the next known effort to produce a two-wheeler which would travel -by its own power. Their first model appeared in 1884. The bicycle to -which this miniature steam-power plant of the Copeland brothers’ -invention was attached was one of the old high-wheel models with the -small steering wheel forward. The steam engine of this truly ingenious -contrivance, together with the boiler and the driving pulley, weighed -only sixteen ounces. The Copeland model was probably the first -motorcycle to use belt drive. It should be understood that propulsion of -this first Copeland model was not intended to depend solely upon -mechanical power, but to be operated in connection with the foot pedals. - -The Copeland brothers are to be credited with the first attempt to -produce the motorcycle upon a commercial basis, but their efforts were -unsuccessful. Their invention seemed to be far ahead of the times, and -their project passed by unappreciated. - -In 1886, S. H. Roper, of Roxbury, Mass., appeared with a steam-propelled -bicycle which consisted of a specially designed engine placed in a -bicycle frame of the type with which we are familiar today. This -invention was awkward, and its weight of 150 pounds made it difficult to -handle, but in spite of that its inventor is said to have obtained -considerable use from it. - -[Illustration: THE PENNINGTON MOTORCYCLE, 1895] - -The year 1895 saw the first public exhibition of mechanically operated -two-wheel vehicles held at Madison Square Garden, New York City. The -sensation of the show was a motorcycle which was presented by E. J. -Pennington of Cleveland. This was the first public appearance of a cycle -propelled by a combustion engine, and in that regard it may be called -the first appearance of the motorcycle in the form that it is known -today. The Pennington machine was the first-known vehicle to attempt the -use of gasoline. History fails to relate a great deal about the -mechanical detail of the Pennington model, but it is said to have made a -very creditable performance in exhibition. It appeared at the Madison -Square Garden in two forms, as a single motorcycle and as a motor -tandem. - -[Illustration: HEDSTROM MOTOR TANDEM, 1898] - -There was little or no interest in motor vehicles of any description in -that period of the early nineties, consequently the Pennington efforts -were fruitless. Shortly after the public exhibition of his models, -financial difficulties are said to have overtaken Pennington and he is -reported to have departed suddenly for foreign climes, bringing his -experiments to an abrupt end. - -[Illustration: A BIG TWIN MODEL] - -[Illustration: AN UP-TO-DATE “FEATHERWEIGHT” MODEL] - -Along in the late nineties a keen interest in bicycle racing led to the -introduction of what is known as the motor-paced tandem. This consisted -of a regulation tandem bicycle on which was mounted a gasoline motor -geared up to the rear wheel with a chain drive. The tandem rider on the -forward seat did the steering and the foot pedaling, and the rear rider -operated the motor. It is believed that the first of these tandems came -over here from France. - -By 1898 the popularity of the motor-paced racing bicycle became so great -that attention was soon directed toward their manufacture. Chief among -the bicycle manufacturers who took up the making of the motor-paced -tandem was Oscar Hedstrom, a racer with many notable victories to his -credit. He believed that he could make a motor tandem which would prove -far superior to any other American machine made, if not better even than -any foreign machine. - -[Illustration: CRADLE SPRING FRAME CONSTRUCTION] - -The machine which he produced with a motor of his own design was entered -in some big races at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo in 1901 -where nearly every record was broken. Mr. Hedstrom’s partner on this -tandem outfit was Henshaw, a bicycle racer of some repute. Following -their début on the motor tandem at Buffalo, this pair proceeded to make -records throughout the country, several of which still stand today. - -In 1901 a bicycle manufacturer of Springfield, Mass., foresaw a future -for a motorcycle designed for pleasure purposes instead of exclusively -for racing. Hitherto, all motor-propelled cycles had used the power of -the engine of whatever form it was merely as an aid to locomotion. None -had been successful in producing a machine that could proceed anywhere -solely under its own power. Convinced that such a machine could be -produced, and certain that it would find a ready market, this -manufacturer set about to put his ideas into execution. - -[Illustration: FIRST HEDSTROM MOTORCYCLE WITH TRI-CAR, 1902] - -He recognized in Oscar Hedstrom, as the leader of the motor tandem -racing field, the man who knew more about combustion engines than any -other man in America, and accordingly enlisted his services. Oscar -Hedstrom retired to a little mechanical laboratory in Middletown, Conn., -and in a short four months emerged with a completed motorcycle which he -had not only designed himself, but had constructed entirely by his own -labor. Its performance on its first trial trip was absolutely astounding -to every observer. In road tests under every conceivable condition, this -first motorcycle of Oscar Hedstrom’s displayed a perfection of -mechanical operation which had to that time never been approached. It -moved entirely under its own power, could climb hills and could travel -on the level road at speeds which had never before been exhibited by -vehicles of that type. - -By reason of the successful performance of his first motorcycle, Oscar -Hedstrom is given the credit, in many quarters, for producing the first -motorcycle of practicable construction. All successful machines of this -type since then are said to have been modeled more or less on the -fundamental principles of that first Hedstrom machine. Part of -Hedstrom’s success was due to his mastery of the important problem of -carburetion, and a carburetor expressly designed for that first machine -constituted a marked step in motorcycle development. The leading -carburetors of today are said to be based upon the principles of the -first Hedstrom carburetor. The date of the appearance of the first -Hedstrom motorcycle was 1901. - -Manufacture of the motorcycle upon a commercial scale forthwith -commenced in the bicycle manufactory at Springfield, Mass. Such is said -to have been the humble beginning of the motorcycle. - -[Illustration: MODERN “SIDE-CAR” MODEL] - -Their first motorcycle was offered to the public in 1902. Its mechanical -detail is worthy of note for the sake of comparison with the models of -the current year. Its motor was the Hedstrom single-cylinder motor of -1-3/4 horse-power; frame, 22 inches; tires, 1-3/4 inches, single tube; -chain drive; weight, 93 pounds. From the year 1902 to 1909, the style of -their motorcycle remained substantially the same in appearance. The -models of that period are referred to as “camel backs” by reason of the -location and shape of the gasoline tank on the rear mud guard. In 1909, -the loop frame was introduced to provide additional strength to the -machine, being required by the increased weight of the motor; 1906 saw -the introduction of twin cylinders for racing models, and the following -year they appeared in the regular models. - -Motorcycle design has made wonderful progress. The powerful, easy-riding -machines of today with their many refinements are truly marvelous pieces -of mechanism. Mechanical perfection is as nearly approached as it is -possible for the best brains and the most approved methods of -manufacture to attain. There are numerous modern refinements which have -contributed materially to the present-day popularity of the motorcycle -that are worthy of special note. Chief of these is the kick-starter, -which enables the rider to start the engine of his machine without -mounting it upon a stand or pedaling on the road. Improved clutches, -gear ratios which permit varying speeds, double-braking systems and -electric lights are present-day refinements which add zest to the sport -of motorcycling. - -One of the greatest of all motorcycling comfort creations is a device -known as the cradle spring frame which consists of pairs of cushion-leaf -springs of the semi-elliptical type, which are located at the rear of -the frame just beneath the saddle. This affords the maximum of riding -comfort by the elimination of all jar and jolt occasioned by an uneven -roadway. - -Magneto ignition first appeared in 1908; previous to that date all -ignition had been dependent upon batteries of the ordinary dry-cell -variety. - -The last two years has seen the introduction of what is known as the -light-weight model. This style of motorcycle has a smaller motor, which -is usually of the two-stroke type, single cylinder. The frame is of -lighter construction, the mechanism is simpler, and of course the speed -is reduced. This type of two-wheeler, however, finds favor among those -who like power and speed but in modified form. Lower initial cost and -lower operation expense are factors which especially recommend the -light-weight models. - -[Illustration: MODERN DELIVERY VAN FOR GROCERS, DRUGGISTS, ETC.] - -There has been considerable difference of opinion as regards the -comparative efficiency of chain drive and belt drive. The consensus of -opinion, however, seems to favor the chain drive, as evidenced by its -use on most of the leading makes of present-day machines. Some of the -light-weight models are using belt drive, but chain drive is generally -conceded to be superior. In the early days of motorcycling, belt drive -was rather generally used, but the heavy duty required soon brought -about the change to present usage. - -Motorcycle manufacture is today carried on in some of the largest and -most up-to-date manufactories that can be found in the United States. -The oldest and the largest factory devoted to motorcycle manufacture is -said to be that which has been built up under the direction of the -Springfield manufacturer, the man who first saw the great commercial -possibilities in the development of the motorcycle for pleasure and -business purposes. His company had a capitalization of $12,500,000 in -1916. Some 2,400 skilled workmen were employed in its two big -Springfield plants. Its output, said to be the largest in the industry, -is over 25,000 machines per year. Numerous models meeting varying -requirements are produced. - -Soon after the first practicable motorcycle appeared in 1902 there arose -a demand for a contrivance that would accommodate an additional -passenger. Consequently, there was produced an attachment called a -tri-car. This was mounted on two pneumatic-tired wheels which were -fitted to the front fork together with necessary steering devices. Later -it was found that the passenger conveyance could better be carried at -the side mounted upon a springed chassis which was supported by a third -wheel. That form was thereupon generally adopted, and remains today the -general practice in the manufacture of motorcycle side-cars, as they are -called. - -Naturally enough, interest in motorcycles was quickly directed toward -their application to commercial uses, and to that end there were -produced numerous styles of side vans and parcel carriers intended for -parcel delivery. - -The use of the motorcycle for commercial purposes was for a time -overshadowed by the abnormally rapid development of the automobile, but -the factor of upkeep and operation costs of an automobile is bringing -the motorcycle into prominence now. In this respect the motorcycle is -said to have the advantage overwhelmingly. The tendency, however, among -business houses is to investigate their individual requirements for -delivery service and determine to what purposes either form of motor -vehicle is best adapted. For light parcel system there is said to be no -form of delivery that excels the motorcycle in speed and efficiency and -nothing with operation costs so low. The commercial motorcycle is said -to be gaining widespread favor, and therein lies its greatest future. - -Foreign countries have contributed little or nothing to the development -of the motorcycle. To be sure, efforts were made to produce two-wheel -motor vehicles, but little success is recorded. Record of the earliest -known effort was found in an English newspaper of 1876. This report, -however, was very meager and lacking in any profusion of mechanical -detail. Moreover, beyond the newspaper reports there is little -verification that any steps were really taken at that time. The French -contribute the only known features that are credited to foreign -inventors. The DeDion motor was used in some of the racing motor tandems -which appeared in this country in the late nineties. Other French racing -bicycles were no doubt in existence, but there is no history which can -ascribe any truly constructive innovations in motorcycle making to any -foreign country. The motorcycle in its form of today was designed and -built by America. - - * * * * * - - -How is the Weather Man Able to Predict Tomorrow’s Weather? - -The Weather Bureau was founded in 1870 by the United States Government, -its purpose being to make daily observations of the state of the weather -in all parts of the country, and to calculate from the results a -forecast for each section of the country, based on the information thus -obtained, these predictions being published so that the people of each -district may know in advance the kind of weather likely to occur. - -While these forecasts are of great convenience to practically everyone, -and of importance to the agriculturist, they are frequently of still -more importance to ship masters, storm warnings being given that may -keep them in port when storms are expected and thus save their ships -from the danger of injury or shipwreck. This system has made great -progress since its institution, and reports are now received daily from -more than 3,500 land stations and about fifty foreign stations, while by -means of wireless telegraphy, under normal conditions, some 2,000 ships -send reports of the weather conditions at sea. - -[Illustration: WEATHER BUREAU BOX KITE - -The Government Weather Bureau uses large box kites carrying recording -barometers, thermometers and other apparatus to ascertain weather -conditions high in the air. This view shows a kite about to be sent up -from an observatory.] - -Study of results has led to the belief that more than eighty per cent of -winds and storms follow beaten paths, their movements being governed by -physical conditions, a knowledge of which enables the Weather Bureau -officials to estimate very closely their probable speed and direction -and send warning of their coming in advance. Within two hours after the -regular morning observation at eight o’clock, the forecasts are -telegraphed to more than 2,300 principal distributing points, from which -they are further sent out by mail, telegraph and telephone, being mailed -daily to 135,000 addresses and received by nearly 4,000,000 telephone -subscribers. - -One of the most valuable services rendered is that of the warnings of -cyclonic storms for the benefit of marine interests. These are displayed -at nearly three hundred points on the ocean and lake coasts, including -all important ports and harbors, warnings of coming storms being -received from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. The result has -been the saving of vast amounts of maritime property, estimated at many -millions of dollars yearly. - -Agriculturists also derive great advantage from these warnings, -especially those engaged in the production of fruits, vegetables and -other market garden products. Warnings of frosts and of freezing weather -have enabled the growers of such products to protect and save large -quantities of valuable plants. It is said that on a single night in a -small district in Florida, fruits and vegetables were thus saved to the -amount of more than $100,000. In addition, live stock of great value has -been saved by warnings a week in advance of the coming of a flood in the -Mississippi; railroad companies take advantage of the forecast for the -preservation, in their shipping business, of products likely to be -injured by extremes of heat or cold, and in various other ways the -forecasts are of commercial or other value. - -One of the chief stations for observations is that at Mount Weather, in -the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia. This is equipped with delicate -instruments in considerable variety for the study of varying conditions -of the upper air. Kites and captive balloons are sent up every favorable -day, ascending to heights of two or three miles, and equipped with -self-registering instruments to record the temperature and other -conditions of the atmosphere. At other times, free balloons are -liberated, carrying sets of automatic registering instruments. Some of -these travel hundreds of miles, but nearly all are eventually found and -returned. - - -How does a Siren Fog Horn Blow? - -There are a great many different kinds of signals for the guidance of -vessels during fogs, when lights or other visible signals cannot be -perceived. - -One of the most powerful signals is the siren fog horn, the sound of -which is produced by means of a disk perforated by radial slits made to -rotate in front of a fixed disk exactly similar, a long iron trumpet -forming part of the apparatus. The disks may each contain say twelve -slits, and the moving disk may revolve 2,800 times a minute; in each -revolution there are of course twelve coincidences between the slits in -the two disks; through the openings thus made steam or air at a high -pressure is caused to pass, so that there are actually 33,600 puffs of -steam or compressed air every minute. This causes a sound of very great -power, which the trumpet collects and compresses, and the blast goes out -as a sort of sound beam in the direction required. Under favorable -circumstances this instrument can be heard from twenty to thirty miles -out at sea. - -Fog signals are also used on railways during foggy weather; they consist -of cases filled with detonating powder, which are laid on the rails and -exploded by the engine when it runs over them. - - - - -The Story in a Watch[5] - - -Clocks and watches are often called “timekeepers,” but they do not keep -time. Nothing can keep it. It is constantly flying along, and carrying -us with it, and we cannot stop it. What we call “time keepers” are -really time measures, and are made to tell us how rapidly time moves, so -that we may regulate our movements and occupations to conform to its -flight. - -Of course, you understand that measurement of anything is the comparing -of it with some established standard. So that if you want to measure the -length of anything you use a rule or a yard stick, or some other scale -which is graduated into fractions of the whole standard measure. Do you -know that the United States government has in a secure, fireproof vault, -in one of the government buildings in Washington, a metal bar which is -the authorized standard “yard” of this nation? It is a very carefully -made copy of the standard yard of Great Britain. I believe that each one -of the United States has also a standard which must agree in length with -the government, or national standard. The same thing is true concerning -standards of capacity, and standards of weight. But no vault can contain -the authorized standard of time. Yet there is such a standard. And it is -as accessible to one country as to another, and it is a standard which -does not change. But, because all other time measures are more or less -imperfect, our government tries to compare its standard clock with the -ultimate standard every day. - -The first mention of time which we have is found in the Book of Genesis, -where it is written “and the evening and the morning were the first -day.” That statement gives a “measure” which was sufficient for the -purpose intended, but there is nothing very accurate in it. If it had -said “the darkness and the light” were the first day, it would have been -just as accurate. The people who lived in those far-off days had no -special occasion to know or to care what time it was. We may suppose -that they were hungry when they waked at sunrise, and if they had no -food “left over” from the previous day’s supply they would have to -hustle and find some, and if possible secure a little surplus beyond -that day’s needs, and so they would work, or hunt, until the “evening” -came and the sun disappeared. When a man was tired, and the sun was hot, -he sat down under a tree for shelter and rest. As he sat under the tree -and looked about him he could not fail to notice that upon the ground -was a shadow of the tree under which he sat. And as he was tired and -warm he lay down and fell asleep, and when he woke, he again saw the -shadow, but in another place. He noticed that the same thing occurred -every day. He saw also that in the morning the shadow was stretched out -in one direction, and that in the evening it lay in exactly the opposite -direction, and that every day it moved very nearly the same, so he put a -mark on the ground about where the shadow first appeared, and another -mark at the place where it disappeared. Then one day he stuck his staff -in the ground about half-way between the places of the morning and the -evening shadows, which served as a noon mark. As the staff cast a shadow -as readily as did the tree, the man found that it was really a better -index of time than was the tree shadow, for it was much smaller and more -clearly defined, and so he put up a straight stick in the ground near -the hut in which he lived, and as the ground was level and smooth he -drove a lot of little stakes along the daily path of the shadow, and in -that way divided the day into a number of small parts. That was a crude -“sun dial.” (The Bible tells of the sun dial in the thirty-eighth -chapter of Isaiah.) But there was nothing very accurate in the sun dial. -Several hundred years later the days were divided into sections which -were called “hours,” such as the “sixth hour” (noon), the “ninth hour” -(three o’clock), the “eleventh hour” (five o’clock), etc. There was, -however, nothing very accurate in those expressions, which simply -indicate that there were recognized divisions of time, but with no -suggestions as to the means used to determine their limits or -boundaries. It is recorded of Alfred the Great, who lived in the ninth -century, A. D., that he was very methodical in his employment of time, -and in order to insure a careful attention to his religious duties as -well as his kingly duties, he divided the day into three parts, giving -one part to religious duties, one to the affairs of his kingdom, and the -remainder to bodily rest. To secure an equal division of the day he -procured a definite quantity of wax which he had made into six candles, -of twelve inches in length, and all of uniform weight, for he found that -each inch in length of candle would burn for twenty minutes--one candle -for each four hours. This was an approach toward accuracy and it was -effective for night use as well as for the daytime. - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLING DEPARTMENT IN A FAMOUS AMERICAN WATCH -FACTORY] - -Perhaps the earliest mechanical time measure was the clepsydra, or water -clock. It is quite probable that, in its earliest form it consisted of a -vessel containing water, which was allowed to escape through a small -orifice. Suitable marks, or graduations, on the sides of the vessel -served to indicate the lapse of time as the water gradually receded. -This device was constructed in a variety of forms, some of which -employed some simple mechanism also; but from their nature they could -not give very accurate indications concerning the passage of time. The -“hour glass” was another form of time indicator, which was capable of -uniform, though extremely limited, action. It is said that its original -use was to limit the length of sermons. - -It is interesting to note that discoveries and inventions, which may -seem slight in themselves, sometimes form the basis of, or contribute -to, other important inventions. In the year 1584 a bright young Italian -was sitting in the gallery of the cathedral, in the City of Pisa, and as -the lofty doors of the building opened to admit the incoming worshipers, -a strong draft of air caused the heavy chandelier, which was suspended -from the lofty ceiling, to swing quite a distance from its position of -rest. This unusual movement attracted the attention of the young man, -and as he continued to watch its deliberate movements, he did more than -watch. He thought--for he noticed that the time occupied by the movement -of the chandelier from one extreme position to the opposite point, -seemed to be exactly uniform. He wondered why. It is the careful -observation of things, and the trying to learn why they are as they are, -and why they act as they do, that enables studious people to discover -the laws which govern their actions. This young man, Galileo, was a -thinker, and while some of his conclusions and theories have since been -found erroneous, his thinking has formed the basis of much of the -scientific thought and theory of later years. Galileo’s swinging -chandelier was really a sort of a pendulum, and we have made mention of -it because it has been found that no mechanical means for obtaining and -maintaining a constant and accurate movement will equal the free -movement of a vibrating pendulum. This fact has led to its adoption as a -means of regulating the mechanism of clocks. For, when operated under -the most favorable conditions, such a clock constitutes the most -accurate “time measure” yet made. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF ESCAPEMENT MAKING DEPARTMENT] - -Watches are made to measure time. If anything is to be measured there -must be some standard with which to compare it, for we have seen that -measuring is a process of comparing a thing with an appropriate or -acknowledged and fixed standard. The only known standard for the -measurement of time is the movement of the earth in relation to the -stars. It has taken thousands of years for mankind to learn what is now -known concerning time. It has also taken hundreds of years to secure the -wonderful accuracy in the measuring of time which has now been attained. -We have said that nothing has been devised which will equal the accuracy -of a “pendulum clock.” A story was told of a professor of a theological -seminary who was one day on his way to a jeweler’s store, carrying in -his arms the family clock, which was in need of repairs. He was accosted -by one of his students with the question, “Look here, Professor, don’t -you think it would be much more convenient to carry a watch?” A pendulum -clock must of necessity be stationary, but it is now needful that people -should be able to have a timepiece whenever and wherever wanted. This -need is supplied by the pocket watch. - -[Illustration: TIME TRAIN OF A WATCH] - -If Galileo watched the swinging of the big chandelier long enough he -found that the distance through which it swung was gradually -diminishing, till, at last, it ceased to move; what stopped it? It was -one of the great forces of nature, which we call gravitation, and the -force which kept it in motion we call momentum. But gravitation overcame -momentum. - -In order to maintain the constant vibration of a pendulum it is needful -to impart to it a slight force, in a manner similar to that given by a -boy who gives another boy a slight “push,” to maintain his movement in a -swing. A suspended pendulum being impossible of application to a pocket -watch, a splendid substitute has been devised--in the form of the -balance wheel of the watch, commonly called the “balance.” The balance -is, in its action and adaption, the equivalent of the vibrating, or -oscillating, pendulum; and the balance spring (commonly called the -hairspring), which accompanies it, is in its action equivalent to the -force of gravity in its effect upon a pendulum. For the tendency and (if -not neutralized by some other force) the effects of the hairspring upon -the watch balance, and of gravitation on the pendulum, are to hold each -at a position of rest, and consequent inaction. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -But we have in a pocket watch a “mainspring” to actuate the train of -gear wheels which by their ultimate action give the delicate “push” to -the balance wheel at distinct intervals, and so keep the balance in -continued motion. In the same manner, the “weight” of a clock, acting -through the force of gravity, carries the various wheels of the clock -train, and gives the slight impulse to the swinging clock pendulum. - -Both clocks and watches are “machines” for the measurement of time, and, -therefore, it is absolutely imperative that their action must be -constant, and, if accurate time is to be indicated, the action must be -uniform. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY, SHOWING TRANSIT -INSTRUMENT. USED TO OBTAIN CORRECT LOCAL TIME, BY OBSERVING THE PASSAGE -OF STARS ACROSS THE MERIDIAN] - -[Illustration: BALANCE COCK AND PATENT MICROMETRIC REGULATOR; ALSO -BALANCE WHEEL AND HAIR SPRING, SHOWING PATENT HAIR SPRING STUD] - -The illustration shows the “time train” of an ordinary pocket watch. The -various wheels are here shown in a straight line, so that their -successive order may be seen, but for economy and convenience they are -arranged in such way as is most convenient when constructing a pocket -watch. The large wheel at the left is the “main wheel,” called by -watchmakers the “barrel.” In it is coiled the mainspring--a strip of -steel about twenty-three inches long, which is carefully tempered to -insure elasticity and “pull.” The outer end of the mainspring is -attached to the rim of the barrel, and the inner end to the barrel -arbor. Bear in mind the fact that the power which is sufficient to run -the watch for thirty-six hours or more, is not in the watch itself. It -is in yourself, and by the exertion of your thumb and finger, in the act -of winding, you transfer that power to the spring, and thereby store the -power in the barrel, to be given out at the rate which the governing -mechanism of the watch will permit. The group of wheels here shown are -known as the “time train,” and the second wheel is called the “center,” -because that, in ordinarily constructed watches, is located in the -center of the group, and upon its axis are put the “hour hand” and the -“minute hand.” On the circumference of the barrel are gear teeth, and -those teeth engage corresponding teeth on the arbor of the center. These -arbor teeth are in all cases called, not “wheels” but “pinions,” and in -watch trains the wheels always drive the pinions. Next to the center -comes the third pinion and wheel, and then the fourth, which is the last -wheel in the train which has regular gear teeth. Now let us look back a -little and see that the wheel teeth of the barrel drive the center -pinion, and the center wheel drives the third pinion and the third wheel -drives the fourth pinion, etc. The speed of revolution of the successive -wheels increases rapidly. The center wheel must revolve once in each -hour, which is 6-1/2 times faster than the barrel. The third wheel turns -eight times faster than the center, and the fourth wheel turns 7-1/2 -times faster than the third, or 60 times faster than the center, so that -the fourth pinion, which carries the “second hand,” will revolve 60 -times while the “center,” which carries the minute hand, revolves once. -If we should put all the wheels and pinions in place, and wind up the -main spring, the wheels would begin to turn, each at its relative rate -of speed, and we should find that, instead of running thirty-six hours, -it would have run less than two minutes. What was needed was some device -to serve as an accurate speed governor--and the attainment of this -essential device is the one thing on which accurate time measuring -depends. Without any mention of the various attempts to produce such a -device, let us, as briefly as possible, describe the means used in most -watches of American manufacture. While there are several distinct parts -of this device, each having its individual function, they may be -considered as a whole under the general term of “the escapement.” -Returning now to the fourth pinion, we see that it also carries a wheel, -which engages another little pinion, called the escape pinion. This -escape pinion also carries a wheel, but it is radically different in -appearance, as well as in action, from any of the previously mentioned -wheels. An examination of the “escape wheel” would show that it has a -peculiarly shaped piece, which is called the “pallet,” the extended arm -of which is called the “fork.” The fork encloses a sort of half-round -stud or pin. This stud projects from the fact and near the edge of a -small steel disc. The stud is formed from some hard precious stone and -is called the “jewel pin,” or “roller pin,” and the little steel disc -which carries it is called the “roller.” In the center or axial hole of -the roller fits the “balance staff,” which staff also carries the -“balance wheel,” and the balance spring, commonly called the “hair -spring.” The ends of the balance staff are made very small so as to form -very delicate pivots which turn in jewel bearings. The balance wheel -moves very rapidly, and, therefore, its movement must be as free as -possible from retarding friction, so its bearing pivots are made very -small. - -[Illustration: A DEVICE FOR THE GOVERNING OF SPEED IS THE ONE THING ON -WHICH ACCURATE TIME MEASURING DEPENDS] - -[Illustration: _WALTHAM TAPER SHOULDER DETACHABLE BALANCE STAFF._] - -Now that we have given the names of each of the different parts which -compose the escapement, let us see how they perform their important work -of governing the speed of the little machine for measuring time. In the -escape wheel, the left arm of the pallet rests on the inclined top of -one of the wheel teeth. This is the position of rest. If we wind up the -mainspring of the watch it will immediately cause the main wheel to -turn, and, of course, that will turn the next wheel, and so on to the -escape wheel. When that wheel turns to the right, as it must, it will -force back the arm of the pallet which swings on its arbor. In swinging -out in this way it must also swing in the other pallet arm, and that -movement will bring it directly in front of another wheel tooth, so that -the wheel can turn no further. It is locked and will remain so until -something withdraws it. When the pallet was swung so as to cause this -locking, the fork was also moved, and as it enclosed the roller pin, -that too was moved and carried with it the roller and the balance wheel, -and in so doing it deflected the hair spring from its condition of rest. -And as the spring tried to get back to its place of rest it carried back -the balance also. In going back, the balance acquired a little momentum, -and so could not stop when it reached its former position, but went a -little further, and, of course, the roller and its pin also went along -in company, the pin carrying the fork and the pallet swinging in the -other direction, which unlocked the escape wheel tooth. Its inclined -top gave the pallet a little “push” so that the first pallet was locked, -forcing the fork and roller, and the balance and hair spring, to move in -the opposite direction. And so the alternate actions proceed, and the -balance wheel travels further each time, until it reaches the greatest -amount which the force of the mainspring can give. But before this -extreme is reached, the momentum of the revolving balance carries the -roller pin entirely out of the fork. As the fork is allowed to move only -just far enough to allow the pin to pass out, it simply waits until the -fork returns and enters its place, only to escape again on the other -side. And so the motions continue to the number of 18,000 times per -hour. If that number can be exactly maintained, the watch will measure -time perfectly. But if it should fall short of that exact number only -once each hour, it would result in a loss of 4.8 seconds each day, or -2.4 minutes in one month. A watch as bad as that would not be allowed on -a railroad. - -[Illustration: ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS ARE ESSENTIAL TO CORRECT TIME -KEEPING] - -Isn’t it wonderful that such a delicate piece of mechanism can be made -to run so accurately? And the wonder is increased by the fact that the -little machine is, to a great extent, continually moved about, and -liable to extreme changes in position and in temperature. Watches of the -highest grades are adjusted to five positions as well as to temperature. -Some are adjusted to temperature and three positions, and still others -to temperature only. The way in which a watch is made to automatically -compensate for temperature changes is interesting. Varying degrees of -heat and cold always affect a watch. It is a law of nature that all -simple metals expand under the influence of heat and therefore contract -when affected by cold. Alloys, or mixtures of different metals, act in a -similar manner, but in varying degrees. Some combinations of metals -possess the quality of relatively great expansibility. Another natural -law is that the force required to move a body depends upon its size and -weight. So it follows that with only a certain amount of available force -a large body cannot be moved as rapidly as a small one. The force of 200 -pounds of steam in a locomotive boiler might be sufficient to haul a -train of six cars at a speed of thirty miles per hour, but if more cars -be added it will result in a slower speed. The same principle applies to -a watch as to a railway train. Therefore if the balance wheel becomes -larger as it grows warmer, and the force which turns the wheel is not -changed, the speed of movement must be reduced. One other natural law -which affects the running of watches is this: Variations in temperature -affect the elasticity of metals. Now the balance spring of a watch is -made from steel, and is carefully tempered in order to obtain its -highest elasticity. Increase in temperature therefore introduces three -elements of disturbance, all of which act in the same direction of -reducing the speed. First, it enlarges the balance wheel; second, it -increases the length of the spring; third, it reduces the elasticity of -the spring. To overcome these three disturbing factors a very ingenious -form of balance has been devised. - -[Illustration: 170 PARTS COMPOSE A 16 SIZE WATCH MOVEMENT. (A LITTLE -MORE THAN 1/2 ACTUAL SIZE)] - -A watch balance is made with a rim of brass encircling and firmly united -to the rim of steel. In order to permit heat to have the desired effect -upon this balance, the rim is completely severed at points near each of -the arms of the wheel. If we apply heat to this balance the greater -expansion of the brass portion of its rim would cause the free ends to -curl inward. - -In order to obtain exactly 18,000 vibrations of the balance in an hour, -it will be seen that the weight of the wheel and the strength of the -hair spring must be perfectly adapted each to the other. The shorter the -spring is made the more rigid it becomes, and so the regulator is made a -part of the watch, but its action must be very limited or its effect on -the spring will introduce other serious disturbances. The practical -method of securing the proper and ready adaptation of balances to -springs is to place in the rims of the balance a number of small screws -having relatively heavy heads. Suppose now that we have a balance fitted -with screws of the number and weight to exactly adapt it to a spring, so -that at a normal temperature of, say, 70 degrees, it would vibrate -exactly 18,000 times per hour. When we place the watch in an oven the -heat of which is 95 degrees, we might find that it had lost seven -seconds. That would show that the wheel was too large when at 95 -degrees, although just right at 70 degrees. Really, that is a very -serious matter--it would lose at the rate of 2-4/5 minutes in a day. But -after all it need not be so very serious, because if we change the -location of one screw on each half of the balance so as to place it -nearer the free end of the rim when the heat curls the rim inward, it -will carry a larger proportion of the weight than if the screws had not -been moved. It may require repeated trials to determine the required -position of the rim screws, and both skill and good judgment are -essential. It will be readily understood that numerous manipulations of -this kind constitute no small items in the cost of producing high-grade -watches. - -Large quantities of the cheaper class of watches are now made by -machinery in the United States, Switzerland, France, Germany and -England. They are generally produced on the interchangeable system, that -is, if any part of a watch has become unfit for service, it can be -cheaply replaced by an exact duplicate, the labor of the watch repairer -thus becoming easy and expeditious. - - * * * * * - - -How does a Monorail Gyroscope Railway Operate? - -The last decade has brought a railway with a single line of rails, on -which the car is kept erect by the steadying power of a pair of heavy -gyroscopes, or flywheels, rotating in opposite directions at very high -velocity. There are two recent inventions of this kind, an English and a -German, practically the same in character. - -The English, the invention of an Australian named Brennan, had its first -form in a model, a small car on which the gyroscopes rotated at the -enormous speed of seventy-five hundred revolutions per minute. They were -hung in special bearings and rotated in a partial vacuum, the friction -being so slight that the wheels would continue to revolve and give -stability to the car for a considerable time after the power was shut -off. Also, in such a case, supports at the side kept the car from -overturning. This model showed itself capable of traveling at high speed -on a single rail, rounding sharp curves and even traversing with ease a -wire cable hung in the air. - -In 1909 a car was tried fourteen feet long and ten feet wide, capable of -carrying forty passengers. The gyroscopes in this, moved by a gasoline -engine, revolved in a vacuum at a speed of three thousand rotations a -minute. They were three and a half feet in diameter and weighed together -one and a half tons. With a full load of passengers, this car sped -easily around a circular rail two hundred and twenty yards long and -proved that it could not be upset, since when all the passengers crowded -to one side the car remained firmly erect, the gyroscopes lifting it on -the weighted sides. It is claimed that in the monorail system so -equipped with the gyroscope, a speed of more than a hundred miles an -hour is possible with perfect safety. - -[Illustration: A MONORAIL GYROSCOPE CAR] - -The German invention, displayed by Herr Schorl, a capitalist of Berlin, -is in many respects like the English one. The experimental car was -eighteen feet long and four feet wide, the gyroscopic flywheels being -very light, weighing but a hundred and twenty-five pounds each, while -their speed of rotation was eight thousand per minute. The same success -was attained as in the English experiments, and there seems to be a -successful future before this very interesting vehicle of travel. There -is also another type of monorail of overhead construction, the wheels -running on the rail from which the car hangs. - -The fundamental principle of the gyroscope lies in the resistance which -a flywheel in rapid motion presents to any change of direction in the -axis of rotation. - -The gyroscope has been utilized to give steadiness to vessels in rough -seas, and Sperry has made considerable progress in this country in -applying it to give stability to an aeroplane. One of the most -successful of the recent applications of the gyroscope is in its -connection with the marine compass. All battleships in the United States -Navy are now fitted with the gyroscopic compass. As a gyro compass is -independent of the magnetism of the earth and of the ship, and, when -running properly, always points to the North Pole, its great convenience -in vessels carrying heavy guns and armor, the attraction of which would -materially interfere with the operation of the ordinary type of compass, -is at once apparent. Another important use of the gyroscope is found in -its relation to the vertical and horizontal steering gear of the naval -torpedo, especially the Whitehead pattern. Its first application to this -purpose was made by an officer in the Austrian navy in 1895, and this -device, or an improved modification of it, such as the Angle Gyroscope, -invented by Lieut. W. I. Chambers of the United States Navy, is in use -on all torpedoes. - - -Why are Finger-prints Used for Identification? - -The plan of identifying people by their finger-prints, although at first -used only on criminals, is now put to many other uses. It was introduced -originally in India, where it was of very great assistance to the -British authorities in impressing the natives with the fact that at last -no evasion of positive identification of culprits was possible. It was -later taken up by the Scotland Yard authorities in England, and its use -has since spread to practically every country in the civilized world. - -It has been proven, to the entire satisfaction of everyone who has ever -made a careful study of the subject, that every human being has a -marking on his or her fingers which is different from that of any other -person on earth. Not only is it sure that no one else has a thumb or -finger marked like yours, but it has also been established beyond -dispute that every little detail will continue peculiar to your fingers -as long as you have them. - -There are many ways in which this knowledge is used to advantage; two -methods now employed are particularly valuable. It is seldom that an -unpremeditated crime is committed without its author leaving -finger-marks on some object which is unconsciously touched, such as -silver plate, cash boxes or safes, glassware or windows, polished -wood-work, etc., and very often the professional criminal also neglects -to take precautions against leaving his signature behind him. It is then -a simple matter for the police to collect such marks for comparison with -the finger-prints of anyone to whom suspicion may be directed. - -The plan has also been utilized a great deal in recent years for the -identification of enlisted men in the army and navy. Finger-prints are -made, immediately upon enlistment, of each separate finger and thumb of -both hands. Group impressions are also taken with the four fingers of -each hand pressed down simultaneously. When needed for any particular -purpose, such finger-prints are usually enlarged by means of a special -camera, to five times their natural size. - - - - -The Story in a Rifle[6] - - -How It Began. - -A naked savage found himself in the greatest danger. A wild beast, -hungry and fierce, was about to attack him. Escape was impossible. -Retreat was cut off. He must fight for his life--but how? - -Should he bite, scratch or kick? Should he strike with his fist? These -were the natural defenses of his body, but what were they against the -teeth, the claws and the tremendous muscles of his enemy? Should he -wrench a dead branch from a tree and use it for a club? That would bring -him within striking distance to be torn to pieces before he could deal a -second blow. - -There was but a moment in which to act. Swiftly he seized a jagged -fragment of rock from the ground and hurled it with all his force at the -blazing eyes before him; then another, and another, until the beast, -dazed and bleeding from the unexpected blows, fell back and gave him a -chance to escape. He knew that he had saved his life, but there was -something else which his dull brain failed to realize. - -_He had invented arms and ammunition!_ - -In other words, he had needed to strike a harder blow than the blow of -his fist, at a greater distance than the length of his arm, and his -brain showed him how to do it. After all, what is a modern rifle but a -device which man has made with his brain permitting him to strike an -enormously hard blow at a wonderful distance? Firearms are really but a -more perfect form of stone-throwing, and this early Cave Man took the -first step that has led down the ages to the present-day arms and -ammunition. - -This strange story of a development that has been taking place slowly -through thousands and thousands of years, so that today you are able to -take a swift shot at distant game instead of merely throwing stones. - - -The Earliest Hunters. - -The Cave Man and his descendants learned the valuable lesson of -stone-throwing, and it made hunters of them, not big-game hunters--that -was far too risky; but once in a while a lucky throw might bring down a -bird or a rabbit for food. And so it went on for centuries, perhaps. -Early mankind was rather slow of thought. - -At last, however, there appeared a great inventor--the Edison of his -day. - -He took the second step. - - -A Nameless Edison. - -We do not know his name. Possibly he did not even have a name, but in -some way he hit upon a scheme for throwing stones farther, harder and -straighter than any of his ancestors. - -The men and women in the Cave Colony suddenly found that one bright-eyed -young fellow, with a little straighter forehead than the others, was -beating them all at hunting. During weeks he had been going away -mysteriously, for hours each day. Now, whenever he left the camp he was -sure to bring home game, while the other men would straggle back for the -most part empty-handed. - -Was it witchcraft? They decided to investigate. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST MISSILE - -The Cave Man of prehistoric times unconsciously invented arms and -ammunition.] - - -What They Saw. - -Accordingly, one morning several of them followed at a careful distance -as he sought the shore of a stream where water-fowl might be found. -Parting the leaves, they saw him pick up a pebble from the bank and -then, to their surprise, take off his girdle of skin and place the stone -in its center, holding both ends with his right hand. - -Stranger still, he whirled the girdle twice around his head, then -released one end so that the leather strip flew out and the stone shot -straight at a bird in the water. - -The mystery was solved. They had seen the first slingman in action. - - -The Use of Slings. - -The new plan worked with great success, and a little practice made -expert marksmen. We know that most of the early races used it for -hunting and in war. We find it shown in pictures made many thousands of -years ago in ancient Egypt and Assyria. We find it in the Roman army -where the slingman was called a “funditor.” - -We find it in the Bible where it is written of the tribe of Benjamin: -“Among all these people there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; -_every one could sling a stone at an hair breadth and not miss_.” -Surely, too, you remember the story of David and Goliath when the young -shepherd “prevailed over the Philistine _with a sling and with a -stone_.” - -Today shepherds tending their flocks upon these same hills of Syria may -be seen practicing with slings like those of David. Yes, and slings were -used in European armies until nearly a hundred years after America was -discovered. - - -Something Better. - -Yet they had their drawbacks. A stone slung might kill a bird or even a -man, but it was not very effective against big game. - -What was wanted was a missile to pierce a thick hide. - -Man had begun to make spears for use in a pinch, but would you like to -tackle a husky bear or a well-horned stag with only a spear for a -weapon? - -No more did our undressed ancestors. The invention of the greatly -desired arm probably came about in a most curious way. - -Long ages ago man had learned to make fire by patiently rubbing two -sticks together, or by twirling a round one between his hands with its -point resting upon a flat piece of wood. - -In this way it could be made to smoke, and finally set fire to a tuft of -dried moss, from which he might get a flame for cooking. This was such -hard work that he bethought him to twist a string of sinew about the -upright spindle and cause it to twirl by pulling alternately at the two -string ends, as some savage races still do. From this it was a simple -step to fasten the ends of the two strings to a bent piece of wood, -another great advantage, since now but one hand was needed to twirl the -spindle, and the other could hold it in place. This was the “bow-drill” -which also is used to this day. - - -A Fortunate Accident. - -But bent wood is apt to be springy. Suppose that while one were bearing -on pretty hard with a well-tightened string, in order to bring fire -quickly, the point of the spindle should slip from its block. Naturally, -it would fly away with some force if the position were just right. - -This must have happened many times, and each time _but once_ the -fire-maker may have muttered something under his breath, gone after his -spindle, and then settled down stupidly to his work. He had had a golden -chance to make a great discovery, but didn’t realize it. - -[Illustration: THE SLING MAN IN ACTION - -Practice developed some wonderful marksmen among the users of this -primitive weapon.] - -But, so it has been suggested, there was one man who stopped short when -he lost his spindle, for a red-hot idea shot suddenly through his brain. - -He forgot all about his fire-blocks while he sat stock still and -thought. - -Once or twice he chuckled to himself softly. Thereupon he arose and -began to experiment. - -He chose a longer, springier piece of wood, bent it into a bow, and -strung it with a longer thong. He placed the end of a straight stick -against the thong, drew it strongly back and released it. - -The shaft whizzed away with force enough to delight him, and, lo, there -was the first bow-and-arrow! - - -What Came of It. - -After that it was merely a matter of improvement. The arrow-end was apt -to slip from the string until some one thought to notch it. Its head -struck with such force that the early hunter decided to give it a sharp -point, shaped from a flake of flint, in order that it might drive deep -into the body of a deer or bear. - -[Illustration: FEATHERING THE ARROW] - -[Illustration: WINDING THE SHAFT] - -But, most of all, it must fly true and straight to its mark. Who of all -these simple people first learned to feather its shaft? Was it some one -who had watched the swift, sure-footed spring of a bushy-tailed squirrel -from branch to branch? Possibly, for the principle is the same. At all -events with its feathers and its piercing point the arrow became the -most deadly of all missiles, and continued to be until long after the -invention of firearms. - - -A Great Variety. - -It is interesting to see how many different forms of bow were used. The -English had a six-foot “long bow” made of yew or ash, in a single -straight piece, that shot arrows the length of a man’s arm. The Indians -had bows only forty inches on the average, since a short bow was easier -to handle in thick forests. They used various kinds of wood, horn or -even bone, such as the ribs of large animals. These they generally -backed with sinew. - -Sometimes they cut spiral strips from the curving horns of a mountain -sheep, and steamed them straight. Then they glued these strips together -into a wonderfully tough and springy bow. Once in a while they even took -the whole horns of some young sheep, that had not curved too much, and -used the pair just as they grew. In this case each horn made one-half of -the bow, and the piece of skull between was shaped down into a handle. -This gave the shape of a “Cupid’s Bow,” but it could shoot to kill. - -[Illustration: THE “LONG BOW” IN SHERWOOD FOREST - -One of Robin Hood’s famous band encounters a savage tusker at close -range.] - - -As to Arrows. - -The arrows were quite as important, and their making became a great -industry with every race. This was because so many must be carried for -each hunt or battle. - -Who is not familiar with the chipped flint arrow-heads that the farmer -so often turns up with his plow as a relic of the period when Americans -were red-skinned instead of white? These arrow-heads have generally a -shoulder where the arrow was set into the shaft, there to be bound -tightly with sinew or fiber. Many of them are also barbed to hold the -flesh. - - -A Shooting Machine. - -But the age of machinery was coming on. Once in a while there were -glimpses of more powerful and complicated devices to be seen among these -simple arms. - -A new weapon now came about through warfare. Man has been a savage -fighting animal through pretty much all his history, but while he tried -to kill the other fellow, he objected to being killed himself. - -Therefore he took to wearing armor. During the Middle Ages he piled on -more and more, until at last one of the knights could hardly walk, and -it took a strong horse to carry him. When such a one fell, he went over -with a crash like a tin-peddler’s wagon, and had to be picked up again -by some of his men. Such armor would turn most of the arrows. Hence -invention got at work again and produced the cross-bow and its bolt. We -have already learned how the tough skin of animals brought about the -bow; now we see that man’s artificial iron skin caused the invention of -the cross-bow. - - -What It Was. - -What was the cross-bow? It was the first real hand-shooting machine. It -was another big step toward the day of the rifle. The idea was simple -enough. Wooden bows had already been made as strong as the strongest man -could pull, and they wished for still stronger ones--steel ones. How -could they pull them? At first they mounted them upon a wooden frame and -rested one end on the shoulder for a brace. Then they took to pressing -the other end against the ground, and using both hands. Next, it was a -bright idea to put a stirrup on this end, in order to hold it with the -foot. - -Still they were not satisfied. “Stronger, stronger!” they clamored; -“give us bows which will kill the enemy farther away than he can shoot -at us! If we cannot set such bows with both arms let us try our backs!” -So they fastened “belt-claws” to their stout girdles and tugged the bow -strings into place with their back and leg muscles. - -“Stronger, stronger again, for now the enemy has learned to use -belt-claws and he can shoot as far as we. Let us try mechanics!” - -So they attached levers, pulleys, ratchets and windlasses, until at last -they reached the size of the great siege cross-bows, weighing eighteen -pounds. These sometimes needed a force of twelve hundred pounds to draw -back the string to its catch, but how they could shoot! - - -And Now for Chemistry. - -Human muscle seemed to have reached its limit, mechanics seemed to have -reached its limit, but still the world clamored, “Stronger, stronger! -How shall we kill our enemy farther away than he can kill us?” For -answer, man unlocked one of the secrets of Nature and took out a -terrible force. It was a force of chemistry. - -[Illustration: DEER-STALKING WITH THE CROSS-BOW - -This compact arm with its small bolt and great power was popular with -many sportsmen.] - -Who first discovered the power of gunpowder? Probably the Chinese, -although all authorities do not agree. Strange, is it not, that a race -still using cross-bows in its army should have known of explosives long -before the Christian Era, and perhaps as far back as the time of Moses? -Here is a passage from their ancient Gentoo Code of Laws: “The -magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with -poisoned weapons, or with cannons or guns, or any kind of firearms.” But -China might as well have been Mars before the age of travel. Our -civilization had to work out the problem for itself. - - -Playing with Fire. - -It all began through playing with fire. It was desired to throw fire on -an enemy’s buildings or his ships, and so destroy them. Burning torches -were thrown by machines, made of cords and springs, over a city wall, -and it became a great study to find the best burning compound with which -to cover these torches. One was needed which would blaze with a great -flame and was hard to put out. - -Hence the early chemists made all possible mixtures of pitch, resin, -naphtha, sulphur, saltpeter, etc.; “Greek fire” was one of the most -famous. - - -What Two Monks Discovered. - -Many of these were made in the monasteries. The monks were pretty much -the only people in those days with time for study, and two of these -shaven-headed scientists now had a chance to enter history. Roger Bacon -was the first. One night he was working his diabolical mixture in the -stone-walled laboratory, and watched, by the flickering lights, the -progress of a certain interesting combination for which he had used pure -instead of impure saltpeter. - -Suddenly there was an explosion, shattering the chemical apparatus and -probably alarming the whole building. “Good gracious!” we can imagine -some of the startled brothers saying, “whatever is he up to now! Does he -want to kill us all?” That explosion proved the new combination was not -fitted for use as a thrown fire; it also showed the existence of -terrible forces far beyond the power of all bow-springs, even those made -of steel. - -Roger Bacon thus discovered what was practically gunpowder, as far back -as the thirteenth century, and left writings in which he recorded mixing -11.2 parts of the saltpeter, 29.4 of charcoal, and 29 of sulphur. This -was the formula developed as the result of his investigations. - -Berthold Schwartz, a monk of Freiburg, studied Bacon’s works and carried -on dangerous experiments of his own, so that he is ranked with Bacon for -the honor. He was also the first one to rouse the interest of Europe in -the great discovery. - -And then began the first crude, clumsy efforts at gunmaking. Firearms -were born. - - -The Coming of the Matchlock. - -Hand bombards and culverins were among the early types. Some of these -were so heavy that a forked support had to be driven into the ground, -and two men were needed, one to hold and aim, the other to prime and -fire. How does that strike you for a duck-shooting proposition? Of -course such a clumsy arrangement could only be used in war. - -Improvements kept coming, however. Guns were lightened and bettered in -shape. Somebody thought of putting a flash pan for the powder, by the -side of the touch-hole, and now it was decided to fasten the slow-match, -in a movable cock, upon the barrel and ignite it with a trigger. These -matches were fuses of some slow-burning fiber, like tow, which would -keep a spark for a considerable time. Formerly they had to be carried -separately, but the new arrangement was a great convenience and made the -matchlock. The cock, being curved like a snake, was called the -“serpentine.” - -[Illustration: AN UNEXPECTED MEETING - -The “Kentucky Rifle” with its flint-lock was accurate, but had to be -muzzle-charged.] - - -The Gun of Our Ancestors. - -Everybody knows what the flint-lock was like. You simply fastened a -flake of flint in the cock and snapped it against a steel plate. This -struck off sparks which fell into the flash-pan and fired the charge. - -It was so practical that it became the form of gun for all uses; thus -gunmaking began to be a big industry. Invented early in the seventeenth -century, it was used by the hunters and soldiers of the next two hundred -years. Old people remember when flint-locks were plentiful everywhere. -In fact, they are still being manufactured and are sold in some parts of -Africa and the Orient. One factory in Birmingham, England, is said to -produce about twelve hundred weekly, and Belgium shares in their -manufacture. Some of the Arabs use them to this day in the form of -strange-looking guns with long, slender muzzles and very light, curved -stocks. - - -Caps and Breech-Loaders. - -Primers were tried in different forms called “detonators,” but the -familiar little copper cap was the most popular. No need to describe -them. Millions are still made to be used on old-fashioned nipple guns, -even in this day of fixed ammunition. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST REMINGTON RIFLE] - -Then came another great development, the breech-loader. - - -From Henry VIII to Cartridges. - -Breech-loaders were hardly new. King Henry VIII of England, he of the -many wives, had a match-lock arquebus of this type dated 1537. Henry IV -of France even invented one for his army, and others worked a little on -the idea from time to time. But it was not until fixed ammunition came -into use that the breech-loader really came to stay--and that was only -the other day. You remember that the Civil War began with muzzle-loaders -and ended with breech-loaders. - -Houiller, the French gunsmith, hit on the great idea of the cartridge. -If you were going to use powder, ball and percussion primer, to get your -game, why not put them all into a neat, handy, gas-tight case? Simple -enough, when you come to think of it, like most great ideas. But it -required good brain-stuff to do that thinking. - - -A Refusal and What Came of It. - -Two men, a smith and his son, both named Eliphalet Remington, in 1816, -were working busily one day at their forge in beautiful Ilion Gorge, -when, so tradition says, the son asked his father for money to buy a -rifle, and met with a refusal. - -The boy set his wits to work. Looking around the forge, he picked up -enough scrap iron to make a gun barrel, and with this set to work to -make a rifle for himself. At that time gun barrels were made, not by -drilling the bore out of a solid rod of metal, but by shaping a thick, -oblong sheet of metal around a rod the size of the bore, and lapwelding -the edges. When the rod was withdrawn, there was your barrel. - -It took him several weeks to work out this job and get it right, but he -succeeded. He had no tools to cut the rifling. There was a gunsmith in -Utica, and he walked there, fifteen miles over the hills, to have his -barrel finished. The gunsmith was so impressed by the boy and his -accomplishment that, after rifling the barrel, he fitted it with a lock. -Then when Remington fitted on a wooden stock his weapon was ready. - -This was the first Remington rifle, and it proved a surprisingly good -one. - -Neighbors tried it, and wanted guns like it. Remington made them. The -first rifle--or one exactly like the first one, at least--that Remington -made is still in Ilion, the property of Walter Green. Before long the -demand was so brisk that Remington would take as many barrels as he -could carry over to the Utica gunsmith to be rifled, bringing back a -load that had been left there on a previous trip, a journey of thirty -miles on foot. - -When a new business grows at that rate, of course, it soon needs power. -So, later, in 1816, the two Remingtons went “up the creek,” building a -shop three miles from home, at Ilion Gulph, which was part of the -father’s farm. That was the actual beginning of the plant and the -industry of which the centennial was celebrated in 1916. During its -early years this shop made anything in its line that could be sold in -the neighborhood--rifles, shotguns, crowbars, pickaxes, farm tools. The -power was taken from a water wheel in Steele’s Creek, and the first -grindstones for smoothing down the welded edges in gun barrels were cut -from a red sandstone ledge up the gorge. - -Guns sold better than all other products. Orders came from greater -distances. By and by shipments were made on the new Erie Canal. For a -while, as packages were small, they were taken to the canal bridge, a -board lifted from the floor, and the package dropped onto a boat as it -passed under. There was no bill of lading. Remington took down the name -of the boat and notified his customer by mail, so the latter would know -which craft was bringing his guns. - -[Illustration: YOUNG REMINGTON AT WORK ON RIFLE] - -When the trade had extended into all the surrounding counties, -however, the new business needed another prime essential of -industry--transportation facilities. Shipments were growing larger, and -materials like grindstones, bought outside, had to be brought from the -canal to Ilion Gulph. In 1828, therefore, the elder Remington bought a -large farm in Ilion proper, and there, on the canal, the present plant -was started. This was also the beginning of Ilion, for at that period -the place was nothing more than a country corner. In 1828 the elder -Remington met his death through accident and the business was carried on -by his son, who brought water for several power wheels from Steele’s -Creek, built a house to live in, and installed in his wooden shop quite -a collection of machinery for gunmaking--the list names a big tilt -hammer, several trip hammers, boring and rifling machines, grindstones, -and so on. - - -The Beginning of Precision in Mechanics. - -Not so many years before that, in England, James Watt was complaining -about the difficulty of boring a six-inch cylinder for his steam engine -with sufficient accuracy to make it a commercial success. No matter how -he packed the piston with cork, oiled rags and old hats, the -irregularities in the cylinder let the steam escape, and it was believed -that neither the tools nor the workmen existed for making a steam engine -with sufficient precision. When a young manufacturer named Wilkinson -invented a guide for the boring tool, and machined cylinders of fifty -inches diameter so accurately that, as Watt testified, they did not err -the thickness of an old shilling in any part, it seemed as though the -last refinement in machinery had been achieved. That was not very -accurate by present-day standards of the thousandth part of an inch, for -a shilling is about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. - -[Illustration: OLD BORING TOOL] - -Remington was right in the thick of development with a gunmaking plant, -of course, for as his business grew he had to invent and adapt machines -to increase output. The lap-welded barrel was standard until 1850, and -he got together a battery of trip hammers for forging and welding his -barrels. Finer dimensions became a factor in his business when the -output grew large enough to warrant carrying a stock of spare parts for -his customers, and so he improved those parts in ways that gave at least -the beginnings of interchangeability. - -Materials were very crude. There was no buying of foundry iron by -analysis, no high carbon steels, no fancy tool steels--nor any -“efficiency experts” with their stop watches and scientific -speed-and-feed tables. Iron was secured by sending teams around the -neighborhood to pick up scrap, and when the scrap iron was all cleaned -up, fresh metal was brought from ore beds in Oneida County. Coal was -scarce, and charcoal made the chief fuel, burnt in the hills round about -Ilion. - -And the world was fairly swarming with inventors! - -That was long before invention became a research department full of -engineers. The individual inventor, with a queer-shaped factory process, -carried on by a head and a rough model in his carpet-bag, had a chance -to influence industry. Few of the useful contrivances had been invented -yet, and almost any one of these chaps might be a genius. So, from the -very first, Remington was interested in inventors. He was an inventor -himself! His pioneer spirit was so strong that Ilion became a place of -pilgrimage for men with ideas. Inventors came from everywhere, and -Remington listened to them all. Some brought models, others drawings, -still others a bare idea, and a few, of course, had just a plain “bug.” - -[Illustration: POLE LATHE OF 1800] - - -The First Government Contract. - -The first government contract came in 1845. War with Mexico loomed up on -the horizon. William Jencks had invented a carbine, and Uncle Sam wanted -several thousand guns made in a hurry under the patent. A contract had -been let to Ames & Co., of Springfield, Mass., and they had made special -machinery for the job. Remington took over the contract and the -machinery, added to his power, secured by putting in another water race, -erected the building now known as the “Old Armory,” and made the -carbines. - -In 1850 the art of gunmaking began to improve radically. The old -lap-welded barrel gave way to the barrel drilled from solid steel. This -was accomplished for the first time in America at the Remington plant, -in making Harper’s Ferry muskets. Then followed the drilling of -small-bore barrels from solid steel, the drilling of doubled-barrel -shotguns from one piece of steel, the drilling of fluid steel and nickel -steel barrels, all done for the first time in this country at the Ilion -shops. Three-barrel guns were also made from one piece of steel, two -bores for shot and the third rifled for a bullet. A customer wanted some -special barrels with nine bores in a single piece of steel. These were -made at Ilion, and the Remington plant soon became noted for its ability -to bore almost anything in the shape of a gun, from the tiniest squirrel -calibers up to boat guns weighing sixty pounds or more, which were -really small caliber cannon. - -[Illustration: SHIPPING REMINGTONS IN THE EARLY DAYS] - -Between the time when Remington made his first rifle at Ilion Gulph and -the outbreak of the Civil War, most of the basic things in machine tools -had been adapted to general production--the slide-rest lathe, planer, -shaper, drill press, steam hammer, taps and dies, the vernier caliper -that enabled a mechanic at the bench to measure to one-thousandth of an -inch, and so on. - -When Fort Sumter was fired upon, Uncle Sam turned to the Remington -plant, among others, for help out of his dilemma of “unpreparedness.” -The first contract was given for 5,000 Harper’s Ferry rifles, and it -took two years to complete it. Five thousand Harper’s Ferry muskets came -in to be changed so that bayonet or sabre could be attached, and this -particular job was finished in two weeks, every man and boy in Ilion -working at it. There was a big contract for army revolvers, and that had -to be taken care of by starting a separate plant in Utica, which ran -until the end of the war, when its machinery and tools were moved to -Ilion. Steam power was now installed, and the plant, increased by new -buildings and machinery, ran day and night. - -[Illustration: MASTER OF THE SITUATION - -The modern sportsman with his automatic rifle is prepared for all -emergencies.] - -In 1863, the Remington breech-loading rifle was perfected, and proved to -be so great an improvement over previous inventions in military arms -that an order for 10,000 of them was obtained from our government. The -Ilion plant being taxed to its utmost capacity, the contract was -transferred to the Savage Arms Company, of Middletown, Conn., which -completed the job in 1864. - -[Illustration: _Illustrations by courtesy of the Winchester Repeating -Arms Co._ - -TURNING GUN STOCKS - -40 YARD RANGE] - -The tools and fixtures used in making Remington breech-loading rifles -for the United States were brought back from Connecticut in 1866, and an -inventive genius named John Rider was set to work, with a staff of the -best mechanics obtainable, to develop this gun still further. He devised -the famous system of a dropping breech block, backed up by the hammer. - -Uncle Sam had a great number of muzzle-loading Springfield rifles left -from the Civil War. By the Berdan system, these were turned into -breech-loaders at the Ilion plant, the breech being cut out of the -barrel and a breech-block inserted, swinging upward and forward. Spain -had 10,000 muskets to modernize by the same system, and the breech-block -attachments were made at Ilion. - -The Berdan system, with a slight alteration, was the foundation of the -Allen gun, made by the United States government for the army until -superseded by the Krag-Jorgensen. - -The repeating rifle now seemed an interesting possibility and large sums -were spent in developing a weapon of this type. It did not prove to have -merit, however. - -Then James P. Lee designed the first military rifle with the bolt type -of cartridge chamber, the parent of the military rifle of today. The -model was made at Ilion, but another type of bolt gun, the Keene, seemed -to offer still greater possibilities at the moment, and the plant was -being prepared to manufacture this. The Lee gun was taken up at -Bridgeport, but not made successfully, and finally, as the Keene gun had -not met expectations, falling short of government tests, the Lee type -was brought back to Ilion, tools worked out and manufacture undertaken -in quantities. It afterwards became the basis for the famous British -army rifle, the Lee-Metford. - -[Illustration: ACTION TESTING - -EXTREME CARE IN TESTING IS NECESSARY TO ACCURACY OF AIM -IN THE FINISHED PRODUCT - -_Illustrations by courtesy of the Winchester Repeating Arms Co._] - -At this period the plant made many other interesting guns. The Whitmore -double-barrel breech-loading shotgun was designed, and later developed -into the Remington breech-loading shotgun. Eliott hammerless -breech-loading pistols with one, two, four and five barrels, discharged -by a revolving firing pin, were made in large quantities, as well as a -single-barrel Eliott magazine pistol. The Eliott magazine pump rifle was -perfected in Ilion, but afterwards made in New England. Vernier and wind -gauge sights, attachable to any rifle, were made, and novelties like the -“gun cane,” which had the appearance of a walking-stick, but was a -perfect firearm, carried as a protection against robbery. - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLING REPEATING SHOTGUNS AND RIFLES] - - -Making Barrels. - -One of the most important features is, of course, the making of barrels. -The machines for drilling and boring are the best that money can buy, -and the operatives the most skilful to be found anywhere. Care at this -stage reduces the necessity for straightening later. Every point is -given the minutest attention. In drilling 22-calibers, for example, the -length of the hole must be from 100 to 125 times the diameter of the -drill. - -Improvements have made it possible to drill harder steel than formerly. -This reduces the weight of the gun, and is important to the man who -carries it. - - -Taking off 2/1000 of an Inch. - -The boring is an especially delicate task. In choke-boring your shotgun, -for example, the final reamer took off only 2/1000 of an inch. Think of -such a gossamer thread of metal! But it insures accuracy. No pains can -be too great for that. - -This exquisite painstaking will be seen still more in the -barrel-inspection department, to which we will go now. In passing, we -must not forget the grinding shop, where is, perhaps, the finest battery -of grinding machines in the United States; or the polishers running at -the dizzy speed of 1,500 to 1,700 revolutions per minute and making the -inside of the barrel shine like glass. This high polish is important, -for it resists rust and prevents leading. - -[Illustration: SHOOTING ROOM OF BALLISTIC DEPARTMENT* - -* The bullet breaks a metal tape at the moment of leaving -the muzzle. This time and the time of striking target are electrically -recorded on the Chronograph.] - -[Illustration: SOME OF THE SHOOTING TESTS] - -[Illustration: CHRONOGRAPH FOR MEASURING VELOCITIES] - -[Illustration: WEIGHING BULLETS] - -That is the atmosphere of the whole place. Every action has its reason. -There is not an unnecessary motion made by any one, and there is not one -necessary thing omitted, whatever the cost or trouble. - -[Illustration: BORING GUN BARRELS - -_Courtesy of the Winchester Repeating Arms Co._] - - -The Making of Ammunition Today. - -It is no easy matter to secure a pass to the Bridgeport plant. Its great -advantage over other concerns lies, to a large degree, in the exclusive -machinery that has been developed at so much pains and expense and the -secrets of which are so carefully guarded. In our case, however, there -will be nothing to hinder us from getting a few general impressions, -provided we do not go into mechanical details too closely. - -The very size of the great manufactory is impressive--sixteen acres of -floor space, crowded with machinery and resounding with activity. In -building after building, floor above floor, the sight is similar: the -long rows of busy machines, the whirling network of shafts and belts -above, the intent operatives, and the steady clicking of innumerable -parts blended into a softened widespread sound. It seems absolutely -endless; it is a matter of hours to go through the plant. Stop at one of -the machines and see the speed and accuracy with which it turns out its -product; then calculate the entire number of machines and you will begin -to gain a little idea as to what the total output of this vast -institution must be. - -[Illustration: PUTTING METAL HEADS ON PAPER SHOT SHELLS] - -More than once you will find yourself wondering whether there can be -guns enough in the world, or fingers enough to press their triggers, to -use such a tremendous production of ammunition. But there are, and the -demand is steadily increasing. This old world is a pretty big place -after all. - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLING AUTO SHOTGUNS] - -[Illustration: EXAMINING PAPER SHELLS] - -[Illustration: REPEATING SHOTGUN MACHINING DEPARTMENT] - -[Illustration: INSPECTING METALLIC SHELLS] - - -Handling Deadly Explosives. - -Operatives, girls in many cases, handle the most terrible compounds. We -stop, for example, where they are making primers to go in the head of -your loaded shell, in order that it may not miss fire when the bunch of -quail whirrs suddenly into the air from the sheltering grasses. That -grayish, pasty mass is wet fulminate of mercury. Suppose it should dry a -trifle too rapidly. It would be the last thing you ever did suppose, for -there is force enough in that double handful to blow its surroundings -into fragments. You edge away a little, and no wonder, but the girl who -handles it shows no fear as she deftly but carefully presses it into -molds which separate it into the proper sizes for primers. She knows -that in its present moist condition it cannot explode. - - -Extreme Precautions. - -Or, perhaps, we may be watching one of the many loading machines. There -is a certain suggestiveness in the way the machines are separated by -partitions. The man in charge takes a small carrier of powder from a -case in the outside wall and shuts the door, then carefully empties it -into the reservoir of his machine, and watches alertly while it packs -the proper portions into the waiting shells. He looks like a careful -man, and needs to be. You do not stand too close. - -The empty carrier then passes through a little door at the side of the -building, and drops into the yawning mouth of an automatic tube. In the -twinkling of an eye it appears in front of the operator in one of the -distributing stations, where it is refilled and returned to its proper -loading machine, in order to keep the machine going at a perfectly -uniform rate; while at the same time it allows but a minimum amount of -powder to remain in the building at any moment. Each machine has but -just sufficient powder in its hopper to run until a new supply can reach -it. Greater precaution than this cannot be imagined, illustrating as it -does, that no effort has been spared to protect the lives of the -operators. - - * * * * * - - -How does an Artesian Well Keep Up Its Supply of Water? - -Artesian wells are named after the French Province of Artais, where they -appear to have been first used on an extensive scale. - -[Illustration: ARTESIAN WELL (_D_) IN THE LONDON BASIN] - -They are perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises -to the surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream. As a -location is chosen where the source of supply is higher than the mouth -of the boring, the water rises to the opening at the top. They are -generally sunk in valley plains and districts where the formation of the -ground is such that that below the surface is bent into basin-shaped -curves. The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole -porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic -pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of the -strata. - -The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively as a -moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to which -purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote period. -Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara which -have proved an immense boon to the district. The same has been done in -the arid region of the United States. The water of most of these is -potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an extent as -to influence vegetation. - -The hollows in which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many -places by borings of this nature. At London they were first sunk only to -the sand, but more recently into the chalk. One of the most celebrated -artesian wells is that of Grenelle near Paris, 1,798 feet deep, -completed in 1841, after eight years’ work. One at Rochefort, France, is -2,765 feet deep; at Columbus, Ohio, 2,775; at Pesth, Hungary, 3,182, and -at St. Louis, Mo., 3,843-1/2. Artesian borings have been made in West -Queensland 4,000 feet deep. At Schladebach, in Prussia, there is one -nearly a mile deep. - -As the temperature of water from great depths is invariably higher than -that at the surface, artesian wells have been made to supply warm water -for heating manufactories, greenhouses, hospitals, fishponds, etc. The -petroleum wells of America are of the same technical description. These -wells are now made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether -their construction has been rendered much more easy in modern times. - -Boring in the earth or rock for mining, geologic or engineering purposes -is effected by means of augers, drills or jumpers, sometimes wrought by -hand, but now usually by machinery, driven by steam or frequently by -compressed air. - -In ordinary mining practice a bore-hole is usually commenced by digging -a small pit about six feet deep, over which is set up a shear-legs with -pulley, etc. The boring rods are from ten to twenty feet in length, -capable of being jointed together by box and screw, and having a chisel -inserted at the lower end. A lever is employed to raise the bore-rods, -to which a slight twisting motion is given at each stroke, when the rock -at the bottom of the hole is broken by the repeated percussion of the -cutting tool. Various methods are employed to clear out the triturated -rock. - -The work is much quickened by the substitution of steam power, water -power, or even horse power for manual labor. Of the many forms of boring -machines now in use may be mentioned the diamond boring machine, -invented by Leschot, a Swiss engineer. In this the cutting tool is of a -tubular form, and receives a uniform rotatory motion, the result being -the production of a cylindrical core from the rock of the same size as -the bore or caliber of the tube. The boring bit is a steel thimble about -four inches in length, having two rows of Brazilian black diamonds -firmly embedded therein, the edges projecting slightly. The diamond -teeth are the only parts which come in contact with the rock, and their -hardness is such that an enormous length can be bored with but little -appreciable wear. - - -Where do Dates Come From? - -Besides the dried dates which we are accustomed to seeing in this -country, they are used extensively by the natives of Northern Africa and -of some countries of Asia. - -It consists of an external pericarp, separable into three portions, and -covering a seed which is hard and horny in consequence of the nature of -the albumen in which the embryo plant is buried. - -Next to the cocoanut tree, the date is unquestionably the most -interesting and useful of the palm tribe. Its stem shoots up to the -height of fifty or sixty feet without branch or division, and of nearly -the same thickness throughout its length. From the summit it throws out -a magnificent crown of large feather-shaped leaves and a number of -spadices, each of which in the female plant bears a bunch of from 180 to -200 dates, each bunch weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds. - -The fruit is eaten fresh or dried. Cakes of dates pounded and kneaded -together are the food of the Arabs who traverse the deserts. A liquor -resembling wine is made from dates by fermentation. - -Persia, Palestine, Arabia and the north of Africa are best adapted for -the culture of the date-tree, and its fruit is in these countries an -important article of food. It is now being introduced into California. - - - - -The Story of Rubber - - -Rubber is the coagulated sap of more than 300 varieties of tropical -trees and vines--the Landolphia of Africa, the Ficus of the Malay -Peninsula, the Guayule shrub of Mexico and the Castilloa of South -America, Central America and Southern Mexico are all important rubber -producers, but far more important than all of the others together is the -Hevea, a native of Brazil. - -Hevea trees are scattered through the dense forests of practically every -part of the Amazon Basin, a territory more than two-thirds as large as -the United States. - - -How was Rubber First Used? - -Down in Brazil, several hundred miles up the Amazon River, there stood a -great forest of trees and in this forest--the same as in forests of -today--were birds and animals and bugs and beetles, etc. All trees are -protected by nature; some are protected from bugs eating their leaves, -by other bugs eating up these bugs; other trees are protected by having -a thorny or bristly bark. - -[Illustration: INDIANS PLAYING WITH A RUBBER BALL WHEN COLUMBUS CAME IN -SIGHT - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -In these forests in which the rubber tree grows there was a wood-boring -beetle, and this beetle would attack these rubber trees, boring into -them; but the tree, in order to protect itself, had a poisonous juice, -and as soon as the beetle bored into the tree, this juice killed him. -Then the juice would fill up the hole the beetle had made, and the tree -would go on growing as before. - -In those days the natives around these forests (who were half Indian and -half Negro) happened to find some of this juice sticking on the tree. -They cut it off, rolled it together and made a ball, with which they -would play games. The first mention of it was made by Herrera in his -account of the second voyage of Columbus, wherein he speaks of a ball -used by Indians, made from the gum of a tree which was lighter and -bounced better than the far-famed balls of Castile. - -[Illustration: IN THE JUNGLE - -LLAMA, DOMESTIC ANIMAL OF THE ANDES, USED TO CARRY RUBBER OVER MOUNTAINS - -RAILROAD AROUND THE RAPIDS OF THE MADEIRA TERMINAL - -CRUDE RUBBER “BISCUITS” ON THE BANKS OF THE AMAZON - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -The way they gather this rubber is very interesting. When it comes from -the tree it is nothing but a milky juice. The natives of South America -soon discovered that the white man was willing to pay them beads and -other trinkets for chunks of this rubber, so they became active in -gathering it. - -[Illustration: ON THE BANKS OF THE RIO GUAPORE--BRAZIL - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - - -What is a Rubber Camp Like? - -In this locality the rubber harvest commences as soon as the Amazon -falls which is usually about the first of August. When this date -approaches bands of natives set out from their primitive homes and go, -in many instances, hundreds of miles into the forest lowlands. There, -within easy reach of the rubber trees, they set up their camp and the -actual work of harvesting the rubber crop begins. It usually covers a -period of about six months, extending from August to January or -February. - -The camps are usually great distances from the nearest town and -procuring supplies is not only difficult but very expensive as well. The -natives build their huts out of small poles covered with palm thatch and -live in little colonies while the rubber harvest is going on. The -Brazilian name for a rubber gatherer is “seringuero.” - -[Illustration: RUBBER GATHERER’S HUT NEAR THE AMAZON - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -A roof and floor with the flimsiest of walls, set up on piling for -coolness, defense against animals and insects, and to keep the building -dry during flood season, forms the home of the rubber gatherer. The more -pretentious and better furnished home of the superintendent of the -“estate,” together with the storehouses, etc., are called the -“seringal.” - -The buildings are usually grouped together at a favorable spot on the -banks of the Amazon or one of its tributaries. - -Furniture is of the most primitive type. The laborers and their families -sleep in hammocks or on matting on the floor. Food is largely made up of -canned goods and the ever-present farina, a sort of tapioca flour. - -The climate of the South American rubber country is usually fatal to -white men, and even among the Indians the fevers, the poisonous insects -and reptiles, and the other perils of a tropical forest cause a high -death rate. The production of South American rubber is limited by a -shortage of men rather than a shortage of trees. - -In December the rainy season begins. The waters of the Amazon begin to -rise and the work ceases. The superintendent and many of the workers go -down the river to Para and Manaos or to villages on higher ground. -However, a number of the laborers usually remain in the huts, loafing -and fighting the animals and insects that seek refuge from the rising -waters. They have but little to eat, and during the entire season -practically no communication with the outside world. - -[Illustration: A HOME OF THE RUBBER GATHERERS - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -At the end of the rainy season, early in May, the laborers return to -their task. The quick-growing vegetation has filled the estradas and -this must be cleared away and perhaps new estradas opened. An estrada is -simply a path leading from one Hevea tree to another and circling back -to camp. Each estrada includes about one hundred of the scattered -Heveas. - -After having established themselves in camp the natives take up their -monotonous round, which is followed day after day as long as the rubber -trees continue to yield their valuable sap. When the seringuero starts -out he equips himself with a tomahawk-like axe having a handle about -thirty inches long. This is called a “macheadino.” - -[Illustration: TAPPING HEVEA RUBBER TREE--BRAZIL - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - - -How is Rubber Gathered by the Natives? - -The trees are tapped very much like maple syrup trees. Only the juice is -found between the outer bark and the wood. So these men make a cut in -the tree through the bark, almost to the wood. A little cup is then -fastened to the tree with a piece of soft clay to press the cup against -it, and the juice runs into this cup. Sometimes they have from ten to -thirty cups on one tree and the average yield of a tree is ten pounds of -rubber a year. - -Some two hours after the tapping is done the flow entirely ceases and -the tree must be tapped anew to secure a fresh flow. - -The film of rubber that forms on the inside of the cup and the bits of -rubber remaining on the tree are collected and sold as coarse Para. - -[Illustration: ON THE BANKS OF THE AMAZON - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -[Illustration: GATHERING THE RUBBER MILK--BRAZIL - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -[Illustration: HOW THE RUBBER MILK DRIPS FROM THE GASH IN THE -TREE--BRAZIL] - -The rubber gatherer carries in addition to a macheadino and many small -tin cups, a larger vessel for gathering the liquid and carrying it to -camp. One man will tap as many as 100 trees in a single morning and then -cover the same ground again in the afternoon or on the following -morning, gathering the sap that drips slowly from the cuts made in the -trees. On these journeys the harvester frequently travels long distances -over paths so buried by the undergrowth of the jungle that they are -almost invisible to the untrained eye. On such expeditions rubber -gatherers usually go armed with rifles to protect themselves against -wild animals, reptiles and savage Indians. - -[Illustration: A PLANTATION IN BORNEO - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - - -How is Rubber Smoked? - -After the juice has been gathered in this way, the native builds a fire; -over it he places a cover shaped like a large bottle with the bottom -knocked out of it. This fire is built of oily nuts found in the forest, -and the thick smoke arises through what would be the neck of the bottle. - -[Illustration: SMOKING RUBBER ON THE LOWER AMAZON - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -With a stick shaped something like the wooden shovels used at the -seashore, he dipped into the milky juice in the bowl, then turned this -stick or paddle around very rapidly in the smoke until the juice baked -on the paddle. He then added more juice and went through the same -operation again and again until there were between five and six pounds -of rubber baked on this paddle. He then cuts this off with a wet knife -which made it cut more rapidly. That formed what is called a rubber -“biscuit,” and he then started over again for his next five or six -pounds. Later, as the demand for these “biscuits” increased, instead of -the native using the paddle, he erected two short fence-like affairs -about six feet apart, but parallel with each other, and in between was -the smoky fire. Then he obtained a long pole, stretched it across these -two rails and poured a small quantity of this juice on this pole, over -where the smoke came in contact with it, and rolled the pole around -until this juice was baked, adding more, until, instead of a small five- -or six-pound “biscuit,” he would get an immense ball. In order to get -this off his pole, he would jog one end of the pole on the ground until -the “biscuit” would slide off. This is the way crude rubber first came -into our market and the way it comes today. - -[Illustration: SMOKING RUBBER--UPPER AMAZON - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - - -How was Vulcanizing Discovered? - -Up to this time, these “biscuits,” when exposed to heat, would become -very soft and sticky, and when exposed to the cold, would become hard -like a stone. - -[Illustration: REMOVING BISCUIT FROM POLE AFTER SMOKING - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -There was an American by the name of Charles Goodyear who had heard how -the natives of the rubber-growing countries used this milky juice in -many ways for their own benefit. One use they put it to was the -waterproofing of their cloaks. How could this be done so that our -clothing would be made water-tight and yet not be sticky in summer or -stiff in winter? Goodyear devoted a great deal of his time to solving -this problem, and, like many other great inventors, he passed through -many trials. His many failures caused his friends to forsake him and he -was put in prison for not paying his debts. He persisted in his quest, -however, and it was accident at last that opened the way to discovery of -the processes of vulcanization for which Goodyear was seeking. - -[Illustration: INDIAN WATERPROOFING CLOTH BY “PAINTING” IT WITH RUBBER -“MILK”--BRAZIL - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -At Woburn, Mass., one day, in the spring of 1839, he was standing with -his brother and several other persons near a very hot stove. He held in -his hand a mass of his compound of sulphur and gum, upon which he was -expatiating in his usual vehement manner, the company exhibiting the -indifference to which he was accustomed. In the crisis of his argument -he made a violent gesture, bringing the mass in contact with the stove, -which was hot enough to melt India-rubber instantly; upon looking at it -a moment afterwards, he perceived that his compound had not melted in -the least degree! It had charred as leather chars, but no part of the -surface had dissolved. There was not a sticky place upon it. To say that -he was astonished at this would but faintly express his ecstasy of -amazement. The result was absolutely new to all experience--India-rubber -not melting in contact with red-hot iron! He felt as Columbus felt when -he saw the land bird alighting upon his ship and the driftwood floating -by. In a few years more his labors were crowned with success. - -This great invention made it possible for us to have rubber boots and -rubber shoes and many other things made of rubber. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -Up to this time, all the rubber was called Para rubber, named from the -town of Para in Brazil, from which all rubber was shipped. The -full-grown tree is quite large, ranging sixty feet and over in height -and about eight feet around the trunk. It has a flower of pale green -color and its fruit is a capsule containing three small brown seeds, -with patches of black. These seeds lose their life very quickly, so a -great deal of care is necessary to pack them if they are wanted to plant -in another place. The safest way is to lay them loosely in a box of dry -soil or charcoal. - -[Illustration: RUBBER TWIGS - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -The rubber tree grows best in rich, damp soil and in countries where the -temperature is eighty-nine to ninety-four degrees at noon-time and not -less than seventy-four degrees at night, and where there is a rainy -season for about six months in the year, and the soil and atmosphere is -damp the year round. - -The name of this species of tree is Hevea, but many years ago it was -called Siphonia on account of the Omaqua Indians using squirts made of a -piece of pipe stuck into a hollow ball of rubber. - - -How did Rubber Growing Spread to Other Places? - -Back in the seventies an English botanist, Wickham by name, smuggled -many Hevea seeds out of Brazil. The tree was found to grow well in the -Eastern tropics and today the rubber plantations of Ceylon, Borneo, the -Malay Peninsula and neighboring regions are producing more than half of -the world’s supply of crude rubber. Here the natives work under pleasant -climatic conditions and the trees under cultivation grow better and -yield better than in the forest. - -On these plantations, rubber trees are cultivated just the same as other -crops. All weeds are removed and great care is used with the young -trees. Low-growing plants which absorb nitrogen from the air which -enriches the soil, such as the passion flower and other sensitive -plants, were planted around these small rubber trees, for it was found -that when the weeds were removed to give the trees a chance to grow, the -ground became hard and dry. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -The method of tapping is different, too. Instead of ten to thirty taps, -a series of cuts the shape of a V is made on four sides of the tree, -from the bottom up to as high as a man can reach, and a cup placed at -the point of the V. Another way is to make one long cut down the tree -and then cut out slanting channels about one foot apart into this, and -put a cup at the bottom of the long cut; another is making a spiral -around the tree with the cup at the bottom. - - -How is Rubber Cured on Modern Plantations? - -With these big plantations some other way to cure the rubber had to be -devised from the smoking process used in curing the native rubber which -comes from South America. The milky juice is emptied from the cups into -a tank and lime juice is added and it is then allowed to stand. The -juice, as it comes from the tree, contains considerable water: the lime -juice is added to separate the rubber from the water. - -[Illustration: A YOUNG RUBBER PLANTATION - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -Sometimes separators are used much like our cream separators; in fact, -the whole process and the appearance of the interior of these rubber -“dairies” very much resembles our own dairies where real milk is made -into butter, curds or cheese. - -Para, at the mouth of the Amazon, and Manaos, a thousand miles up, are -both modern cities of more than one hundred thousand population. They -have schools, churches, parks, gardens and museums, and, except for the -Indians, certain peculiarities in architecture and the ever-present odor -of rubber, they differ but little from our northern cities of equal -size. Here the rubber markets are located and here the rubber is -carefully examined, graded, boxed and shipped to New York or Liverpool. - -Plantation rubber usually comes in the form of sheets of various shapes -and sizes. The rubber shown here is in oblong sheets. Sometimes it is in -the form of “pancakes” or in “blocks.” Often, after being coagulated, it -is smoked, and “smoked plantation sheet” is, next to Para, the best -rubber obtainable. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - - -How is Crude Rubber Received Here? - -Crude rubber is received in many forms under various names. There are -more than three hundred standard kinds, depending on source and method -of handling; _e. g._, “Sernamby” is simply bundles of Para tree scrap -and scrap from the cups where milk has cured in the open air. “Guayule” -is a resinous rubber secured from a two-foot shrub that grows on the -arid plains of Texas and Northern Mexico. - -Our picture shows a bin of crude up-river Para the finest rubber known. -Every “biscuit” or “ham” has been cut in two to find out whether the -native has loaded it in any way. - -[Illustration: ANOTHER CEYLON TAPPING METHOD--THE HERRINGBONE - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - - -How is Rubber Prepared for Use? - -Now that we have rubber so that it can be used, we find there are a -great many operations necessary between gathering the crude rubber and -finally the finished rubber coat or shoe. These various operations are -called washing, drying, compounding, calendering, cutting, making, -varnishing, vulcanizing and packing and each one of these main -operations requires several smaller operations. - -The grinding and calendering department is the one in which the crude -rubber is washed, dried, compounded and run into sheets ready to be cut -into the various pieces which constitute a boot or shoe. - -[Illustration: RUBBER MARKET IN MANAOS - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -The cultivated rubber comes practically clean, but the crude rubber -“biscuits” contain more or less dirt and foreign vegetable matter which -have to be removed. The rubber is softened in hot water for a number of -hours and then passed through the corrugated rolls of a wash mill in -which a stream of water plays on the rubber as it is thoroughly -masticated and formed into thin sheets. These sheets are taken to the -drying loft. Here they are hung up so that the warm air can readily -circulate through them and are allowed to remain from six to eight -weeks, until every trace of moisture has been removed. The vacuum dryer -is used where rubber is wanted dry in a short space of time. This is a -large oven containing shelves. The wet sheets of rubber are cut in -square pieces, placed on perforated tin pans and loaded into the dryer, -which will hold about eight hundred pounds of rubber. The doors are -closed, fastened, and by the vacuum process the water is extracted, -leaving the rubber perfectly dry in about three hours’ time. - -[Illustration: SPECIAL DESIGNED MACHINE FOR CUTTING RUBBER - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -[Illustration: TAPPING HEVEA RUBBER TREE ON CEYLON PLANTATION - -_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -[Illustration: SOFTENING VATS - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -After the rubber is dry, and has been tested by the chemist, it goes to -the grinding mills where it is refined on warm rolls and made ready for -the compounding or mixing. It is impossible to make out of rubber alone, -shoes or other products that will withstand extreme changes in -temperature; certain amounts of sulphur, litharge and other ingredients -are necessary in combination with the pure rubber to give a satisfactory -material. The gum from the grinding mills is taken to the mixing mills, -where, between the large rolls, the various materials are compounded -into a homogeneous mass. The compounded rubber goes from the mixing -mills to refining mills, to be prepared for the calenders. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._] - -Automobile, motorcycle and bicycle tires, belting, footwear and many -other rubber articles must have a base or backbone of cotton fabric, and -in order that the fabric may unite firmly with the rubber it must be -“frictioned” or forced full of rubber. This is done by drawing it -between enormous iron rollers, rubber being applied on its surface as it -passes through. The pressure is so great that every opening between the -fibers of cotton, every space between threads is forced full of rubber. - -[Illustration: THE MILL ROOM - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -The fabric is then ready to go with the milled rubber to the various -departments of the factory to be incorporated into rubber goods. The -calender is also used to press rubber into sheets of uniform thickness. - - -How are Rubber Shoes Made? - -In making footwear, the linings and such parts as can be piled up layer -on layer are cut by dies, usually on the large beam-cutting machines, -commonly seen in leather shoe factories. The uppers are cut by hand from -the engraved sheets, while metal patterns are used on the plain stock. -The soles are cut by specially designed machines. The sheets of rubber -from which the uppers and soles are cut are at this stage of the work -plastic and very sticky. It is necessary on this account to cut the -various pieces one by one and keep them separate, by placing them -between the leaves of a large cloth book. In an ordinary rubber shoe -there are from twelve to fifteen pieces, while in a common boot there -are over twenty-five pieces. - -[Illustration: MAKING RUBBER BULBS - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -The various pieces are next delivered to the making department, where -they are fitted together on the “lasts” or “trees” in such a way that -all the joints and seams are covered and the lines of the shoe kept -exactly. Considerable skill is required to do this, as all the joints -and seams must be rolled down smooth and firm to ensure a solid boot or -shoe. The goods are all inspected before they are loaded on the iron -cars to go to the varnishing department, where they receive the gloss -which makes them look like patent leather. - -[Illustration: MAKING STRAIGHTLINE RUBBERS] - -[Illustration: IN THE TRUCK TIRE STOCK ROOM] - -[Illustration: MAKING GARDEN HOSE (WRAPPED CONSTRUCTION)] - -[Illustration: INSPECTING AUTOMOBILE INNER TUBES - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -[Illustration: BELT PRESS AND ROLL OF CONVEYOR BELT] - -[Illustration: “BUILDING” WATER BOTTLES] - -[Illustration: VULCANIZING TRUCK TIRES] - -[Illustration: INSULATED WIRE READY FOR SHIPMENT - -_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._] - -From the varnishing department the shoes are taken to the vulcanizers, -which are large ovens heated by innumerable steam pipes. The shoes -remain in these vulcanizers from six to seven hours, subjected to -extreme heat. This heating or vulcanizing process fixes the elasticity -of the rubber, increases its strength enormously and unites the parts in -such a way as to make the shoe practically one piece. - -The shoes next go to the packing department, where they are taken off -the “lasts,” inspected, marked, tied together in pairs, sorted and -packed. They are then sent to the shipping department to be shipped -immediately or stored in one of the spacious storehouses. - - -How are Automobile Tires Made? - -In making tires, the strips of fabric are built together about a steel -core to form the body or carcass of the tire. The beads are also added. -The side strips, the breaker strip and finally the tread are applied. -All of these pieces are sticky, and as they are laid together and rolled -down by small hand rollers they adhere to each other, and when the tire -is completed it looks very much like the tires you see on automobiles, -but it is not yet vulcanized. The rubber is much like tough, heavy -dough--there is not much stretch to it and in a cold place it would -become hard and brittle. - -The tire on its steel core is taken to the mold room and placed in a -steel box or mold, shaped to exactly enclose it. It is then placed with -many others on a steel frame and lowered into a sort of a well or oven, -where it remains for a time under pressure in the heat of live steam, -after which it is removed, a finished tire. - -Vulcanization is simply the heating of the rubber mixed with -sulphur--this causes a chemical change in the substance; it becomes -tougher, more elastic and less affected by heat and cold. - -This process, discovered in 1839, made rubber the useful substance it is -today. The discoverer, Charles Goodyear, to whom we referred before, was -never connected in any way except by name with any of the manufacturers -of the present day, but his discovery was the real beginning of a great -industry. - - * * * * * - - -How did the Expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” Originate? - -Jack Robinson was a man in olden days who became well known because of -the shortness of his visits when he came to call on his friends, -according to Grose, who has looked up the subject very carefully. When -the servants at a home where Jack Robinson called went to announce his -coming to the host and his assembled guests, it was said that they -hardly had time to repeat his name out loud before he would take his -departure again. Another man, Halliwell, who has also investigated the -development of the expression, thinks that it was derived from the -description of a character in an old play, “Jack, Robes on.” - -It is also interesting to learn that the sandwiches which we all enjoy -so much at picnics are so called because of the fact that an English -nobleman, the Earl of Sandwich, always used to eat his meat between two -pieces of bread. - - -What is an Aerial Railway Like? - -Wonderful ingenuity has been shown in contriving a means to enable -people to ascend the Wetterhorn Mountain in Switzerland. The sides of -the mountain are so irregular and rough in their formation that it was -found impossible to build even the incline type of railway, such as is -usually resorted to where the ascent to a mountain is particularly -steep. So the engineers who studied the problem finally contrived two -huge sets of cables, securely fastened at the top, and fixed to a -landing place a short distance from the base of the mountain. Cars, -holding twenty passengers each, are carried up and down these cables, -one car balancing the other, by means of a cable attached to each, which -passes around a drum at the top. - -[Illustration: THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY - -_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._] - -There is probably no railway in all Europe upon which travel affords -more wonderful scenery than this trip, suspended in the air, up the side -of the Wetterhorn Mountain, the three peaks of which are all -considerably more than two and a quarter miles high. - - -Why are They Called “Newspapers”? - -Although something like an official newspaper or government gazette -existed in ancient Rome, and Venice in the middle of the sixteenth -century also had official news sheets, the first regular newspaper was -published at Frankfort in 1615. Seven years later the first regular -newspaper appeared in England. - -It was customary to print the points of the compass at the top of the -early single-sheet papers, to indicate that occurrences from all four -parts of the world were recorded. Before very long, the publisher of one -of the most progressive papers rearranged the letters symbolic of the -points of the compass, into a straight line, and printed the word NEWS, -and in a very short time practically every newspaper publisher decided -to adopt the idea. - -It is interesting to find that American colonies were not far behind -England in establishing newspapers, and equally interesting to know that -the most remarkable development of the newspaper has been in the United -States, where, in proportion to population, its growth and circulation -has been much greater than in any other country. Practically a half of -all the newspapers published in the world are published in the United -States and Canada. - -Every trade, organization, profession and science now has its -representative journal or journals, besides the actual newspapers and -magazines of literary character, and Solomon’s remark might be -paraphrased to read: “To the making of newspapers there is no end.” - -The great and rapid presses of recent years, the methods of mechanical -typesetting and the cheapness and excellence of photographic -illustrations, have all been necessary elements of the great sheets and -enormous circulations of the present day, and the twentieth century -newspaper is one of the greatest achievements in the whole field of -human enterprise. - - -How Did the Cooking of Food Originate? - -As soon as man found that he could produce fire by friction, as the -result of rapidly rubbing two sticks together, he began to have -accidents with his fires, just as we do today. And it was probably -because of one of these accidents, in which some food was cooked quite -unintentionally, that primitive man made the great discovery that most -of the meats and fruits and roots that he had been accustomed to eating -raw, were far better if they were put in or near the fire for a while -first. - - -How Far Away is the Sky-Line? - -Unless you happen to be of the same height as the person standing next -to you, the sky-line is a different distance away from each of you, for -it is really just a question of the distance the eye can see from -different heights above the sea-level. A person five feet tall, standing -on the beach at the seaside, is able to see about two and three-quarter -miles away, while one a foot taller can see about a quarter of a mile -further. - -A person on the roof of a house a hundred feet high is able to see more -than thirteen miles away, on a clear day, and a forty-two mile view may -be enjoyed from the top of a mountain a thousand feet high. The aviator -who goes up to a level a mile above the sea is able to see everything -within a radius of ninety-six miles and the further up he goes the -larger the earth’s circle becomes to him. - - - - -The Story of Rope[7] - - -Everybody knows what rope is, but everybody does not know how rope is -made or of what kinds of fiber it is manufactured. And very few probably -know the history of rope making, or how it developed from the simple -thread to the great cable which now holds giant vessels to their wharves -or aids to anchor them in ocean storms. - -Let us go back and try to trace the history of the rope. It is a long -one, going out of sight in the far past. In very early times men must -have used some kinds of cords or lines for fishing, for tying animals, -at times for tying men. These may have been strips of hide, lengths of -tough, flexible wood, fibrous roots, and such gifts of nature, and in -time all these were twisted together to make a longer and stronger cord -or rope. - -[Illustration: SCENE IN EGYPTIAN KITCHEN, SHOWING USE OF A LARGE ROPE TO -SUPPORT A SORT OF HANGING SHELF] - -We have evidence of this. Tribes of savages still have in use cords made -of various materials and some of them very well made. These have been in -use among them for long centuries. Take the case of our own Indian -tribes. They long made use of cordage twisted from cotton and other -fibers, or formed from the inner bark of various trees and the roots of -others, and from the hairs, skins and sinews of animals. - -[Illustration: REPRODUCTION OF SCULPTURE FROM A TOMB IN THEBES, SHOWING -PREPARATION OF LEATHER CORDS BY PROCESS SIMILAR TO ROPE MAKING] - -Good rope was made also by the old Peruvians, by the South Sea -Islanders, and by the natives of many other regions. Those on the -seashore made fishing lines and well-formed nets, and certain tribes, -among them the Nootka Indians, harpooned the whale, using cords made -from the sinews of that animal, these being very strong and highly -pliable. The larger ropes used by them, two inches in diameter, were -made from the fibrous roots of the spruce. - - -Civilized Rope Makers. - -All the ancient civilized peoples used ropes and cordage, made from such -flexible materials as their countries afforded. We have pictures of this -from ancient Egypt, in which the process of twisting strips of leather -into rope is shown on the walls of their tombs. One workman is seen -cutting a long strand from a hide which he turns round as he cuts, while -another man walks backward with this, twisting it as he goes. The -Egyptians also made ropes from papyrus and palm fibers, of which -specimens still exist. Only by the use of large and strong ropes could -they have moved the massive stones seen in their pyramids and temples. - -[Illustration: CORDAGE MANUFACTURE BY THE ROPE WALK METHOD - -Yarns passing from bobbins through perforated plates in forming of -strands. - -Top truck used in laying of rope. - -Forming machine making strands. - -Closing tarred Russian hemp cable, 15-3/4 inch circumference, for -Argentine Battleship “Rivadavia.”] - -When men began to move boats by sails, ropes of some kind must have been -needed, and the early ships no doubt demanded long and strong cordage. -We have pictures of these from several centuries before the Christian -era, and we are told by Herodotus that Xerxes, when he built his famous -bridge of boats across the Hellespont, 480 B. C., fastened them together -by enormous cables which stretched from shore to shore, a distance of -nearly a mile. Twelve of these ropes were used, about nine inches thick, -some of them being made of flax and others of papyrus. - -[Illustration: EARLY TYPE OF MACHINE FOR SPINNING ROPE YARN] - -During the medieval and later centuries rope making was an active -industry and America was not long settled before the rope maker became -active. John Harrison, an English expert in this line, set up a ropewalk -in Boston in 1641 or 1642, and for many years had a monopoly of the -trade. But after his death the art became common and in 1794 there were -fourteen large ropewalks in that city. In 1810 there were 173 of these -industries in the United States, and from that time on the business has -grown and prospered. - - -Hand Spinning. - -In the period referred to all the work was done by hand, machine -spinning being of later date. American hemp was used, this softer fiber -being spun by hand long after Manila hemp was spun by machines. The -hand-making process, long used, is an interesting one. The first step -was to “hackle” the hemp. The hackle was a board with long, sharp steel -teeth set in it. This combed out the matted tow of the hemp into clean, -straight fiber. The instrument used in spinning was a large wheel, -turned by hand, and setting in motion a set of “whirls” or revolving -spindles, which twisted the hemp by their motion. The spinner wrapped a -quantity of the hackled hemp around his waist and attached some of the -fibers to the whirls, which twisted the hemp as he walked backward down -the ropewalk, pulling out new fiber from his waist by one hand and -pressing it into form and size with the fingers of the other. - -[Illustration: FOUR-STRAND COMPOUND LAYING MACHINE MAKING STRANDS AND -LAYING ROPE IN A SINGLE, CONTINUOUS OPERATION] - -[Illustration: SIXTEEN-INCH TOWLINE WITH EYE SPLICE] - -In forming a small rope, two of the yarns thus formed were twisted -together in a direction opposite to that of the first twist. Then a -second twisting followed, the direction being again reversed. Thus rope -making may be seen to consist in a series of twisting processes, each -twist opposite to the former, the rope growing in size and strength at -each operation. Horse power or water power was used when the ropes -became too large to be made by hand. - -[Illustration: FORMATION OF SLIVER (FOR SPINNING) ON FIRST BREAKER] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF PRESENT-DAY ROPEWALK] - - -Machine-made Ropes. - -The old ropewalk is today largely obsolete, the rope-making machine -taking the place of the hand-making process, which was not adapted to -produce the large cables which in time were called for. Steam-driven -machines were first introduced about 1838. These are now used alike in -making fine threads and yarns and in large ropes. - -There are two methods in the modern system of rope making. In one the -strands are formed on one type of machine and twisted into a rope on -another. In the second method both operations are performed on a single -machine. The latter saves space, but is not so well fitted for large -ropes as the former. A plant for the two-part method comprises two or -more horizontal strand-forming machines, several bobbin frames, and a -vertical laying-machine. The former twists several strands into a rope, -the latter several ropes into a cable. - -The yarns, which are wound around bobbins, are drawn from them through -perforated plates, these so placed that the yarns converge together and -pass into a tube. In this they are compressed and at the same time -twisted by the revolution of a long carriage or flyer, which can be made -to vary in speed and direction. After being twisted the strands are -wound around reels in readiness for the second, or laying process. - -In this the full reels are lifted by overhead chains and are placed in -the vertical flyers of the laying-machine. Here again the strands are -made to pass through openings and converge into a central tube, through -which they pass to the revolving flyers, which perform the final duty of -twisting them into rope. The finished product is delivered to a -belt-driven coiling reel on which it is wound. - -[Illustration: REMOVING REEL WITH COMPLETED STRAND FROM FORMING MACHINE] - -The most complete rope-making machine yet reached is that in which these -two machines are combined into one. It economizes space, machinery and -workmen, and also is more rapid in reaching the final result. But there -are disadvantages which render it unfit for the larger sizes of rope, -and it is therefore used only on a limited range of sizes. - - -American Hemp. - -Among the fibers employed in rope making that of the hemp plant long -held the supremacy, though in recent years it has been largely -supplemented by other and stronger fibers. This plant is a native of -Asia, but is now grown largely in other continents, taking its name from -the country in which it is raised, as Russian hemp, Italian hemp, and -American, or Kentucky, hemp, it having long found a home in the soil of -Kentucky. It differs from the Manila fiber, which has now very largely -supplanted it, by being much softer, though of less strength. In the old -days of the sailing vessel hempen rope was largely used for the rigging -of merchant and war ships, but the use of other fibers and of wire for -rigging has greatly reduced the market for Kentucky hemp. There are -various other fibers known under the name of hemp, the New Zealand, -African, Java, etc., but the Manila and Sisal fibers, since the middle -of the last century, have largely taken their place. - -[Illustration: HOW PINE TAR IS MADE IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES - - 1. Building the kiln. - 2. Starting fire. - 3. Racking back coals. - 4. Tar coming from kiln. - 5. Dipping and barreling. - 6. Working around kiln. - 7. After hard day and night. - 8. Tar makers at home. - 9. Burning completed.] - - -Manila and Sisal Fibers. - -Manila hemp, as it is called, is a product of our Philippine dependency, -being obtained from a species of the banana plant which grows abundantly -in those islands. Its fiber is very long, ranging from six to ten feet, -and is noted for its smoothness and pliability, a feature which makes it -ideal for rope making. Gloss and brilliancy are also characteristics of -good quality Manila. - -[Illustration: AMERICAN HEMP STACKED IN FIELDS] - -Manila hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks of the Philippine plant -known as the Abacá, the leaf stems of which are compressed together, and -constitute the trunk of the plant. It is obtained by scraping the pulp -from the long fibers, drying these when thoroughly cleaned, and baling -them for market. - -The high price of the Manila product, however, has brought a cheaper -fiber, of American growth, into the market; this being that known as -Sisal, extracted from henequen, a cactus-like plant of Yucatan. As a -substitute for or rival of Manila hemp it has come into common use. Its -cheapness recommends it despite the fact that it is not of equal -strength, and also that its fibers are shorter, being from two to four -feet in length. Sisal also lacks the flexibility of Manila, being much -more stiff and harsh. The development of the self-binding reaper on our -western grain-fields has opened a gold mine for Sisal cordage. Of the -annual import of this fiber to the United States, 300,000,000 pounds in -quantity, a large proportion finds its way to the wheat fields of the -West. It is also used in all other wheat-yielding countries. - -[Illustration: PHILIPPINE HEMP CART] - -[Illustration: LOADING FIBER FROM SISAL FIBER PLANT ONTO PLANTATION -CAR] - -Henequen is now grown on large plantations, the plant being about five -years old before the long, sword-like leaves are ready to cut. It -continues to yield a supply for ten or twenty years, this lasting until -the flower stalk, or “pole,” appears, after which the plant soon dies. -As Manila fiber is at times adulterated with Sisal, so has the latter -its adulterant in a plant called Istle, which grows in Mexico and has -hitherto been chiefly used in brush making. - -[Illustration: NEW ZEALAND HEMP OR FLAX] - -[Illustration: CRUDE HAND METHOD OF CLEANING MANILA FIBER ON PLANTATION] - -These are the chief plants used in rope making. To them we may add coir, -obtained from the brush of the cocoanut, which has been long used in -India, and has come into use in Europe in recent years. It is fairly -strong and has the advantage of being considerably lighter than hemp or -Manila. And, unlike these, it does not need to be tarred for -preservation, as it is not injured by the salt water. Two other -rope-making fibers of importance are the Sunn hemp of India and cotton, -ropes of the latter being largely used for certain purposes, such as -driving parts of textile machinery. - - -Wire Ropes. - -We have not completed the story of rope making. There is the wire rope -to consider, a kind of cordage now largely used in many industries, in -which it has superseded hemp ropes and chains. These seem to have -originated in Germany about 1821. In the bridge at Geneva, built in -1822, ropes of untwisted wire, bound together, were used, and some -fifteen years later “stranded” wire ropes were employed in the Harz -mines. These at first were made of high-class wire, but only steel is -now used in their manufacture. A strand of wire rope generally consists -of from six to nine wires and sometimes as many as eighteen, but much -larger ropes are made by twisting these strands together. They are -generally galvanized to prevent them from rusting. - -[Illustration: STACKING BALES OF MANILA FIBER WITH PORTABLE COMPRESSED -AIR ENGINE] - -[Illustration: HANK OF MANILA FIBER TWELVE FEET LONG] - -The applications of wire ropes are very numerous, an important one being -for winding and hauling purposes in mines. For aerial ropeways they are -extensively employed, and are of high value in bridge building, the -suspension bridge being sustained by them. The strength of the steel -wire used for ropes varies from seventy to over one hundred tons per -square inch of sectional area, the weight of a hemp rope being about -three times that of a wire rope of equal strength. - - -Pine Tar for Ropes. - -Who does not know of the tarred rigging that once meant so much to the -rope maker? Its very odor seems to cling to the pages of seafaring -books. When steam power took the place of wind power in ships the use of -tarred rigging naturally declined, yet tarred goods still form an -important branch of the rope business. Pine tar is the kind best suited -for cordage, the yellow, longleaf, or Georgia pine holding the first -rank in the United States for tar making. This tree is found along the -coast region from North Carolina to Texas. - -In tar-kiln burning only dead wood is used, the green tree yielding less -tar and of lower quality. It is a slow process, as a brisk fire would -consume the wood without yielding tar. As the tar comes from the kiln it -is caught in a hole dug before the outlet and is dipped up and poured -into barrels, the average yield being one barrel of tar to the cord of -wood. As above said, it is indispensable to protect cordage exposed to -the effects of moisture, except in the case of coir ropes. Oiling is -also an important process in the manufacture of ropes from hard fibers, -as Manila, Sisal and New Zealand. This softens them and makes them more -workable, and it also acts as a preservative. - -[Illustration: INSPECTING MANILA FIBER AT DOCK] - -[Illustration: SHIPPING PLATFORM OF A LARGE FACTORY] - - -Why does Rope Cling Together? - -This is probably due to a degree of roughness in the surface of fibers, -often imperceptible to the eye, yet preventing them when in close -contact from slipping easily upon each other. This is greatly increased -by twisting the fibers together, and is added to by the toughness of the -fibers themselves, the whole giving to rope a great resisting power. In -the case of wire rope it is the firmness with which the metal holds -together that gives it its great resisting strength. It is also not -unlikely that the pressure of gravitation takes part in rope making, by -holding the fibers in close contact, even if we do not know how this -force operates. - - -What is Rope Used for? - -This is a question that has already been answered in great part. Its -uses, in fact, are innumerable. It serves to hold things together, and -also to hold them apart; to lift things into the air and to hold them -down to the ground; to pull things forward and pull things back--but not -to push things forward. For the latter something less flexible than rope -is needed. Animals are tied or tethered by it and led by it, and man, -himself, is one of its victims. This is especially the case in the -dismal way in which man’s career upon earth has so often been ended by -lifting him from the ground by the aid of a rope loop around his neck. -It is of some comfort to know that this brutal use of the rope is being -replaced by more humane methods of ending the lives of condemned -criminals. - - * * * * * - - -How did the Expression “A-1” Originate? - -We have all become so accustomed to hearing the term “A-1” used to -designate a thing as perfect that it does not occur to many of us to -wonder how it originally came to be used in that connection. Its first -use was as a symbol in the code by which vessels were graded in the -register of shipping kept by Lloyd’s, the originators of marine -insurance. “A-1” was the best rating given to the highest class vessels, -“A” standing for perfect condition of the hull of the ship and “1” -meaning that the rigging and whole equipment was complete and in good -order. - - -How has Man Helped Nature Give Us Apples? - -The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild -crab, which is a small and extremely sour fruit, and is native of most -of the countries of Europe. We use the crab-apple for preserving even -now, although man’s ingenuity has succeeded in inducing nature to give -us many better tasting kinds. - -The amazingly large number of different varieties which we have today -have all been brought into existence through the discovery of the -process of “grafting.” There are a half a dozen or more different -methods of grafting. The method most commonly practiced in working with -apple trees is called “bud-grafting,” and consists of transferring a -plate of bark, with one or more buds attached, from one tree to another. - -The wood of apple trees is hard, close-grained and often richly colored, -and is suitable for turning or cabinet work. Apple-growers classify -apples into three different kinds, each consisting of a great many -separate varieties. The three general divisions are--table apples, which -are characterized by a firm, juicy pulp, a sweetish acid flavor, regular -form and beautiful coloring; cooking apples, which possess the quality -of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal consistency, -and also by their large size and keeping properties; and cider apples, -which have a considerable astringency and a richness of juice. - -[Illustration: IN THE LAND OF THE APPLE - -The Rogue River Valley, Oregon, in one section of which this photograph -was taken, is known all over America for its wonderful apples. One -apple-raiser in this district gathered two hundred bushels of apples per -acre from his six-year-old trees.] - - -What Kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? - -Besides the water-crabs that we are most of us used to seeing and -eating, there are several different kinds of land-crabs. Probably the -most interesting of them all is the great Robber-crab, which is found on -certain islands of the Pacific. He is a creature of immense strength and -climbs palm trees in order to pick, and break open, the cocoanuts. He -lives in a den which he digs for himself in the ground. - -Darwin gives an interesting description of these extraordinary animals: -“I have before alluded to a crab which lives on cocoanuts; it is very -common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous size. The -front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy pincers, and the -last pair are fitted with others weaker and much narrower. It would at -first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoanut -covered with husk, but Mr. Liesk assures me that he has repeatedly seen -this effected. The crab begins by tearing the husk, fiber by fiber, and -always from that end under which the three eye-holes are situated. When -this is completed, the crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on -one of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then turning round its -body, it extracts the white albuminous substance with its posterior and -narrow pair of pincers. - -“Every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea, no doubt for the -purpose of moistening its gills. The young are likewise hatched, and -live for some time, on the coast. These crabs inhabit deep burrows, -which they hollow out beneath the roots of trees, and there they -accumulate surprising quantities of the picked fibers of the cocoanut -husk, on which they rest as a bed. To show the wonderful strength of the -front pair of pincers, I may mention that Captain Moresby confined one -in a strong tin box, the lid being secured with wire; but the crab -turned down the edges and escaped. In turning down the edges, it -actually punched many small holes through the tin!” - - -How are Files Made? - -A good tool-kit holds a number of files of various shapes. Some are -flat, others half-round, three-sided, square and round. They are -generally thickest in the middle, while their teeth are of various -degrees of fineness and of different forms. - -A file whose teeth are in parallel ridges only is called single-cut or -float-cut. Such are mostly used for brass and copper. When there are two -series of ridges crossing each other the file is double-cut, which is -the file best suited for iron and steel. - -Rasps are files which have isolated sharp teeth separated by -comparatively wide spaces, and are chiefly used for soft materials such -as wood and horn. - -Each of these three classes of files is made in six different degrees of -fineness, the coarsest being called rough, the next middle, followed by -bastard, second-cut, smooth and superfine or dead-smooth, each a degree -finer than that which precedes it. - -Files are usually made with the hand, file-cutting machines not having -been as yet perfectly successful on account of the delicacy of touch -required in the work. - -The blanks, as the steel before it has teeth is called, are laid on the -anvil and struck with the chisel, which rests obliquely on the blank, -each blow raising a ridge or tooth. The strength of the blow depends on -the hardness of the metal, and when one part is harder than another the -workman alters his blows accordingly. When one side is covered with -single cuts if the file is to be double cut he adds in the same manner a -second series, crossing the others at a certain angle. - -In making fine files a good file-cutter will cut upwards of two hundred -teeth within the space of an inch. The files, except those that are used -for soft substances, are hardened by heating them to a cherry-red color -and then dipping them in water. They are then finished by scouring and -rubbing over with olive oil and turpentine. - - - - -The Story of Self-Loading Pistols[8] - - -Colt Pistols. - -The machine gun of the present day, the murderous weapon which has -numbered its victims by the hundreds of thousands during the European -war, had its origin in the mind of a man whose birth dates back to -almost exactly one hundred years before this war began, that of Samuel -Colt, born at Hartford, Conn., on July 19, 1814. - -[Illustration: CUSTER’S LAST STAND - -The revolver played a large part in Indian warfare.] - -The small arm of the previous period, the old “Brown Bess,” used in the -British army for 150 years, was a muzzle-loading, flint-lock musket of -the crudest make. The only important improvement made in it during that -long term of service was the substitution of the percussion cap for the -flint lock. This took place in the last period of its use. A -breech-loading rifle was also invented about this time. This was the -“Needle Gun,” of which 60,000 were issued to the Prussian army in 1841, -and which was first used in 1848, in the German war with Denmark. - -The Colt pistol had appeared before this date. The idea of it grew in -the mind of young Colt when he left his father’s silk mill and shipped -as a boy sailor in the ship “Carlo,” bound from Boston to Calcutta. -While on this voyage the conception of a revolving pistol came to him, -and he whittled out a rude model of one with a penknife from a piece of -wood. - -[Illustration: SINGLE ACTION ARMY AND FRONTIER REVOLVER--THE “COWBOY’S -FRIEND”] - -[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL PATTERSON MODEL, 1836] - -[Illustration: OLD MODEL “POWDER AND BALL” REVOLVER USED IN MEXICAN AND -CIVIL WARS] - -[Illustration: GUN MOUNTED ON LANDING CARRIAGE WITH SHAFT ATTACHMENT] - -When he returned he sought in vain to interest his father and others in -his idea of a pistol with a revolving cylinder containing six chambers -to be discharged through a single barrel. This boyish notion won no -converts, and at the age of eighteen he went on a lecture tour on -chemistry, under the dignified title of Dr. Coult. These lectures met -with success, and he used the money made by them in developing his -pistol, which was in a shape to patent by 1835. Patents were taken out -by him in this and the following year in the United States, Britain and -France, and in 1836 he established the “Patent Arms Company” at -Paterson, N. J., with a paid-in capital stock of about $150,000. This -was a bold move by the young inventor, then just escaped from boyhood. - -[Illustration: PACK SADDLE FOR CARRYING AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN AND -COMPLETE EQUIPMENT] - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN MOUNTED ON LIGHT LANDING CARRIAGE, -AMMUNITION CHESTS OPEN, SHOWING HOW FEED BOXES, ETC., ARE CARRIED] - -Young Colt tried in vain to interest government officials in his new -weapon, their principal objection being that he used in it the new -percussion caps instead of the time-honored flint-lock. But success came -during the Seminole War of 1837, when some of the officers, who had seen -the new revolving pistol, decided to give it a trial and sent to the -factory for a supply. - -Its value was soon proved. The Indians looked on this weapon that could -be fired six times after one loading, as something magical. It was too -much for their philosophy and the war soon came to an end. At a later -date it was used by the Texans in their war against Mexico, and from -that time on every Texas ranger wanted a revolver. It has ever since -been the favorite weapon of the cowboy and frontiersman. - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PISTOL--GOVERNMENT MODEL, CALIBER .45 - -In this model the slide remains open after firing the last cartridge. -When reloading the arm in this position, insert the magazine, then press -downward the slide stop (to the rear of the trigger as illustrated). The -slide goes forward, inserting a cartridge without any movement of the -slide by hand. The slide stop is operated by the thumb of the hand -holding the pistol.] - -[Illustration: POLICE-POSITIVE REVOLVER - -Adopted by the Police Departments of the principal cities of the United -States and Canada.] - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PISTOL--POCKET MODEL, HAMMERLESS - -The action of this pistol is automatic except that the trigger must be -pulled to fire each shot; continued discharge will not result from one -pull of the trigger.] - -But wars ran out, the market closed, and the “Patent Arms Company” -failed. What put Colt on his feet again was the Mexican war a few years -later. General Taylor offered Colt a contract for one thousand revolvers -at $24 each, and though the young inventor was looked upon as a ruined -man he took the contract, got together the necessary capital, and built -a factory on the Connecticut at Hartford. From that time on there was no -want of a market. The “Forty-Niners” took revolvers to California, -foreign governments sent orders for them, and armories were built in -England and in Russia for their manufacture. Colt died in 1862, but the -Civil War had previously opened a great market for his pistols, and -before the conflict ended the Colt factory at Hartford was in a highly -flourishing state. In the following years the revolver became a prime -necessity in dealing with the Indians of the West, and a school-book -statement of that date was to the effect that: “The greatest civilizer -of modern times is the Colt revolver.” Another writer, speaking of the -“Peacemaker,” an effective weapon produced after 1870, said: “It has the -simplicity, durability, and beauty of a monkey-wrench.” - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN MOUNTED ON TRIPOD, SHOWING BELT -PASSING OUT (RIGHT SIDE)] - - -Machine Guns. - -The revolving idea was applied to guns about 1861 by Richard J. Gatling, -the first Gatling guns fitted for use with metalling ammunition being -produced by the Colt Company in 1870. These guns had ten barrels -revolving around a central shaft and in their developed form were -capable of being fired at the rate of one thousand shots a minute. The -first of these to be used prominently in warfare was the French -mitrailleuse, used by France in the war of 1870-71. The Gatling soon -made its way widely, and its rapidity of fire became a proverb. If -anything moved quickly it was said to “go like a Gatling” or “sound like -a Gatling.” - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC GUN MOUNTED ON AUTOMOBILE] - -Other guns of this type are the Hotchkiss, the Nordenfeldt and the -Gardner, and a more recent one is the Maxim, which, after the first shot -is fired by hand power, continues to fire shot after shot by means of -the power derived from the explosion of each successive cartridge. In -the early form of the revolver the empty cartridge cases had to be -ejected from the cylinder singly by an ejector rod or handy nail. In -1898 a new type was introduced with a lateral swinging cylinder which -permitted the simultaneous ejection of all the empty shells. - -Near the time of the Spanish-American War appeared what is known as the -Colt automatic gun, operated by the action of the powder gases on a -piston and lever near the muzzle of the barrel. This could be fired at -the rate of 400 to 500 shots a minute, and by reason of its light weight -could be very easily carried. The British used it effectively in the -Boer War. - -Today the Colt Company manufacture revolvers in which the simultaneous -ejection of the cartridge-cases and recharging of the chambers is -combined with a strong, jointless frame; automatic magazine pistols in -which the pressure of the powder gases, as above said, is utilized after -giving the proper velocity to the projectile, it requiring only a -slight continued pressure on the trigger for each shot; automatic -machine guns firing at will single shots or volleys while requiring only -a slight pull upon the trigger; and the improved manually-operated -Gatling gun firing the improved modern ammunition. The cartridges are -carried on a tape which feeds them with the necessary rapidity into the -barrel. - -What would be the history of the European War without the machine gun is -not easy to state, but as a highly efficient weapon of war its quality -has been abundantly proved. - - * * * * * - - -How does the Poisonous Tarantula Live? - -When the National Guardsmen from all over the Union were concentrated -along the Mexican border, many reports were sent home of thrilling -experiences with tarantulas, to whose bite the natives of Mexico, Italy -and many other warmer countries have ascribed a disease called -“tarantism.” The Italian peasants believe that this disease can only be -cured by a certain kind of music. - -The tarantula, like many other members of the spider family, is an -expert in the making of burrows. Its burrows are artfully planned. At -first there is a sheer descent four or five inches in depth, but at that -distance below the surface the tunnel turns aside before dipping -straight down again to its termination. It is at the angle or elbow of -the tunnel that the tarantula watches for the approach of enemies or -prey, like a vigilant sentinel, never for a moment off its guard, lying -hidden during the day, if nothing disturbs it, and coming out at -nightfall to seek its prey. - -Unlike most other spiders, it hunts its game without the aid of webs or -snares. It does, however, possess the ability to spin the silk which we -have all seen other spiders make, for, in digging its hole, it makes -neat little packages of the dirt it has scraped up, bound together with -silk and slime from its mouth, and flips them to one side out of the -way. When it comes to hunting, it makes sure that it can pounce on its -prey, by building the entrance of its hole about two inches in diameter -and up from the surface an inch or so, so that it can spread its legs -for the leap. - - -How do the Indians Live Now? - -The Indians of the United States are now largely gathered into -reservations and their former dress, arms and habits are being gradually -changed for those of the whites. Civilization is invading their homes -and driving out their older characteristics. This is especially the case -with the large numbers now dwelling in the former Indian Territory, now -Oklahoma, although those confined in the reservations of Arizona, New -Mexico and Montana are clinging more to their old modes, as is shown in -the accompanying illustrations. - -In ancient times the body was covered with furs and skins according to -the seasons, but now the white man’s clothes and blanket have generally -superseded the native dress; though the moccasin of deer or moose hide, -and, in the wilder tribes, the ornamental leggings and head-dresses are -still retained. Their dwellings are made of bark, skins and mattings of -their own making, stretched on poles fixed in the ground. The arms of -the wilder tribes consist of the bow and arrow, the spear, tomahawk and -club, to which have been added the gun and knife of the whites. Canoes -are made of logs hollowed out, or of birch bark stretched over a light -frame, skilfully fastened with deers’ sinews and rendered water-tight by -pitch. - -[Illustration: MORE PICTURESQUE THAN BEAUTIFUL - -The Apaches, formerly one of the most powerful and warlike of the Indian -tribes, are now confined to reservations in Arizona and New Mexico.] - -[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE CAMP - -Blackfeet Indians in camp on St. Mary Lake.] - -The American Indian is described as of haughty demeanor, taciturn and -stoical; cunning, brave and often ferocious in war; his temperament -poetic and imaginative, and his simple eloquence of great dignity and -beauty. They have a general belief in Manitous, or spiritual beings, one -of them being spoken of as the Great Spirit. They believe in the -transmigration of the soul into other men and into animals, and in -demons, witchcraft and magic. They believe in life after death, where -the spirit is surrounded with the pleasures of the “happy hunting -grounds.” They adopt a “totem” or symbol of the family and this is -generally some animal, the turtle, bear and wolf being favorites. - -The number of Indians in the United States at the taking of the Federal -Census in 1910, was 265,683; and there are about 130,000 in the British -possessions, 1,500,000 in Central America and 4,000,000 in Mexico. In -all North America there are somewhere about 6,000,000 and there are -probably 10,000,000 more in South America, many of them being more or -less civilized. - - -How does the Beach Get Its Sand? - -Most of the sands which we find on the beaches and in other places are -the ruins of rocks which have come apart, usually as the result of the -action of water. A large part of the ocean bottom is made up of -“sandstone” and the continual washing of the water over this causes -particles to break away and float off, whereupon they are swept up upon -the beaches by the waves. - -Sands differ in color according to the rocks from which they are -derived. In addition to the sands on the beaches, they occur very -abundantly in many inland locations, which were formerly sea bottoms, -and very extensively in the great deserts of the world. - -Valuable metallic ores, such as those of gold, platinum, tin, copper and -iron, often occur in the form of sand or mixed with that substance. Pure -siliceous sands are very valuable for the manufacture of glass, for -making mortar, filters, ameliorating dense clay soils, for making molds -in founding and for many other purposes. - -The silica, which is the principal ingredient of sand, as well as of -nearly all the earthy minerals, is known as “rock crystal” in its -naturally crystallized form. Colored of a delicate purple, these -crystals are what we call “amethysts.” Silica is also met with in the -“carnelian” and we find it constituting jasper, agate, cat’s-eye, onyx -and opals. In the latter it is combined with water. Many natural waters -present us with silica in a dissolved state, although it is not soluble -in pure water. The resistance offered by silica to all impressions is -exemplified in the case of “flint” which consists essentially of silica -colored with some impurity. - - -How did Nodding the Head Up and Down Come to Mean “Yes”? - -Like a multitude of other things, the signs which we give by the -movements of our heads to indicate “yes” and “no” were copied from -animal life. - -When the mother animal brought her young a choice morsel of food she -would hold it up temptingly before its mouth and the quick forward -movement of the head, with mouth open, showed the young animal’s desire -and acceptance of the offer. Even today when we make a forward movement -of our heads to indicate “yes” it is observed that the lips are usually -quite unconsciously opened a little. - -In much the same manner, when the young had been well fed and were no -longer hungry, a tightly closed mouth and a shaking of the head from -side to side were resorted to, to keep the mother from putting the food -into their mouths. Our natural impulse now is to slightly clinch our -teeth when we shake our heads to mean “no.” - - -Why do We Call a Man “a Benedict” When He Marries? - -We call men “benedicts” when they become married because that was the -name of a humorous gentleman in Shakespeare’s play, “Love’s Labor Lost,” -who was finally married to a character named “Beatrice.” - - - - -The Story in Firecrackers and Sky-Rockets[9] - - -The blaze and noise, indispensable to patriotic celebrations among all -peoples, was produced a century ago in America by simple agencies. -Washington’s Birthday was ushered in by cannon salutes in every -garrisoned place in the United States, and boys the country over built -bonfires as they still do in old New England towns to celebrate the day. -But the Fourth of July was the great hurrah time of the year, when every -youth who owned a gun or could borrow one, brought it into use as a -contribution to the general noise. He might lack shoes and be short of -shot and bullets for hunting, but for this occasion no young man was so -poor as to have failed to lay in a hornful of powder, and at the stroke -of twelve midnight, which began the day, he and his companions blazed -away with guns loaded to the danger point, and kept up their fusillade -as long as ammunition lasted. For demonstrations on a larger scale, a -small cannon was secured if possible, but lacking this, two blacksmith’s -anvils were made to do the same service, the hole in the top of one -being filled with powder, a fuse laid into it and the second anvil -placed as a stopper upon the first before the charge was exploded. - -A favorite firearm for celebration purposes was one of the old “Queens -Arm” muskets which were common in country communities, being trophies -captured from the British during the Revolutionary War. One of these -cumbersome flint-lock pieces might be loaded halfway to the muzzle and -fired without bursting, and would roar in the discharge in a way highly -pleasing to patriotic ears. - -It was near the close of the eighteenth century that Chinese -firecrackers first came into use in celebrating the American -Independence Day. For many years they were used sparingly and only in -large cities. They had been known in the New England coast cities ever -since the year 1787, when Elias Haskett Derby’s ship of Salem, the first -American vessel to engage in deep-water commerce, returned from her -voyage to Calcutta, China and Isle of France. Among the things she -brought back--more as a curiosity than as an article of cargo--was a -consignment of Chinese firecrackers. Their capabilities in aiding the -uproar on the Fourth of July were quickly recognized, and thereafter -every ship that made the voyage from Massachusetts Bay to India or China -brought back firecrackers with the tea, silks and rice. In time, -rockets, squibs and torpedoes were included in the consignment, but it -was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that their use became -general in America. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROCKET FINISHING SHOP] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SHELL FINISHING SHOP] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF TORPEDO SHOP] - -The time when the more complicated fireworks, which we owe both to -Europe and the Orient, came into vogue in this country, no one perhaps -could now definitely tell. Their use was known to our seafaring men in -the “forties,” for it was in that decade that Capt. Decimus Forthridge, -of the American brig “Independence,” showed his Yankee pluck and -resource in defeating an attack of Malay pirates with no other armament -than fancy fireworks. During his voyage in the East Indies he had laid -in a supply of fireworks with which to celebrate the Fourth of July in a -manner worthy an American captain. For some reason no ammunition was -available for swivels or muskets, when, in the mid-watch of the night, -two war proas, deeply laden with armed Malays, were seen coming quickly -up on the vessel’s quarter as she lay becalmed off Firabader Point in -the Island of Sumatra. The cry of “All hands on deck to repel pirates” -brought the crew on deck in haste, but without ammunition the chance -that they would beat the enemy off was a long shot compared with the -probability that the throat of every man on board would be cut as a -preliminary to plundering and scuttling the vessel. Even in their -extremity the crew laughed and jeered when the captain ranged them along -the quarter rail with boarding pikes and empty muskets in hand to give -the enemy the idea that they were ready for business, and then, opening -the box of fireworks, he began to shoot rockets and roman candles at the -pirates. If the crew laughed, the Malays did not, and when the captain -of one of the proas was struck by a rocket, both crafts rested oars and -came no nearer. But while Captain Forthridge was attending to these, a -third proa came up unobserved under the port quarter, and the first that -was known of its presence was the attempt of its occupants to board the -vessel by the chains. To make matters worse it was discovered that the -paper wrappings of the fireworks in the box were on fire. While the crew -with clubbed muskets and boarding pikes kept the Malays outside the -rails, Captain Forthridge picked up the blazing box, carried it to the -chains, and while the mate and sailors warded the spears and krises from -him, dropped it into the proa. The box was blown to pieces the minute it -struck, scattering the fireworks through the proa, and with firecrackers -snapping and jumping and fiery serpents running round among their bare -legs, the Malays chose to take their chances with the sharks, and all -hands went overboard into the water at double-quick. A little breeze -came up and the brig drew away from the pirates, leaving the two proas -to pick up those Malays from the water that the sharks had missed. - -In the days of the China clippers, those famous ships sailed many a race -from Hong Kong and Canton, with New York as the goal, to get there with -“first tea” and to forestall the Fourth of July market with a cargo of -firecrackers. - -In China and the East Indies, fireworks, like “the fume of the incense, -the clash of the cymbal, the clang and the blaze of the gong,” are a -part of the worship of the gods, as well as a feature of coronations and -weddings. China is the birthplace of fireworks. From China the knowledge -of them spread to India, and in both these lands rockets were used as -missiles of war as early as the ninth century. The Chinese war rocket -was a long, heavy affair, fitted at the end with a barb-like arrow, and -to a foe unacquainted with firearms, it must have seemed a formidable -missile. After gunpowder was introduced in Europe, fireworks came into -use on the continent, and the use of both explosives undoubtedly was -learned from the Chinese. - -Fireworks were manufactured in Italy as early as 1540, and in France we -have accounts of their employment in great celebrations between the -years 1606 and 1739. Long before this time, some form of rocket, now -unknown, that would burn in water, constituted the famous Greek fire -which struck terror to the hearts of invaders from Northern Europe in -medieval times when the Saracens launched it against their ships. Early -in the present century during the Napoleonic Wars, the rocket perfected -by Sir William Congreve was used in the siege of Boulogne and in the -battle of Leipsic. The conditions of modern warfare have so changed that -the rocket is no longer of practical use in fighting except as a signal. -In case of shipwreck it is often employed to carry a line from the shore -to a stranded vessel. It is noteworthy that while almost every kind of -fireworks is manufactured in Europe and the United States, the small -firecrackers are still imported from China. But larger quantities are -now manufactured in the United States, and it is only a matter of time -when the “Young American” salute will take the place of the Chinese -firecrackers. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROLLING SHOP] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROMAN CANDLE SHOP] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF BALLOON SHOP] - -It was about ten years before the Civil War that “set pieces” began to -form a part of fireworks celebrations. In those days the most famous -pyrotechnic display in the whole country was given on Boston Common on -the Fourth of July, and the country boy who was so lucky as to see that -display, with the miracle of George Washington’s benign face illuminated -amid spouting flames and a shower of fireballs and rockets, had -something to talk about for the rest of the year. - -The American Civil War which did so much toward the modern development -of firearms and munitions of war, brought also a great advance in -pyrotechny, and soon after the close of the struggle, extensive -manufacture of fireworks began in this country, with New York as the -headquarters of the principal firms engaged in the business. - -In 1865 the first displays of fireworks in the United States, -illustrating historical events, were made by a company in New York City. -They were the pioneers in this line of displays. Their success was -immediate, and from these displays has grown the successes of today in -pyrotechnics. - -Fireworks now enter into the celebration of every important event in our -national, political and business life. The celebrations at Washington, -D. C., at the inaugurations of our Presidents, the coronations of -emperors and kings in lands beyond our borders, are all brought to a -close by brilliant displays of fireworks. - -The writer, in visiting the plant of a large fireworks manufacturer, -found that they were turning out large quantities of time fuses and -primers for shrapnel shells for the foreign powers, and are working -night and day on orders for the United States government on aeroplane -bombs and signals. They have also worked out a searchlight projectile -which is arranged to burst in the air, throwing out a number of luminous -bodies that light up the surrounding country and reveal the movements of -the enemy. - -All large displays of fireworks are now fired by electricity and every -known color and effect is produced by the pyrotechnist of the present -day. - -The water displays are scarcely less varied, consisting of flying fish, -diving devils, prismatic fountains, floating batteries, fiery geysers -and submarine torpedoes, all of which, being ignited and thrown into the -water, go through their stunts as readily as other kinds do on land and -in the air. - -From every part of the civilized world, from Mexico, Central and South -America and Europe, orders for fireworks come in increasing numbers to -American firms, who now lead the world in this art. The Philippines will -soon be a customer for them, and with the general opening up of China to -modern civilization, from causes now in operation, it will not be -strange if some day we should supply fireworks to the land of their -origin. - - * * * * * - - -What Makes a Chimney Smoke? - -Smoky chimneys are usually caused either by the presence of other -buildings obstructing the wind and giving rise to irregular currents of -air, or by improper construction of the fireplace and adjacent parts of -the chimney. - -The first may generally be cured by fixing a chimney-pot of a particular -construction, or a revolving cowl, on the chimney top, in order to -prevent the wind blowing down; in the second case the narrowing of the -chimney throat will generally create a better draft. - -The longer a chimney is, the more perfect is its draft, provided the -fire is great enough to heat the column of air in it, because the -tendency of the smoke to draw upwards is in proportion to the difference -of weight between the heated air in a chimney and an equal column of -external air. - -The first we hear of chimneys, for the escape of the smoke from a fire -or furnace, is in the middle ages. - -[Illustration: FLOATING DRY DOCK “DEWEY” - -This dry dock, which is capable of floating the largest battleship, was -towed from Sparrow’s Point, Maryland, to Olangapo, Philippine Islands, a -voyage of 13,000 miles. In operation, the dock is sunk by admitting -water into its tanks until the ship can be floated in. The water is then -pumped out and the dock with the ship inside rises to the proper level -as shown.] - -[Illustration: U. S. BATTLESHIP “MISSISSIPPI” IN DRY DOCK AT LEAGUE -ISLAND] - - -What are Dry Docks Like? - -Although divers are able to go down under the water to examine the -bottom of a ship while it is afloat, it is usually necessary to have it -up on dry land when thorough inspections or repairs have to be made. So -a berth something like a huge box stall in a stable is built, with the -part where a horse would stand in the stall full of water, and a door, -either made like swinging gates opening in the middle, or a caisson -which is operated up and down like a window, at the end. The ship is -floated into the dock and then after the door is shut to prevent any -more coming in, all of the water is pumped out until the vessel rests on -a lot of great big wooden blocks and supporting props with which the -bottom and sides of the dock are lined. Supports are also placed between -the vessel and each side of the dock. Then, when the work has been -finished, and the ship is ready to go to sea, water is let back either -by pumping it in or else by gradually opening the door at the end, and -the vessel is able to float out into the river or harbor again. - -Although all of the navy yards and some private corporations in this -country have docks of this kind, they are not of as much importance here -as in England, where they are used, without pumping out the water, for -the loading and unloading of vessels, because of the very great rise and -fall of the tides there straining and otherwise damaging ships tied up -to ordinary docks. - -There are nine important navy yards in the United States, located at -Brooklyn, N. Y.; Boston, Mass.; Portsmouth, N. H.; Philadelphia, Pa.; -Portsmouth, Va.; Mare Island, Cal.; New London, Conn.; Pensacola, Fla.; -Washington, D. C., and Port Orchard, Wash. - -There is another kind of dry dock, called “floating docks,” which float -on the surface of the water and may be sunk sufficiently to allow of a -vessel being floated into them, and then raised again by pumping the -water out of the tanks around the sides. They are usually built of iron, -with water-tight compartments, and not closed in at either end. They are -sunk to the required depth by the admission of water into so many of the -compartments, till the vessel to be docked can float easily above the -bottom of the dock, and then they are raised by pumping out the water -until the ship can be propped up as in the land dry dock. - - -Why does a Lightning Bug Light Her Light? - -The lightning bugs or fireflies which are seen so often on summer -evenings in the country and among the trees in the parks of the city, -are similar to the species of beetle called the glowworm in Great -Britain, although the glowworm there does not give as much light as the -firefly in America. - -In reality it is only the female which is the lightning bug, for the -male is not equipped with any lighting power. He has the bad habit of -going out nights, and so the female has had to make use of her ability -to make part of her body shine with a sort of a phosphorus green light -in order to show him the way home, very much as a dweller in a -poorly-lighted street keeps a light in the window or on the porch to -guide visitors or the late home-comer to the proper house. She seems to -possess the power of moderating or increasing the light at will. - -The most brilliant fireflies are found only in the warmer regions of the -world. The ordinary firefly to which we are accustomed gives off a very -much brighter light if placed in warm water. Fine print may be read by -the light of one kind which is found in the West Indies; in Cuba the -ladies have a fashion of imprisoning them in bits of netting or lace of -a fine texture and wearing them as dress ornaments, and in Hayti they -are used to give light for domestic purposes, eight or ten confined in a -vial emitting sufficient light to enable a person to write. - - - - -The Story in the Making of a Picture[10] - - -Let us suppose, for the purposes of explanation, that as far as _seeing_ -goes, any object is made up of countless infinitesimal points of light, -and that the business of the eye is to gather them in and spread them -out at the back of the eye in exactly the same relation they bore to -each other on the object. The points of light, so duplicated, would thus -form the image of the object. - -The camera works very much the same way. The lens at the front of the -camera is the eye, and the plate or film at the back of the camera -corresponds to the back of the eye. The lens collects all the points of -light of the object we wish to photograph, and directs them to the plate -or film in such fashion that they occupy exactly the same relative -position that they did before. An image of the object is formed. - -Now if we could look inside the camera and the image were visible, we -would see that it was upside down. The reason for this is very simple, -as the accompanying diagram shows. The ray of light from “A” at the -bottom of the object passes through the lens at an angle, and continues -in a straight line until interrupted by the film or plate. It started at -the bottom of the object and ended at the top of the image. The position -of all the points of light is just reversed, although their relative -position remains the same. - -[Illustration: SHOWING INVERSION OF THE IMAGE] - -“Then here,” you say, “is where your analogy between the camera and the -eye falls down.” - -Not at all. It is true that we do not see things upside down, but this -is because of mental readjustment during the passage of the impressions -from the eye to the brain. - -Now let us suppose that we have our camera loaded with film, and that -mother has succeeded in keeping the baby quiet long enough for us to -uncover the lens for an instant and let the points of light through to -the film. The next question is, how are we going to make the resulting -image permanent. We know that it is there, but in its present state it -is not going to do us a great deal of good. In fact, if we should peek -in the back of the camera, and to do so would ruin the exposure, we -could not even see it. - -But let us go back a bit. We ought to know a little something about the -composition of this film on which the image has been projected. - -In brief, film is a cellulose base coated with silver bromide and -gelatine. If we were using a plate the only difference would be that -instead of cellulose as a base we would have a sheet of glass. The -gelatine is there to afford lodgment to this sensitized silver. The -silver, being sensitive to the action of light, is there to record the -image. As soon as one of these silver particles has been touched by -light, it becomes imbued with the power of holding whatever the lens has -transmitted to it. The image was formed, we remember, by points of light -grouped in the same relative positions as the points of light of the -object we were photographing. Consequently it is only those silver -particles within the image-forming area that are affected, because that -is where the light struck. - -The lens, then, gathered in the points of light and dispersed them on -the film so as to form an image. The silver particles held this image, -but not visibly--it is a latent image, and it is the purpose of -development to bring it out. - -It is the particular business of a chemical called “pyro” to release -this latent image. When attacked by pyro, those silver bromide particles -which have been affected by light--and only those--change to black -metallic silver. After all the silver bromide particles, the ones that -held the image, have been transformed into metallic silver, another -chemical called “hypo” effectively disposes of all the silver bromide -that was not affected by light. Now only the image-forming silver -bromide particles remain, and these have been transformed to metallic -silver. The result is a permanent image--a negative. - -But it _is_ a negative, so called because everything in it is -reversed--not only from left to right, but in the details of the image. -Mother’s dark blue gown looks light, for example, and baby’s white -dress, dark. - -To get our picture as it should be, we must place the negative in -contact with a sheet of paper coated with a gelatine containing silver. -This emulsion, as the coating is called, is, as we might readily infer -from the presence of the silver, sensitive to the action of light in -much the same manner as was the original film. We place the negative and -paper in contact, then, in what is called a printing frame, so that -light may shine through the negative and impress the image on the -sensitive paper. It is obvious that the light parts of the negative will -let through the most light, and that consequently the silver emulsion on -the paper underneath will be most blackened, while the dark parts will -hold back the light and the emulsion on the paper underneath will be -less affected. In other words, the very faults that we noted in the -negative, from a picture point of view, automatically right themselves. -Mother’s dress looks dark and baby’s dress white--just as the lens saw -it. - -We then have the picture in its finished form. - -The story of the making of the camera is as interesting as that of the -making of the pictures by the camera. - -Back in 1732, J. H. Schulze discovered that chloride of silver was -darkened by light and all unwittingly became the father of photography. -In 1737, Hellot, of Paris, stumbled on the fact that characters written -with a pen dipped in a solution of silver nitrate would be invisible, -until exposure to light, when they would blacken and become perfectly -legible. However, it was not until early in the nineteenth century that -these two discoveries were put to any practical use, as far as -photography was concerned. - -People of an artistic turn of mind had been in the habit of making what -were called “silhouettes.” The sitter was so posed that the light from a -lamp threw the profile of his face in sharp shadow against a white -screen. It was then easy enough to obtain a fairly accurate silhouette, -by either outlining the profile or cutting it out from the screen. - -It occurred to a man by the name of Wedgwood that this profile might be -printed on the screen by using paper treated with silver nitrate, and he -not only succeeded in accomplishing this, but also in perfecting what -was then called the “camera obscura,” the forerunner of the kodak of -today. The camera obscura consisted of a box with a lens at one end and -a ground glass at the other, just like a modern camera. It was used by -artists who found that by observing the picture on the ground glass they -could draw it more easily. Wedgwood tried to make pictures by -substituting his prepared paper for the ground glass, but the paper was -too insensitive to obtain any result. Sir Humphrey Davy, continuing -Wedgwood’s experiments, and using chloride of silver instead of nitrate, -succeeded in making photographs through a microscope, by using -sunlight. These were the first pictures made by means of a lens on a -photographic material. But none of these pictures were permanent, and it -was not until 1839 that Sir John Herschel found that “hypo,” which he -had himself discovered in 1819, would enable him to “fix” the picture -and make it permanent. - -At about this time, Daguerre announced discoveries that gave photography -at least a momentary impetus, but the Daguerre process did not long -survive, as it was slow, costly and troublesome. The daguerreotype was -made on a thin sheet of copper, silver plated on one side, polished to a -high degree of brilliancy, and made sensitive by exposing it to the -fumes of iodine. The first daguerreotype made in America, that of Miss -Catherine Draper, was exposed for six minutes in strong sunlight, and -the face of the sitter thickly powdered, to facilitate the exposure. An -exposure today with a modern camera, under similar conditions, could be -made in 1/1000 of a second. - -[Illustration: ARTOTYPE COPY OF THE EARLIEST SUNLIGHT PICTURE OF A HUMAN -FACE - -Miss Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by her brother, Prof. John W. -Draper, M.D., LL.D., in 1840.] - -It was impossible, of course, to find many sitters as patient as Miss -Draper--try keeping perfectly quiet for even a minute if you would know -why Miss Draper should be ranked as a photographic martyr--and many -experiments were made in an attempt to materially shorten the time of -exposure. The only real solution, of course, was to find some method -where the light had to do only a little of the work, leaving the -production of the image itself to chemical action. - -[Illustration: OLD-FASHIONED PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT] - -The first great step in this direction was taken by Fox Talbot in 1841. -He found, that if he prepared a sheet of paper with silver iodide and -exposed it in the camera, he got only a very faint image, but if, after -exposure, he washed over the paper with a solution of silver nitrate and -gallic acid, the faint image was built up into a strong picture. And not -only was Fox Talbot the first to develop a faint or invisible image; he -was also the first to make a negative and use it for printing. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST KODAK (1888), SHOWING ROLL HOLDER AND ROLL FILM -FOR 100 EXPOSURES] - -[Illustration: THE FIRST DAYLIGHT LOADING METHOD] - -[Illustration: THE FIRST “FOLDING KODAK” FITTED FOR PLATES OR ROLL FILM] - -[Illustration: “DOPE” BARREL] - -In spite of all these advances, photography was almost exclusively a -studio proposition, when, in 1880, experiments were begun which were to -result in photography that could be universally enjoyed--photography as -we know it today. Of course there were amateurs even in those early -photographic days, but they were few and far between. There was -something about the bulk and weight of the old-time photographic outfit -that failed to beget general enthusiasm. - -[Illustration: RAW STOCK ROLLS, KODAK PARK] - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLING ROOM, CAMERA WORKS] - -To lighten the camera burden, and to simplify the various photographic -processes, were the problems that confronted the American inventor. The -first step toward film photography--and it was film photography that -relegated camera bulk to the scrap heap--was a roll film made of coated -paper to which a sensitive emulsion was applied, but the real goal was -reached when cellulose was substituted as a film base. This made -practicable the present flexible, transparent film with its attendant -convenience and dependability. - -The kodak was the natural outcome of the roll film system. The first one -appeared in 1888, and its development, which proceeded simultaneously -with the film discoveries, soon reached the point where the loading and -unloading could be done in daylight. Daylight developing soon followed, -and the dark room, as far as the kodaker was concerned, took its proper -place as a relic of the dark ages. - -With 1914 came autographic photography, so that now with a kodak in one -pocket and a handful of film in the other, the amateur is equipped for a -picture-making tour of the world--not simply a pictorial record, but a -written record as well, for autographic photography permits the dating -and titling of each negative directly after exposure. - -Photography, not so many years ago an exclusive pleasure for the few, is -now easy fun for millions. - -[Illustration: FILTER ROOM, KODAK PARK - -Cellulose Acetate Manufacturing] - - * * * * * - - -How Deep is the Deepest Part of the Ocean? - -Man has not been able to tell definitely just what the greatest depth of -the ocean is, because it would be a practically unending task to go over -every bit of it to take measurements. A great many exploring expeditions -have been sent out to determine that interesting information so far as -possible, however, and one of these, the Murray-Challenger expedition, -has reported that the greatest depth that could be found in the Atlantic -Ocean is 27,366 feet, in the Pacific Ocean 30,000 feet, in the Indian -Ocean 18,582 feet, in the Southern Ocean 25,200 feet and in the Arctic -Ocean 9,000 feet. They also stated that the Atlantic Ocean has an area -in square miles, of 24,536,000; the Pacific Ocean, 50,309,000; the -Indian Ocean, 17,084,000; the Southern Ocean, 30,592,000 and the Arctic -Ocean, 4,781,000. - - -Why do We Say “Get the Sack”? - -The use of the expression “get the sack,” when we mean “to be -discharged,” originated through the impression made upon people in this -country when stories were brought to them of the way the Sultan of -Turkey disposed of members of his harem of whom he had tired. When he -wanted to get rid of one of his harem he was said to have had her put -into a sack and thrown into the Bosporus. People who heard of this -report repeated it to others and they became so used to telling the tale -that they slipped quite naturally into the habit of saying “to get the -sack” when they meant that they expected to be put out of a position -suddenly. - -In very much the same way the phrase “Hobson’s choice” is supposed to -have resulted from the story told here of a livery-stable keeper at -Cambridge, England, called Hobson, who obliged each customer to take the -horse nearest the stable door, when a wish to hire one was expressed, -even though he might permit customers to make the rounds of all the -stalls, examining and perhaps selecting other horses. Since the interest -inspired by that report, “Hobson’s choice” has come to mean a choice -without any alternative, or the chance to take the thing which is -offered or nothing. - - -Why do We Call Them X-Rays? - -At the time the discovery of X-rays was announced by Prof. Wilhelm -Conrad Röntgen of the University of Würzburg, Germany, he was not sure -of their exact nature, and so he named them “X-Rays,” because “X” has -always been understood to be the symbol for an “unknown quantity.” - -They are invisible rays transmitted through the air in a manner similar -to light. They are produced by passing unidirectional electric current -of from twenty to one hundred thousand volts pressure through a -specially constructed high vacuum tube, within which rays radiating from -the surface of a concave cathode (the negative electrode of a galvanic -battery), are focused upon and bombard a target of refractory material -such as tungsten, iridium, platinum, from which focus spot the X-rays -radiate in all directions. - -They are used in medicine and surgery, to photograph the skeleton and -all the internal organs of the human body, as an aid in diagnosis; also -to destroy diseased tissue without the aid of surgery. Cancers and -tumors of certain kinds and a number of skin diseases are said to be -made to disappear by their use. When the apparatus is used, the subject -is placed on a long table and the X-ray tube, in its lead glass shield -container, is brought over the part of the body to which the rays are to -be applied. - -The most up-to-date apparatus consists of a high-tension transformer and -rectifier, driven by a rotary converter, which derives power from -direct-current electric service and delivers alternating current to the -high-tension transformer. - -[Illustration: MODERN X-RAY APPARATUS] - - -How did the Term “Yankee” Originate? - -Although some people maintain that the word “Yankee” originated with the -way white men interpreted the Indians’ name for the early settlers, most -of those who have wondered about it have decided that it came to be used -as a nickname for persons born in the United States, because of a -farmer, named Jonathan Hastings and living in Cambridge, Massachusetts, -in the eighteenth century, using it to describe some good, home-made -cider of his making, as “Yankee cider.” The word was taken up by the -students of Harvard University, and gradually spread throughout the -whole country. - - -Why do We Say “Kick the Bucket”? - -A great many years ago a man called Bolsover became crazed by some -unhappy experiences and decided to kill himself by fastening a rope -around his neck and hanging from a cross-beam overhead. In selecting a -place to tie the rope high enough to accomplish his purpose he found -that he would have to stand on something in order to reach it, and so he -reached for the nearest thing, which happened to be a bucket; after the -rope was firmly adjusted he kicked the bucket out from under his feet -and his full weight hung suspended from the rope about his neck. The -publicity given his act resulted in the adoption of the phrase “to kick -the bucket” as meaning “to die,” and that is the explanation which most -people who have tried to look up the origination of the term give as its -first use. - - -When does a Tortoise Move Quickly? - -Tortoises lay their eggs in underground nests, where they remain for -almost a year, and, strange to say, they have a very curious way of -drilling holes for these nests with their tails. A tortoise picks a spot -where the earth is bare, and then stiffens its tail by contracting the -muscles strongly, placing the tip firmly against the ground and boring a -hole by moving it round and round in a circle, until a cone-shaped -cavity is produced, wide at the top but tapering to a point below. When -this operation is completed, it immediately sets to work to enlarge the -hole with the help of its hind legs. It does this by scooping out -“shovelfuls” of dirt, first with one of its hind feet and then with the -other, and heaping it up like the wall of a fortress around the pit. -Tortoises use their feet like hands when they do this, very carefully -placing the dirt in a circle at some little distance from the edge of -the cavity, and the work is continued until the hole is dug down as deep -as the hind legs will reach. When it finds that no more soil can be -removed, that is, at the end of an hour or more of steady digging, the -tortoise accepts the job as completed and proceeds to deposit its eggs -inside very carefully, just as you would put hen’s eggs into a basket. -While all this is going on the body is scarcely moved and the head is -kept inside the shell. - -There are usually nine eggs and they just about fill the bottom of the -nest, which measures approximately five inches across and is itself -shaped more or less like an egg, being wider inside than at the top. -After about half an hour’s rest, the hardest part of the work is -begun--that of filling up the hole and leveling the ground. The dirt is -placed carefully over the eggs, a “handful” at a time, the hind legs -being used alternately again for that purpose. As the cavity is -gradually filled up the tortoise presses the earth down with the outer -edge of its foot. It takes another half hour’s rest after all the dirt -has been carried back again, and then commences the part of the -operation where the tortoise moves quickly enough to merit another -racing title. It beats down the dirt-mound and stamps it firm and flat -with the under side of its hard shell, raising the hind end of its body -and then hurriedly letting it drop to the ground again, turning round -and round in a circle very briskly in the meantime, at the same time -doing all it can to remove any traces which might lead to the discovery -of its nest. - - - - -The Story in a Newspaper[11] - - -Among the marvels of machinery of the present day there are none more -complicated and bewildering in appearance than that by which the news of -the world is sent adrift within the daily newspaper and none more -marvelously effective in its operation. If we go back to the days when -the seeds of the modern press were planted, we find them in the -hand-printing done by the Chinese with their engraved blocks, and with -the simple press used by Gutenberg about 1450, when he printed the first -book from movable types. - -His press consisted of two upright timbers held together by cross pieces -at top and bottom. The flat bed on which the types rested was held up by -other cross timbers, while through another passed a wooden screw, by the -aid of which the wooden “platen” was forced down upon the types. The -“form” of type was inked by a ball of leather stuffed with wool, the -printer then spread the paper over it, laying a piece of blanket upon -the paper to soften the impression, after which the screw forced the -platen down on the paper and this on the type. This press was not -original, since similar cheese and linen presses were then in use. - -[Illustration: THE BLAEW PRESS, 1620] - -For 150 years this crude method of printing continued in operation, the -first known improvement being made by an Amsterdam printer about 1620, -he adding a few parts to render the work more effective. Such was the -simple press still employed when Benjamin Franklin began his work as a -printer a century later. In 1798 the Earl of Stanhope had a cast-iron -frame made to replace the wooden one and added levers to give more power -to the pressman. Woodcuts were then being printed and needed a stronger -press. - -We must go on with the old Gutenberg method and its tardy improvements, -for another century, or until about 1816, when George Clymer, a printer -of Philadelphia, did away with the screw and employed a long and heavy -cast-iron lever, by the aid of which the platen was forced down upon the -type, the operation being assisted by accompanying devices. - -As will be seen, the growth of improvements had until then been very -slow. From this time forward it became far more rapid, some useful -addition to the press being made at frequent intervals. The “Washington” -press, used at this time by R. H. Hoe & Co., of New York, embodied these -improvements, and became one of the best hand-printing presses so far -made. The first steam-power press was introduced by Daniel Treadwell, of -Boston, in 1822, the bed and platen, or its successor, the cylinder, -being used in these and in the improved forms that followed until after -the middle of the century. - -[Illustration: STANHOPE PRESS, 1798] - -The idea of replacing the platen by a cylinder was not a new one. It was -employed in printing copper-plate engravings in the fifteenth century, a -stationary wooden roller being employed, beneath which the bed, with its -form and paper, was moved backward and forward, a sheet being printed at -each movement. With this idea began a new era in the evolution of the -printing press. A vast number of patents have since been issued for -printing machines in which the cylinder is connected with the bed and -later for the operation of two cylinders together, one holding the form -of type and the other making the impression. But all these were for -improvements, the underlying principle remaining the same. The -conception of a press of this character in which the paper was to be fed -into the press in an endless roll or “web” goes back to the beginning of -the nineteenth century, though it was not made available until a later -date. - -[Illustration: CLYMER’S COLUMBIAN PRESS, 1816] - -Meanwhile, however, patent after patent for the improvement of the -cylinder press were taken out and the art of printing improved rapidly, -the firm of Hoe & Co. being one of the most active engaged in this -business, the United States continuing in advance of Europe in the -development of the art. The single small cylinder and double small -cylinder introduced by this firm proved highly efficient, the output of -the former reaching 2,000 impressions per hour, while the double type, -used where more rapid work was needed, yielded 4,000 per hour. - -[Illustration: PETER SMITH HAND PRESS, 1822] - -But the demands of the newspaper world steadily grew and in 1846 a press -known as the Hoe Type Revolving Machine was completed and placed in the -office of the _Public Ledger_, of Philadelphia. By increasing the number -of cylinders the product was rapidly added to, each cylinder printing on -one side 2,000 sheets per hour. - -In 1835 Sir Rowland Hill suggested that a machine might be made that -would print both sides of the sheet from a roll of paper in one -operation. A similar double process had been performed for many years in -the printing of cotton cloth. This remained, however, a mere suggestion -until many years later, and the one-side printing continued. But, by -adding to the number of cylinders, a speed of 20,000 papers thus printed -was in time reached. - -[Illustration: TREADWELL’S WOODEN-FRAME BED AND PLATEN POWER PRESS, -1822] - -To prevent the possible fall of types from a horizontal cylinder, the -vertical cylinder was introduced by the London _Times_, but this danger -was overcome in the Hoe presses, and by the subsequent invention of -casting stereotype plates in a curve the final stage of perfection in -design was reached. In 1865 William Bullock, of Philadelphia, -constructed the first printing press capable of printing from a web or -continuous roll of paper, knives being added to cut the sheets, which -were then carried through the press by tapes or fingers and delivered by -the aid of metal nippers. There were difficulties in this series of -operations, but these were overcome in the later Hoe press, in which the -sheets were merely perforated by the cutter, and were afterward fully -separated by the pull of accelerating tapes. - -The old-time rag-paper had disappeared for newspaper work, being -superseded by wood-pulp paper, the cheapness of which added to the -desire to produce presses of greater speed and efficiency. It was also -desirable that papers should be delivered folded for the carrier, and -this led to the invention of folding machines, one of the earliest of -which, produced in 1875, folded 15,000 per hour. - -We have in the foregoing pages told the main story of the evolution of -the printing press from the crude machine used by Gutenberg in 1450 to -the rapid cylinder press of four centuries later. There is little more -to be said. Later changes were largely in the matter of increase of -activity, by duplication and superduplication of presses until sextuple -and octuple presses were produced, and by adding to the rapidity and -perfection of their operation, and the extraordinary ingenuity and -quickness with which the printed sheets were folded and made ready for -the convenience of the reader. Sir Rowland Hill’s dream of a press which -would print both sides of the paper at one operation in due time became -a realized fact, while vast improvements in the matter of inking the -forms, and even the addition of colored ink by which printing in color -could be done, were among the new devices. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON HAND PRESS, 1827] - -What we have further to say is a question of progress in rapidity of -action rather than of invention. The 20,000 papers printed per hour, -above stated, has since been seen passed to a degree that seems fairly -miraculous. The quadruple press of 1887 turned out eight-page papers at -a running speed of 18,000 per hour, these being cut, pasted and folded -ready for the carrier or the mails. Four years later came the sextuple -press (the single press six times duplicated) with an output of 72,000 -eight-page papers per hour, and in a few years more the octuple press, -its output 96,000 eight-page papers per hour. Larger papers were of -course smaller, but its capacity for a twenty-page paper was 24,000 per -hour. - -[Illustration: ISAAC ADAMS’ BED AND PLATEN PRESS, 1830] - -[Illustration: SINGLE LARGE CYLINDER PRESS, 1832-1900] - -[Illustration: SINGLE SMALL CYLINDER PRESS, 1835-1900] - -[Illustration: DOUBLE CYLINDER PRESS, 1835-1900 - -These presses were built up to 1900 and this picture shows the latest -design brought out about 1882.] - -[Illustration: DOUBLE OCTUPLE NEWSPAPER WEB PERFECTING PRESS, 1903] - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC-HEATED PNEUMATIC MATRIX-DRYING MACHINE, 1911] - -As may well be conjectured, the twentieth century has had its share in -this career of progress, the perfected press of 1916 being credited with -the astounding output of 216,000 eight-page papers in an hour, all -folded, cut and counted in lots. Where part of the pages are printed in -three colors this press has still a running speed of 72,000 per hour. -This machine is composed of 27,100 separate pieces, it being 47 feet -long, 8 feet wide and 13 feet high, while such a mighty complication of -whirling wheels and oscillating parts nowhere else exists. - -A word more and we are done. To feed such giant presses the old hand -method of setting and distributing type has grown much too slow. The -linotype machine has added greatly to the rapidity of this centuries-old -process. To this has been added the later monotype, of similar rapidity, -while type distributing has become in large measure obsolete, the types, -once used, going to the melting pot instead of to the fingers of the -distributors. - - * * * * * - - -What do We Mean by the “Flying Dutchman”? - -The Flying Dutchman is a phantom ship said to be seen in stormy weather -off the Cape of Good Hope, and thought to forbode ill luck. One form of -the legend has it that the ship is doomed never to enter a port on -account of a horrible murder committed on board; another, that the -captain, a Dutchman, swore a profane oath that he would weather the Cape -though he should beat there till the last day. He was taken at his word, -and there he still beats, but never succeeds in rounding the point. He -sometimes hails vessels and requests them to take letters home from him. -The legend is supposed to have originated in the sight of some ship -reflected from the clouds. It has been made the ground-work of one or -two novels and an opera by Wagner. - - -Why does a Duck’s Back Shed Water? - -Nature has provided the duck with a protection against water just as she -has so wisely protected all animals against such elements as they have -to live in. - -The feathers on a duck are very heavy and close together, and at the -bottom of each feather is a little oil gland that supplies a certain -amount of oil to each feather. This oil sheds the water from the back of -a duck as soon as it strikes the feathers. - -Canvasback ducks are considered the finest of the water-fowls for the -table. The canvasback duck is so called from the appearance of the -feathers on the back. They arrive in the United States from the north -about the middle of October, sometimes assembling in immense numbers. -The waters of Chesapeake Bay are a favorite locality for them. Here the -wild celery, their favorite food, is abundant, and they escape the -unpleasant fishy flavor of the fish-eating ducks. - - -Why doesn’t the Sky ever Fall Down? - -The sky never falls down because there is nothing to fall. What we see -and call the sky is the reflection of the sun’s rays on the belt of air -that surrounds the earth. That beautiful blue dome that we sometimes -hear spoken of as the roof of the earth is just the reflected light of -the sun on the air. - -The atmosphere of the earth consists of a mass of gas extending to a -height which has been variously estimated at from forty-five to several -hundred miles, possibly five hundred, and bearing on every part of the -earth’s surface with a pressure of about fifteen pounds per square inch. - - -How are Sand-Dunes Formed? - -Sand-dunes are composed of drift sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, -and blown, when dry, to some distance inland, until it is stopped by -large stones, tree roots or other obstacles. It gradually accumulates -around these, until the heaps become very large, often forming dunes or -sand-hills. - - -What do We Mean by an “Eclipse”? - -Any good dictionary will tell us that an eclipse is an interception or -obscuration of the light of the sun, moon or other heavenly body by the -intervention of another and non-luminous heavenly body. Stars and -planets may suffer eclipse, but the principal eclipses are those of the -sun and the moon. - -An eclipse of the moon is an obscuration of the light of the moon -occasioned by the interposition of the earth between the sun and the -moon; consequently all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon; for it -is only when the moon is on that side of the earth which is turned away -from the sun, and directly opposite, that it can come within the earth’s -shadow. Further, the moon must at that time be in the same plane as the -earth’s shadow; that is, the plane of the ecliptic in which the latter -always moves. But as the moon’s orbit makes an angle of more than five -degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that -though the moon is in opposition it does not come within the shadow of -the earth. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE THEORY OF ECLIPSES.] - -The theory of lunar eclipses will be understood from Fig. 1, where _S_ -represents the sun, _E_ the earth, and _M_ the moon. If the sun were a -point of light there would be a sharply outlined shadow or umbra only, -but since the luminous surface is so large, there is always a region in -which the light of the sun is only partially cut off by the earth, which -region is known as the penumbra (_P P_). Hence during a lunar eclipse -the moon first enters the penumbra, then is totally eclipsed by the -umbra, then emerges through the penumbra again. - -An eclipse of the sun is an occultation of the whole or part of the face -of the sun occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth -and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new -moon. - -Fig. 2 is a diagram showing the principle of a solar eclipse. The dark -or central part of the moon’s shadow, where the sun’s rays are wholly -intercepted, is here the umbra, and the light part, where only a part of -them are intercepted, is the penumbra; and it is evident that if a -spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls -there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra -there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra there will be -no eclipse. - -As the earth is not always at the same distance from the moon, and as -the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen -when the earth is so far from the moon that the moon’s shadow falls -short of the earth, a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line -between the centers of the sun and moon would see a ring of light around -the dark body of the moon; such an eclipse is called annular, as shown -in Fig. 3; when this happens there can be no total eclipse anywhere, -because the moon’s umbra does not reach the earth. - -An eclipse can never be annular longer than twelve minutes twenty-four -seconds, nor total longer than seven minutes fifty-eight seconds; nor -can the entire duration of an eclipse of the sun ever exceed two hours. - -An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on -the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of -her disc and ends on the western. - -The average number of eclipses in a year is four, two of the sun and two -of the moon; and as the sun and moon are as long below the horizon of -any particular place as they are above it, the average number of visible -eclipses in a year is two, one of the sun and one of the moon. - - -What are Dreams? - -The dictionary tells us that a dream is a train of vagrant ideas which -present themselves to the mind while we are asleep. - -We know that the principal feature, when we are dreaming, is the absence -of our control over the current of thought, so that the principal of -suggestion has an unlimited sway. There is usually a complete want of -coherency in the images that appear in dreams, but when we are dreaming -this does not seem to cause any surprise. - -Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which -would be difficult to surpass when awake. - -It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams, -reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that -Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams -concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind. -Coleridge composed from two to three hundred lines during a dream; the -beautiful fragment of “Kubla Khan,” which was all he had committed to -paper when he awoke, remaining as a specimen of that dream poem. - -The best thought points to the fact that dreams depend on natural -causes. They generally take their rise and character from internal -bodily impressions or from something in the preceding state of body or -mind. They are, therefore, retrospective and resultant, instead of being -prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in -all ages and among all nations, and hence the common practice of -divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as -indications of coming events. - - -What Makes Our Teeth Chatter? - -When one is cold there is apt to be a spasm of shivering over which the -brain does not seem to have any control. The spasm causes the muscles of -the jaw to contract very quickly and as soon as they are contracted, -they let the jaw fall again of its own weight. This occurring many times -in rapid succession is what causes the teeth to chatter. - -There are two kinds of spasms, “clonic” and “tonic.” In the former, the -muscles contract and relax alternately in very quick succession, -producing an appearance of agitation. In the latter, the muscles -contract in a steady and uniform manner, and remain contracted for a -comparatively long time. - - - - -The Story in a Honey-Comb[12] - - -When one thinks of honey one instinctively closes the eyes and a mental -picture of fruit trees laden with snowy bloom, of beautiful clover -fields, of green forests in a setting quiet and peaceful, comes before -the mind so realistic that the delicate perfume of the fragrant blossoms -is almost perceptible and the memory of the musical hum of the little -honeybee as she industriously flits from blossom to blossom, or wings -her homeward way heavily laden with the delicious nectar, rests one’s -jaded nerves. Into this picture fits closely the old bee master among -his old-fashioned skeps, with the atmosphere of mystery that has so long -been associated with the master and his bees that one is almost -reluctant to think of the production of honey as a great commercial -industry, employing great factories in the manufacture of beehives and -other equipment necessary for the modern beekeeper that he may take full -advantage of the wonderful and almost inconceivable industry of the -honeybee in storing the golden nectar of the blossoms. - -The development of the industry has been very slow; only during the past -fifty years has real progress been made, although honey formed one of -the principal foods of the ancients, which was secured by robbing the -wild bees. During the early history of the United States, beekeeping was -engaged in only as a farmer’s side line, a few bees being kept in any -kind of a box sitting out in the backyard, boarding themselves and -working for nothing. Even under such conditions amazing results were -often obtained. Lovers of nature and the out-of-doors were attracted by -the study of bee life, and early beekeepers were invariably bee lovers. -The mysteries of the hive as revealed in the story of the family life of -the bee--typical in many ways of our modern city life--is as fascinating -as a fairy tale. - -[Illustration: FERTILIZING A PUMPKIN FLOWER] - -The average population of the modern beehive varies from forty to sixty -thousand, with a well organized system of government. Intense loyalty to -the queen mother is apparent in all their activities and arrangements. -The close observer will discover a well-defined division of labor, -different groups of bees performing certain operations. The housekeeping -operations seem to be delegated to the young bees under sixteen days -old, while the policemen are the older ones whose dispositions are not -so mild and who would be more likely to detect a stealthy robber. It was -this intensely interesting side of bee life that attracted the attention -of a clergyman in failing health, forced to seek out-of-door occupation, -in the early forties. He began to investigate bee life from a commercial -standpoint, and about 1852 devised the movable hanging frame, which -entirely revolutionized the bee business, making modern commercial -beekeeping possible. Up to this time the box hive and straw skep were -the only ones known, the combs being fastened to sticks, or the roof of -the box, making it impossible to have any control over the activities of -the hive. The new device or frame to which the bees fastened their combs -in which brood was reared could be removed, one or all, at any time -desired. This opened up undreamed-of possibilities in the bee business, -which up to this time could hardly be called an industry. - -[Illustration: AN ITALIAN ARMY OF BEES] - -[Illustration: ITALIAN DRONE] - -[Illustration: ITALIAN QUEEN] - -[Illustration: ITALIAN WORKER - -(All are enlarged to about three times their size.)] - -[Illustration: A STRANGE HOME--BUT THE BEES ARE MAKING HONEY] - -The man who has been most active in developing practical bee culture and -who has contributed more to the growth of the industry in the United -States than any other person, lives in Medina, Ohio. In 1865 this man -was a successful manufacturer of jewelry in the village of Medina. One -day his attention was attracted to a swarm of bees flying over. One of -his clerks noticing his interest asked what he would give for the bees. -He replied that he would give a dollar, not expecting that by any means -the bees could be brought down. Shortly after, he was much astonished to -have the workman bring the bees safely stored inside a box and demand -his dollar, which he promptly received, while his employer had the bees -and soon developed a lot of bee enthusiasm. The returns from that swarm -of bees convinced him that there were possibilities in the bee business, -and very soon he gave up the jewelry business to engage in the bee -business and manufacture of beehives. In this new move he encountered -the opposition of his family and friends, for the general impression was -that any man who would spend money or time on bees was either lazy or a -fool. Knowing that this particular man wasn’t lazy he was called a fool -to risk so much on an uncertain enterprise. In his defense he remarked -that he expected to live to see the time when honey would be sold in -every corner grocery; but we doubt if he expected to see his prophecy -fulfilled to the extent it has been, for not only is honey sold over -every grocer’s counter, his own private brand is sold in all the -principal markets of the United States. - -[Illustration: A HAPPY HOME OF THE HONEY BEES] - -[Illustration: “ALL HAIL, THE QUEEN”] - -Shortly after securing his first swarm of bees he commenced the -manufacture of beehives in the same room where he had his jewelry -business, using a large windmill for power. Soon the business outgrew -the small quarters and was moved to the present location of the plant. -Hardly a year has passed that additions or new buildings have not been -added, and the mammoth plant as it stands today covers sixteen acres of -floor space, giving steady employment to several hundred people, and for -many years modern agricultural appliances have gone from this factory to -all parts of the world. - -The old method of straining honey has long since been replaced by the -centrifugal honey extractor, which simply empties the cells of honey, -not injuring the combs. The combs are then replaced in the hive to be -refilled by the bees, thus saving them the labor of rebuilding the -costly structure, increasing the quantity of extracted honey which a -single colony can produce, while comb honey is produced so perfect in -appearance as to cause some to believe it to be manufactured by -machinery; but comb honey, nature’s most exquisite product, comes in its -dewy freshness untouched by the hand of man, from the beehive to the -table, a food prepared in nature’s laboratory fit for the Gods. - -As beekeeping developed as an industry, the close relationship to fruit -growing and horticulture became apparent, as bees were discovered to be -the greatest pollen carrying agents known. The government then began to -spend more money on the development of the various branches of -agriculture; a Department of Apiculture was established and through the -work of this department beekeeping is recognized as one of the most -profitable branches of agriculture. - -[Illustration: THE RESULT OF A BEE’S STING] - -The intense enthusiasm of this pioneer beekeeper was contagious and -resulted in many taking up beekeeping. As no attention had been given to -developing a market for honey and production increased, older beekeepers -became alarmed and raised the cry that he was making too many -beekeepers. Seeing the need for some means of increasing the demand for -honey, a small honey business was started to dispose of the product of -customers who had no market. Soon a definite educational campaign on the -value of honey as a food was started, enlisting the co-operation of -beekeepers wherever possible. Immediately the necessity for more care in -selecting and marketing honey was apparent. - -[Illustration: A LARGE SWARM OF ITALIANS ON A YOUNG LOCUST TREE] - -[Illustration: ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS IN COMB] - -[Illustration: HIGHLY MAGNIFIED EGG] - -[Illustration: AN OLD-STYLE HIVE--What is inside?] - -The introduction of Italian bees into the United States in the early -sixties marked an epoch in beekeeping, as they soon demonstrated their -superiority as honey gatherers, their gentleness and other traits -proving them more adaptable to domestication and to modern methods of -beekeeping. The marked superiority of some colonies over others -attracted the attention of beekeepers to the possibility of race -improvement by careful breeding, which gradually developed a new branch -of beekeeping aside from honey production--that of queen rearing--as it -was discovered that improvement of stock must come through the queen -mother. The average production of honey per colony has been materially -increased, due not alone to improved methods, but to improvement in -stock by careful breeders; and there are many beekeepers engaged -exclusively in this branch of the industry who enjoy international -reputation as breeders of superior strains of queens, and many thousands -are annually sent through the mails to all parts of the world. Live bees -are shipped by express as easily as poultry or other live stock. - -[Illustration: LOADING AN UP-TO-DATE CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTOR] - -[Illustration: IN ACTION--FOR A FEW MINUTES ONLY] - -[Illustration: A MAN-SIZE HIVE OF ITALIAN BEES] - -[Illustration: WE MUST BRUSH THE BEES OFF SO THAT WE CAN SEE THE COMB] - -[Illustration: AFTER CELL CAPPINGS ARE CUT OFF--READY TO EXTRACT] - -The honey industry is unique in this respect, that there is hardly a -part of the United States where one cannot engage in it with profit. -Locality has much to do with the flavor and quality of honey, owing to -the different sources from which it is produced. Honey is simply blossom -nectar gathered by the bees, distilled or evaporated in the beehive with -the same distinctive flavor as the perfume of the blossoms from which it -was gathered; consequently we have as many different flavors of honey as -plants that bloom in sufficient profusion to produce honey. For this -reason it is easy to recognize the distinct flavors of honey produced in -different localities. In California orange honey we get the delicate -aroma of the orange blossoms, and the water-white honey from the -mountain sage has its characteristic flavor. Throughout the states east -of the mountains and west of the Mississippi, are produced the -well-known varieties of honey--alfalfa, sweet clover and other honeys -from fall flowers. From the Middle West and Eastern states comes the -matchless white clover honey, basswood and the dark aromatic buckwheat. -The Southern states produce a multitude of different honeys, the sweet -clover, tupelo, and the palmetto being the most common. The total annual -production of honey in the United States as given by the best -authorities is approximately 55,000,000 pounds. This, compared with -other crop reports, may appear very small, but when considered from the -standpoint of the enormous amount of bee labor represented, it is -stupendous. Undoubtedly present reports will greatly exceed those given. - -[Illustration: “FRESH AIR BEES”--No hive needed.] - -[Illustration: QUEEN CELLS--Note size compared with worker cells.] - -[Illustration: MAGNIFIED VIEW OF SECTION OF HONEYCOMB] - -[Illustration: SOME OF THE BEST HONEY COMES FROM SUCH LOCALITIES] - -[Illustration: A NICE, EVEN FRAME OF BEES] - -[Illustration: A MODEL ARRANGEMENT FOR KEEPING BEES FOR PLEASURE] - -[Illustration: REMOVING BEES FROM COMB] - -[Illustration: SECTIONS OF HONEY AS TAKEN FROM THE SUPERS] - -[Illustration: STAGES OF WORK IN BUILDING A SECTION OF HONEY] - - * * * * * - - -Where do Figs Come From? - -[Illustration: URUK GIRLS SPREADING FIGS] - -[Illustration: TYPICAL SMYRNA FIG ORCHARD] - -The fig tree, which is of the mulberry family, belonged originally in -Asia Minor, but it has been naturalized in all the countries around the -Mediterranean. It grows from fifteen to twenty, or even thirty, feet -high. - -In good climates it bears two crops in a season; one in the early -summer, from the buds of the last year; the other, which is the chief -harvest, in the autumn, from those on the spring growth. - -Figs, particularly dried figs, form an important article of food in the -countries of the Levant, and are exported in large quantities to America -and Europe. The best come from Turkey. - - -What are “Fighting Fish”? - -Fighting fish are a small fish and belong to the climbing perch family. -They are natives of the southeast of Asia and are remarkable for their -pugnacious propensities. - -In Siam these fish are kept in glass globes, as we keep goldfish, for -the purpose of fighting, and an extravagant amount of gambling takes -place about the result of the fights. - -When the fish is quiet its colors are dull, but when it is irritated it -glows with metallic splendor. - - -How is the Exact Color of the Sky Determined? - -An instrument called a “cyanometer,” meaning “measurer of blue,” is used -for ascertaining the intensity of color in the sky. - -It consists of a circular piece of metal or pasteboard, with a band -divided by radii into fifty-one portions, each of which is painted with -a shade of blue, beginning with the deepest, not distinguishable from -black, and decreasing gradually to the lightest, not distinguishable -from white. The observer holds this up between himself and the sky, -turning it gradually round till he finds the tint of the instrument -exactly corresponding to the tint of the sky. - - -What is a “Divining Rod”? - -A divining rod is a wand or twig of hazel or willow used especially for -discovering metallic deposits or water beneath the earth’s surface. - -It is described in a book written in 1546 and it has also a modern -interest, which is set forth by Prof. W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief -modern investigator. The use of the divining rod at the present day is -almost wholly confined to water finding, and in the hands of certain -persons it undoubtedly has produced results along this line that are -remarkable, to say the least. The professional water-finder provides -himself with a forked twig, of hazel, for instance, which twig, held in -balanced equilibrium in his hands, moves with a sudden and often violent -motion, giving to the onlooker the impression of life within the twig -itself. This apparent vitality of the twig is the means whereby the -water-finder is led to the place where he claims underground water to -exist, though its presence at that particular spot was hitherto wholly -unsuspected. While failure is sometimes the outcome of the -water-finder’s attempts, success as often and, indeed, according to the -testimony of Professor Barrett, more often crowns his efforts. Various -explanations, scientific and other, of the phenomenon have been -advanced. Professor Barrett ascribes it to “motor-automatism” on the -part of the manipulator of the divining rod, that is, a reflex action -excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may be either a -sub-conscious suggestion or an actual impression. He asserts that the -function of the forked twig in the hands of the water-finder may be to -act as an indicator of some material or other mental disturbance within -him. While a hazel or willow twig seems to be preferred by the -professional water-finders, twigs from the beech, holly or any other -tree are employed; sometimes even a piece of wire or watch spring is -used, with apparently as good results. - - - - -The Story of Electricity in the Home[13] - - -How wonderful to youth always has been the magical story of Aladdin and -the wonderful lamp which, through its supernatural powers, he could -gently stroke and thereby make genii of the unknown world his slaves. - -In the rush of modern affairs there is that which is even more -fascinating, even more wonderful, than the story of Aladdin and the -magical power exerted through his lamp, but which is given but a passing -thought because of the rapid changes through which we are passing. - -Mythical as it may sound, yet nevertheless it is true, that man has -harnessed for his use every snowflake that falls in the mountain tops -and settles itself in the banks of perpetual ice and snow. How man has -tapped the mountain fastnesses and converted the melting snows into a -servant more powerful, more magical, more easily controlled, than -Aladdin’s genii, should be known to everyone. This servant is -electricity. - -This silent, invisible servant is ever present, always ready at the -touch of a button or the snap of a switch, without hesitation, without -grumbling, to do silently, swiftly, without dirt, without discomfort, -without asking for a day off or for higher wages, the work which is laid -out for it. - -The use of electricity is so common today that the average person does -not stop to think of it as a magical power wielding a tremendous -influence for betterment in every-day affairs. - -Electricity has rapidly found its way into the home for domestic -purposes, eliminating at its entrance a host of cares of the household. - -So recently, as to seem almost yesterday, the genius of man’s brain -coupled electricity with mechanical devices for the comfort and -efficiency of the home. - -Although a number of attempts have been made to build appliances for use -in the home that would utilize electricity, the real beginning of the -present almost universal use of electrical appliances seems to have been -in the manufacture of the electric iron. One instance, at least, coupled -with the manufacture of this household necessity, offers something of -romanticism. - -To a certain western state, a young electrical engineer betook himself, -obtaining a position as superintendent of an electric power company and -establishing his abode in a tent far up a canyon, more for the benefit -of his wife’s health than for the thought of being near the power plant -and his work. The melting snow which gathered in little rivulets made a -roaring mountain stream which generated such an excess of power for the -company, that the young electrical engineer began looking about for -other means of utilizing it than for lighting the homes of the villages -below the mouth of the canyon. He designed a crude electric iron, placed -a number of them in use, and found they gave fairly good service and at -the same time enabled the power company to sell additional current. -Development of the device was rapid, so rapid, in fact, that the young -engineer’s time was soon taken up with it and he resigned from his -position with the power company to organize a small concern for the -purpose of manufacturing electric irons which at first were sold to the -consumers of the power company and later to a large nearby city. - -These irons met with such a ready reception and were so popular with -housewives because of the time saving and the convenience, that -attention was next turned to other appliances which could be used in the -home and which would assist the power company in the sale of current. -About one hundred electric cooking sets were manufactured, consisting of -ovens and crude round stoves. These were distributed among the customers -of the power company and thenceforth their operation was carefully -watched and improvements made from time to time, using always the -suggestions offered by the housewives to make an appliance that would -meet the needs of the home. - -This particular company, which was started but little more than ten -years ago in a small room of a store building in a small town of -Southern California, has grown rapidly from that time when its complete -office and factory force consisted of a man and two boys. It now places -in homes well toward a million appliances each year. - -Since the home can now be operated almost exclusively with electrical -appliances, including everything from the electric iron to the modern -labor-saving electric range, it is well to note briefly some of the many -reasons for the success of electrically-heated appliances. - -Perhaps most noticeable is cleanliness and the absolute absence of dirt -and grime in using pure electric heat. There is no soot, no smoke nor -discoloration. There are none of the bad effects so often caused by the -air becoming vitiated, due to the burning up of oxygen in the air by gas -and other fuels. There is no corrosion, oxidization or other form of -deterioration. - -Perfect and absolute control of heat seems to be secured. The easy snap -of the controlling switch on the electric burner gives a certain -intensity of heat which remains at that temperature so long as the -switch remains in that position. Thus, with modern appliances, the -housewife operates them at high, medium or low to suit her desires. - -[Illustration: ORIGINAL ELECTRIC IRON] - -Fire risk is reduced to a minimum, because there are no matches, no -kindlings, no kerosene cans, no oil barrels and nothing of the sort to -endanger life and property. - -The efficiency obtained through the operation of electrical appliances -soon becomes evident to the user. The heat generated for ironing, for -instance, is all utilized. This is true as well with heating or cooking -appliances, and this utilization of practically all of the heat units -naturally results in economy in operation in communities where the -lighting or power company has made a favorable rate. - -Because the electric iron seems to have been the forerunner of -electrical appliances for the home, it is well first to describe briefly -the processes of manufacture necessary before the iron can be placed in -the home and take its position as one of the modern labor-saving -devices. - -One of the first irons to be manufactured, an illustration of which is -shown herewith, did not offer the pleasing appearance nor give the -service of its youngest sister, the illustration of which is also shown. -One of the first problems was to control the heat at the iron, and to do -this a separable switch plug was developed, enabling the operator to -connect or disconnect the current supply at the iron. - -The real problem, the one of most vital importance from the point of -efficiency, was that of the heating element that would do more than heat -the center of the sole plate. One of the pioneer manufacturers, after -numerous experiments, concluded that, since the point or nose of an iron -comes first in contact with the damp goods, naturally it should have -first and most heat applied to it. The result was a double heating -element in the form of a V, the resistance wire used being symmetrically -wound on a flat, thin mica core. This V-shaped element, the point of the -V coming up into the nose of the iron, insured a hot point, as well as -hot sides, center, back and heel, where the terminals were connected -with the switch plug receptacle. Another development which followed was -that of an attached stand, eliminating the necessity of lifting the iron -on and off a stand many times during the ironing. At first the iron was -heavy and clumsy, being built of cast iron, but modern manufacture has -made it possible to build the sole plate of cast iron and the top of -pressed steel. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC IRONS, 1916] - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--POURING MOLTEN METAL INTO MOLDS FOR CASTING IRON -SOLE PLATES] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--WORKMAN POLISHING SOLE PLATES] - -The illustrations show some of the steps necessary before the iron -reaches the shipping room. Fig. 1 shows the workman pouring an earthen -ladle of molten metal into the molds in which the sole plates are cast. -Fig. 2 shows the sole plate in the hands of the workman, held against a -rapidly revolving polishing wheel, after it has been run through a -milling machine and ground to a perfect size. Fig. 3 shows a huge punch -press which cuts the blank of steel that is afterwards drawn to the -shape of the iron top. The workman is seen holding in his hand the blank -cut from a sheet of steel (Fig. 4). The blanks of flat steel of such -irregular shape are next passed to a mammoth draw press which draws -blanks into the perfect shape to be fitted over the top of the pressure -plate which holds the heating element firmly against the sole plate. At -the operator’s left hand is a stack of blanks and in his left hand he -holds one ready to be placed in the draw press. In his right hand is a -top just pulled from the press, and at the extreme right a large truck -full of finished tops ready for the polishing wheels. - -Mica, which so many people know as isinglass, is one of the most -important materials in the manufacture of the standard electric iron. -The highest grade mica comes from India and the open box in the picture -shows thin, transparent pieces just tumbled out (Fig. 5). At the edge of -the table is a stack of mica strips known as cores. Hanging over the top -of the board are several cores on which the resistance wire has been -wound, showing the V-shaped heating element. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BLANKING THE STEEL TOPS] - -One of the most important and yet seemingly simple parts of an electric -iron is the switch plug which connects the electric light socket with -the iron. The operator in Fig. 6 is shown assembling switch plugs and is -in the act of driving home a screw which holds in place the fiber bar -over which the cord bends. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DRAWING THE BLANKS INTO THE PERFECTLY SHAPED -TOPS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SHOWING A BOX OF IMPORTED MICA - -Above on the table, a stack of “cores” and several elements ready for -insertion in the iron. Notice the V shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--OPERATOR ASSEMBLING SWITCH PLUGS] - -[Illustration: OPERATOR HOLDING ELEMENT BEFORE STRONG LIGHT TO DETECT -DEFECTS IN THE MICA] - -[Illustration: INSPECTOR WITH CAREFULLY TRAINED, SENSITIVE FINGERS -INSPECTING FINISHED IRONS BEFORE THEY ARE ENCASED IN THE CARTON] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--ELECTRIC BOUDOIR SET THREE-POUND IRON - -Stand for converting the iron into small stove, curling tongs heater, -felt bag.] - -A standard six-pound iron consists of seventy-nine parts and represents -two hundred and ten distinct factory operations. Every part is carefully -inspected before being routed to the assembling department, and after -being fully assembled the irons are placed on a traveling table where -each is examined in its turn by an inspector with carefully trained -fingers, sensitive as those of a miller who tells the quality of flour -by pinching it between his thumb and forefinger. This inspector can -quickly detect in the handsome finish a defect that is unnoticeable to -the average person. - - -The Traveler’s Iron. - -Electric current is so nearly universally obtainable that milady who -travels much has come to carry in her grip or suitcase a light-weight -iron, usually of about three pounds, and to aid to further convenience, -the manufacturer has supplied with this iron, curling tongs, curling -tongs heater and an attached stand so that the iron can be inverted and -its sole plate used as a small disc stove. The entire outfit is placed -in a neat felt bag as shown by Fig. 7. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC TOASTER STOVE] - - -Electric Cooking Appliances. - -It is stated that not until the reign of Queen Elizabeth did women begin -to take over generally the handling of the kitchen work. Their absence -from this important part of the household is not so much to be wondered -at when we consider the size of the joints served prior to the time of -that well-known queen and the crude methods of preparing the meal. On -the other hand, it may have been due to the fact that the Armada called -for men, and the women had to go into the kitchen irrespective of -conditions. Be that as it may, we naturally conclude that the evolution -of the kitchen and kitchen work began at about that time, for very -shortly after the open fire gave way to some of the more crude methods -of contained fire pots. - -It was many years after Good Queen Bess’ reign that electricity was -introduced in England for cooking purposes; in fact, not until as late -as 1891, when H. J. Dowsing, one of the pioneers of electric cooking, -exhibited electric cookers and heaters at the Crystal Palace Electrical -Exposition in London, was much interest manifested. - - -Divided into Three Classes. - -Electric cooking appliances can very conveniently be divided into three -classes: table appliances, and the light and heavy duty kitchen -appliances; the latter being those requiring special wiring. Among table -appliances are toasters, coffee percolators, electric teapots, chafing -dishes and numerous other articles that add to the convenience of -preparing food. These are termed light-duty appliances, as they operate -from the light socket. - -It might be well to explain that the lamp-socket appliances are those -operating from the light socket and are built to carry not over 660 -watts of current. Should you attach an appliance of heavier wattage to a -light socket you will doubtless “blow” a fuse. - - -Electric Toaster. - -In the rush and hurry of modern life, we are inclined to go back to the -days of barbarism, when real home life was unknown. Instead of all -members of the family gathering about the breakfast table when the meal -is ready, they come straggling in one by one. This made it very -difficult for the housewife to serve the breakfast hot, and particularly -the toast, which is a favorite dish of our breakfast table. The -necessary steps back and forth from the breakfast room to the kitchen to -prepare hot, crunchy toast made this portion of breakfast-getting a not -agreeable feature. The thought, taken up by electrical engineers, -brought out an electric toaster, rectangular in shape, with handsome -frame, nickel supports and wire heating element. This was indeed very -efficient and could be used also as a small stove. This type of toaster -was followed a little later by an upright toaster (Fig. 8). The heating -element is of the radiant type, made of flat resistance wire wound on -mica and placed in a vertical position between the two bread racks. When -the current is switched on, the heating element becomes red and the -bread is inserted under the gravity-operated bread clamps on each side. -The bread clamp is simply raised at the edge of the slice of bread, and -holds the bread firmly in place. This appliance toasts bread evenly, -rapidly, and costs very little to operate. The flat top can be used for -keeping a plate warm for the toast. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--ELECTRIC UPRIGHT TOASTER] - - -Electric Coffee Percolator. - -Lovers of good coffee want it served hot, but boiling spoils coffee. The -modern electric percolator, which can be operated on the dining table, -has solved coffee-making problems. The particular style of percolator -shown in Fig. 9 has no valves or floats or traps that continually get -out of order and that make the cleaning of a percolator so disagreeable. -This valveless percolator is very easily cleaned and requires no brush. -The heating element of this type percolator is in the bottom of the pot -in the center of the water space, and is of the immersion type, -protruding up from the center of the bottom of the pot. The heating -element is made of flat ribbon resistance wire wound on mica, then bent -into the form of a cylinder to fit into the German silver shell. A -screw-operated spreader in the center presses the heating element -tightly against the entire surface of the shell and insures rapid -conduction of the heat from the element to the water. A study of the -illustration showing the inside of the percolator (Fig. 10) will make -clear to you the method of operation. With this style of electric -percolator, percolation begins within thirty seconds after the water has -been placed in the pot and the current turned on, and delicious coffee, -clear as amber, is ready to pour in ten minutes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--ELECTRIC NICKEL VALVELESS PERCOLATOR] - -Percolators of this type are made by the manufacturer from sheet copper -spun in perfect shape, and also aluminum spun. The latter makes an -especially desirable percolator. - -[Illustration: FIG 10.--X-RAY SHOWING THE VALVELESS MECHANISM, ELECTRIC -PERCOLATOR - -The above gives a comprehensive insight into the general -construction, equipment and operation of valveless Percolators. -1--Glass globe. 2--Aluminum coffee basket. 3--Element, with -German-silvershell--completely surrounded by water. (Highly efficient.) -4--Interchangeable switch-plug. 5--Ebonized wood--always-cool handle. -6--Copper body--nickeled and highly polished. 7--White metal spout. -8--Lid--securely fastened hinge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--ELECTRIC MACHINE TYPE VALVELESS PERCOLATOR] - - -Machine Type Percolator. - -Because some prefer to draw coffee from a faucet rather than pour it -from a spout, manufacturers have made a percolator of this type called -the machine style. These are sold in various patterns from the Colonial -design, like the illustration shown (Fig. 11), to those patterned after -the Grecian urn. - -We have already mentioned how an electrical engineer, shortly after -placing irons in the homes of his customers, followed them with a number -of small stoves and ovens. These required special wiring, as the wattage -was too heavy to allow of their operation from the light socket. -Principally, they were used in the kitchen on one end of the table or on -a small shelf. This method necessitated carrying considerable food to -the dining room after it was cooked, and brought out the thought of a -means of preparing breakfast or a luncheon at the dining table. For this -purpose a small stove seemed desirable, and the result was a small disc -stove made of cast iron, highly nickel plated and polished. - -On this little stove, herewith illustrated (Fig. 12), minor cooking -operations can be performed, such as frying, boiling, etc., and it is -used by many for toasting bread by placing a piece of metal screen on -top. It is also very serviceable for frying hot cakes. The heating -element is of the same construction as that in the iron; the mica is -clapped tightly against the metal top and below this is a plate of -asbestos which prevents the downward radiation of the heat. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12--ELECTRIC DISC STOVE] - -This disc stove was first made in single heat, but the later improved -stoves of this same type are made in three-heat style. - -Many improvements have been made on the disc stoves and they are sold -not only as single, but as double or twin, and triple discs. - -One often finds it inconvenient, when traveling, to obtain hot water -whenever needed. The light four-inch disc stove has proved to be a very -desirable possession in cases of this kind. Its size makes it very -convenient to pack in trunk or grip, and since it operates from any -light socket, it is very handy, not only for the traveler and in the -kitchen, but is a boon to many a bachelor man or maid. - -Perhaps, before going further, it is well to explain the meaning of -single and three-heat. Let us suppose that you are operating one of the -small disc stoves and that the stove will carry 600 watts of current. If -that stove is equipped with a single heat, you will be using the full -600 watts whenever the switch is on. If it is equipped with a three-heat -switch, it can be adjusted to 600 watts at full, 300 at medium and 150 -at low, which means a great saving in current for most small cooking -operations. - - -Two Distinct Types of Heating Elements. - -There are two very distinct types of electric heating elements or -burners, the disc or closed type, and the open-coil type. These two -types operate on entirely different principles. The disc stove conveys -the heat to the food by the principle of conduction, _i. e._, the heated -metal top of the stove in turn conducts the heat to the metal of the -dish and thereby heats the food within the dish. - -The open-coil type of element operates on the principle of radiant heat. -The heat rays from the element are focused on the dish in which the food -is being prepared. In the former style burner, sufficient time is -required to heat the metal top of the stove before the heat can be -utilized, while in the latter, the heat is almost instantaneously -effective. Below the coils of the radiant type of grills and heaters -shown in this section is placed a highly polished, nickeled disc which -serves to reflect all the heat units that are directed downward, back to -the dish in which the food is being prepared, thereby utilizing a -maximum of the heat units produced. - -One very distinct advantage in the open-coil over the disc type is that -in the former practically all the utensils found in the average home can -be satisfactorily used, granite and enamel-ware being especially -desirable, while in the disc-type stoves, it is necessary to have dishes -with smooth, clean bottoms and that they fit very closely in order to -make metallic contact over the entire surface. - -The lightness, convenience, and general utility of the small open-coil -stove has been responsible for a number of designs being manufactured -and sold in enormous quantities, these being made up not only as -stoves, but as grills. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 13) is of a -rectangular grill, made of pressed steel and highly polished, designed -to operate from any electric light socket. The heating element is of the -open-coil reflector type and is so placed in the frame that cooking can -be done both above and below the glowing coils at the same time. This is -a convenience and economy, as one is able to cook two dishes of food at -the cost of one. This particular grill is furnished with three dishes, -any one of which can be used either above or below the coils. When -cooking above the coils only is desired, the small flat pan is placed in -a groove below the coils to reflect to the cooking operation any heat -that would be thrown downward from the heating element. The shallow pan -also serves as a cover for either of the deeper dishes or for a hot-cake -griddle. - -This radiant grill is light in weight, occupies a small space and is a -most desirable appliance in the home, to be used in either the living -room or dining room for the preparation of a light luncheon or afternoon -tea service. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ELECTRIC RECTANGULAR GRILL] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--ELECTRIC THREE-HEAT GRILL] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--ELECTRIC RADIANT STOVE] - -Of the same manufacture is the radiant grill shown in Fig. 14. This -grill, you will note, is round, which particularly adapts it to the use -of utensils ordinarily found in the kitchen of the average home. You -will note that there are two dishes to this grill, a top dish with a -broiling grid, to be used underneath the coils for broiling chops, and a -shallower dish to be used above the coils for frying operations. There -is furnished also a reflector which is so designed that it serves -equally well as a cover for either dish and makes a very choice griddle -for baking hot cakes. - -While this particular grill is furnished with a wattage providing for -operation from a lamp-socket, it is of the three-heat style already -spoken of as so desirable in appliances of this character. A companion -grill to this is of the same design, excepting that it is furnished in -single heat only and lists at a somewhat lower price. - -You will remember that in explaining the many advantages of the -open-coil type of burner, it was stated as one of these that the -housewife could use cooking utensils ordinarily found in the home, and -because of this peculiar adaptability the round grills here spoken of -and illustrated are having an exceedingly large sale. These open-coil -grills are also very efficient as toasters, the bread being placed on -top of the grating, which protects the coils from injury. Where only -chops, toast, and coffee are to be had for breakfast, chops can be -prepared below the coils, the toast above, while the coffee -gurgle-gurgles in the percolator. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--ELECTRIC CHAFING DISHES] - -Some people who have not felt any need of a grill have desired an -open-coil stove, and of this same general type of manufacture there is -the open-coil radiant stove herewith illustrated (Fig. 15). It is -equipped with the same kind of a burner or element with a reflector -underneath, and can be used very efficiently with ordinary cooking -utensils and is also very serviceable as a toaster. Using this stove in -combination with the ovenette, which will be illustrated further on, the -owner is provided with a table range which meets most of the -requirements in a small family. - -A line of cooking utensils would not be complete without suitable -designs of chafing dishes, and these are made in several styles, both -with and without heating elements, the latter being used on the disc and -open-coil stoves already illustrated, while the former contains a -heating element very much along the lines of the percolator. These are -furnished, as you will note from the illustration (Fig. 16), with -suitable cooking pans for the preparation of chafing-dish dainties. - - -Baking and Roasting. - -It is only natural to suppose that manufacturers of electric stoves of -both light and heavy duty should next turn their attention to ovens, -since oven cooking is even primary to cooking that is done on open -burners and is now coming to be even of more importance. The first oven -herewith shown (Fig. 17) is of the lamp-socket type, equipped with three -heats, providing a very efficient oven for small operations. The second -one illustrated (Fig. 18) is of standard size and accommodates a -quantity of food equal to that of any large range oven. It is provided -with a heavy wattage and therefore requires special wiring. - -To meet the requirements of the many families in which such a small -amount of baking is done, and to cater particularly to apartment-house -dwellers, the manufacturers of the line of radiant stoves described and -illustrated have brought forth a small cylindrical oven called the -ovenette. This little oven fits either the radiant stove or the round -radiant grill. It is made of pressed steel and finished in highly -polished nickel. This ovenette, in combination with either the radiant -stove or the round radiant grill, provides complete cooking equipment -upon which an entire meal can be prepared, whether it be heating rolls -and preparing crisp bacon or chops for breakfast, or baking a roast, a -loaf cake or even bread for the dinner. It will bake pies, cake, -biscuit, potatoes, roast meats, etc., up to its capacity, at a less -current cost than is possible with the larger oven and in less time. -This ovenette has what is called a middle ring, which makes it -adjustable to two sizes when large or small quantities of food are to be -prepared. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--ELECTRIC LAMP-SOCKET OVEN] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ELECTRIC STANDARD OVEN] - -So you see, the woman of today who utilizes current furnished through -the light socket, can bring to her command genii as wonderful as those -at the command of Aladdin when he stroked the wonderful lamp. Her -household duties are made easier. There is far less preparatory work and -she is able to place her home on a much more efficient basis than with -ordinary methods. - -The home electrical is not complete without containing at least some of -the electrical appliances which have been designed for the purpose of -alleviating pain. One of these is an electric heating pad made of steel -units, so hinged as to make the appliance sufficiently flexible to be -wrapped around an arm or limb and to conform to the curves of the body. -The other is a pad made of aluminum which is concave on one side and -convex on the other and may be used in a wet pack. Each of these heating -pads is covered with a high-grade cover of eiderdown which provides a -soft contact for the skin. - -Perhaps next in importance along this line of electrical appliances is -the small immersion heater shown in Fig. 19, and which requires so -little space that it can be easily carried even in a woman’s handbag. -This style of heater will quickly heat a glass of water by simply -immersing the heater in the water. This device is very extensively used -by mothers in heating milk for the baby, by men in heating water for -shaving, and by doctors and dentists who require small quantities of hot -water for sterilizing and other uses. - -One thing most desirable in connection with practically all of the -lamp-socket appliances described and illustrated in this section is the -very small cost of operation. Lighting companies have so reduced the -cost of current within the last two or three years that a breakfast may -now be prepared electrically for not more than a couple of cents, while -one of the pads may be used an entire night at a cost of less than one -cent in soothing rheumatic pains or in driving away the chill for -outdoor sleepers. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC ALUMINUM COMFO] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--ELECTRIC IMMERSION HEATER] - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC FLEXIBLE COMFO (Metal)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--ELECTRIC VACUUM CLEANER] - -But one of the hardest domestic tasks is that of keeping the house -clean. To obviate the difficulties encountered in this connection and to -make the home sanitary, electric vacuum cleaners are provided by several -manufacturers, a very recent acceptable type being illustrated in Fig. -20. This type of vacuum cleaner, which is reasonable in price, is made -of steel and finished in very highly polished nickel. It operates from -any light socket and consumes but a very small amount of current, much -less than is consumed by a toaster. It can also be purchased with -different attachments with which curtains, radiators, clothes and walls -may be cleaned. The possession in the home of one of these vacuum -cleaners makes it unnecessary to take up rugs, carpets, tear down -curtains and go through the semi-annual worry, wear and tear of house -cleaning. The vacuum cleaner will do it better and many times quicker -without removing a single article of furniture or disturbing a rug or -curtain; and instead of scattering the dust-laden germs in the air, to -be drawn into the nostrils and lungs of the family, the cleaner sucks -them up into a dust-tight bag from which they can be deposited on a -paper and burned. - -The evolution in cooking and heating appliances for the home in the last -ten years has indeed been rapid, but it is very recently indeed that the -housewife has been able to satisfy the longing and the desire that has -kept getting stronger from day to day, since first she began to use -electric cooking appliances. She has been dreaming of that which would -make her kitchen a domestic-science laboratory, and her dream can come -true because now she can purchase an electric range patterned in general -style after the more acceptable gas or other fuel ranges, but infinitely -more efficient. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ELECTRIC RANGE] - -The particular type of range herewith illustrated (Fig. 21) uses a -burner of the open-coil type, both for the surface burners and for the -oven. The ovens are highly insulated with a thick packing of best grade -mineral wool, which reduces air leakage to a minimum and retains the -heat generated for a long period. Many cooking operations which are -performed in ordinary ovens with the burners on, can be prepared in this -particular style of oven by using stored heat for the last half of the -operation. The range is simplicity itself in operation. Each burner is -operated by an indicating snap switch which has three separate heats, -full, medium and low; medium being one-half of full and low one-half of -medium. There are no matches; there is no danger from fire. There is no -vitiated, foul air because of noxious gases from ordinary cooking -stoves. There is no soot or grime, no ashes, no wood or coal to carry; -there are fewer steps; there is less watching of the range; practically -none at all, because when a burner is turned to medium, for instance, -you know that you have a certain degree of heat for just as long as the -switch is in that position. Results are eminently satisfactory and there -is a sufficient saving in the weights and the nutritive value of foods -cooked, especially in the oven, to make the electric range indeed a most -desirable and economical addition to any home. - -Today, the housewife, whether the provider of the home be a laborer or a -merchant prince, can, with a simple touch of the button or a snap of the -switch, bring to her immediate command, and subservient to her wishes, -that subtle something which came in the snowflake, and which, while -invisible, yet provides the greatest boon to mankind--electricity. - - * * * * * - - -Why is there Always a Soft Spot in a Cocoanut Shell? - -A cocoanut shell always has a soft spot at one end because this is the -provision nature has made to allow the embryo of the future tree to push -its way out of the hard shell. - -Cocoanuts, as most of us know, have a thick, hard shell, with three -black scars at one end. The soft scar may easily be pierced with a pin; -the others are as hard as the rest of the shell. Outside of this hard -shell we are accustomed to seeing another covering of considerable -thickness, of an extremely fibrous substance. When cocoanuts are picked, -however, they have still another covering-an outer rind which has a -smooth surface. - -The tree which produces the cocoanut is a palm, from sixty to a hundred -feet high. The trunk is straight and naked, and surmounted by a crown of -feather-like leaves. The nuts hang from the summit of the tree in -clusters of a dozen or more together. - -Food, clothing and the means of shelter and protection are all afforded -by the cocoanut tree. The kernels are used as food in a number of -different forms, and when pressed, they yield an oil which is largely -used in candle making and in the manufacture of soaps. When they are -dried before the oil is pressed out they are known as “copra.” - -We have given the name “milk” to the sweet and watery liquid, of a -whitish color, which is inclosed in considerable quantity in the kernel. - -By boring the tree itself, a white, sweetish liquid called “toddy” -exudes from the wound. This yields one of the varieties of the spirit -called “arack” when distilled. A kind of a sugar called “jaggery” is -also obtained from the cocoanut juice. - -The fibrous coat of the nut is made into a preparation called -“cellulose,” which is described in another story in this book, and also -into the well-known cocoanut matting. The coarse yarn obtained from it -is called “coir,” and it is also used for cordage. The hard shell of the -nut is polished and made into cups and other domestic utensils. The -fronds are wrought into baskets, brooms, mats, sacks and many other -useful articles; and the trunks are made into boats, and furnish timber -for the construction of houses. Altogether the cocoanut palm will be -seen to be a very useful member of the plant kingdom. - - -How does a Gasoline Motor Run an Electric Street Car? - -A gasoline-electric railroad train was introduced in Germany in 1913. It -comprises a power car and ten other cars, each of a five-ton capacity, -which trail along behind. The power car carries two gasoline engines of -a hundred and twenty-five horse-power each which drive a dynamo -installed in the center. The current is transmitted to the electric -motors, actuating each of the wheels of the power car and the trailers. -The General Electric Company has perfected a similar car for use on the -suburban branches of street railroads in this country. Most of them are -equipped with a two hundred horse-power gasoline engine directly -connected to a dynamo from which power is generated and transmitted to -the motors, which are located on the car axles. Cars of this type can be -made of a larger seating capacity than is customary and can easily -attain a speed of a mile a minute. - -Gasoline engines offer great advantages over steam because of the -absence of boilers, coal and ashes, and a much higher efficiency is -obtainable, a consumption of one pint of gasoline per horse-power hour -being good practice for well-designed motor engines and a total -efficiency of from ten to thirty-five per cent of the energy in the fuel -being available, as against one to twenty per cent for steam averages. -The utilization of the gasoline engine to generate electric power for -surface cars, in instances where it is not practical to transmit energy -from power stations, presents wonderful possibilities. - -[Illustration: A SUBURBAN RAILWAY CAR OF THE GASOLINE-ELECTRIC TYPE] - - -How do “Carrier Pigeons” Carry Messages? - -The real carrier pigeon is a large bird with long wings, a large -tuberculated mass of naked skin at the base of the beak, and a circle of -naked skin round the eyes, but the variety generally employed to carry -messages more resembles an ordinary pigeon. - -The practice of sending letters by pigeons belongs originally to Eastern -countries, though in other countries it has often been adopted, more -especially before the invention of the electric telegraph. An actual -post-system in which pigeons were the messengers was established at -Bagdad by the Sultan Nureddin Mahmud, who died in 1174, and lasted till -1258, when Bagdad fell into the hands of the Mongols and was destroyed -by them. - -These birds can be utilized in this way only in virtue of what is called -their “homing” faculty or instinct, which enables them to find their way -back home from surprising distances. But if they are taken to the place -from which the message is to be sent and kept there too long, say over a -fortnight, they will forget their home and not return to it. They are -tried first with short distances, which are then gradually increased. -The missive may be fastened to the wing or the tail, and must be quite -small and attached so as not to interfere with the bird’s flight. - -By the use of microphotography a long message may be conveyed in this -way, and such were received by the besieged residents in Paris during -the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 the birds being conveyed out of the -city in balloons. - -Seventy-two miles in two and one-half hours, a hundred and eighty in -four and one-half, have been accomplished by carrier pigeons. Large -numbers of these birds are now kept in England, Belgium, France, etc., -there being numerous pigeon clubs which hold pigeon races to test the -speed of the birds. These pigeons are also kept in several European -countries for military purposes. - - -What Family has Over 9,000,000 Members? - -Each female cod has more than 9,000,000 eggs, but the numbers are kept -down by a host of enemies. - -The most interesting species is the “Common” or “Bank Cod.” Though they -are found plentifully on the coasts of other northern regions, such as -Britain, Scandinavia and Iceland, a stretch of sea near the coast of -Newfoundland is the favorite annual resort of countless multitudes of -cod, which visit the “Grand Banks” to feed upon the molluscous animals -abundant there, and thus attract fleets of fishermen. - -The spawning season on the banks of Newfoundland begins about the month -of March and terminates in June; but the regular period of fishing does -not commence before April, on account of the storms, ice and fogs. The -season lasts till the end of June, when the cod commence their -migrations. - -The average length of the common cod is about two and one-half or three -feet, and the weight between thirty and fifty pounds, though sometimes -cod are caught weighing three times as much. The color is a yellowish -gray on the back, spotted with yellow and brown; the belly white or red, -with golden spots in young specimens. - -Few members of the animal creation are more universally serviceable to -man than the codfish. Both in its fresh state and when salted and dried, -it is a substantial and wholesome article of food. The tongue is -considered a delicacy. The swimming-bladders or “sounds,” besides being -highly nutritious, supply, if rightly prepared, isinglass equal to the -best of that which is brought from Russia. The oil, which is extracted -from the liver, is of great medicinal value, and contributes -considerably to the high economic value of the cod. - -The finest and palest oil is made from fresh and carefully cleaned -liver, the oil being extracted either in the cold or by a gentle heat. -Only the pale oils are used in medicine; the dark oils are too rank and -acrid, and they are only used in dressing leather. - - - - -The Story in the Telephone[14] - - -On March 10, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell, standing in a little attic at -No. 5 Exeter Place, Boston, sent through his crude telephone the first -spoken words ever carried over a wire, and the words were heard and -understood by his associate, Thomas A. Watson, who was at the receiver -in an adjacent room. On that day the telephone was born, and the first -message went over the only telephone line in the world--a line less than -a hundred feet long. On January 25, 1915, less than forty years later, -this same Alexander Graham Bell, in New York, talked to this same Thomas -A. Watson, in San Francisco, over a wire stretching 3,400 miles across -the continent. - -[Illustration: DR. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AT THE OPENING OF THE -TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE - -In front of Dr. Bell is the replica of his original telephone, and to -his left is the glass case containing a piece of the wire over which Dr. -Bell and Mr. Watson carried on the first telephone conversation in the -world.] - -In that memorable year of 1876, Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, while -visiting the Philadelphia Centennial, was attracted to Bell’s modest -telephone exhibit, picked up the receiver, listened as Professor Bell -talked at the other end of the room, and, amazed at the wonder of the -thing, cried out, “My God--it speaks!” From that time, the first -telephone exhibit became the center of attraction at the exposition. Had -Dom Pedro lived to see the Panama-Pacific Exposition he might have -listened to Professor Bell talking not merely from the other end of a -room, but from the other side of a continent. - -Some idea of the rapid growth of the telephone business in the United -States may be gathered from the statistician’s figures, which show that -in 1880 there were less than 100,000 telephones in use in this country, -and in 1915 there were more than 9,000,000 telephones in the Bell System -alone. Of the 14,000,000 telephones in the world, 10,000,000 are in this -country. Sixty-five per cent of all the telephones in the world are in -this country, although it has only five and five-tenths per cent of the -world’s population. The Bell System alone reaches 70,000 places, 5,000 -more than the number of post-offices and 10,000 more than the number of -railroad stations. - -[Illustration: CENTRAL TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, NEW YORK CITY, 1880] - -The telephone wire mileage in the United States is over 22,000,000 -miles. In the Bell System there are over 18,000,000 miles of wire which -carry over 26,000,000 telephone talks daily--or nearly 9,000,000,000 per -year. - - -Essential Factor in American Life. - -Such broad use is made of the telephone service of America that the -progress in telephony is an essential factor in all American progress. - -A visiting Englishman envying the light, airy accommodations in the tall -office buildings in American cities, has sagely said that the skyscraper -would be impossible without the adequate telephone service which is here -provided. - -In the housing of the people the telephone is a pioneering agent for -better conditions. In the cities telephone service is indispensable in -apartment houses and hotels which raise people above the noise and dust -of the street. In the suburbs the telephone and the trolley make the -waste places desirable homes, and although a man may walk some distance -to reach some transportation line, the telephone must enter his own -dwelling place before he is content to live there. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL OPERATING ROOM IN AN AMERICAN CITY, WITH THE -MOST MODERN BELL SWITCHBOARD] - -This desirable decentralization of the population in which the telephone -has been so important a factor extends beyond the suburbs to the rural -districts, and the American farmer with his wife and family is blessed -by facilities for communication unknown in any other part of the world. -The fact that the farms and ranches in this country, and especially in -the west, have been of comparatively large area, has had a tendency to -make American farm life particularly lonely. It is safe to say that -nothing has done more to relieve this loneliness and prevent the drift -from the farms to the cities, than the widespread establishment of rural -telephone service. - -The telephone development of the United States is not confined to the -large centers of population, but is well distributed, the large number -of farm telephones in this country being in strong contrast to the small -number of farm telephones in European countries. - -It is obvious that the ordinary methods of commerce and manufacture -would have to be radically made over if the telephone service should -lose any of its present efficiency or if it should fail to advance so as -to meet the constantly increasing demands made upon it. With the first -day of telephone congestion ordinary business would come to a -standstill, and when an adjustment was made, everybody would find -himself slowed down, doing less work in longer hours and at greater -expense, and being unable to take advantage of opportunities for -advancement which he had come to consider an inalienable right. - -Not only would methods be changed, but the physical structure of -business, especially in cities, would be completely metamorphosed. The -top floors of office buildings and hotels would be immediately less -desirable. In tall buildings the multitude of messengers and the -frequent passing in and out would demand the increase in elevator -facilities and even the enlargement of halls and doorways. Many of the -narrower streets would be impassable. Factories and warehouses now -located in the open country where land is cheap and the natural -conditions of working and living are most favorable, would be relocated -in cities as close as possible to their administrative and merchandising -headquarters. - -It would be hard to find a line of business where progress would not be -seriously retarded by an impairment of the present telephone efficiency. - - -America Leads in Telephone Growth. - -It is a far cry from Bell’s first telephone to Universal Service. - -Bell’s invention had demonstrated the practicability of speech -transmission, but there were many obstacles to overcome and many -problems to be solved before the telephone could be of commercial value -and take its place among the great public utilities. - -Professor Bell had demonstrated that two people could talk to each other -from connected telephones for a considerable distance. In order to be of -commercial value, it was necessary to establish an intercommunicating -system in which each telephone could be connected with every other -telephone in the system. This has been accomplished through the -invention of the multiple switchboard and a great number of inventions -and improvements in all the apparatus used in the transmission of -speech. - -But it was an unexplored field into which the telephone pioneers so -courageously plunged. There were no beaten paths, and the way was beset -with unknown perils; there was no experience to guide. A vast amount of -educational work had to be done before a skeptical public would accept -the telephone at its true value, yet courage and persistency triumphed. -Discoveries and inventions followed scarcely less important than -Professor Bell’s original discovery. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL AMERICAN CENTRAL OFFICE BUILDING, SHOWING THE -EFFICIENT ARRANGEMENT OF THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS] - -That the United States has from the beginning far outstripped the rest -of the civilized world in the growth of the telephone is shown by -comparison. - -In all Great Britain there are but 700,000 telephones as against -10,000,000 in the United States. France has slightly more than half as -many as Greater New York. In Germany the telephone development is only -one-fifth of that of the United States. Italy has not as many telephones -as San Francisco, and all Russia, fewer than Chicago. Sweden, Norway and -Denmark show a higher telephone development than the other European -countries, but even in Denmark, where the telephone development is -highest, we find but 3.9 telephones per hundred population--less than -half the development in the United States. - -The total number of telephones in all other European countries is -considerably less than may be found in two American cities, Chicago and -Philadelphia; all of South America has less than Boston, and the -remainder of the world, including Asia, Africa and Oceanica, has less -than the City of New York. - -[Illustration: POLE LINE RUNNING THROUGH PRINCIPAL STREET IN AN ITALIAN -TOWN] - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF AMERICAN POLE LINE CONSTRUCTION] - - -American Telephone Practice Superior. - -The superior telephone development in America is largely due to the -efficiency of American telephone equipment and practice. The mechanical -development has not only kept pace with public needs, but has -anticipated them. - -It is the practice of the Bell System, for example, to make what are -called “fundamental development plans,” in which a forecast is made of -the telephone requirements of each American city twenty years ahead. The -construction in each city is begun with these ultimate requirements in -view. Underground conduits are built, central offices located and cables -provided with an eye to the future, and if these plans are carried out -important economies are obtained. If the plans are abandoned, the loss -may be very great. Furthermore, there are sure to be times when the -service will be interrupted and seriously impaired if such plans for the -future are not made and consistently carried out. - -[Illustration: AMERICAN METHOD OF RAISING POLES BY DERRICK WITH POWER -FURNISHED BY MOTOR-TRUCK.] - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE VARIED TYPES OF DESK TELEPHONES USED IN -FRANCE] - -[Illustration: THE STANDARD AMERICAN DESK TELEPHONE] - -[Illustration: TILE CONDUITS USED IN AMERICAN UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION] - -It is characteristic of the best telephone management that while it -cannot always perfectly forecast the direction of immediate growth, it -should be built far enough ahead of present requirements to have a pair -of wires ready for each new customer. The fact that New York and other -large American cities have a considerable investment in telephone plant -constructed to meet a prospective demand, is the price which must be -paid by any telephone management which really supplies the wants of the -American people. Every additional subscriber that is connected with the -system, requires sooner or later an outlay of new capital for his -proportionate share of the whole plant, including equipment, wires, -poles, cables, switchboards and real estate. In America the new -subscriber finds his need anticipated and the facilities provided. - -[Illustration: THIS PRIVATE SWITCHBOARD, IN ONE AMERICAN HOTEL, IS -LARGER THAN MANY A SWITCHBOARD ABROAD, WHICH SERVES A WHOLE CITY] - -It is characteristic of private management that plans can be made for -the future with reasonable assurance that the necessary funds will not -be arbitrarily withheld, or that the work of the past will not be -ruthlessly cast aside. - -Another factor of telephone service in America is promptness. Local -connections are made in a few seconds. In the case of interurban and -long-distance calls, to prevent the long waiting for a turn, which -abroad sometimes is a matter of hours, the American engineer provides -enough long-distance trunks, so that, except in cases of accident, -customers at the busiest times of the day are connected with distant -points without delay. - - -The First Transcontinental Line. - -The opening of the first transcontinental line between New York and San -Francisco on January 25, 1915, was an epoch-making event in telephone -history. The line is 3,400 miles long. It crosses thirteen states; it is -carried on 130,000 poles. Four hard-drawn copper wires, .165 of an inch -in diameter, run side by side over the entire distance, establishing two -physical and one phantom circuit. The ordinary telephone connection -consists of two wires technically called a telephone circuit, each wire -constituting one “side” of the circuit. A phantom circuit is a circuit -superimposed on two ordinary circuits by so connecting the two wires or -“sides” of each ordinary circuit that they can be used as one side of -the phantom circuit. In this way three practical talking circuits can be -obtained from four wires. One mile of single wire used in the -transcontinental line weighs 435 pounds, the weight of the wires in the -entire line being 5,920,000 pounds, or 2,960 tons. - -[Illustration: THIS PICTURE SHOWS THE DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN -HAULING POLES IN A MOUNTAINOUS SECTION ALONG THE TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE -OF THE BELL SYSTEM] - -In addition to the transmission wires, each circuit uses some 13,600 -miles of fine hair-like insulated wire .004 of an inch in diameter in -its loading coils. - -It was, perhaps, little more difficult to string wires from Denver to -San Francisco than from New York to Denver, but the actual construction -of the line was the least of the telephone engineer’s troubles. His real -problem was to make the line “talk,” to send something 3,000 miles with -a breath as the motive power. In effect, the voyage of the voice across -the continent is instantaneous; if its speed should be accurately -measured, a fifteenth of a second would probably be nearly exact. In -other words, a message flying across the continent on the new -transcontinental line, travels, not at the rate of 1,160 feet per -second, which is the old stagecoach speed of sound, but at 56,000 miles -per second. If it were possible for sound to carry that far, a “Hello” -uttered in New York and traveling through the air without the aid of -wires and electricity would not reach San Francisco until four hours -later. The telephone not only transmits speech, but transmits it -thousands of times faster than its own natural speed. - -But while the telephone is breaking speech records, it must also -guarantee safe delivery of these millions of little passengers it -carries every few minutes in the way of sound waves created at the rate -of 2,100 a second. There must be no jostling or crowding. These tiny -waves, thousands and thousands of varying shapes, which are made by the -human voice, and each as irregular and as different from the other as -the waves of the sea, must not tumble over each other or get into each -other’s way, but must break upon the Pacific coast as they started at -the Atlantic, or all the line fails and the millions of dollars spent -upon it have been thrown away. And in all this line, if just one -pin-point of construction is not as it should be, if there is one iota -of imperfection, the miles of line are useless and the currents and -waves and sounds and words do not reach the end as they should. It is -such tremendous trifles, not the climbing of mountains and the bridging -of chasms, that make the transcontinental line one of the wonders of the -ages. - -The engineer in telephony cannot increase his motive power. A breath -against a metal disk changes air waves into electrical currents, and -these electrical currents, millions of which are required for a single -conversation, must be carried across the continent and produce the same -sound waves in San Francisco as were made in New York. Here is a task so -fine as to be gigantic. It was to nurse and coax this baby current of -electricity 3,000 miles across the continent, under rivers and over -mountains, through the blistering heat of the alkali plains and the cold -of snow-capped peaks, that has taken the time and thought and labor of -the brightest minds of the scientific world. - -This great problem in transmission was due to the cumulative effect of -improvements, great and small, in telephone, transmitter, line, cable, -switchboard and every other piece of apparatus and plant required for -the transmission of speech. - -The opening of the transcontinental telephone line has been followed by -the extension of “extreme distance” transmission into all the states of -the Union, by applying these new improvements to the plant of the Bell -System. It is now possible to talk from points in any one state to some -points in every other state of the Union, while over a very large part -of the territory covered by the Bell System, it is possible for any -subscriber to talk to any other subscriber, regardless of distance. - - -Wireless Speech Transmission. - -During the year 1915 very notable development in radio-telephony, the -transmission of speech without wires, was made. - -On April 4th the Bell telephone engineers were successful in -transmitting speech from a radio station at Montauk Point, on Long -Island, to Wilmington, Del. - -On the 27th of August, with the Bell apparatus, installed by permission -of the Navy Department at the Arlington, Va., radio station, speech was -successfully transmitted from Arlington, Va., to the Navy wireless -station equipped with Bell apparatus at the Isthmus of Panama. - -On September 29th speech was successfully transmitted by wire from the -headquarters of the company at 15 Dey Street, New York, to the radio -station at Arlington, Va., and thence by radio or wireless telephony -across the continent to the radio station at Mare Island Navy Yard, -Cal. - -[Illustration: SETTING POLES ACROSS A SHALLOW LAKE IN NEVADA DURING THE -CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE OF THE BELL SYSTEM] - -On the next morning, at about one o’clock, Washington time, wireless -telephone communication was established between Arlington, Va., and -Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands, where the Bell engineer, together -with United States naval officers, distinctly heard words spoken into -the apparatus at Arlington. - -On October 22d, from the Arlington tower in Virginia, speech was -transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean to the Eiffel Tower at Paris, -where the Bell engineers, in company with French military officers, -heard the words spoken at Arlington. - -On the same day, when speech was being transmitted by the Bell apparatus -at Arlington to the engineers and the French military officers at the -Eiffel Tower in Paris, the telephone company’s representative at Pearl -Harbor, Hawaii, together with an officer of the United States Navy, -heard the words spoken from Arlington to Paris. - -[Illustration: BY MEANS OF THE UNIVERSAL BELL SYSTEM THE NATION MAY BE -PROMPTLY ORGANIZED FOR UNITED ACTION IN ANY GREAT NATIONAL MOVEMENT] - -It is believed that wireless telephony will form a most important -adjunct and extension to the existing schemes of communication. By its -means communication can be established between points where it is -impracticable to extend wires. For many reasons wireless telephony can -never take the place of wire systems, but it may be expected to -supplement them in a useful manner. Wireless telephone systems are -subject to serious interference from numerous conditions, atmospheric -and others. For many uses the fact that anyone suitably equipped can -listen in on a wireless telephone talk would be a serious limitation to -its use. - - -The Mobilization of Communication. - -Besides these radio experiments, a demonstration has been given of the -availability of the Bell System and its wonderful potentiality in case -of an emergency which would require quick and satisfactory -intercommunication between the different departments of the government -and its scattered stations and officers throughout the whole country. - -From 4 P. M., May 6, to 8 A. M., May 8, 1916, the United States Navy -Department and the American Telephone and Telegraph Company co-operated -in a general mobilization of the forces of communication. It was a test -of what could be done in a sudden military emergency, and was -gratuitously undertaken by the company at the request of the Secretary -of the Navy. - -It was a sort of war game that brought into play the latest scientific -developments of telephone and telegraph communication, by wire and by -wireless, and demonstrated an efficiency that has not been attained in -any other country. - -For some time the officers of the United States Navy had been working -together with the engineers of the Bell System in the study of wire and -wireless communications, and the Navy Department had permitted the -telephone engineers to use its towers for long-distance wireless -telephone experiments. - -So, in the latest demonstration, the land towers of the navy were -utilized in connection with a wireless telephone installation on the -U. S. S. “New Hampshire,” and Captain Chandler, cruising off shore, -talked directly with the Secretary’s office in Washington. - -For the time being the operating forces of the telephone company all -over the country were placed at the disposal of Captain W. H. G. -Bullard, Chief of the Bureau of Communications, and General -Superintendent of Plant F. A. Stevenson, of the American Telephone and -Telegraph Company, was assigned as his aide. While all the facilities of -the Bell System were available, only about 53,000 miles of wire were -necessary to connect all the navy yards and stations for telephonic and -telegraphic communication. - -The successful demonstration showed that in case of any trouble -requiring any such service, because of the central control of the Bell -System, the government could have ready-made at its immediate disposal a -plant, equipment and operating staff which, for completeness and -efficiency, would not be possible in any other way. - - * * * * * - - -Why do They Call Them “Fiddler-Crabs”? - -There is one member of the crab family for which the Latin name is -_Gelasimus_, which means “laughable.” He certainly is appropriately -named, for he is a very queer little fellow. The male has one claw of -immense size, the other being quite small. The big claw is brightly -colored, and when he runs he waves it about as if he were energetically -beckoning, or playing some very stirring tune on a violin; hence he is -often known as a “Calling-crab” or a “Fiddler-crab.” - -Fiddler-crabs inhabit various parts of the world, and are usually found -in large numbers on muddy or sandy flats left dry by the tide, where -they may be seen hurrying over the sand or peering out of their holes, -into which they immediately vanish when alarmed. The holes, which -usually are about a foot deep, are made by the crab persistently digging -up and carrying away little masses of mud or sand. When he is doing this -the crab presents a very funny appearance. Scraping up a quantity of -sand into a little heap, he grasps it with three of the legs on one side -and hurries away with it to some little distance. Having deposited his -load, he raises his eyes, which he can do quite effectively, as they are -situated at the end of very long, slender stalks, peers curiously -around, and scuttles back to the hole for another load of sand. - - -How Far can a Powerful Searchlight Send Its Rays? - -Searchlights have recently been made capable of being seen nearly a -hundred miles away. Such lights are very valuable for signaling purposes -in time of war, and they are also much used on warships, enabling the -officers to detect the approach of an enemy in the dark and to guard -against torpedo boats. - -[Illustration: LONG RIBBONS OF LIGHT - -_Photo by Brown Bros._ - -The giant scintillator erected on the shore of the bay was not the least -wonderful of all the wonderful sights of the Panama-Pacific Exposition -at San Francisco.] - -We are all familiar with the less powerful ones which are universally -used on automobiles for night driving and in a multitude of other -every-day practices. The illustration shows a battery of powerful -searchlights, the use of which furnished some very effective displays -during the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco in 1915. - -Searchlights are ordinarily electric arc lights of great candle-power, -arranged with a parabolic reflector so that the rays are sent almost -wholly in one direct line, forming a path of light which may be -projected for miles. - - -What Started the Habit of Touching Glasses Before Drinking? - -Just as athletes shake hands before the beginning of a contest today, -the people who fought duels in the olden days used to pause before their -fighting long enough to each drink a glass of wine furnished by their -friends. In order to make sure that no attempt was made to forestall the -results of the duel by poisoning the wine in either cup, they developed -the habit of pouring part of the contents of each glass into the other, -so that if either contestant was poisoned the other would be too. - -This habit has continued up to the present time, although there is no -thought given now to the danger of poison, and in the present day the -ceremony of actually pouring the drink from one glass to another has -been omitted, merely the motion, as if to touch the glasses, sufficing -as an expression of friendliness and good will. - -Touching glasses together in drinking, preparatory to a confidential -talk, has come to be nicknamed “hob-nobbing” because of the equipment -incidental to that action years ago. A “hob” was the flat part of the -open hearth where water and spirits were warmed; and the small table, at -which people sat when so engaged, was called a “nob.” - - -Why are Windows Broken by Explosions? - -When the large cannons in the forts on our coast are discharged during -target practice, there are usually a lot of windows broken in the nearby -houses. In Jersey City, N. J., several freight cars and boats loaded -with dynamite and ammunition full of high explosives furnished the power -for an explosion which, in July, 1916, broke considerably over a hundred -thousand dollars worth of windows in the lower part of New York City. - -The force of an explosion, whatever its source, throws back the air in -huge waves, very much like the waves of the ocean, and whatever they -come in contact with must have a sort of a tug-of-war with them, the -weaker side being crumpled up and pushed back by the other. Broad -expanses of glass, unprotected and without any support, except at the -extreme edges, present an easy mark for air waves, therefore, and the -amount of damage done to windows by explosions is usually only limited -by the power of the explosives which produce the force of air waves. - -The earth beneath, and the roof and walls of a building above, all -receive the effects of these air waves in exactly the same way as do -windows, and the resulting disaster is in direct proportion to their -resisting capacity as against the pressure caused by the explosion. Many -striking examples of the power of explosives have been accidentally -furnished of late, in the course of making munitions for the European -war. - - -What does the Expression “Showing the White Feather” Come From? - -We say people “show the white feather” when they display cowardice, -because a white feather in a bird marks a cross breed, and it is not -found on a fighting game-cock. - - - - -The Story in Elevators and Escalators[15] - - -Going up and down stairs is a duty every man, woman and child finds it -necessary to perform daily and in many cases hourly, and some means for -doing this is necessary in every modern household. Even in the old-time -one-story house, steps from the outside to the inside were usually -necessary, and when the two or more storied houses came into use the -stairway became an indispensable feature. In modern times the art of -building has had such an upward trend that edifices looming far into the -air, hotels, stores, apartment houses, office buildings, etc., have come -into use, one notable specimen, the Woolworth building in New York, -towering upwards to fifty-four stories in height. This upward tendency -has rendered the elevator, or lifting apparatus, an indispensable -necessity, alike for passengers and freight, and it has been installed -abundantly in all our large cities. - -[Illustration: IN ORDER TO ASCEND MORE EASILY, MAN DEVISED THE STAIRWAY, -FROM WHICH, IN TURN, WAS DEVELOPED THE ESCALATOR, IN ORDER TO FURTHER -ELIMINATE PHYSICAL EFFORT] - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE MAN PULLED HIMSELF UP A LADDER WHEN HE WANTED -TO GO FROM ONE LEVEL TO ANOTHER] - -The elevator is not exactly a new idea. Its pioneer form may be traced -back to the Middle Ages, when heavy weights were lifted by aid of an -apparatus worked by hand power. But it was not until well on into the -nineteenth century that the steam-power elevator came into service. The -first example is said to have been produced by Elisha Graves Otis, who -applied steam power to an elevating machine in a little shop at Yonkers, -on the banks of the Hudson, New York. A few years later, at the -International Exhibition of 1853 in New York, he displayed the first -elevator with a safety device to prevent the car from falling in case of -a broken cable. - -The elevator was then a novelty. It has long since grown into a -necessity. It is to be seen in all hotels and high buildings, and the -art of getting up stairs has in very many cases changed into that of -being lifted up by a moving car in an enclosed shaft or cage. The steam -elevator, at first used, has now in great measure been replaced by the -electric elevator, the first moved by an electric motor being the Otis -elevator installed in the Demarest Building, New York, in 1889. This is -still in active use. - -The first electric elevators were confined to the drum type of machine, -these having a grooved drum around which the hoisting cables were wound, -the drum being revolved through worm gearing by an electric motor. But -the erection of buildings, ranging from 200 to 700 feet in height has -put this type of traction out of business on account of the great size -of drums required and the necessary slowness of motion. It has been -replaced by the electric traction elevator. In this the hoisting cables -from which the car is suspended have at the other end a counterweight -and pass around driving sheaves in place of a drum. This, in its latest -form known as the gearless traction elevator, does away with all -intricate machinery, and yields a machine moving with equal speed -whatever the height. - -[Illustration: AN ELEVATOR OF THE MIDDLE AGES - -History tells us this form of elevator was used in monasteries for -hoisting passengers and supplies.] - -[Illustration: ELEVATOR INSTALLATION IN THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW -YORK] - -To obviate danger from accidents, safety devices are installed for -gripping the rails in case of the car attaining excessive speed. Another -feature of security is the oil cushion buffer. One of these is placed in -the hoistway under the car and one under the counterweight, they being -capable of bringing a car to rest from full speed without discomfort to -those in the car. The oil in the buffer is driven by the impact of the -car from one chamber of the buffer to another, but this is made to take -place at a fixed rate of retardation, the oil acting as a liquid cushion -which stops the car gradually and without shock. - -To do business in the modern lofty building without the aid of elevators -(or lifts, as they are called in England) is today out of the question, -while the great grain-transporting edifices in cities in which our -annual crops are lifted and lowered, are known by the specific name of -elevators. There is, however, another means of getting up and down -stairs which is coming somewhat rapidly into use and in which the old -stairway is restored. It is one in which the stair itself does the -moving instead of the passengers upon it. This new and interesting -device is known as an escalator. - -[Illustration: A STEAM-DRIVEN ELEVATOR OF EARLY DATE] - - -The Escalator. - -The earliest way to get upward from the ground was that adopted by -climbing animals in clambering up tree trunks, and by man himself in -“shinning” up trees by aid of his arms and legs. This was followed by -the plank leading from a lower to a higher level, by the ladder, and -finally by the stairway. In our days the stairway has been put on a set -of revolving wheels and moves upward itself, carrying its passengers -with no need on their part to use their feet. This simple but effective -device is known as the escalator. - -It is a very useful contrivance for tired shoppers needing to make their -way from floor to floor in the great department stores, for travelers on -subway or elevated railways, for large mills, theaters, or other places -where easy getting up and down stairs is necessary. The escalator is a -simple device. No intricate machinery is needed. It is so arranged as to -be always going, traveling upwards or downwards, and returning out of -sight below. It has been called “an elevator with the doors always -open.” It is capable of carrying all the passengers who can crowd upon -it, stepping on or off at the bottom or top, it being estimated that -more than 10,000 people an hour can be thus moved. - -[Illustration: BATTERY OF ELEVATORS IN A DEPARTMENT STORE] - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC DUMBWAITER INSTALLATION WITH MACHINE IN BASEMENT -SHOWING CALL BUTTONS] - -[Illustration: A COMPLETE INSTALLATION OF A 2 : 1 ELECTRIC TRACTION -PASSENGER ELEVATOR, SHOWING MACHINE AND CONTROLLER AT TOP OF HATCHWAY - -This elevator is used where the slower speeds are required as in -department stores.] - -[Illustration: ESCALATOR OR MOVING STAIRWAY AT SIXTH AVENUE AND -THIRTY-THIRD STREET STATION OF ELEVATED RAILWAY, NEW YORK CITY] - -[Illustration: A DUPLEX ESCALATOR OF THE CLEAT TYPE IN A DEPARTMENT -STORE - -This type of escalator makes use of hard wood cleats in place of -steps.] - -[Illustration: AN ESCALATOR OR MOVING STAIRWAY FOR THE USE OF EMPLOYEES -IN A LARGE WORSTED MILL] - - -The Cleat Escalator. - -In the original type of escalator the steps flatten out into a level -platform at top and bottom, easy to step on and off, and divide into -regular steps as they climb upward, passengers in a hurry being able to -hasten their speed by walking at the same time that they are carried. -Another type is that known as the cleat escalator. In this there are no -steps, it being composed of hardwood cleats moving in longitudinal -ridges and grooves, there being a handrail on either side moving at the -same speed. The platform glides through the prongs of a comb at the -lower level and journeys upward at a moderate speed. At the upper level -it disappears through a similar comb and returns out of sight. The -passengers slide off upon the prongs of the comb at the top and land -without jar or shock. Both these types of escalators can be made to move -up or down by aid of a swinging switch, or two of them can be placed -side by side, one moving upward and the other downward. - -[Illustration: A CLEAT TYPE ESCALATOR, SHOWING THE HARDWOOD CLEATS USED -IN PLACE OF STEPS] - - -The Moving Platform. - -A device acting on the same principle is the moving platform, with the -difference that this may be of indefinite length and act as a sort of -railway for carrying passengers from place to place. The passenger steps -from a sideway at rest to one in moderate motion, and from this to a -second one moving more rapidly, and in this way can be carried -horizontally at a fair rate of speed. On reaching his station he has but -to step back on the slower platform and from this to the moveless -sideway. The pioneer example of this contrivance was installed on a long -pier leading into Lake Michigan at the Chicago Exposition of 1893, and -plans for putting it into practical use in various cities have been -entertained. None of these, however, have yet been put into effect. -Certain drawbacks, possibly that of cost of installation and operation, -has served as a hindrance. - -[Illustration: A GRAVITY CONVEYOR OF THE SINGLE SPIRAL OPEN TYPE - -For the quick and safe conveyance of heavy goods from upper to lower -levels.] - - * * * * * - - -What Happens when Animals Hibernate? - -We have all heard of certain animals sleeping through the long winter -months and most of us have probably wondered what happens to them when -they do this. - -This hiding away for a long sleep, or hibernation, as it is called, -commences when the food of the animal begins to get scarce, and the -length and depth of the sleep depends on the habit and constitution of -the animal. - -Bats, bears, some animals of the rodent order, such as the porcupine, -the dormouse, some squirrels, etc., all the animals belonging to the -classes of _Amphibia_ and _Reptilia_, such as tortoises, lizards, -snakes, frogs, etc., and many species of mollusks and insects, hibernate -more or less completely, retiring to suitable places of concealment--the -bat to dark caves, the hedgehog to fern-brakes, snakes to holes in -trees, etc. - -During hibernation there is a great decrease of heat in the bodies of -the animals, the temperature sometimes sinking to 40° or even 20° F., or -in general to a point a little above that of the surrounding atmosphere. -The respiration as well as the pulsation of the heart is exceedingly -slow, and the irritability of the animal often so low that in some cases -it can be awakened only by strong electric shocks. - -With frogs and amphibious reptiles the dormant state is very common, and -if the temperature is kept low by artificial means they may remain -dormant for years. - -The term “æstivation” has been used to describe a similar condition into -which certain animals, such as serpents and crocodiles, in tropical -countries pass during the hottest months of the year. - - -How do Peanuts Get in the Ground? - -Peanuts are really the seeds or pods of a plant belonging to the family -called the earthnut in Great Britain, the nuts there being used chiefly -to fatten swine. The peanut-stand so commonly seen on street corners -here is kept well supplied by the extensive cultivation of peanuts in -the United States, mainly in the South, and in several tropical -countries. - -As most people have discovered, the nuts have a much more agreeable -taste after being roasted. They also yield an oil which is often used -for olive oil, and very good “peanut butter” is now made by grinding -them up and mixing them with oil. - -The peanut plant, or groundnut as it is also called, has a hairy stem -and the leaves usually grow in sets of two pairs each, on the extreme -end of each little branch-stem. The pod or nut is situated at the end of -a separate stalk, which is longer than the leaf-stems, this stalk having -the peculiarity, after flowering, of bending down and pushing the fruit -into the earth. After the peanuts have reached their full growth, they -are dug up very much in the same way as potatoes, a machine potato -digger now being extensively used for this purpose. - -[Illustration: MACHINE POTATO DIGGER DIGGING PEANUTS] - -[Illustration: PICKING PEANUTS BY HAND] - - -How did Your State Get Its Name? - -Alabama is named after the Indian word which means “Here we rest;” -Alaska comes from the Eskimo word “Alakshak” or “Alayeska” and means -“The main land;” Arizona is the result of the Indian word “Arizonac,” -meaning “small springs” or “few springs;” and Arkansas is sort of a -mixture of the Indian “Kansas,” which means “smoky water,” and the -French prefix “arc,” meaning “bow” or “bend.” - -California comes from the Spanish words “Caliente Fornalla,” or “hot -furnace;” Colorado, also from the Spanish “colored,” from the red color -of the Colorado River; and Connecticut, in Indian, means “long river.” - -Delaware was named after Lord De la Warr; Florida originated from the -Spanish “Pascua de Flores,” which means “Feast of Flowers,” because it -was discovered on Easter Day; Georgia was called after King George II of -England; and Hawaii is a native name peculiar to the natives there, -although Captain Cook called it part of the “Sandwich Islands” after -Lord Sandwich. - -Idaho is Indian, meaning “Gem of the Mountains;” Illinois is another -mixture of Indian and French, the Indian word “illini” and the French -suffix “ois” meaning “tribe of men;” and Indiana and Iowa are both plain -Indian, the former standing for “Indians’ land,” and the latter, -“beautiful land.” - -Kansas and Kentucky are Indian, too, Kansas meaning “smoky water” and -Kentucky “at the head of the river,” or “the dark and bloody ground;” -and Louisiana is named after Louis XIV of France. - -Maine and Maryland each come from abroad, Maine being called after the -Province of the same name in France, and Maryland after Queen Henrietta -Maria of England, consort of Charles I; while Massachusetts, Michigan, -Minnesota, Mississippi and Missouri are all from the native Indian -language, meaning, in the order in which they are given, “place of great -hills,” “fish weir,” “sky-tinted water,” “great father of waters” and -“muddy;” and Montana traces back to the Latin word “montanus,” meaning -“mountainous.” - -Nebraska is another Indian name, and means “water valley;” while Nevada -is Spanish, meaning “snow covered;” New Hampshire and New Jersey are -both from across the water, the former after Hampshire County in -England, and New Jersey after the Island of Jersey at the time when Sir -George Carteret was its Governor; New York and both North and South -Carolina were also named after monarchs abroad, New York after the Duke -of York in England, and the Carolinas after Charles IX of France; while -North and South Dakota bring us back to the Indian language again, -meaning “allies.” - -Ohio and Oklahoma are both Indian, too, Ohio meaning “beautiful river,” -and the latter, “Home of the red men;” while Oregon is from the Spanish -word “oregano,” which stands for the wild marjoram, a plant abundant on -the coast; Pennsylvania traces back to the Latin, meaning “Penn’s woody -land;” the Philippine Islands come from the Spanish words “Islas -Filipinas,” after King Philip; and Porto Rico is also Spanish, from -“Puerto Rico,” meaning “rich port.” - -Rhode Island is called after the Island of Rhodes; Tennessee, Texas and -Utah are all Indian, Tennessee meaning “river with the great bend,” -Texas coming from several different forms of very old Indian language, -meaning “friends,” and Utah after the tribe by that name, also called -the “Utes;” Vermont is from the French, meaning “green mountains,” and -Virginia is called after Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen” of England. - -Washington gets its name from a good, straight American source--George -Washington; West Virginia is so called because it was formerly the -western part of Virginia; and Wisconsin and Wyoming are both Indian, the -former meaning “gathering of the waters,” and the latter, “great -plains.” - - - - -The Story of Coal Mining - - -An interesting story is told in an English book by Edward Cressy, of the -great coal strike in 1912. Many factories and workshops had to close for -want of fuel. A workman from one of these, on reaching home, purchased a -sack of coal and set it up against the back door. Then he sat in the -kitchen, in which there was no fire. From time to time, when he felt -chilly he got up, flung the sack of coal across his shoulders and ran -around the yard until he became warm. That was his way of saving fuel. -He was only doing in his own fashion what all engineers and -manufacturers are trying to do in other ways all the year round. - -The extent to which all manufacture and transport, all industry there, -was paralyzed during the strike, shows the complete dependence of modern -life upon fuel. In spite of the fact that in Great Britain nearly -240,000,000 tons of coal are raised annually, a temporary stoppage of -supply threw all the ordinary machinery of existence out of action and -revealed the magnitude of the debt that the world owes to those who win -precious stores of fuel from the depths of the earth. - -Probably no industrial operation excites more widespread interest, when -accorded publicity, than the mining of coal, and that because of the -dangers which attend it. The annual list of victims buried beneath a -falling roof, or mangled by runaway cars, causes little comment, but -every now and then the world is startled by an appalling catastrophe in -which hundreds of men lose their lives. From the early days when growing -industry demanded more coal, inventors have been busy devising all sorts -of safety appliances for the miner. - -The original safety-lamp, with which practically everyone is familiar, -is the parent of scores of others, each claiming to offer some special -advantage. All sorts of mechanical devices to prevent overwinding--an -accident which would fling the cage with its coal or human freight out -of the pit mouth--have been invented, and every section of the work has -been made as safe as human ingenuity and human skill have been able to -make it. But the number of disastrous explosions has not been materially -reduced. - -Many varieties of coal give off a gas known as marsh-gas or fire-damp. -This is inflammable and, when mixed with air, violently explosive. It is -the presence of this gas that necessitates the safety-lamp. There are a -few kinds of mines which evolve no gas, and in these naked lights are -used. But all mines must be ventilated by forcing air through them with -a fan, and this air must be in sufficient quantity to keep the -percentage of gas below a dangerous standard. Most mines are examined at -regular intervals by a “fireman” who can estimate approximately the -percentage of gas present by the size of the faintly luminous “cap” -which hovers above the flame of his lamp. - -Explosions have occurred, however, in cases where it is extremely -doubtful whether gas has been present in dangerous quantity, and -attention has been drawn to the possible causes. Many varieties of coal -produce a quantity of fine dust which settles in the roadways, on roof, -and sides, and floor. For many years there has been a controversy as to -the relative importance of gas and dust in producing explosions, and the -question is still one which gives rise to a lively difference of -opinion. But there is no doubt that a mixture of coal-dust and air is -explosive, and that even if an explosion is started by gas the -disturbance creates clouds of dust which gives rise to secondary -explosions and spread the disaster over a wider field than was -originally affected. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Link-Belt Co., Chicago._ - -HANDLING COAL - -Four-ton grab buckets operating on the four bridge-tramways pick up the -coal from the hold of lake steamers and deposit it either on the dock or -in cars. The four machines can be moved to any part of the dock to which -steamers are moored and four ships can be unloaded rapidly at one time. -The motive power is electricity.] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the J. M. Dodge Co._ - -STORING COAL - -A 480,000-ton anthracite coal storage plant. Coal cars are dumped into -hoppers under the tracks and the coal carried to the top of the piles by -conveyors. It is reloaded into cars by other conveyors operating at the -base of each pile. This system has been of great value in preventing a -shortage of coal during strikes.] - -Consequently a plan has been evolved for the ventilating current to be -reversed periodically, in order to remove dust which has settled on the -side of timbering and crevices, and the roadways to be watered in order -to allay the dust. A plan has also been tried of spreading fine -stone-dust in the roadways. This mixes with the coal-dust and renders it -less inflammable. - -Unfortunately the disastrous effects of an explosion do not end with the -explosion itself. The main products of combustion, whether of fire-damp -or coal-dust, are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. The latter causes -suffocation and the former is a dangerous poison. It is the dreaded -“after-damp” of the miner. Those who survive an explosion are therefore -in danger of suffocation or poisoning, and it becomes imperative to -restore the circulation of the air with the least possible delay. For -even if the fan has escaped injury, fallen portions of the roof may have -choked up some of the roadways, or the explosion may have torn down -doorways and provided a short cut for the air. But if the atmosphere is -dangerous for men in the pit at the time, it is equally dangerous for -others to go down and effect repairs or render first aid. - -The work of the rescue party is therefore a labor of desperate heroism -and often attended by additional loss of life. It has recently been -found possible to reduce the dangers of after-damp by providing rescue -parties with respirators fitting over the mouth and nose, and supplied -with oxygen from two steel bottles of the compressed gas strapped across -the back. An effective apparatus of this kind, such as has been adopted -by the United States Government for the use of the Bureau of Mines -Rescue Crew, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The bag in front -is known as a “breathing bag” and has separate compartments for the -inhaling and exhaling, the tube at the right leading to the former and -that at the left to the exhaling compartment, which usually contains -sticks of caustic soda to absorb the carbon dioxide exhaled by the -wearer. - -Coal is largely formed from vast masses of vegetable matter deposited -through the luxuriant growth of plants in former epochs of the earth’s -history. In the varieties of coal in common use the combined effects of -pressure, heat and chemical action upon the substance have left few -traces of its vegetable origin; but in the sandstones, clays and shales -accompanying the coal the plants to which it principally owes its origin -are presented in a fossil state in great profusion and frequently with -their structure so distinctly retained, although replaced by mineral -substances, as to enable the microscopist to determine their botanical -affinities with existing species. Trees of considerable magnitude have -also been brought to light. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF PART OF A COAL-FIELD, SHOWING A SUCCESSION OF -BURIED TREES AND LAND SURFACE - - _a_, sandstones. - _b_, shales. - _c_, coal-seams. - _d_, under-clays or soils.] - -The animal remains found in the coal-measures indicate that some of the -rocks have been deposited in fresh water, probably in lakes, while -others are obviously of estuarine origin, or have been deposited at the -mouths of rivers alternately occupied by fresh and salt water. The great -system of strata in which coal is chiefly found is known as the -carboniferous. - -[Illustration: MINE SAFETY CREW] - -[Illustration: MINE RESCUE WORK - -Upper view, Bureau of Mines Rescue Crew in safety helmets, ready to -enter a gas-filled mine. Lower view, resuscitating a victim overcome by -gas by means of the oxygen reviving apparatus.] - -[Illustration: BRIQUETTING MACHINE - -Enormous quantities of coal are lost at the mines in coal dust. By -adding a binding material, such as pitch, and pressing the mixture into -briquettes or small bricks, an excellent fuel is made.] - -[Illustration: MINE RESCUE WORK - -The mine rescue crew is using the canary-bird test for poisonous gas. -The bird succumbs to gas earlier than a man and thus indicates a -dangerous condition of the atmosphere. The canary is revived by oxygen -and the crew puts on safety helmets before proceeding.] - -There are many varieties of coal, varying considerably in their -composition, as anthracite, nearly pure carbon, and burning with little -flame, much used for furnaces and malt kilns; bituminous, a softer and -more free-burning variety; and cannel or “gas-coal,” which burns readily -like a candle, and is much used in gasmaking. The terms semi-anthracite, -semi-bituminous, coking coal, splint coal, etc., are also applied -according to peculiarities. - -All varieties agree in containing from 60 to over 90 per cent of carbon, -the other elements being chiefly oxygen and hydrogen, and frequently a -small portion of nitrogen. Lignite or brown coal may contain only 50 per -cent of carbon. For manufacturing purposes coals are generally -considered to consist of two parts, the volatile or bituminous portion, -which yields the gas used for lighting, and the substance, comparatively -fixed, usually known as coke, which is obtained by heating the coals in -ovens or other close arrangements. - -About 260,000,000 tons of coal are annually mined in Britain, the value -being over $300,000,000. Large quantities are exported. The British -coal-fields, though comparatively extensive (covering about 9,000 square -miles), are far surpassed by those of several other countries, as the -United States and China, the former having coal-fields estimated to -cover about 451,000 square miles; the latter over 200,000 square miles. -Britain no longer mines the largest quantity, having been far surpassed -by the United States. Other countries in which coal is worked are -Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, India, New South Wales and Canada. -China has hitherto mined only on a small scale. - -The annual production of anthracite coal in Pennsylvania is more than -86,000,000 tons of 2,240 pounds, valued at the mines at $198,000,000. In -1910 there were produced of bituminous coal 388,222,868 tons, valued at -$463,654,776; amount of coke manufactured, 37,000,000 tons. This was -distributed widely over the country, the greatest producers, after -Pennsylvania, being Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama and Colorado. - -Recently a very large output of coal has been discovered in Alaska, the -value of which is as yet undetermined, though it is believed to hold a -vast quantity of coal. The value of the western coal-fields also is far -from known, and since 1906 very extensive tracts of coal-bearing lands -have been withdrawn from settlement, principally in Wyoming, Montana, -Colorado, Utah and New Mexico, their beds being largely of lignite. -These cover about 50,000,000 acres, and, with those of Alaska, are held -by the government as national assets. The mines of Alaska are claimed to -be exceedingly rich, both in bituminous and anthracite coal, the beds -examined being estimated to contain 15,000,000,000 tons, while there are -large districts unexamined. They have not yet been worked, the -government keeping them back for public ownership. - - * * * * * - - -How can We Hear through the Walls of a Room? - -We are able to hear easily through the walls of many rooms because the -material used in those walls are good conductors of sound. We know that -some things are better conductors of heat than others, and just in that -same way, some things conduct sound better than others. Wood has been -shown to be an even better conductor of sound than air. Most of us have -stood at the foot of an overhead trolley pole to see if we could hear a -car coming, and we know that the reason we did this was because we could -hear the wire humming, when we put our ears against the pole, even -though we could not hear any sound in the air. - -When we are in a room that has wooden walls we can hear sounds in the -next room very plainly, not because the wall is thin, but because the -wood in the wall is a good conductor of sound. Other walls made of -different kinds of material, are not as good conductors of sound. While -you may hear through them, you cannot hear as plainly as you can through -a wooden wall. - - -What is a Diesel Engine Like? - -The Diesel engine has caused a great deal of comment of late years -because of the spectacular uses to which it has been successfully -applied. A specially constructed Diesel engine was probably the chief -aid in the accomplishment of the first submarine trans-Atlantic voyage -by the German submarine “Deutschland.” - -It is an oil engine which was invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1893. - -The engine operates at compression pressures very much higher than those -used in any other internal combustion engines, and it dispenses with the -usual igniting devices by rendering the air charge incandescent by -compression. - -[Illustration: THE DIESEL ENGINE] - -The efficiency of the Diesel engine is high, and it can use low grades -of fuel, but it has the disadvantage of greater weight per horse-power -than other engines. - -It has found increasing favor for use in marine propulsion, and in 1913 -was adapted to high-speed railway service, and put into use in Germany. - - -What does the Sheep-Grower Get for the Wool in a Suit of Clothes? - -A man’s ordinary three-piece fall suit has about nine pounds of wool in -it. Such a suit might cost somewhere between twenty and forty dollars, -depending on whether it was bought ready made or whether it was made to -order. If the price was questioned, the retailer would probably explain -that it was all wool and that the wool cost was the reason it was -expensive, and still the sheep-man who raised the wool only received an -average of about eighteen cents a pound, or $1.62, for all the wool used -on the suit. - -Of course, the largest part of the cost of a suit of clothes is really -accounted for by the cost of transportation, weaving, tailoring and -selling, but we must all agree that the sheep-man who tends the flock -all winter and cuts the wool in the spring is not to blame for high -prices. - - - - -The Story in a Silver Teaspoon[16] - - -The spoon is older than history. There is, perhaps, no article or -utensil of common use today that can trace an earlier origin. The -evolution and development of the spoon into the graceful and beautiful -forms in use on our tables is fascinating and instructive. - -Primitive men of the Stone Age used an implement that might by courtesy -be called a spoon. From then on down through the Egyptian, Greek and -Roman civilizations it can be clearly traced in varying forms and -substances--wood, shell, flint, bone, ivory, bronze and the precious -metals, gold and silver. - -A witty Frenchman has said that spoons, if not as old as the world, are -certainly as old as soup. - -In the Bible is the first recorded mention of the use of spoons made of -precious metal. This reference is the twenty-fifth chapter of the Book -of Exodus, wherein the Lord commanded Moses to make golden spoons for -the Tabernacle. - -Excavations in Egypt have brought to light early examples of spoons of -various materials, and it is certain that the early Greeks and Romans -used gold and silver spoons, both at the table and in the Temple. Early -specimens of spoons made of wood, ivory, bronze, silver and gold are -preserved in the museums of Europe and Egypt. - -During the early Christian and medieval eras spoons were in common use. -Saxon and Early English examples are to be seen in the English museums -today. - -The medieval spoon was of silver, horn or wood, etc. On the Continent, -silver spoons were made much earlier than in England. In Italy they were -in use probably long before 1000 A. D. - -During the Tudor and Stuart reigns a fashionable gift at christenings -was the apostle, so called because at the end of the handle was the -figure of an apostle. Sometimes a thirteenth spoon was added, called the -“Master” spoon, because it bore the figure of Christ. A complete set was -a very valuable gift, and could only be afforded by the rich. - -Folks of limited means used copper, pewter, latten or alchemy spoons; -the latter two materials being somewhat like brass, examples of which -are sometimes found in this country in the graves of Indians of the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, showing their intercourse with -early English traders. - -At this period the stems were hexagonal, ending in an acorn, a bird or a -ball, while the bowls were fig shape. Later the stems were baluster -shape with a seal top, and at the time of the Commonwealth the stem -became flat and perfectly plain. These latter are called “Puritan” -spoons. - -Naturally, the early New England colonists brought with them the spoons -they had used at home, and the early Colonial silversmiths followed -closely the designs which they found at hand or which were later -imported from England. In fact, within a few years after a certain type -had become popular in the mother country, it was adopted in this country -as the fashionable style. It is, therefore, easy to date, approximately, -an American-made spoon, because it follows so closely in style the dated -or hall-marked English spoon. - -During the last quarter of the seventeenth century, both in England and -America, spoons were generally of a style now known as rat-tail. From -the end of the handle, down the back of the bowl to about the middle, -ran a ridge shaped like a rat-tail. This is sometimes thought to have -been an attempt to strengthen the spoon, but its use must have been -purely ornamental, for it adds little strength to these strongly made -spoons. Sometimes the rat-tail was shaped like a long V and grooved, -while on each side were elaborate scrolls. The bowl was perfectly oval -in shape, while the end of the handle was notched or trifid. - -This style of spoon was continued, with modifications, through the first -third of the eighteenth century. Then the bowl became ovoid, or -egg-shaped, and the end of the handle was rounded, without the notch. - -The rat-tail was gradually replaced by what is known as the drop, or -double drop, frequently terminating in a conventionalized flower or -shell, or anthemion, while down the front of the handle ran a rib. - -Later, the bowl became more pointed, the drop was replaced by a tongue, -and the handle, after 1760, instead of slightly curving to the front at -the end, reversed the position. Somewhat later, the handle became -pointed, and was engraved with bright, cut ornaments and a cartouch at -the end in which were engraved the initials of the owner. - -During the first ten years of the nineteenth century a popular style was -the so-called coffin-shaped handle, succeeded, probably about 1810, by a -handle with a shoulder just above the junction with the bowl, while the -end became fiddle-shaped or of a style now known as tipped, shapes -produced to this day. - -Until about 1770, spoons were of three sizes: the teaspoon, as small as -an after-dinner coffee spoon; the porringer spoon, a little smaller than -our present dessert size; and the tablespoon, with a handle somewhat -shorter than that of today. - -[Illustration: LATTEN SPOONS - -One found in an Indian grave at Deerfield, Mass., and the other in an -Indian grave at Hadley, Mass. Period of about 1660. Actual size, 6 -inches and 6-1/4 inches.] - -So few silver forks have been found in collections of old silver that it -forces the belief that they were generally made of steel, with bone -handles. There seems no reason why, if in general use, silver forks -should not now be as common as spoons. - -In the great silver exhibition recently held in the Museum of Fine Arts, -Boston, of more than one thousand pieces, there were only two forks to -be found. - -Great skill was developed by the early silversmiths of England and -America. The purity and gracefulness of design in many cases remain as -standards for our best craftsmen today. It is, however, erroneous to -suppose that all of the ornamentation was done by hand. - -Ornaments on the back of spoon bowls and handles were impressed by dies -forced together by drop presses or under screw pressure. This is -absolutely proven by the exact duplication of the pattern on sets of -spoons. Accurate measurements show that these ornaments were not -handwork, for there is not the slightest deviation in dimensions. - -But, however beautiful the silver of our forbears and however valuable -now, from a historic standpoint, there are few of us who, if given the -choice, would not decide in favor of the product of the twentieth -century silversmith, who brings to his creations all of the good of the -old masters, and who has the facilities for turning out work more -perfect in line and detail and uniformity than was ever dreamed of by -the silver worker of old. - -[Illustration: FRONTS AND BACKS OF TWO EARLY AMERICAN SPOONS OF THE -RAT-TAIL TYPE - -The spoon in the center is the earliest of that type, made about 1690. -The other dates about 1695.] - -We admire the beautiful silverware that we see in the shop windows, we -derive satisfaction and pleasure from the daily use of silver on our -tables, but few people have any understanding how silver plate is made; -and there is, perhaps, still less knowledge of its interesting history. - -The combining of two separate metals--that is, the plating of a base -metal with a finer one--was, until the eighteenth century, a lost art of -the ancients. - -The application of one metal upon another was practiced by the -Assyrians, who overlapped iron with bronze; copper implements and -ornaments coated with silver have been found at Herculaneum, while many -ancient Roman specimens of harness and armor are found to be ornamented -with silver on copper. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru used -the process of fixing two metals together by the action of heat, before -making up. The method was also known to the old Celts, as shown by -specimens found in Iceland. It seems, however, to have been a lost art -in Europe, probably because up to the thirteenth century the Church had -control of the arts and crafts in England, and the finer metal work was -used only for church vessels, the household implements being very simple -and mostly of wood and cheap metal. - -Horace Walpole, writing in 1760, states: “I passed through Sheffield, a -business town in a charming situation, with 22,000 inhabitants, and they -remit £11,000 a week to London. One man there has discovered the art of -plating copper with silver.” - -The inventor to whom the quotation refers was Thomas Bolsover, a skilled -silversmith, who, in the year 1742, it is traditionally reported, while -repairing a thin layer of silver on the copper handle of a knife, -evolved the idea of combining copper with silver in layers ready for -manufacture into any desired form. - -[Illustration: TABLE AND TEASPOON WITH THE SO-CALLED COFFIN-SHAPED -HANDLE - -A shape peculiar to America. This type common from 1800 to 1815. -Reductions about one-half.] - -Bolsover himself apparently did not appreciate the importance of this -invention, and it remained for Joseph Hancock, one of his apprentices, -to develop the idea to a commercial success. He vigorously encouraged -the trade in Sheffield, Birmingham and other manufacturing centers, and -finally constructed a rolling-mill and made his fortune by supplying the -plate to the silversmiths. - -The earlier specimens of this Sheffield plate, as it came to be known, -had the silver on one side of the copper only, but later attempts were -made to improve the appearance of finer pieces by covering the underside -of the copper with tin. - -Crude as this idea and the old methods of manufacture may seem, compared -with modern processes, this old plate found a ready sale. It replaced in -many households pewter ware which, until the introduction of Sheffield -plate, was the best substitute for sterling silver. It became -fashionable for everyday use by the nobility and wealthier families, who -put aside their solid silverware to be used on state occasions only. The -name “plate,” which is from the Spanish word _platte_, came to be used -generally to designate the imitation of solid silver. - -This plate, being such a close imitation of solid silver, was not -permitted by the laws of England to bear any stamp whatever prior to -1773, when the town of Sheffield was specially privileged to put upon -its product the marks of the makers. These marks, however, were not to -bear any resemblance of the lion or leopard’s head, these being the -hall-marks of England. - -It was not until 1785 that this privilege was extended to the town of -Birmingham and other manufacturing centers. - -It is curious to note that this law against the imitation of silver, -which really dated from the fifteenth century, made a special exception -to articles made for the Church. - -Sometimes this old Sheffield plate, in addition to bearing the maker’s -name, bore the name of the lord or earl for whom it was made, and today -these old pieces are more highly valued by their owners than silver -which is intrinsically more valuable. - -Much of the charm of old plate was in its beauty of form and design, for -the work attracted the best of English artisans. It would appear, too, -that they were fairly well paid for their labor, as Pepys, in his -“Diary,” refers to a present made him of a pair of flagons which cost -£100. “They are said to be worth five shillings, some say ten shillings, -an ounce for the fashion.” - -[Illustration: MODERN DESIGNS] - -The first notable improvement over the Sheffield work came toward the -middle of the nineteenth century, when electro-silver plating was first -practiced and, in 1847, commercially perfected, by Rogers Brothers of -Hartford, Conn. - -The marvelous force of electricity was brought to bear on the making of -silver-plated knives, forks, spoons, etc., as well as hollow-ware -articles, such as coffee and tea pots, water pitchers, sugar bowls and -platters. Instead of these articles being made of sheets of rolled -copper and silver, a silver plate of any desired thickness is applied to -the base metal by electricity. - -This quick and less expensive method of manufacture rendered silver -plate available to all classes, and the Sheffield plate was quickly -superseded, the old method of manufacture becoming obsolete. - -While the process of manufacture was cheapened, the newer craftsmen -wisely held to the art standards of the old masters. With the new -process came the perfection of modern construction, and the cost is so -much less than in the old days that a perfect table service of authentic -design, of quality beyond question and guaranteed in every respect, is -within the reach of any well-to-do family. Many of the old family pieces -of Sheffield have found their way into the melting pot in exchange for -the modern electro-plated silverware. - -The making of silver-plated flatware is an interesting process and one -that requires a great amount of skill and care. The finished teaspoon, -as it lies in the show-case or chest, is the result of over thirty -distinct operations, while a plain silver-plated steel knife has passed -through thirty-six stages in its evolution from the bit of steel rod, in -which shape it begins its journey. Some of the more important steps in -the making of a spoon are briefly described below: - - -The Blank. - -The metal underlying the silver plate of the best plated teaspoons is of -nickel silver, a trade name for a metal composed of nickel, copper and -zinc. This metal is procured in sheet form of varying lengths. From this -sheet is cut a blank, which bears little resemblance to a spoon, being -about half the length of the finished article and very much wider. - - -Squeezed. - -The blank is then “squeezed,” which gives to the part that is to become -the handle a little more of the appearance that it will have later. - - -Rolling. - -This “squeezed” blank is then passed through a series of steel rolls, -giving length to the handle and width to the bowl, and distributing the -metal according to the correct thickness--that is, the bowl will be thin -and the shank thick. - - -Clipping. - -The next process is termed “clipping,” the spoon being cut out from the -blank in the correct outline of the pattern. - - -Annealing. - -The process of rolling the metal has so compressed the latter that it -cannot be readily worked. It is necessary, therefore, that the spoon be -annealed--that is, the shaped blanks are placed in an oven and brought -to a red heat, which renders them malleable. - - -The Evolution of a Spoon. - -From the crude blank of nickel silver to the finished spoon, there are -over thirty distinct operations necessary, a few of the more important -stages being illustrated. When the spoon emerges from the plating -solution (see No. 8), it is perfectly white and looks as if it had been -treated with a heavy coat of enamel. It is then scratch-brushed, -burnished and, in some patterns, the handle is greyed. After this, the -spoon is buffed and finished. - -Every operation is performed with the utmost care, and not until the -piece is actually finished can this vigilance be relaxed, as it is the -final processes that make the plating of pure silver an actual part of -the spoon and insure its wearing qualities. - -_Striking and Bowling._--The pattern is then stamped on the handle and -the bowl is shaped. - -_Trimming, etc._--After the pattern and the bowl have been struck, there -is usually a small burr left where the metal has oozed out between the -dies. This is removed by trimming. The trademark is then stamped on the -back of the handle. - -_Polishing._--The goods are put through various operations of polishing -until they are brought to a high finish. - -_Plating._--The articles to be plated are suspended in a frame in the -silver solution. This frame is connected with the negative pole of a -magneto-electro machine, while the silver is suspended in the solution -from bars and connected with the positive or opposite pole of the -machine, thereby forming a circuit for the electricity through the -solution. - -[Illustration: 1. The blank. 2. Squeezed. 3. Blank rolled. 4. Spoon cut -from blank. 5. Design struck. 6. Bowl raised. 7. Trade-mark stamped. 8. -After plating. 9. The finished spoon.] - -A patent automatic scale, designed to weigh the silver while depositing, -is balanced to the exact weight of silver to be deposited on the -article. The circuit is completed by turning a switch and the plating -begins. - -As soon as the articles receive the proper weight of silver, the scale -beam rises, thus making a separate connection with the electro-magnet, -which springs the switch, breaking the electric current and stopping the -plating at the same instant, also ringing an alarm bell to notify the -workman that the articles have received the proper weight of silver. - -_Quality._--Standard silver-plated spoons are made in two grades of -plate--triple and quintuple. The former, however, is the one generally -used and answers all ordinary requirements. The quintuple grade is -designed more particularly for hotels, restaurants, clubs and other -institutions where the wear is especially severe. - - -The Evolution of a Knife. - -There are thirty-six stages in the evolution of a plain steel knife. At -one end of the journey we see the cylindrical bar of steel, black and -unlovely; at the other, the silver-plated knife, light, well-balanced -and heavily plated with pure silver. In the case of other than plain -knives, the work involves also the stamping of the pattern. - -_Double Burnishing._--The thickness of the silver deposited, however, is -not the only requisite to insure quality. The plating must be hard as -well as thick. This is accomplished by means of a double-burnishing -process after the article is plated and before it receives its final -buffed finish. - -The first burnishing is on machines and this is followed by hand -burnishing. This process produces a hard plate. - -[Illustration: 1. Steel cut to length. 2. Handle formed by 1,000-pound -blow. 3. Handle margin, or flash, removed. 4. Blade drawn out through a -pair of rolls. 5. Blade cut out to shape. 6. Knife roughed with coarse -emery. 7. Trade-mark etched. 8. After plating. 9. The finished knife.] - -No matter how heavy the plate, if it is not properly burnished or -hardened after plating, the article will not give satisfaction in long -wear. When manufacturers treat their wares to as little burnishing as -possible, practically relying upon the buff alone for their finish after -plating, the result is most unsatisfactory. The buff finish looks all -right, but it does not harden the silver sufficiently and in consequence -the latter does not wear well. When the article comes out of the plating -bath the silver deposited is in a comparatively porous and “fluffy” -state. The buffing will hit the high spots but the proper process turns -the minute edges, closes the pores and makes the silver hard and -compact, vastly increasing the wearing quality. - -The silver thus deposited, is absolutely pure--finer, in fact, than any -articles of sterling silver. Sterling is but .925 fine, requiring an -alloy to stiffen it, whereas silver for plating can be used .999 fine. - - * * * * * - - -How do Chimes Strike the Hour? - -Chimes are ordinarily produced mechanically by the strokes of hammers -against a series of bells, tuned agreeably to a given musical scale. - -The hammers are lifted by levers acted upon by metallic pins or wooden -pegs stuck in a large barrel, which is made to revolve by clockwork, and -is so connected with the striking part of the clock mechanism that it is -set in motion by it at certain intervals of time, usually every hour or -every quarter of an hour. - -The chime mechanism is sometimes so constructed that it may be played -like a piano, but with the fist instead of the fingers. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Niagara Falls Power Co._ - -NIAGARA ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINE - -Tower supporting high tension transmission cables of long span crossing -of Niagara River between Buffalo and Fort Erie, Canada.] - - -How is Electricity Brought into a House? - -The electric transmission of power is effected by employing the source -of power to drive a machine called a dynamo, which generates an electric -current. - -This current is conveyed by a copper conductor, insulated from the -earth, to the distant station, where it passes through a machine called -an “electromotor,” one part of which is thereby made to revolve, and -imparts its motion to the machinery which is to be driven. - -This is the simplest arrangement, and is that which is commonly employed -when the original currents are not of such high tension as to be -dangerous to life in the case of accidental shocks. There is, however, a -great waste of power in employing low-tension currents when the distance -is great; hence it is becoming a common practice to employ high-tension -currents for transmission through the long conductor which connects the -two stations, and to convert these into low-tension currents before they -reach the houses or workshops where they are to be used. This is done -sometimes by employing the high-tension currents to drive a local dynamo -which generates low-tension currents. - -The discovery that a Gramme machine is reversible--that is to say, when -two Gramme machines are coupled together and one is operated as a -generator, the other will act as a motor--was an important step taken in -the transmission of power. Numerous efforts, since then, have been made -to utilize electricity for the transmission of power over a long range. -For this purpose the alternating current seems eminently adapted, as -transformers only are needed to raise the line to high transmission -voltage and to lower it again for use. - -The possibilities offered by electrical transmission of water power for -sections of country favored with waterfalls are numerous and have been -extensively developed, which should result in making them great -industrial centers. In this direction much has been done in utilizing -the immense power of the Niagara Falls by electrical transmission, works -having been built for this purpose both in New York and Canada, and -several hundred thousand horse-power developed. The application of the -power of waterfalls to the generation of electricity is rapidly -extending, and promises to become a great source of mechanical power in -the future. - - -What was the Origin of Masonic Signs? - -Fable and imagination have traced back the origin of freemasonry to the -Roman Empire, to the Pharaohs, the Temple of Solomon, the Tower of -Babel, and even to the building of Noah’s ark. In reality, it took its -rise in the middle ages along with other incorporated crafts. - -Skilled masons moved from place to place to assist in building the -magnificent sacred structures--cathedrals, abbeys, etc.--which had their -origin in these times, and it was essential for them to have some signs -by which, on coming to a strange place, they could be recognized as real -craftsmen and not impostors. - - -What is a Dictograph? - -The dictograph, to which much publicity is now given, by reason of its -use in detective work, is an instrument for magnifying sound. It was -invented by K. M. Turner of New York, in 1907. - -It consists of a master station in the form of a box less than a foot -long and six inches deep, and any number of sub-stations that may be -required. Any voice within fifteen feet is taken by the receiving -instrument and carried over the wires to any distance within about a -thousand miles. - -It has now been adopted by a great many business organizations as a -convenient means of inter-communication. - - - - -The Story of the Wireless Telegraph - - -Though one or more means of transmitting messages by electricity have -been known now for a great many years, the mechanisms by which they are -accomplished are understood only by those who take a general interest in -physical science, and the few to whom electrical communication is a -profession. So far as theory and details of working are concerned, there -are a good many people still in the same shadowy frame of mind as the -old Aberdeen postmaster, of whom the story is told. When asked to -explain the working of a telegraph instrument he said, “Look at that -sheep-dog. Suppose we hold his hind-quarters here and stretch him out -until his head reaches Glasgow. Then if we tread on his tail here he -will bark in Glasgow. As it is not convenient to stretch a dog, we -stretch a wire, and that serves the purpose.” - -As the name implies, “stretching a wire” is unnecessary in wireless -telegraphy, though in order to understand the finer points of theory one -needs to stretch the imagination a little. That, however, is not so -much, because there is any inherent obscurity or difficulty in the -underlying principles, as because the mechanism of all electrical -effects is more or less intangible. Electricity and magnetism operate -across apparently empty space, and the links which connect cause and -effect have to be guessed at. - -Three different methods have been made use of in wireless telegraphy, -which may be classed as conduction, induction and wave methods. In the -first method currents are sent through the earth from an electrode to -another at the sending station. In induction, use is made of the -property which alternating currents possess of exciting similar currents -in neighboring conductors, the aim being to get as intense a current as -possible in the secondary circuit. Mr. W. H. Preece, of England, by -combining the two, signaled in this way as far as forty miles. The third -and the only method which has proved practically available is by the use -of electro-magnetic waves. - -Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian, after long experiment, patented in 1897 a -method entirely independent of wires, the electric waves being sent, -presumably, through the ether, by the aid of a transmitting apparatus, -and being detected by a coherer, a glass tube filled with metallic -filings, into the end of which the terminals of a relay circuit enter. -The wave falls on conducting material and, the spark gap being replaced -by a coherer, the metallic filings magnetically cling together, closing -the relay circuit, so that a signal is made. On breaking the current, a -slight tap on the coherer or other means breaks the cohesion of the -filings and the relay circuit is broken. In this way a rapid succession -of signals can be sent. - -In 1899 Marconi conducted in England an exhaustive series of successful -experiments, sending messages across the English Channel from the South -Foreland to the French coast near Boulogne, and extending his results -until much longer distances were covered. The process of development was -continued until, to the world’s astonishment, signals were sent across -the Atlantic and, finally, commercial messages were transmitted over -this distance. - -Marconi’s system is based on the property supposed to be exerted by the -vibrations or waves of electric currents passing through a wire of -setting up similar vibrations in the ether of space. These waves extend -in every direction from the point of departure, and by ingenious and -very delicate receiving instruments their presence in space is indicated -and they are taken up in sufficient strength to repeat their pulsations -and in this way reproduce the signals sent from the transmitter. One -difficulty hitherto has been that a message may be received by hundreds -of receiving instruments in all directions, thus preventing secrecy. -Many efforts have been made to overcome this defect, but as yet with -only partial success. - -The distance to which messages can be sent has so far depended largely -on the height to which the wires extend above the earth’s surface, lofty -poles being erected at the stations. The height of these has been -gradually increased until the Eiffel Tower at Paris has been utilized as -a sending station. The strength of the electric waves has been similarly -increased to add to their space-penetrating capacity. The record of -wireless telegraphy has been in this way improved until now it has come -into daily competition with other means of news sending. Methods of -tuning the instruments have been adopted which limit the influence of -the currents to properly tuned receivers and in this way some degree of -secrecy is attained. - -[Illustration: MARCONI WIRELESS STATION] - -Though the honor of inventing the art of wireless telegraphy is -generally ascribed to Marconi, this is to give him more credit than he -deserves. The principles involved were discovered by others and the -utmost done by him was to invent a practical method of applying them. -There are other systems of wireless telegraphy of later invention than -that of Marconi, through a different application of the same principles. - -Messages have been sent to enormous distances, far surpassing the width -of the Atlantic, as from Nova Scotia and Ireland to Argentina, a -distance of 5,600 miles. Under exceptional conditions a distance of -6,500 miles has been attained, but the daily effective range of the best -equipped stations is little over 3,000 miles. For overland messages the -limit of distance is about 1,000 miles. - -There are a number of kinds of interference which arise from electrical -disturbances in the earth’s atmosphere. A flash of lightning is liable -to give rise to a wave of enormous power which will set half the aerials -on the earth vibrating in spite of the differences of pitch to which -they are tuned. Thunderstorms are at their worst in the summer in -temperate latitudes, but they occur to some extent all the year round, -and those in the tropics are of extreme violence. As a consequence it is -frequently almost impossible to decipher earthly messages owing to the -imperious signals from the clouds. Of the various methods adopted for -choking off the “atmospherics,” as the disturbances are called, one is -to use receiving circuits which respond only to a narrow range of -oscillations very different from those produced by a lightning flash. -The employment of a high-pitched musical note in the telephone is also -an advantage because its extreme regularity distinguishes it from the -marked irregularity of the stray waves. - -[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION ON A STEAMSHIP] - -On the palatial passenger steamers that plow the Atlantic the Marconi -apparatus enables the travelers to keep in touch with their friends, to -transact important business on either side of the water, and to secure a -continuity of life which was formerly divided by a sea voyage. All the -larger vessels now publish a daily paper on board, the news in which has -been supplied by the same agencies who feed the newspaper on land. -Information is flashed to meet or overtake the vessel and caught up by -her aerial, as she pursues her way at twenty-five or thirty miles an -hour. - -In the case of cargo vessels, the owners are able to get into touch with -them at any point of their voyage. They can advise the captain where to -call for coal or cargo, while he on his part can get into communication -with the authorities or his firm’s agents at the port of call, and have -every necessary or desirable preparation made for his arrival. Should an -accident happen, he can call assistance, inform the owners or relieve -anxiety and suspense. At no time is he isolated from the world. The -fortitude, courage and daring of those “who go down to the sea in ships” -has never been called into question, but it has if anything been -emphasized by the receipt of messages from an operator at his post, to -whom the bonds of duty were as bonds of steel, and who calmly operated -the key until the waves entered his cabin and brought him honorable -release. - -[Illustration: U. S. BATTLESHIPS “NEVADA,” “OKLAHOMA” AND “ARIZONA” - -The latest type of super-dreadnaught for the United States Navy, with a -displacement of 27,500 tons and engines of 28,000 horse-power. - -NOTE THE WIRELESS EQUIPMENT AT THE TOP] - -Relief has been brought in this way to vessels in distress and many -lives saved. An important example is that of the sinking of the Titanic -in 1912. By means of wireless messages from ship to ship the width of -the Pacific has been practically covered, as ships en route from America -to Australia or Asia can be kept in touch with Honolulu through almost -the entire journey. A law in the United States now requires that all -ocean passage-steamers carrying fifty or more passengers on routes of -200 miles or over must be equipped with efficient wireless apparatus and -operators. The distance reached must be at least 100 miles. The Canadian -law provides that every sea-going and coasting passenger ship of over -400 tons gross, registered in Canada, and every sea-going and coasting -freight ship of over 1,200 tons gross, shall be equipped with a wireless -apparatus. Wireless messages have been successfully sent from -aeroplanes, balloons and submarine vessels, and the naval vessels of all -nations are kept in easy communication by this method. Wireless press -messages between America and Europe are also matters of daily -performances. - - * * * * * - - -What is Forestry Work? - -A Division of Forestry was organized in the Department of Agriculture, -some years ago, and the most earnest efforts are being made to prevent -any needless waste of our timber lands. - -The usefulness of forests to man lies: (1) In furnishing him with timber -for building, manufacturing, fuel, etc., and with various other useful -products of trees. (2) In their influence on climate. (3) In their -influence on water-flow, by keeping the ground more moist, making the -outflow more regular, checking the rapid melting of snow, and keeping -the hillsides from being denuded of their soil, thus setting up streams -and covering cultivated valley lands. The necessity of a proper -preservation of the forests seems highly evident, but the nations have -been slow in waking up to this fact. Several of the countries of Europe -have been largely stripped of their woodlands by indiscreet cutting in -the poorest countries, and only recently have the nations been roused to -the necessity of their conservation. This is now being carefully -attended to in several countries, especially Germany. In China broad -mountain regions have been stripped of their trees, with the result that -this soil has been swept away by the rains, leaving the rocks bare, -while broad reaches of formerly fertile lowlands have been made sterile -by the material spread over them by the rains that swept the mountain -slopes. - -In the United States the broad original forests have been very largely -cut away, and those remaining have of late years been so largely reduced -by indiscriminate cutting and the ravages of carelessly kindled fires -that great alarm is felt as to the future of the lumber supply. Within -recent years vigorous efforts have been made to overcome this growing -evil. The American Forestry Association, founded in 1882, its purpose -being the conservative use of our forest resources, has now over 5,000 -members, residents of every state, and of Canada and foreign countries. -The first State Forest Commission was organized by New York in 1885 and -has now a very large forest reserve set aside in the Adirondacks. -Pennsylvania has also large forest reserves in its mountain districts, -and many other states have taken similar action. The art of forestry is -also being taught in the schools, and a large body of skilled foresters -are now in the service of the states and the general government. In the -new and active movement for the conservation of national resources the -preservation of the public forests ranks high, and to aid in this -purpose the government has withdrawn as national forest areas a vast -amount of the public lands, amounting at the present time to 192,931,197 -acres, an area about equal to that of Texas and Ohio combined. These -woodlands are under the charge of the National Forest Service and cared -for by about 3,000 men, of whom 250 are professional foresters. The -trees in these forests are cut with careful discrimination, and new -trees are planted to take their place, there being forest nurseries -containing about 20,000,000 plants and capable of supplying 18,000,000 a -year. New York has 1,600,000 acres in its forest reserve, Pennsylvania -over 920,000, and the reserves of the other states amount to a very -considerable area. - -[Illustration: FOREST SERVICE--A LOOKOUT STATION] - -[Illustration] - - -How did the Fashion of Wearing Cravats Commence? - -Cravats get their name from the French “cravate,” meaning a croat, -because this piece of dress was adopted in the eleventh century from the -Croats who entered the French service. Towards the end of the eighteenth -and the beginning of the nineteenth century the cravat attained an -incredible degree of extravagance, but common sense at last brought in -the simpler style of neckties that has since prevailed. - - -How does the Gas Meter Measure Your Gas? - -The quantity of gas used by each consumer is measured by an instrument -called a meter, of which there are two classes--the wet and the dry. - -The wet meter is composed of an outer box about three-fifths filled with -water. Within this is a revolving four-chambered drum, each chamber -being capable of containing a definite quantity of gas, which is -admitted through a pipe in the center of the meter, and, owing to the -arrangement of the partitions of the chambers, causes the drum to -maintain a constant revolution. This sets in motion a train of wheels -carrying the hands over the dials which mark the quantity of gas -consumed. - -The dry meter consists of two or three chambers, each divided by a -flexible partition or diaphragm, by the motion of which the capacity on -one side is diminished while that on the other is increased. By means of -slide valves, like those of a steam engine, worked by the movement of -the diaphragms, the gas to be measured passes alternately in and out of -each space. The contractions and expansions set in motion the clockwork -which marks the rate of consumption. The diaphragms in all the chambers -are so connected that they move in concert. - - -What is a Game Preserve? - -Game preserves have only been introduced comparatively recently in the -United States, for the hunting grounds have been freely open to the -hunter, but they have been common in Britain and other countries of -Europe for centuries. - -Their purpose here is the preservation and increase of wild animals -instead of their destruction. - -Deer parks have long been kept in this country, but the first systematic -attempt to foster wild game was made about 1860 by Judge J. D. Caton in -a park of Ottawa, Ill. - -Chief among those that followed on a large scale is the great game park -of Austin Corbin, near Newport, N. H., an enclosure of 36,000 acres, in -which a wire fence eight feet high encloses an oblong tract twelve by -five miles, through which passes a mountain range 3,000 feet high. -American game of all kinds are kept here, from buffalo, elk, and moose -to the smaller and more timid varieties, and there has been a rapid -increase. - -Dr. J. Seward Webb has a 9,000-acre preserve in the Adirondacks, and -various other large parks have been established elsewhere, in which our -fast-disappearing game animals are augmenting in numbers and game birds -of foreign origin have been introduced. - - - - -The Story of the Building of a Silo[17] - - -What is a Silo? - -A silo is a place or receptacle for storing green feed to preserve it -for future feeding on the farm. In this way green fodder, such as corn -and similar crops, are preserved in a green state to be fed in the -winter or next summer during an extremely dry season. The silo has the -same relation to cattle feed as the glass fruit jar that mother uses has -to the food she preserves in it. - - -The First Silo. - -Silos have been used since very early times in one form or the other, -and probably the first we have ever heard of are traceable back in -ancient history to the Syrians, who had pits in the ground for the -storage of animal feed. These pits have been used in various parts of -the Old World ever since and have also been used in the United States. -The pit does not give the best results. - -In order to overcome these defects we soon began to see silos erected -above ground. Cement, brick, tile and wood were used as building -material, with various results. The industry developed rapidly and soon -demonstrated what was necessary to keep the silage pure, sweet, clean -and succulent. Science and research have helped, until now we can -produce silos that will keep this green fodder in a sweet and succulent -state until the owner is ready to use it. - - -What is Put in the Silo? - -The principal silage crop is corn, but in different parts of the country -there are other crops which can be used to great advantage as -substitutes for corn. Among these are kaffir corn, sorghum, alfalfa, -clover, millet, cowpeas, soy-beans, sugar beets, oats and even weeds and -thistles. All of these make good silage when properly harvested and -stored. Any green fodder can be mixed with the above to make quantity -and secure good results. The main point to be remembered is that the -crops to be put away in the silo must contain a certain percentage of -sugar and starch in every combination. - - -Elements of Success or Failure. - -There are several things to be remembered by farmers when putting fodder -into the silo, if they want to have perfect silage to take out. One of -the main things is to see that the silage is cut to proper lengths, -which would be about half-inch or one-inch pieces. It should also be -well packed, especially next to the wall of the silo. It should have a -certain amount of moisture, which it naturally would have if put in at -maturity. Good silage is a result of proper cutting, proper packing and -a correct amount of moisture, because when the silage is stored it -begins to ferment. Heat is generated in the process of fermentation. If -the heat is lost through the silo wall, the fermentation is not correct. -If the silage is not packed properly and tightly, especially next to the -wall, it does not settle in a compact mass and air is admitted that -spoils the silage; or if the silo wall is porous this is apt to occur. -All these things must be guarded against or a great loss to the owner is -probable. - -[Illustration: A MODERN REDWOOD SILO WITH STEEL DOME ROOF] - - - - -The Story of the Advance of Electricity[18] - - -It is often remarked that the history of electrical development is the -history of modern industrial development. This is true, except that the -terms should be reversed. Electric lighting was not invented to equip -skyscrapers and the huge apartment buildings of today. In point of fact, -the invention of these structures was possible only because electric -light already existed. Electric motive power was not devised to supply -the great manufacturing establishments of the present. On the contrary, -such institutions were erected precisely because such a thing as the -electric motor was available. The history of modern industry is thus -seen emphatically to be the history of electricity. - - -The First Commercial Central Station. - -The first central station for the commercial distribution of electricity -was set going on the 4th of September, 1882, by Thomas Edison himself, -at 257 Pearl Street, New York City. Newspapers of the following day had -much to say. Wonder was expressed over the “blazing horseshoe that -glowed within a pear-shaped globe.” Another told of “the dim flicker of -gas supplanted by a steady glare, bright and mellow.” A third observed, -“As soon as it is dark enough to need artificial light, you turn the -thumb-screw and the light is there; no nauseous smell, no flicker, no -glare.” - -Among the five or six buildings supplied with the new lighting were the -_Herald_ offices and the Drexel Building, at the time one of New York -City’s show places. The illumination of the latter was held to be a -truly momentous achievement owing to its great size. The equipment, in -other words, reached the grand total of 106 lamps. In comparison, it is -interesting to mention the lighting equipment of the new Municipal -Building, in New York City, numbering something over 15,000 lamps. - - -The Old Pearl Street Plant. - -This primitive central station in Pearl Street was a converted warehouse -of brick construction, four stories high, and it was separated in two -parts by a fire wall. One of these parts was used for the storing of -underground supplies, while the other was occupied by the generating -machinery, for the support of which a special foundation of steel and -concrete was provided. The necessary steam boilers were accommodated in -the basement, while the second floor was occupied by six generators of -125 horse-power each, nicknamed “Jumbos.” - -Simple as sounds this original Edison equipment, it nevertheless -represented years of research and experimenting on the part of Edison -and those associated with him. - - -Edison and the Electric Light. - -In 1878 Thomas A. Edison, at his experimental laboratory at Menlo Park, -New Jersey, where he had already invented the carbon telephone -transmitter and many other things, undertook the task of devising a -general system for the generation, distribution and utilization of -electricity for lighting and power purposes. - -The first marked accomplishment in operative detail was a lamp with a -platinum wire burner of high resistance, protected by a high vacuum in -an all-glass globe, and with the leading-in wires sealed into the glass -by fusion. Such a lamp necessarily had a small illuminating power -compared with that of the arc light, which was the only electric light -then in commercial use. - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -“THE GREAT WHITE WAY” - -Times Square, New York, at night, with Broadway on the left, a curving -ribbon of white light. Here every night in winter thousands upon -thousands of people throng to theaters and cafés.] - -The next step in the development of Mr. Edison’s electric-lighting -system was taken on October 21, 1879, when he discovered that if a -carbonized cotton thread were substituted as a burner for the platinum -wire of his earlier lamp, the slender and apparently frail carbon was -mechanically strong, and also durable under the action of the electric -current. The announcement of the invention of the carbon filament lamp -was first made to the public in December, 1879. - -[Illustration: STEAM DYNAMO IN EDISON’S OLD STATION] - -With the experience gained by an experimental system at Menlo Park, Mr. -Edison began, in the spring of 1881, at the Edison Machine Works, Goerck -Street, New York City, the construction of the first successful -direct-connected steam dynamo. The development of an adequate -underground conduit proved also most serious. The district selected for -lighting was the area--nearly a square mile in extent--included between -Wall, Nassau, Spruce, and Ferry Streets, Peck Slip and the East River in -New York City. In those days such electrical transmission as -existed--this of course related largely to telegraphy--was accomplished -by means of a veritable forest of poles and wires augmented by the -distribution equipments of fire alarm, telephone, burglar alarm and -stock ticker companies. So used had people become to this sort of thing -that even the most competent electrical authorities of the time doubted -extremely whether Edison’s scheme of an underground system could be made -either a scientific or a commercial success, owing to the danger of -great loss through leakage. However, the Edison conduits once in use, -both the public and even the telephone, telegraph and ticker companies -acknowledged their feasibility. Such, in fact, was the success of the -new method that the city compelled at length the removal of all -telegraph poles. - - -In the Trenches. - -The systematic laying out of street mains in the first company district -was begun in the summer of 1881. It must not be thought, of course, that -these old-time conduits resembled strikingly those of the present day. -The method then used was to dig a trench in which were laid the pipes -measuring twenty feet in length. Through these the conductors were -drawn, two half-round copper wires kept in place first by heavy -cardboard and afterward by rope. The conductors having been drawn in, a -preparation of asphaltum and linseed oil was forced into the piping to -serve as insulation. The spending of three and four arduous nights a -week in these trenches by Mr. Edison and his associates suggests the -rigor of the later European warfare. This work, together with that -incident to the operation of the new station, often proved too much even -for Edison’s phenomenal endurance. At such times he slept on a cot close -beside the running engines, while the rest of the crew crawled in on the -lower row of field-magnet coils of the dynamos, a place warm enough, -though a trifle bumpy. One of the inventor’s early assistants tells of -going to sleep standing up, leaning against a door frame--this, after -forty-eight hours of uninterrupted work. - -[Illustration: THE DYNAMO ROOM OF THE FIRST EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHTING -STATION IN NEW YORK] - -September 4th saw a full 400 lamps turned on from the Pearl Street -station. From that day on the station supplied current continuously -until 1895, with but two brief interruptions. One of these happened in -1883 and lasted three hours. The other resulted from the serious fire of -January 2, 1890, and lasted less than half a day. The record in the -second case would appear astounding, as no less a handicap occurred than -the burning down of the station itself. The situation was saved, -however, by the presence of an auxiliary plant that had already been -opened on Liberty Street. - - -Edison as a Central Station Pioneer. - -The layman, while appreciating the tremendous advance in generating -machinery since the early eighties, is surprised to learn that the great -Edison system of today is conducted upon principles that Edison -developed and put into practice at that time. Edison’s, in truth, was -the master mind, the forming spirit of all the advances made in the -seventies and eighties. Exceedingly much, on the other hand, is due the -energy of his fellow workers, many of whom figure conspicuously in the -country’s electrical affairs at present. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Indiana Steel Co._ - -ELECTRIC POWER STATION - -The seventeen great gas engines are operated by gas from the blast -furnaces which was formerly allowed to escape. Each engine drives a -2,500-kilowatt dynamo.] - -In this manner Edison and his assistants became established in New York -City. Current at first was supplied free to customers for approximately -five months, which speaks quite as much for Edison’s Scotch “canniness” -as for his inventive genius. Well before the period was over the new -illuminant had justified itself, until today it shows itself an element -indispensable in every phase of the country’s activity. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC DELIVERY WAGONS LOADING EDISON LAMPS] - - -Early Growth. - -Within two years from the opening of the station the demand for service -had so increased that over one hundred applications were filed in excess -of what could be accepted, because the plant was taxed already to its -utmost capacity. Allusion has already been made to the auxiliary plant -at Liberty Street, a station of 2,000 lights’ capacity which was -instituted in 1886. By 1887, not only a second but a third district had -been mapped out, the whole extending from Eighteenth to Forty-fifth -Street. All the underground system in the two new districts was laid -according to Edison’s new three-wire patent; and it was presently -announced that customers would be supplied with power as well as with -light. - -Six months after the disastrous fire of 1890, in which the Pearl Street -station was burned, the site was chosen for the Edison Duane Street -building on which operations were so hastened that machines were -installed and current turned on the first of May the following year. - - -The Waterside Stations. - -For some time the need of a central generating plant had been apparent -to all familiar with the company’s facilities and prospects. Already -during the summer of 1898 an engineering commission had visited all the -chief electrical stations of Europe and consulted the best-known experts -of the industry, and in 1902 the first waterside station in New York was -opened upon a site bordering the East River between Thirty-eighth and -Thirty-ninth Streets. The new operating room contained sixteen vertical -engines with a capacity each of over 5,000 horse-power. From these -current was generated by 3,500 kilowatt generators and sent out to the -various distributing centers. - -As a very natural consequence of such development, the company by 1902 -had 420 miles of underground system supplying installation amounting to -1,928,090 fifty-watt equivalents. - - -Electricity a Living Factor. - -To talk about electrical development in terms of power consumed tells -but one side of the story. More impressive even than figures are the -immense number of uses to which electricity is put. Electric lighting, -introduced in 1882, has become practically the standard for -illumination, not only here, but for the entire civilized world. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC SEWING MACHINES IN THE MANHATTAN TRADE SCHOOL] - - -In the Printing Trade. - -Electric power was introduced, timidly, by way of a few fans in 1884 and -following this, in 1888, motor drive for printing presses was -undertaken. At the present moment in New York City there is hardly a -printing establishment worthy the name that is not electrically operated -throughout. Among the largest customers of the central station in New -York City are the great daily newspapers, among them the _Times_, the -_World_, the _Sun_, the _Evening Post_, and the _American_. - - -Construction. - -Not only are passengers conveyed up and down by electric elevators in -skyscrapers, but the buildings themselves are erected by means of -electricity. Recent examples of such construction are the Woolworth and -Equitable buildings in New York City; in this last instance a thousand -horse-power was used in digging the foundations alone. - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -A FAIRYLAND OF LIGHT - -The canyon of lower Broadway, south from the Woolworth Building--a -glorious miracle of light.] - -Not only are New York City’s subways operated by electricity; they were -also built by electricity, a statement which applies to the new subways -as well as the parts of the first system. In digging for the new -Broadway subway, an electric company supplied 25,000 horse-power. The -mammoth new aqueduct system by which water is carried from the Catskills -to the Battery is another example of electricity as a source of power -for large construction work. Still more picturesque is the use of -electricity in building the under-river tubes. Indeed, it is doubtful -whether this particular form of operation could have been carried on -without the aid of electricity. - - -Loft Manufacturing. - -Aside from these special instances of electricity in construction, one -must think of electricity as responsible for nearly all the -manufacturing, large and small, that goes on in the ever-increasing -number of loft-buildings throughout all large cities. For example, New -York City serves as the center of the garment-making industry for the -entire country, there being fully a quarter of a million garment-trade -workers in the Greater City. Along Fifth and Fourth Avenues are found -the large establishments, electrically equipped throughout for cutting, -stitching and pressing, while even in the smallest shops on the East -Side foot-power machines have become almost a thing of the past. - - -Electric Heating. - -The commercial use of electric heating is one of the more recent -electrical developments. For the most part, this also applies to the -garment trade and its closely allied clothing industries. In the -modernly equipped factories one finds electric flat irons, velvet -steamers and coffee urns. In the printing trade, electrically heated -linotype melting pots are being introduced successfully, while glue-pots -and sealing-wax melters can be seen in binderies and banking -institutions. Absence of fire risk accounts for the introduction of -electric heating units of different kinds into the motion-picture film -manufacturing industry, a rapidly growing province. The same element of -safety where inflammable substances are employed has produced the -electric japan oven and similar apparatus. - - -Electricity and Safety. - -The importance of electricity in factory work cannot be over-estimated. -A shop fully equipped with electric machinery is the best possible kind -of shop for employee as well as for the owner. Motor-driven machines are -the safest possible kind, while absence of overhead shafting and -dangerous belts mean health as well as security. In the electric shop, -motor-driven blowers carry fumes and dust away from the worker and bring -fresh air in. Electrically driven machinery is now regarded as the -standard machinery. In the various vocational schools in New York City -at present both boys and girls are taught to operate electrically driven -machines, it being assumed that those will be what the pupils will be -called upon to operate when they leave the school for the shop. - - -Electricity in Medicine. - -Another domain of electric enterprise of the greatest value for the -country at large is the increasing use of electricity in medicine. The -most conspicuous element in this is the wide-spread acceptance of the -X-ray as a necessary tool of the medical profession. Newspapers and -magazines were full of the remarkable X-ray achievements of surgeons in -charge of the various European war hospitals. Those, of course, were -spectacular instances, but it should not be forgotten that every day, in -our great hospitals, the X-ray is proving itself almost indispensable in -the examination of the sick and injured. Besides utilizing X-ray in the -diagnosis of disease, the rays themselves are employed in treatment of -cancer and skin diseases. The oculist, the dentist, indeed medical -specialists of all kinds, are coming to recognize the immense aid that -electricity can give in its various forms and applications. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT PRESS ROOM OF “THE NEW YORK TIMES” IS ALL -ELECTRICALLY OPERATED] - - -Electric Vehicles. - -The electric truck has already demonstrated itself as a safer and less -expensive rival of the gasoline delivery truck in many kinds of service. -In the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx alone, in New York City, -there were more than 2,000 such trucks in operation in 1916. Counting -both pleasure and business vehicles, the borough of Manhattan boasted -about 2,500 storage-battery driven wagons in active use. It is rather -interesting to note that Chicago operates many more electric pleasure -cars than New York, while New York does far more of its business by -means of the electric vehicle. Recently, there was established in New -York an electric co-operative garage, the joint enterprise of the -electric passenger car manufacturers and an electric company. It was -believed that by providing proper and adequate facilities for garaging -electric pleasure vehicles the use of passenger-electrics in New York -City would be greatly increased. - - -Electricity and the Home. - -In emphasizing the important part which electricity plays in the -business of a great metropolis, the home should not be forgotten. It is -now possible, by means of electric appliances, practically to eliminate -all drudgery from housework. The use of many of these domestic machines -is familiar to all: vacuum cleaners, washing machines, fans, and the -more usual electric cooking devices. Within the next decade, one looks -to see a remarkable advance in this direction. One anticipates the more -extensive use of electric refrigeration and other electric labor-saving -devices, to the great improvement of city homes, making them pleasanter -and more healthy as toilsome operations are done away with. And it must -not be forgotten that the city home, like the country home, is the -backbone of the well-being of the community. Electricity can have no -greater mission than improving, strengthening and upbuilding good -homes. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC TRAIN CHART AND SWITCH CONTROL] - -[Illustration: SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION - -In the upper view the electric chart on the wall facing the switch -operator indicates the location of every train in the New York subway -system at all times. The lower view shows typical subway construction -for third rail train and surface cars. The material used is reinforced -concrete.] - -[Illustration: ONE TYPE OF ELECTRIC CONSTRUCTION ON RAILROADS - -The system shown here is used upon the New York, New Haven and Hartford -Railroad. It consists of pairs of wire cables supported by bridges -placed about 300 feet apart. Rigid triangles of iron pipe are secured to -these cables and the trolley wire attached to the triangles. The trolley -wire is kept rigid and free from slack in this manner.] - - -Decreased Cost of Electricity. - -Closely akin to this is another electrical development most pleasing to -consider. Years ago, electricity was considered the luxury of the rich. -Now electric light is coming to be shed on rich and poor alike. Little -by little the shops, factories and dwellings of more humble inhabitants -are provided with electricity, so that cleanliness, safety and comfort -are by no means confined even to the well-to-do or the more comfortable -homes. - -One great factor in this change has been the decreasing cost of -electricity. Within the last decade, the cost of almost all necessities -of life has ascended with leaps and bounds, so that a dollar now, -expended in ordinary household goods, will purchase hardly more than -what thirty cents would in 1890. But all this while, the cost of -electricity has steadily decreased. With centralized generating plants, -improved machinery and better lamps, one dollar today will buy eighteen -times as much electric light as it would in 1884. With such facts before -us, it is fairly easy to predict the still further electrical -development of all important centers. There will be more and better -light in homes; there will be more and better light in offices and -factories, thus greatly lessening the chances for injury or eye-strain. -In all industry, great and small, laborious hand processes will be -replaced by safely operated electric machinery, while wider use of -electric labor-saving appliances will extend into the home. - -Hospitals, by aid of electricity, will be able to increase still more -their splendid work for the relief of suffering, while cleaner and safer -ways of living will serve as a preventive of disease. One can easily say -that with increasing electrical development the country will come to be -still greater, a country where electricity shall provide for the safety -and well-being of all its people. - - * * * * * - - -How is Die-Sinking Done? - -Die-sinking is the art of preparing dies for stamping coins, buttons, -medallions, jewelry, fittings, etc. The steel for the manufacture of -dies is carefully selected, forged at a high heat into the rough die, -softened by careful annealing, and then handed over to the engraver. -After the engraver has worked out the design in intaglio the die is put -through the operation of hardening, after which, being cleaned and -polished, it is called a “matrix.” This is not, however, generally -employed in multiplying impressions, but is used for making a “punch” or -steel impression for relief. For this purpose another block of steel of -the same quality is selected, and, being carefully annealed or softened, -is compressed by proper machinery upon the matrix until it receives the -impression. When this process is complete the impression is retouched by -the engraver, and hardened and collared like the matrix. Any number of -dies may now be made from this punch by impressing upon it plugs of soft -steel. - - - - -The Story in the Making of a Magazine[19] - - -The printing of a few thousand copies of one of the great American -magazines would not be a difficult feat for any large first-class -printing plant. The putting of the pages into type and running them -through the modern job presses could easily be accomplished. But when, -instead of a few thousand copies, millions of copies of the magazine are -printed, and these millions are produced unfailingly, week after week, -month after month, in a quality of printing rivaling the production of -but a few thousand copies, then, indeed, is it marvelous how results are -attained. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE SCORES OF PRESSES ON WHICH THE INSIDE PAGES OF -“THE SATURDAY EVENING POST” ARE PRINTED] - -Obviously, one of the first necessities towards such quantity production -is extra speed. This is secured to a certain degree by feeding the paper -into the presses from rolls instead of sheet by sheet. But as the -quality of the print must be retained, there is a limit in this speeding -beyond which it is not safe to go. Some other method of increasing the -production without lowering the quality of the printed sheet must be -resorted to--and this is duplication. By the process of electrotyping, -plates of metal duplicating exactly the printing surface of the type and -engravings in the original page, can be made. By providing as many -presses as may be needed, and by supplying each press with duplicates, -or electrotype plates as they are called, the problem of vast quantity -requirements has been solved, so far as the actual printing is -concerned. - -But there are other factors to be considered. For example, the printed -sheets, as they come from the press, must be folded to the size of the -magazine. This is done in two ways. Machines which take the sheets, one -by one, from the completed pile, and fold them to the required size, are -used on some publications, while on others a folding machine and a -binding attachment are included as integral parts of the press itself. -The paper, as it comes from the printing section of the press, is -mechanically folded, cut apart, the previously-printed cover sheet -wrapped around it, and the whole stapled together with wire stitches. -Thus the white paper, which enters the press from the roll in one long -ribbon, is delivered at the other end of the press printed, folded and -bound up into complete magazines at the rate of sixty each minute. -Issues of a magazine of thirty-two, forty-eight, or even more pages, are -produced in this manner. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE SEVERAL BATTERIES OF PRESSES NECESSARY TO -PRINT “THE LADIES’ HOME JOURNAL”] - -Many magazines, however, have more pages than this. Then it is necessary -to print on separate presses the various sections, or signatures as they -are called, which, when combined, will make up a complete magazine. If -only a few thousand were printed, these signatures could be collected -together by hand, and then fed into the wire-stitching machine, also by -hand. This method of collecting the sections and binding them together -was the one used until editions became so large that mechanical methods -became necessary. - -Now, however, the various sections which go to make up the magazine are -piled in certain troughs of a binding machine, which, with seeming human -intelligence, clasps one copy of each section in turn, and combining -them with a copy of the cover sheet, conducts them all, properly -collated, into the wire-stitching device, from which they are ejected -into orderly piles. Some magazines are bound together in a different -manner, however, and are not stitched with wire, but have the inside -pages and the cover glued together, and an ingenious binding machine has -been perfected which does this automatically. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF FOLDING MACHINES WHICH AUTOMATICALLY GRASP THE -FLAT SHEET AND FOLD IT UP TO THE SIZE OF THE MAGAZINE] - -Another marvel of the periodical of our day is the printing of some of -the pages in the full colors of the original paintings. To get this -result, it is necessary to print the sheet in four colors and to have -each printing in exactly the correct spot on the sheet (a variation of -only a hundredth of an inch being detrimental). The process would -normally be quite slow--too slow, in fact, for the tremendous quantities -necessary for the large editions of the modern magazine. Both of these -objections have been overcome, however, by arranging four small -cylinders, each printing its designated color--yellow, red, blue or -black--so that as the sheet of paper travels around a larger cylinder it -is brought into contact with the four printing cylinders in rapid -succession. - -Many magazines print two colors for covers and inside pages, instead of -full four-color printings. Presses of a nature somewhat similar to those -explained above are used. - -So much for the principal mechanical problems and their solutions, in -producing millions of magazines of a high quality each week. But there -must be some force that keeps this maze of machinery constantly at work, -so that all the parts properly co-ordinate. A slip-up at one spot might -cause such a delay as would result if, for instance, hundreds of -thousands of the inside pages were printed and ready for binding, but -lacked the printed covers. To prevent any such calamity in the work -rooms, there is usually prepared a daily schedule which plots out what -operation, on each issue of the magazine, is to be completed that day; -and if by chance any operation is not up to the schedule, immediate -steps are taken to speed up the work until the production has been -brought back to where it should be. - -And this schedule reaches out into the shipping and mailing departments, -so arranging it that the first copies off the press are speeded to the -far sections of the country. In this way all the copies as they come -from the presses are dispatched, so that the man in San Francisco and -the man in Philadelphia find the magazine on the news-stand on the same -day. - - * * * * * - - -How did the Ringing of the Curfew Originate? - -The word “curfew” is derived from the French “couvre-feu,” meaning -“cover fire.” - -The ringing of the curfew originated in England by William the -Conqueror, who directed that at the ringing of the bell at eight o’clock -all fires and lights should be extinguished. The law was repealed by -Henry I in 1100, but the bell continued to be rung in many districts to -modern times and probably may still be heard. - -The name was also given formerly to a domestic utensil for covering up a -fire. - -In the United States an ordinance establishing a curfew, with the -purpose of keeping young people off the streets, has existed in Salem, -Mass., since Puritan days. - -Similar ordinances have of late been adopted in other cities, in general -providing that children under fifteen shall not frequent the streets -after nine o’clock in summer and eight in winter. - - - - -The Story of America’s First Horseless Carriage - - -Mr. Elwood Haynes tells an interesting story of his first “horseless -carriage:” - -In 1890 I became interested in the natural gas field at Greentown, Ind. -My work took me through the country a great deal, and I drove a horse, -of course. The great trouble with the horse was his lack of endurance, -and this became more apparent day after day. - -One afternoon, or night, rather, while driving home after a hard day’s -work, I thought to myself that it would be a fine thing if I didn’t have -to depend on the horse for locomotion. From then on my mind dwelt a -great deal upon the subject of a self-propelled vehicle that could be -used on any country road or city street. - -I planned to use the gasoline engine. Even the lightest engines made at -that time were very heavy per unit of power, and rather crude in -construction. - -My work was confined to Greentown, Ind., in 1890 and 1891. In the fall -of 1892 I moved to Kokomo, and the following summer I had my plans -sufficiently matured to begin the actual construction of a machine. I -ordered a one-horse-power marine upright, two-cycle gasoline engine from -the Sintz Gas Engine Company of Grand Rapids, Mich. - -This motor barely gave one brake horse-power and weighed 180 pounds. (It -is interesting to note in this connection, that an aeroplane motor of -the same weight readily gives forty horse-power.) Upon its arrival from -Grand Rapids, in the fall of 1893, lacking a more suitable place, the -motor was brought direct to my home and set up in the kitchen. - -When the gasoline and battery connection were installed, the motor, -after considerable cranking, was started and ran with such speed and -vibration that it pulled itself from its attachments to the floor. -Luckily, however, one of the battery wires was wound about the motor -shaft and thus disconnected the current. In order to provide against -vibration I was obliged to make the frame of the machine much heavier -than I first intended. - -The machine was built up in the form of a small truck. The framework in -which the motor was placed consisted of a double “hollow square” of -steel tubing, joined at the rear corners by steel castings and by -malleable castings in front. The hind axle constituted the rear member -of the frame and the front axle was swiveled at its center to the front -end of the “hollow square,” in which the motor and countershaft were -placed. - -The total weight of the machine when completed was about 820 pounds. -July 4, 1894, when ready for test, it was hauled into the country about -three miles, behind a horse carriage, and started on a nearly level -turnpike. - -It moved off at once at a speed of about seven miles per hour, and was -driven about one and one-half miles farther into the country. It was -then turned about, and ran all the way into the city without making a -single stop. - -I was convinced upon this return trip that there was a future for the -“horseless carriage,” although I did not at that time expect it to be so -brilliant and imposing. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Haynes Auto Co._ - -AMERICA’S FIRST CAR, BUILT BY ELWOOD HAYNES] - - - - -The Story in a Sausage[20] - - -Away back in the dark ages, even before the Christian era, a Chinese -husbandman, so we are told, made a wonderful discovery--that pork was -good to eat. No one had ever considered the possibility of eating pork, -for in those days pigs were pets, and just as every family today has its -dog “Rover,” so then, every family had its pig “Scraps.” - -One day the house of Char-Lee was burned to the ground. The cause of the -fire is unknown. Char-Lee was filled with remorse and, as he walked -about among the ruins of his home, he felt that the gods of Good Luck -had indeed turned their backs on him. As he was thus bewailing his -misfortunes, he stumbled over a charred timber and fell flat on the -ground. In lifting himself to his feet, he burned the fingers of his -right hand, and, as does a child, he immediately proceeded to suck those -fingers. - -Imagine his amazement to find clinging to his fingers a substance most -luscious to the taste, and most gratifying to the palate! He looked to -see what it could be, and--behold, he saw that it was the remains of -“Scraps,” who had been lost in the burning house and roasted as perhaps -never has a pig been roasted since. - -Eager to further enjoy this new delicacy, Char-Lee proceeded to feast -himself, and it was then he found that pork not only pleases and -gratifies--but satisfies. Desiring to share his new delights with his -friends and neighbors, he called them together and they had a wonderful -feast. From that day to this we have eaten roasted pork. - -It was many, many years later that a Roman farmer, living on a beautiful -little farm at the mouth of the Tiber, formed the habit of putting fresh -pork in a covered pan and burying the whole deep in the cool sands by -the water’s edge. But one day he put the pan too near the edge and at -high tide the salt water from the ocean came up, filled the pan, and so -smoothed the surface of the sands that he was unable to find the place -where he had buried the container. - -After several fortnights he accidentally found his meat again. He -examined it carefully and was surprised to find that it had seemingly -kept in perfect condition, the only trouble being that the water had -gotten into his pan and his meat was all wet. So he carried it to his -house, and, putting a long skewer through the piece, he hung it high -above the fire in his open hearth, to dry it off before he should wish -to roast it. - -Later in the day he set out with two companions for a two-days’ hunting -expedition in the woods. As the party returned, laden with the spoils of -the hunt, his cook was preparing a meal for them. As he walked into the -house, he thought of his piece of pork. You can readily imagine his -astonishment when he found that the smoke from the smouldering embers, -while he was away, had turned the meat a deep cherry hue, and that the -fire, built up to prepare the home-coming feast, had broiled the piece -to a nicety. It savored of an aroma so rare that it was given preference -over even the choice pheasants which had been prepared. - -This was the first time a cured and smoked piece of pork had ever been -eaten, but could you have seen how delighted these men were with the -result of this accidental preparation, you would have known from their -enthusiasm that cured, smoked pork would one day have a very great -popularity. - -Later, a farmer and his family decided that they would like to eat meat -even during the summer months when the activity of haying season made it -impossible to prepare it in the usual way, and so, in March, or during -some other convenient cool period, he would kill the pig which had been -fattening all winter, and dissect the carcass into hams, shoulders, -bacon sides and mess pork. - -These parts were cured by different methods; one very popular way was to -put the hams and shoulders on about an inch of salt in the bottom of a -barrel, keeping these parts around the edge so as to leave room for the -mess pork and bacon sides in the center. Each part would be carefully -rubbed with salt before it was packed away, and slits were cut from the -surface of the hams to the bone, so that one might force salt in them, -thus keeping the meat from turning sour. The top of the meat was -sprinkled with sugar and saltpetre. A small barrel head was laid on the -top of the meat and a heavy stone placed on the head so as to hold the -meat firmly in place. At the end of a week just enough water was added -to cover the barrel head. - -[Illustration: CHESTER WHITE SOWS[21] - -Lard Type Hogs] - -Another way was to make a very strong salt brine. To this brine would be -added a little sugar and saltpetre, and, after packing the meat the same -as in the other case, enough of this brine would be added to entirely -cover the meat. By not letting the brine get old, or by keeping plenty -of salt on it, the meat could be kept in this way for several months, -but would be available for use at any time. - -Hams and shoulders were always smoked at the end of about two months. -When getting ready to smoke some pieces, the farmer would first soak -them twenty-four hours in clear, cold water. By tying a string through -the shank of a ham and running this string up through a hole in the -bottom of an inverted barrel, he could secure it by tying to a small -stick on the outside of the hole. Under the barrel he would build a -small fire, sometimes of corncobs, sometimes of hardwood and sawdust. It -was the task of the small boy of the family to start this fire in the -morning and maintain it all day, the idea being to keep a fire which was -not too hot but which would give off plenty of smoke. - -[Illustration: TAMWORTH BOAR.[22] Bacon Type Hog.] - -[Illustration: TAMWORTH SOW.[22] Bacon Type Hog.] - -[Illustration: BERKSHIRE BOAR.[22]] - -[Illustration: BERKSHIRE SOW.[22] Dual Purpose Hog.] - -At the end of three days the meat was considered thoroughly smoked, -although some men liked it smoked much longer. After it had cooled off -from the smoking it was hung in a cool, dry place or packed in a barrel -of oats, so as to keep it from getting a damp mold and spoiling. - -When a farmer had killed a hog, he would render out certain of the fats -in an iron caldron. He would take certain parts of the meat and make his -home-made sausages, but further than that, by-products were practically -unknown. - -The foregoing might be considered a short synopsis of the pork-packing -industry up to the point which we will call the Modern Era. - -This period had a small start back in the early days when a small dealer -would kill a few hogs, sell the sausage and lard and cure and smoke the -parts, carrying them as far into the summer months as he could, selling -them out to his trade. Various methods were resorted to in order to keep -mold and insects from spoiling the product. Perhaps the most generally -used of these methods was to sew the piece of meat in a canvas sack and -paint it with barytes. This gave them an airtight container for the meat -and enabled them to keep smoked meats all during the summer months. - -The advent of refrigeration, however, really marked the beginning of the -modern packing era. When men learned the control of temperature it -became possible for slaughter houses to assume such proportions as to -warrant scientific research for the best possible methods of carrying on -the business. - -The story of the development of these methods would be almost endless, -but a trip through an up-to-date packing plant of the present day will -show what time has brought about. - -As the hogs come in from the farmers and shippers they are received by -the live stock department, where they are carefully sorted and graded, -and then run into holding pens, to carry over until they shall be driven -to slaughter. These pens must hold thousands of hogs, for although the -stock is held two or three days at the most before it is slaughtered, we -must remember that the more important of the packing houses kill -thousands of hogs each day, so these pens must be more or less gigantic -affairs. The more modern of them are constructed of concrete and brick, -and are a picture of cleanliness and sanitation. They are well protected -by substantially built roofs and side walls so that the animals are not -exposed to the weather at any time of the year. - -Veterinarians in the employ of the government examine all the hogs that -come into these pens, and any that seem to be at all sickly, or for any -reason unfit for food, are held out. - -On the killing floor a small army of men is engaged in the business of -cleaning and dressing the carcass of the hog. Each man has his -particular part of the work to do, and to this end the hogs are conveyed -around the room past the various workmen by means of an endless chain -and trolley, so that each butcher’s work is put right before him and he -does not have to make any unnecessary moves. The whole department works -like one vast machine, and each man is a very definite and necessary cog -in the whole scheme of procedure. - -Perhaps the most wonderful thing about this department is the perfection -that they are able to reach in cleaning the carcasses. The hogs are -first run through a great machine which takes all but a few stray hairs -from them. This machine contains a number of rotating beaters and -high-pressure streams of water. - -As soon as they come out of the machine, the men on the rail finish the -job of cleaning the carcass and each animal is then run through a -high-pressure washing machine so that it is absolutely clean before a -single incision is made in it. - -[Illustration: REFRIGERATING MACHINERY - -These great pumps are used for circulating the brine through the cooling -system of one of the great packing houses in Buenos Ayres, Argentine - -_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._] - -[Illustration: THE HALF-WAY HOUSE - -Cattle from the Western plains gathered in the Union Stockyards awaiting -slaughter and subsequent shipment. The great Union Stockyards in Chicago -are the largest live-stock market in the world. Beef is slaughtered and -cleansed very much in the same manner as the pork described in “The -Story in a Sausage.” - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - -The workmen all stand on high benches, up from the floor, and under the -hogs we find troughs to keep any scraps from getting under the workmen’s -feet. The floors at all times are kept as clean as can be, and the meat -is taken away quickly so that there is no chance of contamination of the -finished product with the hogs which are just coming from the slaughter -house. - -Trained men, some of them veterinarians, in the employ of the -government, make a thorough inspection of the glands and other organs of -the hog. They are so particular that even bruises must be trimmed out -before the animals are allowed to pass and go on with the bulk which are -fit for food. It is surprising to learn how many carcasses, or parts, -are condemned because of one thing or another, for the least sign of -sickness or unfitness of any kind calls forth a government “Condemned -Tag” and holds the animal out to one side to be used for fertilizer or -some other inedible purpose. - -Passing through the hog chill rooms, on the way from the killing floor, -one is impressed with the great number of hogs hanging there in a -temperature near the freezing point. This temperature is maintained both -winter and summer, so that the hogs may be thoroughly chilled and the -animal heat entirely eliminated as quickly as possible after the -killing, so that there will be no chance of the meat souring or any -unwholesome condition arising. - -After about forty-eight hours in these chill rooms, the hogs are run -onto the cutting floor, where they are made into the various commercial -cuts which are seen in the meat markets at home. They start out with the -whole side of a hog and work it through, until they have what the -packers call the “Commercial Cuts”--that is to say, the hams, loins, -spare ribs, the bacon sides, and so on. - -The cutting room is a light, airy room with a high ceiling, and -everything in it seems a perfect example of cleanliness, and men all -work with white aprons, jackets and caps. - -The next stop is in the by-products building. As the writer entered, his -guide told him the old bromide about “everything about a packing house -being saved except the squeal, and even that having been known to appear -on a phonographic record.” He thought to have some fun by asking the -guide about the smell, but the laugh was on him, for the guide showed -him how the air containing any odor was simply run through a condenser -into a great volume of water, which absorbed it. The gases which had -made the odor in the first place were then taken out in the form of -solids, simply by evaporating the water away. The big evaporators which -take care of this work are extremely interesting pieces of machinery to -see. - -There is a surprisingly large amount of expensive machinery in the hair -plant. Hog hair would probably not appeal to the average person as being -a thing of particular value, but it is processed so as to make the -finished product worth as much as the meat itself. - -Certain parts of the hog carcasses which would not be palatable enough -to go into human consumption are made up into stock foods. These are -sold under a guaranteed analysis. Highly-paid chemists are busy all the -time checking up the analysis of these foods, for they must contain -certain amounts of protein and crude fiber, which is said to be very -beneficial to stock in general. - -Another department manufactures what is called a balanced ration, -consisting of a certain amount of grain and a certain amount of this -stock food, or “digester tankage,” as it is called. This balanced ration -is said to be the most nutritious food and the quickest fattener which -can be given to animals. It is made up as a result of protracted -experiments and much scientific research, both by state institutions and -by private individuals. - -There is always a certain amount of grease which is not edible, but -which is suitable for soap stocks, and the tank products which are not -fit for food are made into commercial fertilizers, which are gotten up -under chemical formulas, and are made up particularly for different -kinds of grains, grasses, flowers and the like. - -[Illustration: COLD STORAGE OF MEAT, BUENOS AYRES, ARGENTINE - -Interior of one of the great South American cold storage plants. Much of -the meat consumed in Europe is shipped from this point. - -_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Armour & Co._ - -PACKING BACON - -The girls are packing sliced bacon into glass jars, taking the slices -from a moving belt which passes in front of them. The rooms are light, -thoroughly ventilated, and cleaned at the end of each day. The girls’ -hands are manicured at frequent intervals by manicurists employed by the -company.] - -The next place is the lard department. Here great closed tanks cook the -fats, under high steam pressure, and make them into snow-white lard. -There are great open caldrons, steam jacketed, where an even and uniform -temperature is maintained. Only the pure leaf lard, which is supposed to -be the choicest fat of the hog, is cooked in these kettles. In the lard -packing room there is much automatic machinery, with which the various -sized packages of lard are weighed out. Machines hermetically seal the -tins, and men pack them in crates and carefully weigh them over two -scales. - -The average person does not have even an idea of what the modern curing -cellar is like. The brines and curing mixtures are prepared by trained -men who do no other work but this. Everything goes exactly according to -formula, and the different ingredients are weighed out to the ounce. The -guide insisted that a bare ten per cent of all the hams or bacon sides -produced in the plant are finally allowed to bear the company’s -trade-mark. The men who finally select these goods are the oldest and -most trusted employees of the firm. They weigh out a certain amount of -this meat for each tierce, or vat, to be packed, and then an exact -number of gallons of pickle is put in with the meat so that each pound -of meat will have just a certain amount of pickle to cure it. This is -said to insure a uniform product so that one trade-marked ham is exactly -like another. - -Even the length of time which these are left in cure must not vary a -day. In the great curing room thousands of vats and tierces are piled, -and the usual tierces hold about three hundred pounds of meat, while the -vats hold nearly fifteen hundred pounds. - -In the dry-salt curing cellars are kept enormous stocks of the cheaper -kinds of meat. These, instead of being cured in brine, are rubbed in -salt and piled away. These piles are perhaps three or four feet high, -and are so neat and true that they appear to have been the work of a -master mason. A single one of these dry-salt curing rooms holds over -three million pounds. - -Sliced bacon, fancy sausage and other specialties are usually packed in -a separate room, into attractive cartons for the retail trade. - -The standard of cleanliness in the sausage kitchen has to be unusually -high. Wherever white tile is not possible, white paint is used in -profusion. The shining metal tables and trucks, on which the product is -handled, give a new confidence in sausage. The girls and men employed -all wear clean white aprons, jackets and caps, and no effort is spared -in keeping everything and everybody in the place in an ideal condition. - -The meat is run through enormous automatic grinders and choppers, and -through mixers that approach a dairy churn in size. After it has been -properly mixed and thoroughly taken care of, it is put into automatic -machinery, run by air pressure, which stuffs it into the ham sacks and -casings, in which we see the sausage in the markets. The cooking is done -in great vats and in enormous electric ovens. - -When we stop to think of the proportion of our food which is a -packing-house product, we can be glad indeed that conditions such as -those described above are becoming available more and more every day. - - * * * * * - - -Why do We Call them “Dog-Days”? - -When we talk about “dog-days” now, we mean the period of the year -between July 3d and August 11th, twenty days before and after the rising -of the “dog-star.” - -The name was applied by the ancients to a period of about forty days, -the hottest season of the year, at the time of the rising of Sirius, the -dog-star. - -The time of the rising is now, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, -different from what it was then (July 1st). It is now about July 23d. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC COINING PRESS, U. S. MINT, PHILADELPHIA - -Woman feeding planchets to brass tubes, from the bottom of which they -are carried to the steel dies which form the coins.] - - -How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece Made? - -The process of converting the precious metals into coins is an -interesting one. - -The rolling machines through which the ingots are passed are adjustable, -the space between the rollers being governed by the operator. About two -hundred ingots are run through per hour on each pair of rollers. - -When the rolling is completed the strip of metal is about six feet long. -As it is impossible to roll perfectly true, it is necessary to “draw” -these strips, after being softened by annealing. The drawing benches -resemble long tables, with a bench on either side, at one end of which -is an iron box secured to the table. In this are fastened two -perpendicular steel cylinders. These are at the same distance apart that -the thickness of the strip is required to be. It is drawn between the -cylinders, which reduces the whole to an equal thickness. - -These strips are now taken to the cutting machines, each of which will -cut 225 planchets per minute. The press used consists of a vertical -steel punch. From a strip worth $1,100 about $800 of planchets will be -cut. These are then removed to the adjusting room, where they are -adjusted. After inspection they are weighed on very accurate scales. If -a planchet is too heavy, but near the weight, it is filed off at the -edges; if too heavy for filing, it is thrown aside with the light ones -to be remelted. - -The planchets, after being adjusted, are taken to the coining and -milling rooms, and are passed through the milling machine. They are fed -to this machine through an upright tube, and as they descend are caught -upon the edge of a revolving wheel and carried about a quarter of a -revolution, during which the edge is compressed and forced up. By this -apparatus 560 nickels can be milled in a minute; for large pieces the -average is 120. - -The massive but delicate coining presses coin from 80 to 100 pieces a -minute. These presses do their work in a perfect manner. After being -stamped the coins are taken to the coiner’s room. The light and heavy -coins are kept separate in coining, and when delivered to the treasurer -they are mixed in such proportions as to give him full weight in every -delivery. By law, the deviation from the standard weight, in delivering -to him, must not exceed three pennyweights in one thousand double -eagles. - -The coinage of the United States mints since the organization of the -government has amounted to nearly 6,000,000,000 pieces, valued at over -$4,000,000,000. - - -How does a Bird Fly? - -The wing of a bird is an elastic, flexible organ, with a thick anterior -and a thin posterior margin; hence the wing does not act like a solid -board, but is thrown into a succession of curves. When a bird rises from -the ground it leaps up with head stuck out and expanded tail, so that -the body is in the position of a boy’s kite when thrown up. The wings -are strongly flapped, striking forward and downward, and the bird -quickly ascends. It has been shown that the wing describes a figure 8 in -its action, the margin being brought down so that the tip of the wing -gives the last blow after the part next the trunk has ceased to strike; -hence, standing in front of a bird, the wing would be divided into two, -the upper surface of one-half and the lower surface of the other being -visible at the same time. These portions are reversed when the wing is -drawn back and towards the body, before beginning another stroke; but it -will be observed that during retraction the wing is still sloped, so -that the resemblance to a kite is maintained. There are many varieties -of flight among birds; of these the most remarkable is the sailing -motion, in which the wings are but slightly moved. Probably the original -impetus is maintained by the kite-like slope of the wing, and advantage -may be taken of currents by a rotation of the wing at the shoulder, a -movement invisible at any distance. - - - - -The Story of the Big Redwood Trees[23] - - -The “Big Trees” of California are the most magnificent specimens of tree -growth that have ever been found. In addition, they are the oldest known -living things; they connect the present with the past in a chain of -living rings in the tree that betray their great age to the modern -scientist. Estimates of the age of the “Big Trees” vary from the -Christian Era through a period dating back beyond the coming of the -Christian Saviour about 4,000 years. - -The “Big Trees” of California are known as the “Sequoias,” and they are -divided into two different although closely related species. The few -enormous trees of great age which are now preserved in groves are known -as the _Sequoia Gigantia_. These big trees grow at an altitude between -4,000 and 7,000 feet, and, whether individual or in groves, they are -found in protected valleys, canyons, etc. - -What is known as the Redwoods, or scientifically listed as _Sequoia -Sempervirens_, grow in heavy stands and really are a younger growth of -the “Big Trees.” The redwoods grow in the fog belt in the counties -bordering the coast from Monterey Bay north to the Oregon line. These -trees range in age from 500 to 2,000 years, and are generally supposed -by the scientists to be a reproduction growth that began their earthly -existence shortly after the glacial period. The _Sequoia Gigantia_ -reproduce from cones, while the redwoods reproduce from suckers that -grow from the stump. The redwoods bear non-fertile cones. Both species -of the sequoias are evergreen. - -These trees, including both species, range in height from 100 to 400 -feet and in circumference from 15 to 90 feet. When full grown the “Big -Trees” are proportionate and symmetrical in girth and height and the -beauty of the tree is enhanced by flutings that traverse the bark from -the base to the apex. The root system is a remarkable feature of the -“Big Trees,” for they have a very poor footing for trees of their great -size and weight. The roots radiate a short distance below the surface of -the ground and there is no stabilizer in the shape of a tap root such as -in other woods. The bark ranges in thickness from four to thirty inches, -although in rare instances it has been found fifty inches thick. The -bark is light, soft and of a bright cinnamon color. The lumber from the -redwood tree is light, and ranges in color from medium to light cherry, -while the lumber from the “Big Trees,” or _Sequoia Gigantia_, has a -decided pink cast. - -John Muir, the eminent California naturalist, evolved the theory from -the topographical position of the enormously big trees, which grow only -in the vicinity of Yosemite Park, that they escaped the glacial action -because they were located in protected places in the mountains. - -Commercial redwood--and there are twenty-one mills cutting redwood--is -one of the most valuable woods on the Pacific coast. It carries with it -into lumber two traits of the tree itself--fire retardance and rot -resistance. These two qualities are the real secrets of the “Big Trees.” -There is no fungus growth on the redwoods neither are the redwoods -attacked by boring worms or other insects so common to other species of -wood. - -Some of the giant redwood logs must be split in the woods with powder -before they can be handled on the saw carriage, and the average yield -per acre is in the neighborhood of 150,000 feet. At the present rate of -cutting, about 400,000,000 feet a year, there is more than one hundred -years’ supply of redwood still standing. - -The redwoods thrive in moisture--it is taken into the roots, the foliage -and the bark. This accounts for the remarkable rot-resisting quality. -The railroads prefer redwood for ties because of its resistance to decay -in contact with moist soil. The Southern Pacific Company today has in -service in some of its sidings redwood ties that were put down under its -rails fifty-five years ago. - -[Illustration: A LORDLY PILLAR IN ONE OF “GOD’S FIRST TEMPLES” - -“Grizzly Giant,” a redwood in Mariposa Grove, California, one of the -most wonderful of all wonderful sights in the West - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - -Fire retardance is a remarkable feature of redwood. In the early days of -logging, when modern machinery was not available, the woodsmen were -confronted with the problem of moving tremendously heavy trees. About -sixty per cent of redwood is moisture, and what is known as the “butt -cut” logs--the first cut above the ground, which is usually sixteen feet -in length, will weigh from thirty to fifty tons. In order to move these -heavy logs, therefore, it was necessary for the woodsmen to get rid of -the bark, the undergrowth and the branches, which, in logging parlance, -is known as “slash.” He soon learned that redwood so strongly resists -fire that it was entirely safe to set fire to the logged-over field, -burning out this slash without any damage whatever to the logs, although -they were exposed to a fierce fire for a period of eight to twelve -hours. Redwood does burn, but very slowly, and those who are familiar -with California redwood know that it is the despair of the camper to -endeavor to build a fire with it. Redwood does not contain pitch, the -inflammable element in wood, and, in addition, it is extremely porous, -quickly absorbing water. These two traits, in addition to the chemical -composition of the wood itself, give it the fire retardance quality. - -Redwood lumber, being light in weight and singularly free from many of -the defects so prevalent in other wood, is extremely easy to work. When -properly dried it does not shrink, warp or swell. It is capable of -producing magnificent tones for interior finish, and some of the most -charming homes on the Pacific coast have been made so by reason of the -wonderful possibilities of redwood in this respect. Remarkable -color-tone finishes are done by acid stains. Redwood is also a specialty -wood. It has been used for years by the organ manufacturers in the West -for organ pipes, giving eminent satisfaction. For incubators it is -particularly desirable, while for concrete form lumber, and particularly -in hot sections where the fierce heat of the sun is liable to warp other -woods, it gives wonderful service by “staying put.” Redwood is one of -the few woods that can be used over again for concrete work. For siding, -sheathing, sub-flooring, shingles, window casings and frames, redwood is -much used, because of its resistance to decay, both from contact with -moisture or dry rot. - -Redwood’s hardihood, due to the natural acids in the wood, make it so -weather-resisting that it will last just as long unpainted as it does -painted. However, there is no wood that takes and holds paint better. -This is due to the absence of pitch and the porosity of the wood. It -also possesses a remarkable resistance to corrosive acids and for this -reason is the preferred material for tanks and vats in wineries, -breweries, chemical works, mines, tanneries, etc. - -The great bulk of redwood lumber has for years been consumed in the -State of California, with about 50,000,000 feet annually going to -Australia and the Orient and about 50,000,000 feet shipped by rail to -the Middle West and East, the eastern shipments consisting practically -of house materials and finishing stock. - - * * * * * - - -How did the Expression “Forlorn Hope” Originate? - -In the expression “forlorn hope” we have made the Dutch word “hoop” -meaning a “company” into hope. - -The “forlorn hoop” was a body of men, usually volunteers, selected from -different regiments, to lead an assault, enter a breach or perform some -other service attended with uncommon peril. - -[Illustration: WALL STREET, KNOWN AROUND THE WORLD - -_Photo by Brown Bros._] - - -Why is “Wall Street” Known Around the World? - -This narrow canyon street in the lower part of the Borough of Manhattan -is the financial center of New York City. The various exchanges and the -largest banking institutions are situated here, and stocks and bonds are -dealt in to a vast extent. Its control over finance has spread until now -it affects the whole country and is a rival of the great financial -centers of Europe. - -In the picture, Trinity Church is shown, lying at the head of Wall -Street, on Broadway, with its quaint old churchyard and its spire -insignificant amid the giant skyscrapers that surround it. Trinity -Church was founded in 1696 and rebuilt in 1839. It is probably the -wealthiest and most influential of the churches in the United States, -controlling many valuable real estate properties in New York City, and -having some of the richest and most prominent people in the country -among its members. - -Starting approximately a quarter of a mile south of Wall Street, -Broadway, New York City’s main business thoroughfare, extends for -fifteen miles to the northern end of Manhattan Island. The activity and -variety of its traffic, the elegance of its shops, and the massiveness -and grandeur of many of its public and private buildings, makes it one -of the most interesting streets in the world. - - -What Makes a Stick Seem to Bend in Water? - -When we hold a stick partly in the water, it looks as though the stick -bends just where it enters the water. That is due to the change of the -direction of the light after it enters the water. This change in the -direction of the light rays is called refraction. Glass, water and other -solids and fluids each have different powers of refraction. - -The law of refraction comes into operation when a ray of light passes -through a smooth surface bounding two media not homogeneous, such as air -and water, or when rays traverse a medium the density of which is not -uniform, such as the atmosphere. - - -What Causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? - -When we eat anything, it passes into the throat after we have chewed it, -and instead of just dropping down into our stomachs, there is a nine or -ten inch series of rings in our throats, that takes the food, passing or -squeezing it from one set of muscle rings to the other. These muscle -rings are capable of working both up and down. If something is eaten -which causes vomiting, the muscles work the other way and force the -matter from the stomach. - -When one is frightened a sort of a hollow feeling comes into the stomach -and the muscles of the throat work upward, pressing against the windpipe -and causing one to feel as if there was a lump there. - - -How are We Able to Hear Through Speaking-Tubes? - -We know that when we speak, the sound waves that we set in motion are -carried in every direction. Now when we speak into a tube, the sound -waves cannot travel in all directions, but must follow the tube, and so -we can hear through a tube at a greater distance than we can when -speaking in the usual way. - -The use of a megaphone or speaking trumpet for conveying the sound of -the voice to a distance is based on the same principle. - - -Why do We Always Shake Hands with Our Right Hand? - -The custom of shaking hands with the right hand has come down to us from -the time when everyone carried a sword or knife. In those days when one -met a stranger it was customary, as an indication of friendly intention, -to hold out the right hand to show that it did not hold a sword or knife -ready for attack. - - - - -The Story in a Billiard Table[24] - - -The origin of billiards is lost in antiquity. Who invented the game and -the early processes of its evolution remain mysteries. - -The first known reference to the game with any traditional or historical -accuracy occurs in Abbe McGeoghegan’s “History of Ireland.” Cathire -More, a sub-king who ruled over Leinster, died A. D. 148. The Abbe, -quoting from King Cathire’s will, says, “To Drimoth I bequeath fifty -billiard balls of brass with the cues of the same material.” - -As early as the fifteenth century we have much evidence of the -universality of the game all over southern Europe. It was certainly -known in France in the time of Louis IX, who died nine years before -Columbus discovered America. - -Shakespeare, in Anthony and Cleopatra (Act II, Scene 5), makes the -latter say, “Let us to billiards.” - -Cotton’s “Compleat Gamster” published in 1674, refers to billiards as -“This most gentle, cleanly and ingenious game.” He states that it was -first played in France, but later gives Spain as its birthplace. - -That the game was well known in England, and in fact in all Europe, is -revealed when Cotton says, “For the excellency of the recreation, it is -much approved of and played by most nations of Europe, especially -England, there being few towns of note therein which hath not a public -billiard table; neither are they wanting in many noble and private -families in the country.” - -Billiards was brought to America by the Spaniards who settled St. -Augustine, Florida, in 1565. While we have no direct evidence, it is -very safe to assume that the English gentlemen, so familiar with the -game in the home land, who colonized Virginia in 1609, were not long in -introducing it in Jamestown. - -There is also every reason to believe that the French colonists in -Maryland and Canada let no great time elapse before importing tables and -equipment into those colonies. - -In the days of Cromwell, billiards had been tabooed by the Puritan, not -on moral grounds, but rather political. Billiards was the game of the -aristocracy and the Puritan hated not only the aristocrat, but the style -and color of his clothes, the cut of his hair, as well as the games he -played. - -Doubtless this attitude was carried to America by the New England -colonists, and only when those colonies had been diluted by the -injection of other social groups did Puritan prejudice die and billiards -enter into their recreational life. - -However, there is no doubt that by the latter part of the seventeenth -century the game was universally played in the United States. - -From that time to the present the tide of popularity for billiards as -the premier indoor game has been steadily rising. - -Unlike most things in the affairs of men, billiards has not developed at -either end of society, thus working toward the opposite extreme; but it -began at both ends and worked towards the middle. - -In the early days we witness the strange spectacle of the game being -indulged in by the wealthy and leisurely class on the one hand, and the -idle and vicious on the other. It is easy to understand why. The first -group was the logical extension of the old-world aristocracy. The second -group lived in an age when the great middle class was struggling for a -foothold in a new country. Men had very little time and disposition for -play, and this, coupled with the remnants of Puritanic influence, left -the game in the hands of those who lived by their wits rather than work. - -From these two extremes, therefore, the game began to work toward the -great middle classes. In process of time recreation became a necessity, -until today it is considered a duty. Men learned to play and, casting -about for a game worthy of them, naturally laid hold of billiards. - -Toward this desired result the Y. M. C. A. and church clubs have -contributed greatly. They have broken down much of the illogical -prejudice against the games, and have shown the public-room keepers that -billiards can flourish under good and healthful conditions. - -As the game became more universally played, a better class of -billiard-room keepers entered the commercial field, thus helping to -eliminate the incompetent and vicious. - -Today the game has practically thrown off the last vestige of disrepute. -In those sporadic instances where such is not the case, it is due to two -causes. First, the majority of people in the community have low ideals. -Second, excessive license taxes forces certain room keepers to resort to -disreputable means for keeping alive their business. - -Nevertheless, billiards today throughout the land is ranked among the -highest and cleanest forms of recreation. The exceptions mentioned prove -the rule. - -Through a long, hard, vigorous opposition the virtues of billiards have -asserted themselves. Today the game stands vindicated and triumphant. It -is entering thousands of homes, church clubs, industrial welfare, -charitable, educational and all other institutions. There are more -billiard players in the United States than there are baseball players; -not mere spectators, but actual players. - -One large company alone manufactures 500,000 cues every year, and we -must remember that a billiard cue, unlike a baseball bat, can be -repaired and lasts for many years. This fact is sufficient to convey an -idea of the vast extent to which the game is played. - -In the early part of the nineteenth century there were no manufacturers -of billiard equipment in the United States. - -In 1840 J. M. Brunswick, who operated a small furniture repair shop in -Cincinnati, Ohio, conceived the idea of making a pigeonhole table. -Success in this line led him to experiment in the manufacture of -billiard tables, practically all of which were then imported. The -business flourished. At first only the 6 x 12 English pocket tables were -made--later the small French carom tables were built. - -The two main objects of billiard construction are to create an accurate -medium for play and then to keep the table permanently accurate by -making it impervious to atmospheric or climatic conditions. - -To accomplish this with wood has taken years of experience and -experimentation. - -Accuracy is obtained by the employment of specially-trained and -long-experienced workmen. One large company now has hundreds of men who -have been in its employ for twenty years and many who have served from -twenty-five to forty years. These men know their business. - -Permanent accuracy is obtained by close adherence to two principles. -First, to give weight to the table. One model, 5 x 10 feet in size, -weighs 2,000 pounds. Second, all wood parts are built up with veneer -layers; never are they constructed of solid blocks of wood. A billiard -table is the last word in the art of cabinet-making. - -There are six principal parts to all tables. - -_The Legs._--Massive as these are, they are built up, not turned from -solid blocks. In all legs there are at least three veneers, two on the -outside and one on the inside. On the highest-grade tables five veneers -are used. Six legs are placed on the best and larger tables and four on -the smaller. - -_The Frame._--Like the legs, the four parts of the frame, which in every -case is a perfect parallelogram, are built up and veneered on both -sides. When the frame has been bolted to the legs, stretchers or braces -are placed within. Two to four, depending on the size of the table, run -lengthwise through the center, and two or three running equidistant, -crosswise. The top of the stretcher is flush with the top of the frame, -making a perfect level upon which the slate bed is to rest. - -_The Slate Bed._--Only the highest-grade Vermont slate is used, and on -the best tables of standard size, 4 x 8 feet, 4-1/2 x 9 feet, and 5 x 10 -feet, the slabs, of which there are three, are 1-1/2 inches thick. At -the factory the slate is cut to size and smoothed top and bottom. The -pocket holes are next sawed out. On the center slab two are cut, one in -the exact middle of either end. On the two end slabs they are cut on the -two outside corners. - -The slabs, where they join, are then bored along the edges and brass -dowels are inserted which engage sockets set in the opposite slab. This -keeps all slabs level with each other. All around the outside edge they -are bored for the insertion of the bolts to fasten the cushion rails to -the slate. Screw holes, countersunk, are bored from the top down through -the slabs, around the outer edges, through which the slate is screwed to -the frame. - -[Illustration: SUPPLY ROOM AT MUSKEGON - -The many triangles will convey an idea of the vastness of the billiard -industry.] - -When the slate bed is laid, the slabs, doweled as the leaves of an -extension dining table, are fitted together and screwed to the frame. -The table is then pushed under a huge grinding machine and the slate -surface is made plane, as nearly perfect as human ingenuity can make it. - -_The Bed Cloth._--Only the finest grade of imported Belgium broadcloth -is used on the best tables. It is colored green, which is restful for -the eyes. - -The bed cloth is first tacked to the frame beneath the slate at one -corner. It is then stretched to its utmost to the opposite diagonal -corner. When this is fastened the cloth is tacked around the remainder -of the bed; being stretched as tightly as possible in every direction. - -The table is now ready for the rails and cushions. Like all other wood -parts, the rails are built up and veneered, rather than made of a -single block of wood. When the rail has been formed, the ivory -diamond-shaped squares and name plate are countersunk into the top. The -squares are to enable the player to properly judge the angles of play. - -The cushions are fastened to the inside of the rail by means of a -specially prepared glue. - -Only the best grade of rubber is used for good cushions. The rubber is -molded in long strips in some form of isosceles triangle, depending on -the style of the game to be played. A highly resilient structure is -given the cushion for the pocket table, and one less so for the carom. -The latter is preferred for more accurate angle play, position and -nursing. Nursing, means to keep the three balls as close to one another -as possible. - -The base of the triangle is grooved for the twofold purpose of making -the rubber adhere better to the rail, and to increase resiliency. In -fastening the rubber, utmost care must be exercised to have it attached -to the rail, so that when the latter is fastened to the bed there shall -be uniform height all around the table; otherwise the ball when it -strikes the cushion will be deflected from the true course or rebound. - -On top of the rail next to the cushion edge a narrow ∟ is cut the entire -length. The cushion forms the other side, making a square groove, thus -⊔. - -The cushion is now ready to be covered with the cloth. - -The latter, made of the same material as the bed cloth, is cut to fit. -One edge is tucked into the groove just described, with the outside, or -face, downward. A tight-fitting ferule is then forced into the groove, -thus holding the cloth firmly between the cushion and the rail. The -cloth is then drawn over the top of the ferule, hiding the latter from -sight, and is drawn down over the rubber and fastened on the under side -of the rail with steel tacks. Great care and much experience is -necessary to successfully conduct this apparently simple operation; for -it is quite easy to pull the cloth so tightly at different points as to -bend out of shape the apex to the rubber triangle. On the other hand, -not to pull it tight enough will leave the cloth loose, which is not -only unsightly, but will impair the rubber and destroy the accuracy of -the balls rebounding from it. - -The completed rail is then covered with a finishing strip, known as the -blind rail, which covers the unsightly bolt heads and adds to the -artistic effect of the table. On the cheap grades there are no blind -rails, the bolts being decorated with brass caps. - -The final operation is the construction of pockets. - -The pocket irons are semi-circular pieces of metal with flat flanges -extending at right angles at both ends of the arc. Stout black leather -is stitched around the round part of the iron, thus hiding the latter, -and affording a good hold to which the leather, or worsted knitted, -baskets are attached, and protection for billiard balls when striking. - -The flanges are sunk flush into the top of the rail; thus the pocket -iron spans the interstices between the rails. The half of the pocket net -not attached to the irons is tacked to the edge of the frame, underneath -the bed, and covered with red leather, to withstand wear and for -decorative effect. - -Four hooks are then fastened to the frame, underneath the table, near -the corner legs. These are termed bridge hooks and are for the purpose -of having the cue-bridge ready of access for the players when necessary. - -The table is thus completed for playing use. There are ingenious -devices, termed the “return gutters” and convertible rails, which are -worthy of description. - -In tables thus equipped, the base of the pocket is opened--a stiff -leather, funnel-shaped contrivance being substituted for the woolen or -open leather pocket. This funnel opening leads into a wooden canal or -gutter, the main stem of which runs on an incline the length of the -table underneath. From this center gutter debouches branch to each of -the pockets. The gutters are lined with rubber, to render noiseless the -balls as they roll from the pocket openings into and along the gutters, -at the lowest point of which--the head of the table--they fall into the -“receiver.” The latter is a specially designed box, felt lined, with -sufficient capacity to contain the fifteen balls used in the pocket -game. - -The gutter return is a great convenience in collecting the balls to rack -them for a new game. - -Carom tables have no pockets. - -Carom and pocket billiards are so different that either they must be -played on separate tables, or else the rails are so constructed as to be -interchangeable. The billiard expert is not satisfied unless the whole -rail is changed. This is done by building the table without the regular -rails, and by having a separate set of rails for each game, which are -held in position by clamps and quickly interchanged. They conform to the -general design and decoration of the table. - -Another method is merely to change the cushions. The back of the rubber -is reinforced by a wood strip, into which are placed metal sockets. -Bolts or ratchets are inserted through the rail, and clamp the cushion -to the wall of the rail. The convertible rails, however, because of -their rigidity, are more desirable than the convertible cushions. - -The cheapest and most unsatisfactory device is known as pocket plugs. On -a permanently constructed pocket table, right-angled plugs of the rubber -cushion are screwed to the corner pocket irons and straight sections are -screwed to the side pocket irons. These, however, never perfectly fit at -the cushion joints, consequently carom play at those points is out of -the question. - -[Illustration: A MODERN HIGH-CLASS POCKET BILLIARD TABLE] - -Cheap cues are made in one continuous piece; or a special piece for the -“butt” and one for the shaft of the cue. The “butt” and body are -dovetailed together. - -In making a high-grade cue, a choice piece of imported wood, such as -ebony, mahogany, or rosewood, is cut into blocks about three inches -square and twenty inches long. One of these is then roughly turned down -on a lathe until it is round and slightly tapers all the way from one -end to the other. At the narrow end it is then sawed four ways toward -the thicker end, a distance of seven inches. This is the “butt.” The -next section of either domestic or imported hard wood is forty-four -inches long. This, too, receives a rough rotundity and tapering on a -lathe. At the thicker end, a sawing-out process creates an opening, so -that the “butt” and shaft can dovetail to a depth of seven inches. - -The cue is then sawed across into halves. On the base of the upper half -a hard wood screw is inserted and at the top of the butt a threaded hole -is bored. To strengthen the joint, the hollow screw-hole end is capped -with an ivory ferule sunk flush with the surface. This is the jointed -cue--a great convenience to the player who travels or carries his cue -home when he plays at the club or public academy. - -At the narrow end of the cue, the tapering ceases about three-quarters -of an inch from the end and flanges out according to the kind of “tip” -the player prefers. This end is capped with an ivory ferule and upon the -top of the latter, the leather tip is glued. - -Before this latter operation, the finished tapering, smoothing, -varnishing and polishing is done by hand. - -Sometimes a flat surface a few inches long is planed on the -circumference of the cue, extending up from the butt end and a -mother-of-pearl name plate is sunk into the handle. - -Cues run in weight from fifteen to twenty-two ounces. This means the -manufacture of cues according to weight, as well as taper, material, -finish and quality of the tip. Each of these embrace a mass of detail -too voluminous for recital here. - -_The Balls._--In the past, as far as we can historically trace, billiard -balls were made of ivory. Until recently no superior substitute had been -invented, but it is the consensus of opinion among expert billiardists -that the newly manufactured synthetic ivory ball is equal, if not -superior, in action and wearing quality, to real ivory. - -[Illustration: MAKING CUES] - -Elephant-tusk ivory, the only kind used in billiard ball manufacturing, -is growing scarcer every year, with a consequent increase in price. - -In the ivory storage vaults of one large company, there is held from -$150,000 to $300,000 worth of ivory, ranging from the tusk up to the -finished product. - -Ivory is of cellular, not fibrous, construction. Through the center of -the tusk runs the great nerve of the tooth. The structural cells build -up around the nerve. Surrounding the nerve, the cells are small and more -compact. As the tusk grows in length on the living elephant it also -expands; but the cells grow larger and less compact as the tusk expands -in circumference. It is quite apparent, therefore, that the weight -centers around the nerve. To have a perfectly balanced ball, one that -will roll true in every direction, the ball must be so turned out of the -tusk that the nerve center runs exactly through the middle of the ball. - -The process is as follows: The tusk is sawed into blocks about 2-3/4 -inches in size. These are of irregular cylindrical form, depending on -the form of the tusk’s circumference. Only that portion of the tusk can -be used, the diameter of which is greater than the intended diameter of -the ball. The rest of the tusk is used for ornaments, piano keys, etc. -At least six inches from the point of the tusk must be discarded because -the circumference is too small. The hollow part at the base of the tusk -must also be discarded. There are defects discovered only when the ball -is being turned or the segments cut. For all of the discarded portions -and the fragments and shavings from the segments when the ball is -turned, the manufacturer receives less than one-fourth of the price per -pound which he paid for the whole tusk. - -A segment is placed in a lathe--with the nerve center resting on the -lathe point. The ball is then either turned down from the outside or cut -out with an ingeniously constructed curved cutter from the inside of the -segment. In the latter operation the ball lies loose in the center of -the segment, which must be sawed in half to release it. Ivory seasons -only to a slight depth. The thin seasoning on the surface seems to act -as a shell which keeps raw the substance underneath. For this reason, -when a ball is turned out of the tusk and the raw ivory thus exposed, -the ball is stored away in a room of even temperature for about a year, -that it may properly season before being finished. The red ball is dyed -after seasoning, and at the time of final turning called finishing. - -Another peculiarity about ivory is the fact that, owing to the cellular -construction, in seasoning the ball never contracts at the nerve ends, -but always around the other circumference, termed the “belly.” -Therefore, when the balls are turned, the circumference around the -“belly” is made greater than around the nerve ends, to allow for the -shrinkage in the former. Each manufacturer carefully guards the secret -of his allowance, which is made according to his experience and -knowledge of ivory seasoning variations. - -After seasoning, the balls are smoothed with shagreen and polished. - -Except for the cue ball, no ivory balls are used today on the pocket -table. As a substitute, a great variety of composition balls are used. -The composition is another trade secret. Having been carefully weighed -in a perfectly dry state, the necessary amount of composition is placed -in a telescoping steel cylinder, the two ends of which are perfect -hemispheres and the diameter of which on the inside is the exact -diameter of the proposed ball. The cylinder is then placed in a -hydraulic press and under a pressure of 30,000 pounds to the square -inch, the cylinder and its contents are telescoped until the mass inside -is perfectly round. - -The molded ball is then taken from the press and smoothed. The holes for -the number tablets are bored and the tablets forced into position. The -tablets are made to conform to the rotundity of the ball and set flush -with the surface. The ball is then smoothed and polished. - -The cue bridge handle is made in a manner similar to the cue, except -that it is not jointed and the span is substituted for the tip. The span -has four slots along the top, which maintains a contour to assist the -player in striking the ball on either side, or top or bottom of the -center facing the player, when the cue ball is too far away to make the -bridge with his hand and fingers. The span is made of either hard wood -or ivory. - -The temperate and torrid zones of the world are ransacked in order to -secure the wood, the minerals and the animal substances, all of which -are necessary to provide the means of play. Those of us who play the -game (none of us, not even Willis Hoppe, know all its possibilities) may -well paraphrase Thomas Carlyle’s reference to books and say, “Blessings -on Herodotus, or whoever it was who invented billiards.” - - * * * * * - - -What is the Hottest Place in the United States? - -A narrow valley in California, called “Death Valley,” between the -Panamint and Funeral Mountains, is considered the dryest and hottest -place in the United States. - -Its central part is three or four hundred feet below sea level and is -covered with salt. Its temperature has reached the extreme of 122° F. - -It is called “Death Valley” because a party of emigrants perished there -in 1849. - -[Illustration: WHITE BLACKBERRY] - -[Illustration: THE SPINELESS CACTUS IN FRUIT] - - -What are White Blackberries Like? - -The accompanying illustrations show some remarkable white blackberries -which have been developed by the great horticulturist, Luther Burbank of -California. They grow thickly, are large in size and the taste is -similar to that of the ordinary variety. Some spineless cactus in fruit -are also shown. They make an excellent cattle food. - -He has also originated a new fruit, the plumcot, by combining the plum -and the apricot; developed very excellent varieties of potatoes and -cherries; and produced various new apples and stoneless prunes as well -as new peaches, nuts, roses, callas, violet-odored lilies and many other -new varieties. - -The son of a Massachusetts farmer, he became deeply interested in plant -life and engaged in experiments on hybridization of plants. Removing to -California, he established the Burbank Exposition Farms at Santa Rosa, -where he undertook the work of cross-breeding on an extended scale. In -1905 the Carnegie Institute granted him $10,000 yearly for ten years to -continue his work. He has very many extensive experiments under way and -has nearly 3,000 distinct botanical specimens in his plantation. - - -Why do They Have a Dog-Watch on Shipboard? - -The “dog-watch” is a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two -hours each, from 4 to 6 P. M. and 6 to 8 P. M. - -All the other watches count four hours each, and without the -introduction of the dog-watches, the same hours would always fall to be -kept as watch by the same portion of the crew. - - -How Much Gold has a 14-Carat Ring? - -One often speaks of a ring as being 14-carat gold, or of 22- or 18-carat -watch cases or jewelry, but do all of us know just what we mean by 14, -18 or 22 carat? - -Gold is divided into twenty-four parts--that is, pure gold is said to -contain twenty-four carats--the carat being just a measurement term. A -ring or watch case marked 14K or 18K means that fourteen or eighteen -parts of it are pure gold, the balance of the twenty-four carats being -some sort of alloy, copper being generally used. If articles of jewelry -were made of pure gold they would not wear well, as gold is a very soft -metal, and it is, therefore, necessary to mix the gold with some harder -substance. - - -What is an Electro-Magnet? - -An electro-magnet is a piece of iron temporarily converted into a magnet -by means of a current of electricity sent through a wire which is coiled -around it. The wire is usually covered with silk, cotton, gutta percha -or some other insulator, to prevent the current from leaping across, and -compel it to travel through the whole length of the wire. - -The more pure and soft the iron is, the stronger will its magnetism be -while it lasts, and the more completely will it disappear when the -current stops. Steel is less affected than soft iron for the time, but -remains permanently magnetized after the current ceases. Electro-magnets -are usually much more powerful than other magnets of the same size. - -The iron which is magnetized by the current passing around it is called -the core. It is frequently straight, the wire being wound upon it like -thread upon a reel; but very frequently it has the shape of a U or -horseshoe, the wire being coiled round the two ends and the bend of the -U left uncovered. - - - - -The Story in a Pin[25] - - -A pin, so common and so cheap today, was once so expensive that only the -wealthy could afford even a few. The term pin-money dates from that time -and originally came from the allowance a husband gave his wife to -purchase pins. - -From an historical point of view, it appears that the need of something -with which to fasten together pieces of cloth and like material has been -met from ancient times by various devices. Among the remains of the -bronze age are found pins and brooches of bronze. In Egyptian tombs have -been found elaborate and costly pins, which range in sizes from two -inches to seven or eight inches long, and have large gold heads or bands -of gold around the upper end. Designs were often worked on these heads -and bands. The largest of these pins were probably used for fastening -the hair. Till the middle of the sixteenth century the poorer class in -England used rude skewers of wood, while the more fortunate had pins -made of gold, silver and brass. The Indians, in the ancient cities of -Mexico, satisfied their need for pins by using the thorn of the agave. - -As early as 1483, pins were important enough in England to warrant the -passing of a law by Parliament prohibiting their importation. By 1540, -however, they were being imported in large quantities from France. -Parliament again passed a law regarding pins in 1543. This act provided -that “no person shall put to sale any pins, but only such as shall be -double-headed, and have the heads soldered fast to the shank of the pin, -well smoothed, and shanks well shapen, the points well round filed, -canted, and sharpened.” Some pins of good quality were made at this -time, but a large portion of those against which the legislative -enactment was directed were made of iron wire, blanched and passed for -brass pins. Only three years after this prohibitory law was passed it -became obsolete because of the improvements which had been made in the -production of these articles. England continued to receive its -supply from France until John Tilsby began their manufacture in -Gloucestershire. His business increased to such an extent that in a few -years he had 1,500 people in his employ. In 1636 the pinmakers of London -formed a corporation and established the industry of Bristol and -Birmingham. This latter city is still the center of the industry in -England. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST PIN IS A FLAT-HEADED COPPER PIN PROBABLY USED -FOR FASTENING HAIR. THE SECOND IS A STAR-HEADED BRONZE PIN. BOTH ARE OF -THE TYPES WHICH HAVE BEEN FOUND AMONG THE REMAINS OF THE BRONZE AGE. THE -THIRD PIN IS A HANDMADE PIN OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] - -During this period the pins were made with two coils of wire fastened at -one end of a length of wire, the other end of which was sharpened. First -a wire, somewhat finer than that which was to be used for the pin, was -coiled around a spit on a lathe. This was cut up into sections, each -consisting of two turns. These coils were then annealed or softened and -placed in a heap. Boys stuck the ends of the pins, which had been cut to -the proper length, into this pile until a coil stuck. A workman pressed -this coil in a die to make it hold to the pin. The head was then -soldered and the other end of the pin filed and sharpened. Finally the -pin was straightened and blanched or whitened. - -In the United States the colonists early felt the need of local -production. The colonial legislature of Carolina offered prizes in 1775 -for the first native-made pins and needles. The first American pins were -made in Rhode Island, during the Revolution, by Jeremiah Wilkinson. -About the same time, Samuel Slocum made pins in Providence. These were -handmade with twisted wire heads. - -[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE PIN MACHINE ROOM IN A MODERN PINMAKING -PLANT - -There are many types of pin machines which make anywhere from ninety to -three hundred pins a minute, depending on the quality of the pin made.] - -Pinmaking machines were first invented in the United States. During the -War of 1812, the industry was started because of the difficulty of -getting pins from England, where most of them were made. The industry -was not successful, however, till 1836, when the Howe Manufacturing -Company was formed at Birmingham, Conn. It is a curious coincident that -the first successful American pin manufacturing company, making the new -machine-made pins, should be established in the Connecticut town of the -same name as the English city which had been the center of pinmaking for -nearly two hundred years. - -In 1817 a paper was filed at the patent office by Seth Hunt, describing -a machine for making pins with “head, shaft, and point in one entire -piece.” This machine, however, did not come into use. Lemuel W. Wright, -of New Hampshire, secured, in 1824, an English patent for a machine for -making solid-headed pins. This was the beginning of the present -industry. A factory equipped with Wright’s machines was established in -London, but was not successful. Daniel Foot-Taylen, of Birmingham, -purchased this equipment and secured an extension of Wright’s patents -for five years from 1838. He carried the production of machine-made pins -to a commercial basis. Wright’s machines, however, did not complete all -operations. Dr. John Neland Howe, a physician of Bellevue Hospital, New -York City, formed a company in 1832 for the manufacture of pins. This -concern was not successful, but in 1835 a second company was formed by -Dr. Howe, who had great faith in the future of the industry. Nine years -later, Samuel Slocum, of Connecticut, invented a new machine for -sticking the pins on papers. - -[Illustration: THE WHITENING ROOM, WHERE THE PINS ARE CLEANED AND PLATED - -In the tumbling barrels the pins are cleaned and dried by tumbling in -sawdust which has been heated in the ovens in the center background.] - -Since that time there have been many pin machines developed, each -accomplishing the same result in slightly different ways. In each case a -special stiff pin wire is drawn into the machine from a large hank, -which is placed on a drum on the machine. The wire is first passed -through a series of rapidly revolving, straightening rolls which take -out all twists and kinks. The proper length of wire is fed into the -machine automatically, and the end is gripped by a set of jaws. A small -part of the end of the wire extends beyond the jaws. This is struck -several rapid blows by a die called the header. After the head is thus -formed, the wire is cut off to the proper length and is then ready to be -pointed. It is now carried along by a shaft having a screw thread, and -is made to revolve rapidly by a belt which passes over it. The end to be -pointed passes over a series of coarse, medium and fine revolving files -or cutters. The pin now drops into a pan, ready to be finished after -being inspected. - -In the finishing room, the pins are put into a revolving or tumbling -barrel and are rolled in sawdust, which absorbs all the oil, leaving -them clean and bright. They are now dropped through a blower, where the -sawdust is separated from the pins. The whitening is done by boiling the -pins in a large copper kettle, which also contains layers of grained tin -and a solution of argol or bitartrate of potash. After boiling for five -or six hours, they have a thin coating of tin, which gives them their -silvery appearance. Again they are cleaned, this time being washed in -clean water, then tumbled in strong soap water, and finally tumbled in -hot sawdust to dry them. The pins are separated from the sawdust as -before. From there the pins go to the sticking department, where they -are stuck on papers as you buy them. The sticking machine is of a simple -construction, but is wonderful in operation, and requires no attention -by the operator, except to keep it supplied with pins and papers. - -[Illustration: SIZES] - -The pins are put into a vibrating hopper, which slopes slightly towards -the sticking machine. The conductor from the hopper to the machine is -made of two strips of steel, down which the pins, held by their heads, -slide. They are taken from the conductor by a screw thread and fed to -the carrier, which takes thirty pins at a time and places them in front -of a set of thirty punches. They are then forced along thirty grooves in -the steel clamps, which crimp the paper, and on through the crimp. Thus -a whole row of pins is stuck at once. The paper is now advanced the -proper distance, and another row is stuck. When the center of the paper -is reached, after six rows have been stuck, the machine automatically -spaces the paper so as to skip the space used for the brand name. Then -six more rows are stuck, and the operator removes the completed paper -and inserts another without stopping the machine. These papers are -inspected to make certain that no poorly made pins have gotten by the -former inspection, are rolled and packed, usually in boxes of twelve -papers each. - -Pins today are made in many sizes from the 3-1/2-inch stout blanket pins -down to the fine, slender, bronze pins used by entomologists, 4,500 of -which pins make an ounce. Toilet pins are usually made in six sizes as -shown in the illustrations. Besides the common or toilet pins, there are -today numerous special bank and desk pins which are made to meet special -requirements. - -Pin production in the United States has reached a high stage of -development. The number of pins made in 1914 reached the tremendous -total of 25,000,000,000. These figures are almost too great for -comprehension. If all the pin wire used for these 25,000,000,000 pins -were in one piece it would go around the earth fifteen times. Safety -pins, hooks and eyes, and hairpins, are generally made by pin concerns. -Each of these different articles require very ingenious machines. Many -of them are almost human in their operation. - - * * * * * - - -The popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the throat in a -man is called the “Adam’s apple” because of the story in the Old -Testament, telling of the eating of the forbidden fruit of the tree of -knowledge by Adam, a piece being supposed to have lodged in his throat -where the bulge appears. - -[Illustration: AN ALPINE GLACIER] - -[Illustration: THE MER DE GLACE - -The upper view shows the method of crossing a glacier. Each of the -climbers is carrying an alpenstock, or staff with ice ax at one end and -spike at the other. The lower view is the famous sea of ice in -Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON - -One of the largest glacial systems in the world radiating from a single -peak is situated on this mountain in western Washington.] - - -How are Glaciers Formed? - -Away up in the high valleys formed among the peaks of the tallest -mountain ranges of both the Rocky Mountains and the mountains of Alaska, -as well as those in Switzerland and European countries, the snow freezes -into great solid masses because of the intense cold, and is forced by -its own pressure into vast fields and mountains of ice. This ice is not -like that produced by the freezing of water, but resembles more a very -hard, solid form of snow, being composed of thin layers filled with air -bubbles and more brittle and less transparent than the ice we are -accustomed to see. Glaciers exist in all zones in which mountains rise -above the snow-line, that is, the height where it is so cold that there -is always snow. - -We all know that if we press two pieces of ordinary ice together each -piece will melt at the place where it touches the other and just in that -same way the pressure of the ice above them causes glaciers to be -continually moving downward, frequently reaching the borders of -cultivation even. As they descend they also experience a gradual -diminution from the action of the sun and rain, and from the heat of the -earth. Investigation has shown that they move very much like a river, -the middle and upper parts faster than the sides and bottom, similar to -the way in which a mass of thick mortar or a quantity of pitch flows -down an inclined trough. The rate at which a glacier moves generally -varies from eighteen to twenty-four inches in a day. - -The Glacier National Park is the latest addition to the series of great -natural attractions which the United States Government has been -acquiring for years. It lies in Northern Montana, between the Canadian -border and the line of the Great Northern Railroad, and contains about a -million acres of natural wonders, ranging from verdant valleys and -wooded heights to glacial peaks. There are numerous glaciers and -mountain lakes and the locality presents many examples of sublime -scenery. The City of Tacoma, Washington, is situated in the valley below -Mt. Rainier and commands a wonderful view of that mountain, on which -there is situated one of the largest glacial systems in the world -radiating from any single peak. - -One of the most famous glaciers of the Alps is the Mer de Glace, -belonging to Mont Blanc, in the valley of Chamouni, about fifty-seven -hundred feet above the level of the sea. Those of the Andes and the -Southern Alps of New Zealand are conspicuous, and they abound in Norway, -Iceland and Spitzbergen, but it is more especially in the chain of Monte -Rosa that the phenomena of glaciers are exhibited in their greatest -wonder, as also in their most interesting phases from a scientific point -of view. - - -How Large are Molecules? - -When a great scientist named Sir William Thomson was asked about the -size of a molecule, he replied: “If a drop of water were magnified to -the size of the earth, the molecules would each occupy spaces greater -than those filled by small shot and smaller than those occupied by -cricket balls.” That gives us about as clear an idea as it is possible -to get of the size of molecules. And yet molecules are made up of even -smaller particles, called atoms. An atom is the smallest division of -anything that we know about now. - -A molecule of water is made up of three atoms. Evaporation of water -consists of the movement of these atoms in such a way as to make the -liquid water change into a gas. Freezing water into ice is caused by -making the molecules, and, in turn, the atoms, stick to each other. It -takes a great deal of power to separate the molecules in water, and for -this reason water was long regarded as something which could not be -divided up, or, in other words, a basic element, such as the oxygen in -the air. - - - - -Pictorial Story Of The Fishing Industry - - -[Illustration: FISHING - -COMING ABOARD - -HALIBUT FISHING - -ICED UP - -BAITING UP - -Six pictures by courtesy of Gloucester (Mass.) Board of Trade.] - -[Illustration: MODERN FISHING VESSELS - -NIAGARA - -ARTHUR JAMES - -TARTAR - -MARY DE COSTE - -ALICE] - -[Illustration: SETTING THE TRAWL - -HAULING THE TRAWL] - -[Illustration: DRAWING THE NET] - -[Illustration: FISH CURING - -PITCHING OUT - -FLAKE YARD - -FLAKE YARD - -FISH WHARF] - -[Illustration: PREPARING Salt Fish FOR MARKET - -PACKING - -SKINNING - -BONE PULLING - -DRY FISH SHED] - - - - -The Story in a Box of California Oranges - - -For several hundred years oranges have grown in this country. For about -the last forty years men have made a business of growing them. - -Oranges and lemons are called citrus fruits on account of their content -of citric acid. - -The two predominating varieties in California are the Washington Navel -and the Valencia orange. - -The California Navel orange is in the markets of the country from -December 1st until about June 1st, when the California Valencia type -takes its place and remains until the latter part of November. - -It is a fact, therefore, that oranges are now picked fresh every day the -year round in this country, and that the California oranges you buy in -the summer are not fruit that has been held in storage, but are as fresh -as any fresh fruit that the retailers offer. - -Most California oranges and lemons are picked from the trees by gloved -hands, so that the finger nails of the pickers will not injure the skin, -for even a tiny scratch on the skin of an orange or lemon is sufficient -to open the way for germs of decay. - -Mr. G. Harold Powell, formerly connected with the United States -government, was the discoverer of this source of great loss to the -citrus industry. The use of gloves in the picking is thought to save the -growers approximately $1,000,000 yearly. - -When the oranges have been picked they are sent in boxes to a packing -house where they are put through an automatic washing machine which -thoroughly scrubs all dust and dirt from the skin; they then pass -through a dryer and thence along a belt to men and women who roll the -oranges over for examination and distribute them to other belts -according to their color and the condition of the skin with regard to -blemishes of all kinds. The oranges then pass over automatic -sizers--that is, V-shaped rollers revolving horizontally. The oranges -continue along these rollers until the space between the rollers has -widened to the point where each particular size drops into a labeled -bin. The sizes are designated by numbers, such as 150, 176, 250, etc., -these figures signifying the number of oranges that may be packed in a -regulation size box in which the jobbers and retailers buy the fruit. In -other words, size 150 is a larger orange than 250. - -The quality of an orange is judged in the packing house merely by the -color and the condition of the skin. Size has something to do with it, -but this is only one consideration. Many of the smaller oranges are just -as good to eat and sometimes very much better than the larger sizes, and -the condition of the skin, unless it happens to be broken in any way so -that germs of decay can enter, ordinarily has no depreciable effect upon -the flavor. The public, of course, finally judges an orange by its -sweetness and tenderness, and a large, well-colored, smooth fruit is -likely to reach the market in better condition than the rougher fruit -which has a marred skin. - -Oranges are usually divided in grades into four classes called, in the -order of their quality, Extra Choice, Choice, Standards and Culls. - -Lemons are handled throughout the processes in practically the same -manner as oranges. - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -WHERE THE GOLDEN ORANGE GROWS. - -The far-reaching orange groves surrounding Riverside are one of the most -beautiful of all beautiful sights in Southern California, and the -fragrance of the blossoms is subtlest witchery.] - -After the fruit has passed the graders and the several sizes are -separated, it goes to the packers, who pick up each orange or lemon and -place a tissue wrapper around it, and press it firmly into the shipping -box until the fruit “stands up high” above the top of the box. The cover -is then nailed on and the box is placed in the freight car which is -waiting at a convenient door. The average car carries 400 boxes of -oranges or lemons. - -The fruit is shipped in refrigerator cars, and is usually about eight -days in making the trip from Southern California to the Eastern markets. - -The California Fruit Growers’ Exchange ships on an average of sixty-five -per cent of the California production of citrus fruits. This is a -strictly non-profit, co-operative organization of 8,000 growers, the -largest body of agriculturists operating on the non-profit co-operative -plan in the world, and probably the most successful. At least, the cost -to market the citrus crop under this system is lower than the marketing -cost of any other agricultural crop in the world, which accounts in part -for the fact that oranges and lemons are sold throughout the United -States at retail prices which place this fruit within the reach of all. - - * * * * * - - -What Kind of Steel Knives do not Stain nor Rust? - -Shortly after the first of the year, in 1916, the U. S. Consul at -Sheffield, England, reported that a new steel had been introduced there -for use in making table cutlery. It was said to be untarnishable and -unstainable even when used with the strongest acid foods, as well as -non-rusting. The new product, which is called “Tirth’s Stainless” steel, -can be thoroughly cleansed by ordinary washing with soap and water, and -cutlery made from it will retain its original polish after use. The -properties claimed for it are of the steel itself and not the result of -any treatment; consequently knives made from the new product can easily -be sharpened in the regular way without fear of resulting damage. - -While the initial cost of cutlery made from “Tirth’s Steel” will -probably be about double the usual cost, for not only is the price of -the steel considerably more than that of other steels used for the same -purpose, but it also costs more to work up, it is nevertheless expected -to prove a welcome discovery to restaurant and hotel keepers as well as -other large users of table cutlery because of the immense saving in -labor occasioned by its use. - - -Why is it Necessary to Keep Unusually Quiet when Fishing? - -The experienced fisherman who smiles at the amateur’s restless fidgeting -and complaining has discovered by careful observation that the fish who -swims around in such an exasperating manner just a foot or so away from -the temptingly baited hook has had an advance tip that something out of -the ordinary is going on up above him. For sound, whether it be the -noise of an oarlock or a companion’s casual remark, can be heard more -than four times as easily by the fish in the water beneath than it can -up above in the air. Sound travels very quickly through the air, -traversing ten hundred and ninety feet in a second, but it reaches -forty-seven hundred feet away under water in the same time. - -When the crowd on the other side of the baseball grounds yells across -the field it seems as though we have heard their cheers as soon as they -have been given, and so we have for all practical purposes, although in -reality half a second has elapsed while the sound has been coming across -the field. The time taken by sound in traveling is more apparent when -the volume is sufficient to carry it a long distance. The sound of an -explosion of a large quantity of dynamite and ammunition in Jersey City -was not heard in Philadelphia, ninety miles away, for over seven minutes -after it occurred. - -[Illustration: CLIFF DWELLINGS, WALPI, ARIZONA] - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -HOMES OF THE LONG-AGO - -Famous reproduction of the Cliff-dwellers’ Ruins, near Colorado Springs, -Col. The cliff-dwellers of early America built their habitations in the -canyons of the Colorado and Rio Grande, where the action of the elements -had worn away a layer of soft rock, leaving layers of hard rock above -and below as roof and floor for the dwelling.] - - -What were the First Apartment Houses in this Country? - -A great many years ago, long before the white men came to America, there -was a race of Indians called “cliff-dwellers,” because they built their -dwelling places far up on the sides of steep cliffs. They probably made -their homes so hard to reach in order that they might be safe from -visits of their enemies. While many of their homes were small -single-family houses, there were also a number of large two and -three-story dwellings with many rooms in which different families lived. - -Some of these cliff dwellings may still be seen in the valleys of the -Rio Grande and the Rio Colorado and its tributaries. Close examination -shows that many of them were very skilfully built, every advantage being -taken of the natural rock formations, and the stones being dressed and -laid in clay mortar, very much as the bricklayer does his work on an -up-to-date apartment house today. The outsides of the buildings somewhat -resembled the cement houses which have been put up in later days, a coat -of clay being spread on the outside walls and carefully smoothed off. -Oftentimes the inner walls were plastered too. - -Many relics of the inhabitants have been found in these cliff dwellings, -although we cannot tell how they lived, for the region is now rainless -and therefore destitute of food plants. Conditions must have been -different then and the ground less barren. - - -Why do We Call 32° Above Zero “Freezing”? - -We know that freezing is the transformation of a liquid into solid under -the influence of cold. Each liquid always solidifies at some fixed -temperature, which is called its freezing point, and the solid melts -again at the same temperature. Thus the freezing point and the melting -point, or point of fusion, are the same, and the point is always the -same for the same substance. - -Consequently the freezing point of water, or the melting point of ice -(32° F.), is taken for one of the fixed points in thermometry. The -freezing point of mercury is 39° below zero, of sulphuric ether 46° -below zero, of alcohol 203° below zero F. - - -How is Fresco Painting Done? - -In producing fresco paintings, a finished drawing on paper, called a -cartoon, exactly the size of the intended picture, is first made, to -serve as a model. - -The artist then has a limited portion of the wall covered over with a -fine sort of plaster, and upon this he traces from his cartoon the part -of the design suited for the space. As it is necessary to the success -and permanency of his work that the colors should be applied while the -plaster is yet damp, no more of the surface is plastered at one time -than what the artist can finish in one day. A portion of the picture -once commenced, needs to be completely finished before leaving it, as -fresco does not admit of retouching after the plaster has become dry. On -completing a day’s work, any unpainted part of the plaster is removed, -cutting it neatly along the outline of a figure or other definite form, -so that the joining of the plaster for the next day’s work may be -concealed. - -The art is very ancient, remains of it being found in India, Egypt, -Mexico, etc. Examples of Roman frescoes are found in Pompeii and other -places. After the beginning of the fifteenth century fresco painting -became the favorite process of the greatest Italian masters, and many of -their noblest pictorial efforts are frescoes on the walls of palaces and -churches. - -Some ancient wall paintings are executed in what is called “Fresco -Secco,” which is distinguished from true fresco by being executed on dry -plaster, which is moistened with lime water before the colors are -applied. - -Fresco painting has in recent years again been revived, and works of -this kind have been executed in the British Houses of Parliament and -other public and private buildings, more especially in Germany. - - - - -The Story of a Piece of Chewing Gum[26] - - -The original “chewing gum” was spruce gum, the exudation of the cut -branches of the spruce or fir tree. Later, pure white paraffin wax, -variously flavored, took its place, but only in its turn to give way to -the “chicle” now almost exclusively employed. - -Though its employment in the manufacture of chewing gum is of -comparatively recent date, chicle was used by the Indians prior to the -days of Columbus as a means of quenching their thirst. It was first -commercially imported as a substitute for rubber, but its peculiar -suitability for chewing gum has resulted in the entire product being -consumed by that industry. In 1885 the United States imported 929,959 -pounds of chicle. The growth of the chewing gum industry is shown by the -importation of nearly 5,500,000 pounds for the year ending with June 30, -1910. - -The trees are “tapped” during the rainy season. The sap, or juice, as it -exudes has the appearance of milk, but gradually changes to a yellow -color and is about the thickness of treacle. The tree drains rapidly, -the full supply of “milk” being generally obtained within a few hours, -but an interval of several years usually elapses before it will yield a -fresh supply. The milk differs from the juice obtained from the sugar -maple, for example, in that it is not the life sap of the tree, and the -flow varies greatly, some trees which show full life yielding much less -than apparently poorer specimens. “Crude chicle” is obtained by simple -boiling and evaporation of the milk, accompanied by frequent kneading. -The product, as pressed in rough molds, is of a light gray color. - -The bulk of the crude chicle manufactured is shipped in blocks to -Canada, where it is further evaporated and carefully refined prior to -importation into the United States. When the chicle arrives at one of -the chewing-gum factories it is immediately turned over to the grinding -department. It comes from Mexico in cakes, varying in size from -twelve- to eighteen-inch cubes; these are a putty color, but in -composition chicle is porous and brittle, particularly after it is -thoroughly dried. In the cubical form it is said to contain from -twenty-five to thirty per cent moisture. After it is ground and dried it -is practically free of moisture, but one of the most difficult problems -which the manufacturer faces is to thoroughly dry chicle before he -proceeds to treat it for its introduction as the base of chewing gum. - -The cubes are broken by a large steam hammer into irregular-shaped -pieces weighing from a few ounces to a pound. These chunks are then run -through grinding machines, which reduce the chicle to a coarse meal. -Sometimes this breaking and grinding is done in Mexico, but the duty on -ground dried chicle is five cents per pound more than upon cube chicle. - -Chicle meal is dried upon frames in a special drying room, which is kept -at a temperature of 80° F. An electric blower exhausts all of the -moisture from the air. The pure meal is then transformed into a thick -syrup under intense heat and passed through a filtering machine, one of -the latest and most expensive pieces of machinery employed in the entire -manufacture of chewing gum. This machine has practically solved the -perplexing problem of separating impurities and foreign substances from -chicle. Before the filterer was invented it was almost impossible for -the manufacturer of chewing gum to produce gum entirely free from -particles of grit. - -During the process of filtration the chicle is also sterilized, and -comes from the machine as pure as distilled water. - -[Illustration: A BATTERY OF SUGAR-COATING MACHINES] - -[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE SCORING ROOM] - -[Illustration: THE LABORATORY] - -[Illustration: WRAPPING AND PACKING DEPARTMENT] - -It is next passed to the cooking department and placed in huge -steam-jacketed kettles, which revolve continually and thus keep the -chicle from scorching. While it is being cooked in these large kettles -sugar is added, and as soon as the gum is done it is placed in a -kneading machine. It is now about the consistency of bread or cake -dough, and after being kneaded and cooled, flavor is added. - -Peppermint, spearmint and other oils used are triply distilled and -absolutely free of all impurities. The orange oil comes from Messina and -is always the product of the very latest orange crop. - -From the kneading machine it reaches a sizing table, to which are -attached heavy rollers for reducing the mass of gum to a strip about a -quarter of an inch in thickness and twelve inches wide. - -At this stage it will be seen the gum begins to take on a ribbon shape. -As it comes from the first series of rollers, it is cut into short -lengths sprinkled with powdered sugar, and these short lengths are -passed in sticks about two feet high on to a second series of rollers. -Under the second rollers each short length of gum is once more reduced -in thickness and extended in length. - -The surfaces of the second rollers contain knives running lengthwise and -around. These knives partially cut the gum to its final size. The thin -sheets are then sent to another drying room. They remain in this room -from twelve to forty-eight hours, according to the season of the year, -and are then ready for the wrapping machines. - -Machines have also been invented which stamp out little nuggets of gum. -To be finished these pieces are sent to a long room containing a line of -twelve large white kettles, each on a separate base. It is these -machines which coat the nuggets with snowy sugar. The kettles revolve -until a sufficient coating of the liquid sugar has adhered. - -The chewing gum wrapping machine is considered by machinery builders to -be one of the most ingenious automatic manufacturing machines in use. It -is about the size of an ordinary typewriter desk and is operated by one -girl. She receives the thin sheet of partially cut gum from the last -drying room. The machine operator drops the slabs of gum into a feeding -chute. Each slab is here automatically wrapped in wax and silver-foil -papers. These papers are fed from rolls, as printing paper is fed to a -newspaper press. - -As the slabs are wrapped they slide into a pocket. When five of them are -finished, two steel fingers remove them and put on the final outside -wrapper. The complete, wrapped packages of five slabs slide along a -little runway into boxes. - -The same girl who feeds the gum into the wrapping machine closes the -lids of the boxes and places them on a packing table by her side. When -the packing table is filled with boxes a boy removes it to the shipping -room, where it is crated and forwarded to the wholesale dealers. - - * * * * * - - -Where did the Ferris Wheel get Its Name? - -The Ferris wheel was named after its builder, George W. Ferris, an able -engineer, now dead. - -The original Ferris wheel was exhibited at the Chicago World’s Fair. It -was a remarkable engineering feature. - -Its diameter was 270 feet and its circumference 825 feet. Its highest -point was 280 feet. The axle was a steel bar, 45 feet long and 32 inches -thick. Fastened to each of the twin wheels was a steel hub 16 feet in -diameter. The two towers at the axis supporting the wheel were 140 feet -high, and the motive power was secured from a 1,000 horse-power steam -engine under the wheel. - -The thirty-six cars on the wheel each comfortably seated forty persons. -The wheel and passengers weighed 12,000 tons. - -By the Ferris wheel the almost indefinite application of the tension -spoke to wheels of large dimensions has been vindicated, the expense -being far smaller than that of the stiff spoke. - -[Illustration: STEEL RAIL MILL - -Interior view of the Bethlehem Steel Company’s rail mill finishing -department, showing the machinery for straightening and drilling -rails.] - - -What is Done to Keep Railroad Rails from Breaking? - -The breaking of rails has been the cause of much attention on the part -of railroad and steel engineering experts ever since the tendency toward -the construction of heavy locomotives and greater train loads became -evident. - -The report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1915 gave broken -rails as the cause of 3,345 accidents, in which 205 people were killed -and 7,341 were injured, with a property loss of $3,967,188. A steel man -is authority for the statement that one cold winter day in 1913, a -single locomotive, making excessive speed, broke about a hundred rails -in the distance of a mile on one of the leading railroad systems. - -Both steel and railroad men were, therefore, much interested in the -announcement made by the New York Central Railroad, in August, 1916, to -the effect that the road’s staff of specialists had discovered the cause -and remedy for the hidden flaws in steel rails. It was said that no -rails produced under the specifications provided by them had yet -developed any fissures. - -The process by which those rails were prevented from developing fissures -consisted mainly of rolling them from reheated blooms, and although that -method is said to have been used in a number of rail mills for many -years, no mention had previously been recorded of the prevention of -breakage in that way. The experiments are, therefore, sure to be watched -with a great deal of interest, and it is probable that fewer accidents -will occur from broken rails in the near future. - -The technical man will be interested in an outline printed in the _Iron -Age_, which said: “Induced interior transverse fissures in basic -open-hearth rails are due in part to an occasional hot rail being cooled -so rapidly by the rolls or so chilled by the gusts of air before -recalescence on the hot beds as to cause a log of some of the -transformations of the metal in the interior of the rail head. Induced -interior transverse fissures can only develop in the track from the -effects of preceding causes, either of which is no longer a mystery.” - -The report of the railroad experts also laid stress on the theory that -“gagging” rails--subjecting them to blows for the purpose of -straightening them--was also likely to cause faults by injuring the -metal. - - -How does a “Master Clock” Control Others by Electricity? - -With the aid of electric currents, one clock can be made to control -other clocks, so as to make them keep accurate time. - -By means of this method one high-class clock, usually in an astronomical -observatory, compels a number of other clocks at considerable distances -to keep time with it. - -The clocks thus controlled ought to be so regulated that if left to -themselves they would always gain a little, but not more than a few -minutes per day. - -The pendulum of the controlling clock, in swinging to either side, makes -a brief contact, which completes the circuit of a galvanic battery, and -thus sends a current to the controlled clock. The currents pass through -a coil in the bob of the pendulum of the controlled clock, and the -action between these currents and a pair of fixed magnets urges the -pendulum to one side and to the other alternately. The effect is that, -though the controlled clock may permanently continue to be a fraction of -a second in advance of the controlling clock, it can never be so much as -half a second in advance. - -An electrically controlled clock usually contains a small magnetic -needle, which shows from which direction the currents are coming. The -arrangements are usually such that at every sixtieth second no current -is sent, and the needle stands still. Any small error is thus at once -detected. - - - - -The Story of the Calculating Machine - - -How did Men Learn to Count? - -Historians tell us that man was able to count long before he was able to -write. Of course, he could not count very far, but it was enough for his -needs at that time. He had no money and very few possessions of any -kind, so that he did not have much occasion to use arithmetic. - -It was fairly simple for prehistoric men to distinguish one from two, -and to distinguish a few from a great number, but it was more difficult -for him to learn to think of a definite number of objects between these -extremes. Those who have studied the evolution of figures say that man -found it hard to think of a number of objects without using a mark or a -finger or something to stand for each object. That is how the first -method of counting came into use. - -Because man had ten fingers and thumbs, he learned to count in tens. -When he had counted ten, he could make a mark to remind him of the fact, -and then count them over again. Some of the early races learned to -designate units from tens and tens from hundreds by working their -fingers in various ways. Other peoples also made use of their toes in -counting, so that they could count up to twenty without getting -bothered. - -Cantor, the historian, tells of a South African tribe which employed an -unusual system of finger counting. Three men sat together facing a -fourth who did the counting. Each of the three held up his fingers for -the fourth man to count. The first man’s ten fingers and thumbs -represented units; the second man represented tens, and the third -hundreds. By this means, it was possible to count up to 999. - - -Who Invented the First Adding Machine? - -Early cuneiform inscriptions, made about 2200 B. C., show that the -Babylonians had developed a fairly extensive system of figuring. This -was in the days of the patriarch Abraham. When men’s minds were -overtaxed with the strain of counting into the hundreds and thousands, -the Babylonians invented the first adding machine, a “pebble board,” a -ruled surface on which pebbles were shifted about to represent different -values. - -The next adding and calculating machine was an evolution from the digits -of the human hand and is known as the abacus in China, and the soroban -in Japan. - -The abacus may be defined as an arrangement of movable beads which slip -along fixed rods, indicating by their arrangement some definite -numerical quantity. Its most familiar form is in a boxlike arrangement, -divided longitudinally by a narrow ridge of two compartments, one of -which is roughly some three times larger than the other. Cylindrical -rods placed at equal intervals apart pass through the framework and are -fixed firmly into the sides. On these rods the counters are beaded. Each -counter slides along the rod easily and on each rod there are six tamas -or beads. Five of these slide on the longest segment of the rod and the -remaining one on the shorter. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, -division, and even square and cube root can be performed on the abacus, -and in the hands of a skilled operator considerable speed can be -obtained. - -[Illustration: FINGER COUNTING WAS COMMON AMONG EARLIER PEOPLES, AND WAS -BROUGHT TO A FAIR DEGREE OF EFFICIENCY BY SOUTH AFRICANS - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -[Illustration: THE “ABACUS” WAS ONE OF THE EARLIEST AIDS TO CALCULATION - -It is still used extensively in China, and occasionally will be found in -Chinese laundries in the United States. - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -The Oriental tradesman does not deign to perplex himself by a process of -mental arithmetic; he seizes his abacus, prepares it by a tilt, makes a -few rapid, clicking movements and his calculations are completed. We -always look with some slight contempt upon this method of calculation, -but a little experience and investigation would tend to transform this -contempt into admiration, for it may be safely asserted that even the -simplest of all arithmetical operations, the abacus, possesses -distinctive advantages over the mental or figuring process. In -competition in simple addition between a “lightning calculator” and an -ordinary Japanese small tradesman, the Japanese would easily win the -contest. - -Blaise Pascal, the wonderful Frenchman, who discovered the theorem in -conic sections, or Pascal’s hexogram, was not only one of the foremost -mathematicians of his day but also excelled in mechanics; when he was -nineteen years old he produced the first machine for the carrying of -tens and the first arithmetical machine, as we know it, was invented by -him about 1641. This was the first calculating machine made with dials. -The same principle, that of using discs with figures on their -peripheries, is employed in present-day calculating machines. Among -these are numbering machines of all kinds, speedometers, cyclometers and -counters used on printing presses. - -[Illustration: A MODERN BOOKKEEPING MACHINE, USED FOR LEDGER POSTING AND -STATEMENT MAKING - -It has seventeen “banks” or rows of keys, is electrically operated, and -automatically adds, subtracts, and computes balances. - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - - -Who Discovered the Slide Rule Principle? - -It was early in the seventeenth century that Napier, a native of Naples, -invented the first actual mechanical means of calculating. He arranged -strips of bone, on which were figures, so that they could be brought -into various fixed combinations. The instrument was called “Napier’s -rod” or “Napier’s bones.” It was the beginning of the slide rule, which -has been found of invaluable aid to accountants and engineers. - -One trouble with all these contrivances was that, although they aided -man to figure, they offered no means of making a record of the work. The -man who used these machines had no way of checking his work to know if -it was right unless he did it all over again. - -The first machine to perform multiplication by means of successive -additions was invented by Leibnitz in the year 1671 and completed in -1694. It employed the principle of the “stepped reckoner.” This model -was kept first at Göttingen and afterward at Hanover, but it did not act -efficiently, as the gears were not cut with sufficient accuracy. This -was long before the days of accurate machine tools. - -The first satisfactory calculating machine of this nature was that of -C. X. Thomas, which was brought out about 1820. It is usually called the -Thomas de Colmar Arithmometer. This Thomas type of machine, which is -commonly known as the beveled gear type, is still in use today in modern -business. - - -The “Difference Engine.” - -In the year 1822 a very ambitious project was conceived by Charles -Babbage. He commenced to construct an automatic calculating machine, -which he called a “difference engine.” The work was continued during -the following twenty years, the English government contributing about -$85,000 to defray its cost. Babbage himself spent a further sum of about -$30,000. At the end of that time the construction of the engine, though -nearly finished, was unfortunately abandoned, owing to some -misunderstanding with the government. A portion of this engine is -exhibited in South Kensington Museum, London, along with other examples -of Babbage’s work. If the engine had been finished it would have -contained seven columns of wheels, twenty wheels in each column, and -also a contrivance for stereotyping the tables calculated by it. It was -intended to perform the most extended calculations required in astronomy -and navigation, and to stamp a record of its work into plates of copper -or other material. - -[Illustration: CHARLES BABBAGE’S “ENGINE OF DIFFERENCES” WAS THE FIRST -ADDING MACHINE INVENTED WHICH WAS DESIGNED TO PRINT A RECORD OF ITS -WORK, BUT IT WAS NOT A SUCCESS - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -Babbage began to design his “analytical engine” in 1833 and he put -together a small portion of it shortly before his death in 1871. This -engine was to be capable of evaluating any algebraic formula. The -formula it is desired to evaluate would be communicated to the engine by -two sets of perforated cards similar to those used in the Jacquard loom. -These cards would cause the engine automatically to operate on the -numerical data placed in it, in such a way as to produce the correct -result. Notwithstanding its simple action, its structure is complicated -by a large amount of adding mechanism. A complete set of adding wheels -with carrying gear being required for the tabular number, and every -order of difference except the highest order. - -After Babbage, there was much experimenting done by inventors to produce -a real adding and listing machine. Also inspired by Babbage’s work -Scheutz of Stockholm made a “difference engine,” which was exhibited in -England in 1864, and subsequently acquired for Dudley Observatory, -Albany, N. Y. Scheutz’s engine had mechanism for calculating with four -orders of differences of sixteen figures each. - -As far as we know the first patent in this country issued by the patent -office for a calculating machine was to O. L. Castle of Alton, Illinois, -in 1850. It was for a ten-key adding machine which did not print and -only added in one column. - - -Work on Some of the Present-Day Models. - -Frank S. Baldwin, a construction engineer, living in the United States, -began to work on calculating machines in 1870. In 1874 he received a -patent for a small hand adding machine. In 1875 a patent was granted -him on a calculating machine. This machine was along entirely original -lines. Mr. Baldwin did not even know of the existence of the Thomas -machine at that time. The machine had a number of important advantages -over the Thomas system. Scientists were very much interested in the -invention at the time, and the John Scott medal for meritorious -inventions was conferred upon Mr. Baldwin by the Franklin Institute. The -only other invention being honored in that year (1875) was the George -Westinghouse air brake. - -[Illustration: THE MODERN ADDING MACHINE - -_Courtesy of the Monroe Calculating Machine Company._] - -This calculating machine, however, seemed to be too much in advance of -the times, and Mr. Baldwin was unable to interest capital in it. He was -very successful in his business as construction engineer and continued -to spend all his spare time and money in experimental work. He brought -out a number of models at later dates with important improvements. - -In the early eighties one of Mr. Baldwin’s 1875 models found its way to -Europe into the hands of one Ohdner, a Swede. He took out patents in all -European countries on a machine that did not vary in any important -particular from Mr. Baldwin’s machine, and several large manufacturing -companies in Europe took it up. It is now appearing under ten to fifteen -different names in Europe, the most important being “Brunsviga” and -Triumphator in Germany. There is no essential difference between the -machines they are turning out today and Mr. Baldwin’s original machine. -More than 50,000 machines of this type have been sold throughout the -world. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL ADDING AND LISTING MACHINES - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -In 1883 a young man who started to work in a bank in Auburn, N. Y., -discovered that nine-tenths of his work was mechanical addition. He also -found that the human brain is but an imperfect tool, incapable of -sustained effort without accident. His health gave way under the strain, -and he quit the bank to begin work in a machine shop in St. Louis. - -This was William S. Burroughs. He was of mechanical turn of mind, with -an intense hobby for painful accuracy. By lamplight at home he worked -out pencil outlines of a machine which would write figures and at the -same time add them. It required the most painstaking work for him to -make a machine to do what he had in mind. His early associates say of -Burroughs that no ordinary materials were good enough for his creation. -His drawings were on metal plates that would not stretch nor shrink by -the fraction of a hair. He worked with hardened tools ground to a point, -and when he struck a center or drew a line, he did it under a -microscope. - -In 1884 Burroughs took his plans to a St. Louis dry goods merchant, who -thought so well of the idea that he raised $700 toward forming a -company. The young man took up his work in the machine shop conducted by -Joseph Boyer. - -It was in January, 1885, that he applied for his patent, which was not -issued until 1887. - -His mechanism throughout operated on the pivotal principle. This means a -minimum of friction, therefore the least wear on the machine and the -least exertion on the part of the operator. The principle elements in -the machine remain practically unchanged today, a fact which testifies -to the excellence of the inventor’s work. - -Experimenting on the machine swallowed a great deal of capital, and the -stockholders of the company he had formed became impatient. Burroughs -objected strenuously, for he did not wish to market the machine until he -was convinced that it was perfect, but he finally agreed to manufacture -fifty machines. - -[Illustration: THE BOYER MACHINE SHOP, ST. LOUIS, WHERE ONE OF THE FIRST -SUCCESSFUL ADDING AND LISTING MACHINES WAS BORN - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -In his public demonstrations, he could do wonders with the machine. The -public was skeptical, however, and some averred that he was a “lightning -calculator” who did sums in his head and printed them on the machine. -The first machines worked all right for the inventor, but inexperienced -operators obtained surprising results through punching the keys and -jerking the crank. - -To meet this trouble and make the machines “fool proof,” he invented the -“automatic control” in 1890. This was a governor, called the “dash -pot”--a small cylinder partially filled with oil, and in which was a -plunger. This, in connection with an ingenious management of springs, -absorbed the shocks and governed the machine so that no matter what was -done to it, it would operate only at a certain speed. It is this same -shock-absorbing device which is used to catch the recoil on the immense -siege guns used in modern warfare. - -Other improvements were made, and in 1891 the first hundred machines -that were really marketable were manufactured. While still flushed with -his success, Burroughs thought of the first fifty machines which had -proved such a disappointment. These machines still remained in a dusty -storeroom to mock him. Determined to get them out of his sight and -memory, he seized them and threw them one by one from a window to the -pavement below. - -[Illustration: “THERE’S AN END TO MY TROUBLES,” SAID WILLIAM SEWARD -BURROUGHS AS HE THREW INTO THE STREET THE FIRST FIFTY ADDING MACHINES HE -HAD MADE - -He wished nothing to remain to remind him of this early failure. - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -When he had disposed of the last one, he called Mr. Boyer to see the -ruin. “There,” he exclaimed, “I have ended the last of my troubles.” - -The first machines were called “Registering Accountants,” and -“Arithmometers.” Burroughs lived to see the fulfilment of his dreams and -the machine a commercial success. He died September 14, 1898, at his -country home in Citronelle, Alabama, a victim of tuberculosis. - -There were at that time 8,000 banks in the country, and it was -Burroughs’ idea that as soon as these were supplied the market for -adding machines would be exhausted. Today, there are more than 200,000 -adding machines of that one make in use. - -The need for an all-around office assistant that could multiply, divide, -subtract as easily as it could add, was an idea nourished in the mind -and thought of a young student of the University of Michigan. - -After graduation, Jay R. Monroe turned his attention to clerical and -commercial lines. He became acquainted with all the different types of -adding and so-called calculating machines. He saw their limitations and -restrictions. He saw the need for versatility--for more simplicity in -operation--for getting away from arbitrary rules--for release from the -sapping mental tax. - -[Illustration: THE LATEST MODEL CALCULATING MACHINE - -_Courtesy of the Monroe Calculating Machine Company._] - -So in 1911 Monroe met Mr. Baldwin. Mr. Monroe realized the possibilities -of Mr. Baldwin’s idea. Together they set about designing the machine to -make it as nearly perfect as possible in adaptation to the needs of -modern business. - -They produced a machine in which the best of the European features are -said to be combined with the operating ease and simplicity of -American-made machines. Provision is made for the correction of errors, -and operation is in two directions, forward for addition and -multiplication, and backward for subtraction and division. The latest -model is a desk machine, occupying less than one square foot of space -and weighing about twenty-six pounds. - -One of the latest developments of the adding machine is a type that will -post ledgers and statements. This machine is said to be the final step -in relieving bookkeeping of its drudgery. - -[Illustration: THE “DUODECILLION”--THE LARGEST CAPACITY ADDING MACHINE -IN THE WORLD--HAS FORTY ROWS OF KEYS AND WILL ADD TO WITHIN A UNIT OF -TEN DUODECILLIONS - -To appreciate this prodigious figure, imagine that a marvelous -high-speed flying machine were invented that would go to the sun and -back in a day. If you made this 186,000,000-mile trip every day, it -would take you just 14,729,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 years to -travel a duodecillion miles. - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - - -How Big is the Largest Adding Machine in the World? - -The largest adding machine ever made was produced in 1915 and has a -capacity of forty columns, or within one unit of ten duodecillions. This -is a number too prodigious for the mind of man to grasp. This machine -was exhibited at the Panama Expositions in 1915. - -To get an idea of the capacity of this machine, suppose that your -income is $1,000,000 a second. At this rate for twenty-four hours a -day, with no stops for eating or sleeping, it would take you -352,331,022,041,828,731,333,333,333 years to accumulate a duodecillion -dollars. All the hairs on the heads of all human beings, which are -supposed to be numberless, are only a small fraction of a duodecillion. - -This machine has a practical use in adding several sums simultaneously, -and takes the place of from ten to a dozen smaller machines. - -Adding machines are made that figure in English pence, shillings and -pounds; in Japanese yen, and in the monetary system of most civilized -countries. They will change inches into feet, pounds into bushels, and -do other “stunts” that would make the average schoolboy envious when it -comes to arithmetic. - -The most complicated problems of multiplication, division and fractions -may be handled with ease on these machines. They have taken a great part -in the day’s work of modern business, and it would be hard to imagine -how the world’s finance and industry could be handled without them. -Adding and calculating machines have become almost as necessary in -modern business as the telephone and the typewriter. - - -How are Adding Machines Used? - -Adding machines may be found at work in all kinds of business places -from corner groceries to department stores and manufacturing plants. In -the various offices and plants of the Western Electric Company, which -are scattered through the country, more than 1,600 machines are in use. -Other big users are railroads, banks, mail-order houses, and city, state -and government offices. - -The Bank of France, the Bank of England, and other of the world’s -largest financial institutions do the burden of their figure work on -adding machines made in the United States. The German post-office uses -more than 1,200 machines. There are individual American banks, like the -Corn Exchange National Bank of New York, that employ as many as 150 -adding machines in their work. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE SMALLEST ADDING MACHINES IS ADAPTED FOR USE BY -RETAIL MERCHANTS AND OTHERS WHO DO NOT ADD FIGURES OF MORE THAN FIVE -DIGITS - -_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._] - -Some surprising uses are found for adding machines. One is used in a -Japanese boarding house in California; another is used by a retired -Dayton millionaire to count the coupons he clips; the Rockefeller -Sanitary Commission uses a machine in fighting the hook-worm; the United -States government uses thousands in making census tabulations and in -other ways. Others are used by newsboys, egg farmers, housewives, -undertakers, dentists, judges in automobile races, and by persons in a -thousand different lines of business. Without adding machines the public -would be obliged to wait for days for the results of most elections. - -In this way, the idea of a tired bank clerk came to change the figuring -methods of the world. - - * * * * * - - -The words “Almighty Dollar” have been generally adopted since Irving -first used them in his “Creole Village,” and the use of “lynching” to -represent mob law and the action of mobs has become common since a -Virginia farmer by that name instituted the first vigilance committee in -America. - - -Where does Ermine Come From? - -The ermine fur, with which we are all familiar, is furnished by the -stoat, a small animal of the weasel tribe. It is found over both -temperate Europe and North America, but is common only in the north. - -Because of that change which occurs in the color of its fur at different -seasons--by far most marked in the Arctic regions--it is not generally -known that the ermine and stoat are the same. In winter, in cold -countries or severe seasons, the fur changes from a reddish-brown to a -yellowish-white, or almost pure white, under which shade the animal is -recognized as the ermine. In both states the tip of the tail is black. - -[Illustration: ERMINE (_Mustela Erminea_)] - -Like many other species of this genus, the ermine has the faculty of -ejecting a fluid of a musky odor. - -Its fur is short, soft and silky; the best skins being brought from -Russia, Sweden and Norway and Hudson Bay territories. Its fur was -formerly one of the insignia of royalty, and is still used by judges. -When used as linings of cloaks the black tuft from the tail is sewed to -the skin at irregular distances. - - -What is the Principle of “Foreign Exchange”? - -Exchange, in commerce, is a transaction by which the debts of people -residing at a distance are canceled by a draft or bill of exchange, -without transfer of any actual money. - -A merchant in New York who owes $1,000 worth of goods in London, gives a -bill or order for that amount which can be negotiated through banking -agencies or otherwise against similar debts owing by other parties in -London who have payments to make in New York. This obviates the expense -and risk of transmitting money. - -The process of liquidating obligations between different nations is -carried on in the same way by an exchange of foreign bills. When all the -accounts of one country correspond in value with those of another, the -exchange between the countries will be at par, that is, the sum for -which the bill is drawn in the one country will be the exact value of it -in the other. - -Exchange is said to be at par when, for instance, a bill drawn in New -York for the payment of $1,000 in London can be purchased there for -$1,000. If it can be purchased for less, exchange is under par and is -against London. If the purchaser is obliged to give more, exchange is -above par and in favor of London. - -Although the thousand circumstances which incessantly affect the state -of debt and credit prevent the ordinary course of exchange from being -almost ever precisely at par, its fluctuations are confined within -narrow limits, and if direct exchange is unfavorable between two -countries this can often be obviated by the interposition of bills drawn -on other countries where an opposite state of matters prevails. - - -What do We Mean by “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms”? - -“Earth-shine,” in astronomy, is the name given to the faint light -visible on the part of the moon not illuminated by the sun, due to the -illumination of that portion by the light which the earth reflects on -her. It is most conspicuous when the illuminated part of the disc is at -its smallest, as soon after new moon. This phenomenon is popularly -described as “the old moon in the new moon’s arms.” - - - - -The Story in a Bowling Alley[27] - - -From the “stone age” onward the probabilities are that man has always -had some kind of bowling game. - -Bowling, as we know today, is an indoor adaptation of, and an -improvement upon, the old Dutch game of “nine-pins.” This game was -brought from Holland by those colonists who settled Manhattan Island in -1623. - -Washington Irving, in his story, “Rip Van Winkle,” refers to the old -Dutch fairy tale, that the rolling thunder on the mountain tops of the -Catskill was the noise made by the rolling balls as the elfs and gnomes -engaged in their favorite pastimes of bowling. - -That little section of New York City known as Bowling Green is the -original spot which, in 1732, Peter Bayard, Peter Jay and John Chambers -leased for eleven years and enclosed for a bowling green. - -With the influx of German immigrants, who brought with them a game -similar to the Dutch game, additional popularity was given to the sport. - -[Illustration: LOOP THE LOOP RETURN] - -The game was originally played on the bare ground. The Germans used a -board about a foot wide on which to roll the ball, and then improved on -this by using cohesive mineral substances solidly packed together. At an -early date, the Dutch had covered the alley with a roof, and later -enclosed it in a rough shed, to protect it and make play possible in any -kind of weather. But, great as these improvements were over the -crudeness of previous centuries, they are not worthy of comparison with -a modern bowling academy. - -In the best hard-wood section of the United States, one of the large -bowling equipment manufacturers owns about thirty thousand acres of -maple. From this raw material is gathered the chief stock that goes into -bowling alleys and the pins. - -The company has its own logging crews that cut the timber and pile it on -flat cars, whence it is transported over a private railroad until it -arrives at the company sawmills. Here the raw material enters upon the -manufacturing process. - -The rough stock-strips for the alley “bed,” “leveling strips,” “return -chute,” “post” and “kick-backs” are sawed out of certain of the logs. -They are then shipped to a factory where they are seasoned, being kiln -dried. The stock is next cut to the required sizes. - -The bed stock is cut into strips, planed on all sides, and tongued and -grooved on the widest sides. When finished, the strips measure 3 x 1 -inch. Part of the bed stock, however, is hard pine, shipped from the -Southern states in the rough boards. This is finished similar to the -maple strips. - -The “kick-backs” are the two partitions, shaped somewhat like a ship’s -rudder, which form the two pit sides. Each consists of two facings of -the best maple with a core of hard but resilient wood in the middle. -They are built in this way to make the pins that fly side-wise spring -back on the bed and knock down other standing pins, and also to -withstand the exceedingly rough usage to which they are subject by the -flying pins and rolling balls. - -The cushion forms the rear end of the pit. The frame is stoutly -constructed, and the face thickly upholstered with scrap leather and a -heavy but pliable covering. It swings on hinges which suspend it from -the cross bar, running from each of the kick-backs across the pit end at -the top. The cushion diminishes the force of the rolling balls and -flying pins, permitting them to fall gently into the pit. - -The “gutters” are the concave boards that extend the complete length of -the alley, from the foul line to the pit, on both sides of the bed. The -purpose is to take care of the misdirected balls that roll off the bed -before reaching the pit. - -The “return chute,” or “loop-the-loop return,” is the railway along -which the balls travel in their return from the pit to the bowler. It is -usually placed on the right-hand side of the alley, or between a pair of -alleys. - -At the pit end, the chute is solidly constructed with a concave flanged -surface placed on the top of the kick-back. It conforms to the downward -curve of the latter, but the rail work begins at the top of the incline -and extends back to the newel post at the bowler’s end of the alley. The -flanges easily accommodate the balls when placed on the chute by the pin -boy. - -The newel post is not made of a solid block, but is built up, being -veneered on the inside, as well as on the outside, to make it impervious -to atmospheric changes. The top contains a sponge cup to moisten the -fingers of the bowler. - -[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF BOWLING BED SHOWING STEEL CLAMP] - -The rails form a semicircle at the post, with the ends of the arc -pointing down the alley. A tightly stretched leather strap extends -horizontally from the upper end of the arc back to the post, where it is -fastened with a swivel screw. Half way up, from the points of the arc, a -second rail, _i. e._, the “receiver,” is built, with sufficient space -between it and the strap to allow the passage of the largest size ball. -With the momentum gained by rolling down the incline of the kick-back, -the ball rolls back on the inside of the curve until it strikes the -strap, where its course is stopped, and it drops on the receiver, ready -again for use by the bowler. - -In beginning the construction of an alley, the mechanic lays the -leveling strips on which the bed is to rest. These are set at right -angles to the direction in which the bed is to lie, and must be -spirit-leveled for accuracy, and firmly fastened to the foundation. A -strip of cork carpet is then laid the full width of the alley and -extending the entire length of the bed. This is to reduce to a minimum -the sound of the balls dropping on and rolling down the bed. - -On the leveling strips at the extreme side of where the bed is to lie, a -3 x 1-inch maple strip is laid, widest side downward, with its finished -one-inch edge nearest to the gutter. One end of this strip marks the -extreme end of the approach. The other end of the strip is continued by -adding other strips the full length of the bed. When these have been -carefully squared to the exact direction the alley is to run, they are -fastened to the leveling strips. - -The next strip, also of maple, is tongued into the lower one, but its -continuous length extends only about five feet beyond the foul line, or -about eighteen feet from the approach end. - -A bowling bed cannot be laid as an ordinary floor. It is built upon its -side and when finished resembles a wooden wall about seventy-five feet -long four inches high and three inches wide. - -The approach end of the bed, approximately eighteen feet long, is -constructed of maple, with each alternate strip of the 3 x 1-inch bed -stock about eighteen inches shorter. The pit end of the bed is similarly -constructed for a distance of about six feet. The space between is -filled in with the pine strips of the same dimensions, and the alternate -long and short strips at the inner ends of the approach and pit ends -form mortices into which the pine dovetails. - -[Illustration: PIT END SECTION OF BOWLING ALLEYS] - -The wear on the bed occurs where the bowler walks and drops the ball and -where the ball strikes the pins; hence the hard maple. The interior is -filled with pine, which is softer, because it retains a higher polish -and prevents the rolling ball from bumping; thus throwing it from its -proper course. - -The bed is thus built up for its continuous length, strip by strip, the -tongue of one strip fitting into the groove of the other, and both -nailed firmly together, until the proper width (while being built, the -height) is attained. When the bed is finished, the strips are clamped -with steel clamps, the turned-up ends of which firmly grip the sides of -the bed, thus preventing warping or spreading. While the bed is still in -this upright position, a one-inch slot is cut across where the foul line -is to rest, and holes are bored through the bed. A black composition -strip, _i. e._, the “foul-line,” is inserted in the slot and bolted -through the holes to the bottom of the bed. - -At the pit end, circular slots are cut and holes bored for the purpose -of countersinking and fastening the “pin spots.” The latter are of the -same substance as the foul-line and all are sunk flush with the surface -of the bed. - -This--clamping and fastening--explains the necessity for building the -bed on its side. - -It is now ready to be placed into position. It is merely toppled over, -face side upward, clamped side underneath. So exact has it been built, -according to specifications and alignment, and the mass is so heavy, -that the dead weight makes it lie where it falls and only the slightest -adjustment is necessary. - -The height of the leveling strips, plus the height of the bed, lift its -surface about six inches from the foundation floor. At the pins end of -the bed, this forms one of the sides and the bottom of the pit. The -bottom is floored with maple and covered with a specially prepared pit -mat, durable, yet soft, so as not to damage the balls and pins falling -upon it. The back and sides of the pit are formed by the kick-backs, -braces and cushion. - -After the kick-backs are placed in position, the gutters are laid, and -then the return chute railway is laid, between and slightly above them. -At the approach end of the bed the newel post is firmly fastened to the -foundation, and the floor that is laid above the latter and flush with -the surface of the bed serves to brace the post, making it immovable. -The curved end of the chute and the receiver are then added. - -The bed is then planed its entire length, sandpapered, shellaced and -polished. The remainder of the woodwork is finished in its natural color -except the gutters, which are stained mahogany and shellaced. They are -thus stained, not only for artistic effect, but to clearly define the -outer edges of the bed--a matter of great importance to the bowler when -trying to knock down the two outer pins in the third row. - -In making the pins, the best selected logs are sawed into blocks about 2 -x 1 feet. These are placed in a lathe and gouged out, forming the pin in -the rough. They are next turned down to size and selected for quality -and weight, after which they are kiln dried and receive a final turning -to perfect their formation, then smoothed and finished. - -[Illustration: BACKUS AUTOMATIC PIN SETTERS] - -The Backus pin-setter is almost human in its operation. The old way was -to hire boys to set up the pins on the spots and return the ball via the -return chute. The pin-setter relieves the boy of the major and most -time-consuming part of this work. A frame holding the machine is set up -over the spots. It is placed so high that it does not interfere with -either the flying pins or the rolling balls. - -As the pins are knocked off into the gutters, or the pit, the pin boy -picks them up and lays them flat on their sides into the pockets at the -top of the machine. When a “frame” is rolled those pins standing on the -alley remain there and the machine is lowered by a balance weight -controlled by a lever. As it descends the pins are automatically set on -end, and when they rest on the spots on the alley the machine releases -them and springs up to its original position. - -Wooden balls for bowling were never satisfactory. They wore out too -easily and never retained perfect rotundity. Fortunes were spent in -experimenting with other materials until at last the famous “mineralite” -ball was perfected. - -Its composition is a trade secret, but its chief ingredient is rubber. - -First the composition is rolled into sheets. These are then molded and -later vulcanized, being subject to terrific pressure. The balls are then -smoothed and polished. - -As it is impossible to make a perfectly round ball and have the weight -equally distributed, the ball can not roll true; an ingenious device -overcomes the difficulty. The ball is set in a basin of mercury, where -it floats. Naturally, the heavier side of the ball swings to the bottom. -On the top, diametrically opposite to the center of weight, a chalk mark -is placed on the ball and it is then lifted out of the mercury. - -Diametrically opposite to the chalk mark a small hole is punched into -the ball to indicate the weightiest point. Directly beneath this is -stamped the trademark of the firm. - -Having ascertained the proper distance apart the finger holes are to be -bored, the ball is weighed to determine the excess of its proposed -weight when finished. - -The holes are then machine bored at the respective points, sufficiently -deep to reduce the weight to exact specifications. - - * * * * * - - -How are Artificial Precious Stones Made? - -The art of manufacturing gems synthetically, that is, by the combination -of chemical elements present in the real stone, has reached a high -degree of success. - -The diamond, which is an allotropic form of carbon, has hitherto -resisted attempts to reproduce it of sufficient size to have a -commercial value. By dissolving carbon in molten iron and suddenly -cooling the molten mass by a stream of water, whereupon the outer part -contracts with great force and compresses the interior so that the -carbon separates out, Moissan, the French chemist, succeeded in -isolating small crystals, none, however, as large as one-twenty-fifth of -an inch in diameter. - -Experiments in the manufacture of the ruby have met with such success -that the synthetic ruby is produced of a size and of a perfection that -would place a prohibitive value on the natural stone. The ruby, -chemically considered, is crystallized alumina, or oxide of aluminum, -with a small percentage of oxide of chromium. - -Sapphire is of the same material, differing from the ruby only in color. -The ruby owes its fine red color to the presence of oxide of chromium; -the sapphire its deep blue to either a lower oxide of chromium or to an -oxide of titanium. - -Crystallized alumina in the different colors receives different trade -names, as Oriental emerald for the green; Oriental topaz for the yellow; -Oriental amethyst for the purple; while the water-clear, colorless -crystal is known as white sapphire. - -The process of manufacture of rubies is carried on with the oxyhydrogen -blow-pipe, to whose intense heat the powdered alumina with its coloring -oxides is subjected. Rubies have been thus produced weighing twelve to -fifteen carats when cut. The average weight of the native Burmese ruby -is about one-eighth of a carat. The sapphire and the so-called Oriental -stones are prepared in the same manner, with the addition of proper -coloring matter. - -The emerald and opal have not emerged from the experimental stage, -although Becquerel, a French chemist, is reported to have produced opals -from solutions of silicates with high-tension electric currents. - -To be distinguished from synthetic gems are reconstructed stones, which -(as yet only done with the ruby) are pieces of the natural stone fused -together. They are very brittle. - -The pearl is not produced synthetically, but many imitations exist. The -Japanese produce them by fastening a piece of mother-of-pearl in the -shells of the pearl-oyster and allowing it to remain there for a number -of years. - -The turquoise, a phosphate of aluminum colored with copper, is not -synthetically produced, although various experiments with its -manufacture have been made. - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museum._ - -MAZZANTINI BULL-FIGHT - -The last act in a bull fight, City of Mexico. The bull, tired out by the -attacks of the _picadores_ or pikemen, and _banderilleros_ or dart men, -whose _banderillas_ or darts are seen planted in the bull’s shoulders, -faces the _matador_, armed with the _estoque_ or sword, and carrying the -_muleta_ or red flag in his left hand, and about to deliver the death -stroke.] - - -What is a Mexican Bull-Fight Like? - -Bull-fights are among the favorite diversions of the Spaniards. They are -usually held in an amphitheater having circular seats rising one above -another, and are attended by vast crowds who eagerly pay for admission. - -The combatants, who make bull-fighting their profession, march into the -arena in procession. They are of various kinds--the _picadores_, -combatants on horseback, in the old Spanish knightly garb; the _chulos_ -and _banderilleros_, combatants on foot, in gay dresses, with colored -cloaks or banners; and finally, the _matador_ (the killer). - -As soon as the signal is given the bull is let into the arena. The -_picadores_, who have stationed themselves near him, commence the attack -with their lances, and the bull is thus goaded to fury. Sometimes a -horse is wounded or killed (only old, worthless animals are thus -employed), and the rider is obliged to run for his life. The _chulos_ -assist the horsemen by drawing the attention of the bull with their -cloaks; and in case of danger they save themselves by leaping over the -wooden fence which surrounds the arena. The _banderilleros_ then come -into play. They try to fasten on the bull their _banderillas_--barbed -darts ornamented with colored paper, and often having squibs or crackers -attached. If they succeed, the squibs are discharged and the bull races -madly about the arena. - -The _matador_ or _espada_ now comes in gravely with a naked sword and a -red flag to decoy the bull with, and aims a fatal blow at the animal. -The slaughtered bull is dragged away, and another is let out from the -stall. Several bulls are so disposed of in a single day. - - -What is the Difference between “Alternating” and “Direct” Current? - -Strong currents of electricity are generated in the electric central -stations and supplied to our homes, street lamps and so forth, in one of -the two forms, either “alternating” or “direct.” While many of us know -which kind is furnished to our homes, everyone does not always -understand the difference between the two. - -The central station contains a number of powerful dynamo machines, -driven usually by steam power. The positive and negative terminals of -the dynamo are put in connection with the positive and negative main -conductors which are to supply the district, and from these mains -smaller conductors branch off to the houses or lamps. All these -conductors are of copper, that metal when pure having seven times the -conductivity of iron. - -Different methods are in use for keeping the supply of electricity -steady in spite of the varying demands made upon it. In some systems of -distribution, instead of the two main conductors being one positive and -the other negative, each is positive and negative alternately, the -reversals taking place some hundreds of times per second. The currents -are then said to be “alternating.” When such reversals do not take -place, the currents are said to be “direct.” - - -What was the “Court of Love”? - -The “Court of Love” existed in what we call the chivalric period of the -middle ages. - -It was composed of knights, poets and ladies, who discussed and gave -decisions on subtle questions of love and gallantry. The first of these -courts was probably established in Provence about the twelfth century. -They reached their highest splendor in France, under Charles VI, through -the influence of his consort, Isabella of Bavaria, whose court was -established in 1380. An attempted revival was made under Louis XIV by -Cardinal Richelieu. - - - - -The Story of the Addressograph[28] - - -If you were asked to enumerate the different kinds of clerical work -performed in the modern business office, you would probably fail to -mention the writing of names. Yet the writing and rewriting of names is -as essential in most offices as the addition of figures or the dictation -of correspondence. - -In fact, names represent the backbone of nearly every business or -organization. There is the list of names of those people you sell to; -the names of those people you want to sell to; the names of those people -you buy from; the names of those people who owe you money; the names of -those people to whom you owe money and the names of those people who -work for you. Then, lodges, clubs, churches and other organizations must -maintain lists of names of their members; and so the different kinds of -lists go on _ad infinitum_. - -Now, in most offices, these names must be written and rewritten over and -over again--often many times each month--on envelopes, price-lists, -statements, checks, pay forms, ledger sheets, order forms, tags, labels, -etc. And in many offices the writing of names is still a slow, tedious, -drudging task--as the workers in those offices will testify. - - -The Birth of Mechanical Addressing. - -But in one office this monotonous task of writing and rewriting the same -names over and over again became such a hardship that the man who had to -do it, thinking twenty-five years ahead of his time, had a vision of -performing such work mechanically. That vision was the forerunner of the -Addressograph. - -In the early 90’s, Mr. Joseph S. Duncan was manager of a little flour -and grist mill in Iowa. The requirements of his business necessitated -the daily addressing of 100 quotation cards. Those were the days of pen -and ink and the imperfectly developed typewriter. Mr. Duncan’s office -was small. He was the sole worker in that office--and as the typewriter -was still a curiosity in that section of the country, Mr. Duncan was -obliged to depend upon pen and ink in addressing his daily price cards. -This routine task wasted a great deal of his valuable time each day. In -an effort to finish the work quickly, so that he could devote his -attention to more important matters, Mr. Duncan found that he was -frequently sacrificing accuracy for speed. Result--his concern often -suffered considerable loss of profit because his quotation cards did not -reach the people for whom they were intended. Finally, becoming -disgusted with inefficient and inaccurate pen and ink addressing -methods, Mr. Duncan made a trip to Chicago for the purpose of purchasing -a machine for addressing his price cards. But, on visiting the leading -stationery and office equipment stores, he was told there was no such -machine. He returned to his office resigned to the task of addressing -his 100 daily quotation cards by pen and ink. But the drudgery and -monotony of this work would not down in his mind. The mistakes and -omissions made in addressing these price cards became no less frequent. -Finally, because Mr. Duncan could no longer be reconciled to the -drudgery, inaccuracy and expense of hand addressing, he determined to -build for himself a machine that would lift from his shoulders this -monotonous task. - - -Builds First Addressograph. - -Mr. Duncan invented and built his first addressing machine in 1892. He -called it the “Addressograph”--a coined word meaning “to write -addresses.” Although Mr. Duncan appreciated the saving of time and -money and increase in accuracy which his little invention would surely -create in the writing of names and addresses, he did not at first -realize the great place his remarkable invention was destined to take in -the commercial world as a “business energizer” and simplifier of routine -work. - -Like the first steam engine, telephone or automobile, the first -addressograph was crudely simple and of course presented an uncouth -mechanical appearance. Mr. Duncan experimented by gluing the rubber -portion of a number of hand stamps to a wooden drum. This drum was -placed on an operating shaft in the addressograph, so that after the -printing of one name and address, the drum revolved so that the next -name and address came into printing position. The type impressions thus -obtained were fairly readable. But Mr. Duncan soon realized that the -idea of gluing the type permanently to a wooden drum was unpractical. -Only a few addresses could be placed around the drum and the method of -gluing them permanently into place made it practically impossible to -make corrections when changes in address occurred, or to add new names -as occasion demanded. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST ADDRESSOGRAPH] - -Greater flexibility was needed. So Mr. Duncan designed and built what is -now known as the first chain addressograph. Individual rubber type -characters were pushed into metal type holders with a pair of tweezers. -These type holders were then ingeniously linked together in the form of -an endless chain. These chains were placed over a revolving metal drum, -and as each separate name and address came to the printing point of the -addressograph, the operator pushed down on a vertical stamper rod which -pushed the envelope, or whatever form was to be addressed, against the -rubber type which was inked just before reaching the printing point. -Here, at last, was a practical addressing machine which enabled the user -to accurately print names and addresses--typewriter style--ten times -faster than was possible by any other method, and, quite as important, -to make changes and additions to the list. - - -The Beginning of a Great Industry. - -By this time, Mr. Duncan had moved his base of operations from Iowa to -Chicago. So well was his first practical model of the addressograph -received by Chicago business men that he sold the first half-dozen -manufactured within a short time. Enthused with his success, Mr. Duncan -decided to enter into the manufacture and sale of addressographs on as -extensive a basis as the demand for his invention warranted. But to do -this it was necessary for him to secure more capital. Consequently, he -interested Mr. J. B. Hall--a Chicago business man--in his project, and -in January, 1896, Mr. Duncan and Mr. Hall formed a partnership and -called it the “Addressograph Company.” - -Mr. Hall’s first step was to find out what the leading business men of -his time thought of the addressograph. So he made a trip to New York -City--taking with him one of the little hand-operated chain -addressographs. Here, Mr. Hall called upon Henry Clews, J. Pierpont -Morgan and other prominent business men. He also visited the offices of -the large public service and insurance companies. In every case, Mr. -Hall was courteously received, but after demonstrating the addressograph -was told that while it was interesting and a step in the right -direction, it was still in too primitive a state to prove of any great -value in addressing a large list of names. - - -Answering Demand for Greater Speed. - -Naturally, Mr. Hall’s first thought on his return to Chicago was to -induce Mr. Duncan to build a larger model, capable of greater speed and -greater output. Acting upon Mr. Hall’s suggestion, Mr. Duncan, in a -short time, perfected a larger chain addressograph, operated by -foot-lever and embodying several important improvements. As the -Addressograph Company was maintaining at that time only a small sales -office, a contract was let to the Blackman Machine Company, of Chicago, -to build fifteen of these new foot-lever chain addressographs. And it -was this new model which caused the addressograph to take its place in -the business world as one of the leading office appliances. Many of -these new chain addressographs were sold. Having formerly been engaged -in the public service field, Mr. Hall was quick to realize the -advantages which mechanical addressing offered to gas, electric light, -water and telephone companies. As a result, the majority of the first -addressograph sales were made to these lines of business. - -[Illustration: RUBBER CHAIN ADDRESSOGRAPH OPERATED BY FOOT LEVER AND -MOUNTED IN WOOD CABINET] - -With the constantly increasing use of the addressograph, suggestions for -improvement and further development were freely offered by addressograph -customers and just as liberally entertained by Mr. Duncan. As a result -of these suggestions, another important advance took place in -addressograph development. A customer, after writing words of praise -about his addressograph, suggested that if some means could be arrived -at to avoid the necessity of setting and resetting the individual pieces -of rubber type, a great saving in time and money could be accomplished -in making changes and additions to a list of names. - - -Invents Embossed Metal Address Plate. - -After considerable thought, Mr. Duncan hit upon the plan of embossing, -typewriter style, characters upon a metal plate. To do this, it was -necessary for him to invent and perfect the Graphotype--a machine which -writes names and addresses on metal plates almost as quickly as the same -data can be written on paper with the typewriter. The first embossed -metal plates were linked together in the form of an endless chain, -similar to the rubber type plates. A new addressograph was perfected for -printing impressions from these embossed metal plates. It was called the -No. 2 Chain Addressograph. - -The Addressograph Company now had two models to sell. But, owing to the -fact that the rubber chain addressograph permitted users to make changes -and additions in their own offices, a greater number of machines of this -model were sold than of the metal chain addressograph; because, with the -latter model, it was necessary for the customer to send to Chicago to -have his new metal links embossed with the graphotype for the changes -and additions of his list. - -By this time, the Addressograph Company had established itself in its -own factory in Chicago. Branch offices had also been opened in New York, -Philadelphia, Boston and other principal points, and out of these -offices was traveling a small but enthusiastic group of salesmen. Many -firms, large and small, throughout the country were using and -recommending the chain addressograph. And, crude as that model seems -now, it was proving a wonderful time and labor saver in the offices in -which it was used--and paying back its cost many times each year because -of the fact that it accurately printed names and addresses ten times -faster than was possible to write such data by pen or typewriter. - - -A Card Index that Addresses Itself. - -As the use of the addressograph increased, Mr. Duncan and Mr. Hall -realized the need of a more efficient way of making changes and -additions to the list of names. It was important that individual names -be located and removed from the list more quickly than was possible with -the chain addressograph. Demand for improvement along this line was -stimulated by the loose-leaf and card index wave which was just then -beginning to sweep the country. And Mr. Duncan, taking the card index -idea as a basis, designed what he called the Model “A” or Rubber Card -Index Addressograph. Instead of the separate plates being linked -together in the form of a chain, they were inserted into a tin -holder--called the frame--which closely resembled in appearance a 3 x 5 -paper file card. In addition to carrying a printing plate, this frame -also carried a paper card bearing a proof of its respective printing -plate. In this complete form, these address plates were filed in steel -filing drawers like ordinary paper cards. About every fifteenth address -plate in a drawer was equipped with a vertical, subdividing -tab--numerical, alphabetical or geographical as the case might require. -Each filing drawer carried a printed label showing the contents of the -drawer--and by means of these complete card index features it proved a -simple matter to locate and remove individual names when making -revisions to the list; and, in addition, these features afforded all of -the advantages of a perfect reference file, as the paper proof card -could be provided with a printed form for retaining memoranda. - -[Illustration: RUBBER CARD INDEX ADDRESS PLATE] - -Of course, a new addressograph was necessary to handle this card index -improvement. And in the Model “A” Addressograph, we find the basic -principle of the addressograph of today. A drawerful of plates is -emptied into the magazine. The empty filing drawer is placed beneath the -addressograph so that after addressing the address plates fall back into -the original drawer in their original card index order. - -[Illustration: METAL CARD INDEX ADDRESS PLATE] - - -Electric Motor Increases Speed. - -Not only was it necessary to meet the demand for card index -conveniences, but it was also important to equip the Model “A” -Addressograph with an electric motor for increasing its speed of -operation and insuring a greater output. As was to be expected, the card -index and electrically operated features caused thousands of concerns, -large and small, to adopt the addressograph. Large mercantile houses, -addressing thousands of names--who had formerly held aloof from the -addressograph because of its limited advantages for making changes and -additions--now placed their orders with instructions to rush delivery. -With business houses all over the country rapidly changing from bound -books to loose-leaf card index records, the demand for chain -addressograph models diminished and more and more orders were received -for the rubber card index addressographs. Business men, generally, were -now taking a real interest in mechanical addressing and the saving which -the addressograph made possible in their offices. This interest was -increased materially with the growth of mail-order businesses and the -constantly increasing use of direct-by-mail advertising by business -concerns, large and small. Firms having mailing lists were increasing -them. Those firms which had not previously used direct-by-mail -advertising were now coming to realize the many advantages of that -modern selling short-cut and were compiling large lists of names. The -rubber card index addressograph had by now proved itself a wonderful -time and labor saver in addressing and maintaining lists of names of -average size. But, with the advent of large lists, the high cost of -rubber type presented a serious objection to many firms regarding the -installation of the addressograph. Furthermore, large lists of names -were subject to many changes and additions--and in this connection, -setting up the address plates in rubber type proved quite slow and -expensive. So, to bring the addressograph abreast of modern conditions, -Mr. Duncan combined the card index filing idea with the embossed metal -plate which he had previously worked out for use with the chain -addressograph. With the coming of the metal card index addressograph and -the modern graphotype for making the metal address plates, the -addressing machine business was “revolutionized,” as Mr. Duncan put it. -With the graphotype, address plates for changes and additions could be -made at almost typewriter speed. The card index address plate required -less filing space than was true of the rubber card index address plate, -printed cleaner impressions and from every standpoint was superior to -the rubber type system. In order that customers could make their changes -and additions right in their office, the graphotype was further -developed and furnished in two models, one operated by motor, the other -by hand. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC GRAPHOTYPE WHICH EMBOSSES TYPEWRITER STYLE -CHARACTERS ON METAL ADDRESS PLATES] - -[Illustration: HAND GRAPHOTYPE WHICH EMBOSSES TYPEWRITER STYLE -CHARACTERS ON METAL ADDRESS PLATES] - - -Attachments Increase Utility of Addressograph. - -The first addressographs were intended for printing names and addresses -consecutively on envelopes and post cards. And so much time was saved on -this one application that customers soon began applying it to other -kinds of work in their offices. To do this effectively, it was necessary -for Mr. Duncan to work out additional parts called “attachments” which -permitted the addressing, listing and imprinting of names and other data -on office forms of every nature. To illustrate: the dating attachment -enabled users to apply the addressograph to their statement work. With -this attachment--which can quickly be thrown in or out of operation--the -current date is printed at the head of a statement simultaneously with -the printing of the name and address. Further, to use the addressograph -effectively for statement work, it was necessary to devise a skipping -attachment--manipulated by the operator’s knee--permitting him to skip -the printing of impressions from address plates of those customers who -had paid their accounts. By working out the listing attachment, Mr. -Duncan made it possible for users to list names in one or more vertical -columns on pay sheets, drivers’ route sheets, dividend and trial balance -sheets. This attachment automatically feeds the paper and spaces the -proper distances between the printing of each address. Then came the -electric bell signal and automatic selector attachments. Users of -classified lists of names were enabled by these attachments to place -tabs in sockets at the top and back of the address plates to indicate -the different classifications on the list, such as “Buying Seasons,” -“Kinds of Products Wanted,” “Territories,” “Expired Dates,” etc., and by -means of these attachments, automatically select for addressing certain -address plates, skipping the addressing of others. - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC LISTING ATTACHMENT] - -[Illustration: HIGH SPEED AUTOMATIC FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. CAPACITY, 7,500 -ADDRESSED ENVELOPES PER HOUR] - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC ENVELOPE FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. SPEED, 5,000 -ADDRESSED ENVELOPES AN HOUR] - -As the various uses for the addressograph increased, so the demand for -different special attachments increased, until today, the addressograph -addresses, lists and imprints names, addresses and other data upon every -office form. The history of the addressograph has been one of constant -development. With the growth of large lists, the demand for greater -speed in addressing was answered by automatic feed addressographs. The -Automatic No. 1 Addressograph was designed to automatically feed and -address envelopes and cards at the rate of 4,000 to 5,000 an hour. In -the Automatic No. 3 Addressograph we find the highest development of the -system. This machine automatically feeds and addresses public service -bills, insurance premium notices and receipts, cards, envelopes, -circulars, etc., at the great speed of 6,000 to 8,000 an hour. The -wrapper addressograph answered the demand of publishers for great speed -and 100 per cent accuracy. This model of the addressograph automatically -feeds wrappers from a roll and in addition to printing the name and -address exact typewriter style, also prints the name of the publication -and postal permit from electrotypes, indicates mail routes on the back -of the wrappers, separates into a separate drawer the address plates of -those people whose subscriptions have expired, and cuts the wrapper to -the proper size--all at the speed of 7,500 per hour. - - -Small Users not Overlooked. - -But, while Mr. Duncan and his associates have given every attention to -the needs of users of large lists of names, he has not overlooked the -lodge secretaries and other users of small lists of names. In the hand -addressograph, which sells for as low as $27, he has worked out three -practical models having an average speed of from 750 to 1,500 names and -addresses an hour. Thousands of these little machines are in daily use -and, like the larger models of the addressograph, are driving drudgery -out of the office--freeing thousands of hands from the monotonous, -laborious task of writing names and addresses by pen and ink--in short, -elevating the position of the office worker far above that of a mere -automaton and making it possible for him to earn more money and enjoy a -happier existence by doing brain work instead of manual labor. - -[Illustration: WRAPPER FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. SPEED, 6,000 TO 8,000 -ADDRESSED WRAPPERS PER HOUR] - -[Illustration: HAND ADDRESSOGRAPH (PRINTS THROUGH A RIBBON). SPEED, -1,000 TO 1,500 TYPEWRITTEN ADDRESSES AN HOUR] - -[Illustration: SHOWING HOW TABS ARE INSERTED IN BACK OF ADDRESS PLATE -FOR PURPOSES OF INDEXING AND CLASSIFYING LISTS] - - -The Addressograph--Its Place in Business. - -Twenty-five years’ use of the addressograph in over 300 different lines -of business--manufacturers, wholesalers and dealers, insurance -companies, public service companies, government departments, -associations, clubs, churches, lodges, hotels and schools, laundries, -commission merchants, publishers, railroad and steamship companies--in -truth, every business, large and small, where a list of names is -frequently addressed--have proved the utter folly of slow, tiring hands -attempting to compete with swift, untiring wheels. Wherever names are -written, there you will usually find the addressograph in use, saving -time and money, guaranteeing 100 per cent accuracy and insuring maximum -efficiency. There are many different models--some operated by hand or -foot-lever, others by electric motor; some are entirely automatic. So, -no matter how many names and addresses are written--fifty or a -million--the addressograph, like the telephone or typewriter, has come -to be recognized as a modern business necessity. - - * * * * * - - -What is “Dry Farming”? - -Dry farming is a method which has been recently developed and which is -coming into even wider use. The United States Department of Agriculture, -through its experiment stations, has made a careful study of the -conditions, possibilities and limitations of the practice, and the -following is a brief abstract of the results: - -In defining the term dry farming it is explained that the practice -includes (1) deep plowing before the rainy season sets in, in order to -provide in the soil a capacious water storage reservoir and an ample -space for root development; (2) light, deep, even seeding or planting in -a well-prepared, moist soil; (3) frequent, thorough, level cultivation -before as well as after sowing or planting; (4) the use of seed bred and -selected for the conditions prevailing; (5) the use of machinery of -large capacity; (6) the adoption of methods for the concentration of -crops. - -Crops must be selected or developed that will fit the environment, and -there is ample field for investigation in the improvement and -development of crops suitable to dry lands. Wheat stands at the head -among cereal crops. The durum or macaroni wheats do especially well; but -other varieties are also grown, as are oats, rye, barley and spelt. The -millets are among the best paying dry-farming crops. There are few -legumes that have shown value on dry lands, but peas, beans and alfalfa -are the most promising of development. Vegetables and both shade and -fruit trees are being grown in districts where dry farming is practiced. - -Fall seeding of cereals, wherever the conditions will permit, is -preferable to spring seeding, and it is important to retain the snow -upon the land, especially in sections where it forms the chief part of -the total precipitation. The snowfall may be retained by leaving the -ground rough after the late fall plowing, by throwing up borders across -the field at right angles with the prevailing winds, or by planting -hedge rows or shrubbery across the field at short intervals. Usually -less seed should be planted per acre under dry-farming conditions than -is used in humid sections. The less precipitation, the smaller should be -the amount of seed planted. - - -What is a “Drying Machine” Like? - -This is a machine used in bleaching, dyeing and laundry establishments, -consisting of two concentric drums or cylinders, one within the other, -open at the top, and having the inner cylinder perforated at its side -with numerous small holes. The goods to be dried are placed within the -inner cylinder, and the machine is then made to rotate with great -velocity, when, by the action of centrifugal force, the water escapes -through the holes in the side. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Brown Bros._ - -NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE - -This is the only photograph ever made of the interior of the New York -Stock Exchange, the financial heart of the country. Each stock listed is -allotted to one of the posts seen on the floor, which, during a panic, -become the scene of the wildest excitement. The exchange is connected by -private telegraph wires and “ticker” wires with every important -financial center.] - - -How does the New York Stock Exchange Operate? - -The New York Stock Exchange is typical of most American stock exchanges, -the leading ones of which are located in Boston, Pittsburgh, -Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Cleveland, Cincinnati, New Orleans, -Salt Lake City, Denver, San Francisco and St. Louis. American stock -exchanges differ somewhat in their operation from the foreign stock -exchanges, the principal ones of which are those of London, Paris, -Berlin, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, Vienna and Petrograd. - -A stock exchange is really an organization of professional brokers, -which conducts speculation and investment in securities, the paper -representatives of transportation, industrial, mining, commercial and -other properties. On the American stock exchanges one broker may -specialize in the shares of the Union Pacific Railroad, for instance, -another in those of the United States Steel Corporation, and so on. Some -brokers deal particularly in “odd lots”--blocks of less than one hundred -shares--and some members, called “room traders,” speculate entirely for -their own account and do no commission business for customers. The -commission charged for buying or selling is twelve and a half cents a -share, so that on the usual order of one hundred shares, the broker -receives twelve dollars and a half. - -The business of buying and selling shares is done in a large room known -as the “floor.” Scattered over the floor are a large number of high -posts. Each post bears the name of the stock or stocks which may be -traded in at that post. This provision is to bring buyers and sellers in -any security together as quickly as possible. A broker desiring to buy -shares of a certain stock will go to the part allotted to that stock and -call out its name with the number of shares wished and the price he will -pay. This is his bid. Other brokers may offer the stock to him at a -slightly higher price, or his bid may be accepted at once. As soon as a -price is agreed on, each broker--the buyer and the seller--makes a -memorandum of the transaction, which is reported to the offices at once -by telephone. Meanwhile the broker also hands another memorandum of the -transaction to an errand boy, who takes the memorandum at once to the -telegraph operator, who in turn sends it out onto the little instrument -called the “ticker.” - -Transactions on the New York Stock Exchange may be made in three -different ways: “Cash,” “regular” or on a “limited option” to buyer and -seller as to the time of delivery or acceptance. “Cash” means that stock -bought in this manner is taken up and paid for the same day; “regular” -transactions mean that the stock bought in this way must be taken up and -paid for by a quarter past two o’clock of the following afternoon. - -Upon the outbreak of the European war, panic ensued among holders of -securities, and the stock exchanges of the world were closed to prevent -the selling of stocks at prices which would have brought ruin to banks -and other financial houses. Practically none of them were opened until -December, 1914, and then only under severe restrictions which were held -in force until confidence had returned. - - -How did the Term “Cowboys” Originate? - -The term “cowboys” was first used during the American Revolution. It was -applied to a band of Tories who infested the neutral ground of -Westchester County, New York, stealing cattle from both parties and -doing other mischief. - -It has been used of recent years to designate the skilled horsemen who -have charge of the cattle on the great ranges of the West. Many of them -enlisted in the Rough Rider regiment of the Spanish war and proved -daring soldiers. - - - - -The Story in a Chemical Fire Extinguisher[29] - - -A little smoke, a flash, and a waste basket, a curtain or something else -is in flames. A few years ago an excited person would fail to extinguish -the blaze with water or with any other first aid at hand and would call -for the fire department. When that arrived the fire frequently would be -beyond control. - -Modern methods have wrought great changes. Nowadays, in case of fire, -any man, woman or child can reach for a fire extinguisher and after a -few strokes of the pump the fire is out. - -This change did not come all at once. The fire extinguisher has been -developing ever since man learned to fear fire. Devices for -extinguishing fire are almost coeval with that element itself. In the -second century before Christ, the Egyptians had pumps worked by levers -to put out their fires. The Roman, Pliny, refers to fire extinguishers -but gives no account of their construction. Apollodorus, architect of -the Emperor Trajan, speaks of leathern bags with pipes attached. Water -was projected by squeezing the bags. Medieval Europe used various forms -of water pumps, and it was not until the opening of the nineteenth -century that chemicals were used to combat fire. - -[Illustration] - -There are two classes of chemical fire extinguishers: the soda and acid -tank or three-gallon type, and the one-quart pump type. The latter came -when the efficiency of carbon tetrachloride as an extinguishing agent -became known. All the extinguishers of this type use a liquid which has -carbon tetrachloride as a base. The liquid is a combination of organic -materials with an aromatic odor and high specific gravity. When -subjected to a temperature of 200° F. or over, it changes to a heavy, -cohering, non-poisonous gas blanket which surrounds the burning material -and cuts off the air supply necessary for the life of the fire. - -The first one-quart pump type of extinguisher appeared in the United -States in 1907. There was little resemblance between it and the -extinguisher of today. A cylindrical tube with a perforated end -contained the liquid. The user was expected to sprinkle the liquid over -the fire just as salt is sprinkled from a saltcellar over meat. - -One company applied the idea of pumping the liquid on the fire in 1909. -They introduced a single-acting pump. The user inserted the nozzle in -the liquid, drew it into the pump, and then ejected it on the flames. -This company substituted a double-acting pump early in 1910. The -container for the fluid and the pump were thus combined and the -extinguisher had the general appearance of those now on the market. - -Brass construction was substituted for tin in the latter part of 1910, -and in 1911 all brass construction was adopted. The extinguisher has -remained practically unchanged since 1911. - -This was the only one-quart type extinguisher on the market until 1911. -Since then several others have been marketed. All use an extinguishing -liquid with carbon tetrachloride as a base. They differ principally in -the manner of its ejection. The original type pumps the liquid out by -hand. Others eject it by air pressure or by a combination of the two -methods. The objection made by some people to the use of air pressure is -that it demands attention and the use of a complicated mechanism which -more readily gets out of order. - -[Illustration] - -The liquid extinguishing agent has seen little change since 1907. In -1914 it was modified so that it injures nothing with which it comes in -contact. It puts out fires originating in oily wastes, turpentine and -shellac, and fires resulting from the ignition of gasoline, benzine or -acetylene gas, on which ordinary chemicals and water are useless. It -extinguishes electrical fires without injuring insulation or apparatus -and without injury to the operator. A stream of this liquid has been -directed upon a circuit of 110,000 volts without the least harm to the -operator. - -A German originated the soda and acid type of extinguisher from tests -made in Denmark between 1830 and 1835. The enterprising Teuton divided a -hogshead into two parts. He filled one part with a solution of alcohol -and water; the other division was partly filled with sulphuric acid. His -problem was to unite the two when he wanted to put out a fire. This was -accomplished by fastening a charge of gunpowder in such a way that when -exploded it would break the partition and mix the solutions. French -ingenuity added slight improvements a short time later. - -[Illustration] - -Alexander Graham, of Lexington, Virginia, applied for patents on this -type of extinguisher a number of times between 1844 and 1849. He was -unable to patent his invention. A fire extinguisher company in Chicago -and one in Baltimore obtained patents on what was known as the -“bicarbonate of soda and sulphuric acid” extinguisher by a special act -of Congress in 1865. These patents were known as the Graham patents, and -both extinguishers were called the “break-bottle type” because the soda -and acid were mixed when a glass bottle containing the latter was -broken. - -The “up-set” type of soda and acid extinguisher was adapted by Meyerose -in St. Louis in 1891. The improvement lay in the vessel containing the -acid being upset instead of broken. This extinguisher was of copper -construction and had a capacity of three gallons. One fire extinguisher -company improved upon the original type of “up-set” extinguisher in 1893 -by lining the extinguisher with lead which the acid did not affect. -Since 1893 there have been no improvements of consequence on the soda -and acid extinguisher. It consists of a cylindrical container with a -solution of sodium bicarbonate. Over the bicarbonate is suspended a -vessel containing sulphuric acid. When in use the acid is tilted over -and comes in contact with the bicarbonate. This liberates carbon -dioxide. The pressure generated is sufficient to throw a stream of the -bicarbonate solution forty feet. The chief disadvantages of the soda and -acid type of extinguisher are that its weight makes it cumbersome to -operate and it cannot be safely used on electrical fires until the -current has been turned off. - - * * * * * - - -How is Gold Leaf Made? - -The gold is cast into ingots weighing about two ounces each, and -measuring about three-quarters of an inch broad. These ingots are passed -between steel rollers till they form long ribbons of such thinness that -a square inch will weigh six and one-half grains. Each one of these is -now cut into 150 pieces, each of which is beaten on an anvil till it is -about an inch square. These 150 plates are interlaid with pieces of fine -vellum about four inches square, and beaten till the gold is extended -nearly to the size of the vellum leaves. Each leaf is then divided into -four, interlaid with goldbeater’s skin, and beaten out to the dimensions -of the skin. Another similar division and beating finishes the -operation, after which the leaves are placed in paper books ready for -use. The leaves are about three and a quarter inches square and are -produced in ten different shades of color, according as the gold was -alloyed with much or little copper or silver. - - -What is the Natural Color of Goldfish? - -It is greenish in color in the natural state, the golden-yellow color -being found only in domesticated specimens, and retained by artificial -selection. - -These fishes are reared by the Chinese in small ponds, in basins or -porcelain vessels, and kept for ornament. By careful selection, many -strange varieties have been propagated. - -They are now distributed over nearly all the civilized parts of the -world, but in large ponds they readily revert to the color of the -original stock. - - -When was “Liquid Fire” First Used in Warfare? - -Long before the European war, an inflammable and destructive compound -was used in warfare, especially by the Byzantine Greeks. - -It was poured from caldrons and ladles, vomited through long copper -tubes, or flung in pots, phials and barrels. - -The art of compounding it was concealed at Constantinople with the -greatest care, but it appears that naphtha, sulphur and nitre entered -into its composition. - - -How did the Greyhound Get His Name? - -The name appears to have no reference to the color, but is derived from -the Icelandic “grey,” meaning a dog. They are used chiefly in the sport -of coursing, a work for which their peculiar shape, strength, keenness -of sight and speed make them exceedingly well fitted. This sport is -preferred by many people to horse racing. There are several varieties, -as the Irish greyhound, the Scottish, the Russian, the Italian and the -Turkish. - -The common greyhound is of an elegant make of body, and is universally -known as the fleetest of dogs. - -A good hound has a fine, soft, flexible skin, with thin, silky hair, a -great length of nose, contracting gradually from the eye to the nostril, -a full, clear and penetrating eye, small ears, erect head, long neck, -chest capacious, deep, but not wide, shoulders deep and placed -obliquely, ribs well arched, contracted belly and flank, a great depth -from the hips to the hocks of the hind-legs, fore-legs straight and -shorter than the hind legs. - -[Illustration: THE GATEWAY TO AMERICA - -The famous statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. The grassy space in the -foreground is Battery Park, and the round building is the Aquarium. Here -in the early days stood a rude “castle” or fort, later supplanted by an -opera house. Washington often walked in the old garden around the -building, as did other great Americans. - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - - -Why is It Called “Battery Park”? - -The extreme southern end of Manhattan Island is both popularly and -officially known as “Battery Park” because it was fortified in the -seventeenth century for the protection of the town. In the picture the -round building is the Aquarium, which is abundantly supplied with sea -and river fishes. The picture was taken from a platform of the Elevated -Railway, the trains of which run from this point to practically the -northern extremity of the island, making stops en route at stations -situated at approximately every eighth street. - -Manhattan Island was first visited in 1609 by Henry Hudson. The first -settlement was located three years afterward on the present site of -Battery Park. The Dutch settlement here formed gradually grew into a -town called New Amsterdam, which in 1648 had 1,000 inhabitants. In 1664 -it surrendered to the British and took its new name from the Duke of -York, into whose hands it came. It was the capital of the State of New -York from 1784 to 1797, and from 1785 to 1790 it was the seat of the -Federal Government. Washington was inaugurated to the presidency at New -York in 1789. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave the city -command of internal commerce and since that date its progress has been -rapid, almost beyond example. - - -How do we Know that the Earth is Round? - -We have all been taught that the earth is a nearly spherical body which -every twenty-four hours rotates from west to east around an imaginary -line called its axis--this axis having as its extremities the north and -south poles respectively--while in the course of a year it completes a -revolution around the sun. - -To an observer whose view is not obstructed, any part of the earth -presents itself as a circular and horizontal expanse, on the -circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in -remote antiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, -floating on the water. But even in antiquity the spherical form of the -earth began to be suspected. - -It is only on this supposition that we can explain how the horizon of -vision grows wider and wider the higher the position we choose, how the -tops of towers and mountains at a distance become visible before the -bases, how the hull of a ship disappears first as she sails away, and -how, as we go from the poles towards the equator, new stars become -visible. Besides these proofs, there are many others, such as the -circular shadow of the earth seen on the moon during an eclipse, the -gradual appearance and disappearance of the sun, and especially the fact -that since 1519 the earth has been regularly circumnavigated. - -The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is very slightly -flattened at the poles, so as to have the form known as an oblate -spheroid. In this way the polar diameter, or diameter from pole to pole, -is shorter than the diameter at right angles to this--the equatorial -diameter. The most accurate measurements make the polar diameter about -twenty-seven miles less than the equatorial, the equatorial diameter -being found to be 7,925.6 miles, and the polar 7,899.14. - - -What were “Ducking Stools”? - -A ducking stool was a sort of a chair in which “common scolds” were -formerly tied and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but -that most commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse -movable beam on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended -by a chain. - -The ducking stool is mentioned in the Doomsday survey; it was -extensively in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the -beginning of the eighteenth century, and in one rare case at least--at -Leominster--was used as lately as 1809. - - - - -The Story in Photo-Engraving[30] - - -Modern advertising would not have been possible without photo-engraving. -Attention has been attracted, desire has been created and goods have -been sold, largely through the pictorial or other artistic -embellishments which have lifted particular “ads” out of the mass and -attracted the favorable attention of the cursory reader. Pictures are -the universal language, not only to those of divers tongues, but to -those of every stage of mental development. - -Photo-engravings are a comparatively modern product. They superseded -wood engravings, which for years has been the recognized medium for -illustrations to print on a type printing press. Photo-engravings, -broadly speaking, are divided into two classes--line engravings and -halftones. The distinction between them lying in the fact that one, as -its name implies, is a reproduction of a drawing made in lines or -stipples, while the other, the halftone, gets its name from the method -of its manufacture. - -Briefly stated, the process of making halftones is as follows: The -subject to be engraved is photographed through a halftone screen, -so-called. This halftone screen is a glass plate ruled with lines at -right angles ranging, for different purposes, from 60 to 200 lines to -the inch. This screen is placed between the lens and the sensitized -plate which is to be the negative. The necessity for this screen is due -to the fact that a photograph is made up of “tones.” That is to say, -that the color changes imperceptibly in subtle gradations of light and -shade. If this copy were photographed on a piece of copper it would -present no chance for the etching fluid to act. The idea is to break up -the surface into various sized dots, as the various gradations of color -on the original cannot be transferred by any other method to a sheet of -copper and etched. - -[Illustration: HALFTONE ENGRAVING] - -The various tones must be changed either to lines or dots, so as to make -a printing surface for the ink roller of the press to operate. This is -necessary to get the desired printing surface. - -The dots are of various sizes, ranging from a minute stipple to a solid -black, and they present to the eye the same effect as the unbroken tones -of a photograph. The negative when finished shows the drawing exactly -like the original. The whites are opaque, the solid blacks are clear -glass, the intermediate tones showing the same values in stipples of -various sizes. The film of the negative is next removed from the glass, -turned and placed on a heavier plate glass with a number of others and -printed on a sheet of metal which has been coated with a sensitized -solution. - -This plate of heavy glass containing the several negatives is placed -with the sensitized metal in a printing frame. The light passes through -the clear part of the negative, the solid parts prevent the passage of -light; thus we have the light acting chemically on the sensitized -surface. - -After the print is removed from the printing frame, it is developed, the -parts acted on by the light adhering to the metal. The opaque parts, -through which no light has penetrated, leave the solution soft on the -surface of the metal. This is removed by placing in water and wiping -gently with absorbent cotton. The print is then dried and heated over a -stove which bakes the sensitized solution to the metal. It can readily -be seen that this sheet of metal is now in such shape that the etching -fluid will etch away the uncovered portions of the metal and allow the -protected parts, which represent the color of the original, to remain in -relief. - -[Illustration: LINE ENGRAVING] - -This plate is etched--a flat proof, so called, is pulled on a hand -press--and it is then taken up by the re-etcher. The re-etcher is the -artist of the etching room. He takes the plate and by covering up -certain parts and etching again gives additional play of color. Smaller -developments of lights are worked out by careful manipulation of the -etching fluid with small sable brushes. The differences in cost in the -production of halftones is due largely to the length of time devoted to -this work. The engraver or finisher then takes charge of it, preparing -the engraving for the routing department, where the superfluous metal is -removed. The plate is then returned to the engraving department, which -completes the work, burnishing darks, engraving highlights, removing -slight imperfections and otherwise perfecting the plate. - -It is then proofed and blocked. Nine separate men handle each engraving -in the halftone department. - -The making of line engravings follows the same general course, with the -exception that no halftone screen is needed, the copy to be reproduced -being already made up of lines or dots or a combination of them. In the -handling of line work, eight skilled men successively handle each plate. - -[Illustration: COMBINATION ENGRAVING] - -In addition to plates made by either line or halftone process, -combinations of the two are frequently used, as, for instance, where -decorative pen work is used to embellish a halftone picture, or where -lettering is to be used in connection with a halftone and form part of -the same plate. These plates made up of both line work and halftones are -known as combination plates or double-prints, depending upon the way -they are produced. In both cases, negatives are made of both the -halftone and fine copies. - -Combination plates are made by combining the halftone and line negatives -together and making one complete print on the metal. - -Double-print is used where the surface is covered with halftone screen, -either the line or halftone negative is printed on the metal, the other -is superimposed on it. - -The Benday process, so called, is the use of mechanical appliances for -adding lines or stipples to either drawings or plates. Its use is very -extensive in the making of tint blocks or color work, used either in -connection with line or halftone key plates. - -The highlight process, possible only with certain kinds of copy, is a -modification of the halftone in which, by manipulation of the time of -exposure and the screen when making the negative, the halftone stipples -are lost and in this way halftones are produced in which there are pure -whites, without the necessity of the finisher cutting them by hand. - -[Illustration: BENDAY ENGRAVING] - - -Color Engravings. - -Let us assume that we have a painting or a drawing in colors from which -it is desired to produce a set of printing plates to produce that -drawing in facsimile. Under the old method of procedure, lithography, it -would have been necessary to make a stone for each of the colors, which -would mean, roughly speaking, from twelve to eighteen stones to -reproduce it--it will be understood that this means the finished print -must go through the press once for each color. This would mean twelve to -eighteen impressions to get the desired result. The expense of doing -this limited the use of lithography. - -[Illustration: HIGHLIGHT ENGRAVING] - -The modern or photo-engraving method of reproducing a colored copy is -based on the theory of the three primary colors, yellow, red and blue. -It is assumed that every color is formed by some combination of these -three colors--the problem confronting us, therefore, is to separate -these three colors and if possible make a printing plate of each color -with the color values varying from light to dark in such proportions -that when the three are printed in proper register over each other, with -transparent printing inks, the varying color values will blend so as to -reproduce the original. We go about this by making three negatives, one -of each color, the red negative is made by placing at the lens a -so-called color filter, which separates the red rays, whether they -appear as pure red or any part of an orange or a purple, or any of the -many tones of which red may form a part. In like manner the yellow and -blue plates are made by the use of appropriate color filters, each of -which acts for its required color as that used for the red. - -So far this would appear to be a purely mechanical operation, requiring -simply the usual care in negative making, but unfortunately this theory -does not work out so absolutely in practice, and for this reason, while -any color may be produced in light rays by the union of the three -primary colors of the proper quality, when the operation is attempted -with material pigments or ink, produce results varying widely from the -ideal. No pigment is absolutely pure, the adulterants or foreign -substances will cause sufficient deviation from the abstract standard to -cause a very noticeable difference in the finished result when united -with another color which is of itself impure. The result is that the -three negatives, instead of each being a true unit, ready for -combination with the others, is really only a basis for further work. It -might justly be compared with a sketch which is all right as far as it -goes, but which requires toning down and elaboration before becoming a -finished work of art. - -The three negatives are each printed on sensitized copper, as was noted -with the black and white halftone; they are then turned over to the -re-etcher, who may be rightly termed an “artist-etcher.” He has before -him three prints on copper; on each of them are tones which to his -trained eye are too light or too dark to produce the desired result when -printed with the other two, which also vary more or less. It is his duty -to strengthen and reduce and otherwise manipulate the plates so that -they will, when finally printed, have the desired result. - -For every particular use to which an engraving can be put, there is some -particular style or grade of engraving better adapted than any other. -The successful use of halftones, whether in black and white or in -colors, depends on the care with which the particular screen is selected -to suit the paper stock and printing conditions. To illustrate this, the -150-line screen has 22,500 stipples to the square inch. It is apparent, -therefore, that only certain kinds of paper can be used for such -halftones, whereas a 60-line screen contains only 3,600 stipples to the -square inch, which permits its use on a newspaper stock. - -The production of engravings is just as highly technical and scientific -and involves as much experience and judgment in their application as any -of the learned professions. - - * * * * * - - -Where are Milk-Pails Filled from Trees? - -In South America there are some trees known as “cow-trees” which, when -wounded, yield a rich, milky, nutritious juice in such abundance as to -render it an important article of food. This fluid resembles in -appearance and quality the milk of the cow. - -The cow-tree is a member of the bread-fruit family, and is most common -in Venezuela, growing to the height of a hundred feet. The leaves are -leathery, about a foot long and three or four inches broad. - -In British Guiana the name is given to another large, much-branched -tree, and there are also other varieties in Para and along the Rio -Negro, which is a tributary of the Amazon River. - - -How did the Wearing of a Crown Originate? - -When we speak of a crown now we mean the head-dress worn by royal -personages as a badge of sovereignty, but it was formerly used to -include the wreaths or garlands worn by the ancients upon special -occasions. - -Among the Greeks and Romans, crowns made of grass, flowers, twigs of -laurel, oak, olive and so forth, and later of gold, were made use of as -honors in athletic contests, as rewards for military valor, and at -feasts, funerals and so forth. - -It is, however, with the eastern diadem rather than with the classic -corona that the crown, as a symbol of royalty, is connected; indeed, it -was only introduced as such a symbol by Alexander the Great, who -followed the Persian usage. Antony wore a crown in Egypt, and the Roman -emperors also wore crowns of various forms, from the plain golden fillet -to the radiated or rayed crown. - -[Illustration: CROWNS - -1. Crown of England. 2. Russian Crown. 3. French Crown. 4. Austrian -Crown. 5. Imperial Crown (Charlemagne’s).] - -In modern states they were also of various forms until heralds devised a -regular series to mark the grades of rank from the imperial crown to the -baron’s coronet. - -The English crown has been gradually built up from the plain circlet -with four trefoil heads worn by William the Conqueror. This form was -elaborated and jeweled, and finally arched in with jeweled bands -surmounted by the cross and scepter. As at present existing, the crown -of England is a gold circle, adorned with pearls and precious stones, -having alternately four Maltese crosses and four fleur-de-lis. From the -top of the crosses rise imperial arches, closing under a mound and -cross. The whole covers a crimson velvet cap with an ermine border. - -The crown of Charlemagne, which is preserved in the imperial treasury of -Vienna, is composed of eight plates of gold, four large and four small, -connected by hinges. The large plates are studded with precious stones, -the front one being surmounted with a cross; the smaller ones, placed -alternately with these, are ornamented with enamels representing -Solomon, David, Hezekiah and Isaiah, and Christ seated between two -flaming seraphim. - -The Austrian crown is a sort of cleft tiara, having in the middle a -semicircle of gold supporting a mound and cross; the tiara rests on a -circle with pendants like those of a miter. - -The royal crown of France is a circle ornamented with eight -fleur-de-lis, from which rise as many quarter-circles closing under a -double fleur-de-lis. The triple crown of the popes is more commonly -called the tiara. - - -Why do Lobsters Change Colors? - -Before a lobster is cooked he is green, that being the color of the -rocks around which he lives on the bottom of the ocean. However, as soon -as a lobster is placed in boiling water his shell changes from green to -red. This is due to a certain chemical substance contained in the shell -which acts in that way when boiled. - - -How do Fishes Swim? - -The fish is entirely surrounded by water which exerts an equal pressure -on all sides. When the fish moves its tail, or makes any movement at -all, he moves in the water. Of course, by moving his tail from side to -side he propels himself forward and by bending his tail he goes in the -direction in which it is bent. - - -Where do Pearls Come From?[31] - -Below the surface of the ocean, there’s a strange, enchanted world. -Living in the midst of its grandeur are most marvelous and delicate -creatures that ceaselessly toil to strew the ocean’s bed with lustrous -gems--pearls. - -Nature provides for the denizens of the deep that make these beautiful -gems. The ocean pearl oyster or bivalve (_avicula margaritifera_) and -fresh water mussel (_unio margaritifera_) have wonderful homes--their -shells. Coarse, rough, rugged, often distorted on the outside, within -they are lined with smooth, softly-glowing, iridescent “mother of -pearl.” The membrane, attaching the bivalve to its shell, extracts lime -from the water, building the shell from the inside outward in successive -layers, preserving the finest nacreous secretions for the smooth inside -lining, thus protecting its delicate body. - -In this comfortable home the mollusk is contented, but an enemy -sometimes attacks it by boring through its hard shell. Leucodore, clione -and other borers, parasitic or domiciliary worms work into the shell, -and instinctively the protecting nacreous fluid envelops the intruder. -This is the birth of the pearl. The intruder, now covered entirely with -the pearl-nacre, is constantly rolled and lapped about, and successive -layers of nacre are applied until in a few years a pearl of great size -and value is formed and awaits the hardy, daring pearl fisher. - -Pearls were the first gems discovered and used as ornaments in -prehistoric ages. Found in their natural state in utmost perfection, -needing no cutting nor polishing, these glowing beads of the sea were -the first baubles of savages, tribes and nations. Today the pearl is the -favored gem of those who are surfeited with valuable jewels. It is -essentially a gem for the wealthy. The connoisseur, accustomed to the -possession of jewels, finds in its soft luster a grandeur above that of -all the sparkling stones. - -Fancy pearls include all those of decided color, having a rare and -beautiful tint. “White pearls” include pure white and white slightly -tinted with pink, blue, green or yellow. Of these colored white pearls, -the delicate, lightly-tinted, pink pearl of fine color and luster known -as “rose” is most beautiful. Every white pearl is classified according -to its respective tint and thus its price is determined, the values -ranging in the order named above, from highest for pure white, to lowest -for yellowish-white. - - -What is Cork? - -Cork is the outer bark of a species of oak which grows in Spain, -Portugal and other southern parts of Europe and in the north of Africa. -The tree is distinguished by the great thickness and sponginess of its -bark, and by the leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy -underneath, and waved. - -The outer bark falls off of itself if let alone, but for commercial -purposes it is stripped off when judged sufficiently matured, this being -when the tree has reached the age of from fifteen to thirty years. In -the course of eight or nine years, or even less, the same tree will -yield another supply of cork of better quality, and the removal of this -outer bark is said to be beneficial, the trees thus stripped reaching -the age of 150 years or more. - -The bark is removed by a kind of ax, parallel cuts being carried around -the tree transversely and united by others in a longitudinal direction, -so as to produce oblong sheets of bark. Care must be taken not to cut -into the inner bark, or the tree would be killed. The pieces of cork are -flattened out by heat or by weights, and are slightly charred on the -surface to close the pores. - -Cork is light, impervious to water, and by pressure can be greatly -reduced in bulk, returning again to its original size. These qualities -render it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of -different kinds, for floats, buoys, swimming-belts or jackets, -artificial limbs, etc. Corks for bottles are cut either by hand or by -means of a machine. The best corks are cut across the grain. - - - - -The Story in a Giant Cannon - - -Origin of the Cannon. - -The shotgun and rifle, the familiar weapons of the sportsman and the -foot-soldier, are not the ancestors of the cannon, as might be surmised. -On the contrary, the cannon was the predecessor of the musket and its -successors. The rifle, however, antedated the rifled cannon, the type of -modern artillery. We do not know when cannon first appeared, but it may -have been soon after the discovery of gunpowder in Europe. This -explosive seems to have been known in China long before knowledge of it -reached the west, but we do not know to what extent it was developed and -used in that country. - -[Illustration: THREE-INCH FIELD GUN UNDER TEST AT FORT RILEY, KANSAS - -In the trials conducted by the Board of Ordnance and Fortification of -the United States Army. This gun and carriage, complete, weighs 2,020 -pounds. Charge, 18.5 ounces of smokeless powder. Weight of projectile, -15 pounds. Muzzle velocity, 1,800-foot seconds. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -The earliest cannon of which we have any knowledge were clumsy -contrivances, at first wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made -of wood, and later of iron bars, hooped together with iron rings, a -system of the same type as that now in use in the wire-wound cannon. -They at first seem to have fired balls of stone, iron balls coming -later. A doubtful statement exists to the effect that cannon were used -at the siege of Belgrade in 1073, and it is said that Edward III used -them against the Scotch in 1327. Other dates of their use are 1338 and -1346, in which latter year Edward III employed them against the French -at Crecy. For this we have the authority of Froissart. They were known -under the varied names of bombards, serpentines, etc. Twelve cannon cast -by Louis VII were named after the twelve peers of France, and Charles V -gave twelve others the names of the twelve apostles. Other titles came -later into general use, the royal or carthorne, carrying 48 pounds; the -culverin, 18 pounds; the demi-culverin, 9 pounds; the basilisk, 48; the -siren, 60, etc. In still later times cannon became known by the weight -and the balls they carried, 6-pounders, 12-pounders, etc. But they are -now usually called after the size of their bores, as 6-inch, 8-inch, or -12-inch cannon. The oldest example still in existence is “Mons Meg,” -preserved at Edinburgh Castle. This is one of the iron-bar type, hooped -by iron rings. It is supposed to have been used by James II of Scotland, -at the siege of Threave Castle in 1455. - -[Illustration: THREE INCH NAVAL LANDING GUN, CARRIAGE AND LIMBER - -Weight of gun and mechanism, 675 pounds. Length of gun, 74.35 inches (25 -calibers). Weight of projectile, 13 pounds. Travel of projectile in -bore, 62.9 inches (20.97 calibers). Weight of charge, 18 ounces of -smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,650-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, -246-foot tons. Weight of gun, carriage, limber, drag ropes, tools, etc., -and 60 rounds of ammunition, complete, 3,420 pounds. The carriage and -limber have each two removable interchangeable ammunition boxes for 12 -rounds each, with a box for 12 rounds below the axle of the limber. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -Louis VI used bombards of great length and power against the Flemish in -1477, while as early as 1401 bronze cannon had been cast in several -cities of West Prussia. Iron cannon were not cast until near the end of -that century. Coming down to the seventeenth century, we are told of the -great Bijapur cast-iron gun, the “Lord of the Plain,” cast by the Mogul -emperor Auremgzebe or by his foes the Mahrattas. This huge gun was 14 -feet long, 28 inches bore, and fired a ball of 1,600 pounds weight. -Smooth-bore cannon and mortars of cast-iron and bronze are still -retained in some fortresses, though rifled cannon are the only type now -made. As late as 1864 smooth-bore 100- and 150-pounder wrought-iron guns -were made for the British navy and a few bronze rifled guns were made in -1870 for service in India, but all such guns are now obsolete. - -[Illustration: TWENTY-EIGHT TON AUSTRIAN SIEGE HOWITZER WHICH FIRES A -THOUSAND-POUND PROJECTILE - -The Germans borrowed a large number of these great siege pieces from the -Austrians and used them in the reduction of the Belgian defenses. Huge -shells filled with high explosives from these mammoth guns rapidly -destroyed the most modern and powerful fortifications known at the -beginning of the great war. It is known that against such weapons of -offense no fortifications can last and that the employment of such -weapons has forced both armies to depend on their trenches as their main -defense.] - -[Illustration: CONQUERING THE ALPS. - -Immense labor and great ingenuity were required to haul the monster -Italian guns up the steep mountain sides to their positions.] - -[Illustration: THE MOST FORMIDABLE OF THE FRENCH ARMY’S TRENCH ARTILLERY - -80-m.m. mountain gun loaded with air-mine weighing 130 pounds. These -mines can be thrown for a considerable distance and create havoc in the -enemy’s trenches if the aim is true.] - -[Illustration: THE BENNETT-MERCIER MACHINE GUN - -This new automatic machine gun has been adopted by the United States -Army, Navy and Marine Corps. It is handled by two men, one to aim and -fire it, the other to feed the cartridges which are held in brass clips -of 30 each. The complete gun weighs only about 35 pounds, fires 400 -shots per minute, using regular 30-caliber Springfield rifle cartridges, -with a maximum range of 3 miles and an effective range of about 2,000 -yards. The weapon is air cooled and can be fired steadily for about 10 -minutes without undue heating.] - -[Illustration: THREE-INCH FIELD GUN, LONG RECOIL CARRIAGE AND LIMBER - -Weight of gun, carriage and limber complete, including 36 rounds of -ammunition, 4,200 pounds; ground clearance, 22.5 inches. Seats are -provided on axle of carriage for two gunners in transportation, one of -whom operates the road brake. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -The development of the rifle from the old smooth-bore musket, by cutting -grooves or channels in the form of a screw in the interior surface, was -found so advantageous in increase of precision of aim and length of -range, that the rifling of cannon in time followed and is now -universally used. Breech loading has also replaced muzzle loading, -another vast advantage in the use of artillery. A form of breech-loading -cannon was introduced in the sixteenth century, but the advantageous use -of this device is of late invention. An important result of these -changes is the use of elongated instead of round balls, this permitting -of the employment of much heavier projectiles for the same width of -bore. - - -Modern Cannon. - -Until 1888 the largest cannon in use was the 119-ton Krupp, made in 1884 -for Italy; but in 1888-90 the same house produced a 135-ton gun for -Cronstadt. The heaviest British gun at that time was of 111-ton weight. -This threw a projectile of 1,800 pounds with a muzzle velocity of 2,216 -feet per second. But there later came a reaction in favor of lighter -guns and quick firers. The heavy cannon of recent times are not cast, as -of old, but are made of forged-steel by what is known as the building-up -process. The different parts of these are called the tube, jacket, -hoops, locking rings, trunnion rings, wire winding, etc. - -Cannons are subject to great stress in firing, this being of two kinds. -One is the longitudinal stress, acting in the direction of the length -and tending to pull the muzzle away from the breech. The other is the -circumferential or tangential stress, which tends to split the gun open -in lines parallel to the axis of the bore. These stresses are results of -the longitudinal and radial pressures of the gas developed by the -ignition and explosion of the powder. Such destructive forces have to be -guarded against in the building of a cannon and have led to a great -development over the old-time casting processes. As long as projectile -velocities under 1,500 feet per second were employed cannons cast in one -piece sufficed, but when greater velocities were sought, the pressure -grew so extreme that no cast or forged metal tube would stand the -strain. - -[Illustration: THREE-INCH MOUNTAIN GUN AND CARRIAGE - -Weight of gun, 206-1/2 pounds. Length of gun, 37.25 inches (12.4 -calibers). Weight of projectile, 12 pounds. Travel of projectile in -bore, 27.55 inches (9.2 calibers). Weight of charge, 12.5 ounces of -smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,224-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, -123-foot tons. Weight of gun and carriage complete, 726 pounds. This gun -and carriage break up into four loads of approximately 200 pounds each. -The equipment carries 16 complete rounds of ammunition with it, which -are divided equally among four boxes. The saddles are so made that the -load will go on any saddle. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - - -How Cannon are Now Made. - -It was found that the inner surface of the tube stretched more than the -outer surface, and that after the inner surface had been stretched to -its limit of elasticity the outer part failed to add to its strength, so -that further thickness was of no benefit. To do away with this -condition cannon were constructed on the principle of varying -elasticity, the metal with the greatest elongation within its elastic -limit being placed next to the bore, yet in high-powered guns this -system failed to yield the result desired and it was replaced by what is -known as the initial tension system. This comprised two methods: the -plain built-up gun and the wire-wound gun. In the latter certain parts -of the gun were wrapped with wire in the form of a ribbon. - -[Illustration: RAPID-FIRE GUN - -Six-inch rapid-fire gun equipped with patented two-handed elevating -gear, consisting of two hand wheels on opposite ends of the same shaft, -the handles being 180 degrees apart. The pointer uses both hands in -elevating and depressing the gun. The electric firing trigger _A_ is -worked by the index finger of the right hand without releasing the -handle. There is a second firing handle _B_ attached to the slide, for -firing either electrically or percussively. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - - -Built-Up and Wire-Wound Guns. - -A built-up gun is made of several layers of forged steel. The parts of -such a gun are known as the liner, the tube, the jacket and the hoops. -The liner is a single piece which extends the length of the bore and is -intended to contain the rifling and the powder chamber. This is inclosed -by the tube, which is also in one piece, surrounding the liner -throughout its length. Outside this is the jacket, made in two pieces -and shrunk on the tube. Over the jacket lie the hoops, six or seven of -these being used in a big gun. Like the jacket, these also are shrunk -on. All these parts are made of the finest quality of open-hearth -steel. - -[Illustration: FIVE-INCH NAVAL GUN AND MOUNT - -The latest type of gun used in the U. S. Naval Service in the secondary -batteries on a battleship.] - -[Illustration: COAST DEFENSE GUN - -A modern 14-inch coast defense gun at Sandy Hook. The gun is mounted on -a disappearing carriage, which lowers it out of sight behind the -breastworks after firing. This is one of the most powerful guns in the -world, firing a projectile which would pierce the armor of a battleship -more than five miles away.] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -A BATTERY OF 12-INCH COAST DEFENSE MORTARS - -These powerful weapons fire a projectile which weighs from 700 to 1,046 -pounds, depending on the range desired, and which is capable of piercing -the deck armor of any battleship. They have a range of 20,000 yards with -the 700-pound projectile. The gun is 16-2/3 feet long and is fired only -at elevations between 45° and 65°.] - -[Illustration: GIANT GUNS--THEIR MUZZLE-ENERGY, PROJECTILES, AND -PENETRATING POWERS - -The British 13.5, which was known as the 12-inch-A until the “Lion” was -launched, has a length of 45 calibers, and a muzzle-energy ten per cent -greater than that of the 50-caliber 12-inch of 1909 and 1910. It may be -noted that the caliber is the diameter of the bore of a gun. The -statement that a gun has a length of 45 calibers, for example, implies -that the gun is forty-five times the bore’s diameter. Thus a 12-inch gun -of 45 calibers is 45 feet long.] - -These pieces are prepared with the utmost care to prevent any defective -material entering into the make-up of the gun. After the parts are put -together a thorough forging follows, either by use of hammer or press, -the latter being now used in preference. The usual practice in forging -is to continue it until the ingot is decreased to one-half its original -thickness and is within two inches of the desired diameter of the -finished work. It is then annealed with great care to relieve the -strains set up in the metal by the forging and next goes to the machine -shop to be rough bored and turned. The final boring takes place after a -second annealing. The above is only a rapid sketch of the total process, -in which elaborate care is taken to prevent imperfection of any kind. - -[Illustration: ORDNANCE PROVING GROUND - -View showing smoke cone occurring during the proof firing of a -twelve-inch gun with brown powder. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -In a wire-wound gun an inner tube of steel is thoroughly wrapped by -successive layers of ribbon wire, each layer being wound with wire at a -different tension. This type of gun is preferred by foreign -manufacturers, but within the United States the built-up system is in -higher favor and is almost exclusively employed. The makers of the -wire-wound cannon claim for it a positive soundness of material -impossible to secure in a built-up gun, and that it has greater firmness -of material and superior tangential strength. But with this come certain -disadvantages, a notable one being a lack of rigidity in the -longitudinal direction, this tending to increase the “droop” of the -muzzle and give a certain “whip” to the piece when fired that reduces -accuracy. This and other disadvantages have given the built-up guns -general preference in this country, they being found strong enough to -bear any pressure desirable in service. In addition they are much -cheaper to build than the wire-wound guns. - -Modern heavy guns are made of medium open-hearth carbon steel, forged as -stated. The liner and tube are then placed upright in an assembling pit, -the jacket and hoops shrunk on, and the finishing work done, as above -said, the breech mechanism being finally fitted. Within recent years -there has been a steady increase in the size and range of cannon, until -an immense size and weight have been attained. For naval purposes the -14-inch gun is the largest now used in American battleships, but in the -United States coast defense forts, 16-inch guns are installed. England -has equipped several of her latest battleships with 15-inch guns and -other nations are following in the same direction. In recent great -battleships four turrets are used, each carrying three of these great -guns, giving a broadside of twelve of these monster weapons of war. Of -the three guns, the middle one is raised above the line of the others. A -battleship thus armed is able to fire six guns ahead and six astern by -raising the second and third turrets so as to fire over the others. - -[Illustration: FOUR-INCH FIFTY CALIBER RAPID-FIRE GUN ON PEDESTAL MOUNT - -Extraction of cartridge case by opening of breech mechanism. Weight of -gun, 6,170 pounds. Length of gun, 205 inches (51.2 calibers). Weight of -projectile, 33 pounds. Travel of projectile in bore, 165.6 inches (41.4 -calibers). Weight of charge, 15 pounds of smokeless powder. Muzzle -velocity, 2,900-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, 1,928-foot tons. Weight of -mount with shield, 9,470 pounds. Thickness of shield, 2 inches of nickel -steel. Gun equipped with telescopic and night sights and with electric -and percussion pull-off firing gear. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -Military cannon are divided into three classes, based upon the length of -caliber, and technically known as guns, mortars and howitzers. In guns -the length is relatively great, in mortars relatively small, compared to -their calibers. Howitzers form a class between guns and mortars in -length. The field guns of the American army are the 3.6-inch -breech-loading mortars, and the 3.6-inch heavy and 3.2-inch light guns. -The siege guns in the service are the 5-inch siege guns, the 7-inch -howitzer, and the 7-inch mortar. The coast defense artillery consists of -the 8-, 10-, 12- and 16-inch guns and the 12-inch mortars. In the recent -European war very heavy cannon were used for field service, pieces of -the size usually placed in forts being drawn to the field by powerful -tractors, set on concrete platforms and used in attacks on fortified -cities. It was through the use of such ordnance that the German army so -easily reduced the strongly fortified Belgian cities. - -[Illustration: FLUID COMPRESSION PLANT - -While still in a molten condition in the mold, the steel used in -manufacturing guns and shafting is subjected to hydraulic pressure until -the ingot has cooled, thus insuring the solidity of the metal. The upper -head of the compressor weighs 125 tons, and the lower one, including the -cylinder through which the hydraulic pressure is applied, 135 tons. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: AMMUNITION.[32] (See page 410.)] - -[Illustration: TWO-HANDED ELEVATING GEAR.[32] (See page 410.)] - -[Illustration: RANGE FINDER AND PREDICTOR; HOME AND DISTANT STATION -INSTRUMENTS.[33] - -(See page 410.)] - -[Illustration: ARMOR PIERCING PROJECTILES, CAPPED AND UNCAPPED.[33] (See -page 410.)] - -[Illustration: RANGE FINDER AND CHART ATTACHMENT[34]. (See page 410.)] - -[Illustration: EIGHTEEN-INCH, THIRTY-CALIBER TORPEDO GUN.[34] (See page -410.)] - -[Illustration: FIRING GEAR FOR GUNS.[35] (See page 410.)] - -[Illustration: FUSES.[35] (See page 410.)] - -The range of these giant cannon is enormous and their destructive power -great, this being added to by the fact that the explosive shell has -replaced the solid round shot of old-time gunnery. A 14-inch gun of 45 -caliber can discharge a 1,400-pound projectile at a muzzle velocity of -2,600 feet per second. If we compare this with a locomotive going at the -speed of sixty miles an hour, we have in the latter a speed of -eighty-eight feet per second to compare with the 2,600 feet per second -of the cannon ball. From this we can well conjecture the vast speed with -which the latter moves, its enormous range and vast powers of -destruction. - -[Illustration: THREE-INCH HORSE ARTILLERY GUN, LONG RECOIL CARRIAGE AND -LIMBER - -Length of gun, 85 inches (28 calibers). Weight of projectile, 12 pounds. -Travel of projectile in bore, 74.65 inches (24.88 calibers). Weight of -charge, 17.1 ounces of smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,750-foot -seconds. Muzzle energy, 255-foot tons. Weight of gun, carriage and -limber, containing 36 rounds of ammunition, 3,355 pounds. Ground -clearance, 18 inches. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -As facts are better than theories, it will be of interest to adduce a -recent example of gunnery of a most illuminating type, but as regards -distance and remarkable accuracy of aim. In September, 1916, the -American battleship “Pennsylvania,” armed with a main battery of twelve -14-inch guns, fired these simultaneously at a target in the Chesapeake -22,000 yards, or more than twelve miles, away. The target was the sunken -hulk of the “San Marcos,” formerly the battleship “Texas,” which for -several years had been used for similar purposes. As the target was -invisible to the gunners it was hardly to be expected that any of the -shots should fall near the target. But the extraordinary result appeared -that five of these twelve shots struck the hulk. As each of these -projectiles weighed 1,400 pounds any battleship receiving such a -broadside would probably have gone promptly to the bottom. The result, -which has never before been equaled in accuracy, sufficiently attests -the remarkable proficiency in range-finding that modern engineers have -developed. - -As for the penetrating powers of such huge shot we may take the 15-inch -gun, the type of the largest guns in our fortifications and which is -claimed to be able to pierce sixteen inches of armor at a range of -18,000 yards and ten inches at a range of 20,000 yards. A notable -example of this took place on September 15, 1916, at the proving grounds -at Indian Head, on the Potomac River, when a 16-inch, 2,100-pound, solid -steel shell, said to be the first ever fired from a naval gun of that -caliber, with a small charge of explosive, went through a plate of -armor, penetrated a thick sand backing, and continued its course, -striking the house of an employee of the proving grounds and plunging -through the kitchen rending all before it. This was a naval gun, the -largest yet made for naval purposes. - -[Illustration: PATENTED CHAIN RAMMER - -As applied to loading twelve-inch turret guns. The space occupied by -this rammer in the rear of the gun is less than one foot, with a -possible ramming stroke of fifteen feet. The rammer being attached to -the gun’s cradle or slide, moves with the gun in elevation and -depression. The ammunition car also moves with the gun. Loading can be -performed while the gun is kept in motion following a moving target. -This rammer is stiff in all directions when extended. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -In the make-up of modern guns the breech-loading mechanism is of -essential importance, it being necessary that the breech should be -capable of rapid opening for the insertion of the charge into the -loading chamber, as rapidly closed and firmly secured to prevent it -being forced open by the reaction of the discharge. It also must fit -with such tightness as to prevent any escape of the gas in that -direction, and force it to exert all its impelling power upon the ball. -Various methods are used for this purpose, with the result that loading -and firing can be very quickly and effectively performed. In the case of -guns in fortifications, the disappearing carriage is a highly important -invention of recent date. By its aid the gun is quickly lifted to fire -over the walls of the fort and is driven backward by the force of its -discharge, sinking to a place of safety behind the walls. This saves the -gun and its crew from injury by return fire. - -We may say in conclusion that the great European war was notable for the -use of artillery to an extent far surpassing its employment in any -previous war. This great conflict, indeed, was very largely a contest of -gun fire, in which the opposing fields of the battling armies were so -swept with shells and other explosives as to render life impossible on -the open land, trench digging being one of the main employments of the -embattled hosts. Never before had the supreme value of gunnery in -warfare been so fully demonstrated. - -[Illustration: GEAR WHEEL AND DRUM FOR COAL HOISTING PLANE - -Diameter of wheel, 20 feet 9-1/2 inches; face, 43-1/2 inches; diameter -of hub, 26 inches; number of teeth, 128; pitch, 6-1/8 inches; pitch -diameter, 249.554 inches; shipping weight, 108,873 pounds. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: SIX-INCH RIBBED CAVITY ARMOR-PIERCING SHELL - -Projectile was loaded with two pounds of black charcoal powder and fused -with magazine fuse. Fired at six-inch Krupp hard-faced armor plate. -Shell burst about eight feet to rear of plate after penetrating the -same. Weight of largest fragment recovered 10-1/4 pounds. Average weight -of fragments, 2-5/16 ounces. Total number of pieces recovered, 650. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - - -AMMUNITION. (See page 402.) - -Made-up ammunition, with brass cartridge cases, and cast-iron and forged -steel shells and armor-piercing projectiles. The rounds shown are as -follows: Rounds with forged steel shell for one-pounder gun, for -three-pounder gun and for six-pounder gun respectively; round with -cast-iron shell for three-inch field gun; round with capped -armor-piercing shell for three-inch fifty-caliber rapid-fire gun; round -with forged steel shell for four-inch forty caliber rapid-fire gun; -round with capped armor-piercing projectiles for the four-inch and -twelve-centimeter fifty-caliber rapid-fire guns respectively, and round -with forged shell for six-inch gun. - - -TWO-HANDED ELEVATING GEAR. (See page 402.) - -Method of obtaining a variable movement of a miniature target, -corresponding to rolls of a vessel of from 1 to 10 degrees. A series of -25,000 shots were fired thus, by eight gun pointers, at targets -corresponding to the size of a battleship as seen at ranges of 1,500, -3,000, 6,000 and 9,000 yards. Using a sub-caliber rifle rigidly attached -to the muzzle of the gun and fired electrically by the firing gear of -the big gun. The record shows that under circumstances of average -difficulty at sea (say 5 degrees roll and range of 3,500 yards), the -gain in accuracy (increase in hits with a given expenditure of -ammunition) is about 25 per cent, and the gain in speed of hitting -(number of hits in a given time) is 50 per cent, with the two-hand gear -as compared with the usual one-hand gear. - - -RANGE FINDER AND PREDICTOR; HOME AND DISTANT STATION INSTRUMENTS. (See -page 403.) - -Continuous readings, by means of automatic indicators, of either the -actual or the predicted ranges and azimuths of moving target at every -instant and for any distance from 1,000 to 15,000 yards and through an -azimuth of 160 degrees, are clearly presented at all times. The ranges -are read in scales of 10-yard steps, and the azimuths for each .01 -degree are traversed. The corrected ranges for the various guns served -by the instruments, either actual or automatically predicted for any -interval of time, are constantly communicated to the various guns whose -fire is being directed by the observation instrument. - - -ARMOR-PIERCING PROJECTILES, CAPPED AND UNCAPPED. (See page 403.) - -The projectiles shown are a three-inch capped, a four-inch capped, a -five-inch and a six-inch uncapped, eight-inch uncapped and capped, -ten-inch uncapped and capped and twelve-inch capped. - - -RANGE FINDER WITH CHART ATTACHMENT. (See page 404.) - -The chart is drawn on the lower and ground side of a ground glass plate. -A pencil point is secured to moving cross-head and marks position of -target on ground glass, tracing movement of same thereon. The pillar -mounting allows of ready removal of chart attachment when it is not -desired to use the same. - - -EIGHTEEN-INCH, THIRTY-CALIBER TORPEDO GUN. (See page 404.) - -Weight, 134,000 pounds. Length of gun, 528 inches. Weight of projectile, -2,000 pounds. Travel of projectile in bore, 432.4 inches (24.02 -calibers). Weight of charge, 310 pounds of smokeless powder. Muzzle -velocity, 2,000-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, 55,500-foot tons. Greatest -diameter of gun, 45 inches. Its breech mechanism was opened and closed -by one man in nine seconds. It was also opened without great effort by a -boy twelve years of age. - - -FIRING GEAR FOR GUNS. (See page 405.) - -External firing gear for guns using loose ammunition. The primer is -inserted in the firing gear when the breech mechanism is open, but is -held at an angle to the lighting vent until the final locking motion of -the breech block, making it impossible to light the gun’s charge before -the breech mechanism is safely closed, even if the primer should be -prematurely exploded. The primer case is automatically ejected by the -opening of the breech mechanism. - - -FUSES. (See page 405.) - -The fuses shown from left to right are: minor caliber percussion fuse, -minor caliber magazine percussion fuse, major caliber percussion fuse, -major caliber magazine percussion fuse, triple, double and single train -time fuses. The time fuses all contain a percussion element to insure -their exploding on impact if not previously exploded. No special tool is -required for setting these fuses. They are made up to 27 seconds burning -time for guns of 2,600-foot seconds muzzle velocity, and up to 36 -seconds for mortars and guns of 1400-foot seconds muzzle velocity. - - * * * * * - - -What is a Deep-Sea Diver’s Dress Like? - -There are now two general types of deep-sea diving equipment: an India -rubber dress, covering the entire body, except the head, which is -covered by a helmet, and another apparatus which is constructed entirely -of metal. - -The India rubber dress has a neck-piece or breast-plate, fitted with a -segmental screw bayonet joint, to which the head-piece or helmet, the -neck of which has a corresponding screw, can be attached or removed. The -helmet has usually three eye-holes, covered with strong glass, and -protected by guards. Air is supplied by means of a flexible tube which -enters the helmet and communicates with an air pump above. To allow of -the escape of the used air there is sometimes another flexible tube, -which is led from the back part of the helmet to the surface of the -water. But in the more improved forms of the dress, the breathed air -escapes by a valve so constructed as to prevent water from getting in, -though it lets the air out. Leaden weights are attached to the diver, -and his shoes are weighted, that he may be able to descend a ladder, -walk about below, etc. - -[Illustration: DIVING-DRESS AND DIVING-HELMET, BY SIEBE, GORMAN & CO. - - A. Pipe by which air is supplied. - B. Valve by which it escapes.] - -Communication can be carried on with those above by means of a cord -running between the diver and the attendants; or he may converse with -them through a speaking tube or a telephonic apparatus. One form of -diving-dress makes the diver independent of any connection with persons -above the water. It is elastic and hermetically closed. A reservoir -containing highly compressed air is fixed on the diver’s back, which -supplies him with air by a self-regulating apparatus at a pressure -corresponding to his depth. When he wishes to ascend he simply inflates -his dress from the reservoir. - -Another form, known as the Fleuss dress, makes the diver also -independent of exterior aid. The helmet contains a supply of compressed -oxygen, and the exhaled breath is passed through a filter in the -breast-piece which deprives it of its carbonic acid, while the nitrogen -goes back into the helmet to be mixed with the oxygen, the supply of -which is under the diver’s own control, and to be successively breathed. -A diver has remained an hour and a half under thirty-five feet of water -in this suit. - -A considerable enlargement of the field of deep-sea diving is the result -of the invention recently of a form of diving apparatus which is -unaffected by the limitations hitherto imposed on work of this kind. A -possible depth of 204 feet is recognized by the British Admiralty -regulations under the conditions that obtain with the common form of -diving suit. Yet this depth has probably never been reached. One hundred -feet is the rare descent of the average diver and 150 feet his maximum. -With the new apparatus a submergence of 212 feet has been obtained, and -this might have been indefinitely extended had there been a greater -depth of water at the place where the experiment took place--Long Island -Sound during the latter part of 1914. - -The new diving apparatus is constructed entirely of metal, is rigid and -is made of such materials that it is strong enough to resist the great -pressures found in the depths to which it can penetrate. The material -used is an alloy of aluminum, and the diving case weighs complete about -500 pounds. When in the air, the man inclosed in it is incapable of -imparting movement to it, but in the water, which counterbalances the -dead weight of the apparatus, he can easily move the articulated -sections as well as give himself motion through the water. The -articulated portion consists of about fifty turning joints, fitted with -leather packing, which swells and has an increased effectiveness under -increased water pressure. To prevent the pressure-force of the deep sea -from jamming the joints, roller bearings are so arranged about them that -freedom of action is constantly maintained. - -The diving case is not absolutely water-tight, nor is it desired that it -should be so, as the slight leakage acts as a lubricant to the joints, -and aids in their movements. The danger arising from the intake of water -thus into the diving case is averted by the action of an ingenious pump -appliance, which serves two purposes: that of pumping the water out and -pumping the air in. The diver in this invention carries his pump with -him and has air supplied to him at atmospheric pressure. - -At the back of the diving case is a recess and in it is installed a -compact but powerful pump, which sucks from the feet of the suit all -leakage and forces it at once outward. This pump is worked by compressed -air, and the air, after performing its mechanical part of driving the -pump, is exhausted into the suit for the diver to breathe and then -passes to the surface through the free space in an armored rubber tube, -within which are led down to the diver the compressed air pipe for -driving the pump, and the electrical connections for telephone and lamp. -Thus the diving case receives a thorough ventilation, and it has been -found that should the pump fail to work for a number of minutes there -would still be enough air remaining in the diving case and the tube -space to supply the diver’s needs for at least the length of time he is -being hauled to the surface. - -During the experiment in Long Island Sound the pump was stopped for ten -minutes, while the diver was at a depth of 100 feet. He suffered no -inconvenience, and when the compressor again was started he was lowered -to a depth of 212 feet. If such a condition as failure of the pump to -work for ten minutes had arisen during a descent in the old elastic -diving dress the result must necessarily have been fatal. Nor is a delay -necessary in hoisting the diver clad in the new diving apparatus to the -surface. According to the British Admiralty regulations, should a diver -go down to a depth of 204 feet, the time of his ascent must be not less -than one hour and a half. In the Long Island Sound experiments the diver -was hoisted to the surface in eighty-seven seconds. He was totally -unaffected by the abrupt change in pressure, although the deepest he had -ever been was ninety feet, and on that occasion he had suffered from -bleeding at the nose and ears. - - -Why do We Smile when We are Pleased? - -We smile to express our pleasure. When you meet a friend on the street -you smile as you greet him. This is an indication of your pleasure at -seeing him. This is often caused by an unconscious nervous action -produced by the impression the occurrence creates on the brain. You do -not have to think about smiling, but the muscles of your face contract -and give you that pleased look without any effort on your part. - - -Why do Some of Us have Freckles? - -Some people have freckles, when others do not, because all skins are not -alike, just the same as eyes are not all of one color. People with -certain kinds of skin freckle more quickly when the skin is exposed to -the sun. The action of the sun on their skin causes small parts of the -second layer of skin to give out a yellow or yellowish brown substance. -Freckles are most common in persons of fair complexion and hair. In some -cases freckles are permanent, but in most cases they disappear with the -coming of cold weather. - - - - -Pictorial Story of the Steel Industry - - -[Illustration: MINING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA.[36] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: LOADING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA.[36] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: PIG IRON CASTING MACHINE.[37] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE STOCK YARD.[37] (See page 415.)] - - -MINING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA. (See page 413.) - -The immense veins of magnetic ore lie close to the surface and are mined -or quarried by working along a series of benches or ledges. - - -LOADING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA. (See page 413.) - -The ore is loaded into small buggies at the mines and run down an -inclined plane, where it is dumped into railroad cars for transportation -to the shipping wharves, seventeen miles distant. - - -PIG IRON CASTING MACHINE. (See page 414.) - -No. 1 casting machine has a capacity of 1,000 tons per day. There are -180 molds, each pig weighing about 125 pounds. - -No. 2 machine has a capacity of 1,800 tons per day. It has 278 molds, -each for 125-pound pig. - -Product, low phosphorus, Bessemer and basic, or high phosphorus -machine-cast pig iron. - - -OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE STOCK YARD. (See page 414.) - -The raw materials for the open-hearth furnaces are received on elevated -railroad tracks graded and piled preparatory to sending to the furnaces. -Yard No. 1 is 950 feet long and 87 feet wide, and is served by three -electric traveling cranes of twenty tons and sixty tons capacity. Yard -No. 2 is 790 feet long and 84 feet wide, and is served by two ten-ton -electric traveling cranes. - - -OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES. (See page 416.) - -No. 1 open-hearth plant consists of twelve furnaces, two ten-ton, two -twenty-ton, five forty-ton and two fifty-ton basic furnaces and one -forty-ton acid furnace with gas producers. Length of floor, 623 feet. - -No. 2 plant consists of ten fifty-ton furnaces with gas producers. -Length of floor, 890 feet. - - -CHARGING FLOOR OF OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES. (See page 416.) - -The stock is delivered to the charging floor in iron boxes loaded on -narrow-gauge buggies, and is charged into the furnaces by electric -charging machines. Length of floor of No. 1 open-hearth plant, 477 feet; -width, 28 feet. Length of floor of No. 2 open-hearth plant, 890 feet; -width, 50 feet. - - -BLAST FURNACE STORAGE PLANT. (See page 417.) - -The coal, coke, ore, etc., is delivered direct by the railroad cars -under a traveling cantilever crane running on tracks laid the length of -a wharf and is dumped from the cars through chutes into buckets and -piled until needed at the furnaces. The plant is capable of storing over -1,000,000 tons of material. - - -BLAST FURNACES. (See page 417.) - -Showing stock house, blowing-engine house, etc. Plant consists of four -furnaces 70 feet high, 18-foot boshet and 12-foot hearth. One furnace 90 -feet high, 22-foot boshet and 11 feet 6 inches hearth. Blowing engines -are of horizontal compound and horizontal vertical compound types, -capable of blowing a pressure of 25 pounds of air. Four furnaces -provided with fire-brick regenerator stoves 100 feet high and 18 feet in -diameter. Large furnace has six stoves 100 feet high by 22 feet in -diameter. Boilers fired with waste got from furnace. - -[Illustration: OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES.[38] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: CHARGING FLOOR OF OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES.[38] (See page -415.)] - -[Illustration: BLAST FURNACE STORAGE PLANT.[39] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: BLAST FURNACES.[39] (See page 415.)] - -[Illustration: 15,000-TON HYDRAULIC FORGING PRESS - -In all respects this press is the largest and most powerful forging -press in the world. Water is supplied to the two plungers under a -pressure of 7,000 pounds per square inch, giving it a maximum capacity -of 15,000 tons. The columns supporting the cross-head are 14 feet 6 -inches apart, and the working height under cross-head is 17 feet 1-1/4 -inches. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: DROP FORGE DIE SHOP.[40] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: VIEW OF A SECTION OF PROJECTILE FORGE SHOP.[40] (See page -421.)] - -[Illustration: FORGING HOLLOW HEAVY SHAFT.[41] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: OIL-TEMPERING HEAVY SHAFT.[41] (See page 421.)] - - -DROP FORGE DIE SHOP. (See page 419.) - -This shop has a floor space of 20,400 square feet. With full equipment -of most modern die sinking tools. - - -VIEW OF A SECTION OF PROJECTILE FORGE SHOP. (See page 419.) - -This shop has a floor space of 22,000 square feet and is thoroughly -equipped with the necessary hammers, presses, furnaces, etc., for the -forging, punching, closing in, treating and tempering of all sizes of -armor-piercing and explosive projectiles and shells. - - -FORGING HOLLOW HEAVY SHAFT. (See page 420.) - -No. 22. The block has a hole bored through its center, and in this the -mandrel is inserted, the tube being forged around it. The hydraulic -pressure for this 5,000-ton press is furnished by Whitworth pumping -engines. This department contains also a 2,500-ton press of similar -design. - - -OIL-TEMPERING HEAVY SHAFT. (See page 420.) - -Showing a shaft weighing about 33,000 pounds being taken from the -vertical heating furnace and suspended over the oil-tank preparatory to -being lowered for tempering. The heating furnace and oil tank are served -by a sixty-ton traveling crane and forty-ton jib crane. The shrinking -pit for assembling is situated between the heating furnace and oil tank. - - -ARMOR PLATE MACHINE SHOP. (See page 423.) - -The varied and complex machining required on armor plate demands tools -of enormous size and strength as well as varied capacity. The equipment -of this shop consists of large saws, planers, etc., together with -numerous portable drill presses, grinders, etc. In this shop the -different groups of armor are assembled in the positions they will -occupy on the vessel and are finally inspected before shipment. - - -FORGING ARMOR. (See page 423.) - -After heating, the ingot is placed under a 14,000-ton hydraulic forging -press and forged to the required dimensions. The press is served by two -200-ton cranes with hydraulic lift and pneumatic travel. Weight of the -porter-bar and chuck which hold the plate for forging is 125,000 pounds, -exclusive of counterweights used. - - -SPECIAL CAR BUILT FOR THE SHIPPING OF LARGE AND HEAVY MATERIAL. (See -page 424.) - -Length of car over couplers, 103 feet 10-1/2 inches; capacity, 300,000 -pounds. Weight of car, 196,420 pounds. Shown here loaded with casting of -large 5,000-ton flanging press. Weight of casting, 252,000 pounds. - - -THE LARGEST STEEL CASTING IN THE WORLD. (See page 424.) - -Combining the product of five 40-ton open-hearth furnaces. Steel casting -forming part of a 12,000-ton armor-plate hydraulic forging press. Weight -of casting, 325,000 pounds (145 gross tons). - -[Illustration: BENDING ARMOR PLATE - -After being rough-forged to size and re-heated, the plate is sent to the -bending press to be straightened or bent to shape. The one shown is a -nickel steel side armor plate, 14 inches thick. The press exerts a -hydraulic thrust of 7,000 tons, with two independently operated -plungers, and is served by direct-fired furnaces with movable car -bottoms and two seventy-five ton hydraulic cranes. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: ARMOR PLATE MACHINE SHOP.[42] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: FORGING ARMOR.[42] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: SPECIAL CAR BUILT FOR THE SHIPPING OF LARGE AND HEAVY -MATERIAL.[43] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: THE LARGEST STEEL CASTING IN THE WORLD.[43] (See page 421.)] - -[Illustration: BATTLESHIP TURRET.[44] (See page 427.)] - -[Illustration: NICKEL STEEL FIELD RING FORGED WITHOUT WELD FOR A -5,000-HORSE-POWER DYNAMO.[44] (See page 427.)] - -[Illustration: TURRET FOR TWO TWELVE-INCH GUNS FOR UNITED STATES -BATTLESHIP “ALABAMA”.[45] (See page 427.)] - -[Illustration: CONNING TOWER AND ENTRANCE SHIELD FOR UNITED STATES -BATTLESHIP “MASSACHUSETTS.”[45] (See page 427.)] - - -BATTLESHIP TURRET. (See page 425.) - -Twelve-inch turret carrying two forty-five caliber twelve-inch guns for -the U. S. Navy. These guns can be loaded at any angle of elevation or -azimuth or while in motion. The turret is equipped with a broken or -double hoist. The lower hoist supplying ammunition from the magazine to -an upper handling room immediately below, and revolving with, the turret -pan. This makes the upper or gun hoist shorter and increases the speed -of ammunition service, besides interposing two fireproof bulkheads -between the guns and the magazine handling room. - - -NICKEL STEEL FIELD RING FORGED WITHOUT WELD FOR A 5,000-HORSE-POWER -DYNAMO. (See page 425.) - -Forged dimensions: outside diameter, 141 inches; inside diameter, 131 -inches; width, 51 inches. Rough machined dimensions: outside diameter, -139-3/8 inches; inside diameter, 130 inches; width, 50-3/4 inches; -weight, 28,840 pounds. Average physical properties shown in United -States Standard test bar taken from full-sized prolongation of end of -forging: Elastic limit, 53,560 pounds per square inch. Elongation, 27.05 -per cent. - - -TURRET FOR TWO TWELVE-INCH GUNS FOR UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP “ALABAMA.” -(See page 426.) - -Balanced type. Thickness of inclined plate, 14 inches; of side plates, -10 inches. Height of side plates, 7 feet. Largest diameter of turret, -393 inches. Weight of turret, 192.41 tons. - - -CONNING TOWER AND ENTRANCE SHIELD FOR UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP -“MASSACHUSETTS.” (See page 426.) - -Conning tower, one piece hollow forging, nickel steel, oil tempered. -Thickness of walls, 10 inches. Inside diameter, 83 inches. Height, -82-1/2 inches. Top plate, nickel steel, oil-tempered, 1-1/2 inches -thick. Shield, face-hardened nickel steel, 10 inches thick, 66 inches -high. - -[Illustration: SAFE DEPOSIT ARMOR PLATE VAULT - -Size, 42 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches high; -weight, 450 gross tons. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: FRONT DOOR, WITH TIME LOCK, FOR ARMOR PLATE SAFE DEPOSIT -VAULT - -Thickness of front door plate, 12-1/2 inches; weight of door plate, -12,000 pounds. - -_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._ - -CASTING PIG IRON - -Molten iron from the blast furnace in the rear is allowed to flow out on -this molding floor in which the shape of the “pig” is molded in the -sand. After cooling, the pigs are broken apart and stored.] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Indiana Steel Co._ - -OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES - -Iron is converted into steel by the basic or open-hearth method in the -furnaces shown here. The 100-ton ladles are in position at the tapping -side of the furnaces to receive the molten steel.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._ - -POURING STEEL INTO MOLDS - -The great ladle in the upper portion of this picture is filled with -steel at the furnace. A traveling crane then takes it to the train of -flat cars on which the molds stand and the steel is poured. After -cooling, the molds are removed and the steel in the form of a “billet” -is taken to the next process in manufacture.] - -[Illustration: GIRDLING THE EARTH WITH STEEL - -A steel beam, red-hot, drawn out 90 feet long in a huge steel mill in -Pittsburgh. Steel rolled here may find its place as part of a skyscraper -in the Babel of New York, be builded into the framework of a vessel in -the shipyards of San Francisco, or help to construct a railroad into the -heart of China. - -_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._] - -[Illustration: ARMOR PLATE FORGING PRESS - -The Bethlehem Steel Company installed this great hydraulic press to -replace a 135-ton steam hammer, which was abandoned because the shock of -its blow disturbed the alignment of the big machines in nearby shops. -This press is the largest of its kind in the world, having a capacity of -15,000 tons, induced by pressure as much as 7,000 pounds per square inch -in its two hydraulic cylinders of over 50-1/2 inches diameter.] - -[Illustration: MAKING ARMOR PLATE - -View of the armor plate machine shop at the Bethlehem Steel Company. The -varied and complex machining required on armor plate demands tools of -enormous size and strength as well as varied purpose. In this shop the -different groups of armor are assembled in the position they will occupy -on the vessel for which they are intended, and inspected before -shipment.] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Co._ - -FORGING - -One-piece, 90-degree, double-throw crank shaft for 5,400 H. P. gas -engine. Diameter of shaft, 37 inches, with 10-inch hole. Length over -all, 25 feet 5 inches. Crank webs, 16-3/8 inches thick, 6 feet 1-1/2 -inches long, 4 feet 1 inch wide. Forged weight of shaft, 133,400 pounds. -Finished weight, 83,855 pounds.] - - * * * * * - - -We have always said “a white elephant” when we have meant something we -didn’t know what to do with, since the King of Siam first sent a white -elephant to a courtier whose fortune he wished to destroy. - - -What do We Mean by “Deviation of the Compass”? - -When people speak of “deviation of the compass” they mean the difference -of a ship’s compass from the magnetic meridian, caused by the near -presence of iron. In iron ships the amount of deviation depends upon the -direction, with regard to the magnetic meridian, in which the ship lay -when being built. It is least when the ship has been built with her head -south. Armor-plated ships should be plated with their head in a -different direction from that in which they lay when built. - -The mode now generally employed to correct deviation is by introducing -on board ship masses of iron and magnets to neutralize the action of the -ship’s magnetism so far as possible. - -Compasses are sometimes carried on masts in iron vessels as a means of -removing them from the disturbing influence of the iron of the hull. In -this position they serve as standards of comparison for the binnacle -compass. - -Wooden ships are also affected, though in a far less degree, by the -direction in which they lie when building. - - - - -The Story in the Making of a Pair of Shoes[46] - - -The covering and protection of the feet has been a necessity in all but -the warm climates for very many centuries, various articles being used -for this purpose. Leather is now very generally employed, though wood is -often used in Holland and France and paper in China and Japan. The -moccasin of the American Indian was made of untanned deer skin. The -first historical mention of a shoe is in the Old Testament, where -Abraham refused to take as much as a “shoe-latchet” from the King of -Sodom. This probably meant a sandal, leather strapped to the foot, -though the Jews wore shoes as well, and both shoes and sandals were worn -in Greece and Rome. Both in ancient and modern times the styles of shoes -worn have varied greatly, fashion taking hold of them. In the reigns of -the English kings Henry I and Stephen, the people of the court wore -shoes with long points stuffed with tow and made to coil like a ram’s -horn, and by the time of Richard II the points had grown so long as to -reach the knee, to which they were fastened by silver or gold chains. In -the eighteenth century ladies wore shoes with absurdly high heels, a -ridiculous fashion which has come back within our own times. An -improvement which was adopted in the early nineteenth century was that -of making shoes right and left. Boots, which have at times been much -worn, are a variety of shoe lengthened to protect part of the legs. - -Until within a recent period the trade of shoemaker was an active one, -all boots and shoes being made by hand. At the present time, however, -the old-time shoemaker, with his bench, lapstone, last and awls has -almost gone out of business, except as a cobbler, mending instead of -making having become his usual occupation. In his place has come the -factory hand, nearly all footwear being now a product of machinery, and -this of greatly varied and effective character. In this form shoemaking -has become a thriving industry in New England and in some other parts of -the United States. This method has greatly decreased the cost of shoes, -invention having so hastened and cheapened all its processes that the -number of shoes that it would take an old-time shoemaker a year to make -can be turned out in a few hours by modern machinery. - - -Shoemaking by Machine. - -The variety of inventions used in shoe factories is rather bewildering, -every one of the many processes having a machine of its own, and each of -these doing its work with admirable precision. We can name here only the -more important of these implements. - -First comes the clicking machine. This has a cutting board resembling -that used by the hand workmen. Over this is a beam containing a cutting -die under which the leather is passed. At every descent of the die a -piece of leather is cut out of the skin of the size and shape needed for -the upper leather of a shoe. Thus in an instant is done what was slowly -done by a sharp knife moved around a pattern in the old method. - -[Illustration: IN THE DAYS OF THE AWL, LAPSTONE AND HAMMER] - -[Illustration: AMAZEEN SKIVING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF GOODYEAR WELT SHOE, SHOWING THE -DIFFERENT PARTS AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER] - -[Illustration: INSOLE TACKING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: IDEAL CLICKING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: DUPLEX EYELETING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: ENSIGN LACING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: REX PULLING-OVER MACHINE] - -[Illustration: REX UPPER TRIMMING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: CROWN TIP PUNCHING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: BED LASTING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR UNIVERSAL INSEAM TRIMMING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: TACK-PULLING AND RESETTING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: CONSOLIDATED HAND METHOD WELT LASTING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: IMPROVED SOLE LAYING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: STAR CHANNEL CEMENTING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR AUTOMATIC SOLE LEVELING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: AMERICAN LIGHTNING NAILING MACHINE] - -The piece of leather thus cut out is next passed under the skiving -machine, which shaves down its edges to a bevel, the thinned edge being -then folded, after which the toe caps are passed through a punching -machine which cuts a series of ornamental perforations along the edge of -the cap. The linings of the shoe are then prepared and put in place and -the whole goes to the stitchers, by which all the parts of the upper are -united. This is done by a range of machines, which perform the varied -operations with wonderful rapidity and accuracy. The eyelets are next -added by a machine which places them in both sides of the shoe at the -same time and directly opposite each other, this operation finishing the -upper part of the shoe. - -The sole leather portions of the shoe pass through another series of -machines, being cut from sides of sole leather by the dieing-out -machine, cut to exact shape by the rounding machine and to exact -thickness by the splitting machine, and then toughened by passing under -a heavy rolling machine. These and other machines complete the soles and -heels, which are finally sent to the making or bottoming room, where the -completed shoe uppers await them. - -The first process here is that of the ensign lacing machine, which puts -a strong twine through the eyelets and ties it in an accurate manner. -This is done very swiftly and exactly, its purpose being to hold the -parts of the shoe in their normal position while the shoe is being -completed. The last, made of wood, is now put in place and tacked fast -by the insole tacking machine, when the upper is placed over it and -fastened by two tacks to hold it in place. Then comes the pulling-over -machine, the pincers of which draw the leather securely against the wood -of the last, to which it is fastened by other tacks. These tacks in the -upper are driven only part way in, so that they may be easily drawn out -when no longer needed. - -The welt lasting machine next takes the job in hand, it being almost -human-like in the evenness and tightness with which it draws the leather -around the last, other tacks being driven partly in to hold it in place. -A second lasting machine of different kind, draws it around the toe and -heel. Then comes the upper trimming machines, which cuts away the -surplus parts of the leather, the Rex pounding machine, which hammers it -around the heel, the tack pulling machine which removes the lasting -tacks and puts in others to hold the new placed leather, and the upper -stapling machine, which forms a little staple fastening from wire which -securely holds the shoe upper to the channel lip of the insole. - -The shoe is now ready to receive the welt, a narrow strip of prepared -leather which is sewed along the edge of the shoe and holds all its -parts firmly together. This used to be one of the most difficult tasks -in hand-work, but is done rapidly and exactly by this machine. After -this all protruding parts of the welt and upper are trimmed off by -another machine, the insole tack pulling machine removes all the -remaining temporary tacks, and the welt-beating and slashing machines -beat the welt with little hammers till it stands out evenly from the -side of the shoe. - -It may seem as if the number of machines engaged in this work are almost -beyond number, but there are nearly as many more to come. In fact, a -factory shoe in many cases is not completed until 170 machines and 210 -pairs of hands have taken part in putting it together and getting it -into shape for the wearer, and each of these machines works with an -accuracy which no hand-work can equal. We have so far witnessed the -assembling of the several parts of the shoe into one connected whole. -The remaining processes must be run over more rapidly. - -There is a sole-laying machine, a rounding and channeling machine, a -loose nailing machine (the latter driving nails into the heel at the -rate of 350 per minute), a heel seat rounding machine, and various -others, one sewing the welt to the shoe, a leveling machine, a second -nailing machine, which does the final work of attaching the heel to the -shoe, and so on somewhat indefinitely. - -[Illustration: EDGE TRIMMING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: CLIMAX FINISHING SHAFT] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR HEEL SEAT ROUNDING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: LOOSE NAILING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: THE HADAWAY STITCH SEPARATING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: NAUMKEAG BUFFING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: REGENT STAMPING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR UNIVERSAL ROUNDING AND CHANNELING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR WELT AND TURN SHOE MACHINE] - -[Illustration: STITCH AND UPPER CLEANING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: TWIN EDGE SETTING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: GOODYEAR OUTSOLE RAPID LOCKSTITCH MACHINE] - -[Illustration: IMPROVED VAMP CREASING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: MILLER SHOE TREEING MACHINE] - -[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF A GOODYEAR WELT SHOE - -1. A last. 2. An upper. 3. An Insole. 4. Shoe lasted and ready to have -welt sewed on. 5. Welt partly sewed on. 6. Welt entirely sewed on the -shoe. 7. An outsole. 8. Shoe with outsole laid and rounded; channel lip -turned up ready to be stitched. 9. Shoe with sole stitched on. 10. Shoe -with heel in place. 11. Heel trimmed and shoe ready for finishing.] - -The remaining machines have to do with the final finishing. They include -trimmers, stitch separators, edge setters, buffers, finishers, cleaners, -stampers, shoe treers, creasers, etc., each playing a part of some -importance in giving a final finish to the shoe and making it -presentable to the wearer. The whole operation, as will be seen, is a -highly complicated one, and is remarkably effective in preparing an -article that shall appeal to the salesman and purchaser and prove -satisfactory when put into use. - -Such is the complicated process of making a shoe by machinery. It would -be hard to find any machine process that surpasses it in complexity and -the number of separate machines involved. Poor old St. Crispin would -certainly expire with envy if he could see his favorite thus taken out -of the hands of his artisans and the shoe whirled rapidly through a host -of odd but effective contrivances on the way to become made fit for -wear. - - * * * * * - - -What is “Standard Gold”? - -Gold is one of the heaviest of the metals, and not being liable to be -injured by exposure to the air, it is well fitted to be used as coin. -Its ductility and malleability are very remarkable. It may be beaten -into leaves so exceedingly thin that one grain in weight will cover -fifty-six square inches, such leaves having the thickness of only -1/282000th part of an inch. It is also extremely ductile; a single grain -may be drawn into a wire 500 feet long, and an ounce of gold covering a -silver wire is capable of being extended upwards of 1,300 miles. It may -also be melted and remelted with scarcely any diminution of its -quantity. It is soluble in nitromuriatic acid and in a solution of -chlorine. Its specific gravity is 19.3, so that it is about nineteen -times heavier than water. The fineness of gold is estimated by carats, -pure gold being twenty-four carats fine. - -Jeweler’s gold is usually a mixture of gold and copper in the -proportions of three-fourths of pure gold with one-fourth of copper. -Gold is seldom used for any purpose in a state of perfect purity on -account of its softness, but is combined with some other metal to render -it harder. Standard gold, or the alloy used for the gold coinage of -Britain, consists of twenty-two parts of gold and two of copper (being -thus twenty-two carats fine). - -Articles of jewelry in gold are made of every degree of fineness up to -eighteen carats, _i. e._, eighteen parts of gold to six of alloy. The -alloy of gold and silver is found already formed in nature, and is that -most generally known. It is distinguishable from that of copper by -possessing a paler yellow than pure gold, while the copper alloy has a -color bordering upon reddish yellow. Palladium, rhodium and tellurium -are also met with as alloys of gold. - -Gold has been found in smaller or larger quantities in nearly all parts -of the world. It is commonly found in reefs or veins among quartz, and -in alluvial deposits; it is separated, in the former case, by quarrying, -crushing, washing and treatment with mercury. The rock is crushed by -machinery and then treated with mercury, which dissolves the gold, -forming a liquid amalgam; after which the mercury is volatilized, and -the gold left behind; or the crushed ore is fused with metallic lead, -which dissolves out the gold, the lead being afterwards separated by the -process of cupellation. - -By the “cyanide process,” in which cyanide of potassium is used as a -solvent for the gold, low-grade ores can be profitably worked. In -alluvial deposits it is extracted by washing, in dust grains, laminæ or -nuggets. - -In modern times large supplies of gold were obtained after the discovery -of America from Peru, Bolivia, and other parts of the New World. Till -the discovery of gold in California, a chief source of the supply was -the Ural Mountains in Russia. An immense increase in the total -production of gold throughout the world was caused by the discovery of -gold in California in 1848, and that of the equally rich gold fields -of Australia in 1851. The yield from both sources has considerably -decreased. Other sections of the United States have of late years proved -prolific sources of gold, especially Colorado, which now surpasses -California in yield, and Alaska, which equals it. Canada has gold fields -in several localities, the richest being those of the Klondike. - -[Illustration: CASTING INGOTS] - -[Illustration: ROLLING ROOM - -The upper view shows the melting room in the United States Mint, -Philadelphia. The man at the right is about to pour hot metal into the -iron molds. The lower view is in the coining department, where the -ingots such as are seen on the truck in foreground, are rolled into long -strips of the thickness of the several coins, and then cut into blanks -or planchets.] - -At present the richest gold field in the world is that of South Africa, -which yielded in 1910 a value of $175,000,000, somewhat exceeding the -combined yield of the United States and Australia. Russia and Mexico -followed these in yield. The total production throughout the world -amounted to over $450,000,000, of which the United States produced -$96,000,000. - - -What are Cyclones? - -A cyclone is a circular or rotatory storm, or system of winds, varying -from 50 to 500 miles in diameter, revolving around a center, which -advances at a rate that may be as high as forty miles an hour, and -towards which the winds tend. - -Cyclones of greatest violence occur within the tropics, and they revolve -in opposite directions in the two hemispheres--in the southern with, and -in the northern against, the hands of a watch--in consequence of which, -and the progression of the center, the strength of the storm in the -northern hemisphere is greater on the south of the line of progression -and smaller on the north than it would if the center were stationary, -the case being reversed in the southern hemisphere. - -An anti-cyclone is a storm of opposite character, the general tendency -of the winds in it being away from the center, while it also shifts -within comparatively small limits. Cyclones are preceded by a singular -calm and a great fall of the barometer. - - -What Metals can be Drawn into Wire Best? - -The wire-drawing of metals depends on the property of solid bodies, -which renders them capable of being extended without any separation of -their parts, while their thickness is diminished. This property is -called “ductility.” - -The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which -possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned -being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc, tin, -lead, nickel, palladium, cadmium. - -Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a wire of platinum only 1/30000th -of an inch in diameter. The ductility of glass at high temperatures -seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility increases in proportion to -the fineness to which its threads are drawn. - - -How are Cocoanuts Used to Help Our Warships? - -The fibrous husks of cocoanuts are prepared in such a way as to form -“cellulose,” which is used for the protection of warships, preventing -the inflow of water through shot holes. - -The United States adopted the preparation for this purpose in 1892. - -It is very light and compressible and when tightly packed between the -steel plating and the side of the vessel will expand when wet and fill -up the space through which a shot may have passed. - -Another and cheaper product experimented with is the pith of the -cornstalk, which is much lighter than the cocoanut fiber and serves the -same purpose. - - -How did the Dollar Sign Originate? - -The sign, $, used in this country to signify a dollar, is supposed to -date from the time of the pillar dollar in Spain. This was known as the -“Piece of Eight” (meaning eight reals), the curve being a partial -representation of the figure 8. The two vertical strokes are thought to -represent the Pillars of Hercules, which were stamped upon the coin -itself. - - - - -Pictorial Story of Fire Apparatus - - -[Illustration: MOTOR DRIVEN AERIAL TRUCK[47] - -The 66-foot ladder of this truck is raised by the motor which drives the -machine. A full equipment of scaling ladders and fire-fighting apparatus -is carried.] - -[Illustration: MOTOR FIRE ENGINE AND HOSE TRUCK[47] - -One of the latest fire-fighting units. A powerful gasoline engine -supplies the motive power and drives the pump which has a capacity of -700 gallons per minute. The machine also acts as a hose cart and carries -a full complement of firemen.] - -[Illustration: A CRANE NECK HAND FIRE ENGINE[48] - -This engine was manned by sixty trained men and under expert operation -would throw a stream of 1.53 gallons per stroke more than 200 feet.] - -[Illustration: THE FIRST STEAM FIRE ENGINE BUILT IN 1841[48]] - -[Illustration: THE SPLENDID HORSES BY WHICH THE HAND-DRAWN FIRE -APPARATUS WERE SUPPLANTED ARE IN TURN GIVING WAY TO POWERFUL MOTOR -ENGINES AND TRUCKS.[49]] - -[Illustration: AN OLD-TIME LAFRANCE PISTON STEAM FIRE ENGINE[49] - -Built in 1894, at which time it had a capacity of 900 gallons per -minute. This steam engine was equipped with a LaFrance boiler. This -particular engine was in service in Superior, Wis., and was in -continuous service pumping water on a coal fire night and day from -November 18, 1913, to February 18, 1914 (just exactly three months), -during which time it was only shut down twice to replace burned-out -grates and three times to replace broken springs. During all of this -time this steamer was incased in snow and ice.] - -[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL FRONT-DRIVE, FIRST SIZE STEAM FIRE -ENGINE[50] - -Seventy horse-power, four-cylinder motor; speed, 35 miles per hour; -locomotive bell and hand-operated siren horn; boiler, 36 x 66 inches; -suction hose, 2 lengths, 4-1/2-inch diameter; lanterns, three, fire -department standard; hydrant connections; carrying capacity, four men.] - -[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL ENGINE AND HOSE CAR[50] - -Seventy horse-power, four-cylinder motor; speed, 60 miles per hour; hose -capacity, 1,200 feet 2-1/2-inch hose; chemical cylinder, one 40-gallon -capacity; chemical hose, 200 feet 3/4-inch chemical hose; acid -receptacles, two; one 10-inch electric searchlight; locomotive bell and -hand-operated siren horn; extinguishers, two 3-gallon Babcock, fire -department standard; ladders, one 20-foot extension ladder, one 12-foot -roof ladder with folding hooks; lanterns, four, fire department -standard; axe, one, fire department standard; pike pole, one; crowbar, -one of steel held by snaps; carrying capacity, seven men.] - -[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL AND HOSE CAR - -Equipped with Junior Pump. This pump is intended to boost the pressure -of the chemical tank and can also be used as an auxiliary pump. On this -type of steamer the pump will deliver 250 gallons of water at 120 pounds -pump pressure. - -_Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co._] - -[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL ENGINE AND HOSE CAR - -Equipped with hose reel instead of hose basket as in other types -illustrated. - -_Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co._] - -[Illustration: THE BODY OF THIS CAR HAS A CAPACITY OF 800 FEET OF -2-1/2-INCH FIRE HOSE AND IS ALSO EQUIPPED WITH A 40-GALLON TANK, WITH -CHEMICAL HOSE, FIRE EXTINGUISHER AND EXTENSION LADDER.[51]] - -[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL FRONT-DRIVE AERIAL TRUCK[51] - -One hundred horse-power; six-cylinder motor; speed, 25 miles per hour; -locomotive bell and hand-operated siren horn; extinguishers, two -3-gallon Babcock, fire department standard; lanterns, four, fire -department standard; axes, four, fire department standard; wall picks, -two; crowbars, two; shovels, two; wire cutter, one; door opener, one; -tin roof cutter, one; pitchforks, two; battering ram, one; Manila rope, -tackle and snatch block; pull-down hook with pole, chain and rope; -rubber buckets, four; crotch poles, two; pike poles, six, assorted -lengths; wire basket, one under frame; one 10-inch electric -searchlight.] - -[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL BEVEL-GEAR FRONT-DRIVE WATER TOWER[51] - -One hundred horse-power; six-cylinder motor; speed, 25 miles per hour; -one 10-inch electric searchlight; locomotive bell and hand-operated -siren horn; deck turret, one, mounted; nozzle tips, three for deck -turret, 1-1/2-inch, 1-3/4-inch, 2-inch; three for tower nozzle, -1-1/2-inch, 1-3/4-inch, 2-inch; hose, one 35-foot length, 4-inch cotton, -rubber lined; lanterns, two, fire department standard; axes, two heavy -pick back, fire department standard; crowbar, one of steel, held by -snaps.] - - - - -The Story of the Taking of Food From the Air[52] - - -What is the greatest discovery of the last twenty-five years? Probably -you will say the wireless telegraph, the flying machine, moving pictures -or the phonograph, but it would be none of these, according to the -_Scientific American_. This publication discussed at great length the -subject of what invention of the last twenty-five years was of greatest -value to mankind. First place was given not to the wonderful inventions -that are so large in the public eye, but to the fixation of nitrogen -from the air for fertilizer purposes. Why? Simply because this discovery -stands between man and starvation. Other inventions are vastly -important, but this one is vital. Looking at it from the broadest view -there can be no other decision. The time is here when to feed the world -is becoming a more and more difficult problem. - -During the past ten years our population has increased at the rate of -two per cent per annum, while our crop production has increased only -one-half as fast. In six years the number of beef cattle produced in -this country has fallen off about five per cent per annum. The cost of -foodstuffs recently has been increasing at the rate of five per cent per -annum. The hardships experienced by wage-earners, particularly in the -United States, have been very great in view of the fact that the cost of -food increased more rapidly than wages--at a rate approximately double. -The same tendencies apply with some modifications to the clothing of -mankind. These facts point to the necessity of increasing the yields -both of the food crops and the crops that are used in the making of -clothing. - -[Illustration: WRAPPER LEAF TOBACCO CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID -MIXTURES. GROWN IN HATFIELD, MASS.] - -The problem of decreasing the cost of living has been given far more -attention abroad than it has in this country, owing to the much greater -density of population in the principal nations of Europe. For a long -time it has been known that plants require food the same as animals and -human beings. Without food plants cannot live and grow, and just to the -extent that plant food is present in the soil, to that extent will a -crop be produced. The most important of plant foods is nitrogen. While -the earth is literally bathed in nitrogen, this element is found to only -a very slight degree in the soil. That is to say, the air which we -breathe and in which we move is four-fifths nitrogen, yet in the richest -soil there is seldom more than one-tenth or two-tenths of one per cent -of nitrogen. Put on a wheat crop one pound of nitrogen and you can take -off twenty pounds more wheat and forty pounds more straw than you could -if you failed to make this application. One pound of nitrogen properly -applied to a cornfield will add thirty-five pounds to the crop; one -pound of nitrogen will produce one hundred pounds of increase in the -potato crop; one pound of nitrogen will produce five pounds of cotton, -without any extra labor being devoted to the production of the crop. -Nitrogen is the heart and soul of the problem of growing more crops and -cheaper crops. Take any nation that produces large crop yields per acre -and you will find that the nation that uses the most nitrogen per acre -grows the largest crops. - -For years the nations of Europe have been depending to a great extent -upon supplies of nitrate of soda obtained from Chile, in South America. -Germany alone imported nearly a million tons of this salt annually -before the war. Then, too, the by-products of many industries furnish a -quantity of nitrogen, but all this, it was realized, furnished but a -small part of what was required to combat the constantly rising cost of -producing food. - -For years it was the dream and life-ambition of the world’s greatest -scientists to discover how to make the supplies of nitrogen in the air -available to plants as food. The only way that this could be done in -nature was through the agency of bacteria working on the roots of -certain plants, such as clovers, but this process was entirely too slow -for practical purposes and could be applied on only a small acreage at -one time. The free nitrogen of the air cannot be utilized directly by -plants. It must first be converted into some combination with other -chemicals, as a solid or liquid, which can be absorbed by the plant. -Among others who worked on the problem of fixing atmospheric nitrogen -were two German chemists, Doctors Caro and Frank, who found that a -compound of calcium and carbon heated to a high temperature would absorb -nitrogen and retain it in a form that could be applied to the soil and -serve as a food for plants. - -[Illustration: SUGAR CANE CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN -IN CALUMET, LA.] - -This discovery is the basis of the Cyanamid “Atmospheric Nitrogen” -industry or the making of fertilizer from the nitrogen in the air. After -the discovery was made and tested on the laboratory scale it took -several years to put it on a practical basis, as can well be imagined -when it is understood what the problems involved were. Besides air this -process required as raw materials limestone and coke. The limestone must -be burned to quicklime and the quicklime and coke must be fused together -to form calcium carbide. Only the most powerful electric furnaces are -capable of performing this work. Any other means of heating is far from -adequate. For instance, the hottest flame that can be produced by the -burning of gas, namely, the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe flame, can be -directed against a stick of burnt lime without doing anything beyond -making the lime glow brilliantly, thus producing the calcium or -lime-light formerly much used in theaters as a spot-light. In the -electric furnaces, however, the lime is heated so powerfully that it -actually melts to a liquid, and in this condition it dissolves the coke -with which it is mixed and the compound resulting is calcium carbide -which can be run off from the interior of the furnace in liquid form. - -[Illustration: TWO OF THE CARBIDE FURNACES AND ELECTRODE REGULATORS] - -At the cyanamid plant at Niagara Falls, in Canada, there are seven of -these great carbide furnaces, each about fifteen feet long and half as -wide and one-third as deep. We all have some idea of how much heat is -generated in the ordinary electric arc light such as is used for street -lighting. In the carbide furnace the carbon pencil, instead of being six -or eight inches long and as large around as your finger, is six feet -long and two feet in diameter. There are three of these in each furnace, -and when the furnace is in full action it can be imagined that there is -a terrific heat generated; in fact, when the fused lime and coke come -out of the furnace in the form of molten carbide the brightness of the -molten material is so dazzling that one cannot look at it with the naked -eyes without injury. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE CARBIDE MILLS] - -Then there is the problem of producing pure nitrogen gas, that is, -separating the eighty per cent of nitrogen in the air from the twenty -per cent of oxygen. The latter is the element that we breathe and which -passes into the body, there to combine with the impurities resulting -from the various life activities. If the nitrogen and the oxygen were -both allowed to act upon calcium carbide the oxygen would burn up the -carbide before the nitrogen could be fixed in it, hence these two -elements must be separated and all other impurities removed so that only -chemically pure nitrogen is brought to the calcium carbide for fixation. -The separation is accomplished by means of liquid air machines. This -industry, therefore, not only utilizes the greatest heat obtainable on a -practical scale, but it also utilizes the greatest cold. While the -electric furnaces produce a temperature of over 4000° F., or about twice -as hot as molten cast-iron, the liquid air machines work at a -temperature of 372° F. below zero. The air must first be purified and -dried. It is then compressed, cooled while under pressure, and then -expanded. The expansion lowers its temperature considerably. If this -extra cool air is used for cooling another batch of air under pressure, -the latter upon expansion becomes still colder than the first batch -expanded. By repeating this operation the final temperature of 372° -below zero is reached, at which the air liquifies. - -How cold this is can be seen from some simple experiments. For instance, -if a dipper full of the liquid air is drawn, in an instant the outside -of the dipper is covered with a coating of frost deposited upon it from -the surrounding atmosphere. The surrounding air is so much hotter than -the liquid air that the liquid boils violently. If a piece of rubber -hose is held in the liquid air for eight or ten seconds and then struck -with a hammer the rubber flies into pieces just like glass. To dip one’s -finger into this liquid air would freeze it solid in a second and would -be as disastrous as dipping it in red-hot iron. - -[Illustration: LIQUID AIR PLANT] - -When the liquid air is allowed to warm up a little, the nitrogen gas -evaporates, while the oxygen remains behind in the liquid. The pure -nitrogen then can be pumped into the fixation ovens. - -To fix the nitrogen in the carbide it is necessary to cool the latter -after it comes from the electric furnaces and grind it to a very fine -powder. This powder is then placed in furnaces that look like steel -barrels but are three or four times larger than an ordinary barrel. The -oven filled with calcium carbide is then electrically heated with a -carbon rod running through the center. When the temperature is about as -hot as that of molten iron the pure nitrogen gas from the liquid air -plant is pumped in and allowed to act on the calcium carbide for about a -day and a half. When the carbide has absorbed all it will absorb the -crude cyanamid formed is removed from the oven as a single large cake -which is run through pulverizing drums and then put through an elaborate -process of refinement and finally bagged for shipment in carload lots to -fertilizer factories throughout the country. - -The fertilizer manufacturers mix the cyanamid with other ingredients to -make a balanced plant food and so ship it to farmers for feeding their -crops. In 1914 7,500,000 tons of fertilizer worth $175,000,000 were -consumed in this country. This seems like a large quantity, but it -allows only a scanty application per acre cultivated. Germany, on -one-fourth of our cultivated acreage, uses almost twice as much -fertilizer as the entire United States. As a consequence she raises 30 -bushels of wheat where we average 14 bushels per acre; 52 bushels of -oats where we average 30; and 196 bushels of potatoes per acre where we -raise 97 bushels per acre. The explanation is simple, German farmers pay -only about one-half as much for their plant food as American farmers -pay. Where the German farmer gains $2.00 to $3.00 increase in crop from -fertilizer that costs him $1.00 the American farmer pays $2.00 for the -same fertilizer, which leaves him less profit and less incentive to use -fertilizer. - -[Illustration: A CARBIDE COOLING SHED] - -[Illustration: CYANAMID OVEN ROOM] - -[Illustration: _Photo by William H. Rau_ - -FOREVER RUSHING AND FOREVER WONDERFUL - -Niagara Falls from Prospect Point on the American side, looking -southwest, across and up the stream. The American Falls may be seen in -the foreground rushing past to make their plunge of 165 feet to the -rocks below.] - -The air-nitrogen industry in the United States is said to be -considerably handicapped because the large quantities of electricity -required are not available at a low enough price. There are excellent -water-power sites in the United States sufficient to furnish many times -the required power, but the existing water-power laws are so burdensome -that investors will not put their money into power development except on -such high terms that the power is much dearer than it can be bought for -in other countries. Practically every civilized country in the world, -except the United States, had one or more cyanamid factories in 1916. -These include Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, France, Italy, -Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Japan and Canada. Their combined output is -about 1,000,000 tons per annum. The cyanamid plant at Niagara Falls, -Ontario, which was established in 1909, with a capacity of 10,000 tons, -had a capacity of 64,000 tons per annum in 1916. It utilizes about -30,000 electrical horse-power twenty-four hours a day, and three hundred -and sixty-five days a year. Germany, at the beginning of the war, -produced about 30,000 tons of cyanamid; in 1916 she was making 600,000 -tons a year. She is using it both to grow crops and to make explosives -for her guns. - -[Illustration: SUGAR BEET CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN -IN CARO, MICHIGAN] - -[Illustration: COTTON CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN IN -SUMTER, S. C.] - -At the time the war broke out, in August, 1914, Germany was importing -nearly one million tons of nitrate of soda per annum from Chile, South -America. This supply was immediately cut off by enemy fleets. Not only -was her agriculture thereby threatened with a great decrease in crop -production but her supply of military explosives was also threatened. -Professor Dr. Lemmermann, a famous German scientist, advised his -government that unless the nitrogen shortage were made good the -resulting crop shortage would amount to 3,300,000 tons of grain. But if -people require food, guns require powder, and no powder can be made -without nitric acid. It has been reported on good authority that Germany -has consumed one and one-third million pounds of powder a day during the -war. To make one pound of powder requires one and one-half pounds of -nitric acid, so that Germany required for military purposes 2,000,000 -pounds of nitric acid per day. From her coke ovens she indeed could -derive some nitrogen, but this actually furnished only about one-fifth -of her total requirements. For the other four-fifths she turned to -atmospheric nitrogen. For it is also true that this remarkable compound, -cyanamid, which is a food for plants, can be decomposed by high-steam -pressure into the purest ammonia gas. The ammonia can in turn be -oxidized to nitric acid, which is the basis of all explosives. Without -the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen on a tremendous scale there is no -doubt that Germany would have become helpless before her enemies within -a year after the war began, for no nation can fight unless it has -sufficient food for its people and powder for its guns. - -[Illustration: TURBINE GENERATORS, NIAGARA FALLS POWER HOUSE - -Eleven turbine generators in the Niagara Falls Power House, each set -developing 5,000 horse-power.] - -The preservation of food is also dependent on ammonia, which produces -the refrigerating effect in the numerous cold storage houses and -artificial ice plants in this country. In the cold storage plants alone -the cold produced by means of ammonia is equal to 750,000 tons of ice -consumed per day, while 25,000,000 tons of artificial ice are produced -and sold as such per annum. Cyanamid ammonia gas is especially valuable -for this purpose on account of its high degree of purity. - -Then, too, the ammonia gas can be fixed in any acid desired, for -instance, in phosphoric acid, making ammonium phosphate, a fertilizer of -unusual merit, or ammonium sulphate, another fertilizer, or ammonium -nitrate, an explosive. So, for peace or war, the fixation of atmospheric -nitrogen has become a tremendous factor in the life of nations. - -If the United States should be forced into war with a foreign power it -would be a simple matter for an enemy fleet to cut off our large -importations of nitrate of soda from Chile. These amount to about -700,000 tons per annum in normal times and at present about 900,000 tons -per annum. In other words, we would be short just this quantity of -nitrogen in addition to the quantity that would be required by the -government for the manufacture of military explosives. It has been -suggested that our coke-oven industry could be expanded to furnish a -large part of this requirement, but even with the largest expansion -considered practical by the coke-oven people within the next several -years, the coke ovens would not be able to supply even one-third of our -requirements, thus leaving a large balance which could be furnished only -by the establishment of a large nitrogen industry in this country. - - * * * * * - - -The expression “The King can do no wrong” has been widely used since it -first caught people’s fancy at the time of the explanation, made in -England, that the Ministers, and not the King, were responsible for -mistakes of government. - - -What is a Drawbridge Like Today? - -We have all read of the castles in olden days into which the owner could -retire and raise a drawbridge across a ditch, thus putting a barrier in -the way of his enemies. - -That old style drawbridge, with, of course, many improvements, has been -adopted in these modern times to use in permitting navigable rivers and -channels to be crossed by railroads and other kinds of transportation, -without preventing the passage of vessels up and down the rivers. - -Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, etc., -are generally made to open vertically, and the movable portion is called -a bascule, balance or lifting bridge; a turning, swivel or swing bridge; -or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which it is made to -open. - -Swing bridges are usually divided into two parts meeting in the middle, -and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of the channel, or they -may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the channel. - -Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the water, and -are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers. - -[Illustration: BASCULE BRIDGE OPEN[53]] - -[Illustration: BASCULE BRIDGE CLOSED[53] - -The advantages of this type of bridge are that the entire width of the -channel is available for navigation, and the draw may be opened and -closed more readily than the swing type.] - - - - -The Story of a Deep Sea Monster[54] - - -The early day was blue and silver; one of those colorful mornings -peculiar to southern Florida. Sandwiched between the earth and the -turquoise sky, the Atlantic lay gleaming like a huge silver wafer in the -sunlight. Not the faintest suggestion of a ripple marred its shining -surface. - -Suddenly out of the stillness of the silver water a huge black fin was -lifted, and a little group of men lounging on the deck of an idle -fishing craft drew near the rail and used their glasses. - -“Shark,” remarked the captain pleasantly after a moment’s scrutiny. “Who -wants to go out with me for a little fun?” - -The hastily lowered lifeboat pointed a slim nose toward the large black -shape thrashing about in the shallow water. Three men were in the -boat--Captain Charles H. Thompson of the yacht “Samoa,” one of the -yacht’s crew, and a winter visitor to southern Florida. As they drew -near, the sailor took one look at the gigantic creature and yelled to -the captain: - -“For heaven’s sake, man, don’t harpoon that thing; we will be crushed -like an egg shell!” - -Poised in the bow of the boat, harpoon in hand, stood the captain, and -as they drew alongside there was a flash; the steel glittered for a -moment in the sunlight, then sank into the huge black bulk. -Simultaneously the little boat spun around and shot out toward the Gulf -Stream like an agitated and very erratic rocket, flinging great sheets -of spray high into the air as it sped. - -Thus began a thirty-nine hours’ ride filled with wildest thrills, during -which time Captain Thompson battled with the fish, the sailor bailed the -boat unceasingly, lest they be swamped, and the tourist raised an -anxious and eloquent voice to high heaven. The men were without food the -entire time, sharing only a small bottle of water among them. - -The news of the struggle spread rapidly, and soon hundreds of interested -spectators gathered on the trestle of the East Coast sea-extension -railway. Scores of times the men in the boat escaped death only by a -miracle, as the wildly thrashing black tail missed them but by a hair’s -breadth. Finally, after two days and one night, the monster was worn -out, and the triumphant captor managed to fasten it to the trestle work -on Knight’s Key, where, after a few hours’ rest, it wigwagged a festive -tail, smashing the large pilings as though they were toothpicks. After -another battle the fish was firmly tied up once more, this time to the -yacht “Samoa;” and again it waved a wicked tail, disabling the -thirty-ton yacht by smashing her propeller and breaking the cables. A -tug was then summoned, and the big fellow was towed one hundred and ten -miles to Miami, Florida, where it was viewed by thousands of people. - -Five harpoons and one hundred and fifty-one bullets were used in -subduing the monster, and it took five days to finally kill it. - -It was thought at first the creature was a whale, but later it was -classified as a fish, for it breathed through gills of which there were -five in number. Upon careful examination it seemed probable that it was -a baby of its species, as the backbone was of a cartilaginous nature, a -condition found only in a young creature; in a full-grown one this -develops into true bone. That it was a deep-sea fish was indicated by -the small eye, which was about the size of a silver dollar. The pressure -of the water is so great at the bottom of the ocean that were the eyes -large they would be ruptured. That the pupil did not dilate and contract -seems additional proof that the fish must have lived at a depth of -probably fifteen hundred or two thousand feet, where there is little -light. - -[Illustration: _Photograph by Capt. Chas. H. Thompson_ - -DEEP SEA MONSTER CAPTURED OFF FLORIDA - -So far as the scientific world is concerned, this is the only fish of -its kind ever captured. Length, 45 feet; weight, 30,000 pounds; -circumference, 23 feet 9 inches; diameter 8 feet 3 inches; mouth (open), -31 inches; mouth, 38 inches wide; mouth, 43 inches deep; tongue, 40 -inches long; several thousand teeth; hide, three inches thick, no -scales; had swallowed an animal weighing 1,500 pounds; tail measures 10 -feet from tip to tip; pectoral fin, 5 feet long, 3 feet wide; dorsal -fin, 3 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide; gills, 4 feet; the liver weighed -1,700 pounds.] - -It is generally believed that some volcanic eruption drove the fish to -the surface where, owing to the difference in water pressure, the -swim-bladders burst, making it impossible for him to return to his -level. - - * * * * * - - -What is an Armored Railway Car Like? - -The armored car shown in this picture is the first of a new type of -armored car to be constructed by the United States. It was designed -under the direction of the Board of Engineers of the U. S. Army, and was -constructed by the Standard Steel Car Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., at their -Hammond, Ind., plant. The car was designed and built within twenty-seven -days. - -[Illustration: THE RAPID FIRE-GUN HERE SHOWN IS A MODEL OF A THREE-INCH -FIELD GUN MOUNTED UPON A SPECIAL CARRIAGE. THE WELL IN WHICH THE GUN IS -LOCATED MAY ALSO BE USED AS A FIGHTING TOP FOR TROOPS ARMED WITH RIFLES -OR MACHINE GUNS. - -_Courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard Steel Car Co._] - -The car consists of heavy steel plate structure, erected upon a flat car -of standard type. The interior is divided into three compartments. The -end compartments are for use of troops operating machine guns and rifles -through the port-holes shown on side of car. The center compartment, -which is not the full height of the car, is used for ammunition storage, -and is capable of holding a large quantity of ammunition, either for -small arms or for the rapid-fire gun which is mounted on top of the car. -The rapid-fire gun here shown is a model of a three-inch field gun -mounted upon a special carriage. The well in which the gun is located -may also be used as a fighting top for troops armed with rifles or -machine guns. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST OF A NEW TYPE OF ARMORED CARS[55]] - -[Illustration: THE HEAVY STEEL PLATE STRUCTURE IS ERECTED UPON A FLAT -CAR OF STANDARD TYPE[55]] - -This car is known as a light-armored car. It is armed with a three-inch -rapid-fire gun, two machine guns and any number of rifles which the -troops occupying it may carry. The service for which this car is -intended is primarily to guard railroads and depots adjacent to -railroads. It is not ordinarily to be employed in aggressive movements. -In effect, it is a movable block-house which may be used at any point -along the line, or it may be used as a retreat for troops when -necessary. It may also be used for transporting troops past danger -points, and for transporting explosives or other perishable material -which might be damaged by fire from the ends. The car as constructed -weighs 86,200 pounds. It is 47 feet long, 9 feet 3 inches wide, and 7 -feet high at the ends. When used for transportation of troops, it will -accommodate a company of infantry seated on camp stools or benches. When -used for patrol purposes, there would not be more than twelve men in the -car, to operate the rapid-fire gun and machine guns. - -[Illustration: THE INTERIOR IS DIVIDED INTO THREE COMPARTMENTS - -_Courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard Steel Car Co._] - -The car was shipped to the Sandy Hook proving grounds to be equipped -with rapid-fire guns and ammunition and thoroughly tested and inspected -by the Engineer and Ordnance Officer of the U. S. Army. - - -What is an “Electric Eel”? - -This is an eel abundant in the fresh waters of Brazil and the Guianas, -which possesses organs capable of developing a strong electric current -and thus of giving a violent shock to any one touching the eels. These -organs replace the lower muscles along the sides of the tail. The eels -can be taken by driving horses into the water to be shocked and seizing -them when thus weakened. - - - - -The Story of Salt[56] - - -Salt is a chemical compound composed of two elements, sodium and -chlorine. Chemically it is known as sodium chloride. - -[Illustration: A SALT WELL] - -It is one of the things which comes into our lives daily, perhaps more -than any other, with the exception of water. Probably no other thing -than water is used more by all civilized people than salt. - -Nature provides salt for us in three different forms. First, in sea -water in solution; second, in salt springs; and third, in the form of -salt rock. - -From time immemorial man has obtained salt from sea water. This is still -being done on our sea coasts, but the salt obtained by evaporating the -water is very crude and usually contains many impurities. - -It has been possible to obtain a large supply of salt from what are -known as salt springs. These springs are usually the result of water -flowing over a deposit of salt rock. The amount of salt obtained from -evaporating this spring water is, however, so small that salt springs -are an impractical source of supply when it comes to making salt for -commercial purposes. - -Rock salt forms the most common and practical source of supply. It is -found in all parts of the world and reasonably near the surface. The -deposit is said to be what is left of ancient salt seas. In the United -States the largest deposits of salt are found in the states of Michigan, -New York, Ohio, Utah, Louisiana, Kansas, Texas and California. The -above-mentioned states are the largest producers of salt in this -country. - -[Illustration: SALT HEATERS AND FILTERS] - -One of the largest sources of salt supply in Europe is at Wielizka in -Poland. This deposit of salt is said to be the largest in the world, the -bed of salt rock being 500 miles long, 20 miles wide and 1,200 feet -thick. Some of the salt mines in Poland are so extensive that it is said -some of the miners spend all of their lives in them, never coming to the -surface of the earth. - -Most of the deposits of salt rock contain impurities which need to be -removed before the salt is fit for use commercially; however, some -deposits show a very pure salt rock and when ground up this rock salt is -suitable for table use. In general, however, the salt made from crude -salt rock is only fit for the crudest commercial uses. The most common -impurity is gypsum and it is necessary to remove this gypsum before the -salt can be considered pure. - -[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -SALT BEDS NEAR SALT LAKE CITY - -These extensive salt beds about eighteen miles from Salt Lake City are -part of the deposit left when Lake Bonneville dwindled to Great Salt -Lake.] - -The general way of obtaining salt from the earth is by means of salt -wells. These wells are drilled in the same way that wells are bored for -oil and gas. A pipe about six inches in diameter is lowered to the -surface of the salt rock and then an inside pipe is put down, water is -forced down between the two pipes and the pressure exerted brings up the -dissolved rock or salt brine through the inside pipe. - -As the salt brine reaches the surface the salt is extracted from it in -various ways. At present the crude open-pan system, where the brine was -poured into open pans and fires were built below the pans, is almost -obsolete. The most practical methods of refining salt today are known as -the Grainer, Vacuum Pan and Alberger systems. - -[Illustration: BOLTERS FOR SIFTING SALT] - -The Grainer system is similar in its operation to the old open-pan -system. The brine is run through long, shallow tanks and the heat is -applied through steam pipes inside of the pan. The salt settles to the -bottom of the pan and large rakes operated either by hand or machinery -collect the salt. - -In the Vacuum Pan process tiny cubes of salt are formed and settle to -the bottom of the pan in which a vacuum has been created. The salt is -then drained out and is ready for drying. - -Variations of the two above processes make possible the production of -certain grades of table salt. Oftentimes the brine is relieved of -impurities through the action of certain chemicals. In some instances a -chemical known as “barium chloride” is used, but the wisdom of this -process has been much questioned, owing to the fact that barium chloride -is a deadly poison. - -[Illustration: FILLING SALT PACKAGES] - -[Illustration: FILLING SALT BAGS] - -The Alberger system of salt manufacture is a mechanical process which -subjects the salt brine to a much higher temperature and removes the -impurities by means of mechanical filters. This process is known to make -a very pure salt and has been used for some time as a practical method -for manufacturing high-grade dairy and table salt. Unlike the other two -common methods of making salt, it forms tiny salt flakes instead of the -usual cubes or lumps. - -After manufacturers obtain the salt from the brine they usually put it -through drying processes. After drying, the salt is sifted and the fine -table salt is separated from the coarser products. When salt is sifted -it is ready for packing in bags or packages suitable for shipment to the -consumer. - -According to recent government reports, it is estimated that the average -consumption of salt per capita for all purposes is about 100 pounds per -year. The salt industry is now said to have reached a very stable basis -and the demand for salt in the United States is practically all supplied -by American manufacturers. Salt can be put to a great many uses in -addition to the usual requirements for table and cooking. It is used by -food manufacturers and performs highly important functions in certain -commercial fields. - - * * * * * - - -Why do We Call it “Denatured Alcohol”? - -Under a law passed by the United States Congress in 1907, on alcohol -intended for use as fuel or for illuminating purposes, or other -mechanical employment, the internal tax need not be paid. But to avoid -taxation it must be rendered unfit for drinking by the addition of such -unpalatable substances as wood alcohol, pyridin, benzola, sulphuric -ether or animal oil. Thus treated, it is spoken of as denatured. - - -What is the Difference Between a Cruiser and a Battleship? - -A cruiser is a vessel built to secure speed and fuel capacity at the -expense of armor and battery strength. - -The modern cruiser may be regarded as the offspring of the frigate of -the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The later construction has been -designed for a minimum speed of twenty-five knots an hour, with a -possible attainment of thirty knots or over, under favorable conditions. - -The battleship and one form of cruiser were evolved from the conflicting -opinions of two opposite schools of design. The battleship is the -expression of the thoughts of those who stood for extremely developed -battery power, great thickness of armor plate, and moderate speed. The -cruiser is the result of the triumph of those who contended for high -speed at the sacrifice of heavy armor protection and excessive battery -strength. - -The armored cruiser was the particular development of the antagonistic -views prevailing among naval architects. The type of this class in the -United States navy was the “Brooklyn,” which figured prominently in the -war with Spain in 1898. - -Recently the armored cruiser has been superseded by the battle cruiser. -The armor protection in this type of ship is much lower than that of the -battleship, while the ordnance, on the other hand, is practically the -same. High speed, wide radius of action and great battery strength are -the characteristics of this type; and to meet these requirements the -battle cruiser is planned of a size considerably larger than the -battleship. - -The protected cruiser is a later development of naval construction. Its -distinguishing features are certain modifications in the distribution of -the mass of protective armor of the ship. - -Light cruisers are vessels of from 1,500 to 7,500 tons, used in -scouting, as commerce destroyers, etc. They are outside the armored -class. - -[Illustration: SINKING OF THE GERMAN CRUISER “BLUECHER” - -This most dramatic photograph of the Great North Sea Battle, in which -the British fleet was victor, January 24, 1915, shows the death agony of -the German cruiser “Bluecher” just as she turned turtle and sank. The -ship is shown lying on her side with her machinery and armament shot -into masses of twisted iron and steel, great fires raging forward, -amidship and aft. - -_Copyright by the International News Service._] - -[Illustration: _Photo by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP “OKLAHOMA” - -One of the latest types of super-dreadnaught is here shown, racing along -at 20-1/2 knots an hour on a speed test. This great warship is a -sister-ship of the “Nevada.” Her displacement is 27,500 tons, her -engines develop 28,000 horsepower and she is armed with ten 14-inch guns -in her four turrets, twenty-one 5-inch and four 3-pounders, together -with four 21-inch Torpedo Tubes. She cost over $6,000,000.] - - - - -The Story of the Growth of the Motor Truck[57] - - -While exact dates are not easily obtainable, it is thought to be quite -within the bounds of reasonable accuracy to say that the motor truck -only began to be recognized as a practical vehicle for commercial -purposes in 1905. - -Today motor vehicles, both pleasure and commercial, are such a common -sight in every city and town, and even throughout the rural districts, -that one can scarcely believe that they were a novelty such a little -time ago. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE EARLIEST GASOLINE TRUCKS] - -The statistics show, however, that in 1906 the total registrations of -both pleasure and commercial vehicles, as reported by the various -states, was 48,000--about one month’s production today of one well-known -pleasure-car maker. - -In 1915 the registrations totaled nearly 2,500,000, and every day has -added to the number. - -It can be truthfully said that the pleasure car is the father of the -truck or commercial car. - -The application of the internal combustion engine to the use of -propelling vehicles was the beginning of a new era in that world. The -idea, born, one might say, with the new century, has already done more -to revolutionize transportation than all of the inventions of all the -centuries that have gone before. - -The automobile, first looked upon as a freak, then “a rich man’s -plaything,” has in a few years come to be recognized as a necessity, -and literally millions of people are employed in its production and -dependent on the industry for support. - -To trace the ramifications of the industry back through the mills, mines -and factories that produce the iron, steel, copper, brass, zinc, -aluminum, lead, leather, lumber, glass, celluloid, etc., would make a -long and interesting story, but this chapter deals with the motor -vehicle as a commercial car or truck and the part it is playing in -transportation of the world’s goods. - -While the first commercial vehicles to come into use were electrically -propelled, and while the electric truck has become a factor in the large -cities, the gasoline power vehicles are, as yet, the dominant factor. - -[Illustration: A 1907 MODEL SIGHT-SEEING CAR] - -At the first, business men were slow to take up the use of trucks for -delivery and hauling purposes and one of the specialties of early -factories was the making of “sight-seeing” cars which were sold to -enterprising individuals in cities and summer resorts for the purpose of -showing visitors the sights. These wagons became popular throughout the -country and are still being used in many places. - -Little by little, however, progressive business men saw the advantages -to be gained by motor delivery and the motor truck began to gain favor. -Several of the pleasure-car manufacturers took advantage of the -awakening interest and added a commercial vehicle section to their -plants. - -Others began to see visions of the day when horses would no longer be -used for other than strictly farm work, and motor-truck factories sprang -up here and there, even faster than pleasure-car plants. - -Like the seed mentioned in the parable of the sower, some fell on good -ground and grew to produce a bountiful harvest, but many withered by the -wayside. - -[Illustration: RELIANCE TRUCK--1908] - -[Illustration: 1908 TRUCK MODEL] - -[Illustration: RELIANCE TRUCK--1909] - -[Illustration: 1909 TRUCK MODEL] - -In the early days of the motor-truck industry men bought the finished -vehicle, but later on the practice of selling chassis only became -popular, and while today some manufacturers cater to the body trade, a -large percentage of trucks are sold to the purchaser without the body, -this being built by a local builder, the truck manufacturer furnishing a -body builder’s blue-print. - -As in everything else, it has taken time to overcome the faults of the -early trucks. Most all trucks above 1,500 pounds capacity are equipped -with solid rubber tires, and while the solid rubber tires and the -springs on the trucks give a great deal of resiliency, it was discovered -that the steady pounding over all kinds of pavements soon racked a truck -to pieces and that pleasure-car practice could not be followed -successively in building motor trucks. - -[Illustration: 5-TON TRUCK--1913-14] - -In the earlier days truck buyers made many mistakes in selecting the -size or capacity of trucks. Some made the mistake of buying trucks too -light for their work. Others selected trucks large enough to provide for -exceptional or emergency loads, and would, for example, buy a truck of -3-1/2-tons capacity when 90 per cent of their hauling was loads not -exceeding 1-1/2 or 2 tons. Thus they not only had a greater investment -than necessary in the truck itself, but were paying an exclusive charge -in the way of operating costs and depreciation. - -[Illustration: LATEST 3/4-TON MODEL] - -[Illustration: SOME 3/4-TON TRUCKS OF THE LATEST MODEL] - -[Illustration: A 1-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL DUMPING] - -[Illustration: A 1-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL LOADING] - -[Illustration: REAR END CONSTRUCTION OF A MODERN 5-TON TRUCK] - -[Illustration: A 3-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL IN ACTIVE SERVICE] - -[Illustration: THE LATEST 3-1/2-TON TRUCK DOING DUTY] - -But the experimental days have passed, both in the manufacture of motor -trucks and in their adaption to various lines of work. If the buyer has -not determined by experience and investigation the kind and capacity of -truck he should use, the older manufacturers are able to step in and -analyze the work to be done and to intelligently recommend to the buyer -what he should have. - -That motor trucks not only furnish cheaper transportation than -horse-drawn vehicles, but greatly extend the radius of operation, is -quite generally conceded. This is shown by the enormous increase in the -demand for motor trucks in all lines of business where goods of any kind -are to be moved over any considerable distance. - -[Illustration: CHASSIS OF THE LATEST MODEL 3-1/2-TON TRUCK] - -With motor trucks, merchants have extended their deliveries to reach -territory they could not touch under the horse-delivery system. - -Market gardeners, who must have their product in the city markets early -and have it fresh, can now sell their high-priced land adjoining the -cities and go miles back in the country where as good ground can be -bought for from one-tenth to one-fourth the price their suburban -property will bring--and still be closer to market with their motor -trucks than they were before with their horses. - -Contractors can transport material long distances and save both time and -money. Dairymen collect milk over a radius of thirty or forty miles and -get it to market fresh. Freight and passenger lines are possible with -motor trucks where a steam railroad or trolley system would not be -practicable. - -In short, the motor truck is revolutionizing transportation. As made -today by the leading manufacturers, it is simple, durable and easy to -operate and care for. - - * * * * * - - -What is a Diving Bell? - -Diving, aside from the pleasure afforded to good swimmers, is important -in many different industries, particularly in fishing for pearls, -corals, sponges, etc. - -Without the aid of artificial appliances a skilful diver may remain -under water for two, or even three minutes; accounts of longer periods -are doubtful or absurd. - -[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HOPPER DREDGER, Employed on the -River Clyde - -The Vessel steams to place of working and is moored by the Steam Winches -A A at bow and stern to buoys, the Bucket Ladder B is then lowered by -steam power, and thereafter Buckets set in motion by gearing C C. The -depth of water at which the Bucket Ladder dredges is regulated by the -Hoisting Shears and Chain Barrel D D, driven by shafting E E from the -Engines. The Buckets discharge the material by the shoot F into the -Hopper G. The dredged material is discharged by the doors of the Hopper -being opened by the Lifting Chains H H. These doors are hinged on to the -side of Vessel, and suspended at centre by the Lifting Chains, which are -connected to geared Crab Winches I I.] - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF DIVING BELL AND BARGE, Employed on the -River Clyde - -All the appliances are worked by steam, rendering manual labour -unnecessary. A is the Bell, which is raised and lowered by means of the -Chain and Steam Winch B. _c c_ are Seats within the Bell; _d d_, -Footboards. E, Air-pipe entering the Bell at _f_, the air being supplied -by Air-pump G driven by the Engine H. J is a Steam Crane for raising or -lowering material. K K, Steam Winches for working moorings and shifting -position of the barge.] - -Various methods have been proposed and engines contrived to render -diving more safe and easy. The great object in all these is to furnish -the diver with fresh air, without which he must either make but a short -stay under water or perish. - -Diving bells have been used very effectively. A diving bell is a -contrivance for the purpose of enabling persons to descend, and to -remain, below the surface of water for a length of time, to perform -various operations, such as examining the foundations of bridges, -blasting rocks, recovering treasure from sunken vessels, etc. - -Diving bells have been made of various forms, more especially in that of -a bell or hollow truncated cone, with the smaller end closed, and the -larger one, which is placed lowermost, open. - -The air contained within these vessels prevents them from being filled -with water on submersion, so that the diver may descend in them and -breathe freely for a long time provided he can be furnished with a new -supply of fresh air when the contained air becomes vitiated by -respiration. This is done by means of a flexible tube, through which air -is forced into the bell. - -A form, called the “nautilus,” has been invented which enables the -occupants, and not the attendants above, to raise or sink the bell, move -it about at pleasure, or raise great weights with it and deposit them in -any desired spot. - - -How are Harbors Dredged Out? - -There are several forms of mechanical, power-operated dredges. One of -the most common is the “clam-shell” dredge, consisting of a pair of -large, heavy iron jaws, hinged at the back, in general form resembling a -pair of huge clam shells. This with its attachments is called the -grapple. In operation it is lowered with open jaws, and by its own -weight digs into the ground that is to be excavated. Traction is then -made on the chains controlling the jaws, which close; the grapple is -hoisted to the surface and its contents discharged into scows alongside -the dredge. - -The dipper dredge, an exclusively American type, has a bucket rigidly -attached to a projecting timber arm. In operation the bucket is lowered -and made to take a curving upward cut, thus dipping up the bottom -material, which is discharged through the hinged bottom of the bucket. -The pump or suction dredge operates by means of a flexible pipe -connected with a powerful centrifugal pump. The pipe is lowered into -contact with the bottom to be excavated and the material is pumped into -hopper barges or into a hopper-well in the dredge itself. - -The center ladder bucket dredge operates by means of an endless chain of -buckets moving over an inclined plane, which in structure is a strong -iron ladder, one end of which is lowered to the sea bottom. The steel -buckets scoop up the material at the bottom of the ladder, which they -then ascend, and are discharged by becoming inverted at the upper end of -the ladder. This dredge is the only one found satisfactory in excavating -rock. - - -How is a Razor Blade Made? - -The best scissors, penknives, razors and lancets are made of cast steel. -Table knives, plane irons and chisels of a very superior kind are made -of shear steel, while common steel is wrought up into ordinary cutlery. - -In making razors, the workman, being furnished with a bar of cast steel, -forges his blade from it. After being brought into true shape by filing, -the blade is exposed to a cherry-red heat and instantly quenched in cold -water. The blade is then tempered by first brightening one side and then -heating it over a fire free from flame and smoke, until the bright -surface acquires a straw color (or it may be tempered differently). It -is again quenched, and is then ready for being ground and polished. - - - - -The Story of the Tunnels Under the Hudson River[58] - - -The building of the Hudson River tunnels was probably one of the most -daring engineering feats ever accomplished. As is well known, the Hudson -River, for the length of Manhattan Island, is approximately a mile wide, -reducing in width at the Palisades north of Hoboken. In consequence of -the unusual geographical situation, all trunk lines and other transit -facilities in New Jersey terminate on the westerly shore of the Hudson, -and passengers were of necessity compelled to use ferries to reach New -York. A conservative estimate, which was confirmed by various counts, -indicates that, prior to the construction of the tubes, the annual -passenger traffic between New Jersey and New York was 125,000,000, and -to handle this great volume of traffic the transportation companies -assembled in the Hudson River a fleet of rapid ferry boats and -maintained them up to the highest and most modern standards. But this -very expeditious ferry service was not enough, and for many years there -was a demand for facilities for more rapid transportation of the -tremendous population residing in the suburban district of New Jersey -tributary to New York City. As far back as 1873, a company had been -organized to construct a tunnel under the river, but had met with -numerous and most discouraging difficulties and obstacles, so that it -was finally compelled to abandon the work, although it succeeded in -building a considerable length of structure. Efforts were made at -various times after that date to revive the work, with little or no -results. In 1902 it was resumed, however, and a few years later was -pushed to a successful end. - -During the undertaking, more than 40,000 men were engaged in -air-pressure work and there were many thousand more who did not work -under air pressure. This vast army of men consisted of all nationalities -and all grades and conditions of labor. The skilled tunnel workmen are -men of character and ability, usually young, of good intelligence and -sound of body, without a streak of fear or cowardice in their makeup. -All of those characteristics are essential to under-water air-pressure -work. - -As is quite generally known, air pressure and tunnel shields were used -in all of the under-water work. It might be well to here correct the -misconception which exists in the minds of many, that the use of air -pressure for such purposes is something comparatively new. This is not -the case. The use of air pressure was a very early invention, and it is -a matter of record that in 1830, Admiral Cochrane, afterwards Lord -Dundonald, was granted letters patent for the use of air pressure in -tunnel construction. The modern engineer has merely developed the art to -a high degree. - -The method of construction used in the Hudson River tunnels has been -designated the “shield method.” In this type of construction, the -primary part of the tunnel structure consists of an iron shell, formed -of segmental rings, bolted together through inside flanges, and forming -a large articulated pipe or tube, circular in section. This iron shell -is put in place segmentally by means of a shield, an ingenious mechanism -which both protects the work under construction and assists in the -building of the iron shell. - -[Illustration: THE NEW SHORT CUT TO NEW YORK - -Hudson River Tubes of the Hudson & Manhattan R. R. Co.] - -A tunneling shield consists essentially of a tube or cylinder slightly -larger in diameter than the tunnel it is intended to build, which slides -over the exterior of the finished lining like the tubes of a telescope. -The front end of this cylindrical shield is provided with a diaphragm or -bulkhead in which are apertures which may be opened or closed at will. -Behind this diaphragm are placed a number of hydraulic jacks, so -arranged that by thrusting against the last erected iron ring the entire -shield is pushed forward. The hind end of the shield is simply a -continuation of the cylinder which forms the front end, and this hind -end, or tail, always overlaps the last few feet of the built-up -iron-shell tunnel. - -When the openings in the bulkhead are closed, the tunnel is protected -from the inrush of water or soft ground, and the openings may be so -regulated that control is maintained over the material passed through. -After a ring of iron lining has been erected within the tail of the -shield, excavation is carried out ahead. When sufficient excavation has -been taken out, the jacks are again extended, thus pushing the shield -ahead, and another ring of iron is erected as before. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE SIXTY-SEVEN-TON TUNNEL SHIELDS] - -For the erection of these heavy plates, a hydraulic swinging arm, called -the “Erector,” is mounted, either on the shield itself or on an -independent erector platform, according to conditions. This erector -approaches closely the faculties of the human arm. It is hydraulically -operated and can be moved in any desired direction. This method of -construction can be followed in almost every kind of ground that can be -met with, and it is especially valuable in dealing with soft, wet -grounds. In passing through materials saturated with water, the shield -is assisted by using compressed air in the working chamber. - -[Illustration: CUTTING SHIELD HEAD] - -The employment of compressed air under such conditions is really a -rather simple thing in itself, and means merely that the pressure of air -in the chamber where men are working is maintained at a point sufficient -to offset the pressure of the hydrostatic head of water and thereby -prevent its inflow. A crude comparison may be made by saying that if the -ceiling of a room was weak and threatening to fall--if we filled the -room with sufficient pressure of air, it would support the ceiling and -prevent it falling in. In tunnel work, air is supplied under compression -from the mechanical construction plant located on the surface, and the -pressure of air maintained in the working chamber is determined by the -depth of the work below tide level, as the hydrostatic head increases -with the depth. - -Control of air pressure is never entrusted to any but the most reliable, -competent and experienced man, as it is of the utmost importance that -air pressure be maintained properly. The first impulse of an -inexperienced man, should he notice an inrush of water, would be to -increase the air pressure, which might be a very dangerous thing to do. -An experienced man, however, would very likely first lower his pressure -in such an emergency, and then put up with the nuisance and difficulty -of having a good deal of water in his working chamber. By doing this, he -would permit the greater external pressure to squeeze the soil into the -leaking pockets and thereby choke the leak. - -[Illustration: APRON IN FRONT OF SHIELD, FIVE MINUTES BEFORE SHOVING] - -To improperly or inopportunely raise the air pressure would be quite -likely to result in the air blowing a hole through the roof of the -tunnel heading, allowing all air pressure to escape, and permitting an -uncontrollable volume of water to rush in and flood the work. - -The outer shell of the tunnel shield is composed of two- or three-ply -boiler plates, and the interior is braced with a system of steel -girders. The shields used weighed approximately sixty-seven tons each. -Sixteen or eighteen were used. To move the shield forward, each shield -was equipped with sixteen hydraulic jacks, arranged around the shield -circumferentially. These jacks were controlled by a series of valves, -which were so designed that any one jack or any set of jacks desired -could be operated. This was necessary as the direction of the shield -was, as it were, guided by the pressure of the jacks. When it was -desired to alter the direction of the shield, either upwards or -downwards, or to the right or left, the jacks on the opposite side to -which the shield was to point, were operated. The hydraulic pressure -operating these jacks was 5,000 pounds per square inch, and the total -energy, when all jacks were employed at the same time, was equivalent to -2,500 tons, which was equal to eleven tons per square foot of heading. - -[Illustration: CUTTING EDGE OF SHIELD IN NORTH TUNNEL] - -Air pressure used to prevent the inflow of water and soft dirt varied -from nothing up to forty-two pounds, although a fair average throughout -was thirty-two pounds. It varied, of course, according to the condition -encountered. - -The working chamber is the space between the tunnel heading where work -is in progress and the air-lock. The air-lock is a device used for the -purpose of enabling workmen and materials to pass from the portion of -the tunnel where the atmospheric pressure is normal into the portion -where the air pressure is greater than normal; that is, the working -chamber. The air-lock is a cylinder, usually about six feet in diameter -and twenty feet in length, with a heavily constructed iron door at each -end. This lock is placed horizontally in the tunnel at such a level as -the conditions of the work necessitate, but usually near the bottom, and -around this cylinder, and completely filling the cross-section of the -tunnel, a concrete bulkhead is built and is known as the lock bulkhead. -The two doors open in the same direction; the one at the normal pressure -end opening into the cylinder, and the one at the heading end opening -away from the cylinder. One door is always closed, and both doors are -closed during the operation of entering or leaving the air-pressure -section. - -Going into the air pressure, the door at the heading end is held closed -by the pressure of air against it while one is entering the lock, after -which the outer door is also closed. A valve is then opened which -permits the air to flow from the working chamber into the lock, until -the lock becomes filled with air of the same pressure as exists in the -heading. As soon as the pressure is thus equalized, the door at the -heading end can be opened and the workmen pass into the heading. Going -out, the operations are simply reversed. After the heading door is -closed, with the workmen in the air-lock, a valve is opened which -permits the air in the lock to exhaust into the normal air, until the -pressure within the lock reduces to the same as that outside, when the -outer door can be opened and persons inside the lock pass out. Both -operations must be gradual, as a sudden change from normal to high -pressure, or _vice versa_, would be very dangerous to anyone. - -[Illustration: SHIELD CUTTING EDGE BREAKING THROUGH WALL AT SIXTH AVENUE -AND TWELFTH STREET, LOOKING SOUTH, OCTOBER 23, 1907] - -In tunneling under the river, nearly every conceivable combination of -rocks and soils were met, but for the most part the material was silt. -In such material, with a pressure of 5,000 pounds per square inch on the -shield jacks, the shield was pushed through the ground as though one -pushed a stick into a heap of snow, pushing aside the silt, and thus -obviating the necessity of removing any excavated material. Sand or -gravel, or any material which would not flow or become displaced by the -shield, of course, had to be excavated ahead of the shield, and removed -from the heading prior to pushing it forward. In the silt the most -satisfactory and economic progress was attained, and a record was made -of seventy-two feet of finished tunnel, completely lined with iron, in -one day of twenty-four hours. - -The most difficult combination that had to be dealt with under the river -was when the bottom consisted of rock and the top of silt and wet sand. -In such cases, and there were many of them, the upper section of soft -ground was first excavated and the exposed face securely supported with -timbers ahead of the shield, and the rock underlying then drilled and -blasted. This was very tedious and expensive work. Exceedingly small -charges of dynamite had to be used and the procedure conducted with the -utmost caution. - -In the course of their progress, the shields were subjected to the most -intense strains and hard usage, as may well be imagined. One of the -shields is illustrated. It was used to construct the south tunnel of the -up-town pair of tubes, and passed from under the Hudson River, through -Morton, Greenwich and Christopher Streets, into Sixth Avenue, and north -to Twelfth Street, a total distance of 4,525 feet, of which 2,075 feet -was through rock overlaid with wet sand. During the progress of this -shield, 26,000 sticks of dynamite were exploded in front of the cutting -edge, causing great damage to the structure of the shield, so that when -it arrived at its destination at Sixth Avenue and Twelfth Street, it was -in such a condition of distortion that it was with difficulty that the -tunnel lining could be erected behind it. - -[Illustration: NORTH TUNNEL, SHOWING COMMENCEMENT OF NEW WORK] - -In pushing a shield forward with the battery of powerful hydraulic -jacks, each advance is of two feet, and must be followed immediately by -installation of the permanent lining in the rear. In the early days, -brick work was used for lining, and in recent years it has also been -used to some extent, but even with the use of quick-setting Portland -cement, neither brick work nor concrete has proved successful for -subaqueous work, as the cement cannot reach the required strength within -the time it is feasible to leave the shield standing before advancing it -again. - -[Illustration: HOLE BROKEN THROUGH THE SOUTH TUBE OF THE NEW YORK AND -JERSEY TUNNEL LOOKING WEST] - -During the early work on the north tube of the uptown tunnels, a point -was reached where the rock was sixteen feet above the bottom of the -tunnel, and the overlying silt was in a semi-fluid state. Five barges of -clay had been dumped in the river over this point to make a roof for the -tunnel, but the fluid clay could not be controlled, and crept through -the doors of the shield. After trying all known methods to get through, -it was decided to bake this wet clay by means of intense heat. Two large -barges of kerosene were sent into the tunnel, and an air pipe connected -to them. Fine blow-pipes were also attached, and the fire from the -blow-pipes was impinged on the exposed clay until it became caked -sufficiently dry and hard to overcome slipping. It required eight hours -of this baking to dry the clay hard, and, during this period, water had -to be played continuously on the shield to avoid damage due to the high -temperature. It is believed that this was the first time that soft -material met with in tunneling under a river has been solidified by -means of fire. Seven days after passing this troublesome point, the rock -suddenly disappeared and the work proceeded without further trouble. - -[Illustration: NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY TUNNEL SHOWING SIGNAL AND CAR] - -Another unusual situation occurred in the south tunnel of the uptown -tubes. When the shield had advanced 115 feet from the Jersey side, the -night superintendent in charge of the tunnel work, in his anxiety to -push the work, disobeyed instructions, and the tunnel got away from him -and was flooded, and his men had a narrow escape with their lives. In -order to regain the tunnel, several schemes were considered, including -that of sending a dredge through to dredge out the bed of the river just -in advance of the shield, a sufficient depth to enable a diver to go -down and timber up the exterior opening of the doorway, where the silt -and mud had come through and filled the tunnel. This plan had to be -abandoned, as the river above was almost entirely occupied by shipping -that could not be interrupted. - -[Illustration: AN X-RAY VIEW OF A BUSY HALF-MILE UNDER THE GROUND ON THE -JERSEY SIDE OF THE HUDSON RIVER] - -[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION ON SIXTH AVENUE AT THIRTY-THIRD STREET, NEW -YORK - - 1. FOOT PASSAGE - 2. MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILROAD - 3. STREET SURFACE AND METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY - 4. NEW RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY - 5. HUDSON AND MANHATTAN RAILROAD STATION - 6. PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD TUNNEL] - -Finally the difficult situation was met by obtaining two large and heavy -mainsails, which made a double canvas cover measuring about sixty by -forty feet. This canvas cover was then spread on a flat barge, small -sections of pig iron being attached around the edges of it. Ropes were -carried to fixed points to hold it in exact position. The barge was then -withdrawn, and the canvas cover dropped to the bed of the river, and, -most fortunately, it settled over the point where the leak had occurred, -and a large number of bags of dirt were then deposited on it. An opening -was then made in the bulkhead of the tunnel below, and for eight days -material, under hydrostatic pressure, forced its way into the tunnel, -where it was loaded on cars, and finally the canvas was drawn into the -hole, stopping it up. Additional material was then deposited into the -river to fill the cavity, and finally the tunnel was recovered, pumped -out and work resumed. This event is of somewhat historical interest, in -that the two mainsails which were used were procured from the owner of -the famous American cup defender, the well-remembered “Reliance.” - -Probably the most unique and interesting pieces of construction are the -three junctions on the Jersey side of the river, where the uptown -tunnels from New York diverge, north to Hoboken and south to Jersey City -and New York downtown. For safe and expeditious operation of trains, -where the schedule is only one and one-half minutes, it was imperative -that grade crossings should be avoided. By grade crossings is meant the -tracks of one service crossing the tracks of another service at the same -grade. At the point in question, this was a knotty problem to solve, -owing to the unusual operating conditions which had to be met, there -being six separate and distinct operating classes of trains to be -handled around this triangle. - -To meet this situation, three massive reinforced concrete caissons were -built on the surface. They are practically large two-story houses, each -being over one hundred feet in length, about fifty feet in height, and -about forty-five feet in width at their widest point. The bottom edges -were sharp, and, with the use of air pressure and great weights, the -three structures were sunk in the ground to the same grade as the -intercepting tunnels, and the tunnels were then driven into them. - -Particular attention should be given to the Jersey City to Hoboken tube, -in the lower part of the caisson in the foreground, in the accompanying -illustration, which curls around the Hoboken to Jersey City tube, and -rises to the elevation of, and connects into, the New York to Hoboken -tube, at the caisson in the background, at the left of the illustration. -Very few of the people who travel through the tube are probably aware of -such manipulation. At the same time, the arrangement absolutely avoids -any grade crossing whatever, and without such an arrangement of tracks -the road could not be operated with trains run so closely together as -under the prevailing system. - -In constructing the river tunnels the work was carried on simultaneously -from opposite sides of the river, the tunnels meeting under the river, -and it is interesting, if not remarkable, when one considers the -difficulties under which the engineering work had to be carried on, to -note that the tunnels met with practically absolute accuracy. - - * * * * * - - -What Causes Floating Islands? - -A floating island consists generally of a mass of earth held together by -interlacing roots. - -They occur on the Mississippi and other rivers, being portions of the -banks detached by the force of the current and carried down the stream, -often bearing trees. Sometimes such islands are large enough to serve as -pasture grounds. - -Artificial floating islands have been formed by placing lake mud on -rafts of wicker-work covered with reeds. They were formerly used in the -waters around Mexico, and may be seen in Persia, India, and on the -borders of Tibet. On these the natives raise melons, cucumbers and other -vegetables which need much water. - - - - -Pictorial Story of the Airship - - -[Illustration: A “PUSHER” OF SEVERAL YEARS AGO, WITH MANY OF THE MORE -PROMINENT AIR-MEN - -_Courtesy of The Curtis Aeroplane Co._] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Curtis Aeroplane Co._ - -UP-TO-DATE TWIN MOTORED MILITARY TYPE TRACTOR--200 H. P.] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -THE FIRST PLANE TO CROSS THE ATLANTIC - -The honor of being first to make the journey from America to Europe by -airship fell to Lieut.-Commander A. C. Read, who piloted the U. S. -seaplane, NC-4, from Newfoundland to Lisbon, Portugal, with a stop at -the Azores. The photo shows Lieut.-Commander Read and the seaplane, -NC-4, in readiness for their long trip, which began May 16, 1919, and -ended May 27th.] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -THE FIRST FLIER TO CROSS THE OCEAN WITHOUT STOP - -In this Vickers-Vimy aeroplane, Captain Alcock and Lieutenant Brown made -the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic on June 15, 1919, -traversing 1,650 nautical miles in 16 hours 12 minutes.] - -[Illustration: CHART OF THE TRANSATLANTIC FLIERS - -This shows graphically the course of the transatlantic aviators. The -U. S. navy seaplane was first to make the flight, leaving Newfoundland May -16, 1919, flying to the Azores in 15 hours, to Lisbon in 13-1/2 hours, -and to Plymouth in 13 hours. Hawker, in a Sopwith aeroplane, left -Newfoundland May 18th, and covered half the distance to Europe, but was -compelled to descend. He was picked up by a steamer. Captain Alcock and -Lieutenant Brown made the first non-stop flight June 15th; and the -British dirigible, R-34, made the first round-trip, leaving Scotland on -July 2d.] - -[Illustration: THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR FAMOUS AEROPLANE - -The machine is shown in action and resting on the ground. The pictures -were taken during the army test flights at Fort Myer, Virginia.] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Western Newspaper Union._ - -FROM BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND BACK BY BALLOON - -The great British dirigible, R-34, was the first lighter-than-air vessel -to cross the Atlantic. She left East Fortune, Scotland, July 2, 1919, -under command of Major Scott, and covered 3,200 miles to Mineola, Long -Island, in 4 days 12 hours 12 minutes. The return journey was made in 3 -days 3 hours 3 minutes. Note the piles of hydrogen gas bottles needed to -replenish the gas supply.] - -[Illustration: HIDE AND SEEK IN THE BALTIC - -A Zeppelin flying over a British submarine in the stormy sea.] - -[Illustration: A BATTLE OF FOUR ELEMENTS - -British monitors shelling the German land batteries near Nieuport. -German submarines were actively engaged in trying to torpedo these -monitors and the British monoplane was useful for giving the range to -the ship and reporting the accuracy of the shots.] - -[Illustration: ZEPPELIN DEVICE FOR DROPPING BOMBS - -An armored car is suspended by three cables from the Zeppelin airship to -a distance of several thousand feet below the monster aircraft, which is -concealed in the clouds above. (_Sphere copr._)] - -[Illustration: A BELGIAN MILITARY OBSERVATION BALLOON - -The car of this balloon is equipped with wireless, which is used to send -word of the gun positions of the enemy, movements of troops, ranges for -the gunners and much other valuable information. A cable holds the -balloon captive.] - -[Illustration: THE FRENCH DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP, “LA PATRIE”] - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._ - -THE DIRIGIBLE “RUSSIA” - -The great dirigible balloon “Russia,” one of the fleet of Russian -aircraft engaged in the European War. The photograph shows the hanging -car of the “Russia.” The captain’s bridge is in front above the engine -room, which is forward on the lower deck. Two propellors are in front. -The cabin is just behind the pilot’s seat.] - - - - -The Story of an Automobile Factory[59] - - -In visiting the factory where a half million automobiles are made each -year, the visitor first comes to the power house. - -In the construction of this building 5,200 tons of structural steel were -used, the equivalent necessary to build a modern twenty-story -skyscraper. - -Six engines of a combination gas-steam type, housed in this building, -develop 36,000 combined horse-power. They are said to be the first -gas-steam engines to be put to practical use. Another engine, using -steam only, develops 2,000 horse-power, while several pumping engines -increase the total horse-power of the plant to 45,000, probably the -largest individual unit of any power-plant in the world, and said to be -the only one of its kind in actual operation. - -[Illustration: CRANK SHAFT GRINDING DEPARTMENT] - -Some idea of the size of the engines is gained from the fact that the -stroke is 72 inches, while the gas cylinders are 42 inches in diameter -and the steam cylinders are 36 and 68 inches in diameter. - -[Illustration: THE POWER HOUSE EQUIPMENT INCLUDES THE LARGEST DIRECT -CURRENT CONTROL BOARD IN THE WORLD] - -In producing the gas and steam for these engines only twenty-two tons of -coal per hour are consumed, which speaks well for the efficiency of the -engines. In addition to the steam, the daily consumption of producer gas -for power purpose only is 28,512,000 cubic feet. Added to this figure -for power gas, is another item of gas used in the factory for various -purposes, which averages nearly 1,000,000 cubic feet per day, bringing -the per diem consumption of gas by the company up to 29,512,000 cubic -feet. - -The main factory buildings are 900 feet long and 800 feet wide, four -stories in height and of fire-proof construction. They are so designed -that every part of the interior receives a full share of daylight. - -The heating and ventilating of the factory building is accomplished in a -modern, scientific manner. In the winter, warm washed air is forced -through long ducts in the floor up into the room. In the summer, cool -washed air is handled in the same way, thus providing a clean, healthful -atmosphere the year around. By this system the air in the factory is -completely changed five times per hour. - -[Illustration: OVERHEAD MONORAIL SYSTEM] - -At the right as the visitor enters the factory, is seen the tool -construction department. Here are employed approximately 1,000 expert -tool makers, machinists and die sinkers. These men are engaged in making -new machinery (designed in the company shops), tools, jigs, fixtures and -other machine shop accessories, and repairing those in use. - -Overhead are traveling cranes which have a capacity of forty tons each. -These cranes facilitate the work of the tool construction department by -carrying cumbersome parts of machinery to and from it for alterations -and repairs. - -Here the visitor is standing upon the roof of a great tunnel, in which -are all the heating, water and steam pipes, and the power cables running -from the power house to various parts of the shop. This tunnel is large -enough to permit the easy passage of a touring car. - -Standing in front of the factory office, the visitor is doubly impressed -with the magnitude of the view before him. In one continuous room, -containing approximately 700,000 square feet of floor space, there are, -in round numbers, 8,000 machines in actual operation, representing an -outlay of about $5,000,000. These machines use some 2,500 gallons of -lubricating oils and 11,000 gallons of cutting fluids each day. For -driving the many machines, about fifty miles of leather belting are -used, giving the room the appearance of a dense forest. - -The visitor who is familiar with machine shop practice will notice at -once the peculiar location and setting of machinery in this shop. The -machines of a class, or type, are not all located in a single group or -unit. Each department contains all of the necessary machinery to -complete every operation on each part or piece it produces. To -illustrate, a rough forging or casting is started in a department at one -point, and after passing through the machines doing the required -operations, it leaves this department in a finished condition, ready to -be assembled into the car. - -[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE MAIN HOSPITAL] - -Such a system necessitates the grouping together of many different kinds -of machines, as well as including brazing furnaces, cyanide furnaces and -other special units (most generally found in separate buildings). Chutes -run from one machine to another, so that a workman can transport a part -from his operation to the next one by gravity. The results of this -transportation system are remarkable, making a big saving in trucking -expense, loss of material and the absence of usual delays. - -[Illustration: PISTON MACHINING DEPARTMENT] - -As the visitor passes down through the machine shop, he particularly -notices the sanitary conditions of the plant. There is a department, -enrolling about 500 men, whose duties are to keep the floors swept -clean, the windows washed, in fact to keep the sanitary conditions -surrounding the workmen as nearly perfect as possible. The floors of the -entire plant are scrubbed at least once a week, with hot water and a -strong solution of alkali, which removes the grease. Another department -of about twenty-five men does nothing but paint the walls and ceilings -of the factory, keeping everything fresh and clean. - -To facilitate the inter-departmental transportation of materials in the -factory, there is an overhead monorail system, comprising over 1-1/2 -miles of I-beam track. On this system are nine monorail cars, each car -having two 2-ton hoists, by means of which great boxes and trays of -material can be picked up and carried overhead from point to point in -the shop. - -Near the pay office is the main first-aid department. Here the chief -surgeon has on his staff eight regular doctors and several first-aid -nurses. The surgical equipment, which includes an X-ray machine, -pulmotor, operating table and electrical appliances, as well as improved -surgical instruments, enables the surgeon to cope with any accident. - -[Illustration: REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY] - -The factory service office houses a department which is responsible for -the well-being of factory employees. Of the 200 men in the division the -majority are employed in the capacities of watchmen, to take care of the -many entrances and exits of the plant and also to inspect the -fire-fighting equipment which is distributed over the entire plant. - -This fire-fighting equipment is being continually added to as the plant -expands and now embraces more than a mile and a half of large hose, -10,000 feet of smaller hose, and 2,900 feet of hose attached to chemical -tanks. There are 1,421 three-gallon chemical extinguishers and -fifty-eight 40-gallon chemical tanks, mounted on wheels. Surrounding the -plant are twenty-seven water hydrants equipped to handle two and three -lines of hose, while inside the plant are eight hose-houses fully -equipped. Pyrenes to the number of 175 are distributed about the -departments for combatting electrical fires. - -A new alarm system, said to be the most modern in the country, is being -installed throughout the factory. Back of all other preparation is the -sprinkler system, composed of water pipes hung next to the ceiling in -all buildings and so designed that there is a sprinkler head every ten -feet. Should the temperature in a room, for any reason, reach 160 -degrees, the sprinkler heads in the immediate vicinity will open -automatically, spraying out water which is piped from two tanks having a -combined capacity of 600,000 gallons. - -In addition to its other duties the factory service department has -charge of the lost and found articles. Since this work was included, -almost every sort of personal property, from key-rings to motor-cycles -has been found and restored to the rightful owners. - -Proceeding from the factory service office, the visitor finds himself in -the main crane-way, devoted exclusively to the storage of parts in the -rough, or semi-finished condition. This crane-way contains over 67,000 -square feet of floor space. Overhead are two 5-ton electric cranes, so -arranged that they can unload material from railway cars at one end of -the crane-way and deposit it in a position to be picked up by the -monorail cars, or placed in bins or barrels for storage. An interesting -item in regard to these cranes is that the load can be moved in three -directions at one time, this being accomplished by means of the small -car hoist. While the crane proper is moving through the crane-way, this -car travels across the crane, and at the same time raises or lowers -whatever may be suspended from it. - -[Illustration: CYLINDER MACHINING DEPARTMENT] - -Passing by the crane-way one comes to the rear axle unit assembly. The -manufacturing policy of the company is to make unit assemblies in -different departments and deliver them to the final assembly. - -In the unit assembly departments are received the finished parts from -the machine shop. These parts are assembled on progressive traveling -tracks. By this system each assembler, or operator, performs one -operation only, and repeats this operation on every unit passing through -the department. As a result, every operator soon becomes a specialist, -and specialization is the fundamental principle of the entire -organization. - -The economic results from this system have been wonderful, as will be -shown in some of the departments yet to be described. It saves floor -space, and eliminates congestion due to trucking, as large quantities -of material are piled along each side of the conveyor, and the unit in -process of assembling is moved to the stock, rather than each individual -piece of the assembly being distributed at different places. - -After the rear axle has been completely assembled, it is immersed in a -tank containing enamel, and is hung on a special trolley which runs by -gravity along an I-beam track. This trolley carries the axle to an -elevator, which lifts it to a conveyor baking oven, located in a section -of the roof. The axles are continually moving through this oven, and at -the expiration of about forty-five minutes emerge from the far end -completely baked. They are automatically dropped onto another elevator -which lowers them to the point near where they are used in the final -assembly. All material and unit assemblies move in one direction--that -is, toward the final assembly. - -[Illustration: MOTOR ASSEMBLY] - -Beyond the rear axle section is the department that makes the magnets -for the magneto, and also that in which the transmission is assembled on -a conveyor track, ending in an automatic elevator which transports the -completed transmission to the motor assembly line. - -In the rear of the transmission department is the motor assembly. This -assembly begins at the point where the cylinder machine shop ends, so -that the movement of the cylinder from the time it arrives in the -machine shop until it goes into the finished motor, is continuous. In -the machining of the cylinder castings, and the operation of assembling -the motor, close inspection of the work is noticeable. By the use of the -assembling line, better inspection is possible, than where one or two -men assemble the entire motor. In addition to the inspection in the -assembly, there are three points of trial, or working or testing, which -show up any defects in the motor. - -The final operation in the motor assembly line is the block test, where -the motor is inspected and tested before being assembled into the -chassis. On the block test, the motor is driven by an electric motor for -the final O. K. and tryout before being installed in this chassis. - -At the end of this testing period, if no defect has developed, the motor -is approved, placed upon a special truck and wheeled to the final -assembling line. - -The motor department just described furnishes an interesting -illustration of the economy of the moving assembling system. Before the -present system was installed about 1,100 employees were required in this -department, working a nine-hour day to build 1,000 motors. Today, as a -direct result of the new methods of assembling, and the efficiency -gained through the profit-sharing with employees, about 1,000 men are -assembling more than 2,000 motors in an eight-hour day. - -The assembling of the front axle, dash and radiator are fully as -interesting as the unit just described, but space will not permit a -detailed explanation of them. - -[Illustration: TRANSMISSION COVER DEPARTMENT] - -Perhaps the most interesting department in the whole factory, to the -visitor, is the final assembly. In this division, all the assembled -units meet the assembly conveyor at the point where they are needed. At -the start of the track a front axle unit, a rear axle unit and a frame -unit are assembled. This assembly is then started in motion by means of -a chain conveyor, and as it moves down the room at a constant speed of -eight feet per minute, each man adds one part to the growing chassis or -does one operation, which is assigned to him, so that when the chassis -reaches the end of the line, it is ready to run on its own power. - -In following the final assembly line from the point where the chain -conveyor engages the frame and axles, the visitor is impressed with the -dispatch with which every movement is executed. The gasoline tank, for -example, comes down from the fourth floor on a conveyor outside of the -building, and drops through a chute onto a bridge over the assembly -line. On this bridge is located a gasoline pump, from which each tank -receives one gallon of gasoline before it is installed in the car. - -After the gasoline tank is assembled, a number of small units are added, -such as the hand brake control lever, gasoline feed pipe, and fender -irons, until the point is reached at which the motor is placed in the -frame. - -Ordinarily the setting of a motor in the frame is a long operation, but -in this assembly the motor is elevated by a hoist, and lowered into -place while the chassis is moving along the conveyor track. From this -point, other small parts are added, and bolts tightened, until the -growing chassis reaches the bridge on which the dash unit is deposited -by a chute from the second floor, where it is assembled. The dash unit -includes the dash, complete steering gear, coil, horn, and all wiring -ready to be attached to the motor, so that its installation is rapid. - -Further along, such parts as the exhaust pipe, muffler, and side pans -for the motor are quickly fastened in place, and the wheels are brought -into the assembly. - -There will be noticed the vertical chutes, extending through the -ceiling. Down through these, from the third floor, come the wheels, with -the tires mounted and inflated to the proper pressure. From this point -the chassis moves under the bridge upon which are stored the radiators, -which have been delivered by a belt conveyor. - -At the end of the assembly line, the rear wheels on the finished chassis -drop into a set of revolving grooved wheels, sunk into the concrete -floor, and driven by an overhead motor. Two ends are accomplished by -this operation. First, when the wheels of the car revolve with the -grooved wheels, this motion is transmitted to the differential, through -the drive shaft to the motor, limbering up all these parts. The second -is that while the parts are being limbered up, the switch is turned on -and the motor started. - -[Illustration: INSPECTION OF FRONT AXLE AFTER MACHINING] - -At the end of the line the complete chassis is driven out into the yard -under its own power. Guided by practiced hands it moves swiftly out into -the yard, turns sharply and enters the final inspection line. A corps of -inspectors at this point takes charge of the chassis, and the -responsibility for each part is assigned to some one man. - -From the final testing line the chassis is driven to the body chutes, -which extend into the factory yard from the third floor of the new -six-story building, and are so constructed that the chassis may be -driven under them. The bodies are let down the chutes on belt -conveyors, picked up by small derricks and swung over onto the chassis. -The bodies are at this time placed on the chassis merely as a means of a -rapid transportation to the freight cars, for in ordinary transportation -the bodies are packed in the cars separate from the chassis. - -In the rear of the main plant are two six-story buildings each 60 feet -wide by 845 feet long, built parallel to each other and connected by a -crane-way 40 feet wide the full length and height of the buildings. - -The boiler house, which furnishes the steam for heating the entire -plant, is located in the rear of these buildings. The method of heating -is worthy of particular interest, as the air is forced over coils of -steam pipes located in pent houses on the roofs, and from this point is -driven down into the various rooms through the hollow columns which -support the floors. In the summer, cool washed air is forced down -through these same columns, maintaining a normal, even temperature, -compatible with the state of the weather. - -[Illustration: INSTALLING MOTOR ON FINAL ASSEMBLY LINE] - -Various unit assemblies, small machine departments, and store rooms are -located here in addition to all the body work. - -Practically the entire first floors are used as a receiving department, -where all the material consigned to the company is checked and -inspected. Railway tracks run the full length of both crane-ways, -facilitating the unloading and loading of supplies and parts. - -The body department occupies the greatest amount of space, requiring, -with the upholstering department, most of the three upper floors. In -addition to this work the construction of tops, curtains and radiators -is carried on, and a large space is used for the storage of equipment -and parts, such as lamps, horns, tires, etc. A part of the second floor -is devoted to the storage and the shipping of parts to branches and -agents. - -Having seen the body placed upon the chassis, the visitor passes along -toward the north. In succession are the chutes on which the crates of -fenders are sent down from the fourth floor of the main factory building -to the shipping platform. Here is also a chain elevator, which raises -the wheels out of the freight cars to a runaway on which they travel by -gravity to the third floor of the main factory. With this device it is -possible for three or four men to unload about 6,000 wheels each day. - -[Illustration: MECHANICAL STARTER--END OF FINAL ASSEMBLY] - -One passes the loading docks, where crews of six to eight men each, -working as a unit, remove the bodies and wheels from the chassis, and -load them into freight cars. So proficient are these loaders that a -freight car is loaded in twenty minutes. Approximately 150 loaded -freight cars are sent out every day. Besides these factory shipments -there are more than 300 loaded freight cars in transit each day from -branch factories. - -The bodies are shipped separate from the chassis, being stood on end in -one-half of the car and protected from dust by coverings. - -The chassis are put in the other end of the car, the first one being -carried in, minus the wheels, and placed in a diagonal position. -Brackets of cast iron, for holding the axle to the floor, are made in -the foundry. The front axle rests on the floor, and the rear axle rests -against the opposite wall near the top of the car. A block, with a hole -which just fits the axle, holds it against the wall. - -[Illustration: THE BODY CHUTE, WHERE BODIES ARE PLACED ON EACH CHASSIS] - -The next chassis is brought in and placed with its front axle opposite -the first one. In this way the chassis alternate until the car is full. -The space in the center of the car contains the fenders, and other -removable parts of the equipment. - -Just beyond the loading docks is the foundry. - -The foundry is one of the most interesting divisions of the entire -plant, and ranks, perhaps, as one of the most unique in the country, as -far as practice and equipment are concerned. As a general rule, foundry -practice has not shown the changes in an increase of production that -machine departments have, but in this foundry, due to standardization of -parts and specialization on the one car, it has been possible to devise -and install the unique equipment now used, which brings this department -down to the plane of expense and up in the labor-saving efficiency -prevailing throughout the entire plant. - -[Illustration: CRANEWAY, SHOWING LOADING PLATFORMS] - -This department works twenty-four hours a day, in three shifts of eight -hours each; iron is being melted and poured continuously during the day -and first night shifts. An average of over 400 tons of iron is poured -daily, and 426 tons of gray iron have been poured in a single day. This -tonnage is especially interesting, as it is produced on a floor space of -only 36,324 square feet. - -All this iron is poured on overhead power-driven mold carriers, which -travel about twelve feet per minute. These mold carriers have suspended -from them pendulum-like arms, on the lower end of which is a shelf. The -molders who make the molds for the castings are stationed alongside of -these conveyors; the molding sand with which they fill the flasks is -stored overhead in a hopper, the gate of which discharges directly onto -the molding machine. There are two molders for each part, one making the -“drag,” or lower part of the mold, the other making the “cope,” or the -upper half. When these two halves of the mold are finished they are put -together, or “closed” on the shelf of the conveyor, which carries the -finished mold to the man who pours the molten metal. The molten metal is -brought to this man’s station by means of large ladles, suspended on a -trolley on an I-beam track, running from the cupola through the entire -length of the foundry. This does away with the necessity of carrying the -ladle of iron a long distance, thus saving much time and lessening the -liability to accidents. - -[Illustration: CONTINUOUS CORE-OVEN] - -[Illustration: QUENCHING STEEL FORGINGS IN HEAT-TREATMENT OPERATION] - -While the mold is being poured it is in constant motion, and continues -so from the pouring station to the end of the conveyor, where the -casting is shaken out of the sand. The casting is thrown to one side to -cool, the flasks are hung upon hooks on the arm of the conveyor, to be -returned to the molder, and the sand drops through a grating in the -floor onto a belt conveyor; on this conveyor it is dropped on an -elevator, raised overhead and “cut,” or mixed with new sand, and passed -on to another conveyor, which deposits it in the hoppers above referred -to, ready for the molder’s use. In all this journey the sand is never -shoveled. - -In casting cylinders, on account of their size and the care needed in -setting the cores, a different style conveyor is used. The molder, -instead of putting the mold on a pendulum conveyor, places it upon a -track, where it is moved by means of a chain. During this travel the -various cores are set, and the molds closed, moving to the point where -the men with large ladles pour the mold. From this point it is -transferred to another track. As it travels down this track, the casting -is given an opportunity to “set,” or cool. At the end of this line it is -shaken out over a grating, and the sand handled in the same manner as on -the smaller conveyors. - -[Illustration: STRAIGHTENING CRANK SHAFTS ON STEAM HAMMERS] - -As soon as the castings have cooled sufficiently they are put into great -horizontal cylinders, called tumblers. Small metal stars are placed in -these tumblers with the castings, and when the tumbler is full it is -started revolving. This shakes all the sand from the castings and they -come out clean and bright. This process continues for some time, -depending on the size of the castings. Near the tumblers are the -grinding wheels, upon which are ground off the rough edges and the -castings put into shape for the machine shop. They are sorted, inspected -and counted before removing from the foundry. - -Another interesting feature is the handling of sand in the core room. -The sand is handled entirely in a gallery built above the room, equipped -with storage bins and sand mixers. Over each core-maker’s bench is a -hopper, connected with the floor of the gallery. When the sand is mixed -it is dropped through holes in the floor into the hoppers, which deposit -the sand on the bench convenient for the core-maker. - -This core room contains perhaps the only endless chain core oven in this -country in which are two endless chain conveyors. These have hanging -upon them large sets of shelves, upon which the cores are placed for -baking. It is impossible to over-bake or under-bake a core, as the rate -of travel of the conveyor is fixed at a speed which leaves the core in -the oven the correct length of time. - -All the aluminum parts as well as a large proportion of the brass, are -also cast in this foundry. - -The process of heat-treating steel forgings before they are machined is -one of the most scientific and accurate features in the manufacture of -this car. Vanadium steel is used throughout the construction of the car. -It has been found from long and deep experimental work by engineers, -that the structural condition of steel may be changed by the application -of heat, and with certain conditions ascertained, by bringing a piece of -steel to a certain temperature, and then setting the molecular condition -in the steel by sudden cooling, or quenching, that the steel of a crank -shaft can be made to stand impact, that the steel of a front axle can -be made a most efficient agent to withstand vibration. Practically every -forging in the car is made of a special steel, for which a special -formula of heat-treating has been worked out, in accordance with the -work, or strain, the part must stand in the finished car. - -It is by the use of this high-grade, scientifically heat-treated -vanadium steel that it is possible for the company to manufacture a -light-weight car, which has the ability to stand up under severe usage, -and to sell at the low price at which it is sold today. - -The heat-treating department contains about seventy-five large furnaces, -which consume from 5,000 to 6,000 gallons of fuel oil per day. It is -into these furnaces that the various forgings are placed for -heat-treating. In each one is introduced a pyrometer, connected -electrically with a switchboard located in a separate building. This -switchboard is very similar to those used in telephone exchanges. The -operator takes the temperature reading of every furnace on his board -about every minute. The furnace foreman is notified by the operator as -to the temperature by means of small colored electric lights, located -above the furnace. The lighting of all the colors at the same time is -the signal to pull the heat or, in other words, extinguish the fires and -empty the furnace. After the required heat has been reached, the -forgings are allowed to either cool in the air, be covered with -pulverized mica, or quenched in a special solution, as the case may -require. - -[Illustration: PYROMETERS BY WHICH THE TEMPERATURE OF THE FURNACES IS -REGULATED] - -In this department are also located many grinding wheels and tumbling -barrels, similar to those used in the foundry, so that the various -forgings may be put in first-class condition before they are laid down -in the machine shop. - -[Illustration: THIS BELT CARRIES THE FINISHED PARTS AND SCRAPS FROM THE -PUNCH PRESSES] - -The operations in the manufacture of the crank case, or engine pan, of -the motor is of interest for several reasons, and the visitor has the -opportunity of viewing these processes. - -The crank case in itself is interesting because it is made from drawn -sheet steel, instead of cast aluminum, as was once thought necessary. - -[Illustration: TAKING INDUSTRIAL MOTION PICTURES - -Operator suspended from traveling crane.] - -The presses on which these crank cases are drawn are especially worthy -of note, for they weigh about fifty tons each, and exert a downward -pressure of about 900 tons. It is necessary that this drawing be made in -four operations; the first and second are particularly interesting, on -account of their depths, which are 5-1/2 and 9-3/16 inches, -respectively. After each drawing operation it has been found necessary -that the case be annealed, to restore the strained or calloused surface -produced at certain points by contact with the dies, to a soft, ductile -condition, to conform to the balance of the case, or, in other words, -to produce a homogeneous condition of the surface. - -This annealing is accomplished by a furnace through which the cases are -moved by a chain conveyor onto an elevator which raises them up through -the roof, and down again, depositing them near the press which is to -perform the next drawing operation. While moving on this elevator the -cases are cooled so that they can be handled as soon as they are -lowered. - -After the drawing operations have been completed, the case is trimmed; -the side arms, front end supports, radius rod support, are riveted and -brazed to it, making a case as strong and solid, and yet as light, as it -is possible to make. - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLING INDUSTRIAL MOTION PICTURE FILMS] - -Near these crank case presses are located several hundred punch and -drawing presses of various sizes. These presses blank out and draw from -sheet steel of special analysis, a large number of parts (which in -ordinary practice are made from castings or forgings), carrying the same -strength, but also very much lighter in weight. - -The interesting feature of this department is the arrangement of the -presses, which enables all finished parts, as well as the scrap steel, -to be deposited upon a traveling belt conveyor, at the end of which are -stationed men who sort the various parts, and place them in proper -receptacles. By this arrangement it is possible to place the presses -closer together than could be done if it were necessary to leave aisles -large enough for trucking the material to and from the presses, -effecting a great saving in floor space. - -[Illustration: A THOUSAND ASSEMBLED CHASSIS - -At last accounts the production was 2,768 cars in a single day.] - -The pictures with which this story is illustrated were all made by the -photographic department of the company, and are but a few of the -thousands on file, portraying details of every operation in the -manufacture of a car. The department is completely equipped to take and -produce motion picture films of the highest quality. - -The growth of this department, in its own peculiar field, has kept pace -with the growth of the company as an industrial factor. But a few years -ago, this department was an incident only. The quarters were small, the -staff was composed of two men, and the entire work was confined to -making photographs of the cars and parts for advertising literature. - -A modern studio is now maintained on the fourth floor of the -factory--the staff of skilled operators numbering twenty. - -The moving picture portion of the company’s work is, in volume, the -largest conducted by any industrial concern. As a matter of interest, it -is estimated that the operations of this department in the “movie” field -are equal in magnitude to the efforts of many of the better known -film-producing studios which specialize in such work. And, large as the -scope of operations already is, it is still growing, in response to an -increasing demand for pictures of the factory as well as of events of -general interest. - - * * * * * - - -The expression “The tune that the old cow died of” has been used to -express the giving of advice instead of material help, because of an old -song which told of a man who had nothing to feed his cow upon and so -played her this tune: “Consider, good cow, consider. This isn’t the time -for grass to grow.” - - -How do Big Buildings Get their Granite? - -Stones suitable for important building purposes are usually found at a -good distance below the surface. In the case of unstratified rocks, such -as granite, the stone is most frequently detached from the mass by -blasting, a process by which much valuable stone is wasted, and a -different method is employed whenever it is found possible. In the case -of stratified rocks, blocks are separated by hand tools alone. Small -holes a few inches apart are cut along a certain length of rock, into -which steel wedges are inserted. These are driven in by heavy hammers -until the stratum is cut through. The large blocks necessary for -monumental purposes are generally obtained in this way, and before they -leave the quarry they are usually reduced as nearly as possible to a -rectangular form. - -Granite is a fire-formed rock which has been exposed to great heat and -pressure deep down in the earth. It is one of the most abundant of that -species of rocks seen at or near the surface of the earth, and was -formerly considered as the foundation rock of the globe, or that upon -which all sedimentary rocks repose. Granite supplies the most durable -materials for building, as many of the ancient Egyptian monuments -testify. It varies a great deal in hardness as well as in color and for -that reason must be selected with care when desired for building -purposes. - -Granite abounds in crystallized earthy materials, and these occur for -the most part in veins traversing the mass of the rock. Of these -minerals, beryl, garnet and tourmaline are the most abundant. The -decomposed felspar of some varieties of granite yields the kaolin used -in porcelain manufacture. Granite is not rich in mineral ores. - -It is abundant in America and is largely quarried in the United States -for building purposes, especially in New England. The best known -quarries are those of New England. There is a great deal of granite -found in South Carolina and Georgia, but much of this, as well as that -of some parts of California, is in a singular state of decomposition, in -many places being easily penetrated by a pick. Granite quarried anywhere -in which felspar predominates is not well adapted for buildings, as it -cracks and crumbles down in a few years. - -[Illustration: GRANITE QUARRY - -A large quarry near Barre, Vermont. The rock occurs in what is known as -“sheet formation.”] - - - - -Railroad Scenes from Shop and Road - - -[Illustration: THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY’S “BROADWAY LIMITED,” A -TWENTY-HOUR TRAIN BETWEEN NEW YORK AND CHICAGO[60]] - -[Illustration: ALL-STEEL PASSENGER TRAIN, DRAWN BY ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, -AS USED IN THE NEW YORK TUNNELS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD[60]] - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC TRAIN ON THE MAIN LINE OF THE PENNSYLVANIA -RAILROAD[61]] - -[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPPED WITH FIRE-FIGHTING APPARATUS[61]] - -[Illustration: TRAIN OF 120 LOADED COAL CARS DRAWN BY A SINGLE -LOCOMOTIVE[62]] - -[Illustration: EXPRESS TRAIN READY TO LEAVE THE BROAD STREET STATION OF -THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD AT PHILADELPHIA[62]] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co._ - -ABOARD THE “BROADWAY LIMITED” - -The observation car is provided with book-cases, a writing desk and -stenographer.] - -[Illustration: A STRING OF ALL-STEEL FREIGHT CARS JUST TURNED OUT OF THE -SHOPS[63]] - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC BAGGAGE TRUCK HAULING TRAILERS[63]] - -[Illustration: BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE PENNSYLVANIA STATION, NEW YORK -CITY[64]] - -[Illustration: THE “UNION STATION” AT WASHINGTON, D. C.[64]] - -[Illustration: FREIGHT TRAIN, EASTBOUND, ON THE HORSESHOE CURVE[65]] - -[Illustration: OVEN FOR DRYING PAINT ON PASSENGER CARS AT THE ALTOONA, -PA., SHOPS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY[66]] - -[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING - -View in the erecting shop where the locomotives are assembled. The -traveling crane in the foreground is capable of transporting a -locomotive to any part of the shop. - -_Courtesy of the Baldwin Locomotive Works._] - -[Illustration: MODERN LOCOMOTIVES - -The upper view shows a passenger locomotive used on the fastest heavy -express trains. It weighs 272,000 pounds, with tender 70 feet long, and -has a draw-bar pull of 30,700 pounds. The lower view shows a Mallet -Articulated Type freight locomotive, one of the largest ever built. It -consists of two units, linked together to give flexibility to the wheel -base. The locomotive is 108 feet 10 inches long, weighs 700,000 pounds, -and has a draw-bar pull of 96,000 pounds. Oil is used for fuel. - -_Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Baldwin Locomotive -Works._] - -[Illustration: TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--THE DELAWARE & HUDSON CO. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: FOUNDRY - -Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company] - -[Illustration: PACIFIC TYPE PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE--NEW YORK CENTRAL R. R. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: 4-8-2 TYPE PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE--CHICAGO, ROCK ISLAND & -PACIFIC R. R. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: MACHINE SHOP - -Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: MIKADO TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & -WESTERN R. R. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: ROD SHOP - -Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: MALLET TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--BALTIMORE & OHIO R. R. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: CYLINDER SHOP - -Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: 2-10-2 TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--NEW YORK, ONTARIO & -WESTERN R. R. - -Built by American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: ERECTING SHOP - -Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.] - -[Illustration: NEW YORK CENTRAL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE[66]] - -[Illustration: PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE[67] - -Two of the best known types of electric locomotive. The New York Central -type is 43 feet long, 14 feet 9-1/2 inches high, and weighs 230,000 -pounds. It is equipped with four 550-horse-power motors and has a -maximum speed of 60 miles per hour. The Pennsylvania type is the latest -development. It is built in two halves for flexibility and either half -may be replaced during repairs. The complete unit weighs 157 tons, is 64 -feet 11 inches long, and the motors have combined horse-power of 4,000, -giving a draw-bar pull of 79,200 pounds, and a speed of 60 miles per -hour.] - - - - -The Story of an Up-to-Date Farm[68] - - -A man who had been tied in a great city all his life made his first -visit the other day to an up-to-date farm. He was so surprised at what -he saw that he wrote a letter describing his emotions. Some of it is -worth quoting because it shows a picture of the modern farm as it was -cast upon the eye of a man who had never seen it before. - -“I was whisked from the railway station in a big touring car, through -beautiful country. Then we turned up a flower and shrub lined concrete -driveway, and stopped by a home, capacious and modern. Inside I found -electric lights, electric iron and bathroom with running water. - -[Illustration: THE WOMAN ON THE FARM AT LAST ENJOYING THE BENEFIT OF -LABOR-SAVING MACHINES - -This small mounted kerosene engine runs the washing machine, pump, cream -separator and churn. It is easily drawn about from place to place by -hand where its energy is needed to lighten the housework.] - -“I found that the good man of the house had his own electric light and -water plant, run by kerosene engines, that his cows were milked -automatically, that he pulled his plows, harrows, drills, manure -spreader and binder with a kerosene tractor, that his hired men went -about the farm doing everything as they rode on some machine, that he -went to church and town in an automobile, and that he delivered the -products of his farm to market with a motor truck. Everything was -managed like a factory. Things went forward with order and with -assurance. Everyone was busy and happy.” - -This is an optimistic picture of one of our best farms, but compare it -with the best that could be found only a few hundred years ago. The -best farmer of those days held all the land for miles around and lived -in a castle in the middle of it. The castle was dark and cold and was -made of rough stones fitted together. The poor farmers were serfs and -came two or three days out of a week to their master’s house to work. -Those were the great days of their lives, for then they ate of the -master’s food. - -Food--that was the problem of those long tired years which dragged -through the ages, when nearly everyone was a farmer, and a farmer with -crude tools held in his hands. Time was when practically the whole world -went to bed hungry and rose again in the morning craving food, just as -half the millions of India do today because they do with their hands -what a machine should do. - -[Illustration: THE MOTOR TRUCK MAY BE USED BY THE FARMER EVEN IN HILLY -AND MOUNTAINOUS PLACES - -This photograph was taken near the summit of Pike’s Peak.] - -People in the hungry, unfed ages grew so used to privation that even the -philosophers accepted sorrow and woe as a matter of course and dilated -upon their virtues for chastening the human soul. “It is better to go to -the house of mourning than the house of mirth,” said one of the -prophets, and such words brought comfort to the hungry, miserable -millions who had to mourn and go hungry whether it was to their -advantage or not. - -[Illustration: THE REAPING HOOK WAS THE FIRST IMPLEMENT USED FOR -HARVESTING GRAIN OF WHICH WE HAVE RECORD - -This pictures the reaping hook as still used in India.] - -Today the years glide by like pleasant pictures. We are fed, busy and -happy. We almost let the dead bury their dead today while the living -drive forward their tasks, achieving as much in a year as the old ages -did in twenty. We have learned to feed ourselves and the food fills our -bodies and brains with energy which must find expression in useful -accomplishment. “Blessed is he who has found his work to do,” we say -nowadays, “but thrice blessed is he who has found a machine to do it for -him.” - -Thread your way back through history to the time when the slender lives -of men expanded into full and useful employment, and you will find that, -so far as raising the world’s food is concerned, it all began with the -invention of the reaper in only the last century. It is interesting to -know something of the precarious entry of this machine and something of -the dark background from which it emerged. - -[Illustration: THE SCYTHE IS A DEVELOPMENT OF THE REAPING HOOK - -The blade was made larger and the handle longer so two hands could be -used.] - - -The Reaping Hook or Sickle. - -From the first pages of history we find that the reaping hook or sickle -is the earliest tool for harvesting grain of which we have record. -Pliny, in describing the practice of reaping wheat says, “One method is -by means of reaping hooks, by which the straws are cut off in the middle -with sickles and the heads detached by a pair of shears.” Primitive -sickles or reaping hooks made of flint or bronze are found among the -remains left by the older nations. Pictures made in 1400 or 1500 B. C. -upon the tombs at Thebes in Egypt, which are still legible, show slaves -reaping with sickles. This crude tool, brought into use by ancient -Egypt, remained almost stationary as to form and method of use until the -middle of the last century. - -The scythe, which is a development from the sickle, enables the operator -to use both hands instead of one. The scythe is still a familiar tool on -our farms, but it serves other purposes than that of being the sole -means of harvesting grain. - -[Illustration: THE CRADLE WAS DEVELOPED IN AMERICA BETWEEN 1776 AND 1800 -AND IS AN OUTGROWTH OF THE SCYTHE. IT IS STILL USED IN SOME PLACES] - - -The Cradle. - -Gradually the blade of the scythe was made lighter, the handle was -lengthened, and fingers added to collect the grain and carry it to the -end of the stroke. With the cradle the cut swath could be laid down -neatly for drying preparatory to being bound into bundles. This tool is -distinctly an American development. The colonists, when they settled in -this country, probably brought with them all the European types of -sickles and scythes, and out of them evolved the cradle. - -With the cradle in heavy grain an experienced man could cut about two -acres a day, and another man could rake and bind it into sheaves, so -that two men with the cradle could do the work of six or seven men with -sickles. - -The American cradle stands at the head of all hand tools devised for the -harvesting of grain. When it was once perfected, it soon spread to all -countries with very little change in form. Although it has been -displaced almost entirely by the modern reaper, yet there are places in -this country and abroad where conditions are such that reaping machines -are impractical and where the cradle still has work to do. - -[Illustration: HARVESTING IN THE WEST - -_Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._] - -[Illustration: STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER - -The upper view shows side-hill harvesters drawn by teams of twenty-eight -horses each. The machines cut the grain, and tie it up in bundles, which -are dropped alongside. The machine in the lower view is self-propelling, -cuts and threshes the grain, throwing out the straw, and places the -grain in sacks ready for loading on the wagon. - -_Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._] - - -Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines. - -The beginning of practical efforts in the direction of harvesting by -wholly mechanical means may be said to date from the beginning of the -last century, about the year 1800, although very little progress was -made from that time up to the year 1831. - -It is true that the Gauls made use of an instrument nearly two thousand -years before, but this contrivance fell into disuse with the decline of -the Gallic fields. Pliny describes this machine which was used early in -the first century and which might be termed a stripping header. -Palladius, four centuries later, describes the same sort of machine. -This device of the Gauls had lance-shaped knives, or teeth with -sharpened sides, projecting from a bar, like guard teeth, but set close -together to form a sort of comb. As it was pushed forward, the stalks -next the heads came between these sharp teeth and were cut or stripped -off into a box attached to and behind the cutter bar and carried by two -wheels. When the box was filled with heads, the machine was driven in -and emptied. This is the way in which it is supposed that it was worked, -and the illustration is the generally accepted representation of it as -roughly reconstructed from the old Latin description of Pliny. - -[Illustration: THE MOWING MACHINE HAS REPLACED THE SCYTHE FOR CUTTING -HAY, AND THE KEROSENE TRACTOR HAS REPLACED EXPENSIVE HORSE POWER FOR -PULLING THE MOWERS - -The tractor has 10 H. P. on the drawbar and is pulling three mowers, -laying down a swath of hay 21 feet wide.] - -Near the close of the past century, the subject of grain-reaping -machines again began to claim the attention of inventors. In July, 1799, -the first English patent was granted to Joseph Boyce. In 1806, Gladstone -of England built and patented a machine which not only attempted to cut -the grain, but also to deliver it in gavels to be bound. In 1807, -Plucknett and Salmon both patented machines. In 1811, Smith and Kerr -took out patents. In 1822, Henry Ogle, a schoolmaster of Rennington, -assisted by Thomas and Joseph Brown, invented the so-called Ogle reaper. -The next, and last, reaper of this period was invented by Patrick Bell -of Carmyllie, Scotland, in 1826. - -Nearly all of these early reapers relied upon scythes or cutters with a -rotary motion or vibrating shears. This method of cutting was -essentially wrong, and none of the machines ever appeared to have gained -or long retained the favor of the farmers. That these early attempts -were all unsuccessful is evidenced by the fact that at the great World’s -Fair in London in 1851, the United Kingdom could not present a single -reaping machine. English journals and writers of that period, without a -single exception, spoke of the American reapers which were exhibited as -“completely successful.” For the real progress towards solving the -problem of harvesting grain with machines we must turn to America. - -[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1845] - -American invention in this line, so far as there is any record, began -with the patent issued to Richard French and T. J. Hawkins of New -Jersey, May 17, 1803. No reliable description of this machine seems to -be extant. Five patents of no importance were issued between that time -and 1822, when Bailey took out a patent. Cope and Cooper of Pennsylvania -obtained a patent in 1826, and Manning obtained one in 1831. - -[Illustration: A CORN BINDER CUTS THE HEAVIEST CORN WITH EASE] - -Up to 1831, no successful and practical reaper had been developed. With -all the patents taken out in England, and with those taken out in -America from 1803 down to 1831, we might say that nothing had been -accomplished toward perfecting a reaping machine which actually worked -successfully. - -[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE FIRST MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1831 AS USED IN -THE FIELD] - - -The First Successful Reaper. - -[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1845 IN THE FIELD, WITH A SEAT -ADDED FOR THE RAKER - -Formerly the raker walked by the side of the machine.] - -In 1831 came McCormick’s reaper, the first practical machine of its kind -ever taken into the field. It was crude at first, but improved from year -to year. Although McCormick’s reaper was not patented until 1834, one -year after the patent granted to Obed Hussey for his reaper, young -McCormick gave a public exhibition in Virginia three years before, in -1831. It was in the fall of that year when Cyrus McCormick hitched four -horses to his machine, which had been built in the old blacksmith shop -at Steel’s Tavern, and drove into a field of late oats on the farm of -John Steele, adjoining his father’s. The reproduction of an old -lithograph depicting this scene indicates the interest of the neighbors -in this event. Although the United States had been established more than -fifty years past, this was the first grain that had ever been cut by -machinery. McCormick’s machine continued to operate to the surprise of -everyone and in less than half a day had reaped six acres of oats--as -much as six men would have done by the old-fashioned method. - -This was not the first attempt of a McCormick to solve the problem of -harvesting wheat by machinery, for Robert McCormick, the father of -Cyrus, had, himself, worked on a machine of this kind as far back as -1816. His father tried it again in 1831 and abandoned it, and in that -same year the son Cyrus took up the work and started the world toward -cheaper bread. - -[Illustration: MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1858] - -The first practical reaper taken into the field in 1831 embodied the -essential parts of the reaper with which we are familiar. It had a -platform for receiving the grain, a knife for cutting it, supported by -stationary fingers over the edge, and a reel to gather it. The driver of -the machine rode one of the horses, while the man who raked off the -grain walked by the side of the machine. - - -Development of the Reaper. - -The ten years following this first instance of a successful reaper were -strenuous times indeed for Cyrus McCormick, for it was not until 1840 or -1841 that he was able to make his first sale. Twenty more were sold in -1843 and fifty in 1844. - -[Illustration: THE PROGRESSIVE FARMER OF TODAY DOES NOT LET HIS -CORNSTALKS GO TO WASTE IN THE FIELD, BUT CUTS THEM WITH A CORN BINDER -AND EITHER PUTS THEM INTO A SILO OR SHREDS THEM INTO STOVER FOR HIS -HAY-LOFT - -This picture shows the husker and shredder in operation with kerosene -for power.] - -During all these years from 1831 to 1844 Mr. McCormick was diligently at -work changing, testing and experimenting. In 1845 he secured a second -patent, which embodied many improvements--the principal ones referring -to the cutting mechanism. - -[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1858 IN THE FIELD - -Note that an automatic raker has been substituted for the man who rode -on the machine and raked off the cut grain.] - -In this year, Mr. McCormick started for the western prairie, and in 1847 -built his own factory in Chicago, thus starting the world’s greatest -reaper works. This factory, known as “McCormick Works,” is still in -progress. It covers today more than 120 acres in the heart of Chicago, -and has an annual capacity of 375,000 machines of all types. - -[Illustration: A MARSH HARVESTER AS BUILT BY THE MCCORMICK COMPANY IN -1874 - -Note the two men riding on the platform and binding up the grain as -delivered to them by the elevator of the machine.] - -The third step in the development of the reaper was the addition to the -machine of a seat for carrying the raker. The machine built in 1831 -required that the raker walk by the side of the machine. In 1845 Mr. -McCormick added the seat, patent for which was added in 1847. This seat -which carried the raker enabled him while riding to rake the grain from -the platform and deposit it in gavels on the ground. This type of -reaper, patented in 1847, is the one taken by Cyrus H. McCormick to the -first world’s fair held in London, England, in 1851, and about which the -records of that exposition state “The McCormick reaper is the most -valuable article contributed to this exposition, and for its originality -and value and perfect work in the field it is awarded the council -medal.” - -This same reaper received the grand prize in Paris in 1855 and is the -reaper which created so much surprise in the world’s fair in London that -the comments made by the press demonstrated beyond a doubt that England -had not as yet built a successful reaper. In 1858 the machine was -further improved by substituting an automatic rake for the raker on the -machine. - -[Illustration: A MCCORMICK HEADER BINDER WHICH ELEVATES THE GRAIN INTO -WAGONS WHICH DRIVE ALONGSIDE] - -Many other patents were granted from time to time until 1870, when the -foundation features of all reapers had been invented and substantially -perfected. The reaper is still used extensively, especially in foreign -countries. - -The interest in this machine centers not in its development as used -today, but in the fact that it led to the invention and perfection of -the self-binder. - -The prototype of all machines designed to bind the grain before being -delivered to the ground is the Marsh harvester. It is the half-way mark, -the child of the reaper and the parent of the self-binder. The original -patent for this machine was granted August 17, 1858, to two farmer boys -of De Kalb, Illinois, the Marsh brothers. - -Previous to this time, attempts had been made to build harvesting -machines which would bind the grain before delivered to the ground, but -not one could be considered a success. At the time the Marsh harvester -began seeking a place in the market, about 1860, reapers--hand-rakers, -self-rakers, and droppers--held the trade substantially to the exclusion -of any other kind of harvesting machine. - -[Illustration: A COMBINED SWEEP RAKE AND STACKER - -This ingenious machine is a great labor saver in the hay field. The hay -can be gathered by any number of sweep rakes and dumped near the -stacker, which will stack on any side and in any shape.] - -The first successful Marsh harvester, built in 1858, was operated -through the harvest of that year. It has never been changed materially -in principle or form since. The theory of the inventors was that two men -might bind the grain cut by the five-foot sickle in ordinary motion -provided it could be delivered to them in the best possible position and -condition for binding and if they could have perfect freedom of action. -They knew that the binders must have a free swing and open chance at the -grain to enable them to handle it, so they arranged the elevated -delivery, the receptacle, the tables and the platform for the man with -these things in view. - -The second Marsh harvester was built in Chicago in 1859. Improvements -were made during the years 1861, 1862 and 1863. The manufacture of the -Marsh harvester began in earnest at Plano in the fall of 1863 by Stewart -and Marsh, twenty-five machines being put out in 1864. - -[Illustration: NO MORE TIRESOME HAY PITCHING ON THIS FARM, WHERE HAY -LOADERS ELEVATE THE HAY TO THE MEN ON THE WAGONS - -The small kerosene tractor has taken the place of horses and is drawing -two wagons at a time.] - -In 1875 McCormick began putting out harvesters of the Marsh type. Of -straight Marsh harvesters--carrying a man to bind--there had been made -up to and including 1879 over 100,000, of which about two-thirds had -been produced by the Marsh combination and the rest by outsiders. - - -The Self-Binder. - -The development of the automatic binder followed quickly after the -introduction of the Marsh harvester, although attempts were made to -perfect this machine as early as 1850. - -[Illustration: A MODERN GRAIN BINDER IN HEAVY OATS] - -[Illustration: THE WITHINGTON BINDER BUILT BY THE MCCORMICKS IN 1876 - -This machine binds the grain with wire.] - -The self-binding harvester was borne on the shoulders of the Marsh -harvester. Carpenter, Locke, Gordon, Appleby and every inventor who -succeeded in any measure in binding grain, first did so by placing his -binding attachment upon a Marsh harvester, taking the grain from a -receptacle where it fell to another receptacle where it was bound. The -first record of these attempts is a patent granted to J. E. Heath, of -Warren, Ohio, in 1850. Watson, Renwick and Watson secured patents in -1851 and 1853, but their machines were very complicated and never more -than experiments. From that time until 1865 many patents were granted, -none of which may be considered successful. - -In 1865 S. D. Locke of Janesville secured a patent which ultimately -developed into the Withington wire binder first put out by McCormick in -1875. - -The Withington machine was an improvement on the binding device patented -by Locke in 1865. McCormick built 50,000 of these machines between 1877 -and 1885. It was a simple mechanism which consisted mainly of two steel -fingers that moved back and forth and twisted a wire band around each -sheaf of grain. - -Farmers did not take kindly to the wire binder. They said that wire -would mix with the straw and kill their horses and cattle. - - -The Twine Binder. - -[Illustration: THE DEERING TWINE BINDER OF 1879 - -This is the perfected Marsh harvester with a perfected Appleby twine -binding attachment and was first put out by the Deering Company in -1879.] - -[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK TWINE BINDER OF 1881 WITH THE APPLEBY -BINDING ATTACHMENT, WHICH USED TWINE INSTEAD OF WIRE] - -[Illustration: A TRACTOR PULLING FIVE HARVESTER BINDERS - -These machines cut a swath 40 feet wide in the grain field, gathering -the grain into bundles and dropping them alongside to be picked up by -the sweep rake.] - -This was the situation in the harvesting industry about the time that -William Deering took an active interest. He looked about for a better -machine. He found John F. Appleby, who, in 1878, had perfected a twine -binder attachment. When Deering saw the strong steel arms flash a cord -around a bundle of grain, tie a knot, cut the cord and fling off the -sheaf, he knew he had what the world needed. Appleby began working on -his invention in 1858, but accomplished nothing until 1869 when he took -out his first patent on a “wire binder.” In 1874 he began what is known -as the Appleby twine binder, operating one in 1875 and 1876 and several -in 1877. In 1879 Deering bought out Gammon, joined forces with Appleby, -moved the factory from Plano to Chicago in 1880, and began putting out -twine binders. In 1881 McCormick, also, and Champion began building the -Appleby binder. - -[Illustration: THE PROGRESSIVE FARMER NOW USES A MECHANICAL MANURE -SPREADER TO INCREASE THE PRODUCTIVENESS OF HIS LAND - -The modern spreader is built low and equipped with a special wide spread -attachment which throws the manure well beyond the wheels.] - -[Illustration: A GRAIN DRILL WITH DISK AND CHAIN ATTACHMENTS - -This drill is large enough to require the strength of four horses to -pull it.] - -[Illustration: A SMALL KEROSENE TRACTOR CAN PULL TWO OR THREE GRAIN -DRILLS FASTENED TOGETHER BY SPECIAL TRACTOR HITCHES] - -With the development of an attachment to bind with twine, a new problem -arose--where to get a cheap serviceable twine. William Deering again -arose to the occasion. He met Edwin H. Fitler in Philadelphia, one of -the three twine makers in the United States, and after a good deal of -persuasion induced him to take an order for a single-strand binder -twine. From that time on, all manufacturers have been building -practically the same machine--the Appleby binding attachment on the -Marsh type of harvester which, in turn, was founded on the McCormick -cutting mechanism. The self-binder of today is of that type. - - -Other Machines Follow. - -The completion of the reaper set the wheels of farm invention spinning. -It was the first great battle successfully won and gave a spirit of -confidence and an irresistible spirit of victory to the men who were -lifting the burdens off the bodies of men. After the reaper, the mowing -machine came naturally. Following the binder in easy sequences came the -corn binder, push binder, header and harvester thresher. - -Every variety of haying machine, from side-delivery rake and tedder to -sweep rake and loader, came eventually to make hay-making easy. The -thresher, ensilage cutter, riding plow, disk harrow, cream separator, -manure spreader and seeding machines succeeded in making the raising of -the world’s food a profitable occupation; at the same time, they made it -an easy one. Lately, the internal combustion engine, together with its -application in the kerosene tractor, promises to make the farmer’s -emancipation practically complete. If Herbert Casson could say “The -United States owes more to the reaper than it does to the factory or the -railroad or the Wall Street stock exchange,” what can be said of these -myriad machines that now do the food-grower’s work for him? - -Where formerly nearly all the people had to engage in food raising and -even then went to bed hungry, now nearly half the people live away from -the farm and there is a great abundance of bread and of food. - - * * * * * - - -What Causes an Echo? - -An echo is caused by the reflection of sound waves at some moderately -even surface, such as the wall of a building. The waves of sound on -meeting the surface are turned back in their course, according to the -same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order that the echo may -return to the place from which the sound proceeds, the reflection must -be direct, and not at an angle to the line of transmission, otherwise -the echo may be heard by others, but not by the transmitter of the -sound. This may be effected either by a reflecting surface at right -angles to the line of transmission or by several reflecting surfaces, -which end in bringing the sound back to the point of issue. - -Sound travels about 1,125 feet in a second; consequently, an observer -standing at half that distance from the reflecting object would hear the -echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo would repeat as many -words and syllables as could be heard in a second. As the distance -decreases the echo repeats fewer syllables till it becomes monosyllabic. - -The most practiced ear cannot distinguish in a second more than from -nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance of not less than -sixty feet is needed to enable a common ear to distinguish between the -echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the echo only clouds -the original sounds. This often interferes with the hearing in churches -and other large buildings. Woods, rocks and mountains produce natural -echoes in every variety, for which particular localities have become -famous. - -In Greek mythology, Echo was a nymph (one of the Oreads) who fell in -love with Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her affection -she pined away until nothing was left but her voice. - - - - -The Story of the Motion-Picture Projecting Machine[69] - - -Few businesses have had a more spectacular rise than the motion-picture -industry. It may be true that there are other industries of recent -growth that are more highly capitalized than the motion-picture -business. I shall not make any comparisons nor look up statistics, but -will present some facts about an enterprise that, scientifically, -industrially and commercially, is one of the great wonders of the world. - -It is fair to estimate that more than $375,000,000 is invested in this -business in the United States. It looks like an exaggeration or as if -the typesetter had slipped in several extra ciphers by mistake, does it -not? Nevertheless, the estimate is said to be extremely conservative. In -the first place, it concerns every branch of the business, of which -there are five. Taken in their natural order there are: 1. The -manufacture of motion-picture cameras. 2. The manufacture of films. 3. -The taking of the pictures. 4. The manufacture of the projecting -machines. 5. The exhibition of the pictures. - -The projecting machine is the subject of this story. One sees very -little about it in the newspapers and popular magazines, in spite of the -fact that it is the keystone, so to speak, of the motion-picture -industry. Of the entire business, in all its ramifications, this machine -is the most important not only from a technical standpoint, but as -regards both the pleasure and safety of the public. Here, again, a great -deal of money is invested. Its manufacture involves costly and highly -specialized machinery, the most intelligent of mechanics and the -constant thought and endeavor of the men at the head of the business. - -The advancement in the manufacture of motion-picture projecting machines -from the start has been along two avenues--to secure better projection, -a sharper, clearer and steadier picture, and to eliminate the danger of -fire resultant from the ignition of combustible film. Experts have -watched and studied the picture machine through all its stages of -development. For seventeen years they have slowly improved the machine -and brought it to its present high state of mechanical perfection. The -development of the fireproof magazine, the automatic fire-shutter, the -loop-setter, flame shields and the famous intermittent movement have all -been vital factors in the elimination of fire and also in securing -perfect projection. The oldest invention was patented by W. E. Lincoln -on April 23, 1867. The contrivance was a mere toy, employing no light -and being merely a little machine which, when revolved, gave figures, -printed in different positions, the semblance of motion. The second -oldest was of an “optical instrument” patented by O. B. Brown on August -10, 1869. This was really the first American motion-picture projection -machine. There was a sort of disk or moving-shutter movement which, on -revolving, gave projected objects the appearance of animation. Of -course, there were no films in those days and the inventor had used -translucent glass to obtain the results. Yet here was the germ of our -native modern machine. - -[Illustration: THE LATEST MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTING MACHINE] - -A well-known moving-picture projecting machine manufacturer tells the -following story: “A bet was made in 1871 by the late Senator Leland -Stanford, of California, that a running horse at no time had all four -feet off the ground. Edward Muybridge, an Englishman, by way of -experiment, placed numerous cameras at regular intervals about the -track, which, by electrical contact, were snapped by the horse in -passing. It proved that the horse always had, when running, one foot on -the ground. Although this was not the first record of motion pictures, -it served to demonstrate their practicability. - -“Development had dragged until the Muybridge experiment. In 1880 -Muybridge produced, in San Francisco, the ‘Zoopraxiscope,’ which -projected pictures (on glass positives) on a screen. Later Muybridge -conferred with Edison regarding a combination of his machine with the -phonograph, then in its infancy; about 1883 he went abroad and held -frequent conferences with M. Marey of the Institute of France. - -“Marey first utilized the continuous film, though it was George Eastman -who brought it to its present state of high perfection. A great deal of -the tremendous present popularity of motion pictures is due to the -invention of the translucent film. The early kodak film became the great -factor in the cinematograph manufacture. - -[Illustration: THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LAMPHOUSE AFFORDS EASY ACCESS] - -“In 1893 Lumiere produced the ‘Cinematograph,’ the first machine to -project from a film. Edison in 1896 produced his ‘Vitascope.’ These -machines became the models of the greatly improved article of today. - -“The first real machine was brought to America in 1894. At least, that -is as near as I can recollect the date. It was a Lumiere cinematograph -and was exhibited at the Union Square Theater, New York City. The French -manufacturing firm instructed J. B. Cole & Co. to furnish an operator. -The Cole Company was interested in the sale of lanterns and slides and -the foreign firm naturally turned to them for assistance. - -“They furnished an operator, Edward Hadley. Although he had never seen a -motion-picture machine, Hadley was a man who had been in their employ -and was naturally familiar with lanterns and electricity. To the best of -my belief, Hadley was the first motion-picture operator in America. He -afterwards became the operator for Lyman H. Howe, the well-known pioneer -traveling motion-picture exhibitor, and later became an exhibitor -himself. - -[Illustration: THE NEW ARC LAMP] - -“The films then had one perforation on either side of each picture. That -was the French method. The American method of four perforations on -either side of each picture, formulated by Thomas A. Edison, was taken -up later. The Edison perforation method became the standard in America -and finally throughout the world. We find no more single-holed films.” - -Here, for the benefit of the uninitiated, a little description of the -film and the projecting head of a machine is necessary. A motion-picture -film is a thin ribbon of transparent pyroxylin plastic or -nitrocellulose, which is highly inflammable. The photographs on the -film, one by three-fourths of an inch in size, leave a margin of five -thirty-seconds of an inch on each side. In the margins are the -perforations necessary to feed the film through the machine head. There -are sixteen pictures to the foot. - -The mechanism of the machine head moves the film over an aperture, so -that the rays of light from the lamp will project an enlargement of the -film picture upon the screen. The reels upon which the film is wound are -mounted above and below--the upper is the feed reel and the lower is the -take-up reel. Sprocket wheels control the action of the film. The top -feed sprocket pulls the film from the upper feed reel, the middle -intermittent sprocket (below the aperture) turns in a way to give each -picture a certain time of stop over the projection aperture, and the -bottom take-up sprocket assists in winding the film on the take-up reel. - -[Illustration: NARROW SHUTTER WINGS AFFORD BRIGHTER ILLUMINATION ON THE -SCREEN] - -“The early films were in very short lengths,” continued the -manufacturer. “The average was from twenty to seventy-five feet. A -hundred-foot film was considered extra long. They were mostly comic and -not educational. The vast possibilities of the film had not yet dawned -upon the pioneers. They aimed only to get a laugh with a crude comic -picture. - -“But those with more foresight realized that the film had come to stay. -So the advancement began. Today the public is always looking toward -something better. It has been educated up to an exceedingly high -standard. The average spectator today can see a defect in an exhibited -film as quickly as an expert. - -“Machines in the early days were very crude, permitting only short -films, which were an endless belt. They were threaded over spools -contained in a box at the rear end of the lamphouse, passing over the -lamphouse to the head of the machine; thence down through the head, past -the projection aperture and back to the spools. This exposed the film at -all times, which was extremely dangerous. About 1900, longer films came -into use, which necessitated a change in handling. At the machine head, -the film was piled on the floor. This being dangerous and destructive, a -receptacle was devised and fastened to the frame below the reel, into -which the film passed. This soon gave way to a reel known as the take-up -reel, which received the film after it had passed from the upper reel -through the head and before the aperture, where it was projected on the -screen. - -“These are a few steps in the march towards improvement. My first -machine was called the ‘Peerlesscope.’ I kept continually improving it, -and in 1902 changed the name to ‘Cameragraph;’ my latest machine, No. -6B, possesses every known device for safety--fire-shutters, which -automatically cut off the film from the rays of the lamp while -motionless; film-shields, which enclose and protect the film; -fire-valves, which prevent entrance of flame into magazines; the -loop-setter, which prevents breakage of the film while in motion, etc.” - -Concerning projection, this manufacturer said: “Pictures cannot succeed -without perfect projection, resulting in absolutely clear, flickerless -pictures. The longer the period of rest of each picture on the screen, -the better the detail and the clearer the picture. This I accomplished -by means of an intermittent movement. - -“You know that in projecting pictures the motion in the film is not -continuous in front of the aperture of the machine head, each picture -pausing long enough for proper projection on the screen. Through this -intermittent movement I obtain a longer period of rest for each picture, -which accomplishes perfect projection of pictures without flicker. - -“A very annoying feature until recently has been the losing of the lower -film loop, due to poor patching of the film, tearing of the perforations -in the films, etc., causing the film to jump the lower sprocket, with -the probable tearing and re-adjustment of the film. This I overcame with -my loop-setter invention. To explain briefly-- - -“As the full movement at the upper and lower reel is continuous, while -at the aperture it is intermittent, a loop is necessary as a feeder for -the take-up or the lower sprocket. If this loop is lost, the film -becomes taut, the machine stops and the film may break. The loop-setter -instantly readjusts this loop automatically, keeping it always in -force.” - -The taking of pictures is, of course, one of the interesting phases of -the business from a popular standpoint. Here we find not only large sums -invested but the action, setting, plots--in fact, the entire order of -pulsating life and convincing reality that give to motion pictures their -remarkable hold upon the public. In vying with each other to make the -most attractive films possible, the concerns in this end of the industry -engage the most talented players, who are transported on long journeys -so that the settings may be realistically satisfactory; while often the -company includes not only two-footed actors, but horses, one or two -clever dogs and sometimes a trained bear and other animals, besides all -of which there is usually an array of “properties” that far exceeds in -quantity and variety the list of such appurtenances carried by the -average stock theatrical company or theater of the ordinary kind. - -Then, too, there is the presentation of the pictures, where we find -another vast outlay of money in land, buildings and equipment. And, -remember, the matter of taking and presenting the pictures must not be -considered only from the amusement standpoint. Motion pictures are being -employed more and more every day for educational and industrial -purposes. - - - - -The Story of Leather[70] - - -We all know that leather is the skins of animals, dressed and prepared -for our use by tanning, or some other process, which preserves them from -rotting and renders them pliable and tough. - -The larger and heavier skins, such as those of buffaloes, bulls, oxen, -horses and cows, are called “hides;” while those of the smaller animals, -such as calves, sheep, pigs and goats, are called “skins.” - -[Illustration: SCOURING] - -The tanning of raw hides taken from animals is an ancient trade. The -bark of trees made into a liquor has been used for centuries in treating -practically all kinds of hides. - -The oak, fir, hemlock and sumach are the most familiar of the many trees -from which “tannin” is obtained for this purpose. - -The cow hide is used practically altogether for sole leather and is bark -tanned in the majority of cases. After the hide is taken from the animal -it is either dry cured, or else salted green, and packed for shipment or -storage. - -The first process of preparing sole leather is to cut these hides in -half or sides. The sides are then run through lime vats for the purpose -of loosening the hair. They are then run through the unhairing machine, -in which large rollers remove the hair. - -From the unhairing machine the hides pass to a fleshing machine, which -cuts away all the flesh or fat on the hide. They are then trimmed and -scraped by hand, after which the real tanning process begins. - -The old method of tanning leather was in large vats, which were filled -alternately with tan bark and hides, then filled with water and allowed -to soak for a period of eight to nine months before the tanning process -was complete. The extract of bark in liquor form is used today by all -large tanneries. - -After the hides have been all prepared for tanning they are hung on -rockers in the tanning vats, where they are kept in motion both day and -night so that all parts of every hide are equally tanned. They are -changed from time to time from weaker into stronger liquor until the -tanning process is complete. - -[Illustration: TANNING VATS] - -All sole leather is filled more or less to make it wear the better. - -The drying process comes next. The hides are all hung in a dry loft, -where artificial heat of different temperatures is used until they are -thoroughly dry. The drying of the hide is as important as the tanning. -Hides that are dried too quickly become brittle, so that great care must -be taken in this drying process. Even the weather conditions play an -important part. - -[Illustration: ROLLERS] - -After the hides are thoroughly dried they are then oiled and ironed by -large rollers having several hundred pounds pressure. This gives the -grain side of the leather a finished appearance and also serves to press -the leather together compactly. - -[Illustration: RUBBING] - -Before this leather can be cut into sole leather it has to be again -dried and properly edged to secure the best results. - -[Illustration: BOARDING ROOM] - -Bark-tanned leather that is used for upper stock in shoes is tanned -practically the same way as the bark sole leather, except lighter hides -are used and the finishing processes are of a nature to make it softer -and smoother. - -The above tannage is what is called vegetable tannage. There is also a -tannage made from minerals that is called chrome. This is used mostly in -tanning soft, glovey upper leather, which when finished makes a very -tough yet soft and pliable leather for footwear. - -Ninety to one hundred days are required to tan bark leathers, while the -chrome tannage is very quick and on the average requires only about -three weeks. - -The brilliant smooth surface of patent, enameled, lacquered, varnished -or japanned leather is due to the mode of finishing by stretching the -tanned hides on wooden frames and applying successive coats of varnish, -each coat being dried and rubbed smooth with pumice stone. There is also -a process called “tawing,” which is employed chiefly in the preparation -of the skins of sheep, lambs, goats and kids. In this process the skins -are steeped in a bath of alum, salt and other substances, and they are -also sometimes soaked in fish-oil. The more delicate leathers are -treated in this manner, those especially which are used for -wash-leathers, kid gloves, etc. - -[Illustration: MEASURING] - -In currying leather for shoes the leather is first soaked in water until -it is thoroughly wet; then the flesh side is shaved to a proper surface -with a knife of peculiar construction, rectangular in form with two -handles and a double edge. The leather is then thrown into the water -again, scoured upon a stone till the white substance called “bloom” is -forced out, then rubbed with a greasy substance and hung up to dry. When -thoroughly dry it is grained with a toothed instrument on the flesh side -and bruised on the grain or hair side for the purpose of softening the -leather. A further process of paring and graining makes it ready for -waxing or coloring, in which oil and lampblack are used on the flesh -side. It is then sized, dried and tallowed. In the process the leather -is made smooth, lustrous, supple and waterproof. - - * * * * * - - -What is a “Glass Snake”? - -“Glass snake” is the name which has been given to a lizard resembling a -serpent in form and reaching a length of three feet. - -The joints of the tail are not connected by caudal muscles, hence it is -extremely brittle, and one or more of the joints break off when the -animal is even slightly irritated. - - - - -The Story in Diamond-Cutting[71] - - -Diamonds were known and worn as jewels (in the rough) in India 5,000 -years ago and used as cutters and gravers 3,000 years ago. India was the -source of supply until diamonds were discovered in Brazil about the year -1700, when Brazil became the largest producer and remained so until -diamonds were found in South Africa about 1869. The African mines now -produce four-fifths of the diamond supply. Previous to the discoveries -in Africa, diamonds were known to originally come only from high places -in the mountains, because the diamond deposits were found in India and -Brazil, on high plateaus, on the sides of mountains, in the beds of -mountain streams, and in the plains below; where mountain torrents had -rolled them. - -In Africa, for the first time, the true original home of the diamond was -found at high levels in the mountains, in enormous fissures, open -chasms, chimneys or pipes, extending to great and unknown depths. Into -these immense chimneys, nature forced from subterranean sources, slow -rivers of a peculiar blue clay, a diamondiferous earth termed -“serpentine breccia” or “volcanic tuf” and now known by the latter-day -name of “Kimberlite.” As this soft mixture oozed into the “chimneys” or -“pipes” from the bottom, it was gradually forced upwards, filling the -whole chasm from wall to wall and to the top, where its progress ended -by hardening in a small mound ten to twelve feet higher than the -surrounding surface. - -In this blue clay or Kimberlite in these chimneys, is found nature’s -most wonderful creation, the diamond crystallized from pure carbon, in -intense heat, and under titanic pressure. - -The greatest mines of Africa are the Jagersfontein, Wesselton, Premier -and Robert Victor. The Kimberlite of the Jagersfontein mine is free from -pyrites, and to that is attributed the remarkable brilliancy and purity -of color for which the diamonds of this mine are celebrated. Their color -includes the blue, and they command the highest prices of any diamonds. - -The Wesselton mine crystals are noted for their octahedra and purity. -The color and brilliancy are so superior that nearly all fine white -“Rivers” are rated as Wesseltons. The Robert Victor yields a big average -of fine white stones, and many of the crystals are very perfect and -beautiful. The Dutoitspan diamonds mostly show color, but many are -“fancy” and demand a high price. The Bulfontein crystals are usually -small white octahedras of very good color, but many are flawed. The De -Beers stones are good white, some color, some broken crystals and smoky -stones. The Kimberly diamonds are much the same as those from the De -Beers mine. The Premier is the largest diamond mine in the world. Of its -diamonds some have an oily lustre and are quite blue--many are of the -finest quality and color. This mine also produces a large number of -“false color” stones which change color in different lights. The -Voorspoed and the Koffyfontein produce fair white and some colored -diamonds. - -Diamonds in small quantities are also found in Borneo, British and Dutch -Guiana, Australia, Sumatra, China and the United States. - -One of the largest diamonds known (weight 367 carats) was found in -Borneo about a century ago, and belongs to the Rajah of Mattan. One of -the most celebrated is the Koh-i-noor (Mountain of Light), belonging to -the British crown. It weighed originally nearly 800 carats, but by -subsequent recuttings has been reduced to 103-3/4 carats. The Orloff -diamond, belonging to the Emperor of Russia, weighs 195 carats; the Pitt -diamond, among the French crown jewels, 136-1/2. The former, which came -from India, has been thought to have originally formed part of the -Koh-i-noor stone. The largest Brazilian diamond weighed 254-1/2 carats -and was cut to a brilliant of 125. Some of the South African diamonds -are also very large, one being found in 1893 weighing 971 carats, or -nearly half a pound. More recently a much larger one has been found, -weighing 3,034 carats. This has been cut into eleven pieces, the -largest, a drop brilliant, weighing 516-1/2 carats. This, called the -Star of South Africa, has been placed in King George’s scepter, and -another, of 309-3/16 carats, in his crown. - -A rough diamond is a hard-looking, luminous object, somewhat like a -piece of alum, with a dull skin, called the “nyf,” over a brilliant -body. The ancients wore their diamonds uncut because they could not find -a substance that would grind or cut them. About 1,500 years ago, -however, it was found that by rubbing or grinding one diamond against -another the outer skin could be removed. At Bruges, in 1450, diamonds -were first polished with diamond dust. In Holland, in 1700, diamonds -were first cut with an idea of bringing out real beauty and brilliance -by cutting them square with a large flat table and some small facets, -ten in all, sloping to the edge of the square. From this beginning -cutters gradually added additional facets to increase the brilliancy -until there were thirty-four in all. Then came the English round-cut -brilliants with fifty-eight facets, but the diamond was left thick and -lumpy, until about seventy-five years ago, when an American cutter, -Henry D. Morse, of Boston, developed the cutting of diamonds to its -present perfection by fearlessly sacrificing weight to get proportion. -This greatly increased the price of diamonds, but enhanced their -brilliancy. - -[Illustration: OLD SQUARE CUT DIAMONDS] - -[Illustration: ENGLISH SQUARE CUT DIAMONDS] - -All cutters have been compelled to follow this method, and the perfectly -cut brilliant of today has a depth from table to culet of six-tenths of -the diameter, of which one-third is above the girdle and two-thirds -below. In this form the diamond resembles two cones united at their -bases, the upper one cut off a short distance from its base, the lower -one having its extreme point cut off. It has fifty-eight facets, of -which thirty-three, including the table, are above the girdle and -twenty-five, including the culet, below the girdle. Stones which are not -scientifically cut in this true proportion, if too deep, are called -“lumpy,” if too shallow they are called “fish eyes.” A slightly spread -stone is desirable, provided it has not lost brilliancy, and so become a -“fish eye.” Looking larger than its weight indicates, it offers a larger -appearing diamond for the price of a smaller perfectly cut stone. Most -cutters remove as little of the rough stone as possible in cutting so as -to retain weight (they sell by weight). This often results in the -finished diamond being too thick at the girdle, making a lumpy stone. -Many people think deep, lumpy stones are most desirable. This is not -true, as they are imperfectly cut. - -In preparing to cut a diamond the rough crystal is studied until the -grain is found. Along the grain another sharp-pointed diamond is ground -until there is a V-shape incision or nick. The blunt end of a flat piece -of steel is placed in this nick and a smart blow of a hammer divides the -crystal evenly and perfectly. After this “cleavage” has removed the -unnecessary portions, or they have been sawed off by the use of -rapidly-revolving thin wheels charged with diamond dust, the diamond is -set in a turning wheel and ground with another diamond until it takes -the shape in which we know it. - -The fifty-eight facets are cut and polished one at a time on a -rapidly-revolving wheel charged with diamond dust and oil. It takes from -two and one-half to four days to properly cut a stone. Knife-edge girdle -diamonds are impractical owing to the liability of chipping the thin -edge in setting or by blows while being worn. Polishing the rough edge -of the girdle is rarely done and then usually to conceal a girdle which -is too thick or lumpy. The principal diamond cutting centers are -Amsterdam, Antwerp and New York. - -[Illustration] - -Inherent flaws can be perfectly understood by imagining a pond of water -frozen solidly to its center. At the shore, where the ice has been -partly forced out along the banks, it will be full of grass, leaves, -pebbles and sticks, and presents a broken and frosted appearance. -Further out there are only traces of such débris, some bubbles, spots, -etc. Out at the center is clear, transparent, unbroken, unflawed, purest -blue-white ice, such as you delight to see in your glass on a hot day. -So is it with diamonds; some (like the ice along the shore) are full of -cracks, carbon specks, bubbles, clouds, splits and cavities; some have -all of these; some only a few; others only one, and some are without -flaws. - -[Illustration] - -Of all the imperfections (not considering glaring cracks or nicks), -carbon spots are the most discernible. They range from mere specks -scarcely visible with a powerful magnifying glass, to large black spots -or clusters of large or small black specks sometimes quite plain to the -naked eye. These are carbon which failed to crystallize with the rest of -the diamond, or intrusions of titanic iron. The blackest and often most -numerous carbon specks occur in the finest white and blue-white stones. -“Capes” and other yellow diamonds are usually perfect, something in the -color of these stones seemingly being of a nature which helps clear and -perfect crystallization. Blue-white stones of exceptionally fine color -are often massed full of shaggy or jet-black carbon spots. - -White specks and bubbles are common flaws, which vary in size and which -may be best illustrated by looking at a pane of glass in your window. -There you will find small knots, white bubbles and whitish specks. -These seldom injure the brilliancy, as they are often a glittering -silver color, more brilliant than the diamond. - -Clouds are dark flat patches in the grain, of a brownish color, and -appear as a sprinkling of dust in a small patch in the interior. This -seldom injures brilliancy. - -Glessen or glasses are flat sectional streaks having an icy appearance. -When large or abundant they disturb or cut off the proper reflection of -the interior light rays, causing an appearance known as “shivery.” When -clouds or glessen occur at the surface of a diamond they appear as -cracks, and if at or near the girdle are dangerous, as the stone is -liable to split or crack there when being mounted or by any hard blow, -which would result in the loss of a sliver or wedged-shaped piece out of -the edge. - -[Illustration] - -Surface flaws consist of nicks or cavities in the face of the stone -either above or below the girdle. The brilliancy of the diamond hides -these flaws when the diamond is clean, but when clouded with soap and -dust these cavities fill up and show plainly. - -[Illustration] - -Diamonds are so brilliant, the radiance from the facets so bewildering -to the eye, that the flaws cannot be seen by the human eye unless the -imperfection is pronounced and at the top surface of the diamond. Each -facet of a diamond (by reason of the method of cutting) is a window -looking down a clearly defined walled chamber, like a hall-way to the -culet. With a one-inch loup or magnifying glass such as watchmakers and -diamond dealers use, it is possible to clearly look down through each -facet and its hall-way to the culet, and observe throughout each chamber -the very slightest imperfection if one exists, thus thoroughly examining -and exploring the entire diamond. - -Diamond brilliancy is of two kinds: “surface brilliancy” and “internal -brilliancy.” Light falling vertically on a diamond is reflected back in -straight, unbroken rays. This constitutes “surface brilliancy.” Light -falling in a slanting direction is partly reflected and partly enters -the stone; that part which enters is refracted or bent and causes the -“internal brilliancy.” - -In a perfectly cut diamond, the facets are so carefully arranged that -entering rays of light jump from wall to wall of this transparent -enclosure and emerge again at the very point of entry. Cleverly arranged -mirrors sending a ray of light from one to all the others and back again -to the first will produce the same effect. Lights entering a diamond are -reflected, refracted and dispersed. The dispersion of a ray of white -light separates it into its component color rays. These are the spectrum -colors often seen radiating from a diamond. Placing a diamond in the -sun’s rays and holding a sheet of white paper at the proper angle to -catch the reflections from the stone clearly shows these colors. - -[Illustration: MODERN AMERICAN CUT DIAMONDS] - -Brilliancy is often said to be the most important quality of a diamond, -but that is not true. Yellow diamonds are more flashingly brilliant than -white stones that cost much more. In each color grade, greater -brilliance determines higher value over stones of the same color grade -with less brilliancy. The diamond is the hardest known substance in the -world, cutting and grinding all other known hard things, but itself only -cut and ground by its mates. - -Because of their hardness, diamonds worn by many previous generations -remain as brilliant as they were in the beginning and they will continue -so to the end of time. - -No other thing can scratch or mar the polished facets and sharp corners -of the diamond. It is the hardest of all known things. While all -diamonds are of practically the same hardness, this is not, however, -absolutely true, as stones from wet diggings or rivers are slightly -harder than those from dry diggings. All diamonds are infusible and -unaffected by acids or alkali. The heat of a burning building will not -affect them, they can be raked from the ashes uninjured and can only be -burned in oxygen under a scientifically produced intense heat of 4000° -F. While the hardest known thing, the diamond is brittle and can be -crushed to a powder. It is the only absolutely pure gem, being composed -of crystallized carbon--all others are composed of two or more elements. - - * * * * * - - -The term “Shibboleth” has come to mean a countersign or password of a -secret society since the Biblical days, when the Ephraimites, who had -been routed by Jephthah, tried to pass the Jordan. They were made to -pronounce the word “Shibboleth” and were easily detected as enemies when -they pronounced it “Sibboleth.” - - -Why do We Get Hungry? - -Hunger is a sensation partly arising in the stomach, since it may be -relieved temporarily by the introduction into the stomach of material -which is incapable of yielding any nutriment to the body. It may be due -to a condition of fulness of the vessels of the stomach, relieved by any -stimulus which, acting on the lining membrane, induces a flow of fluid -from the glands. But it also arises from a condition of the system, -since the introduction of nutriment into the blood, apart altogether -from the stomach, will relieve it. This is also evident from the fact -that hunger may be experienced even when the stomach is full of food, -and when food is supplied in abundance, if some disease prevents the -absorption of the nourishment, or quickly drains it from the blood. -Hunger may be partially allayed by sleep or by the use of narcotics, -tobacco and alcohol, all of which tend to diminish the disintegration of -tissues. - - - - -The Story in the Modern Lifting Magnet[72] - - -Nearly every boy has had among his treasured possessions a small -horseshoe magnet, painted red, with bright ends, and has spent many -happy hours picking up needles, steel pins or other small objects, and -finally tired of it because of its small lifting capacity and dreamed of -one which would lift a hammer, or possibly even the family flatiron. -Little did he know at that time of the long and interesting history of -magnetism, the many stories and superstitions based on its strange -power; or of its intimate relation to the wonderful growth of -electricity within the last hundred years. His wildest dreams of lifting -power would be realized if he could see a modern electric lifting magnet -which has only come into use within the last ten years and is meeting -with instant approval in nearly every industry where iron and steel is -handled in any quantity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1] - -There are three primary kinds of magnets: the lodestone or natural -magnets, the artificial or permanent steel magnet, and the electric -magnet. At present the lodestone is little used. The permanent steel -magnet is used for compass needles, as the familiar horseshoe magnet, -and in certain types of electric machinery. The electric magnet forms a -part of nearly every kind of electrical machinery and is by far the most -useful form of the magnet. The modern high-duty lifting magnet is a form -of the electric magnet. - -The properties of the lodestone and the permanent magnet have been known -for thousands of years, while the electric magnet is a comparatively -recent discovery. - -All magnets, whether natural, permanent or electric, possess the same -magnetic properties. Every magnet has two poles commonly called a north -pole and a south pole. It has also been found that when a magnet is -broken in two each piece becomes a magnet in itself with its own north -and south poles. - -For practical purposes it has been found convenient to assume that -magnetism consists of a series of “lines of force” running through the -magnet from one end to the other and back again through the air. Each -one of these lines is assumed to have a certain strength, and the power -of any magnet is determined by the number of lines of force flowing -through it. These lines are clearly shown in Fig. 1, which was made by -sprinkling iron filings on a sheet of paper over a bar magnet, and -tapping the paper slightly so that the filings could arrange themselves -along the magnetic lines of force. - -Since Oersted’s first electric magnet in 1820, electric magnets have -been made in a variety of forms and for many different purposes. The -simplest form of electric magnet is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of an -iron bar with an insulated electric wire wound around it carrying an -electric current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2] - -Another form of the electric magnet is shown in cross-section in Fig. 3. -This consists of a short steel cylinder with a groove in its face for -the electric coil. The modern lifting magnet is a highly specialized -form of this type of electric magnet. - -Although the use of a magnet for lifting purposes seems to be a very -simple idea and easily adopted, many difficulties had to be overcome and -years of experimenting done before the lifting magnet was a commercial -success. Nearly all electrical machinery may easily be protected from -rough usage and moisture, but the lifting magnet must be so strongly -designed that it will withstand the countless blows due to heavy pieces -of iron flying against it, and the banging it must get against the sides -of cars, ships, etc. All light parts must be placed inside of the magnet -or in such a position that they can never be knocked off or broken. To -moisture in some form or other nearly all lifting-magnet troubles can be -traced. Hence the importance of an absolutely moisture-proof -construction. The result of moisture in the interior of a magnet is to -weaken the effectiveness of the installation, leading eventually to -short circuits and burn-outs. It is necessary not only to guard against -moisture in the form of rain, snow or dew, but precaution must also be -taken against the entrance into the magnet of moisture-laden air, since -moisture so introduced will presently be condensed in the form of drops -of water. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3] - -[Illustration: A 43-INCH MAGNET HANDLING PIG IRON] - -A very natural question is, how much such a magnet will lift. For a -given size of magnet, the lifting capacity varies greatly with the -nature of the load handled. With a magnet sixty-two inches in diameter, -this may vary from in the neighborhood of 1,000 pounds for light scrap, -to from 4,000 to 5,000 pounds for pig iron, and as high as 60,000 pounds -for a solid mass of steel or iron such as, for instance, a skull-cracker -ball or a casting affording surface for good magnetic contact. - -The lifting magnet has been adopted for the handling of materials in all -branches of the steel and iron industry. It is used for handling pig -iron, scrap, castings, billets, tubes, rails, plates, for loading and -unloading cars and vessels, and for handling skull-cracker balls and -miscellaneous magnetic material. - -Probably one of the best illustrations of the saving accomplished by -means of a lifting magnet is its use in unloading pig iron from -steamers. By the old hand method it required twenty-eight men, two days -and two nights, to unload a cargo of 4,000,000 pounds. When the lifting -magnet was introduced, the total time for unloading was reduced to -eleven hours, and was done by two men whose labor consisted in -manipulating the controllers in the cages of the cranes. Thus two men -and two magnets did the work of twenty-eight men in less than one-fourth -of the time. Furthermore, the vessels were enabled to double their -number of productive trips. - -[Illustration: 36-INCH LIFTING MAGNET PICKING UP 3,500-POUND WINDING -DRUM] - -In railroad work, lifting magnets are at the present time used -principally in scrap yards and around store-room platforms, where it is -necessary to handle iron and steel rapidly and economically. For this -class of work magnets are generally used in connection with a locomotive -crane, making a self-contained, self-propelled unit which may be -operated over the shop-yard tracks as required. The use of this -combination has reduced very greatly the cost of handling both new and -scrap material, both by reducing the actual expense of handling and by -enabling the material to be handled much more rapidly than was before -possible. - -Probably the best possible endorsement of the waterproof construction of -the modern lifting magnet is the fact that one of them was successfully -operated seventy feet below the surface of the Mississippi River. At New -Orleans a large load of kegged nails was raised from a depth of seventy -feet. A load of steel cotton ties was raised near Natchez and a barge of -iron wire near Pittsburgh. And these are only a few instances of such -work. - -The magnets used in this river work were three and one-half feet in -diameter. They were dropped into the stream, the current turned on, and -five or six kegs of nails or bundles of wire were raised each trip. The -nails weighed 200 pounds to the keg, so there were lifted each time, -from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds from the bed of the river. - -The variety of uses to which these magnets may be put are shown by the -accompanying illustrations and there are many industries handling iron -and steel where the introduction of the modern, high-duty lifting magnet -will effect a great saving in time and labor. - -[Illustration: 36-INCH MAGNET HANDLING HEAVY CASTINGS - -Note that there is no hoisting tackle to be adjusted.] - -An amusing incident occurred recently in a factory where a large lifting -magnet is used in connection with a crane to carry pig iron through the -shop. Just as the operator was bringing it across the shop unloaded, he -saw two laborers ahead of him in altercation. One held a short pinch bar -and the other a heavy shovel. As he approached, they both raised their -tools like weapons. In a flash the operator switched on the current and -the two men stood as if transfixed, hanging desperately to their weapons -that were held aloft as by some giant’s hand. The laughter of everyone -who saw the tableau ended the quarrel. - - * * * * * - - -Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? - -According to tradition, the Danes were attempting to surprise an -encampment of the Scotch one night, and had come very near to it without -being observed, when a Dane stepped on a thistle and its sharp points -made him cry out with pain. The Scotch were then awakened and succeeded -in defeating their assailants. Ever since that time the thistle has been -made the insignia of Scotland. - - -How are Animals Identified on Cattle Ranges? - -The question of how to mark animals started with the first stock -raisers. In those days the main object was to provide some way animals -could be identified as to ownerships, and many crude and more or less -cruel methods were used, such as notching or lopping off part of the ear -or branding with a hot iron, burning a letter or figure often ten or -twelve inches high on the side of an animal. Branding in this way was -used mostly by cattle raisers when large herds were grazed on the -western plains. The large brand made it possible for cowboys on -horseback to separate the cattle of different owners, as the brand could -be seen at some distance. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Wilcox & Harvey Mfg. Co._ - -BRANDS FOR IDENTIFICATION] - -As the industry advanced the methods of marking improved. At the present -time a mark in the ear made of metal is most commonly used. These are in -many different styles such as narrow bands looped into the edge or in -the form of a button fastened through the ear. - -Tags are lettered with owner’s name and address and numbered, which -serves not only as a mark for identification of ownership but as a means -of keeping a record of each animal by number; also in making health -tests before shipping from one point to another. - - -How is Glue Made? - -The best quality of glue is obtained from fresh bones, freed from fat by -previous boiling, the clippings and parings of ox hides, the older skins -being preferred; but large quantities are also got from the skins of -sheep, calves, cows, hares, dogs, cats, etc., from the refuse of -tanneries and tanning works, from old gloves, from sinews, tendons and -other offal of animal origin. - -By a process of cleaning and boiling the albuminoid elements of the -animal matter are changed into gelatine. This, in a soft, jelly-like -state, constitutes “size;” dried into hard, brittle, glassy cakes, -which, before use, must be melted in hot water, it forms the well-known -glue of the joiner, etc. - -When a solution is mixed with acetic or nitric acid it remains liquid, -but still retains its power of cementing; in this state it is called -liquid glue. - -Marine glue is a cement made by dissolving India rubber in oil of -turpentine or coal-naphtha, to which an equal quantity of shellac is -added. - - -Why does a Hot Dish Crack if We Put Ice Cream in It? - -If we take a hot dish and put ice cream in it, it cracks because the -dish when hot has expanded. All the tiny particles that make up the dish -have absorbed some heat and have expanded. When the ice cream is put in -the particles composing the inside of the dish are cooled off and begin -to contract, while the outside particles have not cooled and they pull -away from each other, causing the dish to crack. - - - - -Footnotes - - -[1] Illustrations by courtesy of the Lake Torpedo Boat Co., unless -otherwise indicated. - -[2] The following information and statistics by courtesy of The Panama -Canal, Washington office. - -[3] Illustrations by courtesy of the Columbia Graphophone Co. - -[4] Illustrations by courtesy of the Hendee Manufacturing Co. - -[5] Courtesy of the Waltham Watch Company, and “The American Boy.” - -[6] Illustrations by courtesy of the Remington Arms-Union Metallic -Cartridge Company, unless otherwise indicated. - -[7] Illustrations by courtesy of Plymouth Cordage Co. - -[8] Illustrations by courtesy of Colt’s Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing -Co. - -[9] Illustrations by courtesy of Consolidated Fireworks Company of -America. - -[10] Illustrations by courtesy of Eastman Kodak Company. - -[11] Illustrations by courtesy of R. Hoe & Co. - -[12] Illustrations by courtesy of the A. I. Root Co. - -[13] Illustrations by courtesy of the Hotpoint Electric Heating Co. - -[14] Illustrations by the courtesy of the American Telephone and -Telegraph Co. - -[15] Illustrations by courtesy of the Otis Elevator Co. - -[16] Illustrations by courtesy of the International Silver Co. - -[17] Illustrations by courtesy of the McClure Co. - -[18] Illustrations by courtesy of New York Edison Co., unless otherwise -indicated. - -[19] Illustrations by courtesy of The Curtis Publishing Co. - -[20] Courtesy of George A. Hormel & Co. - -[21] Courtesy of The Field, New York City. - -[22] Courtesy of The Field, New York City. - -[23] Courtesy of the California Redwood Association. - -[24] Illustrations by courtesy of The Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co. - -[25] Illustrations by courtesy of the American Pin Company. - -[26] Illustrations by courtesy of the Common Sense Gum Co. Story by -courtesy of the American Chicle Co. and the Common Sense Gum Co. - -[27] Illustrations by courtesy of The Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co. - -[28] Illustrations by courtesy of the Addressograph Co. - -[29] Illustrations by courtesy of the Pyrene Manufacturing Co. - -[30] Illustrations by courtesy of Gatchel & Manning. - -[31] Courtesy of Mr. Charles L. Trout. - -[32] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[33] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[34] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[35] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[36] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[37] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[38] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[39] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[40] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[41] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[42] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[43] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[44] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[45] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co. - -[46] Illustrations by courtesy of United Shoe Machinery Co. - -[47] Courtesy of James Boyd & Bro., Inc. - -[48] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co. - -[49] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co. - -[50] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co. - -[51] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co. - -[52] Illustrations by courtesy of American Cyanamid Company. - -[53] Courtesy of The Strauss Bascule Bridge Co. - -[54] Courtesy of The American Magazine. - -[55] _Illustrations by courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard -Steel Car Co._ - -[56] Illustrations by courtesy of Diamond Crystal Salt Co. - -[57] Illustrations by courtesy of the General Motors Truck Co. - -[58] Illustrations by courtesy of Jacobs & Davies, Engineers. - -[59] Illustrations by courtesy of Ford Motor Co. - -[60] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[61] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[62] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[63] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[64] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[65] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. - -[66] Courtesy of the General Electric Co. - -[67] Courtesy of the Westinghouse Co. - -[68] Illustrations by courtesy of International Harvester Company of -America, unless otherwise indicated. - -[69] Illustrations by courtesy of the Nicholas Power Co. - -[70] Illustrations by courtesy of Endicott, Johnson & Co. - -[71] Courtesy of Mr. Charles L. Trout. - -[72] Illustrations by courtesy of Cutler-Hammer Mfg. Co. - - - - -Index - - - Abacus, 347 - Acid, Nitric, 464 - “Adam’s Apple,” 321 - Adding Machines, 345 - Addressograph, 364 - Aerial Railway, 120 - Aerials, 264 - Aerial Trucks, 451 - Aeroplane Bombs, 158 - Aeroplanes, 505 - Aestivation, 241 - “After-damp,” 247 - Agate, 49, 149 - Agriculture, 461, 556 - Air, Liquid, 461 - Air Currents, 158, 231, 244, 263 - Air-locks, 497 - Air-mines, 390 - Air-pressure, 411, 492 - Airships, 505 - Alcohol, 336, 478 - Alloys, Gold, 448 - “Almighty Dollar,” 355 - Alternating Current, 363 - Amazon, 98 - “American Turtle,” 9 - Amethysts, 149 - Ammonia, 466 - Ammunition, 75, 94, 158, 398 - Animals, 51, 138, 146, 229, 241, 293, 297 - Anthracite, 244 - Anti-cyclones, 450 - “A-1”, 136 - Apaches, 147 - Apartment-houses, First, 334 - Apiaries, 183 - Apples, 136 - Aquarium, 378 - Arack, 214 - Arc Lamps, 577 - Area of Oceans, 169 - Armored Railway Car, 470 - Armor-piercing Shells, 402 - Armor Plate, 422, 435, 470, 478 - Army Ambulances, 485 - Arrows, 79 - Artesian Wells, 96 - Artificial Precious Stones, 361 - Artillery, 386 - Astronomical Observatory, 66 - Atmospheric Conditions, Recording, 58 - Atmospheric Nitrogen, 459 - Atmospheric Pressure, 180 - “Atmospherics,” 264 - Atoms, 324 - Austrian Guns, 388 - Autographic Photography, 168 - Automatic Bowling Pin Setters, 360 - Automatic Machine Guns, 144, 391 - Automatic Pistols, 143 - Automatic Rakers, 565 - Automatic Rifles, 89 - Automobile Factory, 518 - Automobile Guns, 145 - Automobiles, 145, 223, 278, 290, 451, 481, 518, 557 - Auxiliary Pumps, Fire, 455 - - Bacon, 300 - Bacon, Roger, 83 - Baggage Trucks, 545 - Baking Clay under Water, 501 - Balanced Rations, 298 - Balance-wheels, 65 - Balloons, Captive, 58, 515 - Balloons, Fire, 157 - Balloons, Military, 515 - Balls, 309, 357 - Bascule Bridges, 466 - Battery Park, 378 - Battle of Four Elements, 513 - Battleship Aeroplanes, 506 - Battleships, 22, 266, 480 - Battleship Turrets, 425 - Beaches, 149, 180 - Bed Lasting Machines, 440 - Beef, 297, 299, 458 - Bees, 184 - Beets, 464 - “Before you can say Jack Robinson,” 119 - Bell, Alexander Graham, 217 - Belting, 118, 535 - Benday Engravings, 382 - Bending, Illusion, Stick in Water, 308 - “Benedicts,” 149 - Bicycles, 52 - “Big Trees,” 304 - Billiard Tables, 309 - Binders, 562 - Biplanes, 505 - Birds, 303 - Blackberries, White, 316 - Blackfeet Indians, 148 - Blast Furnaces, 417 - Bleriot’s Monoplane, 509 - Boats, Submarine, 9 - Body Chute, Auto, 530 - Bolters, Salt, 476 - Bomb-dropping Device, 514 - Bombs, 152 - Boots, 436 - Boots, Rubber, 111, 116 - Boring Tool, 87 - Bow and Arrow, 79 - Bow-drill, 77 - Bowling Alleys, 357 - Box Kites, 59 - “Breathing Bags,” 248 - Breech-loaders, 85 - Bridges, 467 - Briquetting Machines, 249 - Broadway, 274, 280, 308 - Bud-grafting, 136 - Buffing Machines, 444 - Buildings, Large, 221, 234, 274, 280, 540 - Bulbs, Rubber, 116 - Bullets, 93 - Bull-fights, 362 - Burbank, Luther, 317 - Bureau of Mines Rescue Crew, 247 - Burnishing, Silverware, 260 - - Cabinet-making, 310 - Cable, Hemp, 123 - Cable, Wire, 132 - Cactus, Spineless, 316 - Caissons, 504 - Calcium Carbide, 459 - Calculating Machines, 345 - Calendering, 109, 116 - Calibers, Guns, 389 - California, 49, 304, 332 - “Calling-crabs,” 229 - Cameras, 162 - Canal Navigation, 39 - “Canary-bird Test,” Mining, 250 - Candles, 63 - Cannel Coal, 251 - Cannon, 386 - Carats, 317 - Carbide Furnaces, 460 - Carbines, 87 - Carbon Filament Lamps, 275 - Carboniferous Strata, 247 - Carburetors, 56 - Carnelians, 149 - Carrier Pigeons, 216 - Cars, Armored Railway, 470 - Cars, Freight, 545 - Cars, Motor, 145, 223, 290, 451, 481, 518, 557 - Cars, Pullman, 544 - Cars, Sight-seeing, 482 - Cars, Special Heavy Duty Freight, 424 - Cars, Street, 215 - Cartridges, 85, 94 - Casting Gold Ingots, 449 - Casting Machines, 414 - Castings, 424, 531 - Catenary Construction, 284 - Cat’s-eye, 149 - Cattle, 297, 458 - Cattle Food, 298, 317 - Cave Men, 75 - Cellulose, 450 - Cellulose Acetate, 168 - Central Exchanges, Telephone, 218 - Central Station, First Commercial, 273 - Centrifugal Extractors, Honey, 190 - Chafing Dishes, Electric, 210 - Chain Rammers, 407 - Channel Cementing Machines, 441 - Chattering, Teeth, 182 - Chemical Engines, 454 - Chemical Fire Extinguishers, 375, 523 - Chemicals, Photographic, 162 - Chewing Gum, 337 - Chicle, 337 - Chimes, 260 - Chimneys, 158 - Chinese Firecrackers, 150 - Chrome Leather, 582 - Circuits, Telephone, 225 - Citrus Fruits, 331 - “Clam-shell Dredges,” 491 - Clay, 247, 496 - Clicking Machines, 438 - Cliff Dwellings, 334 - Clinking Glasses, 231 - Clocks, 61, 344 - Clothes, 252 - Coal, 244, 543 - Coast Defense Guns, 396 - Cobbler Shop, 437 - Cocoanuts, 132, 138, 214, 450 - Cod, 216, 325 - Coffee-machines, Electric, 207 - Coining, 302, 449 - Coir, 132 - Coke, 251, 460 - Cold Storage, 299, 466 - Color-printing, 289, 382 - Comb, Honey, 183, 197 - Combination Engravings, 381 - Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker, 567 - Combustion, Spontaneous, 42 - Combustion Engines, 12, 53 - Compass, Gyro, 74 - Compasses, 435 - Composition Billiard Balls, 315 - Compressed Air Construction, 492 - Compressed Air Engines, 133 - Conduits, 223 - Conning Towers, 425 - Continuous Core Ovens, 532 - Conveyor Belts, 535 - Conveyors, Spiral, 240 - Cooking, 121 - Cooking Appliances, 205 - Co-operative Agriculturists, 333 - Copper, 448, 450 - Cordage, 121 - Cork, 385 - Corn Binders, 562 - Cotton, 464 - Counting, 345 - Coursing, 377 - “Court of Love,” 363 - “Cowboys,” 374 - “Cow-trees,” 383 - Crabs, 138, 229 - Cradles, 559 - Cradle Springs, 55 - Crane Neck Hand Fire Engine, 452 - Cranes, Traveling, 536, 543 - Crane way, 531 - Crank-shafts, 435, 518, 535 - Cravats, 270 - Crops, 458, 556 - Cross-bow, 82 - Cross-section on Sixth Avenue at Thirty-third Street, New York, 503 - Crowns, 384 - Crude Rubber, 99 - Cruisers, 478 - Cucaracha Slide, 27 - Cues, Billiard, 313 - “Culebra Cut,” 25, 29 - Culverins, 83 - Curfew, 289 - Curing, Fish, 329 - Meat, 292, 300 - Currying, 583 - Cutlery, 333, 491 - Cutting Shield Head, 495 - Cyanamid, 458 - Cyanide Gold Process, 448 - Cyanometer, 199 - Cyclones, 450 - Cylinder Machining, 524 - Cylinder Presses, 173 - Cylindrical Valve Machines, 26 - - Daguerreotypes, 164 - Dates, 97 - “Davids,” 10 - “Death Valley,” 315 - Deep Sea Monster, 469 - Deer-stalking, 82 - Delivery Trucks, 481 - Denatured Alcohol, 478 - Desk ’Phones, 223 - Detonators, 85 - “Deutschland,” 14 - “Deviation of the Compass,” 435 - Diamond Boring Machines, 97 - Diamond Cutting, 584 - Diamonds, Artificial, 361 - Dictograph, 262 - Diesel Engines, 12, 252 - Die-sinking, 285 - “Difference Engine,” 348 - Dipper Dredges, 491 - Direct Current, 363 - Dirigibles, 516 - Diving Bells, 489 - Diving Equipment, 411, 490 - “Divining Rods,” 199 - “Dog-days,” 310 - “Dog-towns,” 42 - “Dog-watch,” 317 - Dollar Sign, 450 - Double Octuple Press, 179 - Drawbridges, 467 - Dreams, 182 - Dredges, 23, 27, 490 - Dredging, Submarine, 15 - Drills, Steam, 19 - Drinking, 231 - Driving Shields, 494 - Drop Forging, 419 - Dry Docks, 159 - “Dry Farming,” 372 - Drying Machines, 372 - Ducking Stools, 379 - Ducks, 180 - Ductility of Metals, 448, 450 - Dumbwaiters, 237 - Dumping Trucks, 486 - Dynamo Room of First Edison Station, 276 - Dynamos, 262, 274 - - Earth, 181, 379 - “Earth-shine,” 356 - Echoes, 574 - Eclipses, 181 - Edge Trimming Machines, 443 - Efficiency Systems, 518 - Electric Baggage Trucks, 545 - Control Boards, 519 - Delivery Wagons, 278 - Eels, 472 - Locomotives, 22, 24, 541 - Magnets, 589 - Sewing Machines, 279 - Train Chart and Switch Control, 283 - Transmission, 261 - Electricity, Domestic Utensils, 200 - Progress, 273 - Electrification of Railroads, 284, 541 - Electrode Regulators, 460 - Electro-magnetic Waves, 263 - Electro-plating, 257 - Elevating Gears, Gun, 402 - Elevators, 232 - Emblem of Scotland, 593 - Engines, Combustion, 12, 53 - Compressed Air, 133 - Diesel, 12, 252 - Electric Railroad, 541 - Fire, 451 - Gasoline-electric, 214 - Gas-steam, 518 - Kerosene, 556 - Steam Railroad, 541 - English Guns, 398 - Engraving, 380 - Ensilage, 271 - Ermine, 356 - Escapements, 68 - Exchanges, Telephone, 218 - Explosions, 37, 231, 244, 333 - Eyes, Impressions of Vision, 162 - Eyeleting Machines, 438 - - Factory Hospitals, 521 - Farming, 458, 556 - Fast Express Trains, 541 - Federal Government, Coal Lands, 251 - Felspar, 539 - “Fenian Ram,” 10 - Ferris Wheel, 342 - Fertilizers, 298, 458, 572 - Fiber, Manila, 132 - “Fiddler-crabs,” 229 - Field Guns, 386 - Field Ring Forgings, 425 - “Fighting Fish,” 199 - Figs, 198 - Files, 138 - Films, 162, 537, 578 - Filters, Salt, 474 - Finger-prints, 74 - Finishing Shafts, 443 - Fire Apparatus, 451, 523, 542 - Fire-arms, 75, 139, 386 - Fire-damp, 244 - Fire Extinguishers, 375, 523 - Fireflies, 161 - Fire-making, Early, 121 - Fireworks, 150 - Firing Gears, 405 - Fish, 99, 216, 325, 333, 377, 384, 468 - Fixation of Nitrogen from the Air, 458 - Flash Pans, 83 - Flax, 132 - Flight of Projectiles, 398 - Flint, 149 - Flint-lock, 84 - Floating Docks, 159 - Floating Islands, 504 - Flowers, 317 - Fluid Compression, 401 - Flying, Birds, 303 - “Flying Dutchman,” 180 - Flying Machines, 505 - Focus, Eye and Camera, 162 - Fog Horns, 60 - Folding Machines, 175, 288 - Food, Cooking, 121 - Food Crops, 458, 556 - Foreign Exchange, 356 - Forestry, 268 - Forging Press, 418 - Forgings, Quenching, 532 - Forks, 254 - “Forlorn Hope,” 306 - “Fossil Forests,” 50 - Foundry Methods, 531 - Freckles, 412 - Free Electric Current, 278 - Freezing Points, 336 - French Guns, 390 - Fresco Painting, 336 - Front Axles, Auto, 527 - Front-drive Motor Trucks, 457 - Fruits, 317, 331 - Fuel Economy, 244 - “Fundamental Development Plans,” 222 - “Funditor,” 77 - Fur, 356 - Furnaces, Carbide, 460 - Furnaces, Steel, 416, 534 - Fuses, 405 - - Gaillard Cut, 25, 29 - Galileo’s Swinging Chandelier, 63 - Gamboa Dike, 37 - Game Preserves, 270 - Gas, Coal, 244 - Gas Meters, 270 - Gas, Nitrogen, 460 - Gasoline-electric Cars, 215 - Gas-steam Engines, 518 - Gatling-guns, 145, 391, 470 - Gatun Locks, 24, 31-2 - Gear Wheels, 408 - Gelatine Films, 152 - Generators, 262, 465 - German Guns, 398 - “Get the Sack,” 169 - Geysers, 41 - Glacier National Park, 324 - Glaciers, 322 - Glass, 231, 450 - “Glass Snakes,” 583 - Glowworms, 161 - Gold, 303, 317, 377, 448 - Goldfish, 377 - Gold Leaf, 377 - “Goodyear Welt,” 437, 447 - Grab-buckets, 245 - Grade Crossing Elimination, 504 - Grafting, Bud, 136 - Grain Binders, 569 - Grain Drills, 572 - Granite, 540 - Graphophones, 43 - Graphotypes, 368 - Gravity Conveyors, 240 - “Great White Way,” 274 - Greek-fire, 83, 377 - Greyhound, 377 - Grills, Electric, 209 - Grinding Crank Shafts, 518 - Groundnuts, 241 - Guard Gates, 31-2 - Gun-carriages, 141, 386 - Gunpowder, 83 - Guns, 75, 139, 386 - Gyroscopes, 72 - - Halftone Engravings, 380 - Ham, 292 - Hammers, Steam, 533 - Hand Bombards, 83 - Hand Presses, Printing, 172 - Hand-shaking, 308 - Harvesting, 557 - Hay Loaders, 568 - Header Binders, 566 - Hearth Furnaces, 416 - Heat, 315 - Heating Element, Electric, 208 - Heating Pads, Electric, 211 - Heat-treatment, 532 - Heel-seat Rounding Machines, 443 - Helmets, Diving, 41 - Oxygen, 248 - Hemp, 130 - Henequen, 130 - Hibernation, 241 - Hides, 580 - High Tension Currents, 262 - Highlight Engravings, 382 - Hives, Bee, 186 - “Hob-nobbing,” 231 - “Hobson’s Choice,” 169 - Hogs, 293 - “Holland” Under-sea Boats, 10 - Honey, 183 - Hopper Dredgers, 490 - Hoppers, Coal, 246 - Horizon, 121 - Horse-drawn Fire Engines, 453 - Horseshoe Curve, 547 - Hose, 117 - Reels, 456 - Trucks, 451 - Hour Glasses, 63 - Household Appliances, 200, 556 - How a Newspaper is Printed, 172 - How are Artificial Precious Stones made? 361 - Cannon made? 386 - Chewing Gum tablets coated? 342 - Cocoanuts Used to Help our Warships? 450 - Composition bowling balls made? 360 - Diamonds cut? 584 - “Electric Eels” Caught? 472 - Explosions guarded against in mines? 244 - Files made? 138 - Fireflies used as dress ornaments? 161 - Fireworks made? 150 - Glaciers Formed? 324 - Harbors Dredged Out? 491 - Magazines made? 286 - Oranges Packed? 331 - Rifles made? 75 - Sand-dunes formed? 180 - Sausages made? 301 - Vessels handled while going through the Panama Canal? 39 - Watches made? 61 - we able to hear through Speaking Tubes? 308 - we taking care of our forests now? 267 - How big do Redwood Trees grow? 304 - How big is the Largest Adding Machine in the world? 354 - How can a factory make two Automobiles a minute? 518 - How can we hear through the Walls of a Room? 251 - How can we send Messages through the Air? 263 - How can we travel in trains under water? 492 - How cold is 372° below zero? 461 - How could a large hole in a tunnel under water be repaired? 501 - How deep is the deepest part of the Ocean? 169 - How did Chemical Fire Extinguishers develop? 375 - Men learn to count? 345 - Men learn to eat pork? 292 - Nodding the head up and down come to mean “yes”? 149 - the cooking of food originate? 121 - the Dollar Sign originate? 450 - the expression “A-1” originate? 136 - the expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” originate? 119 - the expression “Forlorn Hope” originate? 306 - the fashion of wearing Cravats commence? 270 - the Greyhound get his name? 377 - the ringing of the Curfew originate? 289 - the term “Cowboys” originate? 374 - the term “Yankee” originate? 171 - the wearing of crowns originate? 384 - we learn to tell time? 61 - your State get its Name? 243 - How do bees make honey? 183 - big buildings get their Granite? 539 - Calculating Machines calculate? 345 - “Carrier Pigeons” Carry Messages? 216 - Chimes strike the Hour? 260 - Elevators operate? 232 - Fishes Swim? 384 - Moving Pictures get on the Screen? 575 - Peanuts get in the Ground? 241 - Shoe Machines operate? 436 - the Indians Live now? 146 - they make Chewing Gum? 337 - we know that the Earth is Round? 379 - How does a Bird Fly? 303 - a Camera take a Picture? 162 - a Gasoline Motor run an Electric Street Car? 214 - a Lifting Magnet lift? 589 - a “Master Clock” control others by electricity? 344 - a Monorail Gyroscope Railway operate? 72 - a Siren Fog Horn Blow? 60 - a Talking Machine talk? 43 - an Artesian Well keep up its supply of Water? 96 - Electricity help the Housewife? 200 - Telephone Development in this country compare with that abroad? 222 - the Addressograph operate? 364 - the Beach get its Sand? 149 - the Gas Meter measure your Gas? 270 - the New York Stock Exchange operate? 374 - the Poisonous Tarantula live? 146 - How far away is the Sky-line? 121 - How far can a powerful Searchlight send its Rays? 229 - How has Electricity advanced? 273 - How has man helped nature give us Apples? 136 - How has the Motor Truck developed? 481 - How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece made? 303, 449 - a Newspaper printed? 172 - a Paper of Pins filled? 321 - a Pool Table made? 309 - a Razor Blade made? 491 - a Teaspoon Silver-plated? 253 - Die-sinking done? 285 - Electricity brought into a House? 262 - Food taken from the air by Electricity? 458 - Fresco Painting done? 336 - Gold Leaf made? 377 - Leather tanned? 580 - Lime Juice used in Curing Rubber? 110 - Photo-engraving done? 380 - Pine Tar made? 129, 134 - Rope made? 121 - the exact color of the Sky determined? 199 - the Weather Man able to predict tomorrow’s Weather? 58 - Howitzers, 388 - How large are Molecules? 324 - How long does it take “Hello” to reach ’Frisco from New York on the - Transcontinental Line? 226 - How many Post Offices are there in the U. S.? 218 - How much Gold in a 14-carat Ring? 317 - How much is a Duodecillion? 354 - How much Salt do we each use a year? 478 - How much silver is there in “Sterling” ware? 260 - How the Self-loading Pistol developed, 139 - How was Vulcanizing discovered? 105, 115 - How were Motorcycles first made? 52 - Hudson River Tubes, 493 - Hunger, 588 - Hunting, 75 - Hybridization, 317 - Hydraulic Compressors, 401 - Forging Presses, 418 - Jacks, 497 - Swinging Arms, 494 - Hydroaeroplanes, 507 - Hydroelectric Station, 20 - “Hypo,” 163 - - Ice, 322 - Illumination, Electric, 273 - Immersion Heaters, Electric, 211 - Imperfections in Diamonds, 586 - Incandescent Lamps, 275 - Indians, 146, 336 - Inner-tubes, 117 - Inseam Trimming Machines, 440 - Insole Tacking Machines, 437 - Installing Motors, Auto, 528 - Instruments, Range-finding, 403 - Insulated Wire, 118 - Interior Transverse Fissures, 344 - Iron, 413 - Irons, Electric, 200 - Isinglass, 216 - Istle, 132 - Italian Guns, 389 - Ivory, 314 - - Jaggery, 214 - Jasper, 49, 149 - “Jeweler’s Gold,” 448 - Jewels, Synthetic, 361 - - Kerosene Engines, 556 - Tractors, 561 - “Kick the Bucket,” 171 - “King can do no wrong,” 466 - Knives, Table, 260, 333 - Krupp Guns, 398 - - Lacing Machines, 438 - Ladder Dredges, 23, 27, 490 - Ladders, Fire, 451 - “Lake” Submarines, 9 - Land-crabs, 138 - Lard, 301 - Latten Spoons, 254 - League Island Navy Yard, 160 - Leather, 580 - Lemons, 331 - Lifting Magnets, 589 - Lightning Bugs, 161 - Lights, Electric, 273 - Lignite, 251 - Lilies, Violet-odored, 317 - Limit Switches, 26 - Line Engravings, 381 - Liquid Air Plant, 461 - “Liquid Fire,” 377 - Listing Machines, 350 - Lizards, 583 - Llama, 99 - Loading Platforms, 531 - Lobsters, 384 - Lock Gate Operating Machinery, 34 - Locomotive Building, 543 - Locomotives, 22, 24, 541 - Long-bow, 80 - Loose Nailing Machines, 443 - Low Tension Currents, 262 - Lumbering, 306 - “Lump in the Throat,” 308 - “Lynching,” 355 - - Machine Guns, 142, 391, 470 - Magazines, 286 - Magnets, 589 - Mailing System, Magazines, 289 - Manila Fiber, 132 - Manure Spreaders, 572 - Map, Tree-planting Regions of U. S., 269 - Marsh-gas, 244 - Masonic Signs, 262 - “Master Clocks,” 344 - Matchlock, 83 - Matrix-drying Machines, 179 - “Measurer of Blue,” 199 - Meat, 292, 299 - Mechanical Starter, Auto, 529 - Megaphones, 308 - Merchant Submarine Liners, 14 - Mercury, 336 - Mer de Glace, 322 - Meters, Gas, 270 - Mica, 203 - Micrometric Regulators, 67 - Military Air Tractors, 506 - Milk, 383 - Mine-planting Submarines, 11 - “Mineralite” Balls, 360 - Mining, Coal, 244 - Mining, Gold, 448 - Mining, Iron, 413 - Mint, 302 - Mobilization, 228 - Molds, Steel, 431, 531 - Molecules, 324 - Monoplanes, 509 - Monorail Railways, 73, 520 - Moon, 181, 356 - Mortars, 397 - “Mother of Pearl,” 385 - Motion Pictures, Assembling Films, 537 - Projecting, 575 - Taking, 536 - Motor Assembling, Auto, 525 - Motorcycles, 52 - Motor Delivery Vans, 58 - Fire Apparatus, 451 - “Motor-paced Tandems,” 55 - Motors, Electric, 262 - Gasoline-Electric, 215 - Motor Trucks, 223, 451, 481, 557 - Mountain Guns, 390 - Mt. Rainier, 323 - Mt. Weather, 60 - Moving-stairways, 238 - Mowing Machines, 561 - Multiple Switchboards, Telephone, 220 - Muskets, 88 - Muzzle-energy, Giant Guns, 398 - - Nailing Machines, 441 - Names of States, 243 - “Napier’s Rod,” 348 - “Nautilus,” 10, 491 - Naval Guns, 387 - Navy Yards, 161 - Neckties, 270 - Negatives, 163 - Nets, Fish, 328 - Newspapers, 121, 172, 282 - New York Sky-line, 493 - New Zealand Flax, 132 - Niagara Falls, 463 - “Nine-pins,” 357 - Nitrate of Soda, 459 - Nitric Acid, 464 - Nitrogen, 458 - Nitrogen Fixation Ovens, 462 - “No,” 149 - Nuts, Cocoanuts, 214 - - Oats, 569 - Observation Balloons, 515 - Oceans, 169 - Oil, Cod-liver, 216 - Oil Cushion Buffers, 235 - “Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms,” 356 - On-tempering, 420 - Onyx, 149 - Opals, 49, 149 - Open-hearth Furnaces, 416 - Oranges, 332 - Ordnance, 386 - Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machines, 446 - Ovens, Continuous Core, 532 - Drying Painted Cars, 547 - Electric, 210 - Overhead Monorail Systems, 520 - Oxygen Reviving Apparatus, 248 - Oyster Dredging Apparatus, 16 - - Painting, Fresco, 336 - Palms, 97, 214 - Panama Canal, 17 - Panama City, 35 - Panama-Pacific Exposition, 230 - Patent Leather, 583 - Peanuts, 242 - Pearl Fishing Equipment, 16 - Pearls, 385 - Imitation, 361 - “Pebble Board,” 345 - Pedro Miguel Locks, 22 - Penetrating Powers of Projectiles, 398 - Pennsylvania Station, 546 - Percolators, Electric, 206 - Percussion Fuses, 405 - Periscopes, 13 - Petrified Forests, 50 - Phantom Circuits, 225 - Philippine Carts, 131 - Photo-engraving, 380 - Photography, 162, 536 - Pigeons, 216 - Pig Iron, 429 - Pigs, 293 - Pike’s Peak, 557 - Pine Tar, 129, 134 - Pins, 318 - Pirates, 150 - Pistols, 139 - Piston Machining, 522 - Plants, 317 - Plating, Electro, 257 - “Plumcot,” 317 - Pole Lathes, 87 - Poles, Telephone, 222 - Pool, 309 - Pork, 292 - Potato-diggers, 242 - Power House, Niagara Falls, 465 - Power Stations, 278, 519 - Prairie Dogs, 42 - Predictors, Range, 403 - Printing, Color, 289 - Printing-presses, 172, 282, 286 - Projectile Forging, 419 - Projectiles, 158, 398 - Projecting Machines, 576 - Proving Grounds, 399 - Prunes, Stoneless, 317 - Pulling-over Machines, 439 - Pullman Cars, 544 - Pyro, 163 - Pyrometers, 534 - Pyrotechnics, 150 - - Quarry, 540 - Quenching Steel Forgings, 532 - - Radio Telephone and Telegraph, 263 - Railroads, 344, 424, 470, 492, 541 - Rails, Steel, 343 - Railways, Aerial, 120 - Monorail, 73, 520 - Rakes, 567 - Rammers, Gun, 407 - Range Finders, 403 - Ranges, Electric, 213 - Rapid-fire Guns, 144, 391, 470 - Rasps, 138 - Razor Blades, 491 - Reapers, 562 - Reaping Hooks, 557 - Rear Axle Assembling, Auto, 523 - Record Making, Graphophone, 44, 47 - Redwood, 272, 305 - Refraction, 308 - Refrigerating Machinery, 296 - Return Chutes, Bowling Ball, 357 - Revolvers, 139 - Rifles, 75 - Rock-boring, 97 - Rock-crystal, 49, 149, 539 - Rockets, 151 - Rock Salt, 474 - Roentgen Rays, 169 - Rolling Bridges, 466 - Roman Candles, 156 - Rope, 121 - Rounding and Channeling Machines, 444 - Rubber, 98 - - Safe Deposit Vaults, 428 - Safety Crew, Mines, 248 - Salt, 473 - Salt Fish, 330 - Sand, 149, 180, 247 - Sand-dunes, 180 - Sandwiches, 119 - Sausages, 292 - Scythes, 558 - Searchlight Projectiles, 158 - Searchlights, 229 - Self-binding Harvesters, 568 - Semi-submersible Wrecking Apparatus, 16 - Set Pieces, Pyrotechnic, 154 - Sewing Machines, 279 - Shaking Hands, 308 - Sheep-growing, 252 - Sheffield Plate, 256 - Shells, 409 - “Shibboleth,” 588 - Shoes, 436 - Shoes, Rubber, 115 - Shoe Treeing Machines, 446 - Shot-guns, 92 - “Showing the White Feather,” 231 - Shutters, Motion Picture Machine, 578 - “Side-cars,” 56 - Siege-howitzers, 388 - Sight-seeing Cars, 482 - Silhouettes, 163 - Silica, 149 - Silos, 271 - Silver Plating, 253 - Sinking of the “Bluecher,” 479 - Siren Horns, 60 - Sisal, 130 - Skins, 580 - Skiving Machines, 437 - Sky, 180, 199 - Sky-line, 121 - Sky-rockets, 150 - Slaughter-houses, 295 - Sling-shot, 78 - Smiling, 412 - Smoking, Meat, 292 - Snakes, “Glass,” 583 - Soap, 298 - Sole Laying Machines, 441 - Sole Leather, 580 - Sole Leveling Machines, 441 - Soroban, 345 - Sound, 47, 251, 333, 574 - Speaking Tubes, 308 - Spiders, 51, 146 - Spineless Cactus, 317 - Spinning, Hemp, 124 - Spiral Chutes, 240 - Spontaneous Combustion, 42 - Spoons, 253 - Sprinkler Systems, 523 - Stabilizers, 74 - Stamping Machines, 444 - “Standard Gold,” 448 - “Standard Yard,” 61 - States, 243 - Stations, Railroad, 546 - Statue of Liberty, 378 - Steam Drills, 19 - Dynamos, 275 - Fire Engines, 452 - Hammers, 533 - Harvesters, 560 - Shovels, 28, 30, 38 - Velocipedes, 52 - Steel, 333, 343, 413, 470, 491, 532 - “Sterling,” 260 - Sting, Bee, 187 - Stitch and Upper Cleaning Machines, 445 - Stitch Separating Machines, 443 - Stoat, 356 - Stock Exchanges, 373 - Stockyards, 297 - Stoneless Prunes, 317 - Story in a Billiard Table, 309 - Bowling Alley, 357 - Box of California Oranges, 331 - Chemical Fire Extinguisher, 375 - Giant Cannon, 386 - Honey-comb, 183 - Pin, 318 - Rifle, 75 - Sausage, 292 - Silver Teaspoon, 253 - Watch, 61 - Story in Diamond-cutting, 584 - Elevators and Escalators, 232 - Firecrackers and Sky-rockets, 150 - Photo-engraving, 380 - Story in the making of a Pair of Shoes, 436 - making of a Magazine, 286 - making of a Picture, 162 - Modern Lifting Magnet, 589 - Printing of a Newspaper, 172 - Talking Machine, 43 - Telephone, 217 - Story of a Deep Sea Monster, 468 - a Piece of Chewing Gum, 337 - America’s First Horseless Carriage, 290 - an Automobile Factory, 518 - an Up-to-date Farm, 556 - Coal Mining, 244 - Electricity in the Home, 200 - Leather, 580 - Rope, 121 - Rubber, 98 - Salt, 473 - Self-loading Pistols, 139 - the Addressograph, 364 - the Advance of Electricity, 273 - the Big Redwood Trees, 304 - the Building of a Silo, 271 - the Calculating Machine, 345 - the Growth of the Motor Truck, 481 - the Motion Picture-Projecting Machine, 575 - the Motorcycle, 52 - the Panama Canal, 17 - the Submarine, 9 - the Taking of Food from the Air, 458 - the Tunnels Under the Hudson River, 492 - the Wireless Telegraph, 263 - Stoves, Electric, 208 - Straightening Crank Shafts, 533 - Street Cars, Gasoline, Electric, 215 - Submarines, 9 - Subway Construction, 283 - Suction Dredges, 23, 27 - Sugar Beets, 464 - Sugar Cane, 459 - Sugar-coating Machines, 338 - Sulphuric Ether, 336 - Sun, 181 - Sun Dials, 61 - Swine, 293 - Swing Bridges, 466 - Switchboards, 519 - Synthetic Precious Stones, 361 - - Table Appliances, 205 - Table-ware, 253, 333 - Tack-pulling and Resetting Machines, 440 - Taking Food from the Air, 458 - Talking Machines, 43 - Tanning, 580 - Tar, Pine, 129, 134 - Tarantulas, 146 - Tawing, 583 - Teeth, Chattering, 182 - Telegraph, Wireless, 263 - Telephone, 217 - Telephone, Wireless, 226 - Temperature, 315 - Temperature Regulation, Foundry Furnaces, 534 - Tension Spokes, 342 - Third Rails, 283 - Thistle, 593 - Threshers, 560 - Throat, 308 - Time, 61 - “Times Square,” 274 - Tip-punching Machines, 439 - Tires, Automobile, 117 - “Tirth’s Stainless Steel,” 333 - Toasters, Electric, 205 - Tobacco, 458 - Torpedo Guns, 404 - Torpedoes, Gyroscope Equipment, 74 - Torpedoes, Toys, 153 - Tortoises, 171 - Totem Poles, 149 - “Touching Glasses,” 231 - Towline, 126 - Traction Elevators, 233 - Tractors, Kerosene, 561 - Train Chart, 283 - Trains, 541 - Trans-Atlantic Submarine Navigation, 14 - Transcontinental Line, 225 - Transmission, Electric, 261, 363 - Transmission Covers, Auto, 526 - Traveling Belt Conveyors, 535 - Traveling Cranes, 536 - Trawls, 327 - Trees, Apple, 136 - Buried, 247 - Cocoanut, 214 - Cow, 383 - Date, 97 - Fig, 198 - Forestry, 267 - Petrified, 49 - Redwood, 304 - Rubber, 108 - Trench Artillery, 390 - Tri-cars, 55 - Trinity Church, 308 - Trucks, Electric, 278 - Electric Baggage, 545 - Fire, 451 - Motor, 223, 451, 481, 557 - “Tune the old cow died of,” 539 - Tunneling Shields, 494 - Tunnels, 492, 520 - Turbine Generators, 465 - Turrets, 426 - Twine Binders, 570 - Twin Edge Setting Machines, 445 - Type, 172 - - Under-water Boats, 9 - Under-water Construction, 492 - U. S. Battleship “Arizona,” also “Nevada” and “Oklahoma” Type, 266 - U. S. Battleship “Mississippi,” 160 - U. S. Battleship “Ohio,” 22 - U. S. Guns, 386 - U. S. Mint, Philadelphia, 449 - Upper-trimming Machines, 439 - - Vacuum Cleaners, Electric, 212 - Vacuum Dryers, 107, 112 - Vamp Creasing Machines, 446 - Vanadium Steel, 533 - Vats, Tanning, 581 - Vaults, 427 - Ventilating Systems, 221, 247, 298, 520 - Vessels, Fishing, 325 - Veterinarians, Government, 298 - Vulcanizing, 105, 115 - - Wall Street, 307 - Washington Union Station, 546 - Watches, 61 - Watches, Nautical, 317 - Water, 308, 333, 336, 411 - Water Bottles, 118 - Water Clocks, 63 - “Water-finders,” 199 - Water Fireworks, 158 - Water-power, 461 - Waterproofing, 106 - Water-towers, 457 - Weather Bureau, 58 - Weight of Projectiles, 398 - Wells, 96, 199 - Wells, Salt, 473 - Welt and Turn Machines, 445 - Welt Lasting Machines, 440 - Wetterhorn Mountain, 120 - What Animals are the best Architects? 51 - What are Cyclones? 450 - Dreams? 182 - Dry Docks like? 159 - “Fighting Fish”? 199 - Petrified Forests? 49 - White Blackberries like? 317 - What causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? 308 - an Echo? 574 - Floating Islands? 504 - What do we mean by an “Eclipse”? 181 - “Deviation of the Compass”? 435 - “Hobson’s Choice”? 169 - the “Flying Dutchman”? 180 - “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms”? 356 - What does the biggest Fish ever caught look like? 468 - expression “Showing the White Feather” come from? 231 - Sheep-Grower get for the wool in a Suit of Clothes? 252 - What Family has over 9,000,000 members? 216 - What happens when Animals Hibernate? 241 - What is a Deep Sea Diver’s Dress like? 411 - Dictagraph? 262 - Diesel Engine like? 252 - Diving Bell? 489 - “Divining Rod”? 199 - Drawbridge like Today? 466 - “Drying Machine” like? 372 - Game Preserve? 270 - Geyser? 40 - “Glass Snake”? 583 - Mexican Bull-fight like? 363 - Silo? 271 - What is an Aerial Railway like? 120 - Armored Railway Car like? 370 - “Electric Eel”? 472 - Electro-magnet? 317 - up-to-date Farm like? 556 - What is Cork? 385 - “Dry Farming”? 372 - Forestry Work, 267 - Rubber? 98 - Spontaneous Combustion? 42 - “Standard Gold”? 448 - What is the difference between a Cruiser and a Battleship? 478 - difference between “Alternating” and “Direct” Current? 363 - Greatest Discovery of the last twenty-five years? 458 - Hottest place in the U. S.? 315 - Natural Color of Goldfish? 377 - principle of “Foreign Exchange”? 356 - What kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? 138 - Dogs are Prairie Dogs? 42 - Steel Knives do not Stain or Rust? 333 - What makes a Chimney Smoke? 158 - a Stick seem to Bend in Water? 308 - our Teeth Chatter? 182 - What Metals can be Drawn into Wire best? 450 - What Progress has been made toward Universal Service since the opening - of the Transcontinental Telephone Line? 226 - What started the habit of Touching Glasses before drinking? 231 - What was the “Court of Love”? 363 - the origin of Masonic Signs? 262 - What were “Ducking Stools”? 379 - Hour Glasses originally used for? 63 - the First Apartment Houses in this country? 336 - When does a Tortoise move quickly? 171 - When is Exchange at Par? 356 - When was “Liquid Fire” first used in Warfare? 377 - New York the Capital of this Country? 379 - Where are Fireflies used for Domestic Lighting? 161 - Milk-pails filled from Trees? 383 - Where did the Ferris Wheel get its name? 342 - Where do Dates come from? 97 - Figs come from? 199 - Pearls come from? 385 - Where does Ermine come from? 356 - Rubber come from? 98 - White Blackberries, 316 - “White Elephant,” 435 - Who discovered Rubber? 98 - the Slide Rule Principle? 348 - Who invented Arms and Ammunition? 76 - Who made the first American Automobile? 290 - the first practical Talking Machine? 43 - Why are Finger-prints used for Identification? 74 - Why are they called “Newspapers”? 121 - Why are Windows broken by Explosions? 231 - Why do Lobsters Change Colors? 384 - some of us have Freckles? 412 - Why do they call it “Shibboleth”? 588 - call them “Fiddler-crabs”? 229 - have a Dog-watch on Shipboard? 317 - say “The King can do no Wrong”? 466 - Why do we always shake Hands with our Right Hand? 308 - Why do we call a Man “A Benedict” when he Marries? 149 - Why do we call it “Denatured Alcohol”? 478 - “Hob-Nobbing”? 231 - the “Adam’s Apple”? 321 - the “Almighty Dollar”? 355 - Why do we call them “Artesian Wells”? 96 - “Cravats”? 270 - “Dog-days”? 301 - “Sandwiches”? 119 - “X-Rays”? 169 - Why do we call 32° above Zero “Freezing”? 336 - Why do we Count in Tens? 345 - Why do we Dream? 182 - get Hungry? 588 - say “a White Elephant”? 435 - say “Get the Sack”? 169 - say “Kick the Bucket”? 171 - say “the Tune that the Old Cow Died of”? 539 - Smile when we are Pleased? 412 - Why does a Duck’s Back shed Water? 180 - Why does a Lightning Bug light her Light? 161 - rope cling together? 136 - shaking the head mean “No”? 149 - Why doesn’t the sky ever Fall Down? 180 - Why is it called “Battery Park”? 379 - “Death Valley”? 315 - “Lynching”? 355 - Why is it necessary to keep unusually quiet when fishing? 333 - Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? 593 - Why is there always a soft spot in a cocoanut shell? 214 - Why is “Wall Street” known round the World? 308 - Why were rubber trees called “Siphonia”? 108 - Windows, 231 - Wire, 118, 132 - Wire-drawing, 450 - Wireless Telephone and Telegraph, 263 - Wire Stitching Machines, Magazines, 287 - Wood, Apple, 136 - Cocoanut, 214 - Redwood, 272, 304 - Wool, 252 - Woolworth Building, 234 - Wrapper, Leaf Tobacco, 458 - Wrecking Apparatus, 16 - - “X”-Rays, 169 - X-Ray View of a New York Street Crossing, 503 - X-Ray View of Underground Tunnel Construction, 502 - - “Yankee,” 171 - Yard Measure, 61 - “Yes,” 149 - - “Zeppelins,” 511 - - - - -Acknowledgment - - -The Editor wishes to express his gratitude and appreciation to the -following, to whom he is indebted for much valuable assistance in the -form of illustrations and special information: - - ADDRESSOGRAPH CO. - “THE AMERICAN BOY.” - AMERICAN CHICLE CO. - AMERICAN CYANAMID CO. - AMERICAN LAFRANCE FIRE ENGINE CO. - AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE CO. - “AMERICAN MAGAZINE.” - AMERICAN PIN CO. - AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH CO. - ARMOUR & CO. - BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. - “BALTIMORE AMERICAN.” - BETHLEHEM STEEL CO. - JAMES BOYD & BROTHER, INC. - BRUNSWICK-BALKE-COLLENDER CO. - BURROUGHS ADDING MACHINE CO. - CALIFORNIA FRUIT GROWERS’ EXCHANGE. - CALIFORNIA REDWOOD ASSOCIATION. - CHESAPEAKE AND POTOMAC TELEPHONE CO. - COLT’S PATENT FIRE ARMS MANUFACTURING CO. - COLUMBIA GRAPHOPHONE CO. - COLUMBIAN ROPE CO. - COMMON SENSE GUM CO. - CONSOLIDATED FIRE WORKS COMPANY OF AMERICA. - CURTIS AEROPLANE CO. - CURTIS PUBLISHING CO. - CUTLER-HAMMER MANUFACTURING CO. - DIAMOND CRYSTAL SALT CO. - G. M. DODGE CO. - EASTMAN KODAK CO. - ENDICOTT, JOHNSON & CO. - “THE FIELD.” - “FIRE AND WATER ENGINEERING.” - FORD MOTOR CO. - GATCHEL & MANNING. - GENERAL ELECTRIC CO. - GENERAL MOTORS TRUCK CO. - GLOUCESTER (MASS.) BOARD OF TRADE. - B. F. GOODRICH CO. - HAYNES AUTO CO. - HENDEE MANUFACTURING CO. - R. HOE & CO. - GEORGE A. HORMEL & CO. - HOTPOINT ELECTRIC HEATING CO. - HUDSON AND MANHATTAN RAILROAD CO. - INDIANA STEEL CO. - INGERSOLL-RAND CO. - INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY OF AMERICA. - INTERNATIONAL SILVER CO. - JACOBS & DAVIES, ENGINEERS. - LAKE TORPEDO BOAT CO. - MCCLURE CO. - MERGANTHALER LINOTYPE CO. - MONROE CALCULATING MACHINE CO. - NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD CO. - NEW YORK EDISON CO. - NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO. - OTIS ELEVATOR CO. - THE PANAMA CANAL, WASHINGTON OFFICE. - PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD CO. - THE PHILADELPHIA MUSEUMS. - PLYMOUTH CORDAGE CO. - NICHOLAS POWER CO. - PYRENE MANUFACTURING CO. - “RAILWAY AGE GAZETTE.” - MR. GEORGE A. READING. - REMINGTON ARMS-UNION METALLIC CARTRIDGE CO. - A. I. ROOT CO. - “SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.” - “SCRIBNER’S MAGAZINE.” - STANDARD STEEL CAR CO. - CAPT. CHARLES H. THOMPSON. - MR. CHARLES L. TROUT. - MR. HAROLD L. TUERS. - UNITED SHOE MACHINERY CO. - UNITED STATES RUBBER CO. - WALTHAM WATCH CO. - WESTINGHOUSE CO. - WINCHESTER REPEATING ARMS CO. - WILCOX & HARVEY MFG. CO. - “WINSTON’S CUMULATIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA.” - - - - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES | - | | - | This e-book uses the text of the original printed work, including | - | all inconsistencies in spelling, capitalisation, lay-out, | - | hyphenation, etc. Examples are can not, cannot; æstivation, | - | Aestivation; ax, axe; Buenos Aires, Ayres; Hong Kong, Hongkong; | - | saltpeter, saltpetre, etc. The spelling of non-English words (Abbe,| - | Lumiere, Cinematograph) has not been corrected. | - | | - | Remarks on the text: | - | Page 17: Bremenhaven is possibly a typographical error for | - | Bremerhaven. | - | Page 172: Blaew is more commonly spelled Blaeu. | - | Page 317: The accompanying illustrations: there is only one | - | illustration on white blackberries. | - | Page 321: as shown in the illustrations: there is only one | - | illustration with pin sizes. | - | Page 394: reference to A in illustration: this is invisible in the | - | original work. | - | Page 450: the original work uses the $ sign with two vertical | - | strokes, which is not supported in many fonts, and has therefore | - | been replaced with the symbol with the single stroke. | - | Page 505-517: The table of contents calls this chapter Pictorial | - | Story of the Airship; the page headings are Views of Airships or | - | Views of Air Ships. The former has been used as chapter title for | - | this e-book. | - | Page 561: reference to illustration of roughly reconstructed Gallic| - | reaper: this illustration is not present in the original work. | - | | - | Changes made to the text: | - | Chapter headings have been inserted for the Pictorial Stories | - | (Fishing Industry, Steel Industry, Fire Apparatus, Airship, | - | Railroad Scenes from Shop and Road) to replace the page headers | - | used in the original work. | - | Footnotes have been moved to the end of text. | - | Some obvious minor typographical errors and punctuation errors have| - | been corrected silently. | - | Page 14: become changed to became | - | Page 40: simple changed to simply; there about changed to there are| - | about | - | Page 45: to-day changed to today as elsewhere | - | Page 74: finger prints changed to finger-prints as elsewhere | - | Page 108: become hard changed to became hard | - | Page 149: snaking changed to shaking | - | Page 150: flintlock changed to flint-lock as elsewhere | - | Page 185: counter his changed to counter, his | - | Page 207: percolater changed to percolator as elsewhere | - | Page 224: Aboard changed to Abroad | - | Page 324: lormed changed to formed | - | Page 357: footnote anchor [27] added | - | Page 411: eyeholes changed to eye-holes as elsewhere | - | Page 415: uneffected changed to unaffected | - | Page 421: counter-weights changed to counterweights as elsewhere | - | Page 504: cropped changed to dropped | - | Page 518: sky-scraper changed to skyscraper as elsewhere | - | Page 601: Oynx changed to Onyx (and moved to proper place) | - | Index: several entries moved to proper alphabetical order. | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wonder Book of Knowledge, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WONDER BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE *** - -***** This file should be named 41111-0.txt or 41111-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/1/1/41111/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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