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diff --git a/41110-8.txt b/41110-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 91016d0..0000000 --- a/41110-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14234 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Arabian Society In The Middle Ages, by -Edward William Lane - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Arabian Society In The Middle Ages - Studies From The Thousand And One Nights - -Author: Edward William Lane - -Editor: Stanley Lane-Poole - -Release Date: October 19, 2012 [EBook #41110] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARABIAN SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** - - - - -Produced by Fritz Ohrenschall, Moti Ben-Ari and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. - - - - - - - - - - ARABIAN SOCIETY - IN THE MIDDLE AGES - - [Illustration: Cover] - - - - - _Three Vols., demy 8vo, cloth extra, 7s. 6d. each._ - - THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS: - - Commonly called, in England, "THE ARABIAN NIGHTS' - ENTERTAINMENTS." - - A New Translation from the Arabic, with copious Notes, by EDWARD - WILLIAM LANE. - - Illustrated by many hundred Engravings on Wood, from Original - Designs by WILLIAM HARVEY. - - A New Edition, from a Copy annotated by the Translator, edited - by his Nephew, EDWARD STANLEY POOLE. With a Preface by STANLEY - LANE-POOLE. - - _CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY, W._ - - - - - ARABIAN SOCIETY - IN THE MIDDLE AGES - - STUDIES FROM - _THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS_ - - BY - EDWARD WILLIAM LANE - HON. DOCTOR OF LITERATURE, LEYDEN - CORRESPONDANT DE L'INSTITUT DE FRANCE - - EDITED BY HIS GRANDNEPHEW - STANLEY LANE-POOLE - B.A., M.R.A.S., LAUREAT DE L'INSTITUT - - [Illustration] - - London - CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY - - 1883 - - [_All rights reserved_] - - - - - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. - - - - - TO THE MEMORY OF - E. H. PALMER, - THE TRUE SUCCESSOR OF - EDWARD WILLIAM LANE, - IN HIS INSIGHT INTO EASTERN CHARACTER AND THOUGHT - AND HIS GENIUS FOR THE ARABIC LANGUAGE, - THIS BOOK IS SORROWFULLY - DEDICATED. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -When Mr. Lane translated the "Thousand and One Nights," he was not -content with producing a mere rendering of the Arabic text: he saw that -the manners and ideas there described required a commentary if they were -to become intelligible to an unlearned reader. At the end of each -chapter of his translation, therefore, he appended a series of -explanatory notes, which often reached the proportions of elaborate -essays on the main characteristics of Mohammadan life. - -These notes have long been recognized by Orientalists as the most -complete picture in existence of Arabian society--or rather of those -Arab, Persian, or Greek, but still Mohammadan, conditions of life and -boundaries of the mental horizon which are generally distinguished by -the name of Arabian. Their position and arrangement, however, scattered -as they were through three large volumes, and inserted in the order -required not by their subjects but by the tales they illustrated, -rendered them difficult to consult, and cumbrous, if not impossible, to -read consecutively. It has often been suggested that a reprint of the -principal notes, in a convenient form and in natural sequence, would be -a welcome addition to the scholar's as well as to the general library. -The publication of a new impression of the "Thousand and One Nights" -presented an opportunity for discussing the project; and the result is -the present volume. - -My task, as editor, has been a simple one. I have rejected only those -notes which have no value apart from the main work--glossarial notes, -for instance, giving the English of the proper names occurring in the -Arabian Nights; disquisitions on the probable date of the composition of -the tales; and others inseparably connected with the stories themselves. -The rest I have arranged in a series of chapters, interweaving the -shorter notes in the longer, and giving as far as possible an air of -unity to each division. Beyond such verbal alterations as were required -by the separation of the notes from the text to which they referred, -occasional changes in punctuation, and a slight alteration in the -spelling of Oriental names in accordance with my great-uncle's latest -method, I have not interfered with the form of the notes as they -appeared in the edition of 1859. Such insignificant changes as I have -made, I think I may state with confidence, would have been approved by -the author. Beyond a few notes distinguished by square brackets, a new -and very minute index (in which all Arabic words are explained), and a -list of the authorities quoted, I have added nothing of my own. - -It may be objected to the title of the book that a considerable part of -the notes is composed of recollections of Mr. Lane's personal -experiences in Cairo in the early part of the present century. The -subject-matter, however, is really mediæval. The notes have all the same -purpose: to explain the conditions of life and society as they were at -the time when the "Thousand and One Nights" assumed their present -collected form. Upon various grounds Mr. Lane placed this redaction or -composition at about the end of the fifteenth century. Accordingly, a -large proportion of these notes consist of extracts from the more famous -Arabic historians and other authors of the later Middle Ages, such as -Ibn El-Jowzee (who died in A.D. 1256), El-Kazweenee (1283), -Ibn-el-Wardee (1348), Ibn-Khaldoon (1406), El-Makreezee (1441), -Es-Suyootee (1505), who all knew Arabian society in precisely the -state described in the "Thousand and One Nights." Most of these -authorities were unpublished when the notes were written, and Mr. Lane's -quotations are from manuscripts in his own possession. Some are still -inedited; and though many have been printed at the Boolák Press and -elsewhere, it is surprising how little they have been used by European -authors. - -To the records of these mediæval writers, Mr. Lane added the results of -his personal experience; and in doing so he was guilty of no -anachronism: for the Arabian Society in which a Saladin, a Beybars, a -Barkook, and a Kait-Bey moved, and of which the native historians have -preserved so full and graphic a record, survived almost unchanged to the -time of Mohammad ´Alee, when Mr. Lane spent many years of intimate -acquaintance among the people of Cairo. The life that he saw was the -same as that described by El-Makreezee and Es-Suyootee; and the purely -Muslim society in which Mr. Lane preferred to move was in spirit, in -custom, and in all essentials the same society that once hailed a Hároon -er-Rasheed, a Jaafar el-Barmekee, and an Aboo-Nuwás, among its members. -The continuity of Arabian social tradition was practically unbroken from -almost the beginning of the Khalifate to the present century, at least -in such a metropolis of Islám as Cairo, or as Damascus or Baghdad. -European influence has been busy in demolishing it. Cairo has long been -trying to become a bastard Paris instead of the picturesque city of -El-Mo´izz and Saláh-ed-Deen, and to forget its traditions of the palmy -days of Islám and its memorials of the chivalrous heroes of crusading -times. It would be impossible now to gather the minute details of a -purely Mohammadan society which Mr. Lane found ready to his eye and -hand; and it is therefore the more fortunate that the record of Arabian -Society, as it was during the Khalifate and under the rule of the -Memlooks in the Middle Ages, and as it continued to be in Egypt to the -days of Mohammad ´Alee, was faithfully preserved in the "Manners and -Customs of the Modern Egyptians," and in the notes to the "Thousand and -One Nights," which are here for the first time presented in a separate -and consecutive form. - - STANLEY LANE-POOLE. - - _December, 1882._ - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - RELIGION. - - Articles of Faith--Predestination--Ritual and Moral Laws: - prayer, almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage, etc.--Civil Laws: - marriage, divorce, inheritance, manumission--Criminal Laws: - murder, retaliation, theft, etc.--Religious Festivals 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - DEMONOLOGY. - - Angels and Jinn (Genii)--Various kinds of Jinn--Preadamite - Jinn--History of Iblees--Long life of the Jinn and manner of - death; assumed shapes--A Jinneeyeh wife--Spirits of the - whirlwind and waterspout--Abodes of the Jinn--Solomon's power - over them--Ghools and other inferior orders 25 - - CHAPTER III. - - SAINTS. - - Welees and their Kutbs--El-Khidr and Elias--Miracles-- - Influence--Self-denial and asceticism--Two authentic - saints--General habits--A historical saint--Pilgrimage - to the tombs--Annual festivals--A Zikr performed by - Darweeshes--A Khatmeh--Religious murder 47 - - CHAPTER IV. - - MAGIC. - - Spiritual magic, divine or Satanic--Babel--Hároot and - Mároot--Enchantment--Divination--Astrology--Geomancy-- - Auguration--Chiromancy--Omens--Dreams--A dream of the Great - Plague, 1835--Lucky and unlucky days--Natural - magic--Alchymy--The magician Sádoomeh and his miracles 80 - - CHAPTER V. - - COSMOGRAPHY. - - The seven Heavens--Paradise--Form and divisions of the - earth--The Sea of Darkness--Fountain of Life--Mountains of - Káf--The lower earths--What the earth stands on--The stages - of Hell 97 - - CHAPTER VI. - - LITERATURE. - - The Heroic Age--´Okádh--The Kur-án--The Middle - Age--Corrupt dialects--´Abd-el-Melik--Hároon Er-Rasheed and - Abu-l´Atáhiyeh--The Barmekees--Dresses of honour--Two items in - Hároon's account book--Rewards to poets--Hammád's good - fortune--Reception of Greek ambassadors by a Khaleefeh--A - niggardly king outwitted--The decline of Arabian - literature--Letters--The language of flowers, and emblematical - conversation--Secret signs--El-Mutanebbee's warning--The - language of birds and beasts 109 - - CHAPTER VII. - - FEASTING AND MERRYMAKING. - - Muslim meals and mode of eating--Principal dishes--A typical - feast--Public dinners--Clean and unclean meats--Drinks-- - Hospitality--Bread and salt--A thief thwarted--An Arabian - room--A hall or saloon--The use of wine--Date wine, - etc.--Prevalence of the habit of drinking wine in the present - day and in history--A bout interrupted--Moderate - drinking--Effects of wine--´Abd-el-Melik and his - slave--Preparations for a banquet--Fruits--A rose-lover-- - Favourite flowers--Music--Ibráheem El-Mósilee and - Hároon Er-Rasheed--Ishák El-Mósilee--Mukhárik--Performers-- - Unveiled women singers--Arab music--Lyric songs--Other - amusements--The Bath--Hunting and hawking 135 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. - - Ceremonies at birth, and on the seventh day--Giving the - name--Sacrifice--Shaving the head--Suckling--Care of - children--Evil eye--Respect for parents--The future state of - children who die young--Early education of the - father--Circumcision--Schools and teaching--Private - tuition--Education of girls--Arab character 186 - - CHAPTER IX. - - WOMEN. - - Love among Arabs--Three tales of true love--Umm-´Amr--The ideal - of beauty--Coiffure--Gait--Woman's counsel--Marriage and - divorce--Laws and general habits--Choice of a wife--Prohibited - degrees--Cousins preferred--Ages--A wife's - qualifications--Dowry--Marriage contract--Festivities and - ceremonies of marriage--Wedding horoscopes--Employment of the - hareem--Polygamy and the Muslim social system in - general--Affection between wives 207 - - CHAPTER X. - - SLAVERY. - - Conditions, rights, and disabilities of slaves--Emancipation-- - White slaves--Treatment--The Prophet's injunctions--´Othmán's - compunction--Jaafar's wife 250 - - CHAPTER XI. - - CEREMONIES OF DEATH. - - Last duties--Washing--Grave-clothes--Funeral--Sacrifice-- - Biers--The tomb--Preparing for the examining angels--Visits - to the grave--State of the soul between death and the - resurrection--The Well of Barahoot 258 - - INDEX 267 - - AUTHORS AND WORKS REFERRED TO 281 - - - - - ARABIAN SOCIETY IN THE - MIDDLE AGES. - - -CHAPTER I. - -RELIGION. - - -The confession of the Muslim's faith is briefly made in these -words,--"There is no deity but God: Mohammad is God's Apostle,"--which -imply a belief and observance of everything that Mohammad taught to be -the word or will of God. In the opinion of those who are commonly called -orthodox, and termed Sunnees, the Mohammadan code is founded upon the -Kur-án, the Traditions of the Prophet, the concordance of his principal -early disciples, and the decisions which have been framed from analogy -or comparison. The Sunnees consist of four sects, Hanafees, Sháfi´ees, -Málikees, and Hambelees, so called after the names of their respective -founders. The other sects, who are called Shiya´ees (an appellation -particularly given to the Persian sect, but also used to designate -generally all who are not Sunnees), are regarded nearly in the same -light as those who do not profess El-Islám (the Mohammadan faith); that -is, as destined to eternal punishment. - -I. The Mohammadan faith embraces the following points:-- - -1. Belief in God, who is without beginning or end, the sole Creator and -Lord of the universe, having absolute power, and knowledge, and glory, -and perfection. - -2. Belief in his Angels, who are impeccable beings, created of light; -and Genii (Jinn), who are peccable, created of smokeless fire. The -Devils, whose chief is Iblees, or Satan, are evil Genii.[1] - -3. Belief in his Prophets and Apostles;[2] the most distinguished of -whom are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammad. Jesus is -held to be more excellent than any of those who preceded him, to have -been born of a virgin, and to be the Messiah and the word of God and a -Spirit proceeding from him, but not partaking of his essence and not to -be called the Son of God. Mohammad is held to be more excellent than -all, the last and greatest of prophets and apostles, the most excellent -of the creatures of God. - -4. Belief in his Scriptures, which are his uncreated word, revealed to -his prophets. Of these there now exist, but held to be greatly -corrupted, the Pentateuch of Moses, the Psalms of David, and the Gospels -of Jesus Christ; and, in an uncorrupted and incorruptible state, the -Kur-án, which is held to have abrogated, and to surpass in -excellence, all preceding revelations. - -5. Belief in the general Resurrection and Judgment, and in future -rewards and punishments, chiefly of a corporeal nature: the punishments -will be eternal to all but wicked Mohammadans; and none but Mohammadans -will enter into a state of happiness. - -6. Belief in God's Predestination of all events, both good and evil. - -The belief in fate and destiny (el-kadà wa-l-kadar)[3] -exercises a most powerful influence upon the actions and character of -the Muslims. Many hold that fate is in some respects absolute and -unchangeable, in others admitting of alteration; and almost all of them -_act_ in many of the affairs of life as if this were their belief. In -the former case, it is called "el-kadà el-mohkam;" in the -latter, "el-kadà el-mubram" (which term, without the explanation -here given, might be regarded as exactly synonymous with the former). -Hence the Prophet, it is said, prayed to be preserved from the latter, -as knowing that it might be changed; and in allusion to this changeable -fate, we are told, God says, "God will cancel what He pleaseth, and -confirm;"[4] while, on the contrary, the fate which is termed -"mohkam" is appointed "destiny" decreed by God.[5] - -Many doctors have argued that destiny respects only the _final state_ -of a certain portion of men (believers and unbelievers), and that in -general man is endowed with free will, which he should exercise -according to the laws of God and his own conscience and judgment, -praying to God for a blessing on his endeavours, or imploring the -intercession of the Prophet or of any of the saints in his favour, and -propitiating them by offering alms or sacrifices in their names, relying -upon God for the result, which he may then, and then only, attribute to -fate or destiny. They hold, therefore, that it is criminal to attempt -resistance to the will when its dictates are conformable with the laws -of God and our natural consciences and prudence, and so passively to -await the fulfilment of God's decrees.--The doctrine of the Kur-án -and the traditions respecting the decrees of God, or fate and destiny, -appears, however, to be that they are altogether absolute and -unchangeable, written in the beginning of the creation on the "Preserved -Tablet" in heaven; that God hath predestined every event and action, -evil as well as good,--at the same time commanding and approving good, -and forbidding and hating evil; and that the "cancelling" mentioned in -the preceding paragraph relates (as the context seems to show) to the -abrogation of former scriptures or revelations, not of fate. But still -it must be held that He hath not predestined the _will_; though He -sometimes inclines it to good, and the Devil sometimes inclines it to -evil. It is asked, then, If we have the power to will, but not the power -to perform otherwise than as God hath predetermined, how can we be -regarded as responsible beings? The answer to this is that our actions -are judged good or evil according to our intentions, if we have faith: -good actions or intentions, it should be added, only increase, and do -not cause, our happiness if we are believers; and evil actions or -intentions only increase our misery if we are unbelievers or -irreligious: for the Muslim holds that he is to be admitted into heaven -only by the mercy of God, on account of his faith, and to be rewarded in -proportion to his good works. - -The Prophet's assertions on the subject of God's decrees are considered -of the highest importance as explanatory of the Kur-án.--"Whatever is -in the universe," said he, "is by the order of God."--"God hath -pre-ordained five things on his servants; the duration of life, their -actions, their dwelling-places, their travels, and their -portions."--"There is not one among you whose sitting-place is not -written by God, whether in the fire or in paradise."--Some of the -companions of the Prophet, on hearing the last-quoted saying, asked him, -"O Prophet, since God hath appointed our places, may we confide in this, -and abandon our religious and moral duties?" He answered, "No: because -the happy will do good works, and those who are of the miserable will do -bad works." - -The following of his sayings further illustrate this subject:--"When God -hath ordered a creature to die in any particular place, He causeth his -wants to direct him to that place."--A companion asked, "O Prophet of -God, inform me respecting charms, and the medicines which I swallow, and -shields which I make use of for protection, whether they prevent any of -the orders of God." Mohammad answered, "These also are by the order of -God." "There is a medicine for every pain: then, when the medicine -reaches the pain it is cured by the order of God."[6]--When a Muslim, -therefore, feels an inclination to make use of medicine for the cure of -a disease, he should do so, in the hope of its being predestined that he -shall be so cured. On the predestination of diseases, I find the -following curious quotation and remark in a manuscript work[7] -by Es-Suyootee, who wrote in the fifteenth century, in my -possession:--"El-Haleemee says, 'Communicable or contagious diseases are -six: small-pox, measles, itch or scab, foul breath or putridity, -melancholy, and pestilential maladies; and diseases engendered are also -six: leprosy, hectic, epilepsy, gout, elephantiasis, and phthisis.' But -this does not contradict the saying of the Prophet, 'There is no -transition of diseases by contagion or infection, nor any omen that -brings evil:' for the transition here meant is one occasioned by the -disease itself; whereas the effect is of God, who causes pestilence to -spread when there is intercourse with the diseased."--A Bedawee asked -the Prophet, "What is the condition of camels which stay in the deserts? -verily you might say they are deer, in health and in cleanness of skin; -then they mix with mangy camels, and they become mangy also." Mohammad -said, "What made the first camel mangy?"[8] - -Notwithstanding, however, the arguments which have been here adduced, -and many others that might be added, declaring or implying the -unchangeable nature of all God's decrees, I have found it to be the -opinion of my own Muslim friends that God may be induced by supplication -to change certain of his decrees, at least those regarding degrees of -happiness or misery in this world and the next; and that such is the -general opinion appears from a form of prayer which is repeated in the -mosques on the eve of the middle (or fifteenth day) of the month of -Shaabán, when it is believed that such portions of God's decrees as -constitute the destinies of all living creatures for the ensuing year -are confirmed and fixed. In this prayer it is said, "O God, if Thou -_hast recorded_ me in thy abode, upon 'the Original of the Book' [the -Preserved Tablet], miserable or unfortunate or scanted in my sustenance, -_cancel_, O God, of thy goodness, my misery and misfortune and scanty -allowance of sustenance, and confirm me in thy abode, upon the Original -of the Book, as happy and provided for and directed to good,"[9] etc. - -The Arabs in general constantly have recourse both to charms and -medicines, not only for the cure but also for the prevention of -diseases. They have, indeed, a strange passion for medicine, which shows -that they do not consider fate as altogether unconditional. Nothing can -exceed the earnestness with which they often press a European traveller -for a dose; and the more violent the remedy, the better are they -pleased. The following case will serve as an example:--Three -donkey-drivers, conveying the luggage of two British travellers from -Boolák to Cairo, opened a bottle which they observed in a basket, and -finding it to contain (as they had suspected) brandy, emptied it down -their throats: but he who had the last draught, on turning up the -bottle, got the tail of a scorpion into his mouth; and, looking through -the bottle to his great horror saw that it contained a number of these -reptiles, with tarantulas, vipers, and beetles. Thinking that they had -poisoned themselves, but not liking to rely upon fate, they persuaded a -man to come to me for medicine. He introduced the subject by saying, "O -Efendee, do an act of kindness: there are three men poisoned; in your -mercy give them medicine, and save their lives:" and then he related the -whole affair, without concealing the theft. I answered that they did not -deserve medicine; but he urged that by giving it I should obtain an -immense reward. "Yes," said I; "'he who saveth a soul alive shall be as -if he had saved the lives of all mankind.'"[10] I said this to try the -feeling of the applicant, who, expressing admiration of my knowledge, -urged me to be quick, lest the men should die; thus showing himself to -be no unconditional fatalist. I gave him three strong doses of tartar -emetic; and he soon came back to thank me, saying that the medicine was -most admirable, for the men had hardly swallowed it when they almost -vomited their hearts and livers and everything else in their bodies. - -From a distrust in fate some Muslims even shut themselves up during the -prevalence of plague; but this practice is generally condemned. A Syrian -friend of mine who did so nearly had his door broken open by his -neighbours. Another of my friends, one of the most distinguished of the -´Ulamà, confessed to me his conviction of the lawfulness of quarantine -and argued well in favour of it; but said that he dared not openly avow -such an opinion. "The Apostle of God," said he, "God favour and preserve -him! hath commanded that we should not enter a city where there is -pestilence, nor go out from it. Why did he say, 'Enter it -not'?--because, by so doing, we should expose ourselves to the disease. -Why did he say, 'Go not out from it?'--because, by so doing, we should -carry the disease to others. The Prophet was tenderly considerate of our -welfare: but the present Muslims in general are like bulls [brute -beasts]; and they hold the meaning of this command to be, Go not into a -city where there is pestilence, because this would be rashness; and go -not out from it, because this would be distrusting God's power to save -you from it." - -Many of the vulgar and ignorant among modern Muslims, believe that the -unchangeable destinies of every man are written upon his head, in what -are termed the sutures of the skull. - -II. The principal Ritual and Moral Laws are on the following subjects, -of which the first four are the most important. - -1. Prayer (es-saláh) including preparatory purifications. There -are partial or total washings to be performed on particular occasions -which need not be described. The ablution which is more especially -preparatory to prayer (and which is called wudoo) consists in washing -the hands, mouth, nostrils, face, arms (as high as the elbow, the right -first), each three times; and then the upper part of the head, the -beard, ears, neck, and feet, each once. This is done with running water, -or from a very large tank, or from a lake, or the sea. - -Prayers are required to be performed five times in the course of every -day; between daybreak and sunrise, between noon and the ´asr, (which -latter period is about mid-time between noon and nightfall), between the -´asr and sunset, between sunset and the ´eshè (or the period when the -darkness of night commences), and at, or after, the ´eshè. The -commencement of each of these periods is announced by a chant (called -adán), repeated by a crier (muëddin) from the mádineh, or minaret, of -each mosque; and it is more meritorious to commence the prayer then than -at a later time. On each of these occasions, the Muslim has to perform -certain prayers held to be ordained by God, and others ordained by the -Prophet; each kind consisting of two, three, or four "rek´ahs;" which -term signifies the repetition of a set form of words, chiefly from the -Kur-án, and ejaculations of "God is most Great!" etc., accompanied by -particular postures; part of the words being repeated in an erect -posture; part, sitting; and part, in other postures: an inclination of -the head and body, followed by two prostrations, distinguishing each -rek´ah.[11] These prayers may in some cases be abridged, and in others -entirely omitted. Other prayers must be performed on particular -occasions. - -On Friday, the Mohammadan Sabbath, there are congregational prayers, -which are similar to those of others days, with additional prayers and -exhortations by a minister, who is called Imám, or Khateeb. The Selám -(or Salutation) of Friday--a form of blessing on the Prophet and his -family and companions,--is chanted by the muëddins from the mádinehs of -the congregational mosques half-an-hour before noon. The worshippers -begin to assemble in the mosque as soon as they hear it, and arranging -themselves in rows parallel to, and facing, that side in which is the -niche that marks the direction of Mekkeh, each performs by himself the -prayers of two rek´ahs, which are supererogatory, and then sits in his -place while a reader recites part or the whole of the 18th chapter of -the Kur-án. At the call of noon, they all stand up, and each again -performs separately the prayers of two rek´ahs ordained by the Prophet. -A minister standing at the foot of the pulpit-stairs then proposes to -bless the Prophet: and accordingly a second Selám is chanted by one or -more other ministers stationed on an elevated platform. After this, the -former minister, and the latter after him, repeat the call of noon -(which the muëddins have before chanted from the mádinehs); and the -former enjoins silence. The Khateeb has already seated himself on the -top step or platform of the pulpit. He now rises and recites a -khutbeh of praise to God and exhortation to the congregation; and, if -in a country or town acquired by arms from unbelievers, he holds a -wooden sword, resting its point on the ground. Each of the congregation -next offers up some private supplication; after which, the Khateeb -recites a second khutbeh, which is always the same or nearly so, in -part resembling the first, but chiefly a prayer for the Prophet and his -family, and for the general welfare of the Muslims. This finished, the -Khateeb descends from the pulpit, and, stationed before the niche, -after a form of words[12] differing slightly from the call to prayer has -been chanted by the ministers on the elevated platform before mentioned, -recites the divinely-ordained prayers of Friday (two rek´ahs) while the -people do the same silently, keeping time with him exactly in the -various postures. Thus are completed the Friday-prayers; but some of the -congregation remain, and perform the ordinary divinely-ordained prayers -of noon. - -Other occasions for special prayer are the two grand annual festivals; -the nights of Ramadán, the month of abstinence; the occasion of an -eclipse of the sun or moon; for rain; previously to the commencement of -battle; in pilgrimage; and at funerals. - -2. Alms-giving. An alms, called "zekáh," is required by law to be given -annually, to the poor, of camels, oxen (bulls and cows) and buffaloes, -sheep and goats, horses and mules and asses, and gold and silver -(whether in money or in vessels, ornaments, etc.), provided the property -be of a certain amount, as five camels, thirty oxen, forty sheep, five -horses, two hundred dirhems, or twenty deenárs. The proportion is -generally one-fortieth, which is to be paid in kind or in money or other -equivalent. - -3. Fasting (es-Siyám). The Muslim must abstain from eating and -drinking, and from every indulgence of the senses, every day during the -month of Ramadán, from the first appearance of daybreak until sunset, -unless physically incapacitated.--On the first day of the following -month, a festival, called the Minor Festival, is observed with public -prayer and with general rejoicing, which continues three days. - -4. Pilgrimage (el-Hájj). It is incumbent on the Muslim, if able, to -perform at least once in his life the pilgrimage to Mekkeh and Mount -´Arafát. The principal ceremonies of the pilgrimage are completed on -the 9th of the month of Dhu-l-Hijjeh: on the following day, which is -the first of the Great Festival, on the return from ´Arafát to Mekkeh, -the pilgrims who are able to do so perform a sacrifice, and every other -Muslim who can is required to do the same: part of the meat of the -victim he should eat, and the rest he should give to the poor. This -festival is otherwise observed in a similar manner to the minor one, -above mentioned; and lasts three or four days. - -The less important ritual and moral laws may here be briefly -mentioned.[13]--One of these is circumcision, which is not absolutely -obligatory.--The distinctions of clean and unclean meats are nearly the -same in the Mohammadan as in the Mosaic code. Camel's flesh is an -exception; being lawful to the Muslim. Swine's flesh, and blood, are -especially condemned; and a particular mode of slaughtering animals for -food is enjoined, accompanied by the repetition of the name of -God.--Wine and all inebriating liquors are strictly forbidden.--So too -is gaming.--Music is condemned; but most Muslims take great delight in -hearing it.--Images and pictures representing living creatures are -contrary to law.--Charity, probity in all transactions, veracity -(excepting in a few cases),[14] and modesty, are virtues -indispensable.--Cleanliness in person, and decent attire, are -particularly required. Clothes of silk and ornaments of gold or silver -are forbidden to men, but allowed to women: this precept, however, is -often disregarded.--Utensils of gold and silver are also condemned: yet -they are used by many Muslims.--The manners of Muslims in society are -subject to particular rules with respect to salutations, etc. - -Of the Civil Laws, the following notices will suffice.--A man may have -four wives at the same time, and according to common opinion as many -concubine slaves as he pleases.--He may divorce a wife twice, and each -time take her back again; but if he divorce her a third time, or by a -triple sentence, he cannot make her his wife again unless by her own -consent and by a new contract, and after another man has consummated a -marriage with her and divorced her.--The children by a wife and those by -a concubine slave inherit equally, if the latter be acknowledged by the -father. Sons inherit equally: and so do daughters; but the share of a -daughter is half that of a son. One-eighth is the share of the wife or -wives of the deceased if he have left issue, and one-fourth if he have -left no issue. A husband inherits one-fourth of his wife's property if -she have left issue, and one-half if she have left no issue. The debts -and legacies of the deceased must first be paid. A man may leave -one-third [but no more] of his property in any way he pleases.--When a -concubine slave has borne a child to her master, she becomes entitled to -freedom on his death.--There are particular laws relating to commerce. -Usury and monopoly are especially condemned. - -Of the Criminal Laws, a few may be briefly mentioned. Murder is -punishable by death, or by a fine to be paid to the family of the -deceased, if they prefer it.--Theft, if the property stolen amount to a -quarter of a deenár, is to be punished by cutting off the right hand, -except under certain circumstances.--Adultery, if attested by four -eye-witnesses, is punishable by death (stoning): fornication, by a -hundred stripes, and banishment for a year.--Drunkenness is punished -with eighty stripes.--Apostasy, persevered in, by death. - -The Kur-án ordains that murder shall be punished with death; or, -rather, that the free shall die for the free, the slave for the slave, -and the woman for the woman;[15] or that the perpetrator of the crime -shall pay, to the heirs of the person whom he has killed, if they will -allow it, a fine, which is to be divided according to the laws of -inheritance already explained. It also ordains that unintentional -homicide shall be expiated by freeing a believer from slavery, and -paying a fine to the family of the person killed, unless they remit it. -But these laws are amplified and explained by the same book and by the -Imáms. A fine is not to be accepted for murder unless the crime has been -attended by some palliating circumstance. This fine, the price of blood, -is a hundred camels; or a thousand deenárs (about £500) from him who -possesses gold; or, from him who possesses silver, twelve thousand -dirhems (about £300). This is for killing a free man; for a woman, half -that sum; for a slave, his or her value, but this must fall short of the -price of blood for the free. A person unable to free a believer must -fast two months as in Ramadán. The accomplices of a murderer are -liable to the punishment of death. By the Sunneh (or Traditions of the -Prophet) also, a man is obnoxious to capital punishment for the murder -of a woman; and by the Hanafee law, for the murder of another man's -slave. But he is exempted from this punishment who kills his own child -or other descendant, or his own slave, or his son's slave, or a slave of -whom he is part-owner; so also are his accomplices: and according to -Esh-Sháfi´ee, a Muslim, though a slave, is not to be put to death for -killing an infidel, though the latter be free. A man who kills another -in self-defence, or to defend his property from a robber, is exempt from -all punishment. The price of blood is a debt incumbent on the family, -tribe, or association, of which the homicide is a member. It is also -incumbent on the inhabitants of an enclosed quarter, or the proprietor -or proprietors of a field, in which the body of a person killed by an -unknown hand is found; unless the person has been found killed in his -own house. - -Retaliation for intentional wounds and mutilations is allowed by the -Mohammadan law, like as for murder, "an eye for an eye," etc.;[16] but a -fine may be accepted instead, which the law allows also for -unintentional injuries. The fine for a member that is single (as the -nose) is the whole price of blood, as for homicide; for a member of -which there are two, and not more (as a hand), half the price of blood; -for one of which there are ten (a finger or toe), a tenth of the price -of blood: but the fine of a man for maiming or wounding a woman is half -of that for the same injury to a man; and that of a free person for -injuring a slave varies according to the value of the slave. The fine -for depriving a man of any of his five senses, or dangerously wounding -him, or grievously disfiguring him for life, is the whole price of -blood. - -The Mohammadan law ordains that a person who is adult and of sound mind, -if he steals an article of the value of a quarter of a deenár (or piece -of gold) from a place to which he has not ordinary or free access, shall -lose his right hand; but this punishment is not to be inflicted for -stealing a free child, or anything which, in the eye of the law, is of -no pecuniary value, as wine, or a musical instrument; and there are some -other cases in which the thief is not to be so punished. For the second -offence, the left foot is to be cut off; and for the third and -subsequent offences, according to the Hanafee code, the culprit is to -be punished by a long imprisonment; or, by the Sháfi´ee law, for the -third offence, he is to lose his left hand; for the fourth, his right -foot; and for further offences, he is to be flogged or beaten. The -punishment is the same for a woman as for a man. This law induced a -freethinking Muslim to ask, "If the hand is worth five hundred deenárs -[this being the fine for depriving a man of that member], why should it -be cut off for a quarter of a deenár?" He was answered, "An honest hand -is of great value; but not so is the hand that hath stolen." Amputation -for theft, however, is now seldom practised: beating, or some other -punishment, is usually inflicted in its stead for the first, second, and -third offence; and frequently, death for the fourth. - -The Muslims observe two grand ´Eeds or Festivals in every year. The -first of these immediately follows Ramadán, the month of abstinence, -and lasts three days: it is called the Minor Festival. The other, which -is called the Great Festival, commences on the tenth of Dhu-l-Hijjeh, -the day when the pilgrims, halting in the Valley of Minè, on their -return from Mount ´Arafát to Mekkeh, perform their sacrifice: the -observance of this festival also continues three days, or four. - -Early in the first morning, on each of these festivals, the Muslim is -required to perform a lustration of his whole person, as on the mornings -of Friday; and on the first morning of the Minor Festival he should -break his fast with a few dates or some other light food, but on the -Great Festival he abstains from food until he has acquitted himself of -the religious duties now to be mentioned. Soon after sunrise on the -first day of each festival, the men, dressed in new or in their best -clothes, repair to the mosque or to a particular place appointed for -the performance of the prayers of the ´Eed. On going thither, they -should repeat frequently "God is most Great!"--on the Minor Festival -inaudibly, on the other aloud. The congregation having assembled repeat -the prayers of two rek´ahs; after which the Khateeb recites a -khutbeh, _i.e._ an exhortation and a prayer. On each of these -festivals, in the mosque or place of prayer and in the street and at -each other's houses, friends congratulate and embrace one another, -generally paying visits for this purpose; and the great receive visits -from their dependants. The young on these occasions kiss the right hand -of the aged, and servants or dependants do the same to their masters or -superiors, unless the latter be of high rank, in which case they kiss -the end of the hanging sleeves or the skirt of the outer garment. Most -of the shops are closed, excepting those at which eatables and sweet -drinks are sold; but the streets are filled with people in their -holiday-clothes. - -On the Minor Festival, which, as it terminates an arduous fast, is -celebrated with more rejoicing than the other,[17] servants and other -dependants receive presents of new articles of clothing from their -masters or patrons; and the servant receives presents of small sums of -money from his master's friends, whom, if they do not visit his master, -he goes to congratulate; as well as from any former master, to whom he -often takes a plate-full of kahks. These are sweet cakes or biscuits -of an annular form, composed of flour and butter, with a little -´ajameeyeh (a thick paste consisting of butter, honey, a little flour, -and some spices) inside. They are also often sent as presents on this -occasion by other people. Another custom required of the faithful on -this festival is the giving of alms. - -On the Great Festival, after the prayers of the congregation, every one -who can afford it performs, with his own hand or by that of a deputy, a -sacrifice of a ram, he-goat, cow or buffalo, or she-camel; part of the -meat of which he eats, and part he gives to the poor, or to his friends -or dependants. The ram or goat should be at least one year old; the cow -or buffalo, two years; and the camel, five years; and none should have -any considerable mutilation or infirmity. A cow or buffalo, or a camel, -is a sufficient sacrifice for seven persons. The clothes which were put -on new at the former festival are generally worn on this occasion; and -the presents which are given to servants and others are usually somewhat -less. - -On each of the two festivals it is also customary, especially with the -women, to visit the tombs of relations. The party generally take with -them a palm-branch, and place it, broken in several pieces, or merely -its leaves, upon the tomb or monument; or some, instead of this, place -sweet basil or other flowers. They also usually provide themselves with -sweet cakes, bread, dates, or some other kind of food, to distribute to -the poor. But their first duty on arriving at the tomb is to recite the -Fátihah (the opening chapter of the Kur-án), or to employ a person -to recite previously a longer chapter, generally the thirty-sixth -(Soorat Yá-Seen), or even the whole of the book: sometimes the visitors -recite the Fátihah, and, after having hired a person to perform a -longer recitation, go away before he commences. The women often stay all -the days of the festivals in the cemeteries, either in tents or in -houses of their own erected there for their reception on these and other -occasions. The tent of each party surrounds the tomb which is the object -of their visit. In the outskirts of the cemeteries, swings and -whirligigs are set up, and story-tellers, jugglers, and dancers amuse -the populace. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See below, 25 ff. - -[2] An Apostle is distinguished from a mere Prophet by his having a -_book_ revealed to him. - -[3] I use two words (perhaps the best that our language affords) to -express corresponding Arabic terms, which some persons regard as -synonymous, but others distinguish by different shades of meaning. On -what I consider the best authority, the word which I render "fate" -respects the decrees of God in a general sense; while that which I -translate "destiny" relates to the particular applications of those -decrees. In such senses these terms are here to be understood when -separately employed. - -[4] Kur-án, xiii. 39. - -[5] El-Insán el-Kámil, by ´Abd-El-Kereem El-Jeelee, quoted by -El-Ishákee in his account of Ibráheem Pásha el-Maktool. - -[6] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, i. 26-34, 373. [Cp. S. Lane-Poole, "The -Speeches and Tabletalk of the Prophet Mohammad" (1882), 180-182.] - -[7] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil wa-Murshid el-Mutaähhil, section 7. - -[8] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 381. - -[9] For a translation of the whole of this prayer, see my "Account of -the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians," ch. xxv. - -[10] Kur. v. 35. - -[11] For a fuller account of the prayers, see "Modern Egyptians," ch. -iii. - -[12] The Ikámeh: see below, ch. viii. - -[13] [For the collected legislation of the Kur-án, see my "Speeches -and Tabletalk of the Prophet Mohammad," 133 ff. S. L-P. - -[14] Among a people by whom falsehood, in certain cases, is not only -allowed but commended, oaths of different kinds are more or less -binding. In considering this subject we should also remember that oaths -may sometimes be expiated. There are some oaths which, I believe, few -Muslims would falsely take; such as saying, three times, "By God the -Great!" (Wa-lláhi-l-´azeem), and the oath upon the mushaf (or -copy of the Kur-án), saying, "By what this contains of the word of -God!" This latter is rendered more binding by placing a sword with the -sacred volume, and still more so by the addition of a cake, or piece of -bread, and a handful of salt. But a form of oath which is generally yet -more to be depended upon is that of saying, "I impose upon myself -divorcement!" (that is, "the divorce of my wife, if what I say be -false!"); or, "I impose upon myself interdiction!" which has a similar -meaning ("My wife be unlawful to me!"); or, "I impose upon myself a -triple divorcement!" which binds a man by the irrevocable divorce of his -wife. If a man use any of these three forms of oath falsely, his wife, -if he have but one, is divorced by the oath itself, if proved to be -false, without the absolute necessity of any further ceremony; and if he -have two or more wives, he must under such circumstances choose one of -them to put away. - -[15] [But see my "Speeches and Tabletalk of the Prophet Mohammad," 139, -S. L-P.] - -[16] Kur. v. 49. - -[17] Hence it has been called, by many travellers, and even by some -learned Orientalists, the Great Feast; but it is never so called by the -Arabs. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -DEMONOLOGY. - - -The Muslims, in general, believe in three different species of created -intelligent beings: Angels, who are created of light; Genii, who are -created of fire; and Men, created of earth. The first species are called -Meláïkeh (sing. Melek); the second, Jinn (sing. Jinnee); the third, Ins -(sing. Insee). Some hold that the Devils (Sheytáns) are of a species -distinct from Angels and Jinn; but the more prevailing opinion, and that -which rests on the highest authority, is, that they are rebellious Jinn. - -"It is believed," says El-Kazweenee, "that the Angels are of a simple -substance, endowed with life and speech and reason, and that the -difference between them and the Jinn and Sheytáns is a difference of -species. Know," he adds, "that the Angels are sanctified from carnal -desire and the disturbance of anger: they disobey not God in what He -hath commanded them, but do what they are commanded. Their food is the -celebrating of his glory; their drink, the proclaiming of his holiness; -their conversation, the commemoration of God, whose name be exalted; -their pleasure, his worship; they are created in different forms, and -with different powers." Some are described as having the forms of -brutes. Four of them are Archangels; Jebraeel or Jibreel (Gabriel), the -angel of revelations; Meekaeel or Meekál (Michael), the patron of the -Israelites; ´Azraeel, the angel of death; and Isráfeel, the angel of the -trumpet, which he is to sound twice, or as some say thrice, at the end -of the world--one blast will kill all living creatures (himself -included), another, forty years after, (he being raised again for this -purpose, with Jebraeel and Meekaeel), will raise the dead. These -Archangels are also called Apostolic Angels. They are inferior in -dignity to human prophets and apostles, though superior to the rest of -the human race: the angelic nature is held to be inferior to the human -nature, because all the Angels were commanded to prostrate themselves -before Adam. Every believer is attended by two guardian and recording -angels, one of whom writes his good actions, the other, his evil -actions: or, according to some, the number of these angels is five, or -sixty, or a hundred and sixty. There are also two Angels, called Munkir -(vulg. Nákir) and Nekeer, who examine all the dead and torture the -wicked in their graves. - -The species of Jinn is said to have been created some thousands of years -before Adam. According to a tradition from the Prophet, this species -consists of five orders or classes; namely, Jánn (who are the least -powerful of all), Jinn, Sheytáns (or Devils), ´Efreets, and Márids. -The last, it is added, are the most powerful; and the Jánn are -transformed Jinn, like as certain apes and swine were transformed -men.[18]--It must, however, be remarked here that the terms Jinn and -Jánn are generally used indiscriminately as names of the whole species -(including the other orders above mentioned), whether good or bad; and -that the former term is the more common; also, that Sheytán is -commonly used to signify any evil Jinnee. An ´Efreet is a powerful evil -Jinnee: a Márid, an evil Jinnee of the most powerful class. The Jinn -(but, generally speaking, evil ones) are called by the Persians Deevs; -the most powerful evil Jinn, Nárahs (which signifies "males," though -they are said to be males and females); the good Jinn, Perees, though -this term is commonly applied to females. - -In a tradition from the Prophet, it is said, "The Jánn were created of a -smokeless fire."[19] El-Jánn is sometimes used as a name of Iblees, as -in the following verse of the Kur-án:--"And the Jánn [the father of -the Jinn; _i.e._ Iblees] we had created before [_i.e._ before the -creation of Adam] of the fire of the samoom [_i.e._ of fire without -smoke]."[20] Jánn also signifies "a serpent," as in other passages of -the Kur-án;[21] and is used in the same book as synonymous with -Jinn.[22] In the last sense it is generally believed to be used in the -tradition quoted in the commencement of this paragraph. There are -several apparently contradictory traditions from the Prophet which are -reconciled by what has been above stated: in one, it is said that -Iblees was the father of all the Jánn and Sheytáns,[23] Jánn being -here synonymous with Jinn; in another, that Jánn was the father of all -the Jinn,[24] Jánn being here used as a name of Iblees. - -"It is held," says El-Kazweenee, a writer of the thirteenth century, -"that the Jinn are aërial animals, with transparent bodies, which can -assume various forms. People differ in opinion respecting these beings: -some consider the Jinn and Sheytáns as unruly men, but these persons -are of the Moatezileh [a sect of Muslim freethinkers]; and some hold -that God, whose name be exalted, created the Angels of the light of -fire, and the Jinn of its flame [but this is at variance with the -general opinion], and the Sheytáns of its smoke [which is also at -variance with the common opinion], and that [all] these kinds of beings -are [usually] invisible[25] to men, but that they assume what forms they -please, and when their form becomes condensed they are visible."--This -last remark illustrates several descriptions of Jinnees in the "Thousand -and One Nights," where the form of the monster is at first undefined, or -like an enormous pillar, and then gradually assumes a human shape and -less gigantic size. It is said that God created the Jánn (or Jinn) two -thousand years before Adam (or, according to some writers, much -earlier), and that there are believers and infidels, and every sect, -among them, as among men.[26] Some say that a prophet, named Yoosuf, was -sent to the Jinn; others, that they had only preachers or admonishers; -others, again, that seventy apostles were sent, before Mohammad, to -Jinn and men conjointly.[27] It is commonly believed that the preadamite -Jinn were governed by forty (or, according to some, seventy-two) kings, -to each of whom the Arab writers give the name of Suleymán (Solomon); -and that they derive their appellation from the last of these, who was -called Jánn Ibn Jánn, and who, some say, built the Pyramids of Egypt. -The following account of the preadamite Jinn is given by -El-Kazweenee.--"It is related in histories that a race of Jinn in -ancient times, before the creation of Adam, inhabited the earth and -covered it, the land and the sea, and the plains and the mountains; and -the favours of God were multiplied upon them, and they had government -and prophecy and religion and law. But they transgressed and offended, -and opposed their prophets, and made wickedness to abound in the earth; -whereupon God, whose name be exalted, sent against them an army of -Angels, who took possession of the earth, and drove away the Jinn to the -regions of the islands, and made many of them prisoners; and of those -who were made prisoners was ´Azázeel [afterwards called Iblees, from his -_despair_]; and a slaughter was made among them. At that time, ´Azázeel -was young: he grew up among the Angels [and probably for that reason was -called one of them], and became learned in their knowledge, and assumed -the government of them; and his days were prolonged until he became -their chief; and thus it continued for a long time, until the affair -between him and Adam happened, as God, whose name be exalted, hath said, -'When we said unto the Angels, Worship[28] ye Adam, and [all] worshipped -except Iblees, [who] was [one] of the Jinn.'"[29] - -"Iblees," we are told by another author, "was sent as a governor upon -the earth, and judged among the Jinn a thousand years, after which he -ascended into heaven, and remained employed in worship until the -creation of Adam."[30] The name of Iblees was originally, according to -some, ´Azázeel (as before mentioned); and according to others, -El-Hárith: his patronymic is Aboo-Murrah, or Abu-l-Ghimr.[31] It is -disputed whether he was of the Angels or of the Jinn. There are three -opinions on this point.--1. That he was of the Angels, from a tradition -from Ibn-´Abbás.--2. That he was of the Sheytáns (or evil Jinn); as -it is said in the Kur-án, "except Iblees, [who] was [one] of the -Jinn:" this was the opinion of El-Hasan El-Basree, and is that -commonly held.--3. That he was neither of the Angels nor of the Jinn; -but created alone, of fire. Ibn-´Abbás founds his opinion on the same -text from which El-Hasan El-Basree derives his: "When we said unto -the Angels, Worship ye Adam, and [all] worshipped except Iblees, [who] -was [one] of the Jinn" (before quoted): which he explains by saying, -that the most noble and honourable among the Angels are called "the -Jinn," because they are _veiled_ from the eyes of the other Angels on -account of their superiority; and that Iblees was one of these Jinn. He -adds that he had the government of the lowest heaven and of the earth, -and was called the Táoos (literally, Peacock) of the Angels; and that -there was not a spot in the lowest heaven but he had prostrated himself -upon it: but when the Jinn rebelled upon the earth, God sent a troop of -Angels who drove them to the islands and mountains; and Iblees being -elated with pride, and refusing to prostrate himself before Adam, God -transformed him into a Sheytán. But this reasoning is opposed by -other verses, in which Iblees is represented as saying, "Thou hast -created _me_ of _fire_, and hast created _him_ [Adam] of earth."[32] It -is therefore argued, "If he were created originally of fire, how was he -created of light? for the Angels were [all] created of light."[33] The -former verse may be explained by the tradition that Iblees, having been -taken captive, was exalted among the Angels; or perhaps there is an -ellipsis after the word "Angels;" for it might be inferred that the -command given to the Angels was also (and _à fortiori_) to be obeyed by -the Jinn. - -According to a tradition, Iblees and all the Sheytáns are -distinguished from the other Jinn by a longer existence. "The -Sheytáns," it is added, "are the children of Iblees, and die not but -with him, whereas the [other] Jinn die before him;"[34] though they may -live many centuries. But this is not altogether accordant with the -popular belief: Iblees and many other evil Jinn are to survive mankind, -but they are to die before the general resurrection, as also even the -Angels, the last of whom will be the Angel of Death, ´Azraeel. Yet not -_all_ the evil Jinn are to live thus long: many of them are killed by -shooting stars, hurled at them from heaven; wherefore, the Arabs, when -they see a shooting star (shiháb), often exclaim, "May God transfix the -enemy of the faith!" Many also are killed by other Jinn, and some even -by men. The fire of which the Jinnee is created circulates in his veins, -in place of blood: therefore, when he receives a mortal wound, this -fire, issuing from his veins, generally consumes him to ashes. - -The Jinn, it has been already shown, are peccable. They eat and drink, -and propagate their species, sometimes in conjunction with human beings; -in which latter case, the offspring partakes of the nature of both -parents. In all these respects they differ from the Angels. Among the -evil Jinn are distinguished the five sons of their chief, Iblees; -namely, Teer, who brings about calamities, losses and injuries; -El-Aawar, who encourages debauchery; Sót, who suggests lies; -Dásim, who causes hatred between man and wife; and Zelemboor, who -presides over places of traffic.[35] - -The most common forms and habitations or places of resort of the Jinn -must now be described. - -The following traditions from the Prophet are the most to the purpose -that I have seen.--The Jinn are of various shapes; having the forms of -serpents, scorpions, lions, wolves, jackals, etc.[36] The Jinn are of -three kinds: one on the land, one in the sea, and one in the air.[37] -The Jinn consist of forty troops; each troop consisting of six hundred -thousand.[38]--The Jinn are of three kinds: one have wings and fly; -another are snakes and dogs; and the third move about from place to -place like men.[39] Domestic snakes are asserted to be Jinn on the same -authority.[39a] - -The Prophet ordered his followers to kill serpents and scorpions if they -intruded at prayers; but on other occasions he seems to have required -first to admonish them to depart, and then, if they remained, to kill -them. The Doctors, however, differ in opinion whether _all_ kinds of -snakes or serpents should be admonished first, or whether _any_ should; -for the Prophet, say they, took a covenant of the Jinn [probably after -the above-mentioned command], that they should not enter the houses of -the faithful: therefore, it is argued, if they enter, they break their -covenant, and it becomes lawful to kill them without previous warning. -Yet it is related that ´Aïsheh, the Prophet's wife, having killed a -serpent in her chamber, was alarmed by a dream, and fearing that it -might have been a Muslim Jinnee, as it did not enter her chamber when -she was undressed, gave in alms, as an expiation, twelve thousand -dirhems (about £300), the price of the blood of a Muslim.[40] - -The Jinn were said to appear to mankind most commonly in the shapes of -serpents, dogs, cats, or human beings. In the last case, they are -sometimes of the stature of men, and sometimes of a size enormously -gigantic. If good, they are generally resplendently handsome: if evil, -horribly hideous. They become invisible at pleasure, by a rapid -extension or rarefaction of the particles which compose them, or -suddenly disappear in the earth or air or through a solid wall. Many -Muslims in the present day profess to have seen and held intercourse -with them:--witness the following anecdote, which was related to me by a -Persian with whom I was acquainted in Cairo, named Abu-l-Kásim, a -native of Jeelán, then superintendent of Mohammad ´Alee's -Printing-office at Boolák. - -One of this person's countrymen, whom he asserted to be a man of -indubitable veracity, was sitting on the roof of a house which he had -hired, overlooking the Ganges, and was passing the closing hour of the -day, according to his usual custom, in smoking his Persian pipe and -feasting his eyes by gazing at the beautiful forms of Indian maidens -bathing in the river, when he beheld among them one so lovely that his -heart was overpowered with desire to have her for his wife. At nightfall -she came to him, and told him that she had observed his emotion and -would consent to become his wife; but on the condition that he should -never admit another female to take or share her place, and that she -should only be with him in the night time. They took the marriage-vow to -each other, with none for their witness but God; and great was his -happiness, till, one evening, he saw again, among a group of girls in -the river, another who excited in him still more powerful emotions. To -his surprise, this very form stood before him at the approach of night. -He withstood the temptation, mindful of his marriage-vow; she used every -allurement, but he was resolute. His fair visitor then told him that she -was his wife; that she was a jinneeyeh; and that she would always -thenceforward visit him in the form of any females whom he might chance -to desire. - -The Zóba´ah, which is a whirlwind that raises the sand or dust in the -form of a pillar of prodigious height, often seen sweeping across the -deserts and fields, is believed to be caused by the flight of an evil -Jinnee. To defend themselves from a Jinnee thus "riding in the -whirlwind," the Arabs often exclaim, "Iron! Iron!" (Hadeed! -Hadeed!), or, "Iron! thou unlucky!" (Hadeed! yá mashoom!) as the -Jinn are supposed to have a great dread of that metal: or they exclaim, -"God is most great!" (Alláhu akbar!).[41] A similar superstition -prevails with respect to the water-spout at sea, as may be seen in the -adventures of King Shahriyár in the introduction to the "Thousand and -One Nights." - -It is believed that the chief abode of the Jinn is in the Mountains of -Káf, which are supposed to encompass the whole of our earth. But they -are also believed to pervade the solid body of our earth, and the -firmament; and to choose as their principal places of resort or of -occasional abode, baths, wells, ovens, ruined houses, market-places, the -junctures of roads, the sea, and rivers. The Arabs, therefore, when they -pour water on the ground, or enter a bath, or let down a bucket into a -well, and on various other occasions, say "Permission!" or "Permission, -ye blessed!" (Destoor! or Destoor yá mubárakeen![42])The evil spirits -(or evil Jinn), it is said, had liberty to enter any of the seven -heavens till the birth of Jesus, when they were excluded from three of -them: on the birth of Mohammad they were forbidden the other -four.[43] They continue, however, to ascend to the confines of the -lowest heaven, and there listening to the conversation of the Angels -respecting things decreed by God, obtain knowledge of futurity, which -they sometimes impart to men, who, by means of talismans, or certain -invocations, make them to serve the purposes of magical performances. -What the Prophet said of Iblees, in the following tradition, applies -also to the evil Jinn over whom he presides:--His chief abode [among -men] is the bath; his chief places of resort are the markets, and the -junctures of roads; his food is whatever is killed without the name of -God being pronounced over it; his drink, whatever is intoxicating; his -muëddin, the mizmár (a musical pipe, _i.e._ any musical instrument); his -Kur-án, poetry; his written character, the marks made in -geomancy;[44] his speech, falsehood; his snares, women.[45] - -That particular Jinn presided over particular places was an opinion of -the early Arabs. It is said in the Kur-án, "And there were certain -men who sought refuge with certain of the Jinn."[46] In the Commentary -of the Jeláleyn, I find the following remark on these words:--"When they -halted on their journey in a place of fear, each man said, 'I seek -refuge with the lord of this place, from the mischief of his foolish -ones!'" In illustration of this, I may insert the following tradition, -translated from El-Kazweenee:--"It is related by a certain narrator -of traditions, that he descended into a valley with his sheep, and a -wolf carried off a ewe from among them; and he arose, and raised his -voice, and cried, 'O inhabitant of the valley!' whereupon he heard a -voice saying, 'O wolf, restore to him his sheep!' and the wolf came with -the ewe, and left her and departed." The same opinion is held by the -modern Arabs, though probably they do not use such an invocation. A -similar superstition, a relic of ancient Egyptian credulity, still -prevails among the people of Cairo. It is believed that each quarter of -this city has its peculiar guardian-genius, or Agathodaemon, which has -the form of a serpent.[47] - -It has already been mentioned that some of the Jinn are Muslims, and -others infidels. The good Jinn acquit themselves of the imperative -duties of religion, namely, prayers, alms-giving, fasting during the -month of Ramadán, and pilgrimage to Mekkeh and Mount ´Arafát; but in -the performance of these duties they are generally invisible to human -beings.[48] - -It has been stated, that, by means of talismans, or certain invocations, -men are said to obtain the services of Jinn; and the manner in which the -latter are enabled to assist magicians, by imparting to them the -knowledge of future events, has been explained above. No man ever -obtained such absolute power over the Jinn as Suleymán Ibn Dáood -(Solomon, the son of David). - -This he did by virtue of a most wonderful talisman, which is said to -have come down to him from heaven. It was a seal-ring, upon which was -engraved "the most great name" of God, and was partly composed of brass -and partly of iron. With the brass he stamped his written commands to -the good Jinn; with the iron (for the reason before mentioned, p. 36), -those to the evil Jinn or Devils. Over both orders he had unlimited -power; as well as over the birds and the winds,[49] and, as is generally -said, over the wild beasts. His Wezeer, Ásaf the son of Barkhiyà, is -also said to have been acquainted with "the most great name," by -uttering which, the greatest miracles may be performed,--even that of -raising the dead. By virtue of this name engraved on his ring, Suleymán -compelled the Jinn to assist in building the Temple of Jerusalem, and in -various other works. Many of the evil Jinn he converted to the true -faith, and many others of this class, who remained obstinate in -infidelity, he confined in prisons. He is said to have been monarch of -the whole earth. Hence, perhaps, the name of Suleymán is given to the -universal monarchs of the preadamite Jinn; unless the story of his own -universal dominion originated from confounding him with those kings. - -The injuries related to have been inflicted upon human beings by evil -Jinn are of various kinds. Jinn are said to have often carried off -beautiful women, whom they have forcibly kept as their wives or -concubines. Malicious or disturbed Jinn are asserted often to station -themselves on the roofs or at the windows of houses, and to throw down -bricks and stones on persons passing by. When they take possession of an -uninhabited house, they seldom fail to persecute terribly any person who -goes to reside in it. They are also very apt to pilfer provisions, etc. -Many learned and devout persons, to secure their property from such -depredations, repeat the words "In the name of God, the Compassionate, -the Merciful!" on locking the doors of their houses, rooms, or closets, -and on covering the bread-basket, or anything containing food.[50] -During the month of Ramadán, the evil Jinn are believed to be -confined in prison; and therefore, on the last night of that month, with -the same view, women sometimes repeat the words above mentioned, and -sprinkle salt upon the floors of the apartments of their houses.[51] - -To complete this sketch of Arabian demonology, an account must be added -of several creatures generally believed to be of inferior orders of the -Jinn. - -One of these is the Ghool, which is commonly regarded as a kind of -Sheytán or evil Jinnee, that eats men; and is also described by some -as a Jinnee or an enchanter who assumes various forms. The Ghools are -said to appear in the forms of human beings, and of various animals, and -in many monstrous shapes; to haunt burial-grounds and other sequestered -spots; to feed upon dead human bodies; and to kill and devour any human -creature who has the misfortune to fall in their way: whence the term -"Ghool" is applied to any cannibal. An opinion quoted by a celebrated -author respecting the Ghool is that it is a demoniacal animal, which -passes a solitary existence in the deserts, resembling both man and -brute; that it appears to a person travelling alone in the night and in -solitary places, and being supposed by him to be itself a traveller, -lures him out of his way.[52] - -Another opinion stated by him is this: that when the Sheytáns attempt -to hear words by stealth [from the confines of the lowest heaven] they -are struck by shooting-stars; and some are burnt; some, falling into a -sea, or rather a large river (bahr), are converted into crocodiles; -and some, falling upon the land, become Ghools. The same author adds the -following tradition:--"The Ghool is any Jinnee that is opposed to -travels, assuming various forms and appearances;"[53] and affirms that -several of the Companions of the Prophet saw Ghools in their travels, -and that ´Omar, among them, saw a Ghool while on a journey to Syria, -before El-Islám, and struck it with his sword. It appears that "Ghool" -is, properly speaking, a name only given to a _female_ demon of the kind -above described: the male is called "Kutrub." It is said that -these beings, and the Ghaddár or Gharrár, and other similar creatures -which will presently be mentioned, are the offspring of Iblees and of a -wife whom God created for him of the fire of the samoom (which here -signifies, as in an instance before mentioned, "a smokeless fire"); and -that they sprang from an egg.[54] The female Ghool, it is added, appears -to men in the deserts, in various forms, converses with them, and -sometimes yields herself to them. - -The Sealáh, or Saaláh, is another demoniacal creature, described -by most authors as of the Jinn. It is said that it is mostly found in -forests; and that when it captures a man, it makes him dance, and plays -with him as the cat plays with the mouse. A man of Isfahán asserted -that many beings of this kind abounded in his country; that sometimes -the wolf would hunt one of them by night, and devour it, and that, when -it had seized it, the Sealáh would cry out, "Come to my help, for the -wolf devoureth me!" or it would cry, "Who will liberate me? I have a -hundred deenárs, and he shall receive them!" but the people knowing that -it was the cry of the Sealáh, no one would liberate it; and so the -wolf would eat it.[55]--An island in the sea of Es-Seen (China) is -called "the Island of the Sealáh," by Arab geographers, from its -being said to be inhabited by the demons so named: they are described as -creatures of hideous forms, supposed to be Sheytans, the offspring of -human beings and Jinn, who eat men.[56] - -The Ghaddár, or Gharrár,[57] is another creature of a similar nature, -described as being found in the borders of El-Yemen, and sometimes in -Tihámeh, and in the upper parts of Egypt. It is said that it entices a -man to it, and either tortures him in a manner not to be described, or -merely terrifies him, and leaves him.[58] - -The Delhán is also a demoniacal being, inhabiting the islands of the -seas, having the form of a man, and riding on an ostrich. It eats the -flesh of men whom the sea casts on the shore from wrecks. Some say that -a Delhán once attacked a ship in the sea, and desired to take the crew; -but they contended with it; whereupon it uttered a cry which caused them -to fall upon their faces, and it took them.[59] - -The Shikk is another demoniacal creature, having the form of half -a human being (like a man divided longitudinally); and it is believed -that the Nesnás is the offspring of a Shikk and of a human being. -The former appears to travellers; and it was a demon of this kind who -killed, and was killed by, ´Alkamah, the son of Safwán, the son of -Umeiyeh; of whom it is well known that he was killed by a Jinnee. So -says El-Kazweenee. - -The Nesnás (above mentioned) is described as resembling half a human -being; having half a head, half a body, one arm, and one leg, with which -it hops with much agility; as being found in the woods of El-Yemen, and -being endowed with speech: "but God," it is added, "is all-knowing."[60] -It is said that it is found in Hadramót as well as El-Yemen; and -that one was brought alive to El-Mutawekkil: it resembled a man in form, -excepting that it had but half a face, which was in its breast, and a -tail like that of a sheep. The people of Hadramót, it is added, -eat it; and its flesh is sweet. It is only generated in their country. A -man who went there asserted that he saw a captured Nesnás, which cried -out for mercy, conjuring him by God and by himself.[61] A race of people -whose head is in the breast, is described as inhabiting an island called -Jábeh (supposed to be Java), in the Sea of El-Hind (India).[62] A kind -of Nesnás is also described as inhabiting the Island of Ráïj, in the Sea -of Es-Seen (China), and having wings like those of the bat.[63] - -The Hátif is a being that is heard, but not seen; and is often -mentioned by Arab writers. It is generally the communicator of some -intelligence in the way of advice, or direction, or warning. - -Here terminating this chapter, I must beg the reader to remark that the -superstitious fancies which it describes are prevalent among all classes -of the Arabs, and the Muslims in general, learned as well as vulgar. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[18] Mir-át ez-Zemán (MS. in my possession)--a great history whose -author lived in the thirteenth century of our era. See also Kur. v. -65. - -[19] Mir-át ez-Zemán. Kur. lv. 14. The word which signifies "a -smokeless fire" has been misunderstood by some as meaning "the flame of -fire:" El-Jóheree (in the Siháh) renders it rightly; and says -that of this fire was _the_ Sheytán (Iblees) created. - -[20] Kur. xv. 27; and Commentary of the Jeláleyn. - -[21] Kur. xxvii. 10; and xxviii. 31; and the Jeláleyn. - -[22] Kur. lv. 39, 74; and the Jeláleyn. - -[23] ´Ikrimeh, from Ibn-´Abbás, in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[24] Mujáhid, from the same, ibid. - -[25] Hence the appellations of "Jinn" and "Jánn." - -[26] Tradition from the Prophet, in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[27] Ibid. - -[28] The worship here spoken of is prostration, as an act of obeisance -to a superior being. - -[29] Kur. xviii. 48. - -[30] Et-Tabaree, quoted in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[31] Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[32] Kur. vii. 11; and xxxviii. 77. - -[33] Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[34] El-Hasan El-Basree, in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. My interpolation -of the word "other" is required by his opinion before stated. - -[35] Mujáhid, quoted by El-Kazweenee. - -[36] Mujáhid, from Ibn-´Abbás, in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[37] El-Hasan El-Basree, ibid. - -[38] ´Ikrimeh, from Ibn-´Abbás, ibid. - -[39] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 314. - -[39a] Ibid. ii. 311, 312. - -[40] Mir-át ez-Zemán. See above, p. 18. - -[41] Modern Egyptians, ch. x. - -[42] Ibid. - -[43] Sale, in a note on chap. xv. of the Kur-án. - -[44] So I translate the word "khatt;" but in Es-Suyootee's -Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil wa-Murshid el-Mutaähhil, section 7, I find, in its -place, the word "weshm," or "tattooing;" and there are some other slight -variations and omissions in this tradition as there quoted. - -[45] El-Kazweenee. - -[46] Kur. lxxii. 6. - -[47] Modern Egyptians, ch. x. - -[48] Ibid. ch. xxiv. - -[49] Kur. xxvii. 17; xxxviii. 35. - -[50] Modern Egyptians, ch. x. - -[51] Ibid. - -[52] El-Kazweenee. - -[53] El-Jáhiz (´Amr Ibn-Bahr). - -[54] Tradition from Wahb Ibn-Munebbih, quoted in the account of the -early Arabs in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[55] El-Kazweenee. - -[56] Ibn-El-Wardee [fourteenth century]. - -[57] Its name is written differently in two different MSS. in my -possession. - -[58] El-Kazweenee, and Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[59] El-Kazweenee. In my MS. of Ibn-El-Wardee, I find the name -written "Dahlán." He mentions an island called by this name, in the Sea -of ´Omán; and describes its inhabitants as cannibal Sheytáns, like -men in form, and riding on birds resembling ostriches. There is also an -inferior class of the Jinn, termed El-Ghowwásah, that is, the Divers -or Plungers in the seas. - -[60] El-Kazweenee, in the khátimeh [or epilogue] of his work. - -[61] Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[62] Ibn-El-Wardee. - -[63] Idem. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SAINTS. - - -The Arabs entertain remarkable opinions with respect to the offices and -supernatural powers of their saints, which form an important part of the -mysteries of the Darweeshes (Dervishes), and are but imperfectly known -to the generality of Muslims. - -Muslim Saints and devotees are known by the common appellation of -Welees, or particular favourites of God. The more eminent among them -compose a mysterious hierarchical body, whose government respects the -whole human race, infidels as well as believers, but whose power is -often exercised in such a manner that the subjects influenced by it know -not from what person or persons its effects proceed. The general -governor or coryphaeus of these holy beings is commonly called the -Kutb, which literally signifies a "pole," or an "axis," and is -metaphorically used to signify a "chief," either in a civil or -political, or in a spiritual sense. The Kutb of the saints is -distinguished by other appellations: he is called Kutb el-Ghós, or -Kutb el-Ghóth (the Kutb of Invocation for Help), etc.; and -simply, El-Ghós.[64] The orders under the rule of this chief are called -´Omud (or Owtád), Akhyár, Abdál, Nujaba, and Nukaba: I name them -according to their precedence.[65] Perhaps to these should be added an -inferior order called Asháb ed-Darak, _i.e._ "Watchmen," or -"Overseers." The members are not known as such to their inferior -unenlightened fellow-creatures, and are often invisible to them. This is -more frequently the case with the Kutb, who, though generally -stationed at Mekkeh, on the roof of the Kaabeh, is never visible -there, nor at any of his other favourite stations or places of resort; -yet his voice is often heard at these places. Whenever he and the saints -under his authority mingle among ordinary men, they are not -distinguished by a dignified appearance, but are always humbly clad. -These, and even inferior saints, are said to perform astonishing -miracles, such as flying in the air, passing unhurt through fire, -swallowing fire, glass, etc., walking upon water, transporting -themselves in a moment of time to immense distances, and supplying -themselves and others with food in desert places. Their supernatural -power they are supposed to obtain by a life of the most exalted piety, -and especially by constant self-denial, accompanied with the most -implicit reliance upon God, by the services of good genii, and, as many -believe, by the knowledge and utterance of "the most great name" of God. -A miracle performed by a saint is distinguished by the term "karámeh" -from one performed by a prophet, which is called "moajizeh." - -El-Khidr and Ilyás (Elias), are both believed to have been -Kutbs, and the latter is called in the Kur-án an apostle; but -it is disputed whether the former was a prophet or merely a welee. Both -are said to have drunk of the Fountain of Life, and to be in consequence -still living; and Ilyás is commonly believed to invest the successive -Kutbs. The similarity of the miracles ascribed to the Kutbs -to those performed by Elias or Elijah, I have remarked in a former -work.[66] Another miracle, reminding us of the mantle of Elijah in the -hands of his successor, may here be mentioned.--A saint who was the -Kutb of his time, dying at Tunis, left his clothes in trust to his -attendant, Mohammad El-Ashwam, a native of the neighbouring regency -of Tripoli, who desired to sell these relics, but was counselled to -retain them, and accordingly, though high prices were bidden for them, -made them his own by purchase. As soon as they became his property, he -was affected, we are told, with a divine ecstasy, and endowed with -miraculous powers.[67] - -Innumerable miracles are related to have been performed by Muslim -saints, and large volumes are filled with the histories of their -wonderful lives. The author of the work from which the above story is -taken, mentions, as a fact to be relied on, in an account of one of his -ancestors, that, his lamp happening to go out one night while he was -reading alone in the riwák of the Jabart (of which he was the -sheykh), in the great mosque El-Azhar, the forefinger of his right hand -emitted a light which enabled him to continue his reading until his -nakeeb had trimmed and lighted another lamp.[68] - -From many stories of a similar kind that I have read, I select the -following as a fair specimen: it is related by a very celebrated saint, -Ibráheem El-Khowwás.--"I entered the desert [on pilgrimage to Mekkeh -from El-´Irák], and there joined me a man having a belt round his -waist, and I said, 'Who art thou?'--He answered, 'A Christian; and I -desire thy company.' We walked together for seven days, eating nothing; -after which he said to me, 'O monk of the Muslims, produce what thou -hast in the way of refreshment, for we are hungry:' so I said, 'O my -God, disgrace me not before this infidel:' and lo, a tray, upon which -were bread and broiled meat and fresh dates and a mug of water. We ate, -and continued our journey seven days more; and I then said to him, 'O -monk of the Christians, produce what thou hast in the way of -refreshment; for the turn is come to thee:' whereupon he leaned upon his -staff, and prayed; and lo, two trays, containing double that which was -on my tray. I was confounded, and refused to eat: he urged me, saying, -'Eat;' but I did it not. Then said he, 'Be glad; for I give thee two -pieces of good news: one of them is that I testify that there is no -deity but God and that Mohammad is God's Apostle: the other, that I -said, O God, if there be worth in this servant, supply me with two -trays:--so this is through thy blessing.' We ate, and the man put on the -dress of pilgrimage, and so entered Mekkeh, where he remained with me a -year as a student; after which he died, and I buried him in [the -cemetery] El-Maalà." "And God," says the author from whom I take this -story, "is all-knowing:" _i.e._ He alone knoweth whether it be strictly -true: but this is often added to the narration of traditions resting -upon high authority.[69] - -The saint above mentioned was called "El-Khowwás" (or the maker of -palm-leaf baskets, etc.) from the following circumstance, related by -himself.--"I used," said he, "to go out of the town [Er-Rei] and sit by -a river on the banks of which was abundance of palm-leaves; and it -occurred to my mind to make every day five baskets [kuffehs], and to -throw them into the river, for my amusement, as if I were obliged to do -so. My time was so passed for many days: at length, one day, I thought I -would walk after the baskets, and see whither they had gone: so I -proceeded awhile along the bank of the river, and found an old woman -sitting sorrowful. On that day I had made nothing. I said to her, -'Wherefore do I see thee sorrowful?' She answered, 'I am a widow: my -husband died leaving five daughters, and nothing to maintain them; and -it is my custom to repair every day to this river, and there come to me, -upon the surface of the water, five baskets, which I sell, and by means -of them I procure food; but to-day they have not come, and I know not -what to do.' Upon hearing this, I raised my head towards heaven, and -said, 'O my God, had I known that I had more than five children to -maintain, I had laboured more diligently.'" He then took the old woman -to his house, and gave her money and flour, and said to her, "Whenever -thou wantest anything, come hither and take what may suffice thee."[70] - -An irresistible influence has often been exercised over the minds of -princes and other great men by reputed saints. Many a Muslim Monarch has -thus been incited (as the Kings of Christendom were by Peter the Hermit) -to undertake religious wars, or urged to acts of piety and charity, or -restrained from tyranny, by threats of Divine vengeance to be called -down upon his head by the imprecations of a welee. ´Alee, the favourite -son of the Khaleefeh El-Ma-moon, was induced for the sake of religion to -flee from the splendour and luxuries of his father's court, and after -the example of a self-denying devotee to follow the occupation of a -porter in a state of the most abject poverty at El-Basrah, fasting -all the day, remaining without sleep at night in a mosque, and walking -barefooted, until, under an accumulation of severe sufferings, he -prematurely ended his days, dying on a mat. The honours which he refused -to receive in life were paid to him after his death: his rank being -discovered by a ring and paper which he left, his corpse was anointed -with camphor and musk and aloes, wrapped in fine linen of Egypt, and so -conveyed to his distressed father at Baghdád.[71] - -Self-denial I have before mentioned as one of the most important means -by which to attain the dignity of a welee. A very famous saint, -Esh-Shiblee, is said to have received from his father an inheritance of -sixty millions of deenárs (a sum incredible, and probably a mistake for -sixty thousand, or for sixty million dirhems) besides landed property, -and to have expended it all in charity: also, to have thrown into the -Tigris seventy hundred-weight of books, written by his own hand during a -period of twenty years.[72] - -Sháh El-Karmánee, another celebrated saint, had a beautiful daughter, -whom the Sultán of his country sought in marriage. The holy man -required three days to consider his sovereign's proposal, and in the -mean time visited several mosques, in one of which he saw a young man -humbly occupied in prayer. Having waited till he had finished, he -accosted him, saying, "My son, hast thou a wife?" Being answered "No," -he said, "I have a maiden, a virtuous devotee, who hath learned the -whole of the Kur-án, and is amply endowed with beauty. Dost thou -desire her?"--"Who," said the young man, "will marry me to such a one as -thou hast described, when I possess no more than three dirhems?"--"_I_ -will marry thee to her," answered the saint: "she is my daughter, and I -am Sháh the son of Shujáa El-Karmánee: give me the dirhems that thou -hast, that I may buy a dirhem's worth of bread, and a dirhem's worth of -something savoury, and a dirhem's worth of perfume." The -marriage-contract was performed; but when the bride came to the young -man, she saw a stale cake of bread placed upon the top of his mug; upon -which she put on her izár, and went out. Her husband said, "Now I -perceive that the daughter of Sháh El-Karmánee is displeased with my -poverty." She answered, "I did not withdraw from fear of poverty, but on -account of the weakness of thy faith, seeing how thou layest by a cake -of bread for the morrow."[73] - -One of my friends in Cairo, Abu-l-Kásim of Jeelán, entertained me -with a long relation of the mortifications and other means which he -employed to attain the rank of a welee. These were chiefly self-denial -and a perfect reliance upon Providence. He left his home in a state of -voluntary destitution and complete nudity, to travel through Persia and -the surrounding countries and yet more distant regions if necessary, in -search of a spiritual guide. For many days he avoided the habitations of -men, fasting from daybreak till sunset, and then eating nothing but a -little grass or a few leaves or wild fruits, till by degrees he -habituated himself to almost total abstinence from every kind of -nourishment. His feet, at first blistered and cut by sharp stones, soon -became callous; and in proportion to his reduction of food, his frame, -contrary to the common course of nature, became (according to his own -account) more stout and lusty. Bronzed by the sun, and with his black -hair hanging over his shoulders (for he had abjured the use of the -razor), he presented in his nudity a wild and frightful appearance, and -on his first approaching a town, was surrounded and pelted by a crowd of -boys; he therefore retreated, and, after the example of our first -parents, made himself a partial covering of leaves; and this he always -afterwards did on similar occasions, never remaining long enough in a -town for his leafy apron to wither. The abodes of mankind he always -passed at a distance, excepting when several days' fast, while -traversing an arid desert, compelled him to obtain a morsel of bread or -a cup of water from the hand of some charitable fellow-creature. - -One thing that he particularly dreaded was to receive relief from a -sinful man, or from a demon in the human form. In passing over a parched -and desolate tract, where for three days he had found nothing to eat, -not even a blade of grass, nor a spring from which to refresh his -tongue, he became overpowered with thirst, and prayed that God would -send him a messenger with a pitcher of water. "But," said he, "let the -water be in a green Baghdádee pitcher, that I may know it to be from -Thee, and not from the Devil; and when I ask the bearer to give me to -drink, let him pour it over my head, that I may not too much gratify my -carnal desire."--"I looked behind me," he continued, "and saw a man -bearing a green Baghdádee pitcher of water, and said to him, 'Give me to -drink;' and he came up to me, and poured the contents over my head, and -departed! By Allah it was so!" - -Rejoicing in this miracle, as a proof of his having attained to a degree -of wiláyeh (or saintship), and refreshed by the water, he continued his -way over the desert, more firm than ever in his course of self-denial, -which, though imperfectly followed, had been the means of his being thus -distinguished. But the burning thirst returned shortly after, and he -felt himself at the point of sinking under it, when he beheld before him -a high hill, with a rivulet running by its base. To the summit of this -hill he determined to ascend, by way of mortification, before he would -taste the water, and this point, with much difficulty, he reached at the -close of day. Here standing, he saw approaching, below, a troop of -horsemen, who paused at the foot of the hill, when their chief, who was -foremost, called out to him by name, "O Abu-l-Kásim! O Jeelánee! Come -down and drink!"--but persuaded by this that he was Iblees with a troop -of his sons, the evil Genii, he withstood the temptation, and remained -stationary until the deceiver with his attendants had passed on and were -out of sight. The sun had then set; his thirst had somewhat abated; and -he only drank a few drops. - -Continuing his wanderings in the desert, he found upon a pebbly plain an -old man with a long white beard, who accosted him, asking of what he was -in search. "I am seeking," he answered, "a spiritual guide; and my heart -tells me that thou art the guide I seek." "My son," said the old man, -"thou seest yonder a saint's tomb; it is a place where prayer is -answered; go thither, enter it, and seat thyself: neither eat nor drink -nor sleep; but occupy thyself solely, day and night, in repeating -silently, 'Lá iláha illa-lláh' (There is no deity but God); and let not -any living creature see thy lips move in doing so; for among the -peculiar virtues of these words is this, that they may be uttered -without any motion of the lips. Go, and peace be on thee!" - -"Accordingly," said my friend, "I went thither. It was a small square -building, crowned by a cupola; and the door was open. I entered, and -seated myself, facing the niche and the oblong monument over the grave. -It was evening, and I commenced my silent professions of the unity, as -directed by my guide; and at dusk I saw a white figure seated beside me, -as if assisting in my devotional task. I stretched forth my hand to -touch it; but found that it was not a material substance; yet there it -was: I saw it distinctly. Encouraged by this vision, I continued my task -for three nights and days without intermission, neither eating nor -drinking, yet increasing in strength both of body and of spirit; and on -the third day, I saw written upon the whitewashed walls of the tomb, and -on the ground, and in the air, wherever I turned my eyes, 'Lá iláha -illa-lláh;' and whenever a fly entered the tomb, it formed these words -in its flight. By Allah it was so! My object was now fully attained: I -felt myself endowed with supernatural knowledge: thoughts of my friends -and acquaintances troubled me not; but I knew where each one of them -was, in Persia, India, Arabia, and Turkey, and what each was doing. I -experienced an indescribable happiness. This state lasted several years; -but at length I was insensibly enticed back to worldly objects: I came -to this country; my fame as a calligraphist drew me into the service of -the government; and now see what I am, decked with pelisses and shawls, -and with this thing [a diamond order] on my breast; too old, I fear, to -undergo again the self-denial necessary to restore me to true happiness, -though I have almost resolved to make the attempt." - -Soon after this conversation, he was deprived of his office, and died of -the plague. He was well known to have passed several years as a -wandering devotee; and his sufferings, combined with enthusiasm, -perhaps disordered his imagination, and made him believe that he really -saw the strange sights which he described to me; for there was an -appearance of earnestness and sincerity in his manner, such as I thought -could hardly be assumed by a conscious impostor. - -Insanity, however, if not of a very violent and dangerous nature, is -commonly regarded by Muslims as a quality that entitles the subject of -it to be esteemed as a saint; being supposed to be the abstraction of -the mind from worldly affairs, and its total devotion to God. This -popular superstition is a fertile source of imposture; for, a reputation -for sanctity being so easily obtained and supported, there are numbers -of persons who lay claim to it from motives of indolence and -licentiousness, eager to receive alms merely for performing the tricks -of madmen, and greedy of indulging in pleasures forbidden by the law; -such indulgences not being considered in their case as transgressions by -the common people, but rather as indications of holy frenzy. From my own -observation I should say that lunatics or idiots, or impostors, -constitute the majority of the persons reputed to be saints among the -Muslims of the present day; and most of those who are not more than -slightly tinged with insanity are darweeshes. - -A reputed saint of this description in Cairo, in whom persons of some -education put great faith, affected to have a particular regard for me. -He several times accosted me in an abrupt manner, acquainted me with -the state of my family in England, and uttered incoherent predictions -respecting me, all of which communications, excepting one which he -qualified with an "in sháa-lláh" (or "if it be the will of God"), I must -confess, proved to be true; but I must also state that he was acquainted -with two of my friends who might have materially assisted him to frame -these predictions, though they protested to me that they had not done -so. The following extract from a journal which I kept in Cairo during my -last visit to Egypt, will convey some idea of this person, who will -serve as a picture of many of his fraternity.--To-day (Nov. 6th, 1834), -as I was sitting in the shop of the Pásha's booksellers, a reputed -saint, whom I have often seen here, came and seated himself by me, and -began, in a series of abrupt sentences, to relate to me various matters -respecting me, past, present, and to come. He is called the sheykh ´Alee -el-Leythee. He is a poor man, supported by alms; tall and thin and very -dark, about thirty years of age, and wears nothing at present but a blue -shirt and a girdle and a padded red cap. "O Efendee," he said, "thou -hast been very anxious for some days. There is a grain of anxiety -remaining in thee yet. Do not fear. There is a letter coming to thee by -sea, that will bring thee good news." He then proceeded to tell me of -the state of my family, and that all were well excepting one, whom he -particularized by description, and who he stated to be then suffering -from an intermittent fever. [This proved to be exactly true.] "This -affliction," he continued, "may be removed by prayer; and the -excellences of the next night, the night of [_i.e._ preceding] the first -Friday of the month of Rejeb, of Rejeb, the holy Rejeb, are very great. -I wanted to ask thee for something to-day; but I feared, I feared -greatly. Thou must be invested with the wiláyeh [_i.e._ be made a -welee]: the welees love thee, and the Prophet loves thee. Thou must go -to the sheykh Mustafà El-Munádee and the sheykh El-Baháee.[74] -Thou must be a welee." He then took my right hand, in the manner -commonly practised in the ceremony which admits a person a darweesh, and -repeated the Fátihah; after which he added, "I have admitted thee my -darweesh." Having next told me of several circumstances relating to my -family--matters of an unusual nature--with singular minuteness and -truth, he added, "To-night, if it be the will of God, thou shalt see the -Prophet in thy sleep, and El-Khidr and the Seyyid El-Bedawee. This is -Rejeb, and I wanted to ask thee--but I feared--I wanted to ask of thee -four piasters, to buy meat and bread and oil and radishes. Rejeb! Rejeb! -I have great offices to do for thee to-night." - -Less than a shilling for all he promised was little enough: I gave it -him for the trouble he had taken; and he uttered many abrupt prayers for -me. In the following night, however, I saw in my sleep neither -Mohammad, nor El-Khidr, nor the Seyyid El-Bedawee, unless, like -Nebuchadnezzar, I was unable on awaking to remember my dreams. - -Some reputed saints of the more respectable class, to avoid public -notice, wear the general dress and manners of their fellow-countrymen, -and betray no love of ostentation in their acts of piety and -self-denial; or live as hermits in desert places, depending solely upon -Providence for their support, and are objects of pious and charitable -visits from the inhabitants of near and distant places, and from casual -travellers. Others distinguish themselves by the habit of a darweesh, or -by other peculiarities, such as a long and loose coat (called dilk) -composed of patches of cloth of various colours, long strings of beads -hung upon the neck, a ragged turban, and a staff with shreds of cloth of -different colours attached to the top; or obtain a reputation for -miraculous powers by eating glass, fire, serpents, etc. Some of those -who are insane, and of those who feign to be so, go about, even in -crowded cities, in a state of perfect nudity, and are allowed to commit -with impunity acts of brutal sensuality which the law, when appealed to, -should punish with death. Such practices are forbidden by the religion -and law even in the cases of saints; but common and deeply-rooted -superstition prevents their punishment. - -During the occupation of Egypt by the French, the Commander-in-chief, -Menou, applied to the sheykhs (or ´Ulamà) of the city for their opinion -"respecting those persons who were accustomed to go about in the streets -in a state of nudity, crying out and screaming, and arrogating to -themselves the dignity of wiláyeh, relied upon as saints by the -generality of the people, neither performing the prayers of the Muslims -nor fasting," asking whether such conduct was permitted by the religion, -or contrary to the law. He was answered, "Conduct of this description is -forbidden, and repugnant to our religion and law and to our traditions." -The French General thanked them for this answer, and gave orders to -prevent such practices in future, and to seize every one seen thus -offending; if insane, to confine him in the Máristán (or hospital and -lunatic asylum); and if not insane, to compel him either to relinquish -his disgusting habits, or to leave the city.[75] - -Of reputed saints of this kind, thus writes an enlightened poet, -El-Bedree El-Hijázee:-- - - "Would that I had not lived to see every fool esteemed among men - as a Kutb! - Their learned men take him as a patron, nay, even as Lord, in - place of the Possessor of Heaven's throne. - Forgetting God, they say, 'Such a one from all mankind can - remove affliction.' - When he dies, they make for him a place of visitation, and strangers - and Arabs hurry thither in crowds: - Some of them kiss his tomb, and some kiss the threshold of the - door, and the very dust. - Thus do the idolaters act towards their images, hoping so to obtain - their favour." - -These lines are quoted by El-Jabartee, in his account of a very -celebrated modern saint, the seyyid ´Alee El-Bekree (events of Rabeea -eth-Thánee, 1214). A brief history of this person will not be here -misplaced, as it will present a good illustration of the general -character and actions of those insane individuals who are commonly -regarded as saints. - -The seyyid ´Alee El-Bekree was a mejzoob (or insane person) who was -considered an eminent welee, and much trusted in: for several years he -used to walk naked about the streets of Cairo, with a shaven face, -bearing a long nebboot (or staff), and uttering confused language, which -the people attentively listened to, and interpreted according to their -desires and the exigencies of their states. He was a tall, spare man, -and sometimes wore a shirt and a cotton skull-cap; but he was generally -barefooted and naked. The respect with which he was treated induced a -woman, who was called the sheykhah Ammooneh, to imitate his example -further than decency allowed: she followed him whithersoever he went, -covered at first with her izár (or large cotton veil thrown over the -head and body), and muttering, like him, confused language. Entering -private houses with him, she used to ascend to the hareems, and -gained the faith of the women, who presented her with money and clothes, -and spread abroad that the sheykh ´Alee had looked upon her, and -affected her with religious frenzy, so that she had become a weleeyeh, -or female saint. Afterwards, becoming more insane and intoxicated, she -uncovered her face, and put on the clothing of a man; and thus attired -she still accompanied the sheykh, and the two wandered about, followed -by numbers of children and common vagabonds; some of whom also stripped -off their clothes in imitation of the sheykh, and followed, dancing; -their mad actions being attributed (like those of the woman) to -religious frenzy, induced by his look or touch, which converted them -into saints. The vulgar and young, who daily followed them, consequently -increased in numbers; and some of them, in passing through the -market-streets, snatched away goods from the shops, thus exciting great -commotion wherever they went. When the sheykh sat down in any place, the -crowd stopped, and the people pressed to see him and his mad companions. -On these occasions the woman used to mount upon the mastabah of a -shop, or ascend a hillock, and utter disgusting language, sometimes in -Arabic, and sometimes in Turkish, while many persons among her audience -would kiss her hands to derive a blessing. After having persevered for -some time in this course, none preventing them, the party entered one -day the lane leading from the principal street of the city to the house -of the Kádee, and were seized by a Turkish officer there residing, -named Jaafar Káshif, who, having brought them into his house, gave -the sheykh some food, and drove out the spectators, retaining the woman -and the mejzoobs, whom he placed in confinement. He then liberated the -sheykh ´Alee, brought out the woman and the mejzoobs and beat them, sent -the woman to the Máristán and there confined her, and set at large the -rest, after they had prayed for mercy and clothed themselves and -recovered from their intoxication. The woman remained awhile confined in -the Máristán, and when liberated lived alone as a sheykhah, believed in -by men and women, and honoured as a saint with visits and festivals. - -The seyyid ´Alee, after he had thus been deprived of his companions and -imitators, was constrained to lead a different kind of life. He had a -cunning brother, who, to turn the folly of this saint to a good account, -and fill his own purse, (seeing how great faith the people placed in -him, as the Egyptians are prone to do in such a case), confined him in -his house, and clothed him, asserting that he had his permission to do -so, and that he had been invested with the dignity of Kutb. Thus -he contrived to attract crowds of persons, men and women, to visit him. -He forbade him to shave his beard, which consequently grew to its full -size; and his body became fat and stout from abundance of food and rest; -for, while he went about naked, he was, as before mentioned, of a lean -figure. During that period he used generally to pass the night wandering -without food through the streets in winter and summer. Having now -servants to wait upon him, whether sleeping or waking, he passed his -time in idleness, uttering confused and incoherent words, and sometimes -laughing and sometimes scolding; and in the course of his idle loquacity -he could not but let fall some words applicable to the affairs of some -of his listening visitors, who attributed such expressions to his -supernatural knowledge of the thoughts of their hearts, and interpreted -them as warnings or prophecies. Men and women, and particularly the -wives of the grandees, flocked to him with presents and votive -offerings, which enriched the coffers of his brother; and the honours -which he received ceased not with his death. His funeral was attended by -multitudes from every quarter. His brother buried him in the mosque of -Esh-Sharáïbee, in the quarter of the Ezbekeeyeh, made for him a -maksoorah (or railed enclosure) and an oblong monument over the -grave, and frequently repaired thither with readers of the Kur-án, -munshids to sing odes in his honour, flag-bearers, and other persons, -who wailed and screamed, rubbed their faces against the bars of the -window before his grave, and caught the air of the place in their hands -to thrust it into their bosoms and pockets. Men and women came crowding -together to visit his tomb, bringing votive offerings and wax candles -and eatables of various kinds to distribute for his sake to the -poor.[76] The oblong monument over his grave, resembling a large chest, -was covered, when I was in Cairo, with a black stuff ornamented by a -line of words from the Kur-án, in white characters, surrounding it. A -servant who accompanied me during my rides and walks used often to stop -as we passed this tomb, and touch the wooden bars of the window above -mentioned with his right hand, which he then kissed to obtain a -blessing. - -In most cases greater honour is paid to a reputed saint after his death, -than he receives in his life. A small, square, whitewashed building, -crowned with a dome, is generally erected as his tomb, surrounding an -oblong monument of stone, brick, or wood, which is immediately over the -sepulchral vault. At least one such building forms a conspicuous object -close by, or within, almost every Arab village; for the different -villages, and different quarters of every town and city, have their -respective patron saints, whose tombs are frequently visited, and are -the scenes of periodical festivals, generally celebrated once in every -year. The tombs of many very eminent saints are mosques; and some of -these are large and handsome edifices, the monument being under a large -and lofty dome and surrounded by an enclosure of wooden railings, or of -elegantly worked bronze. In these buildings also, and in some others, -the monument is covered with silk or cotton stuff ornamented with words -from the Kur-án, which form a band around it. Many buildings of the -more simple kind erected in honour of saints, and some of the larger -description, are mere cenotaphs, or cover only some relic of the person -to whom they are dedicated. The tombs and cenotaphs, or shrines of -saints, are visited by numerous persons, and on frequent occasions; most -commonly on a particular day of the week. The object of the visitor, in -general, is to perform some meritorious act, such as taking bread, or -other food, or money, for the poor, or distributing water to the -thirsty, on account of the saint, to increase his rewards in heaven, and -at the same time to draw down a blessing on himself; or to perform a -sacrifice of a sheep, goat, calf, or other animal, which he has vowed to -offer, if blessed with some specific object of desire, or to obtain -general blessings; or to implore the saint's intercession in some case -of need. The flesh of the devoted animal is given to the poor. The -visitors also often take with them palm-branches, or sprigs of myrtle, -or roses or other flowers, to lay upon the monument, as they do when -they visit the tombs of their relations. The visitor walks round the -monument, or its enclosure, from left to right, or with his left side -towards it (as the pilgrims do round the Kaabeh), sometimes pausing -to touch its four angles or corners with his right hand, which he then -kisses; and recites the opening chapter of the Kur-án (the -Fátihah) standing before one or each of its four sides. Some visitors -repeat also the chapter of Yá-Seen (the 36th), or employ a person to -recite this, or even the whole of the Kur-án, for hire. The reciter -afterwards declares that he transfers the merit of this work to the soul -of the deceased saint. Any private petition the visitor offers up on his -own account, imploring a favourable answer for the sake of the saint, or -through his intercession; holding his hands before his face like an open -book, and then drawing them down his face. Many a visitor, on entering -the tomb, kisses the threshold, or touches it with his right hand, which -he then kisses; and on passing by it, persons often touch the window and -kiss the hand thus honoured. - -The great periodical or annual festivals are observed with additional -ceremonies, and by crowds of visitors. These are called Moolids (more -properly Mólids), and are held on the anniversary of the birth of the -saint or in commemoration of that event. Persons are then hired to -recite the Kur-án in and near the tomb during the day; and others, -chiefly darweeshes, employ themselves during the night in performing -zikrs, which consist in repeating the name of God, or the profession of -his unity, etc., in chorus, accompanying the words by certain motions of -the head, hands, or whole body; munshids, at intervals, singing -religious odes or love songs during these performances, to the -accompaniment of a náy, which is a kind of flute, or the arghool, which -is a double reed-pipe. These moolids are scenes of rejoicing and of -traffic, which men and boys and girls attend to eat sweetmeats, and -drink coffee and sherbets, or to amuse themselves with swinging, or -turning on a whirligig, or witnessing the feats of conjurers, or the -performances of dancers; and to which tradesmen repair to sell or barter -their goods. The visitors to the great moolids of the Seyyid Ahmad -El-Bedawee at Tantà in the Delta of Egypt, which are great fairs -as well as religious festivals, are almost as numerous as the pilgrims -at Mekkeh. During a moolid, the inhabitants of the houses in the -neighbourhood of the tomb hang lamps before their houses, and spend a -great part of the night listening to the story-tellers at the -coffee-shops, or attending the zikrs. - -These latter performances, though so common among the Arabs, are -inconsistent with the spirit of the Mohammadan religion, and especially -with respect to music, which was not employed in religious ceremonies -until after the second century of the Flight. The Imám Aboo-Bekr -Et-Toosee, being asked whether it were lawful or not to be present -with people who assembled in a certain place and read a portion of the -Kur-án, and, after a munshid had recited some poetry, would dance and -become excited and play upon tambourines and pipes,--answered, that such -practices were vain, ignorant, and erroneous, not ordained by the -Kur-án or the Traditions of the Prophet, but invented by those -Israelites who worshipped the Golden Calf; that the Prophet and his -companions used to sit so quietly that a bird might alight upon the head -of any one of them and not be disturbed; that it was incumbent on the -Sultán and his vicegerents to prevent such persons from entering the -mosques and other places for these purposes; and that no one who -believed in God and the Last Day should be present with them or assist -them in their vain performances: such, he asserted, was the opinion of -the Imáms of the Muslims.[77] Some eminent doctors, however, have -contended for the lawfulness of these practices. - -The following is an account of a Zikr I myself witnessed. The zikkeers -(or performers of the zikr), who were about thirty in number, sat -cross-legged upon matting extended close to the houses on one side of -the street, in the form of an oblong ring.[78] Within this ring, along -the middle of the matting, were placed three very large wax candles, -each about four feet high, and stuck in a low candlestick. Most of the -zikkeers were Ahmedee darweeshes, persons of the lower orders, and -meanly dressed: many of them wore green turbans. At one end of the ring -were four munshids (or singers of religious odes), and with them was a -player on the kind of flute called náy. I procured a small seat of -palm-sticks from a coffee-shop close by, and, by means of a little -pushing and the assistance of my servant, obtained a place with the -munshids, and sat there to hear a complete act, or "mejlis," of the -zikr; which act commenced at about three o'clock, Muslim time (or three -hours after sunset), and continued two hours. - -The performers began by reciting the opening chapter of the Kur-án, -all together, their sheykh, or chief, first exclaiming, "El-Fátihah!" -They then chanted the following words:--"O God, bless our lord -Mohammad among the former generations; and bless our lord Mohammad -among the latter generations; and bless our lord Mohammad in every -time and period; and bless our lord Mohammad in the highest degree, -unto the day of judgment; and bless all the prophets and apostles among -the inhabitants of the heavens and of the earth; and may God (whose -name be blessed and exalted!) be well pleased with our lords and our -masters, those persons of illustrious estimation, Aboo-Bekr and ´Omar -and ´Othmán and ´Alee, and with all the favourites of God. God is our -sufficiency; and excellent is the Guardian! There is no strength nor -power but in God, the High, the Great! O God! O our Lord! O thou liberal -of pardon! O thou most bountiful of the most bountiful! O God! -Amen!"--They were then silent for three or four minutes; and again -recited the Fátihah, but silently. This form of prefacing the zikr is -commonly used by almost all orders of darweeshes in Egypt. - -The performers now began the zikr itself. Sitting in the manner above -described, they chanted, in slow measure, "Lá iláha illa-lláh" ("There -is no deity but God") to the following air:-- - -[Illustration: Lá iláha illa-lláh. Lá iláha illa-lláh. Lá iláha -illa-lláh.] - -bowing the head and body twice in each repetition of "Lá iláha -illa-lláh." Thus they continued about a quarter of an hour; and then, -for about the same space of time, they repeated the same words to the -same air, but in a quicker measure and with correspondingly quicker -motions. In the mean time, the munshids frequently sang to the same (or -a variation of the same) air portions of a kaseedeh or of a -muweskshah;[79] an ode of a similar nature to the Song of Solomon, -generally alluding to the Prophet as the object of love and praise; and -at frequent intervals one of them sang out the word "meded," implying an -invocation for spiritual or supernatural aid. - -The zikkeers, after having performed as above described, next repeated -the same words to a different air for about the same length of time; -first very slowly, then quickly. The air was as follows:-- - -[Illustration: Lá iláha illa-lláh. Lá iláha illa-lláh. Lá iláha -illa-lláh.] - -Then they repeated these words again, to the following air, in the same -manner: - -[Illustration: Lá iláha illa-lláh. Lá iláha illa-lláh.] - -They next rose, and, standing in the same order in which they had been -sitting, repeated the same words to another air. After which, still -standing, they repeated these words in a very deep and hoarse tone, -laying the principal emphasis upon the word "Lá" and the penultimate -syllable of the following words, and uttering apparently with a -considerable effort: the sound much resembled that which is produced by -beating the rim of a tambourine. Each zikkee turned his head alternately -to the right and left at each repetition of "Lá iláha illa-lláh." One of -them, a eunuch, at this part of the zikr, was seized with an epileptic -fit, evidently the result of a high state of religious excitement; but -nobody seemed surprised at it, for occurrences of this kind at zikrs are -not uncommon. All the performers now seemed much excited; repeating -their ejaculations with greater rapidity, violently turning their heads, -and sinking the whole body at the same time: some of them jumping. The -eunuch above mentioned was again seized with fits several times; and I -generally remarked that this happened after one of the munshids had sung -a line or two and exerted himself more than usual to excite his hearers: -the singing was, indeed, to my taste, very pleasing. The contrast -presented by the vehement and distressing exertions of the performers at -the close of the zikr, and their calm gravity and solemnity of manner at -the commencement, was particularly striking. Money was collected during -the performance for the munshids. The zikkeers receive no pay. - -The most approved and common mode of entertaining guests at modern -private festivities among the Arabs is by a Khatmeh, which is the -recitation of the whole of the Kur-án. Three or more persons of the -inferior class of the professors of religion and law, who are called -fakeehs (vulgarly, fikees) are usually hired for this purpose. -Schoolmasters, and students of the collegiate mosques who devote -themselves to religion and law, are the persons most commonly thus -employed. Their mode of recitation is a peculiar kind of chanting, -which, when well executed, I found very agreeable, at least for an hour -or so: but the guests seldom have to listen to the chanting of the whole -of the Kur-án: the reciters usually accomplish the greater portion of -their task, in a somewhat hurried manner, before the guests have -assembled, each of them chanting in turn a certain portion, as a -thirtieth part of the whole (called a juz), or half of one of these -sections (a hezb), or, more commonly, a quarter (ruba). Afterwards -they chant more leisurely, and in a more musical manner; but still by -turns. These recitations of the whole of the Kur-án are performed on -various festive occasions, but are most usual after a death; the merit -of the performance being transferred to the soul of the deceased. - -In the year 1834, when I was residing in Cairo, a General in the service -of Mohammad ´Alee hired a large party of men to perform a recital of -the Kur-án in his house in that city, and then went up into his -hareem and strangled his wife, in consequence of a report which -accused her of inchastity. The religious ceremony was designed as -preparatory to this act, though the punishment of the woman was contrary -to the law, since her husband neither produced four witnesses of the -imputed crime, nor allowed her to clear herself of the charge by her own -oath. Another case of diligence in the performance of a religious duty, -accompanied by the contemplation of murder, but murder on a larger -scale, occurred in the same city shortly after. Suleymán Agha, the -Siláhdár, being occupied in directing the building of a public -fountain as a work of charity to place to the account of a deceased -brother, desired to extend the original plan of the structure; and to do -this, it was necessary that he should purchase two houses adjoining the -plot in which the foundations had been laid: but the owners of these -houses refused to sell them, and he therefore employed a number of -workmen to undermine them by night and cause them to fall upon their -inhabitants. His scheme, however, but partially succeeded, and no lives -were sacrificed. This man was notorious for cruelty, but he was a person -of pleasing and venerable countenance and engaging manners: whenever I -chanced to meet him, I received from him a most gracious salutation. He -died before I quitted Egypt. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[64] D'Ohsson (i. 315, 316) asserts the Kutb to be the chief -minister of the Ghós; and gives an account somewhat different from that -which I offer of the orders under his authority: but perhaps the Turkish -Darweeshes differ from the Arab in their tenets on this subject. - -[65] It is said that "the Nukaba are three hundred; the Nujaba, -seventy; the Abdál, forty; the Akhyár, seven; the ´Omud, four; the Ghós -[as before mentioned], one. The Nukaba reside in El-Gharb [Northern -Africa to the west of Egypt]; the Nujaba, in Egypt; the Abdál, in Syria; -the Akhyár travel about the earth; the ´Omud, in the corners of the -earth; the abode of the Ghós is at Mekkeh. In an affair of need, the -Nukaba implore relief for the people; then, the Nujaba; then, the -Abdál; then, the Akhyár; then, the ´Omud; and if their prayer be not -answered, the Ghós implores, and his prayer is answered." -(El-Ishákee's History, preface.)--This statement, I find, rests on -the authority of a famous saint of Baghdád Aboo-Bekr El-Kettánee, who -died at Mekkeh, in the year of the Flight, 322. (Mir-át ez-Zemán, events -of that year). - -[66] Modern Egyptians, ch. x. - -[67] El-Jabartee's History of Modern Egypt, vol. ii., obituary of the -year 1201 (MS. in my possession).--The appellation of "the four -Kutbs" is given in Egypt to the seyyid Ahmad Rifá´ah, the -seyyid ´Abd-El-Kádir El-Jeelánee, the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, and -the seyyid Ibráheem Ed-Dásookee, the founders of the four orders of -darweeshes most celebrated among the Arabs, called Rifá´eeyeh, -Kádireeyeh, Ahmedeeyeh, and Baráhimeh. - -[68] El-Jabartee's History, vol. i., obituary of the year 1188. - -[69] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year 291. - -[70] Mir-át ez-Zemán, 1. 1. - -[71] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year 218. - -[72] Ibid., events of the year 334. - -[73] Es-Suyootee's Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 4. - -[74] These are two very celebrated welees. - -[75] El-Jabartee's History, vol. iii., events of the month of -Shaabán, 1215 (A.D. 1800-1801). - -[76] El-Jabartee's History, vol. ii., obituary of the year 1207, and -events of Rejeb, 1200; and vol. iii., events of Rabeea eth-Thánee, -1214. - -[77] El-Ishákee, reign of El-Mutawekkil. Cp. De Sacy, Chrest. -Arabe, i. 122, 123 (2nd ed.). - -[78] The zikr here described was performed near the tomb of a saint, for -whose sake it was celebrated. The ceremony is often performed in a -sepulchral mosque, and often in the court, or in a chamber, of a private -house. - -[79] For an example, see Modern Egyptians, ch. xxiv. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -MAGIC. - - -An implicit belief in magic is entertained by almost all Muslims; and -him among them who denies its truth they regard as a freethinker or an -infidel. Some are of opinion that it ceased on the mission of -Mohammad; but these are comparatively few. Many of the most learned -Muslims, to the present age, have deeply studied it; and a much greater -number of persons of inferior education (particularly schoolmasters) -have more or less devoted their time and talents to the pursuit of this -knowledge. Recourse is had to it for the discovery of hidden treasures, -for alchymical purposes, for the acquisition of the knowledge of -futurity, to procure offspring, to obtain the affection of a beloved -object, to effect cures, to guard against the influence of the evil eye, -to afflict or kill an enemy or a rival, and to attain various other -objects of desire. - -There are two descriptions of magic: one is spiritual, and regarded by -all but freethinkers as true; the other natural, and denounced by the -more religious and enlightened as deceptive. - -I. Spiritual magic, which is termed er-Roohánee (vulg. Rowhánee), -chiefly depends upon the virtues of certain names of God and passages -from the Kur-án, and the agency of Angels and Jinn. It is of two -kinds: High and Low (´Ilwee and Suflee), or Divine and Satanic -(Rahmánee, _i.e._ relating to "the Compassionate," and Sheytánee). - -1. Divine magic is regarded as a sublime science, and is studied only by -good men, and practised only for good purposes. Perfection in this -branch of magic consists in the knowledge of "the most great name" of -God (el-Ism el-Aazam); but this knowledge is imparted to none but -the peculiar favourites of heaven. By virtue of this name, which was -engraved on his seal-ring, Suleymán (Solomon) subjected to his dominion -the Jinn and the birds and the winds. By pronouncing it, his minister -Ásaf, also, transported in an instant to the presence of his -sovereign in Jerusalem the throne of the Queen of Sheba.[80] But this -was a small miracle to effect by such means; for by uttering this name a -man may even raise the dead. Other names of the Deity, commonly known, -are believed to have particular efficacies when uttered or written; as -also are the names of the Prophet; and Angels and good Jinn are said to -be rendered subservient to the purposes of divine magic by means of -certain invocations. Of such names and invocations, together with words -unintelligible to the uninitiated in this science, passages from the -Kur-án, mysterious combinations of numbers, and peculiar diagrams and -figures, are chiefly composed written charms employed for good purposes. -Enchantment, when used for benevolent purposes, is regarded by the -vulgar as a branch of lawful or divine magic; but not so by the learned: -and the same remark applies to the science of divination. - -2. Satanic magic, as its name implies, is a science depending on the -agency of the Devil and the inferior evil Jinn, whose services are -obtained by means similar to those which propitiate, or render -subservient, the good Jinn. It is condemned by the Prophet and all good -Muslims, and only practised for bad purposes. - -Bábil, or Babel, is regarded by the Muslims as the fountain head of the -science of magic, which was, and, as most think, still is, taught there -to mankind by two fallen angels, named Hároot and Mároot, who are there -suspended by the feet in a great pit closed by a mass of rock. According -to the account of them generally received as correct, these two angels, -in consequence of their want of compassion for the frailties of mankind, -were rendered, by God, susceptible of human passions, and sent down upon -the earth to be tempted. They both sinned, and being permitted to choose -whether they would be punished in this life or in the other, chose the -former. But they were sent down not merely to experience temptation, -being also appointed to tempt others by means of their knowledge of -magic; though it appears that they were commanded not to teach this art -to any man "until they had said, 'Verily we are a temptation; therefore -be not an unbeliever.'"[81] The celebrated traditionist, Mujáhid, is -related to have visited them under the guidance of a Jew. Having removed -the mass of rock from the mouth of the pit or well, they entered. -Mujáhid had been previously charged by the Jew not to mention the name -of God in their presence; but when he beheld them, resembling in size -two huge mountains, and suspended upside-down, with irons attached to -their necks and knees, he could not refrain from uttering the forbidden -name; whereupon the two angels became so violently agitated that they -almost broke the irons which confined them, and Mujáhid and his guide -fled back in consternation.[82] - -Enchantment, which is termed es-Sehr, is almost universally -acknowledged to be a branch of satanic magic; but some few persons -assert that it _may_ be, and by some _has_ been, studied with good -intentions, and practised by the aid of good Jinn: consequently, that -there is such a science as _good_ enchantment, which is to be regarded -as a branch of _divine_ or _lawful_ magic. The metamorphoses are said to -be generally effected by means of spells or invocations to the Jinn, -accompanied by the sprinkling of water or dust, etc., on the object to -be transformed. Persons are said to be enchanted in various ways: some, -paralyzed, or even deprived of life; others, affected with irresistible -passion for certain objects; others, again, rendered demoniacs; and -some, transformed into brutes, birds, etc. The evil eye is believed to -enchant in a very powerful and distressing manner. This was acknowledged -even by the Prophet.[83] Diseases and death are often attributed to its -influence. Amulets,[84] which are mostly written charms, of the kind -above described, are worn by many Muslims with the view of -counteracting, or preserving from, enchantment; and for the same -purpose, many ridiculous ceremonies are practised. - -Divination, which is termed el-Kiháneh, is pronounced on the highest -authority to be a branch of satanic magic, though not believed to be so -by all Muslims. According to an assertion of the Prophet, what a -fortune-teller says may sometimes be true; because one of the Jinn -steals away the truth, and carries it to the magician's ear: for the -Angels come down to the region next to the earth (the lowest heaven), -and mention the works that have been pre-ordained in heaven; and the -Devils (or evil Jinn) listen to what the Angels say, and hear the orders -predestined in heaven and carry them to the fortune-tellers. It is on -such occasions that shooting-stars are hurled at the Devils.[85] It is -said that "the diviner obtains the services of the Sheytán by magic -arts, and by names [invoked], and by the burning of perfumes, and he -informs him of secret things: for the Devils, before the mission of the -Apostle of God," it is added, "used to ascend to heaven and hear words -by stealth."[86] That the evil Jinn are believed still to ascend -sufficiently near to the lowest heaven to hear the conversation of the -Angels, and so to assist magicians, appears from the former quotation, -and is asserted by all Muslims. The discovery of hidden treasures before -alluded to, is one of the objects for which divination is most studied. -The mode of divination called Darb el-Mendel is by some supposed to -be effected by the aid of evil Jinn; but the more enlightened of the -Muslims regard it as a branch of natural magic.[87] - -There are certain modes of divination which cannot properly be classed -under the head of spiritual magic, but require a place between the -account of this science and that of natural magic. The most important of -these branches of Kiháneh is Astrology, which is called ´Ilm en-Nujoom. -This is studied by many Muslims in the present day; and its professors -are often employed by the Arabs to determine a fortunate period for -laying the foundation of a building, commencing a journey, etc.; but -more frequently by the Persians and Turks. The Prophet pronounced -astrology to be a branch of magic.[88] Another branch of Kiháneh is -Geomancy, called Darb er-Raml;[89] a mode of divination from certain -marks made on sand (whence its appellation), or on paper; and said to be -chiefly founded on astrology. The science called ez-Zijr, or el-´Eyáfeh, -is a third branch of Kiháneh; being divination or auguration chiefly -from the motions and positions or postures of birds or of gazelles and -other beasts of the chase. Thus what was termed a Sánih, that is, -such an animal standing or passing with its right side towards the -spectator, was esteemed among the Arabs as of good omen; and a Bárih, -or an animal of this kind with its left side towards the spectator, was -held as inauspicious.[90] El-Kiyáfeh, under which term are included -Chiromancy and its kindred sciences, is a fourth branch of Kiháneh. -Et-Tefául, or the taking an omen, particularly a good one, from a name -or words accidentally heard or seen or chosen from a book, belongs to -the same science. - -The taking a fál, or omen, from the Kur-án is generally held to be -lawful. Various trifling events are considered as ominous. For instance, -a Sultán quitting his palace with his troops, a standard happened to -strike a "thureiyà" (a cluster of lamps, so called from resembling the -Pleiades), and broke them: he drew from this an evil omen, and would -have relinquished the expedition; but one of his chief officers said to -him, "O our Lord, thy standards have reached the Pleiades;"--and, being -relieved by this remark, he proceeded, and returned victorious.[91] The -interpretation of dreams, termed Taabeer el-Menámát, must also be -classed among the branches of this science. According to the Prophet, it -is the only branch of divination worthy of dependance. "Good dreams," -said he, "are one of the parts of prophecy," and "nothing else of -prophecy remains." "Good dreams are from God; and false dreams from the -Devil." "When any one of you has a bad dream, spit three times over your -left shoulder, and seek protection with God from the Devil thrice; and -turn from the side on which the dream was, to the other."[92] This rule -is observed by many Muslims. Dreams are generally so fully relied upon -by them as to be sometimes the means of deciding contested points in -history and science. The sight, in a dream, of anything green or white, -or of water, is considered auspicious; anything black or red, or fire, -inauspicious. - -This firm belief in dreams will be well illustrated by the following -anecdote, which was related to me in Cairo, shortly after the terrible -plague of the year 1835, by the sheykh Mohammad Et-Tantáwee, -who had taken the trouble of investigating the fact, and had ascertained -its truth. - -A tradesman, living in the quarter of El-Hanafee, in Cairo, dreamed -during that plague that eleven persons were carried out from his house -to be buried, victims of this disease. He awoke in a state of the -greatest distress and alarm, reflecting that eleven was the total number -of the inhabitants of his house, including himself, and that it would be -vain in him to attempt, by adding one or more members to his household, -to elude the decree of God and give himself a chance of escape: so -calling together his neighbours, he informed them of his dream, and was -counselled to submit with resignation to a fate so plainly foreshown, -and to be thankful to God for the timely notice with which he had been -mercifully favoured. On the following day, one of his children died; a -day or two after, a wife; and the pestilence continued its ravages among -his family until he remained in his house alone. It was impossible for -him now to entertain the slightest doubt of the entire accomplishment of -the warning: immediately, therefore, after the last death that had taken -place among his household, he repaired to a friend at a neighbouring -shop, and calling to him several other persons from the adjoining and -opposite shops, he reminded them of his dream, acquainted them with its -almost complete fulfilment, and expressed his conviction that he, the -eleventh, should very soon die. "Perhaps," said he, "I shall die this -next night: I beg of you, therefore, for the sake of God, to come to my -house early to-morrow morning, and the next morning and the next if -necessary, to see if I be dead, and, when dead, that I am properly -buried; for I have no one with me to wash and shroud me. Fail not to do -me this service, which will procure you a recompense in heaven. I have -bought my grave-linen: you will find it in a corner of the room in which -I sleep. If you find the door of the house latched, and I do not answer -to your knocking, break it open." - -Soon after sunset he laid himself in his lonely bed, though without any -expectation of closing his eyes in sleep; for his mind was absorbed in -reflections upon the awful entry into another world, and a review of his -past life. As the shades of night gathered around him he could almost -fancy that he beheld, in one faint object or another in his gloomy -chamber, the dreadful person of the Angel of Death: and at length he -actually perceived a figure gliding in at the door, and approaching his -bed. Starting up in horror, he exclaimed, "Who art thou?"--and a stern -and solemn voice answered, "Be silent! I am ´Azraeel, the Angel of -Death!"--"Alas!" cried the terrified man; "I testify that there is no -deity but God, and I testify that Mohammad is God's Apostle! There is -no strength nor power but in God, the High, the Great! To God we belong, -and to Him we must return!"--He then covered himself over with his -quilt, as if for protection, and lay with throbbing heart, expecting -every moment to have his soul torn from him by the inexorable messenger. -But moments passed away, and minutes, and hours, yet without his -experiencing any hope of escape; for he imagined that the Angel was -waiting for him to resign himself, or had left him for a while, and was -occupied in receiving first the souls of the many hundred human beings -who had attained their predestined term in that same night and in the -same city, and the souls of the thousands who were doomed to employ him -elsewhere. - -Daybreak arrived before his sufferings terminated; and his neighbours, -coming according to their promise, entered his chamber, and found him -still in bed; but observing that he was covered up and motionless as a -corpse, they doubted whether he were still alive, and called to him. He -answered, with a faint voice, "I am not yet dead; but the Angel of Death -came to me in the dusk of the evening, and I expect him every moment to -make his return, to take my soul: therefore trouble me not; but see me -washed and buried."--"But why," said his friends, "was the street-door -left unlatched?"--"I latched it," he answered, "but the Angel of Death -may have opened it."--"And who," they asked, "is the man in the court?" -He answered, "I know of no man in the court: perhaps the Angel who is -waiting for my soul has made himself visible to you, and been mistaken -in the twilight for a man."--"He is a thief," they said, "who has -gathered together everything in the house that he could carry away, and -has been struck by the plague while doing so, and now lies dead in the -court, at the foot of the stairs, grasping in his hand a silver -candlestick."--The master of the house, after hearing this, paused for a -moment, and then, throwing off his quilt, exclaimed, "Praise be to God, -the Lord of all creatures! That is the eleventh, and I am safe! No doubt -it was that rascal who came to me and said that he was the Angel of -Death. Praise be to God! Praise be to God!" - -This man survived the plague, and took pleasure in relating the above -story. The thief had overheard his conversation with his neighbours, -and, coming to his house in the dusk, had put his shoulder to the wooden -lock, and so raised the door and displaced the latch within. There is -nothing wonderful in the dream, nor in its accomplishment; the plague of -1835 entirely desolated many houses, and was mostly fatal to the young; -and all the inhabitants of the house in question were young excepting -the master. - -The distinction of fortunate and unfortunate days should also here be -mentioned. Thursday and Friday, especially the latter, are considered -fortunate; Monday and Wednesday, doubtful; Sunday, Tuesday, and -Saturday, especially the last, unfortunate. It is said that there are -seven evil days in every [lunar] month: namely, the third, on which -Kábeel (Cain) killed Hábeel (Abel); the fifth, on which God cast down -Adam from paradise, and afflicted the people of Yoonus (Jonas), and on -which Yoosuf (Joseph) was cast into the well; the thirteenth, on which -God took away the wealth of Eiyoob (Job), and afflicted him, and took -away the kingdom from Suleymán (Solomon), and on which the Jews killed -the prophets; the sixteenth, on which God exterminated and buried the -people of Loot (Lot), and transformed three hundred Christians into -swine and Jews into apes, and on which the Jews sawed asunder Zekeriyà -(Zachariah); the twenty-first, on which Pharaoh was born, and on which -he was drowned, and on which his nation was afflicted with the plagues; -the twenty-fourth, on which Numrood (Nimrod) killed seventy women, and -cast El-Khaleel (Abraham) into the fire, and on which was slaughtered -the camel of Sálih; and the twenty-fifth, on which the suffocating -wind was sent upon the people of Hood.[93] - -II. Natural magic, which is called es-Seemiyà, is regarded by most -persons of the more enlightened classes of Muslims as altogether a -deceptive art, no more worthy of respect than legerdemain; but it seems -to be nearly allied to enchantment, for it is said to effect, in -appearance, the most wonderful transformations, and to cause the most -extraordinary visions; affecting the senses and imagination in a manner -similar to opium. This and other drugs are supposed by some persons to -be the chief means by which such illusions are caused; and perfumes, -which are generally burnt in these performances, may operate in a -similar manner. As such things are employed in performances of the kind -called Darb el-Mendel, before mentioned, these feats are regarded by -many as effected by natural magic, notwithstanding what has been said -above respecting the services of evil Jinn being procured by means of -perfumes. Alchymy (El-Keemiyà) is a branch of natural magic. It is -studied by many Muslims of the present day, and by some of considerable -talents and attainments. - -The most celebrated of the magicians who have gained notoriety in Egypt -during the course of the last hundred years was the sheykh Ahmad -Sádoomeh, who flourished somewhat more than sixty years ago.[94] -Several persons of Cairo, men of intelligence and of good education, -have related to me various most marvellous stories of his performances, -on the authority of eye-witnesses whom they considered veracious; but a -more credible account of this magician I have found in the work of the -excellent historian of Modern Egypt. This author mentions the sheykh -Sádoomeh as an aged man of venerable appearance who derived his -origin from the town of Semennood in the Delta, and who acquired a very -great and extensive celebrity for his attainments in spiritual and -natural magic, and for holding converse, face to face, with Jinn, and -causing them to appear to other persons, even to the blind, as men -acquainted with him informed the historian. His contemporaries, says -this writer, entertained various opinions respecting him; but, among -them, a famous grammarian and general scholar, the sheykh Hasan -El-Kafráwee, regarded him as a first-rate saint, who performed evident -miracles; this learned man pronouncing as such the effects of "his -legerdemain and natural magic." His fame he describes as having -increased until he was induced to try an unlucky experiment. - -A Memlook chief, Yoosuf Bey, saw some magic characters written on the -body of one of his female slaves, and, exasperated by jealousy, -commanded her with a threat of instant death to tell him who had done -this. She confessed that a woman had taken her to the sheykh -Sádoomeh, and that he had written this charm to attract to her the -Bey's love. Upon hearing this, he instantly sent some attendants to -seize the magician, put him to death, and throw him into the Nile; which -was done.[95] But the manner in which the seizure was made, as related -to me by one of my friends, deserves to be mentioned. Several persons, -one after another, endeavoured to lay hold upon him; but every arm that -was stretched forth for this purpose was instantly paralyzed, through a -spell muttered by the magician; until a man behind him thrust a gag into -his mouth, and so stopped his enchantments. - -Of the stories related to me of Sádoomeh's miracles, the following -will serve as a specimen:--In order to give one of his friends a treat, -he took him to the distance of about half an hour's walk into the desert -on the north of Cairo; here they both sat down, upon the pebbly and -sandy plain, and, the magician having uttered a spell, they suddenly -found themselves in the midst of a garden, like one of the gardens of -paradise, abounding with flowers and fruit-trees of every kind, -springing up from a soil clothed with verdure brilliant as the emerald -and irrigated by numerous streamlets of the clearest water. A repast of -the most delicious viands and fruits and wines was spread before them by -invisible hands; and they both ate to satiety, taking copious draughts -of the various wines. At length, the magician's guest sank into a deep -sleep; and when he awoke, he found himself again in the pebbly and sandy -plain, with Sádoomeh still by his side. - -The reader will probably attribute this vision to a dose of opium or -some similar drug; and such I suppose to have been the means employed; -for I cannot doubt the integrity of the narrator, though he would not -admit such an explanation,--regarding the whole as an affair of magic -effected by the operation of the Jinn. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[80] Kur. xxvii. 40; and Commentary of the Jeláleyn. - -[81] Kur. ii. 96. - -[82] El-Kazweenee, account of the well of Bábil, in his ´Ajaïb -el-Makhlookát. - -[83] See Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 374. - -[84] "Talisman," is a corruption of the Arabic word "talsam." I write -this latter word in accordance with the manner in which it is generally -pronounced by the Arabs, and the manner in which my sheykh has written -it; by some it is written "tilsem," and "tilism." It is a term -applied to mystical characters; and also to seals, images, etc., upon -which such characters are engraved or inscribed. These characters are -astrological, or of some other magical kind. The purposes for which -talsams are contrived are various; one has the property of preserving -from enchantment, or from a particular accident, or a variety of evils; -another protects a treasure with which it is deposited; a third, by -being rubbed, procures the presence and services of a Jinnee. - -[85] See Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 384 ff.; and above, 33 and 38. - -[86] Account of the early Arabs, in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[87] Some curious performances of this kind, by means of a fluid mirror -of ink, have been described in my "Account of the Manners and Customs of -the Modern Egyptians," ch. xii., and in No. 117 of the _Quarterly -Review_. - -[88] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 385. - -[89] Or Darb er-Ramal, also called ´Ilm er-Raml. There are several -treatises on Geomancy by Eastern writers: but I have not met with any of -these; nor have I seen a geomantic tablet. I have only seen the mode of -performing geomantic experiments upon paper. The invention of the -science is ascribed by some to Idrees (Enoch), by some to Daniel, by -some to Ham the son of Noah, and by others to Hermes Trismegistus. - -[90] Mir-át ez-Zemán, 1. 1. - -[91] El-Ishákee, in his account of the reign of El-Moatasim, -the son of Hároon. - -[92] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 388. - -[93] El-Ishákee, close of his account of the reign of El-Emeen. - -[94] I write in 1837. - -[95] El-Jabartee's History, account of the death of Yoosuf Bey in the -year of the Flight 1191; and account of the death of the Sheykh Hasan -El-Kafráwee in the year 1202. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -COSMOGRAPHY. - - -When we call to mind how far the Arabs surpassed their great master, -Aristotle, in natural and experimental philosophy, and remember that -their brilliant discoveries constituted an important link between those -of the illustrious Greek and of our scarcely less illustrious -countryman, Roger Bacon, their popular system of cosmography becomes an -interesting subject for our consideration. - -According to the common opinion of the Arabs (an opinion sanctioned by -the Kur-án, and by assertions of their Prophet, which almost all -Muslims take in their literal sense), there are Seven Heavens, one above -another, and Seven Earths, one beneath another; the earth which we -inhabit being the highest of the latter, and next below the lowest -heaven.[96] The upper surface of each heaven and of each earth are -believed to be nearly plane, and are generally supposed to be circular; -and are said to be five hundred years' journey in width. This is also -said to be the measure of the depth or thickness of each heaven and each -earth, and of the distance between each heaven or earth and that next -above or below it. Thus is explained a passage of the Kur-án in which -it is said that God hath created seven heavens and as many earths, or -stories of the earth, in accordance with traditions from the -Prophet.[97] - -Traditions differ respecting the fabric of the seven heavens. In the -most credible account, according to a celebrated historian, the first is -described as formed of emerald; the second, of white silver; the third, -of large white pearls; the fourth, of ruby; the fifth, of red gold; the -sixth, of yellow jacinth; and the seventh, of shining light.[98] - -Some assert Paradise to be in the seventh heaven; and, indeed, I have -found this to be the general opinion of my Muslim friends: but the -author above quoted proceeds to describe, next above the seventh heaven, -seven seas of light; then, an undefined number of veils, or separations, -of different substances, seven of each kind; and then, Paradise, which -consists of seven stages, one above another; the first (Dár el-Jelál, or -the Mansion of Glory), of white pearls; the second (Dár es-Selám, or the -Mansion of Peace), of ruby; the third (Jennet el-Ma-wà, or the Garden of -Rest), of green chrysolite; the fourth (Jennet el-Khuld, or the Garden -of Eternity), of green[99] coral; the fifth (Jennet en-Na´eem, or the -Garden of Delight), of white silver; the sixth (Jennet el-Firdós, or the -Garden of Paradise), of red gold; and the seventh (Jennet ´Adn, or the -Garden of Perpetual Abode, or of Eden), of large pearls; this last -overlooking all the former, and canopied by the Throne of the -Compassionate (´Arsh Er-Rahmán). These several regions of Paradise -are described in some traditions as forming so many degrees, or stages, -ascended by steps. - -Though the opinion before mentioned respecting the form of the earth -which we inhabit is that generally maintained by the Arabs, there have -been, and still are, many philosophical men among this people who have -argued that it is a globe, because, as El-Kazweenee says, an eclipse -of the moon has been observed to happen at different hours of the night -in eastern and western countries. Thus we find Ptolemy's measurement of -the earth quoted and explained by Ibn-El-Wardee:--The circumference of -the earth is 24,000 miles, or 8,000 leagues, the league being three -miles; the mile, 3,000 royal cubits; the cubit, three spans; the span, -twelve digits; the digit, five barley-corns placed side by side; and the -width of the barley-corn, six mule's-hairs. El-Makreezee [[+] 1442] -also, among the more intelligent Arabs, describes[100] the globular form -of the earth, and its arctic and antarctic regions, with their day of -six months, and night of six months, and their frozen waters, etc. - -For ourselves, however, it is necessary that we retain in our minds the -opinions first stated, with regard to the form and dimensions of our -earth; agreeing with those Muslims who allow not philosophy to trench -upon revelation or sacred traditions. It is written, say they, that God -hath "spread out the earth,"[101] "as a bed,"[102] and "as a -carpet;"[103] and what is round or globular cannot be said to be spread -out, nor compared to a bed, or a carpet. It is therefore decided to be -an almost plane expanse. The continents and islands of the earth are -believed by the Arabs (as they were by the Greeks in the age of Homer -and Hesiod) to be surrounded by "the Circumambient Ocean," el-Bahr -el-Moheet; and this ocean is described as bounded by a chain of -mountains called Káf, which encircle the whole as a ring, and confine -and strengthen the entire fabric. With respect to the extent of the -earth, our faith must at least admit the assertion of the Prophet, that -its width (as well as its depth or thickness) is equal to five hundred -years' journey, allotting the space of two hundred to the sea, two -hundred to uninhabited desert, eighty to the country of Yájooj and -Májooj (Gog and Magog), and the rest to the remaining creatures:[104] -nay, vast as these limits are, we must rather extend than contract them, -unless we suppose some of the heroes of the "Thousand and One Nights" to -travel by circuitous routes. Another tradition will suit us better, -wherein it is said, that the inhabited portion of the earth is, with -respect to the rest, as a tent in the midst of a desert.[105] - -But even according to the former assertion it will be remarked that the -countries now commonly known to the Arabs (from the western extremity of -Africa to the eastern limits of India, and from the southern confines of -Abyssinia to those of Russia), occupy a comparatively insignificant -portion of this expanse. They are situated in the middle; Mekkeh, -according to some,--or Jerusalem, according to others,--being exactly in -the centre. Adjacent to the tract occupied by these countries are other -lands and seas, partially known to the Arabs. On the north-west, with -respect to the central point, lies the country of the Christians or -Franks, comprising the principal European nations; on the north, the -country of Yájooj and Májooj, before mentioned, occupying, in the maps -of the Arabs, large tracts of Asia and Europe; on the north-east, -central Asia; on the east, Es-Seen (China); on the south-east, the -sea or seas of El-Hind (India), and Ez-Zinj (Southern Ethiopia), the -waves of which (or of the former of which) mingle with those of the sea -of Es-Seen, beyond; on the south, the country of the Zinj; on the -south-west, the country of the Soodán, or Blacks; on the west is a -portion of the Circumambient Ocean, which surrounds all the countries -and seas already mentioned, as well as immense unknown regions adjoining -the former, and innumerable islands interspersed in the latter. - -These _terrae incognitae_ are the scenes of some of the greatest wonders -described in the "Thousand and One Nights;" and are mostly peopled with -Jinn (Genii). On the Moheet, or Circumambient Ocean, is the ´Arsh -Iblees, or Throne of Iblees: in a map accompanying my copy of the work -of Ibn-El-Wardee, a large yellow tract is marked with this name, -adjoining Southern Africa. The western portion of the Moheet is often -called "the Sea of Darkness" (Bahr ez-Zulumát, or, Bahr ez-Zulmeh). -Under this name (and the synonymous appellation of el-Bahr el-Muzlim) -the Atlantic Ocean is described by the author just mentioned; though, -in the introduction to his work, he says that the Sea of Darkness -surrounds the Moheet. The former may be considered either as the western -or the more remote portion of the latter. - -In the dark regions (Ez-Zulumát, from which, perhaps, the -above-mentioned portion of the Moheet takes its name),[106] in the -south-west quarter of the earth, according to the same author, is the -Fountain of Life, of which El-Khidr[107] drank, and by virtue of -which he still lives and will live till the day of judgment. This -mysterious person, whom the vulgar and some others regard as a prophet -and identify with Ilyás (Elias, Elijah), and whom some confound with St. -George, was, according to the more approved opinion of the learned, a -just man or saint, the Wezeer and counsellor of the first -Dhu-l-Karneyn, who was a universal conqueror, but an equally doubtful -personage, contemporary with the patriarch Ibráheem (Abraham). -El-Khidr is said to appear frequently to Muslims in perplexity, and -to be generally clad in green garments; whence, according to some, his -name (which signifies "green"). The Prophet Ilyás is also related to -have drunk of the Fountain of Life. During the day-time, it is said, -El-Khidr wanders upon the seas, and directs voyagers who go astray; -while Ilyás perambulates the mountains or deserts, and directs persons -who chance to be led astray by the Ghools: but at night they meet -together, and guard the rampart of Yájooj and Májooj,[108] to prevent -these people from making irruptions upon their neighbours. Both, -however, are generally believed by the modern Muslims to assist pious -persons in distress in various circumstances, whether travelling by land -or by water. - -The Mountains of Káf, which bound the Circumambient Ocean and form -a circular barrier round the whole of our earth, are described by -interpreters of the Kur-án as composed of green chrysolite, like the -green tint of the sky.[109] It is the colour of these mountains, said -the Prophet, that imparts a greenish hue to the sky. It is said, in a -tradition, that beyond these mountains are other countries; one of gold, -seventy of silver, and seven of musk, all inhabited by angels, and each -country ten thousand years' journey in length, and the same in -breadth.[110] Some say that beyond it are creatures unknown to any but -God:[111] but the general opinion is, that the mountains of Káf -terminate our earth, and that no one knows what is beyond them. They are -the chief abode of the Jinn, or Genii. - -It has already been said that our earth is the first, or highest, of -seven earths, which are all of equal width and thickness and at equal -distances apart. Each of these earths has occupants. The occupants of -the first are men, genii, brutes, etc.; the second is occupied by the -suffocating wind that destroyed the infidel tribe of Ad; the third, by -the stones of Jahennem (or Hell), mentioned in the Kur-án in these -words, "the fuel of which is men and stones;"[112] the fourth, by the -sulphur of Jahennem; the fifth, by its serpents; the sixth, by its -scorpions, in colour and size like black mules and with tails like -spears; the seventh, by Iblees and his troops.[113] - -Whether these several earths are believed to be connected with each -other by any means, and if so how, we are not expressly informed; but, -that they are supposed to be so is evident. With respect to our earth in -particular, as some think, it is said that it is supported by a rock, -with which the Mountains of Káf communicate by means of veins or -roots; and that when God desires to effect an earthquake at a certain -place, He commands the mountain (or rock) to agitate the vein that is -connected with that place.[114] But there is another account, describing -our earth as upheld by certain successive supports of inconceivable -magnitude, which are under the seventh earth; leaving us to infer that -the seven earths are in some manner connected together. This account, as -inserted in the work of one of the writers above quoted, is as -follows:--The earth [under which appellation are here understood the -seven earths] was, it is said, originally unstable; "therefore God -created an angel of immense size and of the utmost strength, and ordered -him to go beneath it [_i.e._ beneath the lowest earth] and place it on -his shoulders; and his hands extended beyond the east and west, and -grasped the extremities of the earth [or, as related in Ibn-El-Wardee, -the seven earths] and held it [or them]. But there was no support for -his feet: so God created a rock of ruby, in which were seven thousand -perforations, and from each of these perforations issued a sea, the size -of which none knoweth but God, whose name be exalted; then he ordered -this rock to stand under the feet of the angel. But there was no support -for the rock: wherefore God created a huge bull, with four thousand eyes -and the same number of ears, noses, mouths, tongues, and feet; between -every two of which was a distance of five hundred years' journey; and -God, whose name be exalted, ordered this bull to go beneath the rock; -and he bore it on his back and his horns. The name of this bull is -Kuyootà.[115] But there was no support for the bull: therefore God, -whose name be exalted, created an enormous fish, that no one could look -upon on account of its vast size, and the flashing of its eyes, and -their greatness; for it is said that if all the seas were placed in one -of its nostrils, they would appear like a grain of mustard-seed in the -midst of a desert: and God, whose name be exalted, commanded the fish to -be a support to the feet of the bull.[116] The name of this fish is -Bahamoot [Behemoth]. He placed, as its support, water; and under the -water, darkness: and the knowledge of mankind fails as to what is under -the darkness."[117]--Another opinion is, that the [seventh] earth is -upon water; the water, upon the rock; the rock, on the back of the bull; -the bull, on a bed of sand; the sand, on the fish; the fish, upon a -still, suffocating wind; the wind, on a veil of darkness; the darkness, -on a mist; and what is beneath the mist is unknown.[118] - -It is generally believed that under the lowest earth, and beneath seas -of darkness of which the number is unknown, is Hell, which consists of -seven stages, one beneath another. The first of these, according to the -general opinion, is destined for the reception of wicked Mohammadans; -the second, for the Christians; the third, for the Jews; the fourth, for -the Sabians; the fifth, for the Magians; the sixth, for the Idolaters; -the seventh, by general consent, for the Hypocrites. Jahennem is the -general name for Hell, and the particular name for its first stage.[119] -The situation of Hell has been a subject of dispute; some place it in -the seventh earth; and some have doubted whether it be above or below -the earth which we inhabit. - -At the consummation of all things, God, we are told, will take the whole -earth in his [left] hand, and the heavens will be rolled together in his -right hand;[120] and the earth will be changed into another earth; and -the heavens, [into other heavens];[121] and Hell will be brought nigh to -the [tribunal of God].[122] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[96] This notion of the seven heavens appears to have been taken from -the "seven spheres;" the first of which is that of the Moon; the second, -of Mercury; the third, of Venus; the fourth, of the Sun; the fifth, of -Mars; the sixth, of Jupiter; and the seventh, of Saturn; each of which -orbs was supposed to revolve round the earth in its proper sphere. So -also the idea of the seven earths seems to have been taken from the -division of the earth into seven climates; a division which has been -adopted by several Arab geographers. - -[97] Kur. lxv. 12, and Mohammad's answers to ´Abd-Allah Ibn-Selám, -quoted by Ibn-El-Wardee (MS.); and Mekhool, quoted by the same -author; and Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 652, 653. - -[98] Ibn-Esh-Shihneh (MS.). - -[99] In another MS. of the same author, "yellow." - -[100] In his Khitat (MS.). - -[101] Kur. xiii. 3, and several other places. - -[102] Kur. ii. 20, and lxxviii. 6. - -[103] Kur. lxxi. 18. - -[104] Mekhool, quoted by Ibn-El-Wardee. - -[105] Wahb Ibn-Munebbih, quoted by El-Makreezee in his Khitat. - -[106] Ibn-El-Wardee, however, says that its name is derived from its -terrors and difficulties. - -[107] [Cp. Lane's Selections from the Kur-án, 128 ff., 2nd ed. 1879.] - -[108] History of El-Khidr in the Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[109] El-Kazweenee. - -[110] Mohammad's answers to ´Abd-Allah Ibn-Selám, quoted by -Ibn-El-Wardee. - -[111] El-Kazweenee. - -[112] Kur. ii. 22, and lxvi. 6. - -[113] Mir-át ez-Zemán. - -[114] Tradition from the Prophet, recorded by Ibn-´Abbás, and quoted by -Ibn-El-Wardee; and by El-Ishákee, in describing an earthquake that -happened in his lifetime. See also the next note. - -[115] In Ibn-Esh-Shihneh, "Kuyoothán;" the orthography of this word -is doubtful, as the vowel-points are not written. As the tradition is -related in Ibn-El-Wardee, this bull takes a breath twice in the course -of every day (or twenty-four hours): when he exhales, the sea flows; and -when he inhales, it ebbs. But it must not be imagined that none of the -Arabs has any notion of the true theory of the tides: the more learned -among them explain this phenomenon by the influence of the moon. Many of -the Arabs attribute earthquakes to the shaking of this bull. - -[116] In Ibn-El-Wardee, a quantity of sand is introduced between the -bull and the fish. - -[117] Ed-Demeeree, on the authority of Wahb Ibn-Munebbih, quoted by -El-Ishákee, 1. 1. - -[118] Ibn-El-Wardee. - -[119] [The other stages are Lazà, El-Hutameh, Sa´eer, Sakar, -Jeheem, and Háwiyeh. - -[120] Kur. xxxix. 67. - -[121] Kur. xiv. 49. - -[122] Kur. lxxxix. 24. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -LITERATURE. - - -Perhaps there are no people in the world who are such enthusiastic -admirers of literature, and so excited by romantic tales, as the Arabs. -Eloquence, with them, is lawful magic: it exercises over their minds an -irresistible influence. "I swear by God," said their Prophet, "verily -abuse of infidels in verse is worse to them than arrows."[123] - -In the purest, or Heroic Age of Arabic literature, which was anterior to -the triumph of the Mohammadan religion, the conquest which the love of -eloquence could achieve over the sanguinary and vindictive feelings of -the Arabs was most remarkably exemplified in the annual twenty days' -fair of ´Okádh. - -The fair of ´Okádh "was not only a great mart opened annually to all -the tribes of Arabia; but it was also a literary congress, or rather a -general concourse of virtues, of glory and of poetry, whither the -hero-poets resorted to celebrate their exploits in rhyming verse, and -peacefully to contend for every kind of honour. This fair was held in -the district of Mekkeh, between Et-Táïf and Nakhleh and was opened -at the new moon of Dhu-l-Kaadeh; that is to say, at the -commencement of a period of three sacred months, during which all war -was suspended and homicide interdicted.... How is it possible to -conceive that men whose wounds were always bleeding, who had always acts -of vengeance to execute, vengeances to dread, could at a certain epoch -impose silence upon their animosities, so as tranquilly to sit beside a -mortal enemy? How could the brave who required the blood of a father, a -brother, or a son, according to the phraseology of the desert and of the -Bible,[124] who long, perhaps, had pursued in vain the murderer,--meet -him, accost him peacefully at ´Okádh, and only assault with cadences -and rhymes him whose presence alone seemed to accuse him of impotence or -cowardice,--him whom he was bound to slay, under pain of infamy, after -the expiration of the truce? In fine, how could he hear a panegyric -celebrating a glory acquired at his own expense, and sustain the fire of -a thousand looks, and yet appear unmoved? Had the Arabs no longer any -blood in their veins during the continuance of the fair? - -"These embarrassing questions ... were determined [to a great degree], -during the age of Arab paganism, in a manner the simplest and most -refined: at the fair of ´Okádh, the heroes were masked [or veiled]. -In the recitations and improvisations, the voice of the orator was aided -by that of a rhapsodist or crier, who was stationed near him, and -repeated his words. There is a similar office in the public prayers; it -is that of the muballigh (transmitter), who is employed to repeat in a -loud voice what is said in a lower tone by the Imám.... The use of the -mask [or veil] might, however, be either adopted or dispensed with _ad -libitum_; as is proved by the narratives of a great number of quarrels -begun and ended at ´Okádh.... - -"It was in this congress of the Arab poets (and almost every warrior was -a poet at the age which I am considering) that the dialects of Arabia -became fused into a magic language, the language of the Hejáz, which -Mohammad made use of to subvert the world; for the triumph of -Mohammad is nothing else than the triumph of speech."[125] The -Kur-án is regarded by the Arabs as an everlasting miracle, surpassing -all others, appealing to the understanding of every generation by its -inimitable eloquence. A stronger proof of the power of language over -their minds could hardly be adduced; unless it be their being capable of -receiving as a credible fact the tradition that both genii and men were -attracted by the eloquent reading of David, when he recited the Psalms; -that the wild beasts and the birds were alike fascinated; and that -sometimes there were borne out from his assembly as many as four hundred -corpses of men who died from the excessive delight with which he thus -inspired them![126] It may be added, that the recitation or chanting of -the Kur-án is a favourite means of amusing the guests at modern -private festivities. - -In what may be termed the Middle Age of Arabic literature, beginning -with the triumph of the Mohammadan religion and extending to the -foundation of the Empire of Baghdád, the power of eloquence over the -educated classes of the Arabs probably increased in proportion as it -became less familiar to them: for early in this age they began to -simplify their spoken language in consequence of their intercourse with -strangers, who could not generally acquire the difficult, old dialect of -their conquerors, which consequently began to be confined to literary -compositions. That such a change took place at this period appears from -several anecdotes interspersed in Arabic works. The Khaleefeh El-Weleed -(who reigned near the close of the first century of the Flight), the -son of ´Abd-El-Melik, spoke so corrupt a dialect that he often could not -make himself understood by the Arabs of the desert. A ridiculous -instance of the mistakes occasioned by his use of the simplified -language which is now current is related by Abu-l-Fidà. The same author -adds that the father and predecessor of this prince was a man of -eloquence, and that he was grieved by the corrupt speech of his son, -which he considered as a defect that incapacitated him to be a future -ruler of the Arabs, who were still great admirers of purity of speech, -though so large a proportion of them spoke a corrupt dialect. So he sent -him to a house to be instructed by a grammarian; but after the youth had -remained there a long time, he returned to his father more ignorant than -before. Vulgarisms, however, would sometimes escape from the mouth of -´Abd-El-Melik himself; yet so sensible was he to eloquence, that when a -learned man, with whom he was conversing, elegantly informed him of an -error of this kind, he ordered his mouth to be filled with jewels. -"These," said his courteous admonisher, "are things to be treasured up, -not to be expended:"--and for this delicate hint he was further rewarded -with thirty thousand pieces of silver and several costly articles of -apparel.[127] - -It may be added that this Khaleefeh was in the beginning of his reign an -unjust monarch, but was reclaimed to a sense of his duty by the -following means. Being one night unable to sleep, he called for a person -to tell him a story for his amusement. "O Prince of the Faithful," said -the man thus bidden, "there was an owl in El-Mósil, and an owl in -El-Basrah; and the owl of El-Mósil demanded in marriage for her -son the daughter of the owl of El-Basrah: but the owl of El-Basrah -said, 'I will not, unless thou give me as her dowry a hundred desolate -farms.' 'That I cannot do,' said the owl of El-Mósil, 'at present; -but if our sovereign (may God, whose name be exalted, preserve him!) -live one year, I will give thee what thou desirest.'" This simple fable -sufficed to rouse the prince from his apathy, and he thenceforward -applied himself to fulfil the duties of his station.[128] - -In the most flourishing age of Arabic poetry and general literature and -science, beginning with the foundation of the Empire of Baghdád and -extending to the conquest of Egypt by the ´Othmánlee Turks, the -influence of eloquent and entertaining language upon the character of -the Arab sovereigns was particularly exemplified, as the following -anecdotes will show. - -It is related by El-Asma´ee that Hároon Er-Rasheed, at a grand fête -which he was giving, ordered the poet Abu-l´Atáhiyeh to depict in verse -the voluptuous enjoyments of his sovereign. The poet began thus:-- - - "Live long in safe enjoyment of thy desires under the shadow of - lofty palaces!" - -"Well said!" exclaimed Er-Rasheed: "and what next?" - - "May thy wishes be abundantly fulfilled, whether at eventide or in - the morning!" - -"Well!" again said the Khaleefeh: "then what next?" - - "But when the rattling breath struggles in the dark cavity of the - chest, - Then shalt thou know surely that thou hast been only in the midst - of illusions." - -Er-Rasheed wept; and Fadl, the son of Yahyà, said, "The Prince of -the Faithful sent for thee to divert him, and thou hast plunged him into -grief." "Suffer him," said the prince; "for he hath beheld us in -blindness, and it displeased him to increase it."[129] - -The family of the Barmekees (one of the most brilliant ornaments of -which was the Wezeer Jaafar, who has been rendered familiar to us by -the many scenes in which he is introduced in the "Thousand and One -Nights") earned a noble and enduring reputation by their attachment to -literature and the magnificent rewards they conferred on learned men. It -was peculiarly hard, therefore, that literature contributed to their -melancholy overthrow. Poets were employed by their enemies to compose -songs artfully pointed against them, to be sung before the prince to -whom they owed their power. Of one of these songs, the following lines -formed a part:-- - - "Would that Hind had fulfilled the promises she made us, and healed - the disease under which we suffer! - That she had once, at least, acted for herself! for imbecile, indeed, - is he who doth not so." - -"Yea! By Allah! Imbecile!" exclaimed the Khaleefeh, on hearing these -verses: his jealousy was roused; and his vengeance soon after fell -heavily upon his former favourites.[130] - -One of the Khaleefehs having invited the poets of his day to his palace, -a Bedawee, carrying a water-jar to fill at the river, followed them, and -entered with them. The Khaleefeh, seeing this poor man with the jar on -his shoulder, asked him what brought him thither. He returned for answer -these words:-- - - "Seeing that this company had girded on the saddles - To repair to thy overflowing river, I came with my jar." - -The Khaleefeh, delighted with his answer, gave orders to fill his jar -with gold.[131] - -It has long been a common custom of Eastern princes to bestow dresses -of honour upon men of literature and science, as well as upon their -great officers and other servants. These dresses were of different kinds -for persons of different classes or professions. The most usual kind was -an ample coat. With dresses of this description were often given -gold-embroidered turbans, and sometimes to Emeers (or great military -officers) neck-rings or collars (called tóks), some of which were -set with jewels, as also bracelets and swords ornamented with precious -stones; and to Wezeers, instead of the tók, a necklace of -jewels.[132] - -The following striking record will convey an idea of the magnificence of -some of these dresses of honour, or in other words of the liberality of -a Muslim prince, and at the same time of the very precarious nature of -his favour. A person chancing to look at a register kept by one of the -officers of Hároon Er-Rasheed, saw in it the following entry:--"Four -hundred thousand pieces of gold, the price of a dress of honour for -Jaafar, the son of Yahyà, the Wezeer." A few days after, he saw -beneath this written,--"Ten keeráts, the price of naphtha and -reeds, for burning the body of Jaafar, the son of Yahyà."[133] - -Arab princes and other great men have generally been famous for highly -respecting and liberally rewarding men of literature and science, and -especially poets. El-Ma-moon and many others are well known to us for -their patronage of the learned. Er-Rasheed carried his condescension to -them so far as to pour the water on the hands of a blind man, -Aboo-Mo´áwiyeh, one of the most learned persons of his time, previously -to his eating with him, to show his respect for science.[134] We have -already seen how a Khaleefeh ordered the mouth of a learned man to be -filled with jewels. To cram the mouth with sugar or sweetmeats for a -polite or eloquent speech, or piece of poetry, has been more commonly -done; but the usual presents to learned men were, and are, dresses of -honour and sums of money. Ibn-´Obeyd El-Bakhteree, an illustrious poet -and traditionist who flourished in the reign of El-Musta´een, is said to -have received so many presents that after his death there were found, -among the property which he left, a hundred complete suits of dress, two -hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans.[135] A thousand pieces of gold -were often given, and sometimes ten, twenty, or thirty thousand, and -even more, for a few verses; nay, for a single couplet. - -The prodigality of Arab princes to men of learning may be exemplified by -the following anecdote.--Hammád, surnamed Er-Ráwiyeh, or the famous -reciter, having attached himself to the Khaleefeh El-Weleed, the son of -´Abd-El-Melik, and shown a contrary feeling towards his brother Hishám, -fled, on the accession of the latter, to El-Koofeh. While there, a -letter arrived from Hishám, commanding his presence at Damascus: it was -addressed to the governor, who, being ordered to treat him with honour, -gave him a purse containing a thousand pieces of gold, and dispatched -him with the Khaleefeh's messenger. - -On his arrival at Damascus, he was conducted before Hishám, whom he -found in a splendid saloon, seated under a pavilion of red silk -surmounted by a dome of yellow brocade, attended by two female slaves of -beauty unsurpassed, each holding a crystal ewer of wine. His admission -during the presence of members of the king's hareem was a very -unusual and high honour: the mention of the wine will be explained in -the next chapter. After Hammád had given the salutation[136] and the -Khaleefeh had returned it, the latter told him that he had sent for him -to ask respecting a couplet of which he could only remember that it -ended with the word "ibreek," which signifies "a ewer." The reciter -reflected awhile, and the lines occurred to his mind, and he repeated -them. Hishám cried out in delight that the lines were those he meant; -drank a cup of wine, and desired one of the female slaves to hand a cup -to Hammád. She did so; and the draught, he says, deprived him of -one-third of his reason. The Khaleefeh desired him to repeat the lines -again, and drink a second cup; and Hammád was deprived of another -third of his reason in the same manner; and said, "O Prince of the -Faithful, two-thirds of my reason have departed from me." Hishám -laughed, and desired him to ask what he would before the remaining third -should have gone; and the reciter said, "One of these two female -slaves." The Khaleefeh laughed again, and said, "Nay, but both of them -are thine, and all that is upon them and all that they possess, and -beside them fifty thousand pieces of gold."--"I kissed the ground before -him," says Hammád, "and drank a third cup, and was unconscious of -what happened after. I did not awake till the close of the night, when I -found myself in a handsome house, surrounded by lighted candles, and the -two female slaves were putting in order my clothes and other things. So -I took possession of the property, and departed, the happiest of the -creatures of God."[137] - -In the beginning of the year of the Flight 305 (A.D. 917), two -ambassadors from the Greek Emperor (Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus) -arrived in Baghdád on a mission to the Khaleefeh El-Muktedir, -bringing an abundance of costly presents. They were first received by -the Wezeer, who, at the audience which he granted to them in his garden -palace, displayed a degree of magnificence that had never before been -manifested by any of his rank. Pages, memlooks, and soldiers crowded -the avenues and courts of his mansion, the apartments of which were hung -with tapestry of the value of thirty thousand deenárs; and the Wezeer -himself was surrounded by generals and other officers on his right and -left and behind his seat, when the two ambassadors approached him, -dazzled by the splendour that surrounded them, to beg for an interview -with the Khaleefeh. El-Muktedir, having appointed a day on which he -would receive them, ordered that the courts and passages and avenues of -his palace should be filled with armed men, and that all the apartments -should be furnished with the utmost magnificence. A hundred and sixty -thousand armed soldiers were arranged in ranks in the approach to the -palace; next to these were the pages of the closets and chief eunuchs, -clad in silk and with belts set with jewels, in number seven -thousand,--four thousand white and three thousand black,--besides seven -hundred chamberlains; and beautifully ornamented boats of various kinds -were seen floating upon the Tigris hard by. - -The two ambassadors passed first by the palace of the chief chamberlain, -and, astonished at the splendid ornaments and pages and arms which they -there beheld, imagined that this was the palace of the Khaleefeh. But -what they had seen here was eclipsed by what they beheld in the latter, -where they were amazed by the sight of thirty-eight thousand pieces of -tapestry of gold-embroidered silk brocade, and twenty-two thousand -magnificent carpets. Here also were two menageries of beasts, by nature -wild but tamed by art and eating from the hands of men: among them were -a hundred lions, each with its keeper. They then entered the Palace of -the Tree, enclosing a pond from which rose the Tree: this had eighteen -branches, with artificial leaves of various colours and with birds of -gold and silver (or gilt and silvered) of every variety of kind and size -perched upon its branches, so constructed that each of them sang. Thence -they passed into the garden, in which were furniture and utensils not to -be enumerated; in the passages leading to it were suspended ten thousand -gilt coats of mail. Being at length conducted before El-Muktedir, -they found him seated on a couch of ebony inlaid with gold and silver, -to the right of which were hung nine necklaces of jewels, and the like -to the left, the jewels of which outshone the light of day. The two -ambassadors paused at the distance of about a hundred cubits from the -Khaleefeh, with the interpreter. Having left the presence, they were -conducted through the palace, and were shown splendidly caparisoned -elephants, a giraffe, lynxes, and other beasts. They were then clad with -robes of honour, and to each of them was brought fifty thousand dirhems, -together with dresses and other presents. It is added that the -ambassadors approached the palace through a street called "the Street of -the Menárehs," in which were a thousand menárehs or minarets. It was at -the hour of noon; and as they passed, the muëddins from all these -minarets chanted the call to prayer at the same time, so that the earth -almost quaked at the sound, and the ambassadors were struck with -fear.[138] - -The Orientals well understand how to give the most striking effect to -the jewels which they display on their dress and ornaments on occasions -of state. Sir John Malcolm, describing his reception by the King of -Persia, says, "His dress baffled all description. The ground of his -robes was white; but he was so covered with jewels of an extraordinary -size, and their splendour, from his being seated where the rays of the -sun played upon them, was so dazzling, that it was impossible to -distinguish the minute parts which combined to give such amazing -brilliancy to his whole figure." - -A whimsical story is told of a King who denied to poets those rewards to -which usage had almost given them a claim. This King, whose name is not -recorded, had the faculty of retaining in his memory an ode after having -only once heard it; and he had a memlook who could repeat an ode that he -had twice heard, and a female slave who could repeat one that she had -heard thrice. Whenever a poet came to compliment him with a panegyrical -ode, the King used to promise him that if he found his verses to be his -original composition, he would give him a sum of money equal in weight -to what they were written upon. The poet, consenting, would recite his -ode; and the King would say, "It is not new, for I have known it some -years;" and would repeat it as he had heard it. After which he would -add, "And this memlook also retains it in his memory;" and would order -the memlook to repeat it: which, having heard it twice, from the poet -and the king, he would do. The King would then say to the poet, "I have -also a female slave who can repeat it;" and on his ordering her to do -so, stationed behind the curtains, she would repeat what she had thus -thrice heard: so the poet would go away empty-handed. The famous poet, -El Asma´ee, having heard of this proceeding, and guessing the trick, -determined upon outwitting the King; and accordingly composed an ode -made up of very difficult words. But this was not his only preparative -measure, another will be presently explained, and a third was to assume -the dress of a Bedawee, that he might not be known, covering his face, -the eyes only excepted, with a lithám (a piece of drapery) in accordance -with a custom of Arabs of the desert. - -Thus disguised, he went to the palace, and having asked permission, -entered, and saluted the King, who said to him, "Whence art thou, O -brother of the Arabs, and what dost thou desire?" - -The poet answered, "May God increase the power of the King! I am a poet -of such a tribe, and have composed an ode in praise of our Lord the -Sultán." - -"O brother of the Arabs," said the King, "hast thou heard of our -condition?" - -"No," answered the poet; "and what is it, O King of the age?" - -"It is," replied the King, "that if the ode be not thine, we give thee -no reward; and if it be thine, we give thee the weight in money of what -it is written upon." - -"How," said El-Asma´ee, "should I assume to myself that which belongs -to another, and knowing, too, that lying before kings is one of the -basest of actions? But I agree to this condition, O our Lord the -Sultán." - -So he repeated his ode. The King, perplexed, and unable to remember any -of it, made a sign to the memlook--but he had retained nothing; and -called to the female slave, but she also was unable to repeat a word. - -"O brother of the Arabs," said he, "thou hast spoken truth, and the ode -is thine without doubt; I have never heard it before: produce, -therefore, what it is written upon, and we will give thee its weight in -money, as we have promised." - -"Wilt thou," said the poet, "send one of the attendants to carry it?" - -"To carry what?" asked the King; "is it not upon a paper here in thy -possession?" - -"No, our lord the Sultán," replied the poet; "at the time I composed -it I could not procure a piece of paper upon which to write it, and -could find nothing but a fragment of a marble column left me by my -father; so I engraved it upon this, and it lies in the court of the -palace." - -He had brought it, wrapped up, on the back of a camel. The King, to -fulfil his promise, was obliged to exhaust his treasury; and to prevent -a repetition of this trick, (of which he afterwards discovered -El-Asma´ee to have been the author), in future rewarded the poets -according to the usual custom of kings.[139] - -In the present declining age of Arabian learning (which may be said to -have commenced about the period of the conquest of Egypt by the -´Othmánlees), literary recreations still exert a magical influence upon -the Arabs. Compositions of a similar nature to the tales of the -"Thousand and One Nights" (though regarded by the learned as idle -stories unworthy of being classed with their literature) enable numbers -of professional story-tellers to attract crowds of delighted listeners -to the coffee-shops of the East; and now that the original of this work -is printed and to be purchased at a moderate price, it will probably -soon in a great measure supersede the romances of Aboo-Zeyd, -Ez-Záhir, and ´Antarah. As a proof of the powerful fascinations -with which the tales of the "Thousand and One Nights" affect the mind of -a highly enlightened Muslim, it may be mentioned that the latest native -historian of Modern Egypt, the sheykh ´Abd-Er-Rahmán El-Jabartee, so -delighted in their perusal that he took the trouble of refining the -language of a copy of them which he possessed, expunging or altering -whatever was grossly offensive to morality without the somewhat -redeeming quality of wit, and adding many facetiæ of his own and of -other literati. What has become of this copy I have been unable, though -acquainted with several of his friends, to discover. - -The letters of Muslims are distinguished by several peculiarities -dictated by the rules of politeness. The paper is thick, white, and -highly polished: sometimes it is ornamented with flowers of gold; and -the edges are always cut straight with scissors. The upper half is -generally left blank, and the writing never occupies any portion of the -second side. A notion of the usual style of letters may be obtained from -several examples in the "Thousand and One Nights." The name of the -person to whom the letter is addressed, when the writer is an inferior -or an equal, and even in some other cases, commonly occurs in the first -sentence, preceded by several titles of honour; and is often written a -little above the line to which it appertains; the space beneath it in -that line being left blank: sometimes it is written in letters of gold, -or red ink. A king writing to a subject, or a great man to a dependant, -usually places his name and seal at the head of his letter. The seal is -the impression of a signet (generally a ring, worn on the little finger -of the right hand), upon which is engraved the name of the person, -commonly accompanied by the words "His [_i.e._ God's] servant," or some -other words expressive of trust in God and the like. Its impression is -considered more valid than the sign-manual, and is indispensable to give -authenticity to the letter. It is made by dabbing some ink upon the -surface of the signet and pressing this upon the paper: the place which -is to be stamped being first moistened by touching the tongue with a -finger of the right hand and then gently rubbing the part with that -finger. A person writing to a superior or an equal, or even to an -inferior to whom he wishes to show respect, signs his name at the bottom -of his letter, next the left side or corner, and places the seal -immediately to the right of this: but if he particularly desire to -testify his humility, he places it beneath his name, or even partly -over the lower edge of the paper, which consequently does not receive -the whole of the impression. The letter is generally folded twice in the -direction of the writing, and enclosed in a cover of paper, upon which -is written the address in some such form as this:--"It shall arrive, if -it be the will of God, whose name be exalted, at such a place, and be -delivered into the hand of our honoured friend, etc., such a one, whom -God preserve." Sometimes it is placed in a small bag, or purse, of silk -embroidered with gold. - -Many persons of the instructed classes, and some others among the Arabs, -often take delight and show much ingenuity and quickness of apprehension -in conversing and corresponding by means of signs and emblems, or in a -conventional, metaphorical language, not understood by the vulgar in -general and sometimes not by any excepting the parties engaged in the -intercourse. In some cases, when the main metaphor employed is -understood, the rest of the conversation becomes easily intelligible, -without any previous explanation; and I have occasionally succeeded in -carrying on a conversation of this kind, but I have more frequently been -unsuccessful in attempting to divine the nature of a topic in which -other persons were engaged. One simple mode of secret conversation or -correspondence is by substituting certain letters for other letters. - -Many of the women are said to be adepts in this art, or science, and to -convey messages, declarations of love, and the like, by means of fruits, -flowers, and other emblems. The inability of numbers of women in -families of the middle classes to write or read, as well as the -difficulty or impossibility frequently existing of conveying written -letters, may have given rise to such modes of communication. Lady Mary -Wortley Montagu, in one of her charming letters from the East, has -gratified our curiosity by a Turkish love-letter of this kind.[140] A -specimen of one from an Arab with its answer, may be here added:--An -Arab lover sent to his mistress a fan, a bunch of flowers, a silk -tassel, some sugar-candy, and a piece of a chord of a musical -instrument; and she returned for answer a piece of an aloe-plant, three -black cumin-seeds, and a piece of a plant used in washing.[141] His -communication is thus interpreted. The fan, being called "mirwahah," -a word derived from a root which has among its meanings that of "going -to any place in the evening," signified his wish to pay her an evening -visit: the flowers, that the interview should be in her garden: the -tassel, being called "shurrábeh," that they should have sharáb[142] (or -wine): the sugar-candy, being termed "sukkar nebát," and "nebát" also -signifying "we will pass the night," denoted his desire to remain in her -company until the morning: and the piece of a chord, that they should be -entertained by music. The interpretation of her answer is as follows. -The piece of an aloe-plant, which is called "sabbárah" (from -"sabr," which signifies "patience"--because it will live for many -months together without water), implied that he must wait: the three -black cumin-seeds explained to him that the period of delay should be -three nights: and the plant used in washing informed him that she should -then have gone to the bath, and would meet him.[143] - -A remarkable faculty is displayed by some Arabs for catching the -meaning of secret signs employed in written communications to them, such -signs being often used in political and other intrigues. The following -is a curious instance.--The celebrated poet El-Mutanebbee, having -written some verses in dispraise of Káfoor El-Ikhsheedee, the -independent Governor of Egypt, was obliged to flee and hide himself in a -distant town. Káfoor was informed of his retreat, and desired his -secretary to write to him a letter promising him pardon and commanding -him to return; but told the writer at the same time that when the poet -came he would punish him. The secretary was a friend of the poet, and, -being obliged to read the letter to the Prince when he had written it, -was perplexed how to convey to El-Mutanebbee some indication of the -danger that awaited him. He could only venture to do so in the exterior -address; and having written this in the usual form, commencing "In -sháa-lláh" (If it be the will of God) "this shall arrive," etc., he put -a small mark of reduplication over the "n" in the first word, which he -thus converted into "Inna," the final vowel being understood. The poet -read the letter and was rejoiced to see a promise of pardon; but on -looking a second time at the address was surprised to observe the mark -of reduplication over the "n." Knowing the writer to be his friend, he -immediately suspected a secret meaning, and rightly conceived that the -sign conveyed an allusion to a passage in the Kur-án commencing with -the word "Inna," and this he divined to be the following:--"Verily the -magistrates are deliberating concerning thee, to put thee to -death."[144] Accordingly, he fled to another town. Some authors add that -he wrote a reply conveying by a similar sign to his friend an allusion -to another passage in the Kur-án:--"We will never enter the country -while they remain therein."[145] It is probable that signs thus employed -were used by many persons to convey allusions to certain words; and such -may have been the case in the above-mentioned instance: if not, the poet -was indeed a wonderful guesser. - -It is commonly believed by the Muslims (learned and unlearned) that all -kinds of birds and many (if not all) beasts have a language by which -they communicate their thoughts to each other; and we are told in the -Kur-án[146] that Suleymán (Solomon) was taught the language of -birds.[147] I thought that I could boast of an accomplishment very rare -in Christian countries, in having learned in Egypt somewhat of this -language; for instance, that the common cry of the pigeon is "Allah! -Allah!" ("God! God!"); that of the ringdove, "Kereem! Towwáb!" -("Bountiful! Propitious!"--an ejaculation addressed to God); that of the -common dove, "Wahhidoo rabbakumu-llezee khalakakum yeghfir-lakum -zembakum!" ("Assert the unity of your Lord who created you, that He may -forgive you your sin!"): but I afterwards found that several specimens -of this language were given by Ez-Zamakhsheree, and had been published -in Europe.[148] The cock cries, "Uzkuru-lláha, yá gháfiloon!" -("Commemorate God, O ye negligent!"): the katà (a kind of grouse), "Men -seket selim!" ("He who is silent is safe!") The latter, however, would -do better if it did itself attend to the maxim it utters; for its cry -(which to the uninstructed in the language of birds sounds merely "katà! -katà!"--its own name) tells where it is to be found by the sportsman, -and thus causes its own destruction.--Hence the proverb, "More veracious -than the katà." - -An Arab historian mentions a parrot which recited the Soorat Yá-Seen -(or 36th chapter of the Kur-án), and a raven which recited the Soorat -es-Sijdeh (or 32nd chapter) and which, on arriving at the place of -prostration (or verse which should be recited with prostration), would -perform that action, and say, "My body prostrateth itself to Thee, and -my heart confideth in Thee." But these are not the most remarkable cases -of the kind. He affirms that there was a parrot in Cairo which recited -the Kur-án from beginning to end. The Pásha, he says, desiring to try -its talent, caused a man to recite a chapter of the Kur-án in its -presence, and to pass irregularly from one chapter to another, with the -view of leading the bird into error; but, instead of this being the -result, the parrot corrected him![149] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[123] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 424. This of course alludes to -_Arab_ unbelievers. [For a fuller account of ancient Arab poetry, with -examples, see my Introduction to Lane's "Selections from the Kur-án," -xiv.-xxxi. 2nd ed. S. L-P.] - -[124] Genesis ix. 5. - -[125] Lettres sur l'Histoire des Arabes avant l'Islamisme, par Fulgence -Fresnel (Paris, 1836, pp. 31 ff.); an author who is at present [1837] -devoting talents of the very highest order to the study and illustration -of the history and literature of the early Arabs, and to whose -conversations and writings I must acknowledge myself indebted for the -most valuable information. - -[126] El-Ishákee. - -[127] El-Ishákee. - -[128] El-Ishákee. - -[129] Fakhr-ed-Deen, in De Sacy, Chrestomathie Arabe. - -[130] Ibn-Khaldoon. - -[131] Halbet el-Kumeyt (MS.), chap. vii. - -[132] El-Makreezee's Khitat, chapter entitled "Khizánet -el-Kisawát." - -[133] Fakhr-ed-Deen, ubi supra. The keerát of Baghdád was the -twentieth part of a deenár or piece of gold. - -[134] Fakhr-ed-Deen, ubi supra. - -[135] D'Herbelot, art. "Bokhteri." - -[136] Various different modes of obeisance are practised by the Muslims. -Among these, the following are the more common or more remarkable: they -differ in the degree of respect that they indicate, nearly in the order -in which I shall mention them; the last being the most respectful:--1. -Placing the right hand upon the breast.--2. Touching the lips and the -forehead or turban (or the forehead or turban only) with the right -hand.--3. Doing the same, but slightly inclining the head during that -action.--4. The same as the preceding, but inclining the body also.--5. -As above, but previously touching the ground with the right hand.--6. -Kissing the hand of the person to whom the obeisance is paid.--7. -Kissing his sleeve.--8. Kissing the skirt of his clothing.--9. Kissing -his feet.--10. Kissing the carpet or ground before him.--The first five -modes are often accompanied by the salutation of "Peace be on you:" to -which the reply is, "On you be peace and the mercy of God and his -blessings." The sixth mode is observed by servants or pupils to masters, -by the wife to the husband, and by children to their father and -sometimes to the mother. The last mode is seldom observed but to kings; -and in Arabian countries it is now very uncommon. - -[137] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. vii. - -[138] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of 305. - -[139] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. viii. - -[140] The art here mentioned was first made known to Europeans by a -Frenchman, M. Du Vigneau, in a work entitled "Secrétaire Turc, contenant -l'Art d'exprimer ses pensées sans se voir, sans se parler, et sans -s'écrire:" Paris, 1688: in-12. Von Hammer has also given an interesting -paper on this subject in the "Mines de l'Orient," No. 1: Vienna, 1809. -(Note to Marcel's "Contes du Cheykh El-Mohdy," iii. 327, 328: Paris, -1833.) - -[141] Called "ghásool el-azrár." In Delile's Flora Ægyptiaca, the name -of ghásool is given to the mesembryanthemum nodiflorum, class -icosandria, order pentagynia. - -[142] This name is now given to sherbet. - -[143] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. x. - -[144] Kur. xxviii. 19. - -[145] Kur. v. 27. - -[146] Kur. xxvii. 16. - -[147] Mantik et-teyr. - -[148] Alcoranus Marraccii, p. 511. - -[149] El-Ishákee; reign of the Khaleefeh El-Musta´een, the son of -El-Moatasim. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -FEASTING AND MERRYMAKING. - - -The Muslim takes a light breakfast after the morning-prayers, and dinner -after the noon-prayers; or a single meal instead of these two, before -noon. His principal meal is supper, which is taken after the prayers of -sunset. A man of rank or wealth, when he has no guest, generally eats -alone; his children eat after him, or with his wife or wives. In all his -repasts he is moderate with regard to the quantity which he eats, -however numerous the dishes. - -In the Middle Ages it appears that the dishes were sometimes, I believe -generally, placed upon a round embroidered cloth spread on the floor, -and sometimes on a tray, which was either laid on the floor or upon a -small stand or stool. The last is the mode now always followed in the -houses of the higher and middle classes of the Arabs. The table is -usually placed upon a round cloth spread in the middle of the floor, or -in a corner next two of the deewáns or low seats which generally extend -along three sides of the room. It is composed of a large round tray of -silver, or tinned copper, or of brass, supported by a stool, commonly -about fifteen or sixteen inches high, made of wood and generally inlaid -with mother-of-pearl, and ebony or other wood, or tortoise-shell. When -there are numerous guests, two or more such tables are prepared. The -dishes are of silver or tinned copper, or china. Several of these are -placed upon the tray; and around them are disposed some round flat cakes -of bread, with spoons of box-wood, ebony, or other material, and usually -two or three limes cut in halves, to be squeezed over certain of the -dishes. When these preparations have been made, each person who is to -partake of the repast receives a napkin; and a servant pours water over -his hands. A basin and ewer of either of the metals first mentioned are -employed for this purpose; the former has a cover with a receptacle for -a piece of soap in its centre, and with numerous perforations through -which the water runs during the act of washing, so that it is not seen -when the basin is brought from one person to another. It is -indispensably requisite to wash at least the right hand before eating -with the fingers anything but dry food; and the mouth also is often -rinsed, the water being taken up into it from the right hand. The -company sit upon the floor, or upon cushions, or some of them on the -deewán, either cross-legged or with the right knee raised:[150] they -retain the napkins before mentioned, or a long napkin, sufficient to -surround the tray, is placed upon their knees; and each person, before -he begins to eat, says, "In the name of God," or "In the name of God, -the Compassionate, the Merciful." The master of the house begins first: -if he did not do so, some persons would suspect that the food was -poisoned. The thumb and two fingers of the right hand serve instead of -knives and forks; and it is the usual custom for a person to help -himself to a portion of the contents of a dish by drawing it towards -the edge, or taking it from the edge, with a morsel of bread, which -he eats with it: when he takes too large a portion for a single -mouthful, he generally places it on his cake of bread. He takes from any -dish that pleases him; and sometimes a host hands a delicate morsel with -his fingers to one of his guests. It is not allowable to touch food with -the left hand (as it is used for unclean purposes), excepting in a -few cases when both hands are required to divide a joint. - -Among the more common dishes are the following:--lamb or mutton, cut -into small pieces, and stewed with various vegetables, and sometimes -with peaches, apricots, or jujubes, and sugar; cucumbers or small -gourds, or the fruit of the black or white egg-plant, stuffed with rice -and minced meat, vine-leaves or pieces of lettuce-leaf or cabbage-leaf, -enclosing a similar composition; small morsels of lamb or mutton, -roasted on skewers, and called kebáb; fowls simply roasted or boiled, or -boned and stuffed with raisins, pistachio-nuts, crumbled bread, and -parsley; and various kinds of pastry and other sweets. The repast is -frequently opened with soup; and is generally ended with boiled rice, -mixed with a little butter and seasoned with salt and pepper; or after -this is served, a water-melon or other fruit, or a bowl of a sweet drink -composed of water with raisins and sometimes other kinds of fruit boiled -in it, and then sugar, with a little rose-water added to it when cool. -The meat, having generally little fat, is cooked with clarified butter, -and is so thoroughly done that it is easily divided with the fingers. - -A whole lamb, stuffed in the same manner as the fowls above mentioned, -is not a very uncommon dish; but one more extraordinary, of which -´Abd-El-Lateef gives an account[151] as one of the most remarkable -that he had seen in Egypt, I am tempted to describe. It was an enormous -pie, composed in the following manner:--Thirty pounds of fine flour -being kneaded with five pounds and a half of oil of sesame, and divided -into two equal portions, one of these was spread upon a round tray of -copper about four spans in diameter. Upon this were placed three lambs, -stuffed with pounded meat fried with oil of sesame and ground -pistachio-nuts, and various hot aromatics, such as pepper, ginger, -cinnamon, mastic, coriander-seed, cumin-seed, cardamom, nut [or -nutmeg?], etc. These were then sprinkled with rose-water infused with -musk; and upon the lambs, and in the remaining spaces, were placed -twenty fowls, twenty chickens, and fifty smaller birds; some of which -were baked, and stuffed with eggs; some, stuffed with meat; and some, -fried with the juice of sour grapes, or that of limes, or some similar -acid. To the above were added a number of small pies; some filled with -meat and others with sugar and sweetmeats; and sometimes the meat of -another lamb, cut into small pieces, and some fried cheese. The whole -being piled up in the form of a dome, some rose-water infused with musk -and aloes-wood was sprinkled upon it; and the other half of the paste -first mentioned was spread over, so as to close the whole: it was then -baked, wiped with a sponge, and again sprinkled with rose-water infused -with musk. - -On certain periodical festivals, and on other occasions it has long -been, and still is, a custom of Muslim princes to give public feasts to -all classes of their subjects, in the palace. El-Makreezee quotes a -curious account of the feasts which were given on the festival following -Ramadán to the inhabitants of Cairo by the Fátimee Khaleefehs. At -the upper end of a large saloon was placed the sereer (or couch) of the -monarch, upon which he sat with the Wezeer on his right. Upon this seat -was placed a round silver table, with various delicacies, of which they -alone ate. Before it, and extending nearly from the seat to the other -extremity of the saloon, was set up a kind of table or platform -(simát) of painted wood, resembling a number of benches placed -together, ten cubits or about eighteen or nineteen feet in width. Along -the middle of this were ranged twenty-one enormous dishes, each -containing twenty-one baked sheep, three years old and fat, together -with fowls, pigeons, and young chickens, in number 350 of each kind, all -of which were piled together in an oblong form to the height of the -stature of a man, and enclosed with dry sweetmeat. The spaces between -these dishes were occupied by nearly five hundred other dishes of -earthenware, each of which contained seven fowls, and was filled with -sweetmeats of various kinds. The table was strewn with flowers, and -cakes of bread made of the finest flour were arranged along each side; -there were also two great edifices of sweetmeats, each weighing 17 cwt., -which were carried thither by porters with shoulder poles, and one of -them was placed at the commencement and the other at the close of this -sumptuous banquet. When the Khaleefeh and the Wezeer had taken their -seats upon the couch, the officers of state, who were distinguished by -neck-rings or collars, and the inferior members of the Court, seated -themselves in the order of their respective ranks; and when they had -eaten, they gave place to others. Two officers distinguished themselves -at these feasts in a very remarkable manner. Each of them used to eat a -baked sheep and ten fowls dressed with sweetmeats, and ten pounds of -sweetmeats besides, and was presented with a quantity of food carried -away from the feast to his house, together with a large sum of money. -One of them had been a prisoner at ´Askalán; and after he had -remained there some time, the person into whose power he had fallen -jestingly told him that if he would eat a calf belonging to him, the -flesh of which weighed several hundredweights, he would emancipate him. -This feat he accomplished and thus obtained his liberation.[152] - -With respect to clean and unclean meats, the Muslim is subject to nearly -the same laws as the Jew. Swine's flesh, and blood, are especially -forbidden to him; but camel's flesh is allowed. The latter, however, -being of a coarse nature, is never eaten when any other meat can be -obtained, excepting by persons of the lower classes and by Arabs of the -desert. Of fish, almost every kind is eaten (excepting shell-fish), -usually fried in oil: of game, little; partly in consequence of frequent -doubt whether it have been lawfully killed. The diet consists in a great -measure of vegetables, and includes a large variety of pastry. A very -common kind of pastry is a pancake, which is made very thin, and folded -over several times like a napkin; it is saturated with butter, and -generally sweetened with honey or sugar; as is also another common kind -which somewhat resembles vermicelli. - -The usual beverage at meals is water, which is drunk from cooling, -porous, earthen bottles, or from cups of brass or other metal: but in -the houses of the wealthy, sherbet is sometimes served instead of this, -in covered glass cups, each of which contains about three-quarters of a -pint. The sherbet is composed of water made very sweet with sugar, or -with a hard conserve of violets or roses or mulberries. After every time -that a person drinks, he says, "Praise be to God;" and each person of -the company says to him, "May it be productive of enjoyment:" to which -he replies, "May God cause thee to have enjoyment." The Arabs drink -little or no water during a meal, but generally take a large draught -immediately after. The repast is quickly finished; and each person, as -soon as he has done, says, "Praise be to God," or "Praise be to God, the -Lord of all creatures." He then washes in the same manner as before, but -more thoroughly; well lathering his beard and rinsing his mouth. - -"Whoever," said the Prophet, "believes in God and the day of -resurrection, must respect his guest; and the time of being kind to him -is one day and one night; and the period of entertaining him is three -days; and after that, if he does it longer, he benefits him more; but it -is not right for a guest to stay in the house of the host so long as to -incommode him." He even allowed the "right of a guest" to be taken by -force from such as would not offer it.[153] The following observations, -respecting the treatment of guests by the Bedawees, present an -interesting commentary upon the former precept:--"Strangers who have not -any friend or acquaintance in the camp, alight at the first tent that -presents itself: whether the owner be at home or not, the wife or -daughter immediately spreads a carpet, and prepares breakfast or dinner. -If the stranger's business requires a protracted stay, as, for instance, -if he wishes to cross the Desert under the protection of the tribe, the -host, after a lapse of three days and four hours from the time of his -arrival, asks whether he means to honour him any longer with his -company. If the stranger declares his intention of prolonging his visit, -it is expected that he should assist his host in domestic matters, -fetching water, milking the camel, feeding the horse, etc. Should he -even decline this, he may remain; but he will be censured by all the -Arabs of the camp: he may, however, go to some other tent of the nezel -[or encampment], and declare himself there a guest. Thus, every third or -fourth day he may change hosts, until his business is finished, or he -has reached his place of destination."[154] - -The obligation which is imposed by eating another person's -bread and salt, or salt alone, or eating such things with -another, is well known; but the following example of it may be new to -some readers.--Yaakoob the son of El-Leyth Es-Saffár, having -adopted a predatory life, excavated a passage one night into the palace -of Dirhem the Governor of Sijistán, or Seestán; and after he had "made -up a convenient bale of gold and jewels, and the most costly stuffs, was -proceeding to carry it off, when he happened in the dark to strike his -foot against something hard on the floor. Thinking it might be a jewel -of some sort or other, a diamond perhaps, he picked it up and put it to -his tongue, and, to his equal mortification and disappointment, found it -to be a lump of rock-salt; for having thus tasted the salt of the owner, -his avarice gave way to his respect for the laws of hospitality; and -throwing down his precious booty, he left it behind him, and withdrew -empty-handed to his habitation. The treasurer of Dirhem repairing the -next day, according to custom, to inspect his charge, was equally -surprised and alarmed at observing that a great part of the treasure and -other valuables had been removed; but on examining the package which lay -on the floor, his astonishment was not less, to find that not a single -article had been conveyed away. The singularity of the circumstance -induced him to report it immediately to his master: and the latter -causing it to be proclaimed throughout the city, that the author of this -proceeding had his free pardon, further announced that on repairing to -the palace, he would be distinguished by the most encouraging marks of -favour." Yaakoob availed himself of the invitation, relying upon -the promise, which was fulfilled to him; and from this period he -gradually rose in power until he became the founder of a Dynasty.[155] - -In the houses of persons of the higher and middle classes in Cairo, the -different apartments generally resemble each other in several respects -and are similarly furnished. The greater portion of the floor is -elevated about half a foot, or somewhat more, above the rest. The higher -portion is called leewán (a corruption of "el-eewán"), and the lower, -durká´ah, from the Persian dar-gáh. When there is but one leewán, the -durká´ah occupies the lower end, extending from the door to the -opposite wall. In a handsome house, it is usually paved with white and -black marble and little pieces of red tile inlaid in tasteful and -complicated patterns; and if the room is on the ground-floor, and -sometimes in other cases, it has in the centre a fountain which plays -into a small shallow pool lined with coloured marbles like the -surrounding pavement. The shoes or slippers are left upon the -durká´ah previously to stepping upon the leewán. The latter is -generally paved with common stone and covered with a mat in summer, and -a carpet over this in winter; and a mattress and cushions are placed -against each of its three walls, composing what is called a "deewán," or -divan. The mattress, which is commonly about three feet wide and three -or four inches thick, is placed either on the floor or on a raised frame -or a slightly elevated pavement; and the cushions, which are usually of -a length equal to the width of the mattress and of a height equal to -half that measure, lean against the wall. Both mattresses and cushions -are stuffed with cotton and are covered with printed calico, cloth, or -some more expensive stuff. The deewán which extends along the upper end -of the leewán is called the sadr, and is the most honourable: and the -chief place on this seat is the corner which is to the right of a person -facing this end of the room; the other corner is the next in point of -honour; and the intermediate places on the same deewán are more -honourable than those on the two side-deewáns. To a superior, and often -to an equal, the master or mistress yields the chief place. The corners -are often furnished with an additional mattress of a square form, just -large enough for one person, placed upon the other mattress, and with -two additional (but smaller) cushions to recline against. The walls are -for the most part plastered and white-washed, and generally have two or -more shallow cupboards, the doors of which, as well as those of the -apartments, are fancifully constructed with small panels. The windows, -which are chiefly composed of curious wooden lattice-work, serving to -screen the inhabitants from the view of persons without, as also to -admit both light and air, commonly project outwards, and are furnished -with mattresses and cushions. In many houses there are, above these, -small windows of coloured glass, representing bunches of flowers, etc. -The ceiling is of wood, and certain portions of it, which are carved or -otherwise ornamented by fanciful carpentry, are usually painted with -bright colours, such as red, green, and blue, and sometimes varied with -gilding; but the greater part of the wood-work is generally left -unpainted. - -The ká´ah is a large and lofty apartment, commonly having two leewáns -on opposite sides of the durká´ah. One of these is in most instances -larger than the other, and is held to be the more honourable part. Some -ká´ahs, containing three leewáns, one of these being opposite the -entrance, or four leewáns composing the form of a cross with the -durká´ah in the centre, communicate with the small chambers or -closets, or have elevated recesses which are furnished in the same -manner as the leewáns. That part of the roof which is over the -durká´ah rises above the rest, sometimes to nearly twice the height -of the latter, and is generally surmounted by a lantern of wooden -lattice-work to admit the air. - -The prohibition of wine, or rather of fermented and intoxicating -liquors, being one of the most remarkable and characteristic points of -the Mohammadan religion, it might be imagined that the frequent stories -in the "Thousand and One Nights," describing parties of Muslims as -habitually indulging in the use of forbidden beverages, are scandalous -misrepresentations of Arab manners and customs. There are, however, many -similar anecdotes interspersed in the works of Arab historians, which -(though many of them are probably untrue in their application to -particular individuals) could not have been offered to the public by -such writers if they were not of a nature consistent with the customs of -a considerable class of the Arab nation. - -In investigating this subject, it is necessary in the first place to -state that there is a kind of wine which Muslims are permitted to drink. -It is properly called nebeedh (a name which is _now_ given to -_prohibited_ kinds of wine), and is generally prepared by putting dry -grapes, or dry dates, in water, to extract their sweetness, and -suffering the liquor to ferment slightly until it acquires a little -sharpness or pungency. The Prophet himself was in the habit of drinking -wine of this kind, which was prepared for him in the first part of the -night; he drank it on the first and second days following; but if any -remained on the morning of the third day, he either gave it to his -servants or ordered it to be poured out upon the ground.[156] Such -beverages have, therefore, been drunk by the strictest of his followers; -and Ibn-Khaldoon strongly argues that nebeedh thus prepared from dates -was the kind of wine used by the Khaleefehs Hároon Er-Rasheed and -El-Ma-moon, and several other eminent men, who have been commonly -accused of habitually and publicly indulging in debauches of wine -properly so called, that is, of inebriating liquors.[157] - -Nebeedh prepared from raisins is commonly sold in Arab towns under the -name of "zebeeb," which signifies "raisins." This I have often drunk in -Cairo, but never could perceive that it was in the slightest degree -fermented. Other beverages, to which the name of "nebeedh" has been -applied (though, like zebeeb, no longer called by that name), are also -sold in Arab towns. The most common of these is an infusion of licorice, -and called by the name of the root, ´erk-soos. The nebeedh of dates -is sold in Cairo with the dates themselves in the liquor; and in like -manner is that of figs. Under the same appellation of nebeedh have been -classed the different kinds of beer now commonly called boozeh. Opium, -hemp, etc., are now more frequently used by the Muslims to induce -intoxication or exhilaration. The young leaves of the hemp are generally -used alone, or mixed with tobacco, for smoking; and the capsules, -without the seeds, enter into the composition of several intoxicating -conserves. - -By my own experience I am but little qualified to pronounce an opinion -respecting the prevalence of drinking wine among the Arabs; for, never -drinking it myself, I had little opportunity of observing others do so -during my residence among Muslims. I judge, therefore, from the -conversations and writings of Arabs, which justify me in asserting that -the practice of drinking wine in private and by select parties is far -from being uncommon among modern Muslims, though certainly more so than -it was before the introduction of tobacco into the East, in the -beginning of the seventeenth century of our era: for this herb, being in -a slight degree exhilarating, and at the same time soothing, and -unattended by the injurious effects that result from wine, is a -sufficient luxury to many who, without it, would have recourse to -intoxicating beverages merely to pass away hours of idleness. The use of -coffee, too, which became common in Egypt, Syria, and other countries -besides Arabia, a century earlier than tobacco, doubtless tended to -render the habit of drinking wine less general. That it was adopted as a -substitute for wine appears even from its name, "kahweh," an old -Arabic term for wine; whence our "coffee." - -There is an Arabic work of some celebrity, and not of small extent, -entitled "Halbet el-Kumeyt,"[158] apparently written shortly before -the Arabs were in possession of the first of these substitutes for wine, -nearly the whole of which consists of anecdotes and verses relating to -the pleasures resulting from or attendant upon the use of wine; a few -pages at the end being devoted to the condemnation of this practice, or, -in other words, to proving the worthlessness of all that precedes. Of -this work I possess a copy, a quarto volume of 464 pages. I have -endeavoured to skim its cream; but found it impossible to do so without -collecting at the same time a considerable quantity of most filthy scum; -for it is characterised by wit and humour plentifully interlarded with -the grossest and most revolting obscenity. Yet it serves to confirm what -has been above asserted. The mere existence of such a work, (and it is -not the only one of the kind), written by a man of learning, and I -believe a Kádee, (a judge), or one holding the honourable office -of a guardian of religion and morality,[159] and written evidently _con -amore_, notwithstanding his assertion to the contrary,--is a strong -argument in favour of the prevalence of the practice which it paints in -the most fascinating colours, and then condemns. Its author terminates a -chapter (the ninth), in which many well-known persons are mentioned as -having been addicted to wine, by saying, that the Khaleefehs, Emeers, -and Wezeers, so addicted, are too numerous to name in such a work; and -by relating a story of a man who placed his own wife in pledge in the -hands of a wine-merchant, after having expended in the purchase of the -forbidden liquor all the property that he possessed. He excuses himself -(in his preface) for writing this book, by saying that he had been -ordered to do so by one whom he could not disobey; thus giving us a -pretty strong proof that a great man in his own time was not ashamed of -avowing his fondness for the prohibited enjoyment. If then we admit the -respectable authority of Ibn-Khaldoon, and acquit of the vice of -drunkenness those illustrious individuals whose characters he -vindicates, we must still regard most of the anecdotes relating to the -carousals of other persons as being not without foundation. - -One of my friends, who enjoys a high reputation, ranking among the most -distinguished of the ´Ulamà of Cairo, is well known to his intimate -acquaintances as frequently indulging in the use of forbidden beverages -with a few select associates. I disturbed him and his companions by an -evening visit on one of these occasions, and was kept waiting within the -street door while the guests quickly removed everything that would give -me any indication of the manner in which they had been employed; for the -announcement of my (assumed) name,[160] and their knowledge of my -abstemious character, completely disconcerted them. I found them, -however, in the best humour. They had contrived, it appeared, to fill -with wine a _china_ bottle, of the kind used at that season (it was -winter) for water; and when any one of them asked the servant for water, -this bottle was brought to him; but when I made the same demand, my host -told me that there was a bottle of water on the sill of the window -behind that part of the deewán upon which I was seated. The evening -passed away very pleasantly, and I should not have known how unwelcome -was my intrusion had not one of the guests with whom I was intimately -acquainted, in walking part of the way home with me, explained to me the -whole occurrence. There was with us a third person, who, thinking that -my antipathy to wine was feigned, asked me to stop at his house on my -way and take a cup of "white coffee," by which he meant brandy. - -Another of my Muslim acquaintances in Cairo I frequently met at the -house of a common friend, where, though he was in most respects very -bigoted, he was in the habit of indulging in wine. For some time he -refrained from this gratification when I was by; but at length my -presence became so irksome to him that he ventured to enter into an -argument with me on the subject of the prohibition. The only answer I -could give to his question, "Why is wine forbidden?" was in the words of -the Kur-án, "Because it is the source of more evil than profit."[161] -This suited his purpose, as I intended it should; and he asked, "What -evil results from it?" I answered, "Intoxication and quarrels, and so -forth."--"Then," said he, "if a man take not enough to intoxicate him -there is no harm;"--and, finding that I acquiesced by silence, he added, -"I am in the habit of taking a little; but never enough to intoxicate. -Boy, bring me a glass." He was the only Muslim, however, whom I have -heard to argue against the absolute interdiction of inebriating liquors. - -Histories tell us that some of the early followers of the Prophet -indulged in wine, holding the text above referred to as indecisive; and -that Mohammad was at first doubtful upon this subject appears from -another text, in which his followers were told not to come to prayer -when they were drunk, until they should know what they would say;[162] -an injunction nearly similar to one in the Bible[163]: but when frequent -and severe contentions resulted from their use of wine, the following -more decided condemnation of the practice was pronounced:--"O ye who -have become believers! verily wine and lots and images and -divining-arrows are an abomination of the work of the Devil; therefore, -avoid them, that ye may prosper."[164] This law is absolute; its -violation in the smallest degree is criminal. The punishment ordained by -the law for drinking (or, according to most doctors, for even tasting) -wine or spirits, or inducing intoxication by any other means, on -ordinary occasions, is the infliction of eighty stripes in the case of a -free man, and forty in that of a slave: but if the crime be openly -committed in the course of any day of the month of Ramadán, when -others are fasting, the punishment prescribed is death! - -The prohibition of wine hindered many of the Prophet's contemporaries -from embracing his religion. It is said that the famous poet -El-Aashà, who was one of them, delayed to join this cause on this -account, until death prevented him. A person passing by his tomb (at -Menfoohah, in El-Yemámeh), and observing that it was moist, asked the -reason, and was answered that the young men of the place, considering -him still as their cup-companion, drank wine over his grave, and poured -his cup upon it.[165] - -Yet many of the most respectable of the pagan Arabs, like certain of the -Jews and early Christians, abstained totally from wine, from a feeling -of its injurious effects upon morals, and, in their climate, upon -health; or more especially from the fear of being led by it into the -commission of foolish and degrading actions. Thus, Keys the son of -Ásim being one night overcome with wine attempted to grasp the moon, -and swore that he would not quit the spot where he stood until he had -laid hold of it: after leaping several times with the view of doing so, -he fell flat upon his face; and when he recovered his senses, and was -acquainted with the cause of his face being bruised, he made a solemn -vow to abstain from wine ever after.[166] A similar feeling operated -upon many Muslims more than religious principle. The Khaleefeh -´Abd-El-Melik Ibn-Marwán took pleasure in the company of a slave named -Naseeb, and one day desired him to drink with him. The slave replied, -"O Prince of the Faithful, I am not related to thee, nor have I any -authority over thee, and I am of no rank or lineage; I am a black slave, -and my wit and politeness have drawn me into thy favour: how then shall -I take that which will plunder me of these two qualities, and by what -shall I then propitiate thee?" The Khaleefeh admired and excused -him.[167] - -It was the custom of many Muslim princes, as might be inferred from the -above anecdote, to admit the meanest of their dependants to participate -in their unlawful carousals when they could have no better companions; -but poets and musicians were their more common associates on these -occasions; and these two classes, and especially the latter, are in the -present day the most addicted to intoxicating liquors. Few modern Arab -musicians are so well contented with extraordinary payment and mere -sweet sherbet as with a moderate fee and plenty of wine and brandy; and -many of them deem even wine but a sorry beverage. - -It was usual with the host and guests at wine-parties to wear dresses of -bright colours, red, yellow, and green;[168] and to perfume their beards -and mustaches with civet, or to have rose-water sprinkled upon them; and -ambergris or aloes-wood, or some other odoriferous substance, placed -upon burning coals in a censer, diffused a delicious fragrance -throughout the saloon of the revels. - -The wine, it appears, was rather thick, for it was necessary to strain -it:[169] it was probably sweet, and not strong, for it was drunk in -large quantities. In general, perhaps, it was nebeedh of dry raisins -kept longer than the law allows. It was usually kept in a large earthen -vessel, called denn, high, and small at the bottom, which was partly -imbedded in the earth to keep it upright. The name of this vessel is now -given to a cask of wood; but the kind above mentioned was of earth, for -it was easily broken. A famous saint, Abu-l-Hoseyn En-Nooree, seeing -a vessel on the Tigris containing thirty denns belonging to the -Khaleefeh El-Moatadid, and being told that they contained wine, -took a boat-pole, and broke them all, save one. When brought before the -Khaleefeh to answer for this action, and asked by him, "Who made -thee Mohtesib?"[170] he boldly answered, "He who made thee -Khaleefeh!"--and was pardoned.[171] - -Pitch was used by the Arabs, as it was by the Greeks and Romans, for -the purpose of curing their wine; the interior of the denn being coated -with it. A smaller kind of earthen jar, or amphora (bátiyeh), and a -bottle of leather (battah), or of glass (kinneeneh), were also -used. The wine was transferred for the table to glass jugs, or -long-spouted ewers (ibreeks). These and the cups were placed upon a -round embroidered cloth spread on the floor, or upon a round tray. The -latter is now in general use, and is supported on the low stool already -described as being used at ordinary meals. The guests sat around, -reclining against pillows; or they sat upon the deewán, and a page or -slave handed the cup, having on his right arm a richly embroidered -napkin, on the end of which the drinker wiped his lips. The cups are -often described as holding a fluid pound, or little less than an English -pint, and this is to be understood literally, or nearly so: they were -commonly of cut glass, but some were of crystal or silver or gold.[172] -With these and the ewers or jugs were placed several saucers, or small -dishes (nukuldáns), of fresh and dried fruits (nukl); and fans and -fly-whisks, of the kind described on a former occasion, were used by the -guests. - -The most common and esteemed fruits in the countries inhabited by the -Arabs may here be mentioned. - -The date (belah) deserves the first place. The Prophet's favourite -fruits were fresh dates (rutab) and water-melons; and he ate them -both together.[173] "Honour," said he, "your paternal aunt, the -date-palm; for she was created of the earth of which Adam was -formed."[174] It is said that God hath given this tree as a peculiar -favour to the Muslims; that he hath decreed all the date-palms in the -world to them, and they have accordingly conquered every country in -which these trees are found; and all are said to have derived their -origin from the Hijáz.[175] The palm-tree has several well-known -properties that render it an emblem of a human being; among which are -these: that if the head be cut off, the tree dies; and if a branch be -cut off, another does not grow in its place.[176] Dates are preserved in -a moist state by being merely pressed together in a basket or skin, and -thus prepared are called ´ajweh. There are many varieties of this fruit. -The pith or heart of the palm (jummár) is esteemed for its delicate -flavour. - -The water-melon (bitteekh, vulg. batteekh), from what has -been said of it above, ought to be ranked next; and it really merits -this distinction. "Whoso eateth," said the Prophet, "a mouthful of -water-melon, God writeth for him a thousand good works, and cancelleth a -thousand evil works, and raiseth him a thousand degrees; for it came -from Paradise;"--and again, "The water-melon is food and drink, acid and -alkali, and a support of life," etc.[177] The varieties of this fruit -are very numerous. - -The banana (móz) is a delicious fruit. The Prophet pronounced the -banana-tree to be the only thing on earth that resembles a thing in -Paradise, because it bears fruit both in winter and summer.[178] - -The pomegranate (rummán) is another celebrated fruit. Every pomegranate, -according to the Prophet, contains a fecundating seed from -Paradise.[179] - -The other most common and esteemed fruits are the following;--the apple, -pear, quince, apricot, peach, fig, sycamore-fig, grape, lote, jujube, -plum, walnut, almond, hazel-nut, pistachio-nut, orange, Seville orange, -lime, lemon, citron, mulberry, olive, and sugar-cane.[180] - -Of a selection of these fruits consists the dessert which accompanies -the wine; but the table is not complete without a bunch or two of -flowers placed in the midst. - -Though the Arabs are far from being remarkable for exhibiting taste in -the planning of their gardens, they are passionately fond of flowers, -and especially of the rose (ward). The Khaleefeh El-Mutawekkil -monopolized roses for his own enjoyment; saying, "I am the King of -Sultáns, and the rose is the king of sweet-scented flowers; therefore -each of us is most worthy of the other for a companion." The rose in his -time was seen nowhere but in his palace: during the season of this -flower he wore rose-coloured clothes; and his carpets were sprinkled -with rose-water.[181] A similar passion for the rose is said to have -distinguished a weaver in the reign of El-Ma-moon. He was constantly -employed at his loom every day of the year, even during the -congregational-prayers of Friday, excepting in the rose-season, when he -abandoned his work and gave himself up to the enjoyment of wine early in -the morning and late in the evening, loudly proclaiming his revels by -singing,-- - - "The season has become pleasant! The time of the rose is come! - Take your morning potations, as long as the rose has blossoms - and flowers!" - -When he resumed his work, he made it known by singing aloud-- - - "If my Lord prolong my life until the rose-season, I will take again - my morning potations: but if I die before it, alas! for the loss - of the rose and wine! - - "I implore the God of the supreme throne, whose glory be extolled, - that my heart may continually enjoy the evening potations to - the day of resurrection." - -The Khaleefeh was so amused with the humour of this man that he granted -him an annual pension of ten thousand dirhems to enable him to enjoy -himself amply on these occasions. Another anecdote may be added to show -the estimation of the rose in the mind of an Arab. It is said that -Rowh Ibn-Hátim, the governor of the province of Northern Africa, -was sitting one day, with a female slave, in an apartment of his palace, -when a eunuch brought him a jar full of red and white roses which a man -had offered as a present. He ordered the eunuch to fill the jar with -silver in return; but his slave said, "O my lord, thou hast not acted -equitably towards the man; for his present to thee is of two colours, -red and white." The Emeer replied, "Thou hast said truly;" and gave -orders to fill the jar for him with silver and gold (dirhems and -deenárs) intermixed. Some persons preserve roses during the whole of the -year in the following manner. They take a number of rose-buds and fill -with them a new earthen jar, and, after closing its mouth with mud so as -to render it impervious to the air, bury it in the earth. Whenever they -want a few roses, they take out some of these buds, which they find -unaltered, sprinkle a little water upon them and leave them for a short -time in the air, when they open and appear as if just gathered.[182] - -The rose is even a subject of miracles. It is related by Ibn-Kuteybeh -that there grows in India a kind of rose, upon the leaves of which is -inscribed, "There is no deity but God:"[183] But I find a more -particular account of this miraculous rose. A person, who professed to -have seen it, said, "I went into India, and I saw at one of its towns a -large rose, sweet-scented, upon which was inscribed, in white -characters, 'There is no deity but God; Mohammad is God's apostle: -Aboo-Bekr is the very veracious: ´Omar is the discriminator:' and I -doubted of this, whether it had been done by art; so I took one of the -blossoms not yet opened, and in it was the same inscription; and there -were many of the same kind there. The people of that place worshipped -stones, and knew not God, to whom be ascribed might and glory."[184] -Roses are announced for sale in the streets of Cairo by the cry of "The -rose was a thorn: from the sweat of the Prophet it blossomed!" in -allusion to a miracle recorded of Mohammad. "When I was taken up into -heaven," said the Prophet, "some of my sweat fell upon the earth, and -from it sprang the rose; and whoever would smell my scent, let him smell -the rose." In another tradition it is said, "The white rose was created -from my sweat on the night of the Mearáj;[185] and the red rose, from -the sweat of Jebraeel;[186] and the yellow rose, from the sweat of -El-Burák."[187] The Persians take especial delight in roses; -sometimes spreading them as carpets or beds on which to sit or recline -in their revellings. - -But there is a flower pronounced more excellent than the rose, that of -the Egyptian privet, or Lawsonia inermis.[188] Mohammad said, "The -chief of the sweet-scented flowers of this world and of the next is the -fághiyeh;" and this was his favourite flower.[189] I approve of his -taste; for this flower, which grows in clusters somewhat like those of -the lilac, has a most delicious fragrance. But, on account of -discrepancies in different traditions, a Muslim may with a clear -conscience prefer either of the two flowers next mentioned. - -The Prophet said of the violet (benefsej), "The excellence of the -extract of violets, above all other extracts, is as the excellence of me -above all the rest of the creation: it is cold in summer, and hot in -winter:" and, in another tradition, "The excellence of the violet is as -the excellence of el-Islám above all other religions."[190] A delicious -sherbet is made of a conserve of sugar and violet-flowers. - -The myrtle (ás or narseen) is the rival of the violet. "Adam," said the -Prophet, "fell down from Paradise with three things; the myrtle, which -is the chief of sweet-scented flowers in this world; an ear of wheat, -which is the chief of all kinds of food in this world; and pressed -dates, which are the chief of the fruits of this world."[191] - -The anemone[192] was monopolized for his own enjoyment by Noamán -Ibn-El-Mundhir (King of El-Heereh, and contemporary of Mohammad), -as the rose was afterwards by El-Mutawekkil.[193] - -Another flower much admired and celebrated in the East is the -gilliflower (menthoor or kheeree). There are three principal kinds; the -most esteemed is the yellow, or gold-coloured, which has a delicious -scent both by night and day; the next, the purple, and other dark kinds, -which have a scent only in the night; the least esteemed, the white, -which has no scent. The yellow gilliflower is an emblem of a neglected -lover.[194] - -The narcissus (narjis) is very highly esteemed. Galen says, "He who has -two cakes of bread, let him dispose of one of them for some flowers of -the narcissus; for bread is the food of the body, and the narcissus is -the food of the soul." Hippocrates gave a similar opinion.[195] - -The following flowers complete the list of those celebrated as most -appropriate to add to the delights of wine:--the jasmine, eglantine, -Seville-orange-flower, lily, sweet-basil, wild thyme, buphthalmum, -chamomile, nenuphar, lotus, pomegranate-flower, poppy, ketmia, crocus or -saffron, safflower, flax, the blossoms of different kinds of bean, and -those of the almond.[196] - -A sprig of Oriental willow[197] adds much to the charms of a bunch of -flowers, being the favourite symbol of a graceful woman. - -But I have not yet mentioned all that contributes to the pleasures of an -Eastern carousal. For what is the juice of the grape without melodious -sounds? "Wine is as the body; music, as the soul; and joy is their -offspring."[198] All the five senses should be gratified. For this -reason an Arab toper, who had nothing, it appears, but wine to enjoy, -exclaimed,-- - - "Ho! give me wine to drink; and tell me 'This is wine;'" - -for in drinking his sight and smell and taste and touch would all be -affected; but it was desirable that his hearing should also be -pleased.[199] - -Music was condemned by the Prophet almost as severely as wine. "Singing -and hearing songs," said he, "cause hypocrisy to grow in the heart, like -as water promoteth the growth of corn:"[200]--and musical instruments he -declared to be among the most powerful means by which the Devil seduces -man. An instrument of music is the Devil's muëddin, serving to call men -to his worship. Of the hypocrisy of those attached to music, the -following anecdote presents an instance:--A drunken young man with a -lute in his hand was brought one night before the Khaleefeh -´Abd-El-Melik the son of Marwán, who, pointing to the instrument, asked -what it was, and what was its use. The youth made no answer; so he asked -those around him; but they also remained silent, till one, more bold -than the rest, said, "O Prince of the Faithful, this is a lute: it is -made by taking some wood of the pistachio-tree, and cutting it into thin -pieces, and gluing these together, and then attaching over them these -chords, which, when a beautiful girl touches them, send forth sounds -more pleasant than those of rain falling upon a desert land; and my wife -be separated from me by a triple divorce, if every one in this council -is not acquainted with it, and doth not know it as well as I do, and -thou the first of them, O Prince of the Faithful." The Khaleefeh -laughed, and ordered that the young man should be discharged.[201] - -The latter saying of the Prophet, respecting the Devil, suggests -another anecdote related of himself by Ibraheem El-Mósilee, the -father of Ishák; both of whom were very celebrated musicians. I -give a translation of it somewhat abridged.--"I asked Er-Rasheed," says -Ibraheem, "to grant me permission to spend a day at home with my women -and brothers; and he gave me two thousand deenárs, and appointed the -next Saturday for this purpose. I caused the meats and wine and other -necessaries to be prepared, and ordered the chamberlain to close the -door, and admit no one: but while I was sitting, with my attendants -standing in the form of a curved line before me, there entered and -approached me a sheykh, reverend and dignified and comely in appearance, -wearing short khuffs,[202] and two soft gowns, with a kalensuweh -[sugarloaf hat] upon his head, and in his hand a silver-headed staff; -and sweet odours were diffused from his clothes. I was enraged with the -chamberlain for admitting him; but on his saluting me in a very -courteous manner, I returned his salutation, and desired him to sit -down. He then began to repeat to me stories, tales of war, and poetry; -so that my anger was appeased, and it appeared to me that my servants -had not presumed to admit him until acquainted with his politeness and -courteousness. I therefore said to him, 'Hast thou any inclination for -meat?' He answered, 'I have no want of it.'--'And the wine?' said I. He -replied, 'Yes.' So I drank a large cupful, and he did the same, and then -said to me, 'O Ibraheem, wilt thou let us hear some specimen of thy art -in which thou hast excelled the people of thy profession?' I was angry -at his words; but I made light of the matter, and, having taken the lute -and tuned it, I played and sang; whereupon he said, 'Thou hast performed -well, O Ibraheem.' I became more enraged, and said within myself, 'He is -not content with coming hither without permission, and asking me to -sing, but he calls me by my name, and proves himself unworthy of my -conversation.' He then said, 'Wilt thou let us hear more? If so we will -requite thee.' And I took the lute and sang, using my utmost care on -account of his saying, 'we will requite thee.' He was moved with -delight, and said, 'Thou hast performed well, O my master -Ibraheem:'--adding, 'Wilt thou permit thy slave to sing?' I answered, -'As thou pleasest:'--but thinking lightly of his sense to sing after me. -He took the lute, and tuned it; and, by Allah! I imagined that the lute -spoke in his bands with an eloquent Arab tongue. He proceeded to sing -some verses commencing,-- - - 'My heart is wounded! Who will give me for it a heart without a - wound?'" - -The narrator continues by saying that he was struck dumb and motionless -with ecstasy; and that the strange sheykh, after having played and sung -again, and taught him an enchanting air (with which he afterwards -enraptured his patron, the Khaleefeh), vanished. Ibraheem, in alarm, -seized his sword; and was the more amazed when he found that the porter -had not seen the stranger enter or leave the house; but he heard his -voice again, outside, telling him that he was Aboo-Murrah (the -Devil).[203] - -Ibraheem El-Mósilee, his son Ishák, and Mukkárik[204] (a pupil -of the former), were especially celebrated among Arab musicians and -among the distinguished men of the reign of Hároon Er-Rasheed. -Ishák El-Mósilee relates of his father Ibraheem that when -Er-Rasheed took him into his service he gave him a hundred and fifty -thousand dirhems and allotted him a monthly pension of ten thousand -dirhems, besides occasional presents [one of which is mentioned as -amounting to a hundred thousand dirhems for a single song], and the -produce of his (Ibraheem's) farms: he had food constantly prepared for -him; three sheep every day for his kitchen, besides birds; three -thousand dirhems were allowed him for fruits, perfumes, etc., every -month, and a thousand dirhems for his clothing; "and with all this," -says his son, "he died without leaving more than three thousand deenárs, -a sum not equal to his debts, which I paid after his death."[205] -Ibraheem was of Persian origin, and of a high family. He was commonly -called the Nedeem (or cup-companion), being Er-Rasheed's favourite -companion at the wine-table; and his son, who enjoyed the like -distinction with El-Ma-moon, received the same appellation, as well as -that of "Son of the Nedeem." Ibraheem was the most famous musician of -his time, at least till his son attained celebrity.[206] - -Ishák El-Mósilee was especially famous as a musician; but he was -also a good poet, accomplished in general literature, and endowed with -great wit. He was honoured above all other persons in the pay of -El-Ma-moon, and enjoyed a long life; but for many years before his death -he was blind.[207] - -Mukhárik appears to have rivalled his master Ibraheem. The latter, he -relates, took him to perform before Er-Rasheed, who used to have a -curtain suspended between him and the musicians. "Others," he says, -"sang, and he was unmoved; but when I sang, he came forth from behind -the curtain, and exclaimed, 'Young man, hither!' and he seated me upon -the couch (sereer) and gave me thirty thousand dirhems."[208] The -following anecdote (which I abridge a little in translation) shows his -excellence in the art which he professed, and the effect of melody on an -Arab:--"After drinking with the Khaleefeh [El-Ma-moon, I think,] a whole -night, I asked his permission," says he, "to take the air in the -Rusáfeh [quarter of Baghdád], which he granted; and while I was -walking there, I saw a damsel who appeared as if the rising sun beamed -from her face. She had a basket, and I followed her. She stopped at a -fruiterer's, and bought some fruit; and observing that I was following -her, she looked back and abused me several times; but still I followed -her until she arrived at a great door, after having filled her basket -with fruits and flowers and similar things. When she had entered and the -door was closed behind her, I sat down opposite to it, deprived of my -reason by her beauty; and knew that there must be in the house a wine -party. - -"The sun went down upon me while I sat there; and at length there came -two handsome young men on asses, and they knocked at the door, and when -they were admitted, I entered with them; the master of the house -thinking that I was their companion, and they imagining that I was one -of his friends. A repast was brought up, and we ate, and washed our -hands, and were perfumed. The master of the house then said to the two -young men, 'Have ye any desire that I should call such a one?' -(mentioning a woman's name). They answered, 'If thou wilt grant us the -favour, well:'--so he called for her, and she came, and lo, she was the -maiden whom I had seen before, and who had abused me. A servant-maid -preceded her, bearing her lute, which she placed in her lap. Wine was -then brought, and she sang, while we drank, and shook with delight. -'Whose air is that?' they asked. She answered, 'My master -Mukhárik's.' She then sang another air, which she said was also mine; -while they drank by pints; she looking aside and doubtfully at me until -I lost my patience, and called out to her to do her best: but in -attempting to do so, singing a third air, she overstrained her voice, -and I said, 'Thou hast made a mistake:'--upon which she threw the lute -from her lap in anger, so that she nearly broke it, saying, 'Take it -thyself, and let us hear thee.' I answered, 'Well;' and, having taken it -and tuned it perfectly, sang the first of the airs which she had sung -before me; whereupon all of them sprang upon their feet and kissed my -head. I then sang the second air, and the third; and their reason almost -fled with ecstasy. - -"The master of the house, after asking his guests and being told by them -that they knew me not, came to me, and, kissing my hand, said, 'By -Allah, my master, who art thou?' I answered, 'By Allah, I am the singer -Mukhárik.'--'And for what purpose,' said he, kissing both my hands, -'camest thou hither?' I replied, 'As a spunger;'--and related what had -happened with respect to the maiden: whereupon he looked towards his two -companions and said to them, 'Tell me, by Allah, do ye not know that I -gave for that girl thirty thousand dirhems, and have refused to sell -her?' They answered, 'It is so.' Then said he, 'I take you as witnesses -that I have given her to him.'--'And we,' said the two friends, 'will -pay thee two-thirds of her price.' So he put me in possession of the -girl, and in the evening when I departed, he presented me also with rich -dresses and other gifts, with all of which I went away; and as I passed -the places where the maiden had abused me, I said to her, 'Repeat thy -words to me;' but she could not for shame. Holding the girl's hand, I -went with her immediately to the Khaleefeh, whom I found in anger at my -long absence; but when I related my story to him he was surprised, and -laughed, and ordered that the master of the house and his two friends -should be brought before him, that he might requite them; to the former -he gave forty thousand dirhems; to each of his two friends, thirty -thousand; and to me a hundred thousand; and I kissed his feet and -departed."[209] - -It is particularly necessary for the Arab musician that he have a -retentive memory, well stocked with choice pieces of poetry and with -facetious or pleasant anecdotes, interspersed with songs; and that he -have a ready wit, aided by dramatic talent, to employ these materials -with good effect. If to such qualifications he adds fair attainments in -the difficult rules of grammar, a degree of eloquence, comic humour, and -good temper, and is not surpassed by many in his art, he is sure to be a -general favourite. Very few Muslims of the higher classes have -condescended to study music, because they would have been despised by -their inferiors for doing so; or because they themselves have despised -or condemned the art. Ibraheem, the son of the Khaleefeh El-Mahdee, and -competitor of El-Ma-moon, was a remarkable exception: he is said to have -been an excellent musician and a good singer. - -In the houses of the wealthy, the vocal and instrumental performers were -usually (as is the case in many houses in the present age) domestic -female slaves, well instructed in their art by hired male or female -professors. In the "Thousand and One Nights," these slaves are commonly -described as standing or sitting unveiled in the presence of male -guests; but from several descriptions of musical entertainments that I -have met with in Arabic works it appears that according to the more -approved custom in respectable society they were concealed on such -occasions behind a curtain which generally closed the front of an -elevated recess. In all the houses of wealthy Arabs that I have entered, -one or each of the larger saloons has an elevated closet, the front of -which is closed by a screen of wooden lattice-work to serve as an -orchestra for the domestic or hired female singers and instrumental -performers. - -To a person acquainted with modern Arabian manners, it must appear -inconsistent with truth to describe (as is often the case in the -"Thousand and One Nights") such female singers as exposing their faces -before strange men, unless he can discover in sober histories some -evidence of their having been less strict in this respect than the -generality of Arab women at the present time. I find, however, a -remarkable proof that such was the case in the latter part of the ninth -century of the Flight, and the beginning of the tenth: that is, about -the end of the fifteenth century of our era. The famous historian -Es-Suyootee, who flourished at this period, in his preface to a -curious work on wedlock, written to correct the corrupt manners of his -age, says:--"Seeing that the women of this time deck themselves with the -attire of wantons, and walk in the sooks (or market-streets) like -female warriors against the religion, and uncover their faces and hands -before men to incline (men's) hearts to them by evil suggestions, and -play at feasts with young men, thereby meriting the anger of the -Compassionate [God], and go forth to the public baths and assemblies -with various kinds of ornaments and perfumes and with conceited gait; -(for the which they shall be congregated in Hell-fire, for opposing the -good and on account of this their affected gait;) while to their -husbands they are disobedient, behaving to them in the reverse manner, -excepting when they fear to abridge their liberty of going abroad by -such conduct; for they are like swine and apes in their interior nature, -though like daughters of Adam in their exterior appearance; especially -the women of this age; not advising their husbands in matters of -religion, but the latter erring in permitting them to go out to every -assembly; sisters of devils and demons, etc. etc.... I have undertaken -the composition of this volume."[210] A more convincing testimony than -this, I think, cannot be required. - -The lute (el-´ood) is the only instrument that is generally described as -used at the entertainments which we have been considering. Engravings of -this and other musical instruments are given in my work on the Modern -Egyptians. The Arab viol (called rabáb) was commonly used by inferior -performers. - -The Arab music is generally of a soft and plaintive character, and -particularly that of the most refined description, which is -distinguished by a peculiar system of intervals. The singer aims at -distinct enunciation of the words, for this is justly admired; and -delights in a trilling style. The airs of songs are commonly very short -and simple, adapted to a single verse, or even to a single hemistich; -but in the instrumental music there is more variety. - -Scarcely less popular as an amusement and mode of passing the time is -the bath, or hammám,--a favourite resort of both men and women of all -classes among the Muslims who can afford the trifling expense which it -requires; and (it is said) not only of human beings, but also of evil -genii; on which account, as well as on that of decency, several precepts -respecting it have been dictated by Mohammad. It is frequented for -the purpose of performing certain ablutions required by the religion, or -by a regard for cleanliness, for its salutary effects, and for mere -luxury. - -The following description of a public bath will convey a sufficient -notion of those in private houses, which are on a smaller scale and -generally consist of only two or three chambers. The public bath -comprises several apartments with mosaic or tesselated pavements, -composed of white and black marble and pieces of fine red tile and -sometimes other materials. The inner apartments are covered with domes, -having a number of small round glazed apertures for the admission of -light. The first apartment is the meslakh, or disrobing room, which has -in the centre a fountain of cold water, and next the walls wide benches -or platforms encased with marble. These are furnished with mattresses -and cushions for the higher and middle classes, and with mats for the -poorer sort. The inner division of the building, in the more regularly -planned baths, occupies nearly a square: the central and chief portion -of it is the principal apartment, or harárah, which generally has the -form of a cross. In its centre is a fountain of hot water, rising from a -base encased with marble, which serves as a seat. One of the angles of -the square is occupied by the beyt-owwal, or antechamber of the -harárah: in another is the fire over which is the boiler; and each of -the other two angles is generally occupied by two small chambers, in one -of which is a tank filled with warm water, which pours down from a spot -in the dome; in the other, two taps side by side, one of hot and the -other of cold water, with a small trough beneath, before which is a -seat. The inner apartments are heated by the steam which rises from the -fountain and tanks, and by the contiguity of the fire; but the -beyt-owwal is not so hot as the harárah, being separated from it by a -door. In cold weather the bather undresses in the former, which has two -or three raised seats like those of the meslakh. - -With a pair of wooden clogs to his feet, and having a large napkin round -his loins, and generally a second wound round his head like a turban, a -third over his chest, and a fourth covering his back, the bather enters -the harárah, the heat of which causes him immediately to perspire -profusely. An attendant of the bath removes from him all the napkins -excepting the first; and proceeds to crack the joints of his fingers and -toes, and several of the vertebrae of the back and neck; kneads his -flesh, and rubs the soles of his feet with a coarse earthen rasp, and -his limbs and body with a woollen bag which covers his hand as a glove; -after which, the bather, if he please, plunges into one of the tanks. He -is then thoroughly washed with soap and water and fibres of the -palm-tree, and shaved, if he wish it, in one of the small chambers which -contain the taps of hot and cold water; and returns to the beyt-owwal. -Here he generally reclines upon a mattress, and takes some light -refreshment, while one of the attendants rubs the soles of his feet and -kneads the flesh of his body and limbs, previously to his resuming his -dress. It is a common custom now to take a pipe and a cup of coffee -during this period of rest. - -The women are especially fond of the bath, and often have entertainments -there; taking with them fruits, sweetmeats, etc., and sometimes hiring -female singers to accompany them. An hour or more is occupied by the -process of plaiting the hair and applying the depilatory, etc.; and -generally an equal time is passed in the enjoyment of rest or -recreation or refreshment. All necessary decorum is observed on these -occasions by most ladies, but women of the lower orders are often seen -in the bath without any covering. Some baths are appropriated solely to -men; others, only to women; and others, again, to men during the -forenoon, and in the afternoon to women. When the bath is appropriated -to women, a napkin, or some other piece of drapery is suspended over the -door to warn men from entering. - -Before the time of Mohammad, there were no public baths in Arabia; -and he was so prejudiced against them, for reasons already alluded to, -that he at first forbade both men and women from entering them: -afterwards, however, he permitted men to do so, if for the sake of -cleanliness, on the condition of their wearing a cloth; and women also -on account of sickness, child-birth, etc., provided they had not -convenient places for bathing in their houses. But notwithstanding this -license, it is held to be a characteristic of a virtuous woman not to go -to a bath even with her husband's permission: for the Prophet said, -"Whatever woman enters a bath, the devil is with her." As the bath is a -resort of the Jinn, prayer should not be performed in it, nor the -Kur-án recited. The Prophet said, "All the earth is given to me as a -place of prayer, and as pure, except the burial-ground and the bath." -Hence also, when a person is about to enter a bath, he should offer up -an ejaculatory prayer for protection against evil spirits; and should -place his left foot first over the threshold. Infidels have often been -obliged to distinguish themselves in the bath, by hanging a signet to -the neck, or wearing anklets, etc., lest they should receive those marks -of respect which should be paid only to believers.[211] - -Hunting and hawking, which were common and favourite diversions of the -Arabs, and especially of their kings and other great men, have now -fallen into comparative disuse among this people. They are, however, -still frequently practised by the Persians, and in the same manner as -they are generally described in the "Thousand and One Nights."[212] The -more common kinds of game are gazelles, or antelopes, hares, partridges, -the species of grouse called "katà," quails, wild geese, ducks, -etc. Against all of these, the hawk is generally employed, but assisted -in the capture of gazelles and hares by dogs. The usual arms of the -sportsmen in mediæval times were the bow and arrow, the cross-bow, the -spear, the sword and the mace. When the game is struck down but not -killed by any weapon, its throat is immediately cut. If merely stunned -and then left to die, its flesh is unlawful food. Hunting is allowable -only for the purpose of procuring food, or to obtain the skin of an -animal, or for the sake of destroying ferocious and dangerous beasts; -but the rule is often disregarded. Amusement is certainly, in general, -the main object of the Muslim huntsman; but he does not with this view -endeavour to prolong the chase; on the contrary, he strives to take the -game as quickly as possible. For this purpose nets are often employed, -and the hunting party, forming what is called the circle of the chase -(halkat es-seyd), surround the spot in which the game is -found. - -"On the eastern frontiers of Syria," says Burckhardt, "are several -places allotted for the hunting of gazelles: these places are called -'masiade' [perhaps more properly, 'masyedehs']. An open space in the -plain, of about one mile and a half square, is enclosed on three sides -by a wall of loose stones, too high for the gazelles to leap over. In -different parts of this wall, gaps are purposely left, and near each gap -a deep ditch is made on the outside. The enclosed space is situated near -some rivulet or spring to which in summer the gazelles resort. When the -hunting is to begin, many peasants assemble, and watch till they see a -herd of gazelles advancing from a distance towards the enclosure, into -which they drive them: the gazelles, frightened by the shouts of these -people and the discharge of fire-arms, endeavour to leap over the wall, -but can only effect this at the gaps, where they fall into the ditch -outside, and are easily taken, sometimes by hundreds. The chief of the -herd always leaps first: the others follow him one by one. The gazelles -thus taken are immediately killed, and their flesh is sold to the Arabs -and neighbouring Felláhs."[213] Hunting the wild ass is among the -most difficult sports of the Arabs and Persians. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[150] A pious Muslim generally sits at his meals with the right knee -raised, after the example of the Prophet, who adopted this custom in -order to avoid too comfortable a posture in eating, as tempting to -unnecessary gratification. - -[151] Hist. Aegypt. Compend. 180-182. (Oxon. 1800.) - -[152] El-Makreezee's Khitat: Account of the Khaleefehs' -Palaces. - -[153] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 329. - -[154] Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys, 8vo. ed. i. 178, -179. - -[155] Price's Retrospect of Mahom. History, ii. 229. - -[156] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 339. - -[157] De Sacy, Chrestomathie Arabe, i. 125-131, Arabic text. - -[158] That is, a race-course for sallies of wit and eloquence on the -subject of wine: the word "kumeyt" being used, in preference to more -than a hundred others that might have been employed, to signify "wine," -because it bears also the meaning of "a deep red horse." The book has -been already quoted in these pages. - -[159] His name is not mentioned in my copy; but D'Herbelot states it to -have been Shems-ed-Deen Mohammad ibn-Bedr-ed-Deen Hasan -el-Kádee; and writes his surname "Naouagi," or "Naouahi." - -[160] [Mr. Lane followed the usual custom of travellers of his day who -wished to be intimate with the Egyptians, and took the name of -Mansoor Effendee. A letter from Bonomi to him, under this name, -exists in the British Museum (25,658, f. 67), and has led the compilers -of the Index to the Catalogue of Additions to the MSS., published in -1880, into the pardonable error of inventing an "Edward Mansoor Lane." -S. L-P.] - -[161] Kur. ii. 216. - -[162] Kur. iv. 46. - -[163] Lev. x. 9. - -[164] Kur. v. 92. - -[165] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. ix. - -[166] Ibid, khátimeh. - -[167] Halbet el-Kumeyt, 1. 1. - -[168] Fakhr-ed-Deen, in De Sacy, Chrest. Arabe. - -[169] "While tears of blood trickle from the strainer, the ewer beneath -it giggles." (Es-Sadr Ibn-El-Wekeel, quoted in the Halbet -el-Kumeyt, chap. xiii.)--The strainer is called "ráwook." - -[170] The Mohtesib is inspector of the markets, the weights and -measures, and provisions, etc. - -[171] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year 295. - -[172] The cup, when full, was generally called "kás:" when empty, -"kadah," or "jám." The name of kás is now given to a small glass -used for brandy and liqueurs, and similar to our liqueur-glass: the -glass or cup used for wine is called, when so used, "koobeh:" it is the -same as that used for sherbet; but in the latter case it is called -"kulleh." - -[173] Es-Suyootee, account of the fruits of Egypt, in his history of -that country (MS.) - -[174] Es-Suyootee. - -[175] Ibid. - -[176] El-Kazweenee, MS. - -[177] Ibid. - -[178] Es-Suyootee, ubi supra. - -[179] Ibid. - -[180] The Arabic names of these fruits are, tuffáh (vulgo, -tiffáh), kummetrè, safarjal, mishmish, khókh, teen, jummeyz (vulgo, -jemmeyz), ´eneb, nabk or sidr, ´onnáb (vulgo, ´annáb), ijjás or -barkook, józ, lóz, bunduk, fustuk, burtukán, nárinj, leymoon, -utrujj or turunj, kebbád, toot, zeytoon, and kasab es-sukkar. - -[181] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xvii.; and Es-Suyootee, account of -the flowers of Egypt, in his history of that country. - -[182] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xvii. - -[183] Ibid. - -[184] Es-Suyootee, ubi supra. - -[185] The night of the Prophet's Ascension [in dream, into Heaven]. - -[186] Gabriel, who accompanied the Prophet. - -[187] The beast on which Mohammad dreamed he rode from Mekkeh to -Jerusalem previously to his ascension. These traditions are from -Es-Suyootee, ubi supra. - -[188] This flower is called "fághiyeh," and more commonly "temer -el-hennà;" or, according to some, the fághiyeh is the flower produced -by a slip of temer el-hennà, planted upside down, and superior to the -flower of the latter planted in the natural way! - -[189] Es-Suyootee, ubi supra. - -[190] Ibid. - -[191] Es-Suyootee. - -[192] Shakáïk. The "adhriyoon," or "ádharyoon," is said to be a -variety of the anemone. - -[193] From the former, or from "noamán," signifying "blood," the -anemone was named "shakáïk en-noamán." - -[194] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xvii. - -[195] Halbet el-Kumeyt; Es-Suyootee, ubi supra; and -El-Kazweenee. - -[196] The Arabic names of these flowers are, yásameen, nisreen, zahr (or -zahr nárinj), soosan, reehán (or hobak), nemám, bahár, ukhowán, -neelófar, beshneen, jullanár or julnár, khashkhásh, khitmee, zaafarán, -´osfur, kettán, bákillà, and lebláb, and lóz. - -[197] Bán, and khiláf or khaláf. Both these names are applied to the -same tree (which, according to Forskál, differs slightly from the salix -Ægyptiaca of Linnæus) by the author of the Halbet el-Kumeyt and by -the modern Egyptians. - -[198] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xiv. - -[199] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xi. - -[200] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 425. - -[201] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xiv. - -[202] Soft boots, worn inside the slippers or shoes. - -[203] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. xiv. - -[204] I am not sure of the orthography of this name, particularly with -respect to the first and last vowels; having never found it written with -the vowel points. It is sometimes written with h for kh, and f for -k. - -[205] Halbet el-Kumeyt, 1.1. - -[206] He was born in A.H. 125, and died in 213, or 188. - -[207] He was born A.H. 150, and died in 235. - -[208] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year 231. He died in this year. - -[209] Halbet el-Kumeyt, chap. vii. - -[210] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil. - -[211] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section vii. - -[212] See Sir John Malcolm's "Sketches in Persia," i. ch. v. - -[213] Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys, i. 220, ff. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. - - -In few cases are the Mohammadans so much fettered by the directions of -their Prophet and other religious instructors as in the rearing and -education of their children. In matters of the most trivial nature, -religious precedents direct their management of the young. One of the -first duties is to wrap the new-born child in clean white linen, or in -linen of some other colour, but not yellow. After this some person (not -a female) should pronounce the adán[214] in the ear of the infant, -because the Prophet did so in the ear of El-Hasan when Fátimeh -gave birth to him; or he should pronounce the adán in the right ear, and -the ikámeh (which is nearly the same) in the left.[215] - -It was formerly a custom of many of the Arabs, and perhaps is still -among some, for the father to give a feast to his friends on seven -successive days after the birth of a son; but that of a daughter was -observed with less rejoicing. The general modern custom is to give an -entertainment only on the seventh day, which is called Yóm es-Subooa. - -On this occasion, in the families of the higher classes, professional -female singers are hired to entertain a party of ladies, friends of the -infant's mother, who visit her on this occasion, in the hareem; or a -concert of instrumental music, or a recitation of the whole of the -Kur-án, is performed below by men. The mother, attended by the -midwife, being seated in a chair which is the property of the latter, -the child is brought, wrapped in a handsome shawl or something costly; -and, to accustom it to noise, that it may not be frightened afterwards -by the music and other sounds of mirth, one of the women takes a brass -mortar and strikes it repeatedly with the pestle, as if pounding. After -this, the child is put into a sieve and shaken, it being supposed that -this operation is beneficial to its stomach. Next, it is carried through -all the apartments of the hareem, accompanied by several women or -girls, each of whom bears a number of wax candles, sometimes of various -colours, cut in two, lighted, and stuck into small lumps of paste of -hennà, upon a small round tray. At the same time the midwife, or -another female, sprinkles upon the floor of each room a mixture of salt -with seed of the fennel-flower, or salt alone, which has been placed -during the preceding night at the infant's head; saying as she does -this, "The salt be in the eye of the person who doth not bless the -Prophet!" or, "The foul salt be in the eye of the envier!" This ceremony -of the sprinkling of salt is considered a preservative for the child and -mother from the evil eye; and each person present should say, "O God, -bless our lord Mohammad!" The child, wrapped up and placed on a fine -mattress, which is sometimes laid on a silver tray, is shewn to each of -the women present, who looks at its face, says, "O God, bless our lord -Mohammad! God give thee long life!" etc., and usually puts an -embroidered handkerchief, with a gold coin (if pretty or old, the more -esteemed) tied up in one of the corners, on the child's head, or by its -side. This giving of handkerchiefs and gold is considered as imposing a -debt, to be repaid by the mother, if the donor should give her the same -occasion; or as the discharge of a debt for a similar offering. The -coins are generally used for some years to decorate the head-dress of -the child. After these presents for the child, others are given for the -midwife. During the night before the seventh-day's festivity, a -water-bottle full of water (a dórak in the case of a boy, and a -kulleh[216] in that of a girl), with an embroidered handkerchief tied -round the neck, is placed at the child's head while it sleeps. This, -with the water it contains, the midwife takes and puts upon a tray and -presents it to each of the women; who put presents of money for her into -the tray. In the evening, the husband generally entertains a party of -his friends.[217] - -On this day, or on the fourteenth, twenty-first, twenty-eighth, or -thirty-fifth day after the birth, several religious ceremonies are -required to be performed; but they are most approved if observed on the -seventh day. One of these is the naming. I believe, however, that it is -a more common custom to give the name almost immediately after the -birth, or about three hours after. Astrologers were often consulted on -this occasion; but the following directions are given on higher -authority, and are generally followed.--"The father should give his son -a good name, ... not a name of self-praise, as Rasheed [Orthodox], Emeen -[Faithful], etc.... The Prophet said, 'The names most approved by God -are ´Abd-Allah [Servant of God] and ´Abd-Er-Rahmán [Servant of the -Compassionate], and such like.' He also said, 'Give my name, but do not -distinguish by my surname of relationship:' but this precept, they say, -respects his own lifetime, ... because he was addressed, 'O -Abu-l-Kásim!' and now it is not disapproved; but some disapprove of -uniting the name and surname, so as to call a person Mohammad and -Abu-l-Kásim. And if a son be called by the name of a prophet it is -not allowable to abuse or vilify him, unless the person so named be -facing his reproacher, who should say, 'Thou' [without mentioning his -name]: and a child named Mohammad or Ahmad should be [especially] -honoured.... The Prophet said, 'There is no people holding a -consultation at which there is present one whose name is Mohammad or -Ahmad, but God blesseth all that assembly:' and again he said, -'Whoever nameth his child by my name, or by that of any of my children -or my companions, from affection to me or to them, God (whose name be -exalted) will give him in Paradise what eye hath not seen nor ear -heard.' And a son should not be named King of kings, or Lord of lords; -nor should a man take a surname of relationship from the name of the -eldest of his children; nor take any such surname before a child is born -to him."[218] The custom of naming children after prophets, or after -relations or companions of Mohammad, is very common. No ceremony is -observed on account of the naming. - -On the same day, however, two practices which I am about to mention are -prescribed to be observed; though, as far as my observations and -inquiries allow me to judge, they are generally neglected by the modern -Muslims. The first of these is a sacrifice. The victim is called -´akeekah. It should be a ram or goat; or two such animals should be -sacrificed for a son, and one for a daughter. This rite is regarded by -Ibn-Hambal as absolutely obligatory: he said, "If a father sacrifice not -for his son, and he [the son] die, that son will not intercede for him -on the day of judgment." The founders of the three other principal sects -regard it in different and less important lights, though Mohammad slew -an ´akeekah for himself after his prophetic mission. The person should -say, on slaying the victim, "O God, verily this ´akeekah is a ransom for -my son such a one; its blood for his blood, and its flesh for his flesh, -and its bone for his bone, and its skin for his skin, and its hair for -his hair. O God, make it a ransom for my son from hell fire." A bone of -the victim should not be broken.[219] The midwife should receive a leg -of it. It should be cooked without previously cutting off any portion of -it; and part of it should be given in alms. - -After this should be performed the other ceremony above alluded to, -which is this:--It is a sunneh ordinance, incumbent on the father, to -shave or cause to be shaved the head of the child, and to give in alms -to the poor the weight of the hair in gold or silver. This should also -be done for a proselyte.[220] On the subsequent occasions of shaving the -head of a male child (for the head of the male is frequently shaven), a -tuft of hair is generally left on the crown, and commonly for several -years another also over the forehead. - -Circumcision is most approved if performed on the same day;[221] but -the observance of this rite is generally delayed until the child has -attained the age of five or six years, and sometimes several years -later. (See p. 200). - -The Muslims regard a child as a trust committed by God to its parents, -who, they hold, are responsible for the manner in which they bring it -up, and will be examined on this subject on the day of judgment. But -they further venture to say, that "the first who will lay hold of a man -on the day of judgment will be his wife and children, who [if he have -been deficient in his duty to them] will present themselves before God, -and say, 'O our Lord, take for us our due from him; for he taught us not -that of which we were ignorant, and he fed us with forbidden food, and -we knew not:' and their due will be taken from him."[222] By this is -meant, that a certain proportion of the good works which the man may -have done, and his children and wife neglected, will be set down to -their account: or that a similar proportion of their evil works will be -transferred to _his_ account. - -The mother is enjoined by the law to give suck to her child two full -years, unless she have her husband's consent to shorten the period, or -to employ another nurse. "For suckling the child, a virtuous woman, who -eateth only what is lawful, should be chosen; for the unlawful [food] -will manifest its evil in the child; as the Prophet ... said, 'Giving -suck altereth the tempers.' But it is recommended by the Sunneh that the -mother herself suckle the child; for it is said in a tradition, 'There -is nothing better for a child than its mother's milk.' 'If thou wouldst -try,' it is added, 'whether the child be of an ingenuous disposition in -its infancy or not, order a woman who is not its mother to suckle it -after its mother has done so: and if it drink of the milk of the woman -who is not its mother, it is not of an ingenuous disposition.'"[223] - -Children, being regarded by Muslim parents as enviable blessings, are to -them objects of the most anxious solicitude. To guard them from the -supposed influence of the envious or evil eye, they have recourse to -various expedients. When they are taken abroad, they are usually clad in -a most slovenly manner, and left unwashed, or even purposely smeared -with dirt; and as a further precaution a fantastic cap is often put upon -the child's head, or its head-dress is decorated with one or more coins, -a feather, a gay tassel, or a written charm or two sewed up in leather -or encased in gold or silver, or some other appendage to attract the -eye, that so the infant itself may pass unnoticed. If a person express -his admiration of another's child otherwise than by some pious -ejaculation, as for instance by praising its Creator (with the -exclamation of "Subhána-lláh!" or Má sháa-lláh!" etc.) or invoking a -blessing on the Prophet, he fills the mind of the parent with -apprehension; and recourse is had to some superstitious ceremony to -counteract the dreaded influence of his envious glance. The children of -the poor from their unattractive appearance are less exposed to this -imaginary danger: they generally have little or no clothing and are -extremely dirty. It is partly with the view of protecting them from the -evil eye that those of the rich are so long confined to the hareem: -there they are petted and pampered for several years, at least until -they are of age to go to school; but most of them are instructed at -home. - -The children of the Muslims are taught to show to their fathers a degree -of respect which might be deemed incompatible with the existence of a -tender mutual affection; but I believe that this is not the case. The -child greets the father in the morning by kissing his hand, and then -usually stands before him in a respectful attitude, with the left hand -covered by the right, to receive any order or to await his permission to -depart; but after the respectful kiss, is often taken on the lap. After -the period of infancy, the well-bred son seldom sits in the presence of -his father; but during that period he is generally allowed much -familiarity. A Syrian merchant, who was one of my near neighbours in -Cairo, had a child of exquisite beauty, commonly supposed to be his -daughter, whom, though he was a most bigoted Muslim, he daily took with -him from his private house to his shop. The child followed him, seated -upon an ass before a black slave, and until about six years old was -dressed like most young ladies, but without a face-veil. The father then -thinking that the appearance of taking about with him a daughter of that -age was scandalous, dressed his pet as a boy, and told his friends that -the female attire had been employed as a protection against the evil -eye, girls being less coveted than boys. This indeed is sometimes done, -and it is possible that such might have been the case in this instance; -but I was led to believe that it was not so. A year after, I left Cairo: -while I remained there, I continued to see the child pass my house as -before, but always in boy's clothing. - -It is not surprising that the natives of Eastern countries, where a very -trifling expense is required to rear the young, should be generally -desirous of a numerous offspring. A motive of self-interest conduces -forcibly to cherish this feeling in a wife; for she is commonly esteemed -by her husband in proportion to her fruitfulness, and a man is seldom -willing to divorce a wife, or to sell a slave, who has borne him a -child. A similar feeling also induces in both parents a desire to obtain -offspring, and renders them at the same time resigned to the loss of -such of their children as die in tender age. This feeling arises from -their belief of certain services, of greater moment than the richest -blessings this world can bestow, which children who die in infancy are -to render to their parents. - -The Prophet is related to have said, "The infant children [of the -Muslims] shall assemble at the scene of judgment on the day of the -general resurrection, when all creatures shall appear for the reckoning, -and it will be said to the angels, 'Go ye with these into Paradise:' and -they will halt at the gate of Paradise, and it will be said to them, -'Welcome to the offspring of the Muslims! enter ye Paradise: there is no -reckoning to be made with you:' and they will reply, 'Yea, and our -fathers and our mothers:' but the guardians of Paradise will say, -'Verily your fathers and your mothers are not with you because they have -committed faults and sins for which they must be reckoned with and -inquired of.' Then they will shriek and cry at the gate of Paradise with -a great cry; and God (whose name be exalted, and who is all-knowing -respecting them) will say, 'What is this cry?' It will be answered, 'O -our Lord, the children of the Muslims say, We will not enter Paradise -but with our fathers and our mothers.' Whereupon God (whose name be -exalted) will say, 'Pass among them all, and take the hands of your -parents, and introduce them into Paradise.'" The children who are to -have this power are such as are born of believers, and die without -having attained to the knowledge of sin; and according to one tradition, -one such child will introduce his two parents into Paradise. Such -infants only are to enter Paradise; for of the children who die in -infancy, those of believers alone are they who would believe if they -grew to years of discretion. On the same authority it is said, "When a -child of the servant [of God] dies, God (whose name be exalted) saith to -the angels, 'Have ye taken the child of my servant?' They answer, 'Yea.' -He saith, 'Have ye taken the child of his heart?' They reply, 'Yea.' He -asketh them, 'What did my servant say?' They answer, 'He praised thee, -and said, Verily to God we belong, and verily unto Him we return!' Then -God will say, 'Build for my servant a house in Paradise, and name it the -House of Praise.'" - -To these traditions, which I find related as proofs of the advantages of -marriage, the following anecdote, which is of a similar nature, is -added. A certain man who would not take a wife awoke one day from his -sleep, and demanded to be married, saying as his reason, "I dreamed that -the resurrection had taken place, and that I was among the beings -collected at the scene of judgment, but was suffering a thirst that -stopped up the passage of my stomach; and lo, there were youths passing -through the assembly, having in their hands ewers of silver, and cups of -gold, and giving drink to one person after another; so I stretched forth -my hand to one of them, and said, 'Give me to drink; for thirst -overpowereth me;' but they answered, 'Thou hast no child among us; we -give drink only to our fathers.' I asked them, 'Who are ye?' They -replied, 'We are the deceased infant children of the Muslims.'"[224] -Especial rewards in heaven are promised to mothers. "When a woman -conceives by her husband," said the Prophet, "she is called in heaven a -martyr [_i.e._ she is ranked, as a martyr in dignity]; and her labour in -childbed and her care for her children protect her from hell fire."[225] - -"When the child begins to speak, the father should teach him first the -kelimeh [or profession of faith], 'There is no deity but God: -[Mohammad is God's apostle]'--he should dictate this to him seven -times. Then he should instruct him to say, 'Wherefore exalted be God, -the King, the Truth! There is no deity but He, the Lord of the -honourable throne.'[226] He should teach him also the Throne-verse,[227] -and the closing words of the Hashr, 'He is God, beside whom there is -no deity, the King, the Holy,'" etc.[228] - -As soon as a son is old enough, his father should teach him the most -important rules of decent behaviour: placing some food before him, he -should order him to take it with the right hand (the left being employed -for unclean purposes), and to say, on commencing, "In the name of God;" -to eat what is next to him, and not to hurry or spill any of the food -upon his person or dress. He should teach him that it is disgusting to -eat much. He should particularly condemn to him the love of gold and -silver, and caution him against covetousness as he would against -serpents and scorpions; and forbid his spitting in an assembly and every -similar breach of good manners, from talking much, turning his back upon -another, standing in an indolent attitude, and speaking ill of any -person to another. He should keep him from bad companions, teach him the -Kur-án and all requisite divine and prophetic ordinances, and -instruct him in the arts of swimming and archery, and in some virtuous -trade; for trade is a security from poverty. He should also command him -to endure patiently the chastisements of his teacher. In one tradition -it is said, "When a boy attains the age of six years he should be -disciplined, and when he attains to nine years he should be put in a -separate bed, and when he attains to ten years he should be beaten for -[neglecting] prayer:" and in another tradition, "Order your children to -pray at seven [years], and beat them for [neglecting] it at ten, and put -them in separate beds."[229] - -Circumcision is generally performed before the boy is submitted to the -instruction of the schoolmaster.[230] Previously to the performance of -this rite, he is, if belonging to the higher or middle rank of society, -usually paraded about the neighbourhood of his parents' dwelling, gaily -attired, chiefly with female habits and ornaments, but with a boy's -turban on his head, mounted on a horse, preceded by musicians, and -followed by a group of his female relations and friends. This ceremony -is observed by the great with much pomp and with sumptuous feasts. -El-Jabartee mentions a fête celebrated on the occasion of the -circumcision of a son of the Kádee of Cairo, in the year of the -Flight 1179 (A.D. 1766), when the grandees and chief merchants and -´ulamà of the city sent him such abundance of presents that the -magazines of his mansion were filled with rice and butter and honey and -sugar; the great hall, with coffee; and the middle of the court, with -fire-wood: the public were amused for many days by players and -performers of various kinds; and when the youth was paraded through the -streets he was attended by numerous memlooks with their richly -caparisoned horses and splendid arms and armour and military band, and -by a number of other youths, who, out of compliment to him, were -afterwards circumcised with him. This last custom is usual on such -occasions; and so also is the sending of presents, such as those above -mentioned, by friends, acquaintances, and tradespeople. At a fête of -this kind, when the Khaleefeh El-Muktedir circumcised five of his -sons, the money that was scattered in presents amounted to six hundred -thousand pieces of gold, or about £300,000. Many orphans were also -circumcised on the same day, and were presented with clothes and pieces -of gold.[231] The Khaleefeh above mentioned was famous for his -magnificence, a proof of which I have given before (p. 122 ff.). At the -more approved entertainments which are given in celebration of a -circumcision, a recital of the whole of the Kur-án, or a zikr, is -performed: at some others, male or female public dancers perform in the -court of the house or in the street before the door. - -Few of the children of the Arabs receive much instruction in -literature, and still fewer are taught even the rudiments of any of the -higher sciences; but there are numerous schools in their towns, and one -at least in almost every moderately large village. The former are mostly -attached to mosques and other public buildings, and, together with those -buildings, are endowed by princes or other men of rank, or wealthy -tradesmen. In these the children are instructed either gratis or for a -very trifling weekly payment, which all parents save those in indigent -circumstances can easily afford. The schoolmaster generally teaches -nothing more than to read, and to recite by heart the whole of the -Kur-án. After committing to memory the first chapter of the sacred -volume, the boy learns the rest in the inverse order of their -arrangement, as they generally decrease in length (the longest coming -first, and the shortest at the end). Writing and arithmetic are usually -taught by another master; and grammar, rhetoric, versification, logic, -the interpretation of the Kur-án, and the whole system of religion -and law, with all other knowledge deemed useful, which seldom includes -the mere elements of mathematics, are attained by studying at a -collegiate mosque, and at no expense; for the professors receive no pay -either from the students, who are mostly of the poorer classes, or from -the funds of the mosque. - -The wealthy often employ for their sons a private tutor; and when he has -taught them to read, and to recite the Kur-án, engage for them a -writing-master, and then send them to the college. But among this class, -polite literature is more considered than any other branch of knowledge, -after religion. Such an acquaintance with the works of some of their -favourite poets as enables a man to quote them occasionally in company, -is regarded by the Arabs as essential to a son who is to mix in good -society; and to this acquirement is often added some skill in the art -of versification, which is rendered peculiarly easy by the copiousness -of the Arabic language and by its system of inflexion. These -characteristics of their noble tongue (which are remarkably exhibited by -the custom, common among the Arabs, of preserving the same rhyme -throughout a whole poem), while on the one hand they have given an -admirable freedom to the compositions of men of true poetic genius, have -on the other hand mainly contributed to the degradation of Arabic -poetry. To an Arab of some little learning it is almost as easy to speak -in verse as in prose; and hence he often intersperses his prose -writings, and not unfrequently his conversation, with indifferent -verses, of which the chief merit generally consists in puns or in an -ingenious use of several words nearly the same in sound but differing in -sense. This custom is frequently exemplified in the "Thousand and One -Nights," where a person suddenly changes the style of his speech from -prose to verse, and then reverts to the former. - -One more duty of a father to a son I should here mention: it is to -procure for him a wife as soon as he has arrived at a proper age. This -age is decided by some to be twenty years, though many young men marry -at an earlier period. It is said, "When a son has attained the age of -twenty years, his father, if able, should marry him, and then take his -hand and say, 'I have disciplined thee and taught thee and married -thee: I now seek refuge with God from thy mischief in the present world -and the next.'" To enforce this duty, the following tradition is urged: -"When a son becomes adult and his father does not marry him and yet is -able to do so, if the youth do wrong in consequence, the sin of it is -between the two"--or, as in another report,--"on the father."[232] The -same is held to be the case with respect to a daughter who has attained -the age of twelve years. - -The female children of the Arabs are seldom taught even to read. Though -they are admissible at the daily schools in which the boys are -instructed, very few parents allow them the benefit of this privilege; -preferring, if they give them any instruction of a literary kind, to -employ a sheykhah (or learned woman) to teach them at home. She -instructs them in the forms of prayer and teaches them to repeat by -heart a few chapters of the Kur-án, very rarely the whole book. -Parents are indeed recommended to withhold from their daughters some -portions of the Kur-án; to "teach them the Soorat ed-Noor [or 24th -chapter], and keep from them the Soorat Yoosuf [12th chapter]; on -account of the story of Zeleekhá and Yoosuf in the latter, and the -prohibitions and threats and mention of punishments contained in the -former."[233] - -Needle-work is not so rarely, but yet not generally, taught to Arab -girls, the spindle frequently employs those of the poorer classes, and -some of them learn to weave. The daughters of persons of the middle and -higher ranks are often instructed in the art of embroidery and in other -ornamental work, which are taught in schools and in private houses. -Singing and playing upon the lute, which were formerly not uncommon -female accomplishments among the wealthy Arabs, are now almost -exclusively confined, like dancing, to professional performers and a few -of the slaves in the hareems of the great: it is very seldom now that -any musical instrument is seen in the hand of an Arab lady except a kind -of drum called darabukkeh and a tár (or tambourine), which are found -in many hareems, and are beaten with the fingers.[234] Some care, -however, is bestowed by the ladies in teaching their daughters what they -consider an elegant gait and carriage, as well as various alluring and -voluptuous arts with which to increase the attachment of their future -husbands. - -I have heard Arabs confess that their nation possesses nine-tenths of -the envy that exists among all mankind collectively; but I have not seen -any written authority for this. Ibn-´Abbás assigns nine-tenths of the -intrigue or artifice that exists in the world to the Copts, nine-tenths -of the perfidy to the Jews, nine-tenths of the stupidity to the -Maghrabees, nine-tenths of the hardness to the Turks, and nine-tenths of -the bravery to the Arabs. According to Kaab El-Ahbár, reason and -sedition are most peculiar to Syria, plenty and degradation to Egypt, -and misery and health to the Desert. In another account, faith and -modesty are said to be most peculiar to El-Yemen, fortitude and sedition -to Syria, magnificence or pride and hypocrisy to El-´Irák, wealth and -degradation to Egypt, and poverty and misery to the Desert. Of women, it -is said by Kaab El-Ahbár, that the best in the world (excepting -those of the tribe of Kureysh mentioned by the Prophet) are those of -El-Basrah; and the worst in the world, those of Egypt.[235] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[214] The call to prayer which is chanted from the mádinehs (or -minarets) of the mosques. It is as follows:--"God is most great!" (four -times). "I testify that there is no deity but God!" (twice). "I testify -that Mohammad is God's Apostle!" (twice). "Come to prayer!" (twice). -"Come to security!" (twice). "God is most great!" (twice). "There is no -deity but God!" - -[215] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. The ikámeh differs from the -adán in adding "The time for prayer is come" twice after "come to -security." - -[216] The dórak has a long narrow neck, the kulleh a short wide -one. - -[217] See Modern Egyptians, chap. xiv. - -[218] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. - -[219] Compare Exodus xiii. 13; and xii. 46. - -[220] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9; and Mishkát el-Masábeeh, -ii. 315, f. - -[221] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. - -[222] Ibid. - -[223] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, 1.1. - -[224] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 2. - -[225] Idem., section 7. - -[226] Kur-án, xxiii. 117. - -[227] "God! there is no deity but He," etc., Kur. ii. 256. - -[228] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. - -[229] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. - -[230] An analogous custom is mentioned in a note appended to the account -of circumcision in chap. ii. of my work on the Modern Egyptians. - -[231] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year 302. - -[232] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9, and Miskát el-Masábeeh, -ii. 86. - -[233] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 6. - -[234] See Modern Egyptians, ch. xviii. - -[235] El-Makreezee's Khitat, and El-Ishákee. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -WOMEN. - - -That sensual passion is very prevalent among the Arabs cannot be -doubted; but I think it unjust to suppose them generally incapable of a -purer feeling, worthy, if constancy be a sufficient test, of being -termed true love. That they are not so, appears evident to almost every -person who mixes with them in familiar society; for such a person must -have opportunities of being acquainted with many Arabs sincerely -attached to wives whose personal charms have long vanished, and who have -neither wealth nor influence of their own, nor wealthy or influential -relations, to induce their husbands to refrain from divorcing them. It -very often happens, too, that an Arab is sincerely attached to a wife -possessed, even in the best portion of her age, of few charms, and that -the lasting favourite among two or more wives is not the most handsome. -This opinion, I am sorry to observe, is at variance, as far as the Arabs -of the _towns_ are concerned, with that entertained by one of the most -intelligent and experienced of modern travellers who long resided among -this people,--the justly celebrated Burckhardt:[236] but it is confirmed -by numerous facts related by respectable Arab authors (and therefore not -regarded by them as of an incredible nature), as well as by cases which -have fallen under my own observation. The tale of Leylà and Mejnoon, the -Juliet and Romeo of Arabia, is too well known to be here repeated; but -among many other anecdotes of strong and constant love, the following -may be inserted. - -The Khaleefeh Yezeed, the son of ´Abd-El-Melik, had two female slaves, -one of whom was named Habbábeh and the other, Selámeh, to the former -of whom he was most ardently attached: he had purchased her for a -hundred thousand dirhems, and the other for ten thousand. In their -company he sometimes shut himself up for three months together, utterly -neglecting the affairs of his people. At length, being reproved for this -conduct by his brother Meslemeh, he promised to return to his duty: but -the two slaves diverted him from his purpose; and on the following -morning excited by their songs and caresses and by wine, he became -frantic with pleasure, and danced and sang like a madman, till a fatal -accident put a stop to his joy:--Habbábeh, eating a pomegranate, was -choked by one of the grains, and immediately died. - -The grief of Yezeed was so poignant that he would not quit the corpse, -but continued to kiss and fondle it, until it became corrupt. Being then -admonished by his attendants that proper respect required its burial, he -consented to commit it to the earth. After five days, however, his -desire to behold again the object of his love induced him to open the -grave, and though the corpse had become hideous he declared that it was -lovely as ever in his eyes. At the earnest request of Meslemeh, he -ordered the grave to be closed again, but he was unable to exist when -deprived of the sight of the remains of her who was at the same time his -slave and his mistress: he threw himself upon his bed, speechless, and -after lingering seventeen nights, expired and was buried by the side of -Habbábeh. "May God," says the narrator, "have mercy on them -both!"[237] - -In the same work from which the above is taken, it is related that -Hároon Er-Rasheed, visiting Suleymán the son of Aboo-Jaafar, one of -his chief officers, saw with him a female slave, named Da´eefeh, of -excessive beauty, and being smitten by her charms demanded her as a -present. His request was granted; but Suleymán, from grief at the loss -of his mistress, fell sick; and during his illness was heard to -exclaim,-- - - "I appeal unto God against the affliction which He hath sent - upon me through the Khaleefeh. - - "The world heareth of his justice; but he is a tyrant in the affair - of Da´eefeh.[238] - - "Love of her is fixed in my heart as ink upon the surface of - paper." - -Er-Rasheed, being informed of his complaint, restored to him his -mistress, and with her his peace of mind. This anecdote is given as a -proof of strong love; but perhaps may not be thought much to the -purpose. The following, from the same work, is more apt. - -During the hottest hour of an excessively sultry day, the Khaleefeh -Mo´áwiyeh the son of Aboo-Sufyán was sitting in a chamber which was open -on each side to allow free passage to the air, when he beheld a -barefooted Bedawee approaching him. Wondering what could induce this man -to brave the scorching heat, he declared to his attendants that if he -were come to demand of him any favour or aid or act of justice, his -request should be granted. The Bedawee addressed him in verse with a -pathetic appeal for justice against the tyranny of Marwán the son of -El-Hakam (afterwards Khaleefeh, Mo´áwiyeh's fourth successor), by -whom he had been forcibly deprived of his beloved wife Soadà. The -Khaleefeh requiring a more particular account of his case, he related -the following facts. He had a wife, the daughter of his paternal uncle, -excessively beloved by him, and possessed a number of camels, which -enabled him to live in comfort; but a year of terrible drought deprived -him of his property and reduced him to utter want: his friends deserted -him, and his wife was taken away from him by her father. To seek redress -he repaired to Marwán, the Governor of his district, at El-Medeeneh, -who, having summoned the father of his wife, and herself, was so smitten -by the beauty of the woman that he determined to obtain her for himself -in marriage. To accomplish this, he threw the husband into prison, and -offered the father of the woman a thousand deenárs and ten thousand -dirhems for his consent to his marriage with her, promising to compel -her actual husband to divorce her; and this latter object, having -obtained the father's approval, he gained by severely torturing the -unfortunate Bedawee. It would have been vain for the woman to attempt -resistance; and so she became the wife of Marwán. - -The oppressed Bedawee, having related these circumstances, fell down in -a swoon, and lay on the floor senseless, coiled up like a dead snake. As -soon as he recovered, the Khaleefeh wrote a poetical epistle to Marwán, -severely reproaching him for his baseness, and commanding him, on pain -of death, to divorce the woman and send her with his messenger. She was -accordingly divorced and sent, with an answer composed in the same -measure and rhyme, assuring the Khaleefeh that the sight of Soadà -would convince him that her charms were irresistible; and this proved -too true. Mo´áwiyeh himself no sooner saw her than he coveted her, and -offered to give the Bedawee, if he would resign her to him, three -virgins from among his female slaves, together with a thousand deenárs -and an ample annual pension. The Bedawee shrieked with dismay, as though -he had received his death-blow, and indignantly rejected the offer. The -Khaleefeh then said to him, "Thou confessest that thou hast divorced -her, and Marwán has married her and acknowledged that he has divorced -her: we will therefore give her her choice: if she desire any other -than thee as her husband we will marry her to him, and if she prefer -thee we will restore her to thee." She, however, had the merit to prefer -the destitute Bedawee, and the Khaleefeh gave her up to him, with a -present of ten thousand dirhems. - -Numerous instances of unreasonable love are recorded in the writings of -Arabs. It is related that a man fell in love with a lady from seeing the -impression of her hand upon a wall; and, being unable to win her, died. -Many men are said to have conceived a violent passion for damsels seen -in dreams; others, again, to have been affected thus merely by the ear. -An author relates his having been acquainted with an accomplished -schoolmaster who lost his heart from hearing a man sing the praises of a -woman named Umm-´Amr, and two days after shut himself up in his house to -mourn for her death, in consequence of his hearing the same man sing,-- - - "The ass went away with Umm-´Amr; and she returned not, nor - did the ass return."[239] - -The reader should have some idea of the qualifications or charms which -the Arabs in general consider requisite to the perfection of female -beauty. He must not imagine that excessive fatness is one of these -characteristics, though it is said to be esteemed a chief essential to -beauty throughout the greater part of Northern Africa: on the contrary, -the maiden whose loveliness inspires the most impassioned expressions in -Arabic poesy and prose is celebrated for her slender figure,--she is -like the cane among plants, and is elegant as a twig of the oriental -willow. Her face is like the full moon, presenting the strongest -contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to preserve the nature of the -simile just employed) is of the deepest hue of night, and falls to the -middle of her back. A rosy blush overspreads the centre of each cheek; -and a mole is considered an additional charm. The Arabs, indeed, are -particularly extravagant in their admiration of this natural -beauty-spot; which, according to its place, is compared to a drop of -ambergris upon a dish of alabaster or upon the surface of a ruby. The -Anacreon of Persia affected to prize the mole upon the cheek of his -beloved above the cities of Samarkand and Bukhárà. - -The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely black,[240] large, and long, -of the form of an almond: they are full of brilliancy, but this is -softened by a lid slightly depressed and by long silken lashes, giving a -tender and languid expression that is full of enchantment and scarcely -to be improved by the adventitious aid of the black border of kohl; -for this the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of fashion than -necessity, having what the Arabs term natural kohl. The eyebrows are -thin and arched; the forehead is wide, and fair as ivory; the nose, -straight; the mouth, small; the lips of a brilliant red; and the teeth, -"like pearls set in coral." The forms of the bosom are compared to two -pomegranates; the waist is slender; the hips are wide and large; the -feet and hands, small; the fingers, tapering, and their extremities dyed -with the deep orange-red tint imparted by the leaves of the hennà. -The maid in whom these charms are combined exhibits a lively image of -"the rosy-fingered Aurora:" her lover knows neither night nor sleep in -her presence, and the constellations of heaven are no longer seen by him -when she approaches. The most bewitching age is between fourteen and -seventeen years; for then the forms of womanhood are generally developed -in their greatest beauty; but many a maiden in her twelfth year -possesses charms sufficient to fascinate every man who beholds her. - -The reader may perhaps desire a more minute analysis of Arabian beauty. -The following is the most complete that I can offer him.--"Four things -in a woman should be _black_,--the hair of the head, the eyebrows, the -eyelashes, and the dark part of the eyes: four _white_,--the complexion -of the skin, the white of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs: four -_red_,--the tongue, the lips, the middle of the cheeks, and the gums: -four _round_,--the head, the neck, the forearms, and the ankles: four -_long_,--the back, the fingers, the arms, and the legs:[241] four -_wide_,--the forehead, the eyes, the bosom, and the hips: four -_fine_,--the eyebrows, the nose, the lips, and the fingers: four -_thick_,--the lower part of the back, the thighs, the calves of the -legs, and the knees: four _small_,--the ears, the breasts, the hands, -and the feet."[242] - -Arab ladies are extremely fond of full and long hair; and, however amply -endowed with this natural ornament, to add to its effect they have -recourse to art. But the Prophet, abhorring all false attractions that -might at first deceive a husband and then disappoint him, "cursed the -woman who joined her own hair to that of another, or that of another to -her own, without her husband's permission: if she do it, therefore, with -his permission, it is not prohibited, unless she so make use of human -hair; for this is absolutely forbidden."[243] Hence the Arab women -prefer strings of silk to add to their hair.[244] Over the forehead, the -hair is cut rather short; but two full locks hang down on each side of -the face: these are often curled in ringlets, and sometimes plaited. The -rest of the hair is arranged in plaits or braids which hang down the -back. They are generally from eleven to twenty-five in number, but -always of an uneven number: eleven is considered a scanty number, -thirteen and fifteen are more common. Three times the number of black -silk strings (three to each plait of hair, and each three united at the -top), from sixteen to eighteen inches in length, are braided with the -hair for about a quarter of their length; or they are attached to a lace -or band of black silk which is bound round the head, and in this case -hang entirely separate from the plaits of hair. These strings, together -with certain ornaments of gold, etc., composed what is termed the -safà. Along each string, except from the upper extremity to about a -quarter or (at most) a third of its length, are generally attached nine -or more little flat ornaments of gold, which are usually all of the same -form. The most common form is oblong, round at the lower extremity and -pointed at the upper, or the reverse. They are affixed (each by a little -ring at its upper extremity) about an inch, or a little more, apart; but -those of each string are purposely placed so as not exactly to -correspond with those of the others. At the end of each string is a -small gold tube, or a small polygonal gold bead, beneath which is most -commonly suspended (by a little ring) a gold coin, a little more than -half an inch in diameter. Such is the most general description of -safà; but some ladies substitute for the gold coin a fanciful -ornament of the same metal, either simple, or with a pearl in the -centre; or they suspend in the place of this a little tassel of pearls, -or attach alternately pearls and emeralds to the bottom of the triple -strings, and a pearl with each of the little ornaments of gold first -mentioned. Coral beads are also sometimes attached in the same manner as -these pearls. The safà I think the prettiest, as well as most -singular, of all the ornaments worn by Arab ladies. The glittering of -the little ornaments of gold, and their chinking together as the wearer -walks, have a peculiarly lively effect. A kind of crown--a circle of -jewelled gold (the lower edge of which was straight, and the upper -fancifully heightened to four or more points) surrounding the lower part -of a dome-shaped cap with a jewel or some other ornament at the -summit--was worn by many Arab ladies of high rank or great wealth, -probably until about two centuries ago. Another kind of crown is now -more generally worn, called a kurs. This is a round convex -ornament, generally about five inches in diameter, composed of gold set -with a profusion of diamonds, of open work, representing roses, leaves, -etc. It is sewed upon the top of the tarboosh; and is worn by most of -the ladies of Cairo, at least in full dress.[245] - -The gait of Arab ladies is very remarkable: they incline the lower -part of the body from side to side as they step, and with the hands -raised to the level of the bosom they hold the edges of their outer -covering. Their pace is slow, and they look not about them, but keep -their eyes towards the ground in the direction to which they are going. - -The wickedness of women is a subject upon which the stronger sex among -the Arabs, with an affectation of superior virtue, often dwell in common -conversation. That women are deficient in judgment or good sense is held -as a fact not to be disputed even by themselves, as it rests on an -assertion of the Prophet; but that they possess a superior degree of -cunning is pronounced equally certain and notorious. Their general -depravity is pronounced to be much greater than that of men. "I stood," -said the Prophet, "at the gate of Paradise; and lo, most of its inmates -were the poor: and I stood at the gate of Hell; and lo, most of its -inmates were women."[246] In allusion to women, the Khaleefeh ´Omar -said, "Consult them, and do the contrary of what they advise." But this -is not to be done merely for the sake of opposing them, nor when other -advice can be had. "It is desirable for a man," says a learned Imám, -"before he enters upon any important undertaking, to consult ten -intelligent persons among his particular friends; or if he have not more -than five such friends, let him consult each of them twice; or if he -have not more than one friend, he should consult him ten times, at ten -different visits; if he have not one to consult, let him return to his -wife, and consult her, and whatever she advises him to do, let him do -the contrary: so shall he proceed rightly in his affair, and attain his -object."[247] A truly virtuous wife is, of course, excepted in this -rule: such a person is as much respected by Muslims as she is (at least, -according to their own account) rarely met with by them. When woman was -created, the Devil, we are told, was delighted, and said, "Thou art half -of my host, and thou art the depository of my secret, and thou art my -arrow, with which I shoot, and miss not."[248] What are termed by us -affairs of gallantry were very common among the Pagan Arabs, and are -scarcely less so among their Muslim posterity. They are, however, -unfrequent among most tribes of Bedawees, and among the descendants of -those tribes not long settled as cultivators. I remember being roused -from the quiet that I generally enjoyed in an ancient tomb in which I -resided at Thebes, by the cries of a young woman in the neighbourhood -whom an Arab was severely beating for an impudent proposal she had made -to him. - -Marriage is regarded by the Muslims in general as a positive duty, and -to neglect it without a sufficient excuse subjects a man to severe -reproach. "When a servant [of God]," said the Prophet, "marries, verily -he perfects half his religion."[249] He once asked a man, "Art thou -married?" The man answered, "No." "And art thou," said he, "sound and -healthy?" The answer was, "Yes." "Then," said Mohammad, "thou art one -of the brothers of the devils; for the most wicked among you are the -unmarried, and the most vile among your dead are the unmarried; moreover -the married are those who are acquitted of filthy conversation; and by -Him in whose hand is my soul, the devil hath not a weapon more effective -against the virtuous, both men and women, than the neglect of -marriage."[250] - -The number of wives whom a Muslim may have at the same time is four. He -may marry free women, or take concubine slaves, or have of both these -classes. It is the opinion of most persons, I believe, among the more -strictly religious, that a man may not have more than four women, -whether they be wives alone, or concubine slaves alone, or of both -classes together; but the practice of some of the companions of the -Prophet, who cannot be accused of violating his precepts, affords a -strong argument to the contrary. ´Alee, it is said, "was the most devout -of the companions; but he had four wives and seventeen concubines -besides, and married, after Fátimeh (may God be well pleased with -her!), among all that he married and divorced, more than two hundred -women: and sometimes he included four wives in one contract, and -sometimes divorced four at one time, taking other four in their -stead."[251] This may perhaps be an exaggerated statement, but it is -certain that the custom of keeping an unlimited number of concubines was -common among wealthy Muslims in the first century of the Mohammadan era, -and has so continued. The famous author of the work above quoted urges -the example of Solomon to prove that the possession of numerous -concubines is not inconsistent with piety and good morals; not -considering that God in the beginning made one male and but one female. - -It has been mentioned that a Muslim may divorce his wife twice and each -time take her back. This he may do, even against her wish, during a -fixed period, which cannot extend beyond three months, unless she be -_enceinte_, in which latter case she must wait until the birth of her -child before she will be at liberty to contract a new marriage. During -this period the husband is obliged to maintain her. If he divorce her a -third time, or by a triple sentence, he cannot take her again unless -with her own consent and by a new contract and after another marriage -has been consummated between her and another husband who also has -divorced her. - -It is not a common custom, especially among the middle ranks, for a -Muslim to have more than one wife at the same time; but there are few of -middle age who have not had several different wives at different -periods, tempted to change by the facility of divorce.[252] The case of -´Alee has been mentioned above. Mugheyreh Ibn-Sheabeh married eighty -women in the course of his life;[253] and several more remarkable -instances of the love of change are recorded by Arab writers; the most -extraordinary case of this kind that I have met with was that of -Mohammad Ibn-Et-Teiyib, the dyer of Baghdád, who died in the -year of the Flight 423, aged eighty-five years; of whom it is related on -most respectable authority that he married more than nine hundred -women![254] Supposing, therefore, that he married his first wife when he -was fifteen years of age, he must have had, on the average, nearly -thirteen wives _per annum_. The women, in general, cannot of course -marry so many successive husbands, not only because a woman cannot have -more than one husband at a time, but also because she cannot divorce her -husband. There have been, however, many instances of Arab women who have -married a surprising number of men in rapid succession. Among these may -be mentioned Umm-Khárijeh, who gave occasion to a proverb on this -subject. This woman, who was of the tribe of Bejeeleh, in El-Yemen, -married upwards of forty husbands; and her son Khárijeh knew not who was -his father. She used to contract a marriage in the quickest possible -manner: a man saying to her, "Khitb" ("I ask"--in marriage), she -replied "Nikh" ("I give"), and thus became his lawful wife. She had a -very numerous progeny; several tribes originating from her.[255] - -For the choice of a wife, a man generally relies on his mother or some -other near female relation, or a professional female betrother (who is -called "khátibeh"); for there are many women who perform this office -for hire. The law allows him to see the face of the girl whom he -proposes to marry, previously to his making the contract; but in the -present day this liberty is seldom obtained, except among the lower -orders. Unless in this case, a man is not allowed to see unveiled any -woman but his own wife or slave, and those women to whom the law -prohibits his uniting himself in marriage: nay, according to some he is -not allowed to see his own niece unveiled, though he may not marry -her.[256] It should be added that a slave may lawfully see the face of -his own mistress; but this privilege is seldom granted in the present -day to any slave but a eunuch. An infringement of the law above -mentioned is held to be extremely sinful in both parties: "The curse of -God," said the Prophet, "is on the seer and the seen:" yet it is very -often disregarded in the case of women of the lower orders. - -A man is forbidden, by the Kur-án[257] and the Sunneh, to marry his -mother, or other ascendant; daughter, or other descendant; his sister, -or half sister; the sister of his father or mother, or other ascendant; -his niece, or any of her descendants; his foster-mother who has suckled -him five times in the course of the first two years, or a woman related -to him by milk in any of the degrees which would preclude his marriage -with her if she were similarly related to him by consanguinity; the -mother of his wife; the daughter of his wife, in certain conditions; his -father's wife, and his son's wife; and to have at the same time two -wives who are sisters, or aunt and niece: he is forbidden also to marry -his unemancipated slave, or another man's slave, if he has already a -free wife; and to marry any woman but one of his own faith, or a -Christian, or a Jewess. A Mohammadan woman, however, may only marry a -man of her own faith. An unlawful liaison with any woman prevents a man -from marrying any of her relations who would be forbidden to him if she -were his wife. - -A cousin (the daughter of a paternal uncle) is often chosen as a wife, -on account of the tie of blood which is likely to attach her more -strongly to her husband, or on account of an affection conceived in -early years. Parity of rank is generally much regarded; and a man is -often unable to obtain as his wife the daughter of one of a different -profession or trade, unless an inferior; or a younger daughter when an -elder remains unmarried. A girl is often married at the age of twelve -years, and sometimes at ten, or even nine: the usual period is between -twelve and sixteen years. At the age of thirteen or fourteen she may be -a mother. The young men marry a few years later. - -The most important requisite in a wife is religion. The Prophet said, "A -virtuous wife is better than the world and all that it contains." "A -virtuous wife," said Lukmán, "is like a crown on the head of a king; -and a wicked wife is like a heavy burden on the back of an old man." -Among the other chief requisites are agreeableness of temper, beauty of -form (undiminished by any defect or irregularity of features or -members), moderation in the amount of dowry required, and good birth. It -is said, "If thou marry not a virgin [which is most desirable], marry a -divorced woman, and not a widow; for the divorced woman will respect thy -words when thou sayest, 'If there were any good in thee thou hadst not -been divorced;' whereas the widow will say, 'May God have mercy on such -a one [her first husband]! he hath left me to one unsuited to me.'" But -according to another selfish maxim, the woman most to be avoided is she -who is divorced from a man by whom she has had a child; for her heart is -with him, and she is an enemy to the man who marries her after.[258] - -Modesty is a requisite upon which too much stress cannot be laid; but -this, to an English reader, requires some explanation. ´Alee asked his -wife Fátimeh, "Who is the best of women?" She answered, "She who sees -not men, and whom they see not."[259] Modesty, therefore, in the opinion -of the Muslims, is most eminently shewn by a woman's concealing her -person, and restraining her eyes, from men. "The best rank of men [in a -mosque]," said the Prophet, "is the front; and the best rank of women is -the rear,"[260]--that is, those most distant from the men: but better -than even these are the women who pray at home.[261] Fruitfulness is -also a desirable qualification to be considered in the choice of a wife: -"it may be known in maidens," said the Prophet, "from their relations; -because, generally speaking, kindred are similar in disposition, -etc."[262] Lastly, contentment is to be enumerated among the requisites. -It is said, on the same authority, "Verily the best of women are those -that are most content with little."[263] To obtain a contented and -submissive wife, many men make their selection from among the classes -inferior to them in rank. Others, with a similar view, prefer a slave in -the place of a wife. - -The consent of a young girl is not required: her father, or, if he be -dead, her nearest adult male relation, or a guardian appointed by will -or by the Kádee, acts as her wekeel or deputy, to effect the -marriage-contract for her. If of age, she appoints her own deputy. A -dowry is required to legalize the marriage; and the least dowry allowed -by the law is ten dirhems,--about five shillings of our money. -Mohammad married certain of his wives for a dowry of ten dirhems and -the household necessaries, which were a hand-mill to grind the corn, a -water-jar, and a pillow of skin or leather stuffed with the fibres of -the palm-tree (leef), but some he married for a dowry of five hundred -dirhems.[264] With the increase of wealth and luxury, dowries have -increased in amount; but to our ideas they are still trifling: a sum -equivalent to about twenty pounds sterling being a common dowry among -Arabs of the middle classes for a virgin, and half or a third or quarter -of that sum for a divorced woman or a widow. Two thirds of the sum is -usually paid before making the contract, and the remaining portion held -in reserve to be paid to the woman in case of her divorce or in case of -the husband's death. The father or guardian of a girl under age receives -the former portion of her dowry; but it is considered as her property, -and he generally expends it, with an additional sum from his own purse, -in the purchase of necessary furniture, dress, etc., for her, which the -husband can never take from her against her own wish. - -The marriage-contract is generally, in the present day, merely verbal; -but sometimes a certificate is written and sealed by the Kádee. -The most approved or propitious period for this act is the month of -Showwál: the most unpropitious, Moharram. The only persons whose -presence is required to perform it are the bridegroom (or his deputy), -the bride's deputy (who is the betrother), two male witnesses, if such -can be easily procured, and the Kádee or a schoolmaster or some -other person to recite a khutbeh, which consists of a few words in -praise of God, a form of blessing on the Prophet, and some passages of -the Kur-án respecting marriage. They all recite the Fátihah (or -opening chapter of the Kur-án), after which the bridegroom pays the -money. The latter and the bride's deputy then seat themselves on the -ground, face to face, and grasp each other's right hand, raising the -thumbs, and pressing them against each other. Previously to the -khutbeh, the person who recites this formula places a handkerchief -over the two joined hands; and after the khutbeh he dictates to the -two contracting parties what they are to say. The betrother generally -uses the following or a similar form of words: "I betroth to thee my -daughter [or her for whom I act as deputy] such a one [naming the -bride], the virgin [or the adult virgin, etc.], for a dowry of such an -amount." The bridegroom answers, "I accept from thee her betrothal to -myself." This is all that is absolutely necessary; but the address and -reply are usually repeated a second and third time, and are often -expressed in fuller forms of words. The contract is concluded with the -recital of the Fátihah by all persons present. - -This betrothal, or marriage-contract, is often performed several years -before the wedding, when the two parties are yet children, or during the -infancy of the girl; but most commonly not more than about eight or ten -days before that event. The household furniture and dress prepared for -the bride are sent by her family to the bridegroom's house, usually -conveyed by a train of camels, two or three or more days before she is -conducted thither. - -The feasts and processions which are now to be mentioned are only -observed in the case of a virgin-bride; a widow or divorced woman being -remarried in a private manner. I describe them chiefly in accordance -with the usages of Cairo, which appear to me most agreeable, in general, -with the descriptions and allusions in the "Thousand and One Nights." -The period most commonly approved for the wedding is the eve of Friday, -or that of Monday. Previously to this event, the bridegroom once or -twice or more frequently gives a feast to his friends; and for several -nights, his house and the houses of his near neighbours are usually -illuminated by numerous clusters of lamps, or by lanterns, suspended in -front of them; some, to cords drawn across the street. To these or other -cords are also suspended small flags, or square pieces of silk, each of -two different colours, generally red and green. Some say that the feast -or feasts should be given on the occasion of the marriage-contract; -others, on the actual wedding; others, again, on both these -occasions.[265] - -The usual custom of the people of Cairo is to give a feast on the night -before the nuptials, and another on the wedding night; but some begin -their feasts earlier. Respecting marriage-feasts, the Prophet said, "The -first day's feast is an incumbent duty; and the second day's, a sunneh -ordinance; and the third day's, for ostentation and notoriety:" and he -forbade eating at the feast of the ostentatious.[266] It is a positive -duty to accept an invitation to a marriage-feast or other lawful -entertainment; but the guest is not obliged to eat.[267] The persons -invited and all intimate friends generally send presents of provisions -of some kind a day or two before. The Prophet taught that -marriage-feasts should be frugal: the best that _he_ gave was with one -goat.[268] He approved of demonstrations of joy at the celebration of a -marriage with songs, and according to one tradition by the beating of -deffs (or tambourines); but in another tradition the latter practice is -condemned.[269] The preferable mode of entertaining the guests is by the -performance of a zikr. - -On the day preceding that on which she is conducted to the bridegroom's -house, the bride goes to the public bath, accompanied by a number of her -female relations and friends. The procession generally pursues a -circuitous route, for the sake of greater display; and on leaving the -house, turns to the right. In Cairo, the bride walks under a canopy of -silk borne by four men, with one of her near female relations on each -side of her. Young unmarried girls walk before her; these are preceded -by the married ladies; and the procession is headed and closed by a few -musicians with drums and hautboys. The bride wears a kind of pasteboard -crown or cap, and is completely veiled from the view of spectators by a -Kashmeer shawl placed over her crown and whole person; but some handsome -ornaments of the head are attached externally. The other women are -dressed in the best of their walking-attire. In the case, however, of a -bride of high rank, or of wealth, and often in the case of one belonging -to a family of the middle class, the ladies ride upon high-saddled -asses, without music or canopy; and the bride is only distinguished by a -Kashmeer shawl instead of the usual black silk covering, one or more -eunuchs sometimes riding at the head. In the bath, after the ordinary -operations of washing, etc., a feast is made, and the party are often -entertained by female singers. - -Having returned in the same manner to her home, the bride's friends -there partake of a similar entertainment with her. Her hands and feet -are then stained with hennà, and her eyes ornamented with kohl; -and her friends give her small presents of money, and take their leave. -"It is a sunneh ordinance that the bride wash her feet in a clean -vessel, and sprinkle the water in the corners of the chamber, that a -blessing may result from this. She should also brighten her face, and -put on the best of her apparel, and adorn her eyes with kohl, and -stain [her hands and feet] with hennà [as above mentioned]; and she -should abstain, during the first week, from eating anything that -contains mustard, and from vinegar, and sour apples."[270] - -The bride is conducted to the house of the bridegroom (on the following -day) in the same manner as to the bath, or with more pomp. In Cairo, the -bridal processions of persons of very high rank are conducted with -singular display. The train is usually headed by buffoons and musicians, -and a water-carrier loaded with a goat's-skin filled with sand and -water, of very great weight, which is often borne for many hours before -(as well as during) the procession, merely to amuse the spectators by -this feat of strength. Then follow (interrupted by groups of male or -female dancers, jugglers, and the like) numerous decorated open waggons -or cars, each of which contains several members of some particular trade -or art engaged in their ordinary occupations, or one such person with -attendants: in one, for instance, a kahwejee, with his assistants and -pots and cups and fire, making coffee for the spectators: in a second, -makers of sweetmeats: in a third, makers of pancakes (fateerehs): in -a fourth, silk-lace manufacturers: in a fifth, a silk-weaver, with his -loom: in a sixth, tinners of copper vessels, at their work: in a -seventh, white-washers, whitening over and over again a wall: in short, -almost every manufacture and trade has its representatives in a separate -waggon. El-Jabartee describes a procession of this kind in which there -were upwards of seventy parties of different trades and arts, each party -in a separate waggon, besides buffoons, wrestlers, dancers, and others; -followed by various officers, the eunuchs of the bride's family, ladies -of the hareem with their attendants, then the bride in a European -carriage, a troop of memlooks clad in armour, and a Turkish band of -music. It was a procession of which the like had not before been -seen.[271] - -The bride and her party, having arrived at the house, sit down to a -repast. The bridegroom does not yet see her. He has already been to the -bath, and at nightfall he goes in procession with a number of his -friends to a mosque, to perform the night-prayers. He is accompanied by -musicians and singers, or by chanters of lyric odes in praise of the -Prophet, and by men bearing cressets--poles with cylindrical frames of -iron at the top filled with flaming wood; and on his return, most of his -other attendants bear lighted wax candles and bunches of flowers. - -Returned to his house, he leaves his friends in a lower apartment, and -goes up to the bride, whom he finds seated, with a shawl thrown over her -head, so as to conceal her face completely, and attended by one or two -females. The latter he induces to retire by means of a small present. He -then gives a present of money to the bride, as "the price of uncovering -the face," and having removed the covering (saying as he does so, "In -the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful"), he beholds her, -generally for the first time. On the occasion of this first visit, which -is called the "dukhool" or "dukhleh," he is recommended "to perfume -himself, and to sprinkle some sugar and almonds on the head of the bride -and on that of each woman with her (this practice being established by -existing usage and by traditions): also, when he approaches her, he -should perform the prayers of two rek´ahs, and she should do the same if -able: then he should take hold of the hair over her forehead, and say, -'O God, bless me in my wife, and bless my wife in me! O God, bestow upon -me [offspring] by her, and bestow upon her [offspring] by me! O God, -unite us, as thou hast united, happily; and separate us, when thou -separatest, happily!'"[272] - -An astrological calculation is often made with the view of determining -by what sign of the zodiac the two persons are influenced who -contemplate becoming man and wife, and thence ascertaining whether they -will agree. This is often done in the present day by adding together the -numerical values of the letters composing his or her name and that of -the mother, and, if I remember right, subtracting from 12 the whole sum -if this is less than 12, or what remains after subtracting, or dividing, -by 12. Thus is obtained the number of the sign. The twelve signs, -commencing with Aries, correspond respectively with the elements of -fire, earth, air, water, fire, earth, and so on; and if the signs of the -two parties indicate the same element, it is inferred that they will -agree; but if they indicate different elements, the inference is that -the one will be affected by the other in the same manner as the element -of the one is by that of the other: thus, if the element of the man is -fire, and that of the woman, water, he will be subject to her rule. -Among other calculations of the same kind is the following:--The -numerical values of the letters composing the name of each of the two -parties are added together, and one of these two sums is subtracted from -the other: if the remainder is an uneven number, the inference is -unfavourable; but if even, the reverse. - -Next to the service of the husband or master, the care of her children, -and attending to other indispensable domestic duties, the most important -occupation of the wife is that of spinning or weaving or needle-work. -"Sitting for an hour employed with the distaff is better for women," -said the Prophet, "than a year's worship; and for every piece of cloth -woven of the thread spun by them they shall receive the reward of a -martyr."--´Áisheh, the Prophet's wife, thus declared the merit of -spinning:--"Tell the women what I say: There is no woman who spins until -she hath clothed herself but all the angels in the Seven Heavens pray -for forgiveness of her sins; and she will go forth from her grave on the -day of judgment wearing a robe of Paradise and with a veil upon her -head, and before her shall be an angel and on her right an angel who -will hand her a draught of the water of Selsebeel, the fountain of -Paradise; and another angel will come to her, and carry her upon his -wings, and bear her to Paradise. And when she enters Paradise, eighty -thousand maidens will meet her, each maiden bringing a different robe; -and she will have mansions of emeralds with three hundred doors, at each -of which will stand an angel with a present from the Lord of the -Throne."[273]--The arts above mentioned are pursued by the females in -the hareems of the middle and higher classes. Their leisure-hours are -mostly spent in working with the needle; particularly in embroidering -handkerchiefs, head-veils, etc., upon a frame called mensej, with -coloured silks and gold. Many women, even in the houses of the wealthy, -replenish their private purses by ornamenting handkerchiefs and other -things in this manner, and employing a delláleh (or female broker) to -take them to the market, or to other hareems, for sale.[274] - -The separation of the sexes undoubtedly promotes the free intercourse -of people of the same sex and of different ranks, who thus are able to -associate together, regardless of difference of wealth or station, -without the risk of occasioning unequal matrimonial connections. This -separation is therefore felt by neither sex as oppressive, but is -regarded by them as productive of results which constitute the Muslim's -chief enjoyments,--the highest degree of domestic comfort, and the most -free and extensive society of his fellow men. Thus it is with both -sexes; and neither would give up the pleasure that they hence derive for -a different system of society, somewhat extending their domestic -intercourse, but often destroying the pleasures of home, and contracting -into a compass comparatively narrow the fellowship which they enjoyed -abroad. - -I must now remark upon some other effects of the same system. First, the -restriction of intercourse between the sexes before marriage renders -indispensable, to some, the facility of divorce; for it would be unjust -for a man who finds himself disappointed in his expectations of a wife, -whom he has never before seen, not to be enabled to put her away. -Secondly, it sometimes renders indispensable the licence of polygamy; -for a man who finds his first wife unsuited to him may not be able to -divorce her without reducing her to want; and the licence of polygamy -becomes as necessary in this case as that of divorce in another. -Thirdly, the liberty of polygamy renders the facility of divorce more -desirable for the happiness of women; since, when a man has two or more -wives, and one of them is dissatisfied with her situation, he is enabled -to liberate her. Fourthly, the licence of divorce often acts as a check -upon that of polygamy; for the fear of being obliged, by the influence -of his first wife, or by that of her relations, to divorce her if he -take a second, often prevents a man from doing this. Thus both these -licences are required by the most important principle of the -constitution of Muslim society, and each is productive of some moral -benefit. In considering the question of their expediency, we should also -remember that barrenness is much more common in hot climates than in -those which are temperate. - -The Christian scheme is plainly opposed to polygamy; but as to divorce, -some have contended that it only forbids putting away a wife against her -will, unless for one cause.[275] Christians are often most unjust in -their condemnation of Muslim laws and tenets, and especially condemn -those which agree with the Mosaic code and the practices of holy men; -such as polygamy (which Mohammad _limited_), divorce, war for the -defence of religion, purifications, and even minor matters.[276] -Mohammad endeavoured to remove one of the chief causes of polygamy -and divorce, by recommending that a man should see a woman whom he -proposed to take as his wife.[277] We might imagine that he could have -made these practices less common than they now are, and always have -been, among his followers, had he given more licence, allowing the man -to enjoy a limited association with the object of his choice in the -presence of her female or male relations (the former of whom might be -veiled), without infringing further the general law of the separation of -the sexes. But he saw that such liberty would very seldom, if ever, be -allowed: scarcely any parents among the Arabs, except those of the lower -classes, permit the little licence which he recommended. Instead of -condemning him for allowing a plurality of wives, I think we should be -more reasonable if we commended him for diminishing and restricting the -number. I think, too, that as Moses allowed his people for the hardness -of their hearts to put away their wives, and God denounced not polygamy -when the patriarchs practised it, we should be more consistent as -believers in the Scriptures if we admitted the permission of these -practices to be more conducive to morality than their prohibition, among -a people similar to the ancient Jews to whom Moses allowed such liberty. -As to the privilege which Mohammad assumed to himself, of having a -greater number of wives than he allowed to others, I have elsewhere -remarked,[278] that, in doing so, he may have been actuated by the want -of male offspring as much as impelled by voluptuousness. - -"On the subject of polygamy," says a writer who has deeply studied -Muslim institutions and their effects, "a European has all the advantage -in discussion with a Turkish woman, because her feelings are decidedly -on the side of her antagonists; but then she has a tremendous power of -reply, in the comparison of the practical effects of the two systems, -and in the widely spread rumours of the heartlessness and the profligacy -of Europe. All the convictions of our habits and laws stand in hostile -array against the country where the principle of polygamy is admitted -into the laws of the state; but yet, while we reproach Islamism with -polygamy, Islamism may reproach us with practical polygamy, which, -unsanctioned by law and reproved by custom, adds degradation of the -mind to dissoluteness of morals."[279] - -It should further be remarked that by sanctioning polygamy Mohammad -did not make the practice general: nay, he could not. It is a licence -for the hard-hearted, which restrains them from worse conduct, and in -some cases, as already shown, a resource for the tender-hearted. "The -permission," observes the author just cited, "does not alter the -proportions of men and women. While, therefore, the law of nature -renders this practice an impossibility as regards the community, it is -here still further restrained among the few who have the means of -indulging in it, both by the domestic unquiet that results from it, and -by the public censure and reprobation of which it is the object." - -I have remarked in a former work that polygamy "is more rare among the -higher and middle classes [in Egypt, and I believe in other Arab -countries] than it is among the lower orders; and it is not very common -among the latter. A poor man may indulge himself with two or more wives, -each of whom may be able, by some art or occupation, nearly to provide -her own subsistence; but most persons of the higher and middle orders -are deterred from doing so by the consideration of the expense and -discomfort which they would incur. A man having a wife who has the -misfortune to be barren, and being too much attached to her to divorce -her, is sometimes induced to take a second wife, merely in the hope of -obtaining offspring; and from the same motive he may take a third, and a -fourth; but fickle passion is the most evident and common motive both to -polygamy and to repeated divorces. They are comparatively few who -gratify this passion by the former practice. I believe that not more -than one husband among twenty has two wives."[280] - -I hope I have shown that though I consider polygamy as necessary in the -constitution of Muslim society, to prevent a profligacy that would be -worse than that which prevails to so great a degree in European -countries, where people are united in marriage after an intimate mutual -acquaintance, I consider it as a necessary _evil_. When two or more -wives of the same man live together, or when they visit each other, -feelings of jealousy are generally felt and often manifested, and -especially on the part of the wife or wives who cannot claim precedence -by having been married before the other or others, or by reason of being -more favoured by the husband.[281] The wife first married usually enjoys -the highest rank: therefore parents often object to giving a daughter in -marriage to a man who has already another wife; and it frequently -happens that the woman who is sought in marriage objects to such a -union. The law provides in some measure against the discomforts arising -from polygamy, by giving to each wife a claim to a distinct lodging, -affording conveniences for sleeping, cooking, etc.; and further enjoins -the husband to be strictly impartial to his wives in every respect. But -fruitfulness and superior beauty are qualifications that often enable a -second, third, or fourth wife to usurp the place of the first; though in -many cases, as I have already remarked, the lasting favourite is not the -most handsome. - -There are, however, many instances of sincere affection existing in -the hearts of fellow-wives. The following story of two wives of the -father of El-Jabartee, the modern Egyptian historian, related by -himself, and of undoubted truth, is a pleasing example.--Speaking of the -first of these two wives, the historian says,-- - -"Among her acts of conjugal piety and submission was this, that she used -to buy for her husband beautiful slave girls, with her own wealth, and -deck them with ornaments and apparel, and so present them to him, -confidently looking to the reward and recompense which she should -receive [in Paradise] for such conduct. He took, in addition to her, -many other wives from among free women, and bought female slaves; but -she did not in consequence conceive any of that jealousy which commonly -affects women. Among other strange events which happened was the -following. When the subject of this memoir [the author's father] -performed the pilgrimage in the year 1156 [A.D. 1743-44], he became -acquainted at Mekkeh with the sheykh ´Omar El-Halabee who -commissioned him to purchase for him a white female slave, having such -and such qualifications. So when he returned from the pilgrimage, he -searched for female slaves among the slave-dealers, to choose from them -such a one as was wanted, and ceased not until he found the object of -his desire, and bought her. He brought her to his wife, to remain with -her until he should send her with a person to whom he was commissioned -to entrust her for the journey; and when the period at which she was to -depart arrived, he informed his wife of it, that she might prepare the -provisions for the way, and other necessaries. But she said to him, 'I -have conceived a great love for this maid, and I cannot endure -separation from her: I have no children, and I have taken her as a -daughter.' The girl Zeleekhá also wept, and said, 'I will not part from -my mistress, nor ever leave her.' 'Then what is to be done?' he asked. -She answered, 'I will pay her price from my own property, and do thou -buy another.' He did so. She then emancipated the girl, gave her to him -by a marriage-contract, prepared her paraphernalia, and furnished for -her a separate apartment; and he took her as his wife in the year 1165. -The former wife could not bear to be separated from her even for an -hour, although she had become her fellow-wife, and borne him children. -In the year 1182, the [emancipated] slave fell sick, and she [the first -wife] fell sick on account of her [friend's] sickness. The illness -increased upon both of them; and in the morning the slave arose, and -looked at her mistress when she seemed about to die, and wept, and said, -'O my God and my Lord, if Thou hast decreed the death of my mistress, -make my day to be before her day.' Then she lay down, and her disease -increased, and she died the next night; and they wrapped her up by the -side of her mistress. And her mistress awoke at the close of the night, -and felt her with her hand, and began to say, 'Zeleekhá! Zeleekhá!' They -said to her, 'She is asleep.' But she replied, 'My heart telleth me that -she is dead: and I saw in my sleep what indicated this event.' They then -said to her, 'May thy life be prolonged!'[282] And when she had thus -ascertained the event, she raised herself, and sat up, and said, 'No -life remaineth to me after her.' And she wept and wailed until the day -appeared, when they began to prepare for the speedy burial of the slave; -and they washed the corpse before her, and carried it to the grave. Then -she returned to her bed, and fell into the agonies of death, and died at -the close of the day; and on the following day they carried her corpse -to the grave in like manner."[283] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[236] I may suffer in public estimation for my differing in opinion from -this accomplished traveller and most estimable man; but I cannot, on -that account, abstain from the expression of my dissent. Our difference, -I think, may be thus explained. He conformed, in a great degree, to the -habits of the Arabs; but not to such an extent as I consider necessary -to obtain from them that confidence in his sympathy which would induce -them to lay open to him their character; and when a man is often treated -with coldness and reserve, I doubt whether the people from whom he -experiences such treatment can be judged by him with strict -impartiality. To be received on terms of equality by Arabs of the more -polished classes, an undeviating observance of their code of etiquette -is absolutely indispensable: but Burckhardt, I have been assured, often -violated this code by practices harmless enough to our notions and -probably also in the opinion of the Arabs of the Desert, but extremely -offensive to the people who enjoyed the least share of his esteem: his -most intimate acquaintances in Cairo generally refused, in speaking of -him, to designate him by the title of "sheykh" which he had adopted; and -yet the heaviest charge that I heard brought against him was his -frequent habit of _whistling_!--This fact has been mentioned, as -corroborating an observation of the same kind, by Mr. Urquhart ("Spirit -of the East," i. 417, 418), all of whose opinions relating to the East, -expressed in that work, and especially those regarding the -characteristics of the Eastern mind, are entitled to the highest -respect. - -[237] Kitáb el-´Onwán fee Mekáïd en-Niswán, a work on the stratagems of -women (MS.). - -[238] This word slightly varied (changed to Da´eefih) bears another -meaning, namely, "his weak one:" the final vowel being suppressed by the -rule of wakf. - -[239] Kitáb el-´Onwán. - -[240] The Arabs in general entertain a prejudice against blue eyes; a -prejudice said to have arisen from the great number of blue-eyed persons -among certain of their northern enemies. - -[241] In another analysis of the same kind, it is said that four should -be _short_,--the hands, the feet, the tongue, and the teeth--but this is -metaphorically speaking; the meaning is, that these members should be -kept within their proper bounds. (Kitáb el-´Onwán.) - -[242] An unnamed author quoted by El-Ishákee, in his account of -the ´Abbásee Khaleefeh El-Mutawekkil. - -[243] Kitáb el-´Onwán. - -[244] By sending with a letter the silk strings of her hair, a lady -testifies the most abject submission. The same meaning is conveyed in a -more forcible manner by sending the hair itself. Thus when Cairo was -besieged by the Franks in the year of the Flight 564 (A.D. 1168), -El-´Ádid, the last Fátimee Khaleefeh, sent letters to Noor-ed-Deen -Mahmood, Sultán of Syria, imploring succour, and with them sent -his women's hair to show their subjection and his own. (Ibn -Esh-Shihneh). [So too El-Makreezee, with a slight variation. It was -in this siege that the old town now called erroneously Misr -el-´ateekah was burnt by order of the Wezeer Sháwir, the -conflagration lasting fifty-four days. (Khitat, account of the -ruin of El-Fustát and reign of El-´Ádid.) E. S. P.] - -[245] An engraving of a crown of this description, and another of one of -a more common kind, may be seen in my work on the Modern Egyptians, -Appendix A. - -[246] Kitáb el-´Onwán. - -[247] El-Imám El-Jara´ee, in his book entitled "Shir´at el-Islám." - -[248] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 2. - -[249] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 79. - -[250] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 1. - -[251] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 1. - -[252] By way of exception, however, on the woman's side, my sheykh -[Mohammad ´Eiyád Et-Tantáwee] writes:--"Many persons reckon -marrying a second time among the greatest of disgraceful actions. -This opinion is most common in the country-towns and villages; and -the relations of my mother are thus characterized, so that a woman -of them, when her husband dieth while she is young, or divorceth -her while she is young, passeth her life, however long it may be, -in widowhood, and never marrieth a second time." - -[253] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 1. - -[254] Mir-át ez-Zemán, events of the year above mentioned. - -[255] Idem, Proverbs of the Arabs; and my Lexicon, _voce_ "khataba." - -[256] The izár, or eezár (for the word is written in two different -ways), is a piece of drapery commonly worn by Arab women when they -appear in public. It is about two yards or more in width (according to -the height of the wearer), and three yards in length; one edge of it -being drawn from behind, over the upper part of the head and forehead, -and secured by a band sewed inside, the rest hangs down behind and on -each side to the ground, or nearly so, and almost entirely envelops the -person; the two ends being held so as nearly to meet in front. Thus it -conceals every other part of the dress excepting a small portion of a -very loose gown (which is another of the articles of walking or riding -apparel), and the face-veil. It is now generally made of white calico, -but a similar covering of black silk for the married, and of white silk -for the unmarried, is now worn by women of the higher and middle -classes, called a habarah. - -It appears that the kind of face-veil, called in Arabic kináa is a -piece of muslin, about a yard or more in length, and somewhat less in -width, a portion of which is placed over the head, beneath the izár, the -rest hanging down in front, to the waist, or thereabout, and entirely -concealing the face. I have often seen Arab women, particularly those of -the Wahhábees, wearing veils of this kind composed of printed muslin, -completely concealing their features, yet of sufficiently loose fabric -to admit of their seeing their way. But the more common kind of Arab -face-veil is a long strip of white muslin, or of a kind of black crape, -covering the whole of the face excepting the eyes, and reaching nearly -to the feet. It is suspended at the top by a narrow band, which passes -up the forehead, and which is sewed, as are also the two upper corners -of the veil, to a band that is tied round the head. This veil is called -burko´. The black kind is often ornamented with gold coins, false -pearls, etc., attached to the upper part. It is not so genteel as the -white veil, unless for a lady in mourning. - -[257] Chap. iv. 26, 27. - -[258] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 4. - -[259] Idem, section 6. - -[260] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, i. 229. - -[261] Idem, i. 223. - -[262] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 78. - -[263] Idem, ii. 79. - -[264] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 4. - -[265] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 8. - -[266] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 8. - -[267] Ibid.; and Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 105. - -[268] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 104. - -[269] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, loco laudato; and Mishkát el-Masábeeh, -ii. 89. - -[270] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, 1.1.; Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 89. - -[271] Account of the Emeer Mohammad Agha El-Bároodee, obituary, year -1205. - -[272] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 8. - -[273] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 7. - -[274] Modern Egyptians, ch. vi. - -[275] "The Protestants of Hungary admit the plea of 'irrevocabile -odium.'"--Urquhart's Spirit of the East, ii. 416. - -[276] A religious lady once asked me if I so conformed with the manners -of the Easterns as to eat in their "beastly manner." I replied, "Do not -call it a 'beastly manner:' call it the manner of our Lord and his -Apostles." But some excuse may be made in this case. I was determined, -when I first went to the East, never to conform to the practice of -eating with the fingers when I could avoid it; however, after I had -first seen the manner of doing this, I immediately adopted the custom, -and continued it. - -[277] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 81. - -[278] Selections from the Kur-án, 1st. ed., p. 59. - -[279] Urquhart's Spirit of the East, ii. 415-416. See the two chapters -on "the life of the Harem" and "State of Women," which I think the most -valuable portion of the book. - -[280] Modern Egyptians, ch. vi. - -[281] A fellow-wife is called, in Arabic, "darrah," a word derived -from "darar," which signifies "injury," because fellow-wives usually -experience injurious treatment, one from another. The word "darrah," -in vulgar or colloquial Arabic (by substituting a soft for an emphatic -_d_, and _u_ for _a_), is pronounced "durrah," which properly signifies -"a parrot." "The life of a fellow-wife is bitter" ("´eeshet -ed-durrah murrah") is a common proverb. [Et-Tantáwee.] - -[282] This is the usual way of informing a person that another is dead. -Many say in the same case, "Mayest thou live!" and then being asked, -"Who is dead?" mention the name. - -[283] El-Jabartee's History, vol. i., obituary of the year 1188. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -SLAVERY. - - -A slave, among Muslims, is either a person taken captive in war, or -carried off by force, and being at the time of capture an infidel; or -the offspring of a female slave by another slave or by any man who is -not her owner, or by her owner if he does not acknowledge himself to be -the father: but the offspring of a male slave by a free woman is free. A -person who embraces the Mohammadan faith after having been made a slave -does not by this act become free, unless he flies from a foreign infidel -master to a Muslim country and there becomes a Mohammadan. A person -cannot have as a slave one whom he acknowledges to be within the -prohibited degrees of marriage. The slaves of the Arabs are mostly from -Abyssinia and the Negro countries: a few, in the houses of very wealthy -individuals, are from Georgia and Circassia. - -Slaves have no civil liberty, but are entirely under the authority of -their owners, whatever may be the religion, sex, or age, of the latter; -and can possess no property, unless by the owner's permission. The -owner is entire master, while he pleases, of the person and goods of his -slave, and of the offspring of his female slave, which, if his, or -presumed to be his, he may recognize as his own legitimate child, or -not: the child, if recognized by him, enjoys the same privileges as the -offspring of a free wife; and if not recognized by him, is his slave. -The master may even kill his own slave with impunity for any offence; -and he incurs but a slight punishment (as imprisonment for a period at -the discretion of the judge) if he kills him wantonly. He may give away -or sell his slaves, excepting in some cases which will be mentioned; and -may marry them to whom he will, but not separate them when married. A -slave, however, according to most of the doctors, cannot have more than -two wives at the same time. - -Unemancipated slaves, at the death of their master, become the property -of his heirs; and when an emancipated slave dies, leaving no male -descendants or collateral relations, the master is the heir; or, if the -master be dead, his heirs inherit the slave's property. As a slave -enjoys less advantages than a free person, the law in some cases ordains -that his punishment for an offence shall be half of that to which the -free is liable for the same offence, or even less than half: if it be a -fine or pecuniary compensation, it must be paid by the owner to the -amount, if necessary, of the value of the slave, or the slave must be -given in compensation. - -When a man, from being the husband, becomes the master, of a slave, the -marriage is dissolved, and he cannot continue to live with her but as -her master, enjoying, however, all a master's privileges, unless he -emancipates her, in which case he may again take her as his wife with -her consent. In like manner, when a woman, from being the wife, becomes -the possessor, of a slave, the marriage is dissolved, and cannot be -renewed unless she emancipates him, and he consents to the re-union. - -Complete and immediate emancipation is sometimes granted to a slave -gratuitously, or for a future pecuniary compensation. It is conferred by -means of a written document, or by a verbal declaration (expressed in -the words, "Thou art free," or some similar phrase) in the presence of -two witnesses, or by returning the certificate of sale obtained from the -former owner. Future emancipation is sometimes covenanted to be granted -on the fulfilment of certain conditions, and more frequently to be -conferred on the occasion of the owner's death. In the latter case the -owner cannot sell the slave to whom he has made this promise: and, as he -cannot alienate by will more than one-third of the whole property that -he leaves, the law ordains that if the value of the said slave exceeds -that portion, the slave must obtain and pay the additional sum. When a -female slave has borne a child to her master, and he acknowledges the -child to be his own, he cannot sell this slave, and she becomes free on -his death. - -Abyssinian and white female slaves are kept by many men of the middle -and higher classes, and often instead of wives, as requiring less -expense and being more subservient; but they are generally indulged with -the same luxuries as free ladies, their vanity is gratified by costly -dresses and ornaments, and they rank high above free servants; as do -also the male slaves. Those called Abyssinians appear to be a mixed race -between negroes and whites, and are from the territories of the Gallas. -They are mostly kidnapped and sold by their own countrymen. The negro -female slaves, as few of them have considerable personal attractions -(which is not the case with the Abyssinians, many of whom are very -beautiful), are usually employed only in cooking and other menial -offices. The female slaves of the higher classes are often instructed in -plain needlework and embroidery, and sometimes in music and dancing. -Formerly many of them possessed sufficient literary accomplishments to -quote largely from esteemed poems, or even to compose extemporary -verses, which they would often accompany with the lute. - -Slaves of either sex are generally treated with kindness; but at first -they are usually importuned, and not unfrequently used with much -harshness, to induce them to embrace the Mohammadan faith; which almost -all of them do. Their services are commonly light: the usual office of -the male white slave, who is called "memlook," is that of a page or a -military guard. Eunuchs are employed as guardians of the women, but only -in the houses of men of high rank or great wealth. On account of the -important and confidential office which they fill, they are generally -treated in public with especial consideration. I used to remark, in -Cairo, that few persons saluted me with a more dignified and -consequential air than these pitiable but self-conceited beings. Most of -them are Abyssinians or Negroes. Indeed, the slaves in general take too -much advantage of the countenance of their masters, especially when they -belong to men in power. The master is bound to afford his slaves proper -food and clothing, or to let them work for their own support, or to -sell, give away, or liberate them. It is, however, considered -disgraceful for him to sell a slave who has been long in his possession; -and it seldom happens that a master emancipates a female slave without -marrying her to some man able to support her, or otherwise providing for -her. - -The Prophet strongly enjoined the duty of kindness to slaves. "Feed your -memlooks," said he, "with food of that which ye eat, and clothe them -with such clothing as ye wear; and command them not to do that for which -they are unable."[284] These precepts are generally attended to, either -entirely or in a great degree. Some other sayings of the Prophet on this -subject well deserve to be mentioned--as the following:--"He who beats -his slave without fault, or slaps him on the face, his atonement for -this is freeing him."--"A man who behaves ill to his slave will not -enter into Paradise."--"Whoever is the cause of separation between -mother and child, by selling or giving, God will separate him from his -friends on the day of resurrection."--"When a slave wishes well to his -master, and worships God well, for him are double rewards."[285] - -It is related of ´Othmán, "that he twisted the ear of a memlook -belonging to him, on account of disobedience, and afterwards, repenting -of it, ordered him to twist _his_ ear in like manner: but he would not. -´Othmán urged him, and the memlook advanced, and began to wring it by -little and little. He said to him, 'Wring it hard; for I cannot endure -the punishment of the day of judgment [on account of this act].' The -memlook answered, 'O my master, the day that thou fearest, I also -fear.'"--"It is related also of Zeyn el-´Ábideen, that he had a memlook -who seized a sheep, and broke its leg; and he said to him, 'Why didst -thou this?' He answered, 'To provoke thee to anger.' 'And I,' said he, -'will provoke to anger him who taught thee; and he is Iblees: go, and be -free, for the sake of God.'"[286]--Many similar anecdotes might be -added; but the general assertions of travellers in the East are more -satisfactory evidence in favour of the humane conduct of most Muslims to -their slaves. - -It sometimes happens, though rarely, that free girls are sold as -slaves.[287] A remarkable instance is related in the Mir-át -ez-Zemán.[288]--Fátimeh, surnamed Ghareeb, a slave of the Khaleefeh -El-Moatasim, the son of Hároon, was a poetess, accomplished in -singing and calligraphy, and extremely beautiful. Her mother was an -orphan; and Jaafar, the famous Wezeer of Hároon Er-Rasheed, took her -as his wife; but his father, Yahyà, reproached him for marrying a -woman whose father and mother were unknown, and he therefore removed her -from his own residence to a neighbouring house, where he frequently -visited her; and she bore him a daughter, the above-mentioned Ghareeb, -and died. Jaafar committed her infant to the care of a Christian -woman to nurse; and, on the overthrow of his family, this woman sold her -young charge as a slave. El-Emeen, the successor of Er-Rasheed, bought -her of a man named Sumbul, but never paid her price; and when he was -killed, she returned to her former master; but on the arrival of -El-Ma-moon at Baghdád, she was described to him, and he compelled Sumbul -to sell her to him. This Sumbul loved her so passionately that he died -of grief at her loss. On the death of El-Ma-moon, his successor, -El-Moatasim, bought her for a hundred thousand dirhems, and -emancipated her. The historian adds that she composed several well-known -airs and verses. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[284] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, section 9. - -[285] Mishkát el-Masábeeh, ii. 140, 141 - -[286] Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil, 1.1. - -[287] See Modern Egyptians, ch. vi. - -[288] Events of the year 227. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -CEREMONIES OF DEATH. - - -The ceremonies attendant upon death and burial are nearly the same in -the cases of men and women. The face or the head of the dying person is -turned towards the direction of Mekkeh. When the spirit is departing, -the eyes are closed; and then, or immediately after, the women of the -house commence a loud lamentation, in which many of the females of the -neighbourhood generally come to join. Hired female mourners are also -usually employed, each of whom accompanies her exclamations of "Alas for -him!" etc. by beating a tambourine. If possible, the corpse is buried on -the day of the death;[289] but when this cannot be done, the lamentation -of the women is continued during the ensuing night; and a recitation of -several chapters, or of the whole, of the Kur-án is performed by one -or more men hired for the purpose. - -The washing consists, first, in the performance of the ordinary ablution -that is preparatory to prayer, with the exception of the cleansing of -the mouth and nose, and secondly, in an ablution of the whole body with -warm water and soap, or with water in which some leaves of the lote-tree -have been boiled. The jaw is bound up, the eyes are closed, and the -nostrils, etc., are stuffed with cotton; and the corpse is sprinkled -with a mixture of water, pounded camphor, dried and pounded leaves of -the lote-tree, and sometimes other dried and pulverized leaves, and with -rose-water. The ankles are bound together;[290] and the hands placed -upon the breast. - -The grave-clothing of a poor man consists of a piece or two of cotton, -or a kind of bag; but the corpse of a man of wealth is generally wrapped -first in muslin, then in cotton cloth of a thicker texture, next in a -piece of striped stuff of silk and cotton intermixed, or in a -kaftán (a long vest) of similar stuff merely stitched together, -and over these is wrapped a Kashmeer shawl.[291] The colours most -approved for the grave-clothes are white and green. The body thus -shrouded is placed in a bier, which is usually covered with a Kashmeer -shawl, and borne on the shoulders of three or four men, generally -friends of the deceased. - -There are some slight differences in the funeral ceremonies observed in -different Arab countries; but a sufficient notion of them will be -conveyed by briefly describing those which prevail in Cairo. The -procession to the tomb is generally headed by a number of poor men, -mostly blind, who, walking two and two, or three and three together, -chant, in a melancholy tone, the profession (or two professions) of the -faith, "There is no deity but God" and "Mohammad is God's apostle," -or sometimes other words. They are usually followed by some male -relations and friends of the deceased; and these, by a group of -schoolboys, chanting in a higher tone, and one of them bearing a copy of -the Kur-án, or of one of its thirty sections, placed upon a kind of -desk formed of palm-sticks, and covered with an embroidered kerchief. -Then follows the bier, borne head-foremost. Friends of the deceased -relieve one another in the office of carrying it; and casual passengers -often take part in this service, which is esteemed highly meritorious. -Behind the bier walk the female mourners, composing a numerous group, -often more than a dozen; or, if of a wealthy family, they ride. Each of -those who belong to the family of the deceased has a strip of cotton -stuff or muslin, generally blue, bound round her head, over the -head-veil, and carries a handkerchief, usually dyed blue (the colour of -mourning), which she sometimes holds over her shoulders, and at other -times twirls with both hands over her head or before her face, while she -cries and shrieks almost incessantly; and the hired female mourners, -accompanying the group, often celebrate the praises of the deceased, -though this was forbidden by the Prophet. The funeral procession of a -man of wealth is sometimes preceded by several camels, bearing bread and -water to give to the poor at the tomb; and closed by the led horses of -some of the attendants, and by a buffalo or other animal to be -sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is distributed to the poor, to -atone for some of the minor sins of the deceased.[292] - -The bier used for conveying the corpse of a boy or a female has a cover -of wood, over which a shawl is spread; and at the head is an upright -piece of wood: upon the upper part of this, in the case of a boy, is -fixed a turban, with several ornaments of female head-dress; and in the -case of a female, it is similarly decked, but without the turban. - -A short prayer is recited over the dead, either in a mosque or in a -place particularly dedicated to this service in or adjacent to the -burial-ground. The body is then conveyed, in the same manner as before, -to the tomb. This is a hollow, oblong vault, one side of which faces the -direction of Mekkeh, generally large enough to contain four or more -bodies, and having an oblong monument of stone or brick constructed over -it, with a stela at the head and foot. Upon the former of these two -stelae (which is often inscribed with a text from the Kur-án, and the -name of the deceased, with the date of his death), a turban, cap, or -other head-dress, is sometimes carved, showing the rank or class of the -person or persons buried beneath; and in many cases, a cupola supported -by four walls, or by columns, is constructed over the smaller monument. -The body is laid on its right side, or inclined by means of a few crude -bricks, so that the face is turned towards Mekkeh; and a person is -generally employed to dictate to the deceased the answers which he -should give when he is examined by the two angels Munkar and Nekeer. If -the funeral be that of a person of rank or wealth, the bread and water -before mentioned are then distributed to the poor.[293] - -Towards the eve of the first Friday after the funeral, and often early -in the morning of the Thursday, the women of the family of the deceased -repeat their wailing in the house accompanied by some of their female -friends: male friends of the deceased also visit the house shortly -before or after sunset; and three or four persons are hired to perform a -recitation of the whole of the Kur-án. On the following morning, some -or all of the members of the deceased's family, but chiefly the women, -visit the tomb; they or their servants carrying palm-branches, and -sometimes sweet basil, to lay upon it, and often the visitors take with -them some kind of food, as bread, pancakes, sweet cakes of different -kinds, or dates, to distribute to the poor on this occasion. They recite -portions of the Kur-án or employ people to recite it, as has been -already mentioned.[294] These ceremonies are repeated on the same days -of the next two weeks; and again on the eve and morning of the Friday -which completes, or next follows, the first period of forty days after -the funeral; whence this Friday is called El-Arba´een, or Jum´at -el-Arba´een. - -It is believed that the soul remains with the body until the expiration -of the first night after the burial, when it departs to the place -appointed for the abode of good souls until the last day, or to the -appointed prisons in which wicked souls await their final doom; but with -respect to the state of souls in the interval between death and -judgment, there are various opinions which Sale thus states.[295] As to -the souls of the good, he says, "1. Some say they stay near the -sepulchres; with liberty, however, of going wherever they please; which -they confirm from Mohammad's manner of saluting them at their graves, -and his affirming that the dead heard those salutations as well as the -living, though they could not answer. Whence perhaps proceeded the -custom of visiting the tombs of relations, so common among the -Mohammadans. 2. Others imagine they are with Adam, in the lowest heaven; -and also support their opinion by the authority of their prophet, who -gave out that in his return from the upper heavens in his pretended -night-journey, he saw there the souls of those who were destined to -paradise on the right hand of Adam, and those who were condemned to hell -on his left. 3. Others fancy the souls of believers remain in the well -Zemzem, and those of infidels in a certain well in the province of -Hadramót, called Barahoot:[296] but this opinion is branded as -heretical [?]. 4. Others say they stay near the graves for seven days; -but that whither they go afterwards is uncertain. 5. Others that they -are all in the trumpet, whose sound is to raise the dead. And 6. Others -that the souls of the good dwell in the forms of white birds, under the -throne of God. As to the condition of the souls of the wicked, the more -orthodox held that they are offered by the angels to heaven, from whence -being repulsed as stinking and filthy, they are offered to the earth; -and, being also refused a place there, are carried down to the seventh -earth, and thrown into a dungeon, which they call Sijjeen, under a green -rock, or according to a tradition of Mohammad, under the devil's jaw, -to be there tormented till they are called up to be joined again to -their bodies." But the souls of prophets are believed to be admitted -immediately into paradise, and those of martyrs are said to rest in the -crops of green birds which eat of the fruits of paradise and drink of -its rivers.[297] - -Of the opinions above mentioned, with respect to the souls of the -faithful, I believe the first to be that which is most prevalent. It is -generally said that these souls visit their respective graves every -Friday; and according to some they return to their bodies on Friday, -after the period of the afternoon prayers, and on Saturday and Monday; -or on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday; and remain until sunrise.[298]--I -believe also, from having heard frequent allusions made to it as a thing -not to be doubted, that the opinion respecting the Well of Barahoot -commonly prevails in the present day. El-Kazweenee says of it, "It is -a well _near_ Hadramót; and the Prophet (God bless and save him!) -said, 'In it are the souls of the infidels and hypocrites.' It is an -´Adite well [_i.e._ ancient, as though made by the old tribe of ´Ad], in -a dry desert, and a gloomy valley; and it is related of ´Alee (may God -be well pleased with him!), that he said, 'The most hateful of districts -unto God (whose name be exalted!) is the Valley of Barahoot, in which is -a well whose water is black and fetid, where the souls of the infidels -make their abode.' El-Asma'ee hath related of a man of Hadramót that -he said, 'We find near Barahoot an extremely disgusting and fetid smell, -and then news is brought to us of the death of a great man of the chiefs -of the infidels.' It is related, also, that a man who passed a night in -the Valley of Barahoot, said, 'I heard all the night [exclamations] of O -Roomeh! O Roomeh! and I mentioned this to a learned man, and he told me -that it was the name of the angel commissioned to keep guard over the -souls of the infidels.'"[299] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[289] "When any one of you dies," said the Prophet, "you must not keep -him in the house; but carry him quickly to his grave:" and again he -said, "Be quick in lifting up a bier; for if the deceased be a good man, -it is good to take him up quickly, and carry him to his grave, to cause -the good to arrive at happiness; and if the deceased be a bad man, it is -a wickedness which ye put from your neck." (Mishkát el-Masábeeh, -i. 374, 387.) - -[290] Two customs, namely, tying the toes of the corpse, and placing a -knife, or rather a sword, upon the body, are still common in some Muslim -countries; but I did not hear of their being observed in Egypt, nor the -custom of putting salt with the knife or sword. Iron and salt are both -believed to repel genii, and to prevent their approach, and hence, -perhaps, are thus used. - -[291] It is a common custom for a Muslim, on a military expedition, or -during a long journey, especially in the desert, to carry his -grave-linen with him; for he is extremely careful that he may be buried -according to the law. - -[292] More than one is unusual; but at the funeral of Mohammad ´Alee, -which I witnessed in Cairo, about eighty buffaloes were thus driven in -the procession.--E. S. P. - -[293] See further Modern Egyptians, ch. xxviii. - -[294] See above, 23 and 24. - -[295] Preliminary Discourse, section iv. - -[296] So in the Kámoos, and in my MS. of the ´Ajáïb el-Makhlookát -of El-Kazweenee; but by Sale written "Borhût." - -[297] The Mohammadan law distinguishes several different descriptions of -martyrs. This honourable title is given to the soldier who dies in -fighting for the faith, or on his way to do so, or who dies almost -immediately after his having been wounded when so engaged; to a person -who innocently meets with his death from the hand of another; to a -victim of the plague, who does not flee from the disease, or of -dysentery; to a person who is drowned, and to one who is killed by the -falling of a wall or any building. - -[298] Murshid ez-Zoowár ilà Kuboor, el-Abrár (the Director of the -Visitors to the Tombs of the Just) by ´Abd-er-Rahmán El-Khazrejee -El-Ansáree: MS. in my possession. - -[299] ´Ajáïb el-Makhlookát. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Aashà, El- (poet), 155 - - Aawar, El- (son of Satan), 33 - - ´Abd-El-Kádir El-Jeelánee (saint), 50, _n._ - - ´Abd-El-Melik (Khaleefeh, A.D. 685-705), 113, 114, 156, 168 - - Abel, 92 - - Ablutions, 11 - - ---- before meals, 136 - - Abodes of the Jinn (Genii), 37, 104 - - Aboo-Bekr Et-Toosee (theologian), 73 - - Aboo-Murrah (surname of Satan), 31 - - Aboo-Zeyd, romance of, 127 - - Abraham, 2, 93 - - Abstinence, 14 - - Abu-l-´Atáhiyeh (poet), 114, 115 - - Abu-l-Ghimr (surname of Satan), 31 - - Abu-l-Kásim El-Jeelánee, 55 - - Abyssinian slaves, 250, 253, 254 - - Accomplishments, 205, 239 - - ´Ad, ancient tribe of, 105, 265 - - Adam, 2 - - Adán (call to prayer), 11, 186 - - Adhriyoon (anemone), 166, _n._ - - ´Adid, El-, (Fátimee Khaleefeh, A.D. 1160-1171), 216, _n._ - - Adultery, 17 - - Agathodaemon, 39 - - Ahmad El-Bedawee (saint), 50, _n._, 62, 63, 72 - - Ahmad Rifá´ah (saint), 50, _n._ - - Ahmedeeyeh darweeshes, 50, _n._ - - ´Aïsheh (wife of Mohammad), 34, 239 - - ´Ajameeyeh (a sweet paste), 23 - - ´Ajweh (pressed dates), 160 - - ´Akeekah (victim), 191 - - Alchymy, 94 - - ´Alee, 266 - - ´Alee's wives, 222 - - ´Alee El-Bekree (saint), 65-69 - - ´Alee ibn-El-Ma-moon, 53 - - ´Alee El-Leythee (saint), 60-63 - - ´Alkamah, 45 - - Alláh (God), 133 - - Alláhu Akbar! (God is Great!), 37 - - Almond, 161, 167 - - Almsgiving, 14, 23 - - Aloes-wood, 157 - - Ambassadors of Constantine VII., 121 - - Ambergris, 157 - - Ammooneh (female saint), 65-67 - - Amphora, 158 - - Amputation for theft, 17, 20, 21 - - Amulets, 85 - - Analysis of Arabian beauty, 215 - - Anemone, 166 - - Angel of Death, 90 - - Angel who bears the earth, 106 - - Angels, 2, 25, 26 - - ----, fallen, 82 - - ´Annáb (jujube), 161, _n._ - - ´Antarah, romance of, 127 - - Antechamber of bath, 180 - - Antelope hunting, 183-185 - - Apartments, 145 - - Apostasy, 18 - - Apostles, 2 - - Apostolic angels, 26 - - Apple, 161 - - Apricot, 161 - - Arabs, early, 109-112 - - ´Arafát, Mount, 14, 21, 39 - - Arba´een, El- (fortieth day after funeral), 263 - - Archangels, 26 - - Arms, 183 - - ´Arsh Er-Rahmán (Throne of the Compassionate), 99 - - ´Arsh Iblees, 102 - - Ás (myrtle), 165 - - Asaf (Wezeer of Solomon), 40, 81 - - Ascension of Mohammad into Heaven, 164 - - Asceticism, 53, 55-59 - - Asháb ed-Darak (overseers), 48 - - ´Askalán, 141 - - Asma´ee, El- (poet), 114, 124-126 - - ´Asr (afternoon prayer), 11 - - Ass of Umm ´Amr, 213 - - ----, wild, hunting the, 185 - - Astrology, 84, _n._, 86, 237 - - Atlantic Ocean, 102 - - Auguration, 86, 87 - - Author made a darweesh, 62 - - ´Azázeel (the youthful Satan), 30, 31 - - Azhar (the university mosque in Cairo), 50 - - ´Azraeel (Angel of Death), 26, 33, 90 - - - Bábil (Babel), 82 - - Baghdád, literary period at, 112, 114 - - Bahamoot (the fish that bears the earth), 107 - - Bahár (buphthalmum), 167, _n._ - - Bahr el-Moheet, El- (Circumambient Ocean), 100, 102 - - Bahr el-Muzlim, El- (Atlantic Ocean), 102 - - Bahr ez-Zulumát, or ez-Zulmeh (Sea of Darkness, - _i.e._ Atlantic Ocean), 102 - - Bakhteree, El- (poet), 118 - - Bákillà (beanflower), 167, _n._ - - Bán (willow), 167, _n._ - - Banana, 161 - - Banquets, public, 139-141 - - Baráhimeh darweeshes, 50, _n._ - - Barahoot, well of, 264, 266 - - Bárih (inauguration), 87 - - Barkook (plum), 161, _n._ - - Barmekees (Barmecides), 115 - - Basil, sweet, 24, 167 - - Basket-making saint, 52 - - Basrah, owl of El-, 114 - - Bath, 179-183 - - ---- spirits, 37, 38 - - Bátiyeh (jar), 158 - - Battah (leather bottle), 158 - - Batteekh (water-melon), 160 - - Battues, 184 - - Bat-winged Jinn, 46 - - Beanflower, 167 - - Beasts, language of, 133 - - Beauty, Arab ideal of, 213-216 - - Bedawee, El-, 50, _n._ - - ----, poetic, 116 - - ----, love of the, 211-213 - - Beer, 149 - - Behaviour, 198, 199 - - Behemoth, 107 - - Bekree, El- (saint), 65-69 - - Belah (date), 159 - - Benefsej (violet), 165 - - Beshneen (lotus), 167, _n._ - - Betrothal, 230, 231 - - Betrother, professional, 225 - - Beverages, 142 - - Beyt-owwal (antechamber), 180 - - Biers, 258, _n._ - - Birds, language of, 133 - - Birth, ceremonies attending, 186-192 - - Bisected Jinn, 45 - - Bitteekh (water-melon), 160 - - Blacks, country of the, 102 - - Blood, 15 - - Blood-revenge, 19 - - Blood-wit, 18, 35 - - Books, destruction of, 54 - - Boots, 169, _n._ - - Boozeh (beer), 149 - - Bottles, leather and glass, 158 - - Bout of wine, 159 - - Bow, 183 - - Brandy, 154, 157 - - Bread and salt, 144 - - Breeding, good, 198, 199 - - Bridal ceremonies, 232-238 - - Bridegroom's ceremonies, 236, 237 - - Buffalo sacrificed at funerals, 261 - - Bull who bears the earth, 106 - - Bunduk (hazel-nut), 161, _n._ - - Buphthalmum, 167 - - Burák, El- (the miraculous beast), 164 - - Burckhardt, criticism of, 208, _n._ - - Burial, 258-262 - - Burko´ (face-veil), 225, _n._ - - Burning the dead, 117 - - Burtukán (orange), 161 _n._ - - Butchering, 15 - - - Cain, 92 - - Cakes, 23 - - Call to prayer, 11, 12 - - Camel's flesh, 15 - - Camp, rules of hospitality, 143 - - Cannibal Jinn, 41-44 - - Carouse, 159 - - Carpet, 146 - - Carving, 147 - - Cask, 158 - - Ceiling, 147 - - Censer, 157 - - Centre of earth, 101 - - Ceremonies attending death, 258, ff. - - Chamomile, 167 - - Chant of Muëddin, 11, 12 - - ---- of the Zikr, 75, 76 - - Character, national, 205 - - Charity, 14, 15, 54 - - Charms, 6, 8, 82, 193 - - Childhood and education, 186-206 - - China, 44, 46, 102 - - Chiromancy, 87 - - Chrysolite, green, 104 - - Circassian slaves, 249 - - Circumcision, 15, 192, 200 - - Cities, immorality of European, 243 - - Citron, 161 - - Civet, 157 - - Civil laws, 16, 17 - - Clean and unclean food, 141 - - Clogs, 180 - - Clothes, 16 - - Cock, cry of, 133 - - Code of Islám, 1 - - Coffee, 150 - - Coffee-seller, 235 - - Coffee, white (brandy), 154 - - Coiffure, 216-218 - - Concubines, 17, 119, 124, 209, 222, 227, 247, 250-257 - - Congress, literary, 109 - - Coral, 218 - - Corpse, treatment of, 258, 259 - - Correspondence of Muslims, 127 - - Corrupt dialect, 113 - - Cosmography, 97-108 - - Couch, 139 - - Cousins' marriages, 227 - - Creation of Jinn, 26-29 - - Creed, 1-10 - - Cremation, 117 - - Cressets, 236 - - Crier, 11 - - Cries of birds, 133, 134 - - Criminal law, 17-21 - - Crocus, 167 - - Crops of birds, 265 - - Crossbow, 183 - - Crowns, women's, 218 - - Cruciform hall, 147 - - Culture, Muslim, 202 - - Cup, 158, 159 - - Cupboards, 147 - - Cup companion, 172 - - Cushions, 146 - - - Da´eefeh (a slave-girl), 210 - - Dahlán (species of Jinn), 44 - - Daïs, 145 - - Damascus, 118, 119 - - Dancers, 201, 235 - - Daniel, 86, _n._ - - Darabukkeh (drum), 205 - - Dár el-Jelál (Mansion of Glory, first stage of Paradise), 90 - - Dár es-Selám (Mansion of Peace, second stage of Paradise), 99 - - Darb el-Mendel (mode of divination), 85, 94 - - Darb er-Raml (geomancy), 86, _n._ - - Dar-gáh, 145 - - Dark regions, 103 - - Darkness beneath the earth, 107 - - Darkness, Sea of, 102 - - Darrah (co-wife), 245, _n._ - - Darweeshes (Dervishes), 47, 48, 50, _n._ - - Darweesh performance (zikr), 73-77 - - Dásim (son of Satan), 33 - - Dásookee, Ed-, 50, _n._ - - Date, 159 - - Date-wine, 148, 149 - - Day of Judgment, 108 - - Days, lucky and unlucky, 92 - - Dead, examination of, 262 - - Death, Angel of, 90 - - ----, ceremonies of, 258-266 - - Debts, 17 - - Deenár (gold coin), 14, etc. - - Deev (spirit), 27 - - Deewán (divan), 146 - - Degrees, prohibited, 226 - - Delhán (species of Jinn), 44 - - Delláleh (female broker), 239 - - Demonology, 25-46 - - Denn (earthen vessel), 158 - - Dervishes, 47, 48, 50, _n._ - - Destiny, 3-10 - - Destoor yá mubárakeen! (Permission, ye blessed!), 37 - - Devils, 2, 25, ff. - - Dhu-l-Hijjeh (last month of the Muslim year), 15, 21 - - Dhu-l-Kaadeh (eleventh month), 110 - - Dhu-l-Karneyn, 103 - - Diabolic magic, 82-93 - - Dialect, corrupt, 113 - - Dilk (a loose coat), 63 - - Dinners, public, 139-141 - - Dirhem (silver coin), 14, etc. - - ---- (a governor of Sijistán), 144 - - Diseases, 7, 10 - - Dishes, 137 ff., 159 - - Divan, 146 - - Divination, 82, 84, 85 - - Divine magic, 81, 82 - - Diving Jinn, 44 - - Divorce, 17, 222, 240-248 - - Dogmas of Islám, 1-10 - - Doors, 147 - - Dórak (water-bottle), 188 - - Dove, cry of, 133 - - Dowry of a bride, 229, 230 - - Dreams, 88-92 - - Dress at wine-parties, 157 - - Dresses of honour, 116-118 - - Drinking, 150 - - ---- moderate, 154 - - Drinks, 142 - - Drives in hunting, 184 - - Drum, 205 - - Drunkenness, 18 - - Duck, hawking, 183 - - Dukhool, or dukhleh (visit), 237 - - Dungeon under the Devil's jaw, 265 - - Durká´ah (floor), 145 - - - Earth, 99-104 - - ---- divisions of, 101-104 - - ---- what it stands upon, 105-108 - - Earths, the seven, 97, 105 - - Earthquakes, 105, 107, _n._ - - Eating, manner of, 135-137, 242, _n._ - - Ecstasy, 50, 59, 77 - - Education, 186-206 - - ´Eed (festival), 21 - - Eewán, El- (daïs), 145 - - Eezár (veil), 225, _n._ - - ´Efreets (species of Jinn), 27 ff. - - Eglantine, 167 - - Eiyoob (Job), 93 - - Elias, 49, 103 - - Emancipation, 250-253 - - Emblematic conversation, 129-133 - - Embroidery, 205, 239 - - Emeen, El- (Khaleefeh, A.D. 809-813), 256 - - Enchantment, 82, 83 - - ´Eneb (grape), 161, _n._ - - Enoch, 86, _n._ - - Epistles, Mohammadan, 127 - - ´Erk-soos (licorice), 149 - - ´Eshè (nightfall prayer), 11 - - Establishment of Khaleefeh, 121 - - Etiquette, 16 - - ---- in correspondence, 128 - - Eunuchs, 254 - - Ewers, 158 - - Excitement, religious, 77 - - ´Eyáfeh, El- (auguration), 86 - - Eye, evil, 84, 188, 193-195 - - Eyes, blue, 214, _n._ - - Ezbekeeyeh (quarter in Cairo), 68 - - - Fadl ibn Yahyà (the Barmekee), 151 - - Fághiyeh (privet), 165, _n._ - - Fair of ´Okádh, 109-111 - - Faith, confession of, 1 - - Fál (omen), 87 - - Family duty, 192 - - Fans, 159 - - Fasting, 14, 21 - - Fate, 3-10 - - Fateerehs (pancakes), 235 - - Father and sons, 194, 195 - - Fátihah, 24, 62, 74, 229, 230 - - Fátimee Khaleefehs, A.D. 909-1171, 139 - - Fátimeh (daughter of Mohammad), 186, 222, 228 - - Feasting and merrymaking, 135-185 - - Feasts, public, 139-141 - - Female education, 204, 205 - - Festivals, 14, 15, 21-24 - - ---- of saints, 71, 72 - - Fig, 161 - - Fig wine, 149 - - Filial respect, 194 - - Fines, 18 - - Fire, smokeless, 27, 28 - - Fire-eating saints, 49 - - Fish that bears the world, 107 - - Flax, 167 - - Flowers, 161-167 - - ---- for graves, 24 - - Fly-whisks, 159 - - Food, 137 - - ---- manner of eating, 242, _n._ - - ---- clean and unclean, 15, 141 - - Forms of the Jinn, 34-36 - - Formulæ of faith, 1 - - Fortune-telling, 85 - - Fountain, 145, 180 - - ---- of Life, 138 - - ---- of Paradise, 239 - - Freethinkers, 28 - - Freewill, 5 - - Friday prayers, 12 - - Fruits, 159 - - Funerals, 260 ff. - - Furniture, 146 - - ----, bridal, 230 - - Fustuk (pistachio-nut), 161, _n._ - - - Gabriel, 26 - - Gait of women, 178, 219 - - Galen, 166 - - Galla slaves, 253 - - Gallantry, affairs of, 220 - - Game, 183-185 - - Gaming, 15 - - Gardens of Rest, of Eternity, of Delight, of Paradise, and of Eden - (or Perpetual Abode), third to seventh stages of Paradise, 99 - - Gazelle hunting, 183-185 - - Genii, 2, 25-46 - - Geography, Arab, 101-104 - - Geomancy, 38, 86, _n._ - - George, St., 103 - - Georgian slaves, 249 - - Ghareeb (a slave poetess), 256 - - Gharrár (species of Jinn), 43, 44 - - Gházool el-azrár (a plant), 130, _n._ - - Ghools, 41-43, 104 - - Ghós, El- (chief saint), 48 - - Ghowwásah, El- (diving Jinn), 44 - - Gilding, 147 - - Gilliflower, 166 - - Glass bottles, jugs, and cups, 158 - - Glass, coloured, 147 - - Gluttony, 141 - - Goat, sacrifice of, 191 - - God, 2 - - Gog and Magog, 101, 102, 104 - - Gold and silver ornaments, 16 - - Goose, wild, hawking, 183 - - Gospels, 3 - - Gourmets, 141 - - Grape, 161 - - Grave, 262 - - ---- clothes, 259 - - ---- stones, 261 - - ---- visiting, 23, 69-71, 263 - - Grouse, hawking, 183 - - Guard, 254 - - Guardian angels, 26 - - ---- genius, 38, 39 - - Guests, 143 - - - Habarah (kind of veil), 225, _n._ - - Habbábeh (Yezeed's slave-girl), 209 - - Hábeel (Abel), 92 - - Habitations of the Jinn, 37 - - Hadeed (iron), 36 - - Hadramót (province), 45, 264, 266 - - Hagiology, 47-79 - - Hair-dressing, 216-218 - - Hair, sign of submission, 216, _n._ - - Hájj (pilgrimage), 14 - - Halkat es-seyd (circle of the chase), 184 - - Hall, 147 - - Ham, 86, _n._ - - Hambelees (Muslim sect), 1 - - Hammád Er-Ráwiyeh (poet), 118-120 - - Hammám (bath), 179-183 - - Hanafee quarter in Cairo, 88 - - Hanafees (sect), 1, 20 - - Haráreh (chief room in bath), 180 - - Hare, 183 - - Hareem (women's apartments), 194 - - ---- employments, 238, 239 - - Hárith, El- (surname of Satan), 31 - - Hároon Er-Rasheed (Khaleefeh, A.D. 786-809), 114-117, 169, 171, - 172, 210, 256 - - Hároot and Mároot, 82, 83 - - Hasan, El- (grandson of Mohammad), 186 - - Hashr (formula of faith), 198 - - Hat, sugarloaf, 169 - - Hawking, 183 - - Hazel-nut, 161 - - Heavens, the seven, 97 - - Heirs, 17 - - Hell, 105, 108 - - Hemp, 149, 150 - - Hennà, 215, 234 - - Heresy, 1 - - Hermes Trismegistus, 86, _n._ - - Heroic age of literature, 109-111 - - Hijár, 160 - - Hind, El- (India), 45, 102 - - Hippocrates, 167 - - Hishám (Khaleefeh, A.D. 724-743), 118-120 - - Hobak (sweet basil), 167, _n._ - - Holiday meetings, 22 - - Homicide, 18 - - Honour, place of, 146 - - Hood, 93 - - Horoscope, 237 - - Hospitality, 143 - - Houses, Arab, 145 - - Hunting, 183-185 - - - Iblees (Satan), 2, 27, 28, 30-33, 38, 105 - - Ibráheem (Abraham), 103 - - Ibráheem Ed-Dásookee, 50, _n._ - - Ibráheem El-Khowwás (saint), 51 - - Ibráheem El-Mósilee (poet), 169-172 - - Ibráheem ibn-El-Mahdee (poet), 176 - - Ibreek (ewer), 119, 158 - - Ibn-´Obeyd El-Bakhteree (poet), 118 - - Idrees, 86, _n._ - - Ijjás (plum), 161, _n._ - - Ikámeh (form of praise), 186, _n._ - - ´Ilm en-Nujoom (astrology), 86 - - ´Ilwee, or high, magic, 81 - - Ilyás (Elias), 49, 103 - - Images, 15 - - Imám (minister), 12 - - Improvisation, 203 - - Incarnations of Jinn, 34-36 - - Incense, 157 - - India, 46, 102 - - Infants, 186-192 - - ---- in Paradise, 196-198 - - Infatuation, 213 - - Infidels, distinguishing marks, 183 - - Inheritance, 17 - - Initiation of a darweesh, 62 - - Ins (mankind), 25 - - Insanity, 60 - - In sháa-lláh (If it be the will of God), 61 - - Inspector of markets, 158, _n._ - - Intemperance, 151-157 - - Intercession of saints, 4 - - Interpretation of dreams, 88 - - Intoxication, 18 - - ----, penalty of, 155 - - Invocations, 38, 39, 81, 82, 84 - - Ishák El-Mósilee (poet), 169, 171, 172 - - Islám, 1-24 - - Ism el-Aazam, El- (the most great name of God), 81 - - Isráfeel (blower of Last Trump), 26 - - Izár (veil), 225, _n._ - - - Jaafar El-Barmekee, 115, 117, 256 - - Jaafar Káshif, 67 - - Jabart, 50 - - Jabartee's mother, El-, 246-248 - - Jábeh (Java), 45 - - Jahennem (Hell), 105, 108 - - Jám (empty cup), 159 - - Jánn (_i.q._ Jinn), 27 ff. - - ---- ibn-Jánn, 29 - - Jar, 158 - - Jasmine, 167 - - Java, 45 - - Jebraeel (Gabriel), 26 - - Jeelánee, El-, 50, _n._ - - Jemmeyz (sycamore-fig), 161, _n._ - - Jennet ´Adn (Garden of Eden, seventh stage of Paradise), 99 - - Jennet el-Firdós (Garden of Paradise, its sixth stage), 99 - - Jennet el-Khuld (Garden of Eternity, fourth stage of Paradise), 99 - - Jennet el-Ma-wà (Garden of Rest, third stage of Paradise), 99 - - Jennet en-Na´eem (Garden of Delight, fifth stage of Paradise), 99 - - Jerusalem, 101 - - ----, Temple of, 40 - - Jesus, 2 - - Jewish and Muslim social systems, 242 - - Jibreel (Gabriel), 26 - - Jinn (Genii), 2, 25-46 - - ---- abode of, 37, 104 - - Jinnee (singular of Jinn), 25 - - Jinneeyeh wife, 36 - - Job, 93 - - Jonas, 92 - - Joseph, 92 - - Józ (walnut), 161, _n._ - - Judgment, 3 - - ---- day, 108 - - Jug, 158 - - Jugglers, 24, 235 - - Jujube, 161 - - Jullanár, or Julnár (pomegranate flower), 167, _n._ - - Jum´at el-Arba´een (the Friday forty days after funeral), 263 - - Jummár (pith of palm), 160 - - Jummeyz (sycamore-fig), 161, _n._ - - - Kaab El-Ahbar, sayings of, 206 - - Kaabeh (temple at Mekkeh), 48 - - Ká´ah (hall or saloon), 147 - - Kábeel (Cain), 92 - - Kadà, El- (fate), 3 - - Kadà el-mohkam, El- (absolute fate), 3, 4 - - Kadà el-mubram, El- (alterable fate), 3, 4 - - Kadah (empty cup), 159 - - Kadar, El-, (destiny), 3 - - Kádee (judge), 67, 151, 229, 230 - - Kádireeyeh darweeshes, 59, _n._ - - Káf, mountains of, 37, 100, 104 - - Káfoor, El-Ikhsheedee, Governor of Egypt, 131 - - Kafráwee, El-, 95 - - Kaftán (long vest), 259 - - Kahk (cake), 23 - - Kahweh (coffee), 151 - - Kahwejee (coffee-seller), 235 - - Kalensuweh (sugarloaf hat), 169 - - Karámeh (saint's miracle), 49 - - Kás (full cup), 159 - - Kasab es-sukkar (sugar-cane), 161, _n._ - - Kaseedah (ode), 76 - - Katà (grouse), 133, 134, 183 - - Kebbád (citron), 161, _n._ - - Keemiyà, El- (alchymy), 94 - - Keerát (1/20th of a deenár), 117 - - Kelimeh (profession of faith), 198 - - Kereem (bountiful), 133 - - Ketmia, 167 - - Kettán (flax), 167, _n._ - - Keys ibn Asim, 156 - - Khaláf (willow), 167, _n._ - - Khaleefehs' magnificence, 119, 121, 122 - - Khaleel, El- (Abraham), 93 - - Khárijeh, 224 - - Khashkhash (poppy), 167, _n._ - - Khateeb (minister), 12 - - Khátibeh (betrother), 224 - - Khátimeh (epilogue), 45, _n._ - - Khatmeh (recitation of the whole Kur-án), 24, 78, 187, 201, 258 - - Khatt (geomancy), 38, _n._ - - Kheeree (gilliflower), 166 - - Khidr, El- (a mythological saint), 49, 62, 63, 103 - - Khiláf (willow), 167, _n._ - - Khitb (I ask), 224 - - Khitmee (Ketmia), 167, _n._ - - Khokh (peach), 161, _n._ - - Khowwás (basket-maker), 52 - - Khuffs (soft inside boots), 169 - - Khutbeh (minister's prayer and exhortation), 13, 22, 229, 230 - - Kiháneh, El- (divination), 81-86 - - Kináa (face veil), 225, _n._ - - Kinneeneh (glass bottle), 158 - - King of flowers, 161-165 - - ----, niggardly, 124-126 - - Kiyáfeh, El- (chiromancy), 87 - - Kohl (collyrium), 214, 234 - - Koobeh (wine-cup), 159, _n._ - - Koofeh El- (city in ´Irák), 118 - - Koran. _See_ Kur-án and index of authors - - Kulleh (sherbet-cup), 159, _n._ - - ---- (water-bottle), 188 - - Kumeyt (red), 151, _n._ - - Kummetrè (pear), 161, _n._ - - Kur-án (Koran), 3. (_See_ index of authors.) - - ---- recitation, 24, 78, 187, 201, 258, 263 - - ----, style of, 111, 112 - - Kurs (crown), 218, _n._ - - Kutb (chief saint), 47 - - Kutb el-Ghóth (chief saint of invocation), 47 - - Kutrub (species of Jinn), 43 - - Kuyootà (the bull who carries the earth), 106 - - - Lá-iláha-illa-lláh! (There is no deity but God!), 58 - - Lamentations, 258 - - Lamp, miraculous, 50 - - Language of birds and beasts, 133, _n._ - - Last day, 108 - - Lattice-work, 147 - - Laws, civil, 16, 17 - - ---- criminal, 17-21 - - ---- moral and ritual, 10-16 - - Lebláb (beanflower), 167, _n._ - - Leewán (daïs), 145 - - Lemon, 161 - - Letters, 109-134 - - Leylà and Mejnoon, 208 - - Leymoon (lime), 161, _n._ - - Leythee, El-, (saint), 60-63 - - Libation at the tomb, 156 - - Licorice beverage, 149 - - Life, fountain of, 103 - - Lily, 167 - - Lime, 161 - - Limitations of polygamy, 241 - - Limits of Arab geography, 101 - - Loot (Lot), 93 - - Lotus, 161, 167 - - Love, true, 207-213 - - Lóz (almond), 161, _n._, 167, _n._ - - Liqueur-glass, 159, _n._ - - Liquors, fermented, 148-159 - - Literature, 109-134 - - Lunatic saints, 60 - - Lute, 168, 170, 174, 178 - - - Mace, 183 - - Mádineh (minaret), 11 - - Madness, 60 - - Magic, 38, 39, 80-96 - - Magician, a famous, 91-96 - - Magnificence of Khaleefehs, 119, 121, 122 - - Magog, 101, 102, 104 - - Mahdee, El- (Khaleefeh, A.D. 775-785), 176 - - Májooj, 101, 102, 104 - - Maksoorah (railed enclosure), 68 - - Málikees (sect), 1 - - Ma-moon, El-, (Khaleefeh, A.D. 813-833), 117, 172-175, 256 - - Manners, 16, 198, 199 - - Mansions of Glory and of Peace, first and second stages of - Paradise, 99 - - Mansoor Effendee, 153, _n._ - - Mantle of prophecy, 50 - - Manufactures, 235, 236 - - Manumission, 252 - - Marble pavement, 145 - - Márids (species of Jinn), 27, ff. - - Máristán (hospital and madhouse in Cairo), 64, 67 - - Market streets, 177 - - Mároot and Hároot, 82, 83 - - Marriage, 16, 203, 204, 207-248 - - ---- contract, 230, 231 - - ---- feasts, 232 - - ---- law, 221 - - ---- short form of, 224 - - ---- with slaves, 252 - - Martyrs, 265, _n._ - - Marwán (Governor of Medeeneh), 211, 212 - - Masks, 111 - - Masyedehs (enclosures for battues), 184 - - Mat, 146 - - Mattress, 146 - - Meals, 135 ff. - - Mearáj (ascension into Heaven), 146 - - Meats, clean and unclean, 15, 141 - - Meded (support), 76 - - Medicines, 6, 8 - - Meekaeel or Meekál (Michael), 26 - - Mejzoob (lunatic), 65, 67 - - Mekkeh, 12, 14, 21, 39, 101, 247 - - Melek (angel), 25 - - Memlooks (male white slaves), 254 - - Menárehs, street of the, 123 - - Menfoohah (in Yemámeh), 155 - - Menou, General, 64 - - Mensej (embroidery frame), 239 - - Menthoor (gilliflower), 166 - - Meshoom (unlucky), 36 - - Meslemeh (Yezeed's brother), 209 - - Meslakh (disrobing room in bath), 180 - - Michael, 26 - - Middle Age of Arab literature, 112 - - Midwife, 187 - - Minaret, 11, 12 - - Minè, Valley of, 21 - - Minister, 12 - - Miracles of saints, 49-52 - - Mirwahah (fan), 130 - - Mishmish (apricot), 161 - - Mizmár (a musical pipe), 38 - - Moajizeh (prophet's miracle), 49 - - Moatadid, El- (Khaleefeh, A.D. 892-902), 158 - - Moatasim, El- (Khaleefeh, A.D. 833-842), 256 - - Moatezileh (freethinkers), 28 - - Mo´áwiyeh (Khaleefeh, A.D. 661-680), 210-213 - - Moderation in wine, 154 - - Mohammad the Prophet, 2 - - ---- sayings of. _See_ index of authors, under _Kur-án_ - and _Mishkát_ - - Mohammad, praise of, 75 - - Mohammad ´Alee's funeral, 261, _n._ - - Mohammad El-Ashwam (a Tunisian saint), 50 - - Mohammad Ibn-Et-Teiyib (dyer of Baghdad), 224 - - Mohammadanism, 1-24 - - Moheet (circumambient ocean), 102 - - Mohtesib (inspector), 158, _n._ - - Mole, a beauty spot, 214 - - Monogamy, 223, _n._ - - Monopoly, 17 - - Moolids, or Mólids (saints' festivals), 71, 72 - - Moral laws, 10-16 - - Mosaic legislation, 242 - - Moses, 2 - - Mósil, owl of El-, 114 - - Mosque, 12, 21 - - ---- teaching, 202 - - Mourning, 258 - - ---- colour, 261 - - Móz (banana), 161 - - Muballigh (transmitter, at public prayers), 111 - - Muëddin (crier), 11, 12, 38 - - ----, Devil's, 168 - - Mugheyreh ibn-Sheabeh, 223 - - Mujáhid, adventure of, 83 - - Mukhárik (a singer), 171-175 - - Muktedir, El-, (Khaleefeh, A.D. 908-932), 121, 201 - - Mulberry, 161 - - Munádee, El-, (saint), 62 - - Munkir (angel who examines the dead), 26, 262 - - Munshids (singers of odes), 71, 74 - - Murder, 17, 18 - - Mushaf (copy of the Kur-án), 16, _n._ - - Music, Arab, 15, 167-176, 178, 179 - - ---- of the Zikr, 75, 76 - - Musical parties, 174 - - Musician's fees, 157 - - Mustafà El-Munádee (saint), 62 - - Mutanebbee, El-, (poet), 131-133 - - Mutawekkil, El-, (Khaleefeh, A.D. 847-861), 45, 161 - - Mutilation, 20 - - Muweshshah (ode), 76 - - Myrtle, 165 - - Mythology, 25-46 - - - Nabk (lote), 161, _n._ - - Naked saints, 63 - - Nakeeb, 50 - - Nakhleh (near Mekkeh), 110 - - Nákir (_i.q._ Munkir), 26 - - Name, assumed, 153, _n._ - - ----, the Most Great, 81 - - Naming a child, 189, 190 - - Napkin, 159 - - Nárahs (Persian Jinn), 27 - - Narcissus, 166 - - Narcotics, 149, 150 - - Nárinj (Seville orange), 161, _n._ - - Narjis (narcissus), 166 - - Narseen (myrtle), 165 - - Naseeb (a slave), 156 - - National character, 205 - - Natural magic, 93 - - Nebboot (long staff), 65 - - Nebeedh (new wine), 148, 149 - - Nedeem (cup companion), 172 - - Needlework, 204 - - Neelófar (Nenuphar), 167, _n._ - - Negro slaves, 250, 253 - - Nekeer (angel who examines the dead), 26, 262 - - Nemám (wild thyme), 167, _n._ - - Nenuphar, 167 - - Nesnás (species of Jinn), 45, 46 - - Nets in hunting, 184 - - Niche, 12 - - Nikh (I accept), 224 - - Nimrod, 93 - - Nisreen (eglantine), 167, _n._ - - Noah, 2 - - Noamán (blood), 166, _n._ - - Noamán Ibn-El-Mundhir (King of El-Heereh), 166 - - Noor-ed-deen Mahmood (Sultán of Syria), 216, _n._ - - Nukl (fruits), 159 - - Nukuldáns (saucers), 159 - - Numrood (Nimrod), 93 - - Nuts, 161 - - - Oaths, 16, _n._ - - Obeisance, degrees of, 119, _n._ - - Ocean, circumambient, 100, 102 - - Odes, 68, 76 - - ---- singers of, 72, 74, 236 - - Odium irrevocabile, 241, _n._ - - ´Okádh, fair of, 109-111 - - Olive, 161 - - ´Omán, Sea of (Persian Gulf), 44 - - ´Omar (Khaleefeh, A.D. 634-644), on women, 42, 219 - - Omens, 87 - - Oneromancy, 88-92 - - ´Onnáb (jujube), 161, _n._ - - ´Ood, El-, (lute), 178 - - Opium, 93, 96, 149 - - Orange, 161 - - Orders of Darweeshes, 48 - - Ornaments, 16 - - Orthodox theology, 1 - - ´Osfur (safflower), 167, _n._ - - ´Othmán (Khaleefeh, A.D. 644-656), 255 - - Outwitting a king, 124-126 - - - Pages, 253 - - Palm, praise of, 160 - - Palm-branch, 23 - - Palm-tree fibre, 181 - - Pancakes, 235 - - Panels, 147 - - Paradise, 98, 99 - - Parents and children, 192 - - Parrot, talking, 134 - - Partridge, hawking, 183 - - Pavilion, royal, 119 - - Peach, 161 - - Peacock of the angels (surname of Satan), 31 - - Pear, 161 - - Pentateuch, 3 - - Perees (fairies), 27 - - Perfumes, 93, 157 - - Persia, dress of the King of, 123 - - Persian sect, 1 - - Pharaoh, 93 - - Pictures, 15 - - Pie, a famous, 138, 139 - - Pigeon, cry of, 133 - - Pilgrimage, 14 - - Pillar spirits, 29 - - Pints, 159 - - Pistachio-nut, 161 - - Pitch for curing wine, 158 - - Plague, 10 - - ---- a dream of the Great, 88-92 - - Platform, 13 - - Pleiades, 87 - - Plum, 161 - - Plunging Jinn, 44 - - Plurality of wives, 222 - - Poems, examples, 115, 116 - - Poetic contests, 110 - - Poetry, 109-134, 203 - - Polygamy, 221, 240-248 - - Pomegranates, 161, 167 - - Poppy, 167 - - Potations, interrupted, 153 - - Psalms, 3 - - Prayers, 8, 11-14, 22 - - ---- call to, 11, 12 - - Preadamite Jinn, 29, 40 - - Predestination, 3-10 - - Pre-islamic Arabs, 109-112 - - Presents, 116-120 - - Preserved tablet, 5 - - Price of blood, 18, 35 - - Privet, Egyptian, 165 - - Procession, bridal, 233-236 - - Prophets, 2, 29 - - Proverb, 133, 134, 245, _n._ - - Ptolemy, 99 - - Pulpit, 13 - - Punishments, 3 - - Purifications, 11 - - Pyramid builders, 29 - - - Quail, hawking, 183 - - Quarantine, 10 - - Quince, 161 - - - Rabáb (viol), 178 - - Rabeea eth-Thánee (the fourth month of the Muslim year), 65 - - Rahmánee or divine magic, 81, 82 - - Raïj, Island in Chinese sea, 46 - - Raisin-wine, 149 - - Ram, sacrifice of, 191 - - Ramadán (month of fasting), 14, 21, 39, 41 - - Rasheed, Er-. _See_ Hároon. - - Ráwiyeh (reciter), 118 - - Recording angels, 26 - - Reehán (sweet basil), 167, _n._ - - Rek´ah (form of Prayer), 11-13, 22, 237 - - Religion, 1-24 - - Religious excitement, 77 - - Resurrection, 3 - - Retaliation, 19 - - Revenants, 265, 266 - - Rewards of literature, 116-120, 171, 172 ff. - - Rifá´eeyeh darweeshes, 50, _n._ - - Ringdove, cry of, 133 - - Ring signature, 128 - - Ritual laws, 10-16 - - Riwák (division in the Azhar), 50 - - Robber thwarted, 144 - - Rock of ruby beneath the earth, 106 - - Romances, 127 - - Roohánee or spiritual magic, 81-93 - - Room in Arab house, 145 - - Rose, 161-165 - - ---- miraculous, 163, 164 - - ---- preserved, 163 - - ---- beds, 165 - - ---- lover, 162 - - ---- season, 162 - - ---- sellers, cry of, 164 - - ---- water, 157, 162 - - Royal economy, 124-126 - - Rowh ibn-Hátim, 163 - - Rummán (pomegranate), 161 - - Rusáfeh quarter in Baghdád, 173 - - Rutab (fresh dates), 159 - - - Saaláh (species of Jinn), 43 - - Sabbárah (aloe plant), 131 - - Sabr (patience), 131 - - Sacrifice, 15, 190, 191, 261 - - Sádoomeh, the magician, 94-96 - - Safà (head-dress), 217-218 - - Safarjal (quince), 161, _n._ - - Saffár, Es-, (the brazier), 144 - - Safflower, 167 - - Saffron, 167 - - Saints, 47-79 - - Saláh (prayer), 11 - - Sálih's camel, 93 - - Saloon, 147 - - Salt, 144 - - ---- sprinkling, 41, 188 - - Salutation of Friday, 12 - - Salutations, 119, _n._ - - Samoom, 28, 43 - - Sánih (inauguration), 87 - - Satan, 2 - - Satanic magic, 82-93 - - Saucers, 159 - - Schools, 201, 202 - - Scriptures, 2 - - Sea of Darkness (Atlantic), 102 - - ---- of light, 98 - - Seal of Solomon, 40 - - Sealáh (species of Jinn), 43 - - Second sight, 61, 62 - - Secret drinking, 153 - - Secret signs, 132 - - Sects of Islám, 1 - - Seemiyà, Es-, (natural magic), 93 - - Seen, Es-, (China), 44, 46, 102 - - Seestán, or Sijistán, 144 - - Sehr, Es-, (enchantment), 83 - - Selám (salutation), 12 - - Selsebeel (fountain of Paradise), 239 - - Semennood, 94 - - Sereer (couch), 139 - - Serpent, 28, 34 - - Serpent-worship, 39 - - Service in mosque, 12 - - Seville orange, 161, 167 - - Shaabán (eighth month of the Muslim year), 8 - - Sháfi´ee, Esh-, (the founder of the Sháfi´ee sect), 19 - - Sháfi´ees (sect), 1, 19, 20 - - Sháh El-Karmánee (saint), 54 - - Shakáïk (anemone), 166, _n._ - - Sharáb (wine: now sherbet), 131 - - Sharaïbee, mosque of Esh-, 68 - - Shaving the head, 191 - - Sheba, Queen of, 81 - - Shell-fish, forbidden, 141 - - Sherbet of violets, 165 - - Sheytán (devil), 25 ff. - - Sheytánee or Satanic magic, 82-93 - - Shiháb (shooting-star), 33 - - Shikk (species of Jinn), 45 - - Shiya´ees (heretic sect), 1 - - Shoes, 146 - - Shooting-stars, 85 - - Shroud, 259 - - Shurraábeh (tassel), 131 - - Sidr (lote), 161, _n._ - - Sieve, for infants, 187 - - Signature by ring, 128 - - Signet, 128 - - Signs, secret, 132 - - ---- language by, 129-133 - - Sijdeh, Soorat es- (32nd chapter of Kur-án), 134 - - Sijistán (province of Persia), 144 - - Sijjeen (dungeon under Devil's jaw), 264 - - Simát (platform), 140 - - Sin of cities in Europe, 243 - - Singers, female, 177 - - Siyám (fasting), 14 - - Slaughter of beasts, 15 - - Slavery, 250-257 - - Slaves, accomplishments of, 253 - - ---- murder of, 251 - - ---- offspring of, 250 - - ---- treatment of, 253-255 - - Slave-girls, price of, 256 - - Smokeless fire, 27, 28 - - Soadà (a Bedaweeyeh), 211 - - Social system, Mohammadan, 240-248 - - Solomon, 29, 81, 93, 139 - - Son, duty of a, 194 - - Songs, 179 - - Soodán (country of the Blacks), 102 - - Sook (market street), 177 - - Soorah (= chapter of the Kur-án), 24 - - Soorat en-Noor (24th chapter of Kur-án), 204 - - Soorat es-Sijdeh (32nd chapter of the Kur-án), 134 - - Soorat Yá-Seen (36th chapter of the Kur-án), 24, 134 - - Soorat Yoosuf (12th chapter of the Kur-án), 204 - - Soosan (lily), 167, _n._ - - Sorcery, 80-96 - - Sortes Koranicae, 81 - - Sót (son of Satan), 33 - - Soul, 262-265 - - Spear, 183 - - Spells, 84 - - Spheres of Heaven, 97, _n._ - - Spinning, 238, 239 - - Spirits, 25-46 - - Spirits of dead, 263-266 - - Spiritual magic, 81-93 - - Sport, 183-185 - - Stages of Hell, 108 - - ---- of Paradise, 99 - - Star, shooting, 33 - - State after death, 263-266 - - Stealing, 17, 20 - - Stelae, 262 - - Stoning to death, 17 - - Story-tellers, 24 - - Straining wine, 157 - - Street of the Menárehs, 123 - - Subterranean cosmography, 105-108 - - Suckling, 193 - - Suflee or low magic, 81 - - Sugar-cane, 161 - - Sugarloaf hat, 169 - - Sukkar nebát (sugar-candy), 131 - - Suleymán (Solomon), 29, 39, 40, 81, 93 - - ----, son of Aboo-Jaafar, 210 - - Sumbul the slave-dealer, 256 - - Sunnees (orthodox party), 1 - - Sunneh (Traditions of the Prophet), 19: - and see index of authors under _Mishkát_. - - Supernatural appearance, 59 - - Superstitions, 25-46 - - Surnames, 189, 190 - - Sweat of the Prophet, 164 - - Sweetmeat mountains, 140 - - Sword, 183 - - ---- at prayers, 13 - - Swine's flesh, 15 - - Sycamore-fig, 161 - - - Table, 135, 136, 140 - - Táif, Et-, (near Mekkeh), 110 - - Talsam (talisman), 38, 39, 84, _n._ - - Tambourine, 205, 258 - - Tantà Festival, 72 - - Tantáwee, Et-, Sheykh, 88, 238 - - Táoos (Peacock: surname of Satan), 31 - - Tár (tambourine), 205 - - Tarboosh (skull cap), 218, _n._ - - Tattooing, 38, _n._ - - Teen (fig), 161, _n._ - - Teer (son of Satan), 33 - - Tefául, Et-, (augury), 87 - - Temer el-hennà (privet), 165, _n._ - - Terrae incognitae, 102 - - Theft, 17, 20 - - Throne of the Compassionate, 99 - - ---- of Iblees, 102 - - ---- verse, 198 - - Thureiyà (cluster of lamps), 87 - - Thyme, wild, 167 - - Tides caused by Bull Kuyootà, 107 - - Tiffáh (apple), 161, _n._ - - Tihámeh (in Western Arabia), 44 - - Tiles, 145 - - Tobacco, 150 - - Tók (collar), 117 - - Tomb, 262 - - ---- of saints, 69 - - ---- visits to, 23, 69-71 - - Toosee, Et-, (theologian), 73 - - Toot (mulberry), 161, _n._ - - Topers, royal, 152 - - Towwáb (propitious), 133 - - Trade, learning a, 199 - - Trades, 235, 236 - - Tramp, Last, 26, 262 - - Tuffáh (apple), 161 - - Tuition, 202 - - Turunj (lemon), 161, _n._ - - - Ukhowán (chamomile), 167, _n._ - - ´Ulamà (sheykhs or doctors of the law), 64 - - ´Ulamà's dictum on saints, 64 - - Umm-´Amr and her ass, 213 - - Umm-Khárijeh, 224 - - Universe, Arab notions of, 97-108 - - Unveiling the bride, 237 - - Usury, 17 - - Utrujj (lemon), 161, _n._ - - - Vault, 262 - - Veil, 111, 225, _n._ - - ---- disuse of, 177 - - ---- of Heaven, 99 - - Vendetta, 19, 110 - - Verse, 203 - - Vessel for wine, 158 - - Viol, 178 - - Violet, 165 - - ---- sherbet, 165 - - Virtues, 15, 16, 220 - - Visits to the tombs, 23, 69, 263 - - Vulgarisms, 113 - - - Wahhábee women, 225, _n._ - - Wailing, 258, 262 - - Wa-lláhi-l-´Azeem! (By God the Great!), 16, _n._ - - Walls, 147 - - Walnut, 161 - - Ward (rose), 161-165 - - Warning of death, 88 - - Washing, 11 - - ---- before meals, 136 - - ---- the dead, 258 - - Water-bottles, 188, _n._ - - Water-melon, 159, 160 - - Waterspout spirits, 37 - - Weapons, 183 - - Weaving, 205, 238 - - Wedding ceremonies, 232-238 - - ---- propitious months for, 230 - - Weleed, El-, (Khaleefeh, A.D. 705-715), 112, 118 - - Welees (saints), 47-79 - - Weleeyeh (female saint), 66 - - Well of Bábil, 83 - - ---- spirits, 37 - - Weshm (tattooing), 38, _n._ - - Whirlwind spirits, 36 - - White coffee (brandy), 154 - - Wickedness of women, 219 - - Widows, objections to, 228 - - Wife, advice of, 219 - - ---- choice of, 224 - - ---- duties of, 238, 239 - - ---- fellow-, 245, _n._ - - ---- of the Jinn, 36 - - ---- qualifications of, 227-229 - - Wiláyeh (saintship), 57, 62 - - Willow (oriental), 167 - - Windows, 147 - - Wine, 15, 148-159 - - ----, Book of, 151 - - Witnesses to a marriage, 229 - - Wives, 207-248 - - ---- love between two, 246-248 - - Wives, plurality of, 222, 223 - - Women, 207-248 - - ---- in Hell, 219 - - ---- position of, 240-248 - - ---- wickedness of, 219 - - World, Arab notions of, 97-108 - - Wudoo (ablution), 11 - - - Yaakoob Es-Saffáree, 144 - - Yájooj and Májooj, 101, 102, 104 - - Yásameen (jasmine), 167, _n._ - - Yá-Seen (=Y. S.; title of 36th chapter of Kur-án), 24 - - Yemen, El-, (South Arabia), 44, 45 - - Yezeed (Khaleefeh, A.D. 720-724), 208-210 - - Yóm es-Subooa (7th day after birth), 187-189 - - Yoonus (Jonas), 92 - - Yoosuf (Joseph), 92, 204 - - ----, the Prophet of the Jinn, 29 - - Yoosuf Bey, 95 - - - Zaafarán (crocus or saffron), 167, _n._ - - Zacharias, 93 - - Záhir, romance of Ez-, 127 - - Zahr or Zahr-Nárinj (Seville orange-flower), 167, _n._ - - Zebeeb (raisin wine), 149 - - Zekáh (alms), 14 - - Zekeriyà (Zacharias), 93 - - Zeleekhá, 248 - - ---- (Potiphar's wife), 204 - - Zelemboor (son of Satan), 33 - - Zemzem, will of, 264 - - Zeyn el-´Ábideen, 255 - - Zeytoon (olive), 161, _n._ - - Zijr, Ez-, (auguration), 86 - - Zikkeers (performances of a zikr), 73 - - Zikr (Darweesh performance), 73-77, 201, 233 - - Zinj, Ez-, (S. Ethiopia), 102 - - Zodiacal signs in horoscopes, 238 - - Zulumát, Ez-, (Dark Regions), 103. - _See_ Bahr. - - - - - AUTHORS AND WORKS QUOTED. - - (_Authors' names are in small capitals; titles of books in - italics. The figures refer to the pages of the present work._) - - - ´ABD-EL-LATEEF ([+] 1231), _Historiae Aegypti Compendium_. - Ed. White. 138. - - _Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_. - See LANE. - - _´Ajáïb el-Makhlookát_. See KAZWEENEE. - - _Alcoran_. See _Kur-án_, JELÁLEYN, LANE, LANE-POOLE, - MARRACCI, SALE. - - ANSÁREE, EL-. See KHAZREJEE. - - _Arabic-English Lexicon_. See LANE. - - _Arabes avant l'Islamisme_. See FRESNEL. - - BURCKHARDT, _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys_. 144, 185. - - _Chrestomathie Arabe_. See SACY. - - _Commentary on the Kur-án_. See JELÁLEYN. - - _Egyptians, the Modern_. See LANE. - - FEYROOZÁBÁDEE, EL-, _Kámoos_. 263. - - FORSKÁL, _Descriptiones Animalium_. 167. - - FRESNEL, F., _Lettres sur l'Histoire des Arabes avant - l'Islamisme_. 111. - - _Halbet el-Kumeyt_. See EN-NOWWÁJEE. - - _History of Egypt_. See JABARTEE, ISHÁKEE, - ´ABD-EL-LATEEF, SUYOOTEE. - - _Husn el-Mohádarah_. See SUYOOTEE. - - _Insán el-Kámil, El-_. See JEELEE. - - ISHÁKEE, EL-. 4, 48, 73, 87, 93, 105, 107, 112-114, 134, - 206, 216. - - JABARTEE, EL-. _History of Modern Egypt_. MS. 50, 64, 65, 69, - 95, 236, 249, 256. - - JÁHIZ, EL-. 42. - - JARA´EE, EL-. _Shir´at el-Islám_. 220. - - JEELEE, ´ABD-EL-KEREEM, EL- ([+] 1365). _El-Insán El-Kámil_ - (apud El-Ishákee). 4. - - JELÁLEYN, EL-. _Commentary on the Kur-án_. 28, 81. - - JÓHEREE, EL-, _Siháh_. 27. - - JOWZEE, IBN-EL-, ([+] 1256), _Mir-át ez-Zemán_. MS. 27-34, - 43-45, 48, 52-54, 85, 87, 104, 105, 123, 158, 173, 201, 224. - - _Kámoos_. See FEYROOZÁBÁDEE. - - KAZWEENEE, EL-, ([+] 1283), _Kitáb ´Ajáïb-el-Makhlookát_. - MS. 28, 33, 38, 42-45, 83, 104, 160, 263. - - KHALDOON, IBN-, ([+] 1406). 116. - - KHAZREJEE, EL-, ABD-ER-RAHMÁN EL-ANSÁREE. _Murshid ez-Zuwár - ilà Kuboor el-Abrár_. MS. 271. - - _Khitat_. See MAKREEZEE. - - _Kitáb el-´Onwán fee Mekáïd en-Niswán_. MS. 210, 213, 216, 220. - - _Kur-án_, quotations from:-- - - CHAP. VERSE. PAGE. - ii. 20 100 - ii. 22 105 - ii. 96 83 - ii. 216 184 - iv. 26, 27 226 - iv. 46 155 - v. 27 133 - v. 35 9 - v. 65 27 - v. 92 155 - vii. 11 32 - xiii. 3 100 - xiii. 29 4 - xiv. 49 108 - xv. 27 28 - xviii. 48 30 - xxiii. 117 195 - xxvii. 10 28 - xxvii. 16 133 - xxvii. 17 40 - xxvii. 40 81 - xxviii. 19 132 - xxviii. 31 28 - xxviii. 35 40 - xxxviii. 77 32 - xxxix. 67 108 - lv. 14 27 - lv. 39, 74 28 - lxvi. 6 105 - lxxi. 18 100 - lxxii. 6 38 - lxxviii. 6 100 - lxxxix. 24 108 - - _Kur-án, Selections from_. See LANE. - - LANE, E. W., - _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_. 8, 12, 37, 39, - 41, 49, 76, 86, 189, 200, 205, 219, 239, 245, 255, 261. - _Arabic-English Lexicon_. 224. - _Selections from the Kur-án_. 103, 109, 243. - - LANE-POOLE, STANLEY, - _Speeches and Table-talk of the Prophet Mohammad_. 6, 15, 18. - _Introduction to_ LANE'S _Selections from the Kur-án_. 109. - - MAKREEZEE, EL-, ([+] 1441), _Khitat_. MS. 100, 101, - 117, 118, 141, 206, 217. - - MALCOLM, SIR J., _Sketches in Persia_. 183. - - MARRACCI, _Alcoranus_. 133. - - _Mir-át ez-Zemán_. See JOWZEE. - - _Mishkát el-Masábeeh_. 6, 7, 34, 84-86, 88, 98, 109, 143, - 149, 168, 191, 221, 228, 229, 233, 235, 242, 255, 257, 258. - - MOHAMMAD, _Speeches and Table-talk of_. See LANE-POOLE. - - _Murshid ez-Zuwár_, etc. See KHAZREJEE. - - NOWWÁJEE, EN-, SHEMS-ED-DEEN MOHAMMAD ([+] 1454), _Halbet - El-Kumeyt_. MS. 116, 120, 126, 131, 156-158, 162-164, 166-169, - 171, 172, 176. - - _Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil wa-Murshid el-Mutaähhil_. See SUYOOTEE. - - OHSSON, D'. 48. - - PRICE, D., _Retrospect of Mohammadan History_. 145. - - SACY, S. DE., _Christomathie Arabe_, second edition. 73, 115, - 149, 157. - - SALE, _The Koran_. 37, 263. - - SHIHNEH, IBN-ESH-. 92, 106, 217. - - _Shir´at el-Islám_. See JARA´EE. - - _Siháh_. See JÓHEREE. - - _Spirit of the East_. See URQUHART. - - SUYOOTEE, ES- ([+] 1505), - _Nuzhet el-Mutaämmil wa-Murshid el-Mutaähhil_. MS. 7, 38, 55, - 178, 183, 186, 190-193, 198, 199, 204, 220-223, 228, 229, - 232, 233, 235, 237, 239, 255. - _Husn el-Mohádarah_. MS. 159-162, 164-167. - - URQUHART, D., _Spirit of the East_. 208, 241, 244. - - WARDEE, IBN-EL-, ([+] 1348), _Khareedet El-´Ajáïb_. 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EGBERT CRADDOCK._ - - =The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains.= - - _BY WILLIAM CYPLES._ - - =Hearts of Gold.= - - _BY ALPHONSE DAUDET._ - - =The Evangelist=; or, Port Salvation. - - _BY JAMES DE MILLE._ - - =A Castle In Spain.= - - _BY J. LEITH DERWENT._ - - =Our Lady of Tears.= - =Circe's Lovers.= - - _BY CHARLES DICKENS._ - - =Sketches by Boz.= - =Pickwick Papers.= - =Oliver Twist.= - =Nicholas Nickleby.= - - _BY MRS. ANNIE EDWARDES._ - - =A Point of Honour.= - =Archie Lovell.= - - _BY M. BETHAM-EDWARDS._ - - =Felicia.= - =Kitty.= - - _BY EDWARD EGGLESTON._ - - =Roxy.= - - _BY PERCY FITZGERALD._ - - =Bella Donna.= - =The Second Mrs. Tillotson.= - =Polly.= - =Seventy-five Brooke Street.= - =The Lady of Brantome.= - =Fatal Zero.= - =Never Forgotten.= - - _ALBANY DE FONBLANQUE._ - - =Filthy Lucre.= - - _BY R. E. FRANCILLON._ - - =Olympia.= - =One by One.= - =Queen Cophetua.= - =A Real Queen.= - - _Prefaced by Sir H. BARTLE FRERE._ - - =Pandurang Hari.= - - _BY HAIN FRISWELL._ - - =One of Two.= - - _BY EDWARD GARRETT._ - - =The Capel Girls.= - - _BY CHARLES GIBBON._ - - =Robin Gray.= - =For Lack of Gold.= - =What will the World Say?= - =In Honour Bound.= - =In Love and War.= - =For the King.= - =In Pastures Green.= - =Queen of the Meadow.= - =A Heart's Problem= - =The Flower of the Forest.= - =Braes of Yarrow.= - =The Golden Shaft.= - =Of High Degree.= - =Fancy Free.= - =Mead and Stream.= - =Loving a Dream.= - =A Hard Knot.= - =Heart's Delight.= - - _BY WILLIAM GILBERT._ - - =Dr. Austin's Guests.= - =The Wizard of the Mountain.= - =James Duke.= - - _BY JAMES GREENWOOD._ - - =Dick Temple.= - - _BY JOHN HABBERTON._ - - =Brueton's Bayou.= - =Country Luck.= - - _BY ANDREW HALLWAY_ - - =Every-Day Papers.= - - _BY LADY DUFFUS HARDY._ - - =Paul Wynter's Sacrifice.= - - _BY THOMAS HARDY._ - - =Under the Greenwood Tree.= - - _BY J. BERWICK HARWOOD._ - - =The Tenth Earl.= - - _BY JULIAN HAWTHORNE._ - - =Garth.= - =Ellice Quentin.= - =Prince Saroni's Wife.= - =Fortune's Fool.= - =Miss Cadogna.= - =Sebastian Strome.= - =Dust.= - =Beatrix Randolph.= - =Love--or a Name.= - - _BY SIR ARTHUR HELPS._ - - =Ivan de Biron.= - - _BY MRS. CASHEL HOEY._ - - =The Lover's Creed.= - - _BY TOM HOOD._ - - =A Golden Heart.= - - _BY MRS. GEORGE HOOPER._ - - =The House of Raby.= - - _BY TIGHE HOPKINS._ - - ='Twixt Love and Duty.= - - _BY MRS. ALFRED HUNT._ - - =Thornicroft's Model.= - =The Leaden Casket.= - =Self-Condemned.= - =That other Person.= - - _BY JEAN INGELOW._ - - =Fated to be Free.= - - _BY HARRIETT JAY._ - - =The Dark Colleen.= - =The Queen of Connaught.= - - _BY MARK KERSHAW._ - - =Colonial Facts and Fictions.= - - _BY R. ASHE KING._ - - =A Drawn Game.= - ="The Wearing of the Green."= - - _BY HENRY KINGSLEY._ - - =Oakshott Castle.= - - _BY E. LYNN LINTON._ - - =Patricia Kemball.= - =The Atonement of Learn Dundas.= - =The World Well Lost.= - =Under which Lord?= - =With a Silken Thread.= - =The Rebel of the Family.= - ="My Love."= - =Ione.= - - _BY HENRY W. LUCY._ - - =Gideon Fleyce.= - - _BY JUSTIN McCARTHY._ - - =Dear Lady Disdain= - =The Waterdale Neighbours.= - =My Enemy's Daughter.= - =A Fair Saxon.= - =Linley Rochford.= - =Miss Misanthrope.= - =Donna Quixote.= - =The Comet of a Season.= - =Maid of Athens.= - =Camiola.= - - _BY MRS. MACDONELL._ - - =Quaker Cousins.= - - _BY KATHARINE S. MACQUOID._ - - =The Evil Eye.= - =Lost Rose.= - - _BY W. H. MALLOCK._ - - =The New Republic.= - - _BY FLORENCE MARRYAT._ - - =Open! Sesame.= - =A Harvest of Wild Oats.= - =Fighting the Air.= - =Written in Fire.= - - _BY J. MASTERMAN._ - - =Half-a-dozen Daughters.= - - _BY BRANDER MATTHEWS._ - - =A Secret of the Sea.= - - _BY JEAN MIDDLEMASS._ - - =Touch and Go.= - =Mr. Dorilllon.= - - _BY MRS. MOLESWORTH._ - - =Hathercourt Rectory.= - - _BY D. CHRISTIE MURRAY._ - - =A Life's Atonement.= - =A Model Father.= - =Joseph's Coat.= - =Coals of Fire.= - =By the Gate of the Sea.= - =Val Strange.= - =Hearts.= - =Way of the World.= - =A Bit of Human Nature.= - =First Person Singular.= - =Cynic Fortune.= - - _BY ALICE O'HANLON._ - - =The Unforeseen.= - - _BY MRS. OLIPHANT._ - - =Whiteladies.= - =The Primrose Path.= - =The Greatest Heiress in England.= - - _BY MRS. ROBERT O'REILLY._ - - =Phoebe's Fortunes.= - - _BY OUIDA._ - - =Held in Bondage.= - =Strathmore.= - =Chandos.= - =Under Two Flags.= - =Idalia.= - =Cecil Castlemaine's Gage.= - =Tricotrin.= - =Puck.= - =Folle Farine=. - =A Dog of Flanders.= - =Pascarel.= - =Signa.= - =Princess Napraxine.= - =Two Little Wooden Shoes.= - =In a Winter City.= - =Ariadne.= - =Friendship.= - =Moths.= - =Pipistrello.= - =A Village Commune.= - =Bimbi.= - =Wanda.= - =Frescoes.= - =In Maremma.= - =Othmar.= - - _BY MARGARET AGNES PAUL._ - - =Gentle and Simple.= - - _BY JAMES PAYN._ - - =Lost Sir Massingberd.= - =A Perfect Treasure.= - =Bentinck's Tutor.= - =Murphy's Master.= - =A County Family.= - =At Her Mercy.= - =A Woman's Vengeance.= - =Cecil's Tryst.= - =Clyffards of Clyffe.= - =The Family Scapegrace.= - =Foster Brothers.= - =Found Dead.= - =Best of Husbands.= - =Walter's Word.= - =Halves.= - =Fallen Fortunes.= - =What He Cost Her.= - =Humorous Stories.= - =Gwendoline's Harvest.= - =£200 Reward.= - =Like Father, Like Son.= - =Marine Residence.= - =Married Beneath Him.= - =Mirk Abbey.= - =Not Wooed, but Won.= - =Less Black than We're Painted.= - =By Proxy.= - =Under One Roof.= - =High Spirits.= - =Carlyon's Year.= - =A Confidential Agent.= - =Some Private Views.= - =From Exile.= - =A Grape from a Thorn.= - =For Cash Only.= - =Kit: A Memory.= - =The Canon's Ward.= - =Talk of the Town.= - =Holiday Tasks.= - - _BY C. L. PIRKIS._ - - =Lady Lovelace.= - - _BY EDGAR A. POE._ - - =The Mystery of Marie Roget.= - - _BY E. C. PRICE._ - - =Valentina.= - =Mrs. Lancaster's Rival.= - =Gerald.= - =The Foreigners.= - - _BY CHARLES READE._ - - =It is Never Too Late to Mend.= - =Hard Cash.= - =Christie Johnstone.= - =Griffith Gaunt.= - =Put Yourself in His Place.= - =The Double Marriage.= - =Love Me Little, Love Me Long.= - =Foul Play.= - =The Cloister and the Hearth.= - =The Course of True Love.= - =Autobiography of a Thief.= - =A Terrible Temptation.= - =The Wandering Heir.= - =A Simpleton.= - =Readiana.= - =Singleheart and Doubleface.= - =Good Stories of Men and other Animals.= - =Peg Woffington.= - =A Woman-Hater.= - =The Jilt.= - - _BY MRS. J. H. RIDDELL._ - - =Her Mother's Darling.= - =Prince of Wales's Garden Party.= - =Weird Stories.= - =The Uninhabited House.= - =The Mystery in Palace Gardens.= - =Fairy Water.= - - _BY F. W. ROBINSON._ - - =Women are Strange.= - =The Hands of Justice.= - - _BY JAMES RUNCIMAN._ - - =Skippers and Shellbacks.= - =Grace Balmaign's Sweetheart.= - =Schools and Scholars.= - - _BY W. CLARK RUSSELL._ - - =Round the Galley Fire.= - =On the Fo'k'sle Head.= - =In the Middle Watch.= - =A Voyage to the Cape.= - - _BY BAYLE ST. JOHN._ - - =A Levantine Family.= - - _BY GEORGE AUGUSTUS SALA._ - - =Gaslight and Daylight.= - - _BY JOHN SAUNDERS._ - - =Bound to the Wheel.= - =One Against the World.= - =Guy Waterman.= - =The Lion In the Path.= - =Two Dreamers.= - - _BY KATHARINE SAUNDERS._ - - =Joan Merryweather.= - =Margaret and Elizabeth.= - =The High Mills.= - =Heart Salvage.= - =Sebastian.= - - _BY GEORGE R. SIMS._ - - =Rogues and Vagabonds.= - =The Ring o' Bells.= - =Mary Jane's Memoirs.= - =Mary Jane Married.= - - _BY ARTHUR SKETCHLEY._ - - =A Match in the Dark.= - - _BY T. W. SPEIGHT._ - - =The Mysteries of Heron Dyke.= - =The Golden Hoop.= - - _BY R. A. STERNDALE._ - - =The Afghan Knife.= - - _BY R. LOUIS STEVENSON._ - - =New Arabian Nights.= - =Prince Otto.= - - _BY BERTHA THOMAS._ - - =Cressida.= - =The Violin-Player.= - =Proud Maisle.= - - _BY W. MOY THOMAS._ - - =A Fight for Life.= - - _BY WALTER THORNBURY._ - - =Tales for the Marines.= - - _BY T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE._ - - =Diamond Cut Diamond.= - - _BY ANTHONY TROLLOPE._ - - =The Way We Live Now.= - =The American Senator.= - =Frau Frohmann.= - =Marlon Fay.= - =Kept in the Dark.= - =Mr. Scarborough's Family.= - =The Land-Leaguers.= - =The Golden Lion of Granpere.= - =John Caldigate.= - - _By F. ELEANOR TROLLOPE._ - - =Like Ships upon the Sea.= - =Anne Furness.= - =Mabel's Progress.= - - _BY J. T. TROWBRIDGE._ - - =Farnell's Folly.= - - _BY IVAN TURGENIEFF, &c._ - - =Stories from Foreign Novelists.= - - _BY MARK TWAIN._ - - =Tom Sawyer.= - =A Pleasure Trip on the Continent of Europe.= - =The Stolen White Elephant.= - =Huckleberry Finn.= - =Life on the Mississippi.= - =The Prince and the Pauper.= - =A Tramp Abroad.= - - _BY C. C. FRASER-TYTLER._ - - =Mistress Judith.= - - _BY SARAH TYTLER._ - - =What She Came Through.= - =The Bride's Pass.= - =Saint Mungo's City.= - =Beauty and the Beast.= - =Lady Bell.= - =Citoyenne Jacquiline.= - =Disappeared.= - =Noblesse Oblige.= - - _BY J. S. WINTER._ - - =Cavalry Life.= - =Regimental Legends.= - - _BY LADY WOOD._ - - =Sabina.= - - _BY EDMUND YATES._ - - =Castaway.= - =Land at Last.= - =The Forlorn Hope.= - - _ANONYMOUS._ - - =Paul Ferroll.= - =Why Paul Ferroll Killed his Wife.= - - - POPULAR SHILLING BOOKS. - - =Jeff Briggs's Love Story.= By BRET HARTE. - - =The Twins of Table Mountain.= By BRET HARTE. - - =A Day's Tour.= By PERCY FITZGERALD. - - =Mrs. Gainsborough's Diamonds.= By JULIAN HAWTHORNE. - - =A Romance of the Queen's Hounds.= By CHARLES JAMES. - - =Kathleen Mavourneen.= By the Author of "That Lass o' Lowrie's." - - =Lindsay's Luck.= By the Author of "That Lass o' Lowrie's." - - =Pretty Polly Pemberton.= By the Author of "That Lass o' - Lowrie's." - - =Trooping with Crows.= By C. L. PIRKIS. - - =The Professor's Wife.= By LEONARD GRAHAM. - - =A Double Bond.= By LINDA VILLARI. - - =Esther's Glove.= By R. E. FRANCILLON. - - =The Garden that Paid the Rent.= By TOM JERROLD. - - =Curly.= By JOHN COLEMAN. Illustrated by J. C. DOLLMAN. - - =Beyond the Gates.= By E. S. PHELPS. - - =Old Maid's Paradise.= By E. S. PHELPS. - - =Burglars In Paradise.= By E. S. PHELPS. - - =Jack the Fisherman.= By E. S. PHELPS. - - =Doom=: An Atlantic Episode. By JUSTIN H. MCCARTHY, M.P. - - =Our Sensation Novel.= Edited by JUSTIN H. MCCARTHY, M.P. - - =A Barren Title.= By T. W. SPEIGHT. - - =Wife or No Wife?= By T. W. SPEIGHT. - - =The Silverado Squatters.= By R. LOUIS STEVENSON. - - - J. OGDEN AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.C. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - - -Obvious errors of punctuation and diacritics repaired. - -Diacritic marks of in the transcription of Arabic letters have been -removed. They are retained in the UTF-8 and HTML files. - -Hyphen removed: "free[-]thinkers" (p. 275), "MERRY[-]MAKING" (p. 135), -"merry[-]making" (p. 271), "sugar[-]loaf" (p. 169). - -Hyphen added: "Mir[-]át" (pp. 53, 54). - -The following words appear both with and without hyphens and have not -been changed: "alms[-]giving", "needle[-]work", "sugar[-]loaf", -"Table[-]talk", "water[-]spout", "white[-]wash". - -P. 23: "flower" changed to "flour" (composed of flour and butter). - -P. 85: added "to" (the region next to the earth). - -P. 99: "en" changed to "el" (Jennet el-Khuld). - -P. 123: "Mir-át er-Zemán" changed to "Mir-át ez-Zemán". - -P. 137: "do" added (if he did not do so). - -P. 255: "similiar" changed to "similar" (Many similar anecdotes). - -P. 268: "sacrified" changed to "sacrificed" (Buffalo sacrificed at -funerals). - -P. 271: "Gillyflower" changed to "Gilliflower". - -P. 276: "i.g." change to "i.q." (Nákir (_i.q._ Munkir)). - -Index: Page numbers added or corrected: Barmekees (Barmecides), 115; -Divine magic, 81, 82. Entry for Weleeyeh moved to correct alphabetical -order. - -P. 283: The erratum on page 44 has been corrected in the text. - -Annex, P. 21: "Originall" changed to "Original" (true Original Copies). - -Annex, P. 32: added "the" (By the Author of "That Lass o' Lowrie's."). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Arabian Society In The Middle Ages, by -Edward William Lane - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARABIAN SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** - -***** This file should be named 41110-8.txt or 41110-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/1/1/41110/ - -Produced by Fritz Ohrenschall, Moti Ben-Ari and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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