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diff --git a/41055.txt b/41055.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0ea2adf..0000000 --- a/41055.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18352 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 4, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 4 - "Jevons, Stanley" to "Joint" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 14, 2012 [EBook #41055] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 15 SLICE 4 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE JEWELRY: "Etruscan jewelry at its best is not easily - distinguished from the Greek, but it tends in its later forms to - become florid and diffuse, without precision of design." 'jewelry' - amended from 'jewlery'. - - ARTICLE JEWELRY: "For the Aah-hotep jewels, see Mariette, Album de - Musee de Boulaq, pls. 29-31; Birch, Facsimiles of the Egyptian - Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-hotep (1863)." 'hotep' - amended from 'hotp'. - - ARTICLE JEWS: "Biblical history ends with the triumph of the - Judaean community, the true 'Israel,' the right to which title is - found in the distant past." 'Biblical' amended from 'Bibilical'. - - ARTICLE JEWS: "The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in - addition to the special law-taxes, the passport duty, the - night-duty and all similar imposts which had stamped the Jews as - outcast ..." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'. - - ARTICLE JEWS: "But economic laws are often too strong for civil - vagaries or sectarian fanaticism, and as the commerce of Austria - suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was impossible to exclude - the latter from the fairs in the provinces or from the markets of - the capital." 'or' amended from 'of'. - - ARTICLE JOB: "And further, the terrible conflict into which the - suspicions of the Satan brought Job could not be exhibited without - pushing him to the verge of ungodliness." 'Job' amended from 'Iob'. - - ARTICLE JOB: "For, first, owing to the unity of thought and - language which pervades the Old Testament, in which, regarded - merely as a national literature ..." 'pervades' amended from - 'prevades'. - - ARTICLE JOHN XVI.: "The arrival of Otto at Rome in the spring of - 998 put a sudden end to the treacherous compact. John sought safety - in flight, but was discovered in his place of hiding and brought - back to Rome, where after enduring cruel and ignominious tortures - he was immured in a dungeon." 'treacherous' amended from - 'teacherous'. - - ARTICLE JOHN XXIII.: "But on the 3rd of March 1413 John adjourned - the council of Rome till December, without even fixing the place - where the next session should be held." 'March' amended from - 'Mrach'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XV, SLICE IV - - Jevons, Stanley to Joint - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY JOHN XIX. - JEW, THE WANDERING JOHN XXI. - JEWEL, JOHN JOHN XXII. - JEWELRY JOHN XXIII. - JEWETT, SARAH ORNE JOHN I. (Roman emperor) - JEWS JOHN II. - JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR JOHN III. - JEW'S EARS JOHN IV. - JEW'S HARP JOHN V. or VI. - JEZEBEL JOHN VI. or V. - JEZREEL JOHN VI. or VII. - JHABUA JOHN (king of England) - JHALAWAR JOHN I. (king of Aragon) - JHANG JOHN II. - JHANSI JOHN (king of Bohemia) - JHELUM (Indian river) JOHN I. (king of Castile) - JHELUM (Indian town) JOHN II. - JHERING, RUDOLF VON JOHN I. (king of France) - JIBITOS JOHN II. - JIBUTI JOHN (king of Hungary) - JICARILLA JOHN OF BRIENNE - JIDDA JOHN III. (king of Poland) - JIG JOHN I. (king of Portugal) - JIHAD JOHN II. - JIMENES DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO JOHN III. - JIND JOHN IV. - JINGO JOHN V. - JINN JOHN VI. - JIRECEK, JOSEF JOHN (king of Saxony) - JIZAKH JOHN I. (duke of Brabant) - JOAB JOHN (margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin) - JOACHIM OF FLORIS JOHN (duke of Burgundy) - JOACHIM I. JOHN (elector of Saxony) - JOACHIM II. JOHN, DON (of Austria) - JOACHIM, JOSEPH JOHN, DON (the younger) - JOAN JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST - JOAN OF ARC JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST - JOANES, VICENTE JOHN OF ASIA - JOANNA JOHN OF DAMASCUS - JOANNA I. JOHN OF HEXHAM - JOANNA II. JOHN OF IRELAND - JOASH JOHN OF RAVENNA - JOB JOHN OF SALISBURY - JOBST JOHN (of Swabia) - JOB'S TEARS JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF - JOCASTA JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST - JOCKEY JOHN ALBERT - JODELLE, ETIENNE JOHN ANGELUS - JODHPUR JOHN FREDERICK I. - JOEL JOHN FREDERICK (duke of Saxony) - JOEL, MANUEL JOHN GEORGE I. - JOFFRIN, JULES ALEXANDRE JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU - JOGUES, ISAAC JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE - JO[H.]ANAN BEN ZACCAI JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY - JOHANNESBURG (city of Transvaal) JOHNSON, ANDREW - JOHANNISBERG (German village) JOHNSON, BENJAMIN - JOHN (proper name) JOHNSON, EASTMAN - JOHN (the Apostle) JOHNSON, REVERDY - JOHN THE BAPTIST JOHNSON, RICHARD - JOHN I. (pope) JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR - JOHN II. JOHNSON, SAMUEL - JOHN III. JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS - JOHN IV. JOHNSON, THOMAS - JOHN V. JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM - JOHN VI. JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY - JOHN VII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER - JOHN VIII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH - JOHN IX. JOHNSTON, ARTHUR - JOHN X. JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON - JOHN XI. JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON - JOHN XII. JOHNSTONE - JOHN XIII. JOHNSTOWN (New York, U.S.A.) - JOHN XIV. JOHNSTOWN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) - JOHN XV. JOHOR - JOHN XVI. JOIGNY - JOHN XVII. JOINDER - JOHN XVIII. JOINERY - JOINT - - - - -JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882), English economist and logician, was -born at Liverpool on the 1st of September 1835. His father, Thomas -Jevons, a man of strong scientific tastes and a writer on legal and -economic subjects, was an iron merchant. His mother was the daughter of -William Roscoe. At the age of fifteen he was sent to London to attend -University College school. He appears at this time to have already -formed the belief that important achievements as a thinker were possible -to him, and at more than one critical period in his career this belief -was the decisive factor in determining his conduct. Towards the end of -1853, after having spent two years at University College, where his -favourite subjects were chemistry and botany, he unexpectedly received -the offer of the assayership to the new mint in Australia. The idea of -leaving England was distasteful, but pecuniary considerations had, in -consequence of the failure of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital -importance, and he accepted the post. He left England for Sydney in June -1854, and remained there for five years. At the end of that period he -resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 entered again as a -student at University College, London, proceeding in due course to the -B.A. and M.A. degrees of the university of London. He now gave his -principal attention to the moral sciences, but his interest in natural -science was by no means exhausted: throughout his life he continued to -write occasional papers on scientific subjects, and his intimate -knowledge of the physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of -his chief logical work, _The Principles of Science_. Not long after -taking his M.A. degree Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College, -Manchester. In 1866 he was elected professor of logic and mental and -moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy in Owens -college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor, whose father had been -the founder and proprietor of the _Manchester Guardian_. Jevons suffered -a good deal from ill health and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of -lectures covering so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876 -he was glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship of -political economy in University College, London. Travelling and music -were the principal recreations of his life; but his health continued -bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his professorial duties -increasingly irksome, and feeling that the pressure of literary work -left him no spare energy, he decided in 1880 to resign the post. On the -13th of August 1882 he was drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. -Throughout his life he had pursued with devotion and industry the ideals -with which he had set out, and his journal and letters display a noble -simplicity of disposition and an unswerving honesty of purpose. He was a -prolific writer, and at the time of his death he occupied the foremost -position in England both as a logician and as an economist. Professor -Marshall has said of his work in economics that it "will probably be -found to have more constructive force than any, save that of Ricardo, -that has been done during the last hundred years." At the time of his -death he was engaged upon an economic work that promised to be at least -as important as any that he had previously undertaken. It would be -difficult to exaggerate the loss which logic and political economy -sustained through the accident by which his life was prematurely cut -short. - -Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that -constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to -economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the keynote of -his general theory of political economy, was practically formulated in a -letter written in 1860; and the germ of his logical principles of the -substitution of similars may be found in the view which he propounded in -another letter written in 1861, that "philosophy would be found to -consist solely in pointing out the likeness of things." The theory of -utility above referred to, namely, that the degree of utility of a -commodity is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of -the commodity available, together with the implied doctrine that -economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more definite form -in a paper on "A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy," -written for the British Association in 1862. This paper does not appear -to have attracted much attention either in 1862 or on its publication -four years later in the _Journal of the Statistical Society_; and it was -not till 1871, when the _Theory of Political Economy_ appeared, that -Jevons set forth his doctrines in a fully developed form. It was not -till after the publication of this work that Jevons became acquainted -with the applications of mathematics to political economy made by -earlier writers, notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The -theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed on -somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M.E.L. Walras in -Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the connexion between value in -exchange and final (or marginal) utility, the priority belongs to -Gossen, but this in no way detracts from the great importance of the -service which Jevons rendered to English economics by his fresh -discovery of the principle, and by the way in which he ultimately forced -it into notice. In his reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes -expressed himself without due qualification: the declaration, for -instance, made at the commencement of the _Theory of Political Economy_, -that "value depends entirely upon utility," lent itself to -misinterpretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be -pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an indifferent -public. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with the fundamental -data of economic science, but as a brilliant writer on practical -economic questions, that Jevons first received general recognition. _A -Serious Fall in the Value of Gold_ (1863) and _The Coal Question_ (1865) -placed him in the front rank as a writer on applied economics and -statistics; and he would be remembered as one of the leading economists -of the 19th century even had his _Theory of Political Economy_ never -been written. Amongst his economic works may be mentioned _Money and the -Mechanism of Exchange_ (1875), written in a popular style, and -descriptive rather than theoretical, but wonderfully fresh and original -in treatment and full of suggestiveness, a _Primer on Political Economy_ -(1878), _The State in Relation to Labour_ (1882), and two works -published after his death, namely, _Methods of Social Reform_ and -_Investigations in Currency and Finance_, containing papers that had -appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named volume contains -Jevons's interesting speculations on the connexion between commercial -crises and sun-spots. He was engaged at the time of his death upon the -preparation of a large treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of -contents and completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This -fragment was published in 1905 under the title of _The Principles of -Economics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of -Society, and other Papers_. - -Jevons's work in logic went on _pari passu_ with his work in political -economy. In 1864 he published a small volume, entitled _Pure Logic; or, -the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity_, which was based on Boole's -system of logic, but freed from what he considered the false -mathematical dress of that system. In the years immediately following he -devoted considerable attention to the construction of a logical machine, -exhibited before the Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the -conclusion derivable from any given set of premisses could be -mechanically obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and -universal principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he -published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title of _The -Substitution of Similars_. He expressed the principle in its simplest -form as follows: "Whatever is true of a thing is true of its like," and -he worked out in detail its various applications. In the following year -appeared the _Elementary Lessons on Logic_, which soon became the most -widely read elementary textbook on logic in the English language. In the -meantime he was engaged upon a much more important logical treatise, -which appeared in 1874 under the title of _The Principles of Science_. -In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works on pure -logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated and -developed the view that induction is simply an inverse employment of -deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the general theory of -probability, and the relation between probability and induction; and his -knowledge of the various natural sciences enabled him throughout to -relieve the abstract character of logical doctrine by concrete -scientific illustrations, often worked out in great detail. Jevons's -general theory of induction was a revival of the theory laid down by -Whewell and criticized by Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was -free from some of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's -exposition open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most -notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great Britain -in the 19th century. His _Studies in Deductive Logic_, consisting mainly -of exercises and problems for the use of students, was published in -1880. In 1877 and the following years Jevons contributed to the -_Contemporary Review_ some articles on J. S. Mill, which he had intended -to supplement by further articles, and eventually publish in a volume as -a criticism of Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were -republished after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical -treatises, in a volume, entitled _Pure Logic, and other Minor Works_. -The criticisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is -forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as taking rank with -Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an original -thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered by his -constructive work as logician, economist and statistician. - - See _Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons_, edited by his wife - (1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings. See - also LOGIC: _History_. (J. N. K.) - - - - -JEW, THE WANDERING, a legendary Jew (see JEWS) doomed to wander till the -second coming of Christ because he had taunted Jesus as he passed -bearing the cross, saying, "Go on quicker." Jesus is said to have -replied, "I go, but thou shalt wait till I return." The legend in this -form first appeared in a pamphlet of four leaves alleged to have been -printed at Leiden in 1602. This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen -(d. 1598), bishop of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named -Ahasuerus (Ahasverus), who declared he was "eternal" and was the same -who had been punished in the above-mentioned manner by Jesus at the time -of the crucifixion. The pamphlet is supposed to have been written by -Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia and printed by one Christoff -Crutzer, but as no such author or printer is known at this time--the -latter name indeed refers directly to the legend--it has been -conjectured that the whole story is a myth invented to support the -Protestant contention of a continuous witness to the truth of Holy Writ -in the person of this "eternal" Jew; he was to form, in his way, a -counterpart to the apostolic tradition of the Catholic Church. - -The story met with ready acceptance and popularity. Eight editions of -the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the fortieth edition before the end -of the following century. It was translated into Dutch and Flemish with -almost equal success. The first French edition appeared in 1609, and the -story was known in England before 1625, when a parody was produced. -Denmark and Sweden followed suit with translations, and the expression -"eternal Jew" passed as a current term into Czech. In other words, the -story in its usual form spread wherever there was a tincture of -Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard of it in this version, -though Rudolph Botoreus, parliamentary advocate of Paris (_Comm. -histor._, 1604), writing in Paris two years after its first appearance, -speaks contemptuously of the popular belief in the Wandering Jew in -Germany, Spain and Italy. - -The popularity of the pamphlet and its translations soon led to reports -of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost all parts of the -civilized world. Besides the original meeting of the bishop and -Ahasuerus in 1542 and others referred back to 1575 in Spain and 1599 at -Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated to have appeared at Prague (1602), -at Lubeck (1603), in Bavaria (1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640), -Leipzig (1642), Paris (1644, by the "Turkish Spy"), Stamford (1658), -Astrakhan (1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the -Wandering Jew was seen at Munich (1721), Altbach (1766), Brussels -(1774), Newcastle (1790, see Brand, _Pop. Antiquities, s.v._), and on -the streets of London between 1818 and 1830 (see _Athenaeum_, 1866, ii. -561). So far as can be ascertained, the latest report of his appearance -was in the neighbourhood of Salt Lake City in 1868, when he is said to -have made himself known to a Mormon named O'Grady. It is difficult to -tell in any one of these cases how far the story is an entire fiction -and how far some ingenious impostor took advantage of the existence of -the myth. - -The reiterated reports of the actual existence of a wandering being, who -retained in his memory the details of the crucifixion, show how the idea -had fixed itself in popular imagination and found its way into the -19th-century collections of German legends. The two ideas combined in -the story of the restless fugitive akin to Cain and wandering for ever -are separately represented in the current names given to this figure in -different countries. In most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on -the perpetual character of his punishment and he is known as the -"everlasting," or "eternal" Jew (Ger. "Ewige Jude"). In the lands -speaking a Romance tongue, the usual form has reference to the -wanderings (Fr. "le Juif errant"). The English form follows the Romance -analogy, possibly because derived directly from France. The actual name -given to the mysterious Jew varies in the different versions: the -original pamphlet calls him Ahasver, and this has been followed in most -of the literary versions, though it is difficult to imagine any Jew -being called by the name of the typical anti-Semitic king of the Book of -Esther. In one of his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac -Laquedem, implying an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew in an attempt to -represent Isaac "from of old." Alexandre Dumas also made use of this -title. In the _Turkish Spy_ the Wandering Jew is called Paul Marrane and -is supposed to have suffered persecution at the hands of the -Inquisition, which was mainly occupied in dealing with the Marranos, -i.e. the secret Jews of the Iberian peninsula. In the few references to -the legend in Spanish writings the Wandering Jew is called Juan Espera -en Dios, which gives a more hopeful turn to the legend. - -Under other names, a story very similar to that given in the pamphlet of -1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil. According to Roger -of Wendover in his _Flores historiarum_ under the year 1228, an Armenian -archbishop, then visiting England, was asked by the monks of St Albans -about the well-known Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken to Jesus and -was said to be still alive. The archbishop claimed to have seen him in -Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus or Cartaphilus, who had confessed -that he had taunted Jesus in the manner above related. This Carthaphilus -had afterwards been baptized by the name of Joseph. Matthew Paris, in -repeating the passage from Roger of Wendover, reported that other -Armenians had confirmed the story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and -regarded it as a great proof of the Christian religion. A similar -account is given in the chronicles of Philippe Mouskes (d. 1243). A -variant of the same story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer -quoted by Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he -struck Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello in -1413 and at Bologna in 1415 (in the garb of a Franciscan of the third -order). - -The source of all these reports of an ever-living witness of the -crucifixion is probably Matthew xvi. 28: "There be some of them that -stand here which shall in no wise taste of death till they see the Son -of Man coming in his kingdom." As the kingdom had not come, it was -assumed that there must be persons living who had been present at the -crucifixion; the same reasoning is at the root of the Anglo-Israel -belief. These words are indeed quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, a -legend was based on John xxi. 20 that the beloved disciple would not die -before the second coming; while another legend (current in the 16th -century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut off in the garden of -Gethsemane (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually till the second -coming. The legend alleges that he had been so condemned for having -scoffed at Jesus. These legends and the utterance of Matt. xvi. 28 -became "contaminated" by the legend of St Joseph of Arimathaea and the -Holy Grail, and took the form given in Roger of Wendover and Matthew -Paris. But there is nothing to show the spread of this story among the -people before the pamphlet of 1602, and it is difficult to see how this -Carthaphilus could have given rise to the legend of the Wandering Jew, -since he is not a Jew nor does he wander. The author of 1602 was -probably acquainted either directly or indirectly with the story as -given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost the same account. But he -gives a new name to his hero and directly connects his fate with Matt. -xvi. 28. - -Moncure D. Conway (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., xiii. 673) attempted to -connect the legend of the Wandering Jew with a whole series of myths -relating to never-dying heroes like King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa, -the Seven Sleepers, and Thomas the Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van -Winkle. He goes even farther and connects our legend with mortals -visiting earth, as the Yima in Parsism, and the "Ancient of Days" in the -Books of Daniel and Enoch, and further connects the legend with the -whole medieval tendency to regard the Jew as something uncanny and -mysterious. But all these mythological explanations are supererogatory, -since the actual legend in question can be definitely traced to the -pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to the identification with the -Mahommedan legend of the "eternal" Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski -(_Zeit. f. Assyr._ vii. 116) and I. Friedlander (_Arch. f. -Religionswiss._ xiii. 110). - -This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering has -attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost all European -tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded as a symbolic figure -representing the wanderings and sufferings of his race. The Germans have -been especially attracted by the legend, which has been made the subject -of poems by Schubart, Schreiber, W. Muller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, -Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that it was a -particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school. They were -perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who in his _Autobiography_ -describes, at considerable length, the plan of a poem he had designed on -the Wandering Jew. More recently poems have been composed on the subject -in German by Adolf Wilbrandt, Fritz Lienhard and others; in English by -Robert Buchanan, and in Dutch by H. Heijermans. German novels also exist -on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schucking, tragedies by -Klinemann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund Heller wrote three cantos on -the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Hans Andersen made of him an "Angel -of Doubt." Robert Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. -In France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833, and -Eugene Sue, in his best-known work, _Le Juif errant_ (1844), introduces -the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different sections and -associates him with the legend of Herodias. In modern times the subject -has been made still more popular by Gustave Dore's elaborate designs -(1856), containing some of his most striking and imaginative work. Thus, -probably, he suggested Grenier's poem on the subject (1857). - -In England, besides the ballads in Percy's _Reliques_, William Godwin -introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course of civilization -in his _St Leon_ (1799), and his son-in-law Shelley introduces Ahasuerus -in his _Queen Mab_. It is doubtful how far Swift derived his idea of the -immortal Struldbrugs from the notion of the Wandering Jew. George -Croly's _Salathiel_, which appeared anonymously in 1828, gave a highly -elaborate turn to the legend; this has been republished under the title -_Tarry Thou Till I Come_. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. G. Th. Graesse, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1844); - F. Helbig, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1874); G. Paris, _Le Juif - errant_ (1881); M. D. Conway, _The Wandering Jew_ (1881); S. Morpugo, - _L' Ebreo errante in Italia_ (1891); L. Neubaur, _Die Sage vom ewigen - Juden_ (2nd ed., 1893). The recent literary handling of the subject - has been dealt with by J. Prost, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden in der - neueren deutschen Literatur_ (1905); T. Kappstein, _Ahasver in der - Weltpoesie_ (1905). (J. Ja.) - - - - -JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571), bishop of Salisbury, son of John Jewel of -Buden, Devonshire, was born on the 24th of May 1522, and educated under -his uncle John Bellamy, rector of Hampton, and other private tutors -until his matriculation at Merton college, Oxford, in July 1535. There -he was taught by John Parkhurst, afterwards bishop of Norwich; but on -the 19th of August 1539 he was elected scholar of Corpus Christi -college. He graduated B.A. in 1540, and M.A. in 1545, having been -elected fellow of his college in 1542. He made some mark as a teacher at -Oxford, and became after 1547 one of the chief disciples of Peter -Martyr. He graduated B.D. in 1552, and was made vicar of Sunningwell, -and public orator of the university, in which capacity he had to compose -a congratulatory epistle to Mary on her accession. In April 1554 he -acted as notary to Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the -autumn he signed a series of Catholic articles. He was, nevertheless, -suspected, fled to London, and thence to Frankfort, which he reached in -March 1555. There he sided with Coxe against Knox, but soon joined -Martyr at Strassburg, accompanied him to Zurich, and then paid a visit -to Padua. - -Under Elizabeth's succession he returned to England, and made earnest -efforts to secure what would now be called a low-church settlement of -religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly distinguishable from that of -the Elizabethan Puritans, but he gradually modified it under the stress -of office and responsibility. He was one of the disputants selected to -confute the Romanists at the conference of Westminster after Easter -1559; he was select preacher at St Paul's cross on the 15th of June; and -in the autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western -counties. His _conge d'elire_ as bishop of Salisbury had been made out -on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the 21st of -January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary apologist of the -Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of November 1559, in a sermon -at St Paul's Cross, challenged all comers to prove the Roman case out of -the Scriptures, or the councils or Fathers for the first six hundred -years after Christ. He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr Henry Cole -took it up. The chief result was Jewel's _Apologia ecclesiae -Anglicanae_, published in 1562, which in Bishop Creighton's words is -"the first methodical statement of the position of the Church of England -against the Church of Rome, and forms the groundwork of all subsequent -controversy." A more formidable antagonist than Cole now entered the -lists in the person of Thomas Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel -had deprived of his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy. He -published an elaborate and bitter _Answer_ in 1564, to which Jewel -issued a _Reply_ in 1565. Harding followed with a _Confutation_, and -Jewel with a _Defence_, of the _Apology_ in 1566 and 1567; the -combatants ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy, -and Jewel's theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by -Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. Latterly Jewel had been -confronted with criticism from a different quarter. The arguments that -had weaned him from his Zwinglian simplicity did not satisfy his -unpromoted brethren, and Jewel had to refuse admission to a benefice to -his friend Laurence Humphrey (q.v.), who would not wear a surplice. He -was consulted a good deal by the government on such questions as -England's attitude towards the council of Trent, and political -considerations made him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with -which he had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cartwright, -which was published after his death by Whitgift. He died on the 23rd of -September 1571, and was buried in Salisbury Cathedral, where he had -built a library. Hooker, who speaks of Jewel as "the worthiest divine -that Christendom hath bred for some hundreds of years," was one of the -boys whom Jewel prepared in his house for the university; and his -_Ecclesiastical Polity_ owes much to Jewel's training. - - Jewel's works were published in a folio in 1609 under the direction of - Bancroft, who ordered the _Apology_ to be placed in churches, in some - of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other editions - appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker Soc., 4 - vols.). See also Gough's _Index to Parker Soc. Publ._; Strype's - _Works_ (General Index); _Acts of the Privy Council_; _Calendars of - Domestic and Spanish State Papers_; Dixon's and Frere's _Church - Histories_; and _Dictionary of National Biography_ (art. by Bishop - Creighton). (A. F. P.) - - - - -JEWELRY (O. Fr. _jouel_, Fr. _joyau_, perhaps from _joie_, joy; Lat. -_gaudium_; retranslated into Low Lat. _jocale_, a toy, from _jocus_, by -misapprehension of the origin of the word), a collective term for -jewels, or the art connected with them--jewels being personal ornaments, -usually made of gems, precious stones, &c., with a setting of precious -metal; in a restricted sense it is also common to speak of a gem-stone -itself as a jewel, when utilized in this way. Personal ornaments appear -to have been among the very first objects on which the invention and -ingenuity of man were exercised; and there is no record of any people so -rude as not to employ some kind of personal decoration. Natural objects, -such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated stones, feathers -of variegated colours, were combined by stringing or tying together to -ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the fingers, and even the toes, -whilst the cartilages of the nose and ears were frequently perforated -for the more ready suspension of suitable ornaments. - -Amongst modern Oriental nations we find almost every kind of personal -decoration, from the simple caste mark on the forehead of the Hindu to -the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and silver work of the various -cities and provinces of India. Nor are such decorations mere ornaments -without use or meaning. The hook with its corresponding perforation or -eye, the clasp, the buckle, the button, grew step by step into a special -ornament, according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer, -or became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel deemed -to have served its purpose with the death of its owner, for it is to the -tombs of ancient peoples that we must look for evidence of the early -existence of the jeweller's art. - -The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for us in their -tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarcophagi which contained -the embalmed bodies of the wearers. An amazing series of finds of the -intact jewels of five princesses of the XIIth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was -the result of the excavations of J. de Morgan at Dahshur in 1894-1895. -The treasure of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of -Senwosri (Usertesen) II. and III., one of whom was probably her father. -The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of the same two -monarchs, and also that of Amenemhe III., to whose family Princess -Nebhotp may have belonged. The two remaining princesses were Ita and -Khnumit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - The art of the nameless Memphite jewellers of the XIIth Dynasty is - marked by perfect accuracy of execution, by sureness of intention, by - decorative instinct and sobriety in design, and by the serviceable - nature of the jewels for actual wear. All forms of work are - represented--including chiselling, soldering, inlaying with coloured - stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree. Here - also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small - grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. 1). The principal - items in this dazzling group are the following: Three gold pectorals - (fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked _a jour_ (with the - interstices left open); on the front side they are inlaid with - coloured stones, the fine _cloisons_ being the only portion of the - gold that is visible; on the back, the gold surfaces are most - delicately carved, in low relief. Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32, - 34), found together, are curiously contrasted in character. The one - (fig. 32) is of a formal design, of gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate I. - fig 33, was attached to it); the other (fig. 34) has a multitude of - star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree of daintily twisted wires. A - dagger with inlaid patterns on the handle shows extraordinary - perfection of finish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable collection of -Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of Queen Aah-hotp, -discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance to the valley of the -tombs of the kings and now preserved in the Cairo museum. Compared with -the Dahshur treasure the jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and -coarse, but none the less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of -the materials that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered -work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the -combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured stones, -are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every respect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - A diadem of gold and enamel, found at the back of the head of the - mummy of the queen (fig. 3), was fixed in the back hair, showing the - cartouche in front. The box holding this cartouche has on the upper - surface the titles of the king, "the son of the sun, Aahmes, living - for ever and ever," in gold on a ground of lapis lazuli, with a - chequered ornament in blue and red pastes, and a sphinx couchant on - each side. A necklace with three pendant flies (fig. 4) is entirely of - gold, having a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig. 5 is a - gold drop, inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig. - A gold chain (fig. 6) is formed of wires closely plaited and very - flexible, the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having - small rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by - a small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We - have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. - 7), and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined - by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repousse on a ground - inlaid with lapis lazuli. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--From _Archaeologia_, vol. 59, p. 447, by -permission of the Society of Antiquaries of London.] - -That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very distinct -character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is proved by the -bas-reliefs from which a considerable collection of jewels could be -gathered, such as bracelets, ear-rings and necklaces. Thus, for example, -in the British Museum we have representations of Assur-nazir-pal, king -of Assyria (c. 885-860 B.C.), wearing a cross (fig. 8) very similar to -the Maltese cross of modern times. It happens, however, that the -excavations have not hitherto been fertile in actual remains of gold -work from Assyria. Chance also has so far ordained that the excavations -in Crete should not be particularly rich in ornaments of gold. A few -isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and other pendants, and -also several necklaces with beads of the Argonaut shell-fish pattern. -More striking than these is a short bronze sword. The handle has an -agate pommel, and is covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited -scenes of lions and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in _Archaeologia_, -59, 447). In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Minoan -periods is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the -mainland of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former the gold -ornaments found by Heinrich Schliemann in the graves of Mycenae are -pre-eminent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.] - - The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments still in - use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies (fig. 10), - cuttlefish (fig. 11), single and concentric circles, rosettes and - leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses and - stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre forming - spikes--all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral forms an - incessant decoration from its facile production and repetition by - means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets in gold - repousse suspended by chains and probably used for the decoration of - the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part of the body - of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with - spirals, are among the more remarkable examples of perforated - ornaments for attachment to the clothing. There are also perforated - ornaments belonging to necklaces, with intaglio engravings of such - subjects as a contest of a man and lion, and a duel of two warriors, - one of whom stabs his antagonist in the throat. There are also - pinheads and brooches formed of two stags lying down (fig. 13), the - bodies and necks crossing each other, and the horns meeting - symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial. The heads of these - ornaments were of gold, with silver blades or pointed pins inserted - for use. The bodies of the two stags rest on fronds of the date-palm - growing out of the stem which receives the pin. Another remarkable - series is composed of figures of women with doves. Some have one dove - resting on the head; others have three doves, one on the head and the - others resting on arms. The arms in both instances are extended to the - elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts. These ornaments are also - perforated, and were evidently sewed on the dresses, although there is - some evidence that an example with three doves has been fastened with - a pin. - - An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the bodies - discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to those noticed - above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like or rosette - ornaments in repousse, the relief being very low but perfectly - distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of - repousse gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection - of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be noted - (fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no "piping" at - the back to sustain it; but in general the repousse examples have a - piping of copper wire. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.] - - The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are unique - in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion chasing a - herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild duck, of - inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are inlaid in - gold of various tints, and silver, in bronze plates which are inserted - in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the subjects - are rendered in relief and gilded. The whole is executed with - marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a certain - limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and hatchet - found in the treasure of Queen Aah-hotp mentioned above, but in their - most characteristic features there is little resemblance. The gold - ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik, the supposed site of Troy, - divide themselves, generally speaking, into two groups, one being the - "great treasure" of diadems, ear-rings, beads, bracelets, &c., which - seem the product of a local and uncultured art. The other group, which - were found in smaller "treasures," have spirals and rosettes similar - to those of Mycenae. The discovery, however, of the gold treasures of - the Artemision at Ephesus has brought out points of affinity between - the Hissarlik treasures and those of Ephesus, and has made any - reasoning difficult, in view of the uncertainties surrounding the - Hissarlik finds. The group with Mycenaean affinities (fig. 15) - includes necklaces, brooches, bracelets (g), hair-pins (a), ear-rings - (c, d, e, f), with and without pendants, beads and twisted wire drops. - The majority of these are ornamented with spirals of twisted wire, or - small rosettes, with fragments of stones in the centres. The twisted - wire ornaments were evidently portions of necklaces. A circular plaque - decorated with a rosette (h) is very similar to those found at - Mycenae, and a conventionalized eagle (k) is characteristic of much of - the detail found at that place as well as at Hissarlik. They were all - of pure gold, and the wire must have been drawn through a plate of - harder metal--probably bronze. The principal ornaments differing from - those found at Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered - gold (b) cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, - and fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these - pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the - length of those forming the central portions) are attached small - figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were worn - across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on each side - of the face. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - -The jewelry of the close of the Mycenaean period is best represented by -the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near Salamis, in Cyprus. This -field was excavated by the British Museum in 1896, and a considerable -portion of the finds is now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of -jewelry, but especially in pins, rings and diadems with patterns in -relief. In its geometric patterns the art of Enkomi is entirely -Mycenaean, but special stress is laid on the mythical forms that were -inherited by Greek art, such as the sphinx and the gryphon. - - Figs. 37-48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean treasures - from Enkomi. - " 37, 38 " Ear-rings. - " 39 " Diadem, to be tied on the forehead. The impressed - figure of a sphinx is repeated twelve times. - " 40, 41, 46 " Ear-rings, originally in bull's head form (fig. - 40). Later, the same general form is retained, - but decorative patterns (figs. 41, 46) take - the place of the bull's head. - " 42 " Pin, probably connected by a chain with a fellow, - to be used as a cloak fastening. - " 43 " Pomegranate pendant, with fine granulated work. - " 44, 45 " Pins as No. 42. The heads are of vitreous paste. - " 46 (See above.) - " 47 " Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a pectoral, - inlaid with coloured pastes. - " 48 " Small slate cylinder, set in filigree. - -Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold ornaments -from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina) which also found its -way to the British Museum. Here we find the themes of archaic Greek art, -such as a figure holding up two water-birds, in immediate connexion with -Mycenaean gold patterns. - - Figs. 49-53 (Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure. - " 49 " Plate with repousse ornament for sewing on a - dress. - " 50 " Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on a lotus - his base, and having serpents issuing from - near middle, modified from Egyptian forms. - Fig. 51 (Plate I.) Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the - grooves. - " 52 " Pendant ornament, repousse, and originally - inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste. - " 53 " Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes, modified - from Egyptian forms. - -For the beginnings of Greek art proper, the most striking series of -personal jewels is the great deposit of ornaments which was found in -1905 by D. G. Hogarth in the soil beneath the central basis of the -archaic temple of Artemis of Ephesus. The gold ornaments in question -(amounting in all to about 1000 pieces) were mingled with the closely -packed earth, and must necessarily, it would seem, have been in the -nature of votive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning -of the 6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and -stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at -Constantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum, which -had undertaken the excavations. - - Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard. - " 54 " Electrum pin, with pomegranate head. - " 55 " Hawk ornament. - " 56 " Electrum pin. - " 57, 58 " Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery. - -The cemeteries of Cyprus have yielded a rich harvest of jewelry of -Graeco-Phoenician style of the 7th and following centuries B.C. Figs. 16 -and 17 are typical examples of a ring and ear-ring from Cyprus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.] - -Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very similar -characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and sometimes in -treatment, but it does not rise to any special individuality. Fretwork -is a distinguishing feature of all, together with the wave ornament, the -guilloche, and the occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship -is often of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with -their best skill, and can never surpass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - - EARLY EGYPTIAN. - - LATE MYCENAEAN. - - (FROM ENKOMI.) - - (FROM THE GREEK ISLANDS.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - GREEK. - - ETRUSCAN. - - ROMAN.] - -The Greek jewelry of the best period is of extraordinary delicacy and -beauty. Fine examples are shown in the British Museum from Melos and -elsewhere. Undoubtedly, however, the most brilliant collection of such -ornaments is that of the Hermitage, which was derived from the tombs of -Kerch and the Crimea. It contains examples of the purest Greek work, -together with objects which must have been of local origin, as is shown -by the themes which the artist has chosen for his reliefs. Fig. 18 -illustrates the jewelry of the Hermitage (see also Ear-Ring). - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.] - -As further examples of Greek jewelry see the pendant oblong ornament for -containing a scroll (fig. 19). - -The ear-rings (figs. 20, 21) are also characteristic. - - Figs. 59-70 (Plate II.) Examples of fine Greek jewelry, in the - British Museum. - " 59-60 " Pair of ear-rings, from a grave at Cyme in - Aeolis, with filigree work and pendant - Erotes. - " 61 " Small bracelet. - " 62-63 " Small gold reel with repousse figures of Nereid - with helmet of Achilles, and Eros. From - Cameiros (Rhodes). - " 64 " Filigree ornament (ear-ring?) with Eros in - centre. From Syria. - " 65 " Medallion ornament with repousse head of - Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas coll.) - " 66 " Stud, with filigree work. - " 67-68 " Pair of ear-rings, of gold, with filigree and - enamel, from Eretria. - " 69 " Diadem, with filigree, and enamel scales, from - Tarquinii. - " 70 " Necklace pendants. - -Etruscan jewelry at its best is not easily distinguished from the Greek, -but it tends in its later forms to become florid and diffuse, without -precision of design. The granulation of surfaces practised with the -highest degree of refinement by the Etruscans was long a puzzle and a -problem to the modern jeweller, until Castellani of Rome discovered -gold-workers in the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through -many generations. He induced some of these men to go to Naples, and so -revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the London -Exhibition of 1872 (see FILIGREE). - - Figs. 71-77 (Plate II.) are well-marked examples of Etruscan work, in - the British Museum. - " 71 " Pair of sirens, repousse, forming a hook and - eye fastening. From Chiusi (?). - " 72 " Early fibula. Horse and chimaera. (Blacas - coll.) - " 74 " Medallion-shaped fibula, of fine granulated - work, with figures of sirens in relief, and - set with dark blue pastes. (Bale coll.) - " 73, 75 " Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings. - " 76, 77 " Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings, in the florid - style. - -The jewels of the Roman empire are marked by a greater use of large cut -stones in combination with the gold, and by larger surfaces of plain and -undecorated metal. The adaptation of imperial gold coins to the purposes -of the jeweller is also not uncommon. - - Figs. 78-82 (Plate II.) Late Roman imperial jewelry, in the British - Museum. - " 78 " Large pendant ear-ring, set with stones and - pearls. From Tunis, 4th century. - " 79 " Pierced-work pendant, set with a coin of the - emperor Philip. - " 80 " Ear-ring, roughly set with garnets. - " 81 " Bracelet, with a winged cornucopia as central - ornament, set with plasmas, and with - filigree and leaf work. - " 82 " Bracelet, roughly set with pearls and stones. - From Tunis, 4th century. - -With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the barbarian -tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An important example of this -style is the remarkable gold treasure, discovered at Petrossa in -Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and now preserved, as far as it survives, in -the museum of Bucharest. A runic inscription shows that it belonged to -the Goths. Its style is in part the classical tradition, debased and -modified; in part it is a singularly rude and vigorous form of barbaric -art. Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly -conventionalized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an -ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with a free use -of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either cloisonne-fashion or -in a perforated gold plate. This part of the hoard has its affinities in -objects found over a wide field from Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and -most naturalistic forms occur in the East in uncouth objects from -Siberian tombs, whose lineage however has been traced to Persepolis, -Assyria and Egypt. In its later and more refined forms the style is -known by the name, now somewhat out of favour (except as applied to a -limited number of finds), of Merovingian. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the 5th century, and the -Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature thin -plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in walls of -gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonne enamel, with the -addition of very decorative details of filigree work, beading and -twisted gold. The typical group are the contents of the tomb of King -Childeric (A.D. 481) now in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. In -Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being -decorated with a species of cloisonne, in which garnets are inserted, -while the other is in hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is -also set with garnets. The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably -characteristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament -in gold, set with garnets (fig. 28), is an example of Carolingian design -of a high class. Another remarkable group of barbaric jewelry, dated by -coins as of the beginning of the 7th century, was excavated at Castel -Trosino near the Picenian Ascoli, and is attributed to the Lombards. See -_Monumenti antichi_ (_Accademia dei Lincei_), xii. 145. - -We turn now to the Celtic group of jewelled ornaments, which has an -equally long and independent line of descent. The characteristic Celtic -ornaments are of hammered work with details in repousse, having -fillings-in of vitreous paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in the later -examples rock crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut _en cabochon_. -The whole group is a special development within the British Isles of -the art of the mid-European Early Iron age, which in its turn had been -considerably influenced by early Mediterranean culture. In its early -stages its special marks are combinations of curves, with peculiar -central thickenings which give a quasi-naturalistic effect; a skilful -use of inlaid enamels, and the chased line. After the introduction of -Christianity, a continuous tradition combined the old system with the -interlaced winding scrolls and other new forms of decoration, and so led -up to the extreme complexity of early Irish illumination and metal work. - -A remarkable group of gold ornaments of the pre-Christian time (probably -of the 1st century) was discovered about 1896, in the north-west of -Ireland, and acquired by the British Museum. It was subsequently claimed -by the Crown as treasure trove, and after litigation was transferred to -Dublin (see _Archaeologia_, lv., pl. 22). - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - -Figs. 29 and 30 are illustrations of two brooches of the latest period -in this class of work. The first is 13th century; the latter is probably -12th century, and is set with paste, amber and blue. - -Rings are the chief specimens now seen of medieval jewelry from the 10th -to the 13th century. They are generally massive and simple. Through the -16th century a variety of changes arose; in the traditions and designs -of the _cinquecento_ we have plenty of evidence that the workmen used -their own designs, and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert -Durer, Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the Italian -republics must have produced works of surpassing excellence in -workmanship, and reaching the highest point in design as applied to -handicrafts of any kind. The use of enamels, precious stones, niello -work and engraving, in combination with skilful execution of the human -figure and animal life, produced effects which modern art in this -direction is not likely to approach, still less to rival. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.] - - In fig. 31 illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens - of the Renaissance and later forms of jewelry. A crystal cross set in - enamelled gold (a) is German work of the 16th century. The pendant - reliquary (b), enamelled and jewelled, is of 16th century Italian - work, and so probably is the jewel (c) of gold set with diamonds and - rubies. The Darnley or Lennox jewel (d), now in the possession of the - king, was made about 1576-1577 for Lady Margaret Douglas, countess of - Lennox, the mother of Henry Darnley. It is a pendant golden heart set - with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly jewelled and enamelled with - emblematic figures and devices. It also has Scottish mottoes around - and within it. The ear-ring (e) of gold, enamelled, hung with small - pearls, is an example of 17th century Russian work, and another (f) is - Italian of the same period, being of gold and filigree with enamel, - also with pendant pearls. A Spanish ear-ring, of 18th century work - (g), is a combination of ribbon, cord and filigree in gold; and - another (h) is Flemish, of probably the same period; it is of gold - open work set with diamonds in projecting collets. The old - French-Normandy pendant cross and locket (l) presents a characteristic - example of peasant jewelry; it is of branched open work set with - bosses and ridged ornaments of crystal. The ear-ring (j) is French of - 17th century, also of gold open work set with crystals. A small - pendant locket (k) is of rock crystal, with the cross of Santiago in - gold and translucent crimson enamel; it is 16th or 17th century - Spanish work. A pretty ear-ring of gold open scroll work (m), set with - minute diamonds and three pendant pearls, is Portuguese of 17th - century, and another ear-ring (n) of gold circular open work, set also - with minute diamonds, is Portuguese work of 18th century. These - examples fairly illustrate the general features of the most - characteristic jewelry of the dates quoted. - -During the 17th and 18th centuries we see only a mechanical kind of -excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the workshop--the -lingering of the power which when wisely directed had done so much and -so well, but now simply living on traditional forms, often combined in a -most incongruous fashion. Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the -gold, and introducing stones elaborately cut in themselves or clustered -in groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bouquets; -rubies, pearls, emeralds and other coloured special stones were brought -together for little other purpose than to get them into a given space in -conjunction with a certain quantity of gold. The question was not of -design in its relation to use as personal decoration, but of the value -which could be got into a given space to produce the most striking -effect. - -The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down through the -various periods quoted, were comparatively lost in the wretched results -of the _rococo_ of Louis XIV. and the inanities of what modern -revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call "Queen Anne." In the London -exhibition of 1851, the extravagances of modern jewelry had to stand -comparison with the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then -we have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled to -acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority of -workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller understood his work, -and with what singular simplicity of method he carried it out. The -combinations are always harmonious, the result aimed at is always -achieved; and if in attempting to work to European ideas the jeweller -failed, this was rather the fault of the forms he had to follow, than -due to any want of skill in making the most of a subject in which half -the thought and the intended use were foreign to his experience. - -A collection of peasant jewelry got together by Castellani for the Paris -exhibition of 1867, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, -illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional jewelry and personal -ornaments of a wide range of peoples in Europe. This collection, and the -additions made to it since its acquisition by the nation, show the forms -in which these objects existed over several generations among the -peasantry of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, -Denmark, Germany and Switzerland, and also show how the forms popular in -one country are followed and adopted in another, almost invariably -because of their perfect adaptation to the purpose for which they were -designed. - -Apart from these humbler branches of the subject, in the middle of the -19th century the production of jewelry, regarded as a personal art, and -not as a commercial and anonymous industry, was almost extinct. Its -revival must be associated with the artistic movement which marked the -close of that century, and which found emphatic expression in the Paris -international exhibition of 1900. For many years before 1895 this -industry, though prosperous from the commercial point of view, and -always remarkable from that of technical finish, remained stationary as -an art. French jewelry rested on its reputation. The traditions were -maintained of either the 17th and 18th centuries or the style affected -at the close of the second empire--light pierced work and design -borrowed from natural flowers. The last type, introduced by Massin, had -exercised, indeed, a revolutionary influence on the treatment of -jewelry. This clever artist, not less skilful as a craftsman, produced a -new _genre_ by copying the grace and lightness of living blossoms, thus -introducing a perfectly fresh element into the limited variety of -traditional style, and by the use of filigree gold work altering its -character and giving it greater elegance. Massin still held the first -rank in the exhibition of 1878; he had a marked influence on his -contemporaries, and his name will be remembered in the history of the -goldsmith's art to designate a style and a period. Throughout these -years the craft was exclusively devoted to perfection of workmanship. -The utmost finish was aimed at in the mounting and setting of gems; -jewelry was, in fact, not so much an art as a high-class industry; -individual effort and purpose were absent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Up to that time precious stones had been of such intrinsic value that -the jeweller's chief skill lay in displaying these costly stones to the -best advantage; the mounting was a secondary consideration. The settings -were seldom long preserved in their original condition, but in the case -of family jewels were renewed with each generation and each change of -fashion, a state of things which could not be favourable to any truly -artistic development of taste, since the work was doomed, sooner or -later, to destruction. However, the evil led to its own remedy. As soon -as diamonds fell in value they lost at the same time their overwhelming -prestige, and refined taste could give a preference to trinkets which -derived their value and character from artistic design. This -revolutionized the jeweller's craft, and revived the simple ornament of -gold or silver, which came forward but timidly at first, till, in the -Salon of 1895, it burst upon the world in the exhibits of Rene Lalique, -an artist who was further confirmed in his remarkable position by the -exhibition of 1900. What specially stamps the works of Lalique is their -striking originality. His work may be considered from the point of view -of design and from that of execution. As an artist he has completely -reconstructed from the foundation the scheme of design which had fed the -poverty-stricken imagination of the last generation of goldsmiths. He -had recourse to the art of the past, but to the spirit rather than the -letter, and to nature for many new elements of design--free double -curves, suave or soft; opalescent harmonies of colouring; reminiscences, -with quite a new feeling, of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece and the East, or of -the art of the Renaissance; and infinite variety of floral forms even of -the humblest. He introduces also the female nude in the form of sirens -and sphinxes. As a craftsman he has effected a radical change, breaking -through old routine, combining all the processes of the goldsmith, the -chaser, the enameller and the gem-setter, and freeing himself from the -narrow lines in which the art had been confined. He ignores the -hierarchy of gems, caring no more on occasion for a diamond than for a -flint, since, in his view, no stone, whatever its original estimation, -has any value beyond the characteristic expression he lends it as a -means to his end. Thus, while he sometimes uses diamonds, rubies, -sapphires or emeralds as a background, he will, on the other hand, give -a conspicuous position to common stones--carnelian, agate, malachite, -jasper, coral, and even materials of no intrinsic value, such as horn. -One of his favourite stones is the opal, which lends itself to his -arrangements of colour, and which has in consequence become a -fashionable stone in French jewelry. - -In criticism of the art of Lalique and his school it should be observed -that the works of the school are apt to be unsuited to the wear and tear -of actual use, and inconveniently eccentric in their details. Moreover, -the preciousness of the material is an almost inevitable consideration -in the jeweller's craft, and cannot be set at naught by the artist -without violating the canons of his art. - -The movement which took its rise in France spread in due course to other -countries. In England the movement conveniently described as the "arts -and crafts movement" affected the design of jewelry. A group of -designers has aimed at purging the jeweller's craft of its character of -mere gem-mounting in conventional forms (of which the more -unimaginative, representing stars, bows, flowers and the like, are -varied by such absurdities as insects, birds, animals, figures of men -and objects made up simply of stones clustered together). Their work is -often excellently and fancifully designed, but it lacks that exquisite -perfection of execution achieved by the incomparable craftsmen of -France. At the same time English sculptor-decorators--such as Alfred -Gilbert, R.A., and George J. Frampton, A.R.A.--have produced objects of -a still higher class, but it is usually the work of the goldsmith rather -than of the jeweller. Examples may be seen in the badge executed by -Gilbert for the president of the Institute of Painters in Water Colours -and in the mayoral chain for Preston. Symbolism here enters into the -design, which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose. - -The movement was represented in other countries also. In the United -States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by Philippe Wolfers, who -occupies in Belgium the position which in France is held by Rene -Lalique. If his design is a little heavier, it is not less beautiful in -imagination or less masterly in execution. Graceful, ingenious, -fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns, his objects of jewelry and -goldsmithery have a solid claim to be considered _creations d'art_. It -has also been felt in Germany, Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must -be admitted that many of the best artists who have devoted themselves to -jewelry have been more successful in design than in securing the -lightness and strength which are required by the wearer, and which were -a characteristic in the works of the Italian craftsmen of the -Renaissance. For this reason many of their masterpieces are more -beautiful in the case than upon the person. - -_Modern Jewelry._--So far we have gone over the progress and results of -the jeweller's art. We have now to speak of the production of jewelry as -a modern art industry, in which large numbers of men and women are -employed in the larger cities of Europe. Paris, Vienna, London and -Birmingham are the most important centres. An illustration of the -manufacture as carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient to -give an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this -branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be interesting -to give in the first place a description of the native working jeweller -of Hindustan. - - He travels very much after the fashion of a tinker in England; his - budget contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites of - his handicraft. The gold to be used is generally supplied by the - patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the - travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required. - He squats down in the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a - veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him, - hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files, - scrapes and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect. If he - has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never seems to - make a mistake; his instinct for harmony of colour, like that of his - brother craftsman the weaver, is as unerring as that of the bird in - the construction of its nest. Whether the materials are common or rich - and rare, he invariably does the very best possible with them, - according to native ideas of beauty in design and combination. It is - only when he is interfered with by European dictation that he ever - vulgarizes his art or makes a mistake. The result may appear rude in - its finish, but the design and the thought are invariably right. We - thus see how a trade in the working of which the "plant" is so simple - and wants are so readily met could spread itself, as in years past it - did at Clerkenwell and at Birmingham before gigantic factories were - invented for producing everything under the sun. - -It is impossible to find any date at which the systematic production of -jewelry was introduced into England. Probably the Clerkenwell trade -dates its origin from the revocation of the edict of Nantes, as the -skilled artisans in the jewelry, clock and watch, and trinket trades -appear to have been descendants of the emigrant Huguenots. The -Birmingham trade would appear to have had its origin in the skill to -which the workers in fine steel had attained towards the middle and end -of the 18th century, a branch of industry which collapsed after the -French Revolution. - - Modern jewelry may be classified under three heads: (1) objects in - which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in which the - work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means for carrying - out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the position arranged - by the designer, the metal employed being visible only as a setting; - (2) when gold work plays an important part in the development of the - design, being itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely used) or - enamelling or both, the stones and gems being arranged in - subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a - decorative effect to the whole; (3) when gold or other metal is alone - used, the design being wrought out by hammering in repousse, casting, - engraving, chasing or by the addition of filigree work (see FILIGREE), - or when the surfaces are left absolutely plain but polished and highly - finished. - - Of course the most ancient and primitive methods are those wholly - dependent upon the craft of the workman; but gradually various - ingenious processes were invented, by which greater accuracy in the - portions to be repeated in a design could be produced with certainty - and economy: hence the various methods of stamping used in the - production of hand-made jewelry, which are in themselves as much - mechanical in relation to the end in view as if the whole object were - stamped out at a blow, twisted into its proper position as regards the - detail, or the various stamped portions fitted into each other for the - mechanical completion of the work. It is therefore rather difficult to - draw an absolute line between hand-made and machine-made jewelry, - except in extreme cases of hand-made, when everything is worked, so to - speak, from the solid, or of machine-made, when the hand has only to - give the ornament a few touches of a tool, or fit the parts together - if of more than one piece. - - The best and most costly hand-made jewelry produced in England, - whether as regards gold work, gems, enamelling or engraving, is made - in London, and chiefly at Clerkenwell. A design is first made with - pencil, sepia or water colour, and when needful with separate - enlargement of details, everything in short to make the drawing - thoroughly intelligible to the working jeweller. According to the - nature and purpose of the design, he cuts out, hammers, files and - brings into shape the constructive portions of the work as a basis. - Upon this, as each detail is wrought out, he solders, or (more rarely) - fixes by rivets, &c., the ornamentation necessary to the effect. The - human figure, representations of animal life, leaves, fruit, &c., are - modelled in wax, moulded and cast in gold, to be chased up and - finished. As the hammering goes on the metal becomes brittle and hard, - and then it is passed though the fire to anneal or soften it. In the - case of elaborate examples of repousse, after the general forms are - beaten up, the interior is filled with a resinous compound, pitch - mixed with fire-brick dust; and this, forming a solid but pliable body - underneath the metal, allows of the finished details being wrought out - on the front of the design, and being finally completed by chasing. - When stones are to be set, or when they form the principal portions of - the design, the gold or other metal has to be wrought by hand so as to - receive them in little cup-like orifices, these walls of gold - enclosing the stone and allowing the edges to be bent over to secure - it. Setting is never effected by cement in well-made jewelry. - Machine-made settings have in recent years been made, but these are - simply cheap imitations of the true hand-made setting. Even strips of - gold have been used, serrated at the edges to allow of being easily - bent over, for the retention of the stones, true or false. - - Great skill and experience are necessary in the proper setting of - stones and gems of high value, in order to bring out the greatest - amount of brilliancy and colour, and the angle at which a diamond - (say) shall be set, in order that the light shall penetrate at the - proper point to bring out the "spark" or "flash," is a subject of - grave consideration to the setter. Stones set in a haphazard, slovenly - manner, however brilliant in themselves, will look commonplace by the - side of skilfully set gems of much less fine quality and water. - Enamelling (see ENAMEL) has of late years largely taken the place of - "paste" or false stones. - - Engraving is a simple process in itself, and diversity of effect can - be produced by skilful manipulation. An interesting variety in the - effect of a single ornament may be produced by the combination of - coloured gold of various tints. This colouring is a process requiring - skill and experience in the manipulation of the materials according to - the quality of the gold and the amount of silver alloy in it. The - objects to be coloured are dipped in a boiling mixture of salt, alum - and saltpetre. Of general colouring it may be said that the object - aimed at is to enhance the appearance of the gold by removing the - particles of alloy on the surface, and thus allowing the pure gold - only to remain visible to the eye. The process has, however, gone much - out of fashion. It is apt to rot the solder, and repairs to gold work - can be better finished by electro-gilding. - - The application of machinery to the economical production of certain - classes of jewelry, not necessarily imitations, but as much "real - gold" work, to use a trade phrase, as the best hand-made, has been on - the increase for many years. Nearly every kind of gold chain now made - is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like the beauty of design - or perfection of workmanship could be obtained by hand at, probably, - any cost. The question therefore in relation to chains is not the mode - of manufacture, but the quality of the metal. Eighteen carat gold is - of course preferred by those who wear chains, but this is only gold in - the proportion of 18 to 24, pure gold being represented by 24. The - gold coin of the realm is 22 carat; that is, it contains one-twelfth - of alloy to harden it to stand wear and tear. Thus 18 carat gold has - one-fourth of alloy, and so on with lower qualities down to 12, which - is in reality only gold by courtesy. It must be remembered that the - alloys are made by weight, and as gold is nearly twice as heavy as the - metal it is mixed with, it only forms a third of the bulk of a 12 - carat mixture. - - The application of machinery to the production of personal ornaments - in gold and silver can only be economically and successfully carried - on when there is a large demand for similar objects, that is to say, - objects of precisely the same design and decoration throughout. In - machine-made jewelry everything is stereotyped, so to speak, and the - only work required for the hand is to fit the parts together--in some - instances scarcely that. A design is made, and from it steel dies are - sunk for stamping out as rapidly as possible from a plate of rolled - metal the portion represented by each die. It is in these steel dies - that the skill of the artist die-sinker is manifested. Brooches, - ear-rings, pinheads, bracelets, lockets, pendants, &c., are struck out - by the gross. This is more especially the case in silver and in plated - work--that is, imitation jewelry--the base of which is an alloy, - afterwards gilt by electro-plating. With these ornaments imitation - stones in paste and glass, pearls, &c., are used, and it is remarkable - that of late years some of the best designs, the most simple, - appropriate and artistic, have appeared in imitation jewelry. It is - only just to those engaged in this manufacture to state distinctly - that their work is never sold wholesale for anything else than what it - is. The worker in gold only makes gold or real jewelry, and he only - makes of a quality well known to his customers. The producer of silver - work only manufactures silver ornaments, and so on throughout the - whole class of plated goods. - - It is the retailer who, if he is unprincipled, takes advantage of the - ignorance of the buyer and sells for gold that which is in reality an - imitation, and which he bought as such. The imitations of old styles - of jewelry which are largely sold in curiosity shops at foreign places - of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially at - Munich. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Dahshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and others; - _Fouilles a Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894_ (Vienna, 1895) and _Fouilles a - Dahchour en 1894-1895_ (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-hotep jewels, see - Mariette, _Album de Musee de Boulaq_, pls. 29-31; Birch, _Facsimiles - of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-hotep_ - (1863). For Cretan excavations, see A. J. Evans, in _Annual of the - British School at Athens_, Nos. 7 to 11; _Archaeologia_, vol. lix. For - excavations at Enkomi, see _Excavations in Cyprus_, by A. S. Murray - and others (1900). For _Schliemann's excavations_, see Schliemann's - works; also Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations; Perrot & Chipiez, - _Histoire de l'Art_, vi. For the Greek Island treasure, see A. J. - Evans, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiii. For Ephesus gold treasure, - see D. G. Hogarth, _British Museum Excavations at Ephesus_; _The - Archaic Artemisia_. For the Hermitage Collection from South Russia, - see Gille, _Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien_ (reissued by S. - Reinach), and the _Comptes rendus_ of the Russian Archaeological - Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, - _Goldschmiedearbeit_. For Treasure of Petrossa, A. Odobesco, _Le - Tresor de Petrossa_. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric - jewelry, see O. M. Dalton, in _Archaeologia_, lviii. 237, and the - _Treasure of the Oxus_ (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, - G. Fontenay, _Les Bijoux anciens et modernes_ (Paris [Quantin], 1887). - For the recent movement, Leonce Benedite, "La Bijouterie et la - joaillerie, a l'exposition universelle; Rene Lalique," in the _Revue - des arts decoratifs_, 1900 (July, August). (A. H. Sm.) - - - - -JEWETT, SARAH ORNE (1840-1909), American novelist, was born in South -Berwick, Maine, on the 3rd of September 1849. She was a daughter of the -physician Theodore H. Jewett (1815-1878), by whom she was greatly -influenced, and whom she has drawn in _A Country Doctor_ (1884). She -studied at the Berwick Academy, and began her literary career in 1869, -when she contributed her first story to the _Atlantic Monthly_. Her best -work consists of short stories and sketches, such as those in _The -Country of the Pointed Firs_ (1896). The People of Maine, with their -characteristic speech, manners and traditions, she describes with -peculiar charm and realism, often recalling the work of Hawthorne. She -died at South Berwick, Maine, on the 24th of June 1909. - - Among her publications are: _Deephaven_ (1877), a series of sketches; - _Old Friends and New_ (1879); _Country By-ways_ (1881); _A Country - Doctor_ (1884), a novel; _A Marsh Island_ (1885), a novel; _A White - Heron and other Stories_ (1886); _The King of Folly Island and other - People_ (1888); _Strangers and Wayfarers_ (1890); _A Native of Winby - and other Tales_ (1893); _The Queen's Twin and other Stories_ (1899), - and _The Tory Lover_ (1901), an historical novel. - - - - - -JEWS (Heb. _Yehudi_, man of Judah; Gr. [Greek: Ioudaioi]; Lat. -_Judaei_), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited -Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions as "the -Hebrews," "the Jews," and "Israel" (see S 5 below). Their history may be -divided into three great periods: (1) That covered by the Old Testament -to the foundation of Judaism in the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek -and Roman domination to the destruction of Jerusalem, and (3) that of -the Diaspora or Dispersion to the present day. - - -I.--OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY - -I. _The Land and the People._--For the first two periods the history of -the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among those peoples -which occupied the area lying between the Nile on the one side and the -Tigris and the Euphrates on the other. Surrounded by ancient seats of -culture in Egypt and Babylonia, by the mysterious deserts of Arabia, and -by the highlands of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was -the high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and the -meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were entirely -dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or acquiescence alone -enabled them to rise above dependence or vassalage. The land was -traversed by old-established trade routes and possessed important -harbours on the Gulf of 'Akaba and on the Mediterranean coast, the -latter exposing it to the influence of the Levantine culture. It was -"the physical centre of those movements of history from which the world -has grown." The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediterranean -may be divided into two main parts:--Syria (from the Taurus to Hermon) -and Palestine (southward to the desert bordering upon Egypt). The latter -is about 150 m. from north to south (the proverbial "Dan to Beersheba"), -with a breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., i.e. about 6040 sq. m. This -excludes the land east of the Jordan, on which see PALESTINE. - -From time to time streams of migration swept into Palestine and Syria. -Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their home in Arabia to seek -sustenance in its more fertile fields, to plunder, or to escape the -pressure of tribes in the rear. The course leads naturally into either -Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the Euphrates, northern Syria is -eventually reached. Tribes also moved down from the north: nomads, or -offshoots from the powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor. Such -frequently recurring movements introduced new blood. Tribes, chiefly of -pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly of their -own type that a complete amalgamation could be effected, and this -without any marked modification of the general characteristics of the -earlier inhabitants. It is from such a fusion as this that the ancestors -of the Jews were descended, and both the history and the genius of this -people can be properly understood only by taking into account the -physical features of their land and the characteristics of the Semitic -races in general (see PALESTINE, SEMITIC LANGUAGES). - -2. _Society and Religion._--The similarity uniting the peoples of the -East in respect of racial and social characteristics is accompanied by a -striking similarity of mental outlook which has survived to modern -times. Palestine, in spite of the numerous vicissitudes to which it has -been subjected, has not lost its fundamental characteristics. The -political changes involved in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or -Persian conquests surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves -of Greek, Roman and other European invasions. Even during the temporary -Hellenization in the second great period the character of the people as -a whole was untouched by the various external influences which produced -so great an effect on the upper classes. When the foreign civilization -perished, the old culture once more came to the surface. Hence it is -possible, by a comprehensive comparative study of Eastern peoples, in -both ancient and modern times, to supplement and illustrate within -certain limits our direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and thus -to understand more clearly those characteristics which were peculiar to -them, in relation to those which they shared with other Oriental -peoples. - -Even before authentic history begins, the elements of religion and -society had already crystallized into a solid coherent structure which -was to persist without essential modification. Religion was inseparable -from ordinary life, and, like that of all peoples who are dependent on -the fruits of the earth, was a nature-worship. The tie between deities -and worshippers was regarded as physical and entailed mutual -obligations. The study of the clan-group as an organization is as -instructive here as in other fields. The members of each group lived on -terms of equality, the families forming a society of worship the rites -of which were conducted by the head. Such groups (each with its local -deity) would combine for definite purposes under the impulse of external -needs, but owing to inevitable internal jealousies and the incessant -feuds among a people averse from discipline and authority, the unions -were not necessarily lasting. The elders of these groups possessed some -influence, and tended to form an aristocracy, which took the lead in -social life, although their authority generally depended merely upon -custom. Individual leaders in times of stress acquired a recognized -supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped the rest, the opportunities for -continued advance gave further scope to their authority. "The ... -interminable feuds of tribes, conducted on the theory of blood-revenge, -can seldom be durably healed without the intervention of a third -party who is called in as arbiter, and in this way an impartial and wise -power acquires of necessity a great and beneficent influence over all -around it" (W. R. Smith). In time, notwithstanding a certain inherent -individualism and impatience of control, veritable despotisms arose in -the Semitic world, although such organizations were invariably liable to -sudden collapse as the old forms of life broke down with changing -conditions.[1] - -3. _Early History._[2]--Already in the 15th century B.C. Palestine was -inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and religion were -not radically different several hundred years later. Small native -princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after expelling the Hyksos from -its borders, had entered upon a series of conquests as far as the -Euphrates. Some centuries previously, however, Babylonia had laid claim -to the western states, and the Babylonian (i.e. Assyrian) script and -language were now used, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence -between Egypt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday -life among the Palestinian princes themselves. To what extent specific -Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions is not completely -known. Canaan (Palestine and the south Phoenician coast land) and Amor -(Lebanon district and beyond) were under the constant supervision of -Egypt, and Egyptian officials journeyed round to collect tribute, to -attend to complaints, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the -vassals. The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek -(bibl. Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological evidence -(from Lachish, Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.), represent advanced -conditions of life and culture, the precise chronological limits of -which cannot be determined with certainty. This age, with its regular -maritime intercourse between the Aegean settlements, Phoenicia and the -Delta, and with lines of caravans connecting Babylonia, North Syria, -Arabia and Egypt, presents a remarkable picture of life and activity, in -the centre of which lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian -colonies and some traces of Egyptian cults. The history of this, the -"Amarna" age, reveals a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the -weakness of Egypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian peoples -were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little local -principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal intrigues and -from the designs of this northern power. It is now that we find the -restless Habiru, a name which is commonly identified with that of the -"Hebrews" (_'ibrim_). They offer themselves where necessary to either -party, and some at least perhaps belonged to the settled population. The -growing prominence of the new northern group of "Hittite" states -continued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have more -external light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (q.v.) are found -strongly entrenched in the land. But by the end of the first quarter of -the 13th century B.C. Egypt had recovered its province (precise boundary -uncertain), leaving its rivals in possession of Syria. Towards the close -of the 13th century the Egyptian king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a -successful campaign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, -Ascalon, Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or tribe) Israel.[3] -Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously threatened -Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the 12th century they formed a -coalition on land and sea which taxed all the resources of Rameses III. -In the Purasati, apparently the most influential of these peoples, may -be recognized the origin of the name "Philistine." The Hittite power -became weaker, and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have -succeeded in maintaining themselves on the sea coast. External history, -however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence would be -most welcome. For a time the fate of Syria and Palestine seems to have -been no longer controlled by the great powers. When the curtain rises -again we enter upon the historical traditions of the Old Testament. - -4. _Biblical History._--For the rest of the first period the Old Testament -forms the main source. It contains in fact the history itself in two -forms: (a) from the creation of man to the fall of Judah (Genesis-2 -Kings), which is supplemented and continued further--(b) to the foundation -of Judaism in the 5th century B.C. (Chronicles--Ezra-Nehemiah). In the -light of contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress of -scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern historical -criticism, the representation of the origin of mankind and of the history -of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer be implicitly accepted. -Written by an Oriental people and clothed in an Oriental dress, the Old -Testament does not contain objective records, but subjective history -written and incorporated for specific purposes. Like many Oriental works -it is a compilation, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles -with Samuel-Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of the -present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recurring -phenomenon. The critical examination of the nature and growth of this -compilation has removed much that had formerly caused insuperable -difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been made an integral or a -relevant part of practical religion. On the other hand, criticism has -given a deeper meaning to the Old Testament history, and has brought into -relief the central truths which really are vital; it may be said to have -replaced a divine account of man by man's account of the divine. Scholars -are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal features are best -explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis. This involves the view that -the historical traditions are mainly due to two characteristic though very -complicated recensions, one under the influence of the teaching of -Deuteronomy (Joshua to Kings, see S 20), the other, of a more priestly -character (akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, -with traces in Judges to Kings, see S 23). There are, of course, numerous -problems relating to the nature, limits and dates of the two recensions, -of the incorporated sources, and of other sources (whether early or late) -of independent origin; and here there is naturally room for much -divergence of opinion. Older material (often of composite origin) has been -used, not so much for the purpose of providing historical information, as -with the object of showing the religious significance of past history; -and the series Joshua-Kings is actually included among the "prophets" in -Jewish reckoning (see MIDRASH). In general, one may often observe that -freedom which is characteristic of early and unscientific historians. Thus -one may note the reshaping of older material to agree with later thought, -the building up of past periods from the records of other periods, and a -frequent loss of perspective. The historical traditions are to be -supplemented by the great body of prophetic, legal and poetic literature -which reveal contemporary conditions in various internal literary, -theological or sociological features. The investigation of their true -historical background and of the trustworthiness of their external setting -(e.g. titles of psalms, dates and headings of prophecies) involves a -criticism of the historical traditions themselves, and thus the two major -classes of material must be constantly examined both separately and in -their bearing on one another. In a word, the study of biblical history, -which is dependent in the first instance upon the written sources, demands -constant attention to the text (which has had an interesting history) and -to the literary features; and it requires a sympathetic acquaintance with -Oriental life and thought, both ancient and modern, an appreciation of the -necessity of employing the methods of scientific research, and (from the -theological side) a reasoned estimate of the dependence of individual -religious convictions upon the letter of the Old Testament.[4] - - In view of the numerous articles in this work dealing with biblical - subjects,[5] the present sketch is limited to the outlines of the - traditional history; the religious aspect in its bearing upon biblical - theology (which is closely bound up with the traditions) is handled - separately under HEBREW RELIGION. The related literature is enormous - (see the bibliographies to the special articles); it is indexed - annually in _Orientalische Bibliographie_ (Berlin), and is usefully - summarized in the _Theologische Jahresbericht_ (Berlin). On the - development of the study of biblical history see C. A. Briggs, _Study - of Holy Scripture_ (1899), especially ch. xx. The first scientific - historical work was by H. Ewald, _Gesch. d. Volkes Israel_ (1843; 3rd - ed., 1864-1868; Eng. trans., 1869-1883), popularized by Arthur Penrhyn - Stanley in his _Hist. of the Jewish Church_ (1863-1879). The works of - J. Wellhausen (especially _Prolegomena to the Hist. of Israel_, Eng. - trans., 1885, also the brilliant article "Israel" in the 9th ed. of - the _Ency. Brit._, 1879) were epoch-making; his position was - interpreted to English readers by W. Robertson Smith (_Old Test. in - Jewish Church_, 1881, 2nd ed., 1892; _Prophets of Israel_, 1882, 2nd - ed. by T. K. Cheyne, 1902). The historical (and related) works of T. - K. Cheyne, H. Graetz, H. Guthe, F. C. Kent, A. Kittel, W. H. Kosters, - A. Kuenen, C. Piepenbring, and especially B. Stade, although varying - greatly in standpoint, are among the most valuable by recent scholars; - H. P. Smith's _Old Test. Hist._ ("International Theological Library," - Edinburgh, 1903) is in many respects the most serviceable and complete - study; a modern and more critical "Ewald" is a desideratum. For the - works of numerous other scholars who have furthered Old Testament - research in the past it must suffice to refer to the annotated list by - J. M. P. Smith, _Books for O.T. Study_ (Chicago, 1908). - - For the external history, E. Schrader, _Cuneiform Inscr. and the Old - Testament_ (Eng. trans. by O. C. Whitehouse, 1885-1888) is still - helpful; among the less technical works are J. F. McCurdy, _History, - Prophecy and the Monuments_; B. Paton, _Syria and Palestine_ (1902); - G. Maspero, _Hist. ancienne_ (6th ed., 1904); A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. - im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (2nd ed., 1906); and especially - _Altoriental. Texte u. Bilder zum Alten Test._, ed. by H. Gressman, - with A. Ungnad and H. Ranke (1909). The most complete is that of Ed. - Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alterthums_ (2nd ed., 1907 sqq.). That of Jeremias - follows upon the lines of H. Winckler, whose works depart from the - somewhat narrow limits of purely "Israelite" histories, emphasize the - necessity of observing the characteristics of Oriental thought and - policy, and are invaluable for discriminating students. Winckler's own - views are condensed in the 3rd edition--a re-writing--of Schrader's - work (_Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Testament_, 1903), and, with an - instructive account of the history of "ancient nearer Asia," in H. F. - Helmolt's _World's History_, iii. 1-252 (1903). All modern histories - of any value are necessarily compromises between the biblical - traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those studies - which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or canonical - representation often do greater justice to the evidence as a whole - than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic - reconstructions.[6] Scientific biblical historical study, - nevertheless, is still in a relatively backward condition; and - although the labours of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct - epoch, the trend of research points to the recognition of the fact - that the purely subjective literary material requires a more - historical treatment in the light of our increasing knowledge of - external and internal conditions in the old Oriental world. But an - inductive and deductive treatment, both, comprehensive and in due - proportion, does not as yet (1910) exist, and awaits fuller external - evidence.[7] - -5. _Traditions of Origin._--The Old Testament preserves the remains of -an extensive literature, representing different standpoints, which -passed through several hands before it reached its present form. -Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing had long been known, -and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a considerable amount of -material culture, Palestine could look back upon a lengthy and stirring -history which, however, has rarely left its mark upon our records. -Whatever ancient sources may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy -traditions were in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient -Oriental world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in -the first instance to those undated records which have survived in the -form which the last editors gave to them. The critical investigation of -these records is the indispensable prelude to all serious biblical -study, and hasty or sweeping deductions from monumental or -archaeological evidence, or versions compiled promiscuously from -materials of distinct origin, are alike hazardous. A glimpse at -Palestine in the latter half of the second millennium B.C. (S 3) -prepares us for busy scenes and active intercourse, but it is not a -history of this kind which the biblical historians themselves transmit. -At an age when--on literary-critical grounds--the Old Testament writings -were assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the -immediately preceding centuries into three distinct period. (a) The -first, that of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria) in -the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then (b) the -former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th century B.C., -when a number of its inhabitants were carried away; and the latter -shared the fate of exile at the beginning of the 6th, but succeeded in -making a fresh reconstruction some fifty or sixty years later. Finally -(c), in the so-called "post-exilic" period, religion and life were -reorganized under the influence of a new spirit; relations with Samaria -were broken off, and Judaism took its definite character, perhaps about -the middle or close of the 5th century. Throughout these vicissitudes -there were important political and religious changes which render the -study of the composite sources a work of unique difficulty. In addition -to this it should be noticed that the term "Jew" (originally _Yehudi_), -in spite of its wider application, means properly "man of Judah," i.e. -of that small district which, with Jerusalem as its capital, became the -centre of Judaism. The favourite name "Israel" with all its religious -and national associations is somewhat ambiguous in an historical sketch, -since, although it is used as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came -to designate the true nucleus of the worshippers of the national god -Yahweh as opposed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite -territory (c). A more general term is "Hebrew" (see HEBREW LANGUAGE), -which, whether originally identical with the Habiru or not (S 3), is -used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic deserves -preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or impossible. - -The traditions which prevailed among the Hebrews concerning their origin -belong to a time when Judah and Israel were regarded as a unit. Twelve -divisions or tribes, of which Judah was one, held together by a -traditional sentiment, were traced back to the sons of Jacob (otherwise -known as Israel), the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham. Their names -vary in origin and probably also in point of age, and where they -represent fixed territorial limits, the districts so described were in -some cases certainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry. But as -tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many characteristic -traditions which were doubtless current a number have been preserved, -though not in any very early dress. Close relationship was recognized -with the Aramaeans, with Edom, Moab and Ammon. This is characteristically -expressed when Esau, the ancestor of Edom, is represented as the brother -of Jacob, or when Moab and Ammon are the children of Lot, Abraham's -nephew (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). Abraham, it was believed, came from -Harran (Carrhae), primarily from Babylonia, and Jacob re-enters from -Gilead in the north-east with his Aramaean wives and concubines and their -families (Benjamin excepted). It is on this occasion that Jacob's name is -changed to Israel. These traditions of migration and kinship are in -themselves entirely credible, but the detailed accounts of the ancestors -Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently doubtful as -regards both the internal conditions, which the (late) chronological -scheme ascribes to the first half of the second millennium B.C., and the -general circumstances of the life of these strangers in a foreign land. -From a variety of independent reasons one is forced to conclude that, -whatever historical elements they may contain, the stories of this remote -past represent the form which tradition had taken in a very much later -age. - - Opinion is at variance regarding the patriarchal narratives as a - whole. To deny their historical character is to reject them as - trustworthy accounts of the age to which they are ascribed, and even - those scholars who claim that they are essentially historical already - go so far as to concede idealization and the possibility or - probability of later revision. The failure to apprehend historical - method has often led to the fallacious argument that the - trustworthiness of individual features justifies our accepting the - whole, or that the elimination of unhistorical elements will leave an - historical residuum. Here and frequently elsewhere in biblical history - it is necessary to allow that a genuine historical tradition may be - clothed in an unhistorical dress, but since many diverse motives are - often concentrated upon one narrative (e.g. Gen. xxxii. 22-32, xxxiv., - xxxviii.), the work of internal historical criticism (in view of the - scantiness of the evidence) can rarely claim finality. The patriarchal - narratives themselves belong to the popular stock of tradition of - which only a portion has been preserved. Many of the elements lie - outside questions of time and place and are almost immemorial. Some - appear written for the first time in the book of Jubilees, in "the - Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs" (both perhaps 2nd century B.C.) - and in later sources; and although in Genesis the stories are now in a - post-exilic setting (a stage earlier than Jubilees), the older - portions may well belong to the 7th or 6th cent. This question, - however, will rest upon those criteria alone which are of true - chronological validity (see further GENESIS). - -The story of the settlement of the national and tribal ancestors in -Palestine is interrupted by an account of the southward movement of -Jacob (or Israel) and his sons into a district under the immediate -influence of the kings of Egypt. After an interval of uncertain duration -we find in Exodus a numerous people subjected to rigorous oppression. No -longer individual sons of Jacob or Israel, united tribes were led out by -Moses and Aaron; and, after a series of incidents extending over forty -years, the "children of Israel" invaded the land in which their -ancestors had lived. The traditions embodied in the books Exodus-Joshua -are considerably later than the apparent date of the events themselves, -and amid the diverse and often conflicting data it is possible to -recognize distinct groups due to some extent to distinct historical -conditions. The story of the "exodus" is that of the religious birth of -"Israel," joined by covenant with the national god Yahweh[8] whose aid -in times of peril and need proved his supremacy. In Moses (q.v.) was -seen the founder of Israel's religion and laws; in Aaron (q.v.) the -prototype of the Israelite priesthood. Although it is difficult to -determine the true historical kernel, two features are most prominent in -the narratives which the post-exilic compiler has incorporated: the -revelation of Yahweh, and the movement into Palestine. Yahweh had -admittedly been the God of Israel's ancestors, but his name was only now -made known (Exod. iii. 13 sqq., vi. 2 seq.), and this conception of a -new era in Yahweh's relations with the people is associated with the -family of Moses and with small groups from the south of Palestine which -reappear in religious movements in later history (see KENITES). Amid a -great variety of motives the prominence of Kadesh in south Palestine is -to be recognized, but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were at -Kadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to those -with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected, were subsequently -adopted by others who came to regard themselves as the worshippers of -the only true Yahweh. At all events, two quite distinct views seem to -underlie the opening books of the Old Testament. The one associates -itself with the ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. -The other, part of the religious history of "Israel," is essentially -bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly -connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence appears -in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of the present -narratives are not excluded (see further S 8, and EXODUS, THE).[9] - -6. _The Monarchy of Israel._--The book of Joshua continues the fortunes -of the "children of Israel" and describes a successful occupation of -Palestine by the united tribes. This stands in striking contrast to -other records of the partial successes of individual groups (Judg. i.). -The former, however, is based upon the account of victories by the -Ephraimite Joshua over confederations of petty kings to the south and -north of central Palestine, apparently the specific traditions of the -people of Ephraim describing from their standpoint the entire conquest -of Palestine.[10] The book of Judges represents a period of unrest after -the settlement of the people. External oppression and internal rivalries -rent the Israelites, and in the religious philosophy of a later -(Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as one of alternate -apostasy from and of penitent return to the Yahweh of the "exodus." Some -vague recollection of known historical events (S 3 end) might be claimed -among the traditions ascribed to the closing centuries of the second -millennium, but the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era -when individual leaders "judged" all Israel finds no support in the -older narratives, where the heroes of the age (whose correct sequence is -uncertain) enjoy only a local fame. The best historical narratives -belong to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely appears, and in a relatively -old poetical account of a great fight of the united tribes against a -northern adversary lies outside the writer's horizon or interest (Judg. -v., see DEBORAH). Stories of successful warfare and of temporary leaders -(see ABIMELECH; EHUD; GIDEON; JEPHTHAH) form an introduction to the -institution of the Israelite monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance in -biblical history. The heroic figure who stands at the head is Saul -("asked"), and two accounts of his rise are recorded. (1) The -Philistines, a foreign people whose presence in Palestine has already -been noticed, had oppressed Israel (cf. SAMSON) until a brilliant -victory was gained by the prophet Samuel, some account of whose early -history is recorded. He himself held supreme sway over all Israel as the -last of the "judges" until compelled to accede to the popular demand for -a king. The young Saul was chosen by lot and gained unanimous -recognition by delivering Jabesh in Gilead from the Ammonites. (2) But -other traditions represent the people scattered and in hiding; Israel is -groaning under the Philistine yoke, and the unknown Saul is raised up by -Yahweh to save his people. This he accomplishes with the help of his son -Jonathan. The first account, although now essential to the canonical -history, clearly gives a less authentic account of the change from the -"judges" to the monarchy, while the second is fragmentary and can hardly -be fitted into the present historical thread (see SAUL). At all events -the first of a series of annalistic notices of the kings of Israel -ascribes to Saul conquests over the surrounding peoples to an extent -which implies that the district of Judah formed part of his kingdom (1 -Sam. xiv. 47 seq). His might is attested also by the fine elegy (2 Sam. -i. 19 sqq.) over the death of two great Israelite heroes, Saul and -Jonathan, knit together by mutual love, inseparable in life and death, -whose unhappy end after a career of success was a national misfortune. -Disaster had come upon the north, and the plain of Jezreel saw the total -defeat of the king and the rout of his army. The court was hastily -removed across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul's son Ishbaal -(Ish-bosheth), thanks to his general Abner, recovered some of the lost -prestige. In circumstances which are not detailed, the kingdom seems to -have regained its strength, and Ishbaal is credited with a reign of two -years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam. ii. 8-10; contrast v. 11). But at -this point the scanty annals are suspended and the history of the age is -given in more popular sources. Both Israel and Judah had their own -annals, brief excerpts from which appear in the books of Samuel, Kings -and Chronicles, and they are supplemented by fuller narratives of -distinct and more popular origin. The writings are the result of a -continued literary process, and the Israelite national history has come -down to us through Judaean hands, with the result that much of it has -been coloured by late Judaean feeling. It is precisely in Saul's time -that the account of the Judaean monarchy, or perhaps of the monarchy -from the Judaean standpoint, now begins. - -7. _The Monarchy of Judah._--Certain traditions of Judah and Jerusalem -appear to have looked back upon a movement from the south, traces of -which underlie the present account of the "exodus." The land was full of -"sons of Anak," giants who had terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. -Caleb (q.v.) alone had distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and -the clan Caleb drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 -sqq.; cf. also xi. 21 seq.). David and his followers are found in the -south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards they encountered -wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. 15 sqq.; xxiii. -8 sqq.). After strenuous fighting the district was cleared, and -Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the capital. History saw in David -the head of a lengthy line of kings, the founder of the Judaean -monarchy, the psalmist and the priest-king who inaugurated religious -institutions now recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a -result of this backward projection of later conceptions, the recovery of -the true historical nucleus is difficult. The prominence of Jerusalem, -the centre of post-exilic Judaism, necessarily invited reflection. -Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of Jerusalem, Hebron and -other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite Joshua; Judaean tradition, on -the other hand, relates the capture of the sacred city from a strange -and hostile people (2 Sam. v.). The famous city, within easy reach of -the southern desert and central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the -distances are about 18 and 35 miles respectively), had already entered -into Palestinian history in the "Amarna" age (S 3). Anathoth, a few -miles to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the -near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo, and the -neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the Amarna tablets may -indicate the worship of a Babylonian war and astral god (cf. the solar -name Beth-Shemesh). Such was the religious environment of the ancient -city which was destined to become the centre of Judaism. Judaean -tradition dated the sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the -ark, a sacred movable object which symbolized the presence of Yahweh. It -is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine, or -with the wanderings of David and his own priest Abiathar; it is -ultimately placed within the newly captured city. Quite another body of -tradition associates it with the invasion of all the tribes of Israel -from beyond the Jordan (see ARK). To combine the heterogeneous -narratives and isolated statements into a consecutive account is -impossible; to ignore those which conflict with the now predominating -views would be unmethodical. When the narratives describe the life of -the young David at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom, -when the scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and -when the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light, one must -allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for the -Judaean origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed the sovereignty -over a united people. But the stages in his progress are not clear. -After being the popular favourite of Israel in the little district of -Benjamin, he was driven away by the jealousy and animosity of Saul. -Gradually strengthening his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he -became king at Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the -north. His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel at -Jerusalem is represented as due to the weak condition of Israel, -facilitated by the compliance of Abner; partly, also, to the -long-expressed wish of the Israelites that their old hero should reign -over them. Yet again, Saul had been chosen by Yahweh to free his people -from the Philistines; he had been rejected for his sins, and had -suffered continuously from this enemy; Israel at his death was left in -the unhappy state in which he had found it; it was the Judaean David, -the faithful servant of Yahweh, who was now chosen to deliver Israel, -and to the last the people gratefully remembered their debt. David -accomplished the conquests of Saul but on a grander scale; "Saul hath -slain his thousands and David his tens of thousands" is the popular -couplet comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A series of -campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the Aramaean states, friendly -relations with Hiram of Tyre, and the recognition of his sovereignty by -the king of Hamath on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which -was the ideal. - -But in passing from the books of Samuel, with their many rich and vivid -narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon another phase of -literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to the character of the -material and the aims of other compilers (see S 9 beginning). David, the -conqueror, was followed by his son Solomon, famous for his wealth, -wisdom and piety, above all for the magnificent Temple which he built at -Jerusalem. Phoenician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with -Phoenician sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly -undertaken. Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish -(probably in Spain) and Ophir (q.v.) filled his coffers, and his realm -extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt. Tradition depicts -him as a worthy successor to his father, and represents a state of -luxury and riches impressive to all who were familiar with the great -Oriental courts. The commercial activity of the king and the picture of -intercourse and wealth are quite in accordance with what is known of the -ancient monarchies, and could already be illustrated from the Amarna -age. Judah and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of -military officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put -to forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the domestic -intrigues which darkened the last days of David. The accession of -Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and Judah, together with David's -old general Joab and his faithful priest Abiathar, were opposed to the -son of a woman who had been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of -the Temple of Jerusalem starts with a new regime, another captain of the -army and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed -over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative purposes into -twelve districts, which ignore the tribal divisions, the centre of -David's early power is exempt from the duty of providing supplies (1 -Kings iv.). Yet again, the approach of the divided monarchy is -foreshadowed. The employment of Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon's -palatial buildings, and the heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court -which was the wonder of the world, caused grave internal discontent. -External relations, too, were unsatisfactory. The Edomites, who had been -almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, -were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful kingdom of -Damascus, whose foundation is ascribed to this period, began to threaten -Israel on the north and north-east. These troubles, we learn, had -affected all Solomon's reign, and even Hiram appears to have acquired a -portion of Galilee. In the approaching disruption writers saw the -punishment for the king's apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in -Jerusalem which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. -Nevertheless, these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost -the close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to -Josiah (S 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity was at once -seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more generous treatment. The -reply is memorable: "My little finger is thicker than my father's loins; -my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with -scorpions." These words were calculated to inflame a people whom history -proves to have been haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel -renounced its union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (q.v.), -once one of Solomon's officers, became king over the north, and thus the -history of the divided monarchy begins (about 930 B.C.) with the -Israelite power on both sides of the Jordan and with Judah extending -southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem. - - 8. _Problems of the Earliest History._--Biblical history previous to - the separation of Judah and Israel holds a prominent place in current - ideas, since over two-fifths of the entire Old Testament deals with - these early ages. The historical sources for the crucial period, from - the separation to the fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), occupy only about - one-twelfth, and even of this about one-third is spread over some - fifteen years (see below, S 11). From the flourishing days of the - later monarchy and onwards, different writers handled the early - history of their land from different standpoints. The feeling of - national unity between north and south would require historical - treatment, the existence of rival monarchies would demand an - explanation. But the surviving material is extremely uneven; vital - events in these centuries are treated with a slightness in striking - contrast to the relatively detailed evidence for the preceding - period--evidence, however, which is far from being contemporary. Where - the material is fuller, serious discrepancies are found; and where - external evidence is fortunately available, the independent character - of the biblical history is vividly illustrated. The varied traditions - up to this stage cannot be regarded as objective history. It is - naturally impossible to treat them from any modern standpoint as - fiction; they are honest even where they are most untrustworthy. But - the recovery of successive historical nuclei does not furnish a - continuous thread, and if one is to be guided by the historical - context of events the true background to each nucleus must be sought. - The northern kingdom cherished the institution of a monarchy, and in - this, as in all great political events, the prophets took part. The - precise part these figures play is often idealized and expresses the - later views of their prominence. It was only after a bitter experience - that the kingship was no longer regarded as a divine gift, and - traditions have been revised in order to illustrate the opposition to - secular authority. In this and in many other respects the records of - the first monarchy have been elaborated and now reveal traces of - differing conceptions of the events (see DAN; DAVID; ELI; SAMUEL; - SAUL; SOLOMON). The oldest narratives are not in their original - contexts, and they contain features which render it questionable - whether a very trustworthy recollection of the period was retained. - Although the rise of the Hebrew state, at an age when the great powers - were quiescent and when such a people as the Philistines is known to - have appeared upon the scene, is entirely intelligible, it is not - improbable that legends of Saul and David, the heroic founders of the - two kingdoms, have been put in a historical setting with the help of - later historical tradition. It is at least necessary to distinguish - provisionally between a possibly historical framework and narratives - which may be of later growth--between the general outlines which only - external evidence can test and details which cannot be tested and - appear isolated without any cause or devoid of any effect. - - Many attempts have been made to present a satisfactory sketch of the - early history and to do justice to (a) the patriarchal narratives, - (b) the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite invasion, and (c) the - rise of the monarchy. As regards (b), external evidence has already - suggested to scholars that there were Israelites in Palestine before - the invasion; internal historical criticism is against the view that - all the tribes entered under Joshua; and in (a) there are traces of an - actual settlement in the land, entirely distinct from the cycle of - narratives which prepare the way for (b). The various reconstructions - and compromises by modern apologetic and critical writers alike - involve without exception an extremely free treatment of the biblical - sources and the rejection of many important and circumstantial - data.[11] On the one hand, a sweeping invasion of all the tribes of - Israel moved by a common zeal may, like the conquests of Islam, have - produced permanent results. According to this view the enervating - luxury of Palestinian culture almost destroyed the lofty ideal - monotheism inculcated in the desert, and after the fall of the - northern tribes (latter part of the 8th cent.) Judah is naturally - regarded as the sole heir. But such a conquest, and all that it - signifies, conflict both with external evidence (e.g. the results of - excavation), and with any careful inspection of the narratives - themselves. On the other hand, the reconstructions which allow a - gradual settlement (perhaps of distinct groups), and an intermingling - with the earlier inhabitants, certainly find support in biblical - evidence, and they have been ingeniously built up with the help of - tribal and other data (e.g. Gen. xxxiv., xxxviii.; Judg. i. ix.). But - they imply political, sociological and religious developments which do - not do justice either to the biblical evidence as a whole or to a - comprehensive survey of contemporary conditions.[12] Thus, one of the - important questions is the relation between those who had taken part - in the exodus and the invasion and those who had not. This inquiry is - further complicated by (c), where the history of Israel and Judah, as - related in Judges and 1 Samuel, has caused endless perplexity. The - traditions of the Ephraimite Joshua and of Saul the first king of - (north) Israel virtually treat Judah as part of Israel and are related - to the underlying representations in (a). But the specific independent - Judaean standpoint treats the unification of the two divisions as the - work of David who leaves the heritage to Solomon. The varied - narratives, now due to Judaean editors, preserve distinct points of - view, and it is extremely difficult to unravel the threads and to - determine their relative position in the history. Finally, the - consciousness that the people as a religious body owed everything to - the desert clans (b) (see S 5) subsequently leaves its mark upon - (north) Israelite history (S 14), but has not the profound - significance which it has in the records of Judah and Jerusalem. - Without sufficient external and independent evidence wherewith to - interpret in the light of history the internal features of the - intricate narratives, any reconstruction would naturally be hazardous, - and all attempts must invariably be considered in the light of the - biblical evidence itself, the date of the Israelite exodus, and the - external conditions. Biblical criticism is concerned with a composite - (Judaean) history based upon other histories (partly of non-Judaean - origin), and the relation between native written sources and external - contemporary evidence (monumental and archaeological) distinctly - forbids any haphazard selection from accessible sources. The true - nature of this relation can be readily observed in other fields - (ancient Britain, Greece, Egypt, &c.), where, however, the native - documents and sources have not that complexity which characterizes the - composite biblical history. (For the period under review, as it - appears in the light of existing external evidence, see PALESTINE: - _History_.) - -9. _The Rival Kingdoms._--The Palestine of the Hebrews was but part of a -great area breathing the same atmosphere, and there was little to -distinguish Judah from Israel except when they were distinct political -entities. The history of the two kingdoms is contained in Kings and the -later and relatively less trustworthy Chronicles, which deals with Judah -alone. In the former a separate history of the northern kingdom has been -combined with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance -with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the temple -of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1) corresponds -to the period forward to the return from the exile (S 20). This falls -into three equal divisions, of which the first ends with Jehoash's -temple-reforms and the second with Hezekiah's death. The kingdom of -Israel lasts exactly half the time. Of the 240 years from Jeroboam I., -80 elapse before the Syrian wars in Ahab's reign, these cover another -80; the famous king Jeroboam II. reigns 40 years, and 40 years of -decline bring the kingdom to an end. These figures speak for themselves, -and the present chronology can be accepted only where it is -independently proved to be trustworthy (see further W. R. Smith, -_Prophets of Israel_, pp. 144-149). Next, the Judaean compiler regularly -finds in Israel's troubles the punishment for its schismatic idolatry; -nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by a standard which agrees -with the standpoint of Deuteronomy and is scarcely earlier than the end -of the 7th century B.C. (SS 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel -had naturally its own independent political backgrounds and the literary -sources contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic -narratives which are already met with in 1 Samuel. Similarly the thread -of the Judaean annals in Kings is also found in 2 Samuel, although the -supplementary narratives in Kings are not so rich or varied as the more -popular records in the preceding books. The striking differences between -Samuel and Kings are due to differences in the writing of the history; -independent Israelite records having been incorporated with those of -Judah and supplemented (with revision) from the Judaean standpoint (see -CHRONICLES; KINGS; SAMUEL). - -The Judaean compiler, with his history of the two kingdoms, looks back -upon the time when each laid the foundation of its subsequent fortunes. -His small kingdom of Judah enjoyed an unbroken dynasty which survived -the most serious crises, a temple which grew in splendour and wealth -under royal patronage, and a legitimate priesthood which owed its origin -to Zadok, the successful rival of David's priest Abiathar. Israel, on -the other hand, had signed its death-warrant by the institution of -calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized as contrary to -the worship of Yahweh before the denunciations of Hosea. The scantiness -of political information and the distinctive arrangement of material -preclude the attempt to trace the relative position of the two rivals. -Judah had natural connexions with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel -was more closely associated with Gilead and the Aramaeans of the north. -That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquiescence of -Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused by Shishak's -invasion, but of this reappearance of Egypt after nearly three centuries -of inactivity little is preserved in biblical history. Only the Temple -records recall the spoliation of the sanctuary of Jerusalem, and -traditions of Jeroboam I. show that Shishak's prominence was well -known.[13] Although both kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not -throw them together. On the contrary, the statement that there was -continual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a -victory over Israel by Abijah the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam's son Nadab -perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine city of -Gibbethon, and Baasha of (north) Israel seized the throne. His reign is -noteworthy for the entrance of Damascus into Palestinian politics. Its -natural fertility and its commanding position at the meeting-place of -trade-routes from every quarter made it a dominant factor until its -overthrow. In the absence of its native records its relations with -Palestine are not always clear, but it may be supposed that amid varying -political changes it was able to play a double game. According to the -annals, incessant war prevailed between Baasha and Abijah's successor, -Asa. It is understood that the former was in league with Damascus, which -had once been hostile to Solomon (1 Kings xi. 24 seq.)--it is not stated -upon whom Asa could rely. However, Baasha at length seized Ramah about -five miles north of Jerusalem, and the very existence of Judah was -threatened. Asa utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce -the Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent troops -to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retire. Asa, it is -evident, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory ascribed to him -in 2 Chron. xiv. (see ASA). As for Baasha, his short-lived dynasty -resembles that of his predecessors. His son Elah had reigned only two -years (like Ishbaal and Nadab) when he was slain in the midst of a -drunken carousal by his captain Zimri. Meanwhile the Israelite army was -again besieging the Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of -these conflicts points to a critical situation in a Danite locality in -which Judah itself (although ignored by the writers), must have been -vitally concerned. The army preferred their general Omri, and marching -upon Zimri at Tirzah burnt the palace over his head. A fresh rival -immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni, son of Ginath. Israel -was divided into two camps, until, on the death of Tibni and his brother -Joram, Omri became sole king (c. 887 B.C.). The scanty details of these -important events must naturally be contrasted with the comparatively -full accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in -narratives which date from this or even a later age. - -10. _The Dynasty of Omri._--Omri (q.v.), the founder of one of the -greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the revival of Tyre -under Ithobaal, and the relationship between the states is seen in the -marriage of Omri's son Ahab to Jezebel, the priest-king's daughter. His -most notable recorded achievement was the subjugation of Moab and the -seizure of part of its territory. The discovery of the inscription of a -later king of Moab (q.v.) has proved that the east-Jordanic tribes were -no uncivilized or barbaric folk; material wealth, a considerable -religious and political organization, and the cultivation of letters (as -exemplified in the style of the inscription) portray conditions which -allow us to form some conception of life in Israel itself. Moreover, -Judah (now under Jehoshaphat) enjoyed intimate relations with Israel -during Omri's dynasty, and the traditions of intermarriage, and of -co-operation in commerce and war, imply what was practically a united -Palestine. Alliance with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended -intercourse; trading expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of Akaba, -and Ahab built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the -Baal of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city Samaria and even found -its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial and -political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives the usual -denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal and the defeat of the -latter are the characteristic notes of the religious history of the -period, and they leave their impression upon the records, which are now -more abundant. Although little is preserved of Omri's history, the fact -that the northern kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians -after his name is a significant indication of his great reputation. -Assyria[14] was now making itself felt in the west for the first time -since the days of Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.), and external -sources come to our aid. Assur-nazir-pal III. had exacted tribute from -north Syria (c. 870 B.C.), and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the -course of a series of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater part -of that land. A defensive coalition was formed in which the kings of -Cilicia, Hamath, the Phoenician coast, Damascus and Ammon, the Arabs of -the Syrian desert, and "Ahabbu Sirlai" were concerned. In the last, we -must recognize the Israelite Ahab. His own contribution of 10,000 men -and 12,000 chariots perhaps included levies from Judah and Moab (cf. for -the number 1 Kings x. 26). In 854 the allies at least maintained -themselves at the battle of Karkar (perhaps Apamea to the north of -Hamath). In 849 and 846 other indecisive battles were fought, but the -precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In 842 -Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael of Damascus; no coalition -is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir (Hermon, Deut. iii. -9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of Damascus were spoiled. -Tribute was received from Tyre and Sidon; and Jehu, who was now king of -Israel, sent his gifts of gold, silver, &c., to the conqueror. The -Assyrian inscription (the so-called "Black Obelisk" now in the British -Museum), which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an -interesting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with their -long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see COSTUME, fig. -9). Yet another expedition in 839 would seem to show that Damascus was -neither crushed nor helpless, but thenceforth for a number of years -Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere and the west was left to itself. -The value of this external evidence for the history of Israel is -enhanced by the fact that biblical tradition associates the changes in -the thrones of Israel and Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah -and Elisha, but handles the period without a single reference to the -Assyrian Empire. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by -encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed possessions; -had it not been for Jezebel (q.v.) the tragedy of Naboth would not have -occurred. The worship of Baal of Tyre roused a small circle of zealots, -and again the Phoenician marriage was the cause of the evil. We read the -history from the point of view of prophets. Elijah of Gilead led the -revolt. To one who favoured simplicity of cult the new worship was a -desecration of Yahweh, and, braving the anger of the king and queen, he -foreshadowed their fate. Hostility towards the dynasty culminated a few -years later in a conspiracy which placed on the throne the general Jehu, -the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of Nimshi). The work which -Elijah began was completed by Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new -dynasty. A massacre ensued in which the royal families of Israel and -Judah perished. While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered -in Israel by Jonadab the Rechabite, it was the "people of the land" who -undertook a similar reform in Judah. Jehu (q.v.) became king as the -champion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descendants of the detested -Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and unless the close intercourse -between Israel and Judah had been suddenly broken, it would be supposed -that the new king at least laid claim to the south. The events form one -of the fundamental problems of biblical history. - -11. _Damascus, Israel and Judah._--The appearance of Assyria in the -Mediterranean coast-lands had produced the results which inevitably -follow when a great empire comes into contact with minor states. It -awakened fresh possibilities--successful combination against a common -foe, the sinking of petty rivalries, the chance of gaining favour by a -neutrality which was scarcely benevolent. The alliances, -counter-alliances and far-reaching political combinations which spring -up at every advance of the greater powers are often perplexing in the -absence of records of the states concerned. Even the biblical traditions -alone do not always represent the same attitude, and our present sources -preserve the work of several hands. Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of Israel -and Elisha the prophet are the three men of the new age linked together -in the words of one writer as though commissioned for like ends (1 Kings -xix. 15-17). Hostility to Phoenicia (i.e. the Baal of Tyre) is as -intelligible as a tendency to look to Aramaean neighbours. Though Elisha -sent to anoint Jehu as king, he was none the less on most intimate terms -with Bar-hadad (Old. Test. Ben-hadad) of Damascus and recognized Hazael -as its future ruler. It is a natural assumption that Damascus could -still count upon Israel as an ally in 842; not until the withdrawal of -Assyria and the accession of Jehu did the situation change. "In those -days Yahweh began to cut short" (or, altering the text, "to be angry -with") "Israel." This brief notice heralds the commencement of Hazael's -attack upon Israelite territory east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32). The -origin of the outbreak is uncertain. It has been assumed that Israel had -withdrawn from the great coalition, that Jehu sent tribute to -Shalmaneser to obtain that monarch's recognition, and that Hazael -consequently seized the first opportunity to retaliate. Certain -traditions, it is true, indicate that Israel had been at war with the -Aramaeans from before 854 to 842, and that Hazael was attacking Gilead -at the time when Jehu revolted; but in the midst of these are other -traditions of the close and friendly relations between Israel and -Damascus! With these perplexing data the position of Judah is -inextricably involved. - - The special points which have to be noticed in the records for this - brief period (1 Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi.) concern both literary and - historical criticism.[15] A number of narratives illustrate the work - of the prophets, and sometimes purely political records appear to have - been used for the purpose (see ELIJAH; ELISHA). If Elijah is the - prophet of the fall of Omri's dynasty, Elisha is no less the prophet - of Jehu and his successors; and it is extremely probable that his - lifework was confined to the dynasty which he inaugurated.[16] In the - present narratives, however, the stories in which he possesses - influence with king and court are placed before the rise of Jehu, and - some of them point to a state of hostility with Damascus before he - foresees the atrocities which Hazael will perpetrate. But Ahab's wars - with Syria can with difficulty be reconciled with the Assyrian - evidence (see AHAB), and the narratives, largely anonymous, agree in a - singular manner with what is known of the serious conflicts which, it - is said, began in Jehu's time. Moreover, the account of the joint - undertaking by Judah (under Jehoshaphat) and Israel against Syria at - Ramoth-Gilead at the time of Ahab's death, and again (under Ahaziah) - when Jehoram was wounded, shortly before the accession of Jehu, are - historical doublets, and they can hardly be harmonized either with the - known events of 854 and 842 or with the course of the intervening - years. Further, all the traditions point clearly to the very close - union of Israel and Judah at this period, a union which is apt to be - obscured by the fact that the annalistic summaries of each kingdom are - mainly independent. Thus we may contrast the favourable Judaean view - of Jehoshaphat with the condemnation passed upon Ahab and Jezebel, - whose daughter Athaliah married Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. It is - noteworthy, also, that an Ahaziah and a Jehoram appear as kings of - Israel, and (in the reverse order) of Judah, and somewhat similar - incidents recur in the now separate histories of the two kingdoms. The - most striking is a great revolt in south Palestine. The alliance - between Jehoshaphat and Ahab doubtless continued when the latter was - succeeded by his son Ahaziah, and some disaster befell their trading - fleet in the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings xxii. 48 seq.; 2 Chron. xx. - 35-37). Next came the revolt of Moab (2 Kings i. 1), and Ahaziah, - after the briefest of reigns, was followed by Jehoram, whose Judaean - contemporary was Jehoshaphat (ch. iii.), or perhaps rather his own - namesake (i. 17). The popular story of Jehoram's campaign against - Moab, with which Edom was probably allied (see MOAB), hints at a - disastrous ending, and the Judaean annals, in their turn, record the - revolt of Edom and the Philistine Libnah (see PHILISTINES), and allude - obscurely to a defeat of the Judaean Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20-22). - Further details in 2 Chron. xxi.-xxii. 1 even record an invasion of - Philistines and Arabians (? Edomites), an attack upon Jerusalem, the - removal of the palace treasures and of all the royal sons with the - sole exception of Jehoahaz, i.e. Ahaziah (see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT). - Had the two kingdoms been under a single head, these features might - find an explanation, but it must be allowed that it is extremely - difficult to fit the general situation into our present history, and - to determine where the line is to be drawn between trustworthy and - untrustworthy details. Moreover, of the various accounts of the - massacre of the princes of Judah, the Judaean ascribes it not to Jehu - and the reforming party (2 Kings x. 13 seq.) but to Athaliah (q.v.). - Only the babe Jehoash was saved, and he remained hidden in the Temple - adjoining the palace itself. The queen, Athaliah, despite the weak - state of Judah after the revolt in Philistia and Edom, actually - appears to have maintained herself for six years, until the priests - slew her in a conspiracy, overthrew the cult of Baal, and crowned the - young child. It is a new source which is here suddenly introduced, - belonging apparently to a history of the Temple; it throws no light - upon the relations between Judah with its priests and Israel with its - prophets, the circumstances of the regency under the priest Jehoiada - are ignored, and the Temple reforms occupy the first place in the - compiler's interest. The Judaean annals then relate Hazael's advance - to Gath; the city was captured and Jerusalem was saved only by using - the Temple and palace treasure as a bribe. On the other hand, - Chronicles has a different story with a novel prelude. Jehoash, it is - said, turned away from Yahweh after the death of Jehoiada and gave - heed to the Judaean nobles, "wrath came upon Judah and Jerusalem for - their guilt," prophets were sent to bring them back but they turned a - deaf ear. The climax of iniquity was the murder of Jehoiada's son - Zechariah. Soon after, a small band of Syrians entered Judah, - destroyed its princes, and sent the spoil to the king of Damascus; the - disaster is regarded as a prompt retribution (2 Chron. xxiv.). The - inferiority of Chronicles as a historical source and its varied - examples of "tendency-writing" must be set against its possible access - to traditions as trustworthy as those in Kings.[17] In the present - instance the novel details cannot be lightly brushed aside. The - position of Judah at this period must be estimated (a) from the - preceding years of intimate relationship with Israel to the accession - of Jehu, and (b) from the calamity about half a century later when - Jerusalem was sacked by Israel. The Judaean narratives do not allow us - to fill the gap or to determine whether Judaean policy under the - regent Jehoiada would be friendly or hostile to Israel, or whether - Judaean nobles may have severed the earlier bond of union. If the - latter actually occurred, the hostility of the Israelite prophets is - only to be expected. But it is to be presumed that the punishment came - from Israel--the use of Syrian mercenaries not excluded--and if, - instead of using his treasure to ward off the invasion of Syria, - Jehoash bribed Damascus to break off relations with Israel, an - alternative explanation of the origin of the Aramaean wars may be - found.[18] - -12. _The Aramaean Wars._--If the records leave it uncertain (a) whether -Jehu (like Tyre and Sidon) sent tribute to Shalmaneser as a sign of -submission or, while severing relations with Hazael, sought the favour -of Assyria, and (b) whether Judah only escaped Hazael's vengeance by a -timely bribe or, in freeing itself from Israel, had bribed Hazael to -create a diversion, it appears that the southern kingdom suffered little -in the disastrous wars between Damascus and Israel. There were, indeed, -internal troubles, and Jehoash perished in a conspiracy. His son Amaziah -had some difficulty in gaining the kingdom and showed unwonted leniency -in sparing the children of his father's murderers. This was a departure -from the customs of the age, and was perhaps influenced less by -generosity than by expediency. Israel, on the other hand, was almost -annihilated. The Syrians seized Gilead, crossed over into Palestine, and -occupied the land. Jehu's son Jehoahaz saw his army made "like the dust -in threshing," and the desperate condition of the country recalls the -straits in the time of Saul (1 Sam. xiii. 6, 7, 19-22), and the days -before the great overthrow of the northern power as described in Judges -v. 6-8. The impression left by the horrors of the age is clear from the -allusions to the barbarities committed by Damascus and its Ammonite -allies upon Gilead (Amos i. 3, 13), and in the account of the interview -between Elisha and Hazael (2 Kings viii. 12). Several of the situations -can be more vividly realized from the narratives of Syrian wars ascribed -to the time of Omri's dynasty, even if these did not originally refer to -the later period. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned. Elisha -was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his exploits when -Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice Joash smote the Syrians--in -accordance with the last words of the dying prophet--and Aphek in the -Sharon plain, famous in history for Israel's disasters, now witnessed -three victories. The enemy under Hazael's son Ben-hadad (properly -Bar-hadad) was driven out and Joash regained the territory which his -father had lost (2 Kings xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a -treaty was concluded (cf. 1 Kings xx. 34). But the peace does not seem -to have been popular. The story of the last scene in Elisha's life -implies in Joash an easily contented disposition which hindered him from -completing his successes. Syria had not been crushed, and the failure to -utilize the opportunity was an act of impolitic leniency for which -Israel was bound to suffer (2 Kings xiii. 19). Elisha's indignation can -be illustrated by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the -prophetic party on a similar occasion (1 Kings xx. 35-43). - -At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria by -Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Mari, king of Damascus, and exacted a -heavy tribute (c. 800 B.C.). A diversion of this kind may explain the -Israelite victories; the subsequent withdrawal of Assyria may have -afforded the occasion for retaliation. Those in Israel who remembered -the previous war between Assyria and Damascus would realize the -recuperative power of the latter, and would perceive the danger of the -short-sighted policy of Joash. It is interesting to find that -Hadad-nirari claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Beth-Omri (Israel), -also from Edom and Palastu (Philistia). There are no signs of an -extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; Ammon is probably -included under Damascus; the position of Moab--which had freed itself -from Jehoram of Israel--can hardly be calculated. But the absence of -Judah is surprising. Both Jehoash (of Judah) and his son Amaziah left -behind them a great name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 -Kings xiv. 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and hence it is -conceivable that Amaziah's kingdom extended over both Edom and -Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave rise to one of -the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testament (Judg. ix. 8 -sqq.; see ABIMELECH). It was followed by a battle at Beth-shemesh; the -scene would suggest that Philistia also was involved. The result was the -route of Judah, the capture of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern -wall of Jerusalem, the sacking of the temple and palace, and the removal -of hostages to Samaria (2 Kings xiv. 12 sqq.). Only a few words are -preserved, but the details, when carefully weighed, are extremely -significant. This momentous event for the southern kingdom was scarcely -the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it was rather the -sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and hostility. - - The Judaean records have obscured the history since the days of Omri's - dynasty, when Israel and Judah were as one, when they were moved by - common aims and by a single reforming zeal, and only Israel's - vengeance gives the measure of the injuries she had received. That the - Judaean compiler has not given fuller information is not surprising; - the wonder is that he should have given so much. It is one of those - epoch-making facts in the light of which the course of the history of - the preceding and following years must be estimated. It is taken, - strangely enough, from an Israelite source, but the tone of the whole - is quite dispassionate and objective. It needs little reflection to - perceive that the position of Jerusalem and Judah was now hardly one - of independence, and the conflicting chronological notices betray the - attempt to maintain intact the thread of Judaean history. So, on the - one hand, the year of the disaster sees the death of the Israelite - king, and Amaziah survives for fifteen years, while, on the other, - twenty-seven years elapse between the battle and the accession of - Uzziah, the next king of Judah.[19] - - The importance of the historical questions regarding relations between - Damascus, Israel and Judah is clear. The defeat of Syria by Joash (of - Israel) was not final. The decisive victories were gained by Jeroboam - II. He saved Israel from being blotted out, and through his successes - "the children of Israel dwelt in their tents as of old" (2 Kings xiii. - 5, xiv. 26 seq.). Syria must have resumed warfare with redoubled - energy, and a state of affairs is presupposed which can be pictured - with the help of narratives that deal with similar historical - situations. In particular, the overthrow of Israel as foreshadowed in - 1 Kings xxii. implies an Aramaean invasion (cf. vv. 17, 25), after a - treaty (xx. 35 sqq.), although this can scarcely be justified by the - events which followed the death of Ahab, in whose time they are now - placed. - - For the understanding of these great wars between Syria and Israel - (which the traditional chronology spreads over eighty years), for the - significance of the crushing defeats and inspiring victories, and for - the alternations of despair and hope, a careful study of all the - records of relations between Israel and the north is at least - instructive, and it is important to remember that, although the - present historical outlines are scanty and incomplete, some--if not - all--of the analogous descriptions in their present form are certainly - later than the second half of the 9th century B.C., the period in - which these great events fall.[20] - -13. _Political Development._--Under Jeroboam II. the borders of Israel -were restored, and in this political revival the prophets again took -part.[21] The defeat of Ben-hadad by the king of Hamath and the -quiescence of Assyria may have encouraged Israelite ambitions, but until -more is known of the campaigns of Hadad-nirari and of Shalmaneser III. -(against Damascus, 773 B.C.) the situation cannot be safely gauged. Moab -was probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is involved with -the chronological problems. According to the Judaean annals, the "people -of Judah" set Azariah (Uzziah) upon his father's throne; and to his long -reign of fifty-two years are ascribed conquests over Philistia and Edom, -the fortification of Jerusalem and the reorganization of the army. As -the relations with Israel are not specified, the sequel to Amaziah's -defeat is a matter for conjecture; although, when at the death of -Jeroboam Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, it is -hardly likely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All that can be -recognized from the biblical records, however, is the period of internal -prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed under Jeroboam and Uzziah -(qq.v.) respectively. - -It is difficult to trace the biblical history century by century as it -reaches these last years of bitter conflict and of renewed prosperity. -The northern kingdom at the height of its power included Judah, it -extended its territory east of the Jordan towards the north and the -south, and maintained close relations with Phoenicia and the Aramaean -states. It had a national history which left its impress upon the -popular imagination, and sundry fragments of tradition reveal the pride -which the patriot felt in the past. An original close connexion is felt -with the east of the Jordan and with Gilead; stories of invasion and -conquest express themselves in varied forms. In so far as internal -wealth and luxury presuppose the control of the trade-routes, periodical -alliances are implied in which Judah, willingly or unwillingly, was -included. But the Judaean records do not allow us to trace its -independent history with confidence, and our estimate can scarcely base -itself solely upon the accidental fulness or scantiness of political -details. In the subsequent disasters of Israel (S 15) we may perceive -the growing supremacy of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly -indicate the dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom -and Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west. -Whatever had been the effect of the movement of the Purasati some -centuries previously, the Philistines (i.e. the people of Philistia) are -now found in possession of a mature organization, and the Assyrian -evidence is of considerable value for an estimate of the stories of -conflict and covenant, of hostility and friendship, which were current -in south Palestine. The extension of the term "Judah" (cf. that of -"Israel" and "Samaria") is involved with the incorporation of -non-Judaean elements. The country for ten miles north of Jerusalem was -the exposed and highly debatable district ascribed to the young tribe of -Benjamin (the favourite "brother" of both Judah and Joseph; Gen. -xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.); the border-line between the rival kingdoms -oscillated, and consequently the political position of the smaller and -half-desert Judaean state depended upon the attitude of its neighbours. -It is possible that tradition is right in supposing that "Judah went -down from his brethren" (Gen. xxxviii. 1; cf. Judg. i. 3). Its monarchy -traced its origin to Hebron in the south, and its growth is contemporary -with a decline in Israel (S 7). It is at least probable that when Israel -was supreme an independent Judah would centre around a more southerly -site than Jerusalem. It is naturally uncertain how far the traditions of -David can be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean situations when they -depict intrigues with Israelite officials, vassalage under Philistia, -and friendly relations with Moab, or when they suggest how enmity -between Israel and Ammon could be turned to useful account. Tradition, -in fact, is concentrated upon the rise of the Judaean dynasty under -David, but there are significant periods before the rise of both Jehoash -and Uzziah upon which the historical records maintain a perplexing -silence. - -The Hebrews of Israel and Judah were, political history apart, men of -the same general stamp, with the same cult and custom; for the study of -religion and social usages, therefore, they can be treated as a single -people. The institution of the monarchy was opposed to the simpler -local forms of government, and a military regime had distinct -disadvantages (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 11-18). The king stood at the head, as -the court of final appeal, and upon him and his officers depended the -people's welfare. A more intricate social organization caused internal -weakness, and Eastern history shows with what rapidity peoples who have -become strong by discipline and moderation pass from the height of their -glory into extreme corruption and disintegration.[22] This was Israel's -fate. Opposition to social abuses and enmity towards religious -innovations are regarded as the factors which led to the overthrow of -Omri's dynasty by Jehu, and when Israel seemed to be at the height of -its glory under Jeroboam II. warning voices again made themselves heard. -The two factors are inseparable, for in ancient times no sharp -dividing-line was drawn between religious and civic duties: -righteousness and equity, religious duty and national custom were one. - - Elaborate legal enactments codified in Babylonia by the 20th century - B.C. find striking parallels in Hebrew, late Jewish (Talmudic), Syrian - and Mahommedan law, or in the unwritten usages of all ages; for even - where there were neither written laws nor duly instituted lawgivers, - there was no lawlessness, since custom and belief were, and still are, - almost inflexible. Various collections are preserved in the Old - Testament; they are attributed to the time of Moses the lawgiver, who - stands at the beginning of Israelite national and religious history. - But many of the laws were quite unsuitable for the circumstances of - his age, and the belief that a body of intricate and even - contradictory legislation was imposed suddenly upon a people newly - emerged from bondage in Egypt raises insurmountable objections, and - underestimates the fact that legal usage existed in the earliest - stages of society, and therefore in pre-Mosaic times. The more - important question is the date of the laws in their present form and - content. Collections of laws are found in Deuteronomy and in exilic - and post-exilic writings; groups of a relatively earlier type are - preserved in Exod. xxxiv. 14-26, xx. 23-xxiii., and (of another stamp) - in Lev. xvii.-xxvi. (now in post-exilic form). For a useful conspectus - of details, see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby. _The - Hexateuch_ (vol. i., appendix); C. F. Kent, _Israel's Laws and Legal - Enactments_ (1907); and in general I. Benzinger, articles - "Government," "Family" and "Law and Justice," _Ency. Bib._, and G. B. - Gray, "Law Literature," ib. (the literary growth of legislation). - Reference may also be made, for illustrative material, to W. R. Smith, - _Kinship and Marriage_, _Religion of the Semites_; to E. Day, _Social - Life of the Hebrews_; and, for some comparison of customary usage in - the Semitic field, to S. A. Cook, _Laws of Moses and Code of - Hammurabi_. - -14. _Religion and the Prophets._--The elements of the thought and -religion of the Hebrews do not sever them from their neighbours; similar -features of cult are met with elsewhere under different names. Hebrew -religious institutions can be understood from the biblical evidence -studied in the light of comparative religion; and without going afield -to Babylonia, Assyria or Egypt, valuable data are furnished by the cults -of Phoenicia, Syria and Arabia, and these in turn can be illustrated -from excavation and from modern custom. Every religion has its customary -cult and ritual, its recognized times, places and persons for the -observance. Worship is simpler at the smaller shrines than at the more -famous temples; and, as the rulers are the patrons of the religion and -are brought into contact with the religious personnel, the character of -the social organization leaves its mark upon those who hold religious -and judicial functions alike. The Hebrews shared the paradoxes of -Orientals, and religious enthusiasm and ecstasy were prominent features. -Seers and prophets of all kinds ranged from those who were consulted for -daily mundane affairs to those who revealed the oracles in times of -stress, from those who haunted local holy sites to those high in royal -favour, from the quiet domestic communities to the austere mountain -recluse. Among these were to be found the most sordid opportunism and -the most heroic self-effacement, the crassest supernaturalism and--the -loftiest conceptions of practical morality. A development of ideals and -a growth of spirituality can be traced which render the biblical -writings with their series of prophecies a unique phenomenon.[23] The -prophets taught that the national existence of the people was bound up -with religious and social conditions; they were in a sense the -politicians of the age, and to regard them simply as foretellers of the -future is to limit their sphere unduly. They took a keen interest in all -the political vicissitudes of the Oriental world. Men of all standards -of integrity, they were exposed to external influences, but whether -divided among themselves in their adherence to conflicting parties, or -isolated in their fierce denunciation of contemporary abuses, they -shared alike in the worship of Yahweh whose inspiration they claimed. A -recollection of the manifold forms which religious life and thought have -taken in Christendom or in Islam, and the passions which are so easily -engendered among opposing sects, will prevent a one-sided estimate of -the religious standpoints which the writings betray; and to the -recognition that they represent lofty ideals it must be added that the -great prophets, like all great thinkers, were in advance of their age. - -The prophets are thoroughly Oriental figures, and the interpretation of -their profound religious experiences requires a particular sympathy -which is not inherent in Western minds. Their writings are to be -understood in the light of their age and of the conditions which gave -birth to them. With few exceptions they are preserved in fragmentary -form, with additions and adjustments which were necessary in order to -make them applicable to later conditions. When, as often, the great -figures have been made the spokesmen of the thought of subsequent -generations, the historical criticism of the prophecies becomes one of -peculiar difficulty.[24] According to the historical traditions it is -precisely in the age of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah that the first of the -extant prophecies begin (see AMOS and HOSEA). Here it is enough to -observe that the highly advanced doctrines of the distinctive character -of Yahweh, as ascribed to the 8th century B.C., presuppose a foundation -and development. But the evidence does not allow us to trace the earlier -progress of the ideas. Yahwism presents itself under a variety of -aspects, and the history of Israel's relations to the God Yahweh (whose -name is not necessarily of Israelite origin) can hardly be disentangled -amid the complicated threads of the earlier history. The view that the -seeds of Yahwism were planted in the young Israelite nation in the days -of the "exodus" conflicts with the belief that the worship of Yahweh -began in the pre-Mosaic age. Nevertheless, it implies that religion -passed into a new stage through the influence of Moses, and to this we -find a relatively less complete analogy in the specific north Israelite -traditions of the age of Jehu. The change from the dynasty of Omri to -that of Jehu has been treated by several hands, and the writers, in -their recognition of the introduction of a new tendency, have obscured -the fact that the cult of Yahweh had flourished even under such a king -as Ahab. While the influence of the great prophets Elijah and Elisha is -clearly visible, it is instructive to find that the south, too, has its -share in the inauguration of the new era. At Horeb, the mount of God, -was located the dramatic theophany which heralded to Elijah the advent -of the sword, and Jehu's supporter in his sanguinary measures belongs to -the Rechabites, a sect which felt itself to be the true worshipping -community of Yahweh and is closely associated with the Kenites, the kin -of Moses. It was at the holy well of Kadesh, in the sacred mounts of -Sinai and Horeb, and in the field of Edom that the Yahweh of Moses was -found, and scattered traces survive of a definite belief in the entrance -into Palestine of a movement uncompromisingly devoted to the purer -worship of Yahweh. The course of the dynasty of Jehu--the reforms, the -disastrous Aramaean wars, and, at length, Yahweh's "arrow of -victory"--constituted an epoch in the Israelite history, and it is -regarded as such.[25] - - The problem of the history of Yahwism depends essentially upon the - view adopted as to the date and origin of the biblical details and - their validity for the various historical and religious conditions - they presuppose. Yahwism is a religion which appears upon a soil - saturated with ideas and usages which find their parallel in - extra-biblical sources and in neighbouring lands. The problem cannot - be approached from modern preconceptions because there was much - associated with the worship of Yahweh which only gradually came to be - recognized as repugnant, and there was much in earlier ages and in - other lands which reflects an elevated and even complex religious - philosophy. In the south of the Sinaitic peninsula, remains have been - found of an elaborate half-Egyptian, half-Semitic cultus (Petrie, - _Researches in Sinai_, xiii.), and not only does Edom possess some - reputation for "wisdom," but, where this district is concerned, the - old Arabian religion (whose historical connexion with Palestine is - still imperfectly known) claims some attention. The characteristic - denunciations of corruption and lifeless ritual in the writings of the - prophets and the emphasis which is laid upon purity and simplicity of - religious life are suggestive of the influence of the nomadic spirit - rather than of an internal evolution on Palestinian soil. Desert - pastoral life does not necessarily imply any intellectual inferiority, - and its religious conceptions, though susceptible of modification, are - not artificially moulded through the influence of other civilizations. - Nomadic life is recognized by Arabian writers themselves as possessing - a relative superiority, and its characteristic purity of manner and - its reaction against corruption and luxury are not incompatible with a - warlike spirit. If nomadism may be recognized as one of the factors in - the growth of Yahwism, there is something to be said for the - hypothesis which associates it with the clans connected with the - Levites (see E. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 82 sqq.; B. Luther, ib. 138). - It is, however, obvious that the influence due to immigrants could be, - and doubtless was, exerted at more than one period (see SS 18, 20; - also HEBREW RELIGION; PRIEST). - -15. _The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy._--The prosperity of Israel was -its undoing. The disorders that hastened its end find an analogy in the -events of the more obscure period after the death of the earlier -Jeroboam. Only the briefest details are given. Zechariah was slain after -six months by Shallum ben Jabesh in Ibleam; but the usurper fell a month -later to Menahem (q.v.), who only after much bloodshed established his -position. Assyria again appeared upon the scene under Tiglath-pileser -IV. (745-728 B.C.).[26] His approach was the signal for the formation of -a coalition, which was overthrown in 738. Among those who paid tribute -were Rasun (the biblical Rezin) of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, the -kings of Tyre, Byblos and Hamath and the queen of Aribi (Arabia, the -Syrian desert). Israel was once more in league with Damascus and -Phoenicia, and the biblical records must be read in the light of -political history. Judah was probably holding aloof. Its king, Uzziah, -was a leper in his latter days, and his son and regent, Jotham, claims -notice for the circumstantial reference (2 Chron. xxvii.; cf. xxvi. 8) -to his subjugation of Ammon--the natural allies of Damascus--for three -years. Scarcely had Assyria withdrawn before Menahem lost his life in a -conspiracy, and Pekah with the help of Gilead made himself king. The new -movement was evidently anti-Assyrian, and strenuous endeavours were made -to present a united front. It is suggestive to find Judah the centre of -attack.[27] Rasun and Pekah directed their blows from the north, -Philistia threatened the west flank, and the Edomites who drove out the -Judaeans from Elath (on the Gulf of 'Akaba) were no doubt only taking -their part in the concerted action. A more critical situation could -scarcely be imagined. The throne of David was then occupied by the young -Ahaz, Jotham's son. In this crisis we meet with Isaiah (q.v.), one of -the finest of Hebrew prophets. The disorganized state of Egypt and the -uncertain allegiance of the desert tribes left Judah without direct aid; -on the other hand, opposition to Assyria among the conflicting interests -of Palestine and Syria was rarely unanimous. Either in the natural -course of events--to preserve the unity of his empire--or influenced by -the rich presents of gold and silver with which Ahaz accompanied his -appeal for help, Tiglath-pileser intervened with campaigns against -Philistia (734 B.C.) and Damascus (733-732). Israel was punished by the -ravaging of the northern districts, and the king claims to have carried -away the people of "the house of Omri." Pekah was slain and one Hoshea -(q.v.) was recognized as his successor. Assyrian officers were placed in -the land and Judah thus gained its deliverance at the expense of Israel. -But the proud Israelites did not remain submissive for long; Damascus -had indeed fallen, but neither Philistia nor Edom had yet been crushed. - -At this stage a new problem becomes urgent. A number of petty peoples, -of whom little definite is known, fringed Palestine from the south of -Judah and the Delta to the Syrian desert. They belong to an area which -merges itself in the west into Egypt, and Egypt in fact had a hereditary -claim upon it. Continued intercourse between Egypt, Gaza and north -Arabia is natural in view of the trade-routes which connected them, and -on several occasions joint action on the part of Edomites (with allied -tribes) and the Philistines is recorded, or may be inferred. The part -played by Egypt proper in the ensuing anti-Assyrian combinations is not -clearly known; with a number of petty dynasts fomenting discontent and -revolt, there was an absence of cohesion in that ancient empire previous -to the rise of the Ethiopian dynasty. Consequently the references to -"Egypt" (Heb. _Misrayim_, Ass. _Musri_) sometimes suggest that the -geographical term was really extended beyond the bounds of Egypt proper -towards those districts where Egyptian influence or domination was or -had been recognized (see further MIZRAIM). - -When Israel began to recover its prosperity and regained confidence, its -policy halted between obedience to Assyria and reliance upon this -ambiguous "Egypt." The situation is illustrated in the writings of Hosea -(q.v.). When at length Tiglath-pileser died, in 727, the slumbering -revolt became general; Israel refused the usual tribute to its overlord, -and definitely threw in its lot with "Egypt." In due course Samaria was -besieged for three years by Shalmaneser IV. The alliance with So (Seveh, -Sibi) of "Egypt," upon whom hopes had been placed, proved futile, and -the forebodings of keen-sighted prophets were justified. Although no -evidence is at hand, it is probable that Ahaz of Judah rendered service -to Assyria by keeping the allies in check; possible, also, that the -former enemies of Jerusalem had now been induced to turn against -Samaria. The actual capture of the Israelite capital is claimed by -Sargon (722), who removed 27,290 of its inhabitants and fifty chariots. -Other peoples were introduced, officers were placed in charge, and the -usual tribute re-imposed. Another revolt was planned in 720 in which the -province of Samaria joined with Hamath and Damascus, with the Phoenician -Arpad and Simura, and with Gaza and "Egypt." Two battles, one at Karkar -in the north, another at Rapih (Raphia) on the border of Egypt, sufficed -to quell the disturbance. The desert peoples who paid tribute on this -occasion still continued restless, and in 715 Sargon removed men of -Tamud, Ibadid, Marsiman, Hayapa, "the remote Arabs of the desert," and -placed them in the land of Beth-Omri. Sargon's statement is significant -for the internal history; but unfortunately the biblical historians take -no further interest in the fortunes of the northern kingdom after the -fall of Samaria, and see in Judah the sole survivor of the Israelite -tribes (see 2 Kings xvii. 7-23). Yet the situation in this neglected -district must continue to provoke inquiry. - -16. _Judah and Assyria._--Amid these changes Judah was intimately -connected with the south Palestinian peoples (see further PHILISTINES). -Ahaz had recognized the sovereignty of Assyria and visited -Tiglath-pileser at Damascus. The Temple records describe the innovations -he introduced on his return. Under his son Hezekiah there were fresh -disturbances in the southern states, and anti-Assyrian intrigues began -to take a more definite shape among the Philistine cities. Ashdod openly -revolted and found support in Moab, Edom, Judah, and the still ambiguous -"Egypt." This step may possibly be connected with the attempt of Marduk -(Merodach)-baladan in south Babylonia to form a league against Assyria -(cf. 2 Kings xx. 12); at all events Ashdod fell after a three years' -siege (711) and for a time there was peace. But with the death of Sargon -in 705 there was another great outburst; practically the whole of -Palestine and Syria was in arms, and the integrity of Sennacherib's -empire was threatened. In both Judah and Philistia the anti-Assyrian -party was not without opposition, and those who adhered or favoured -adherence to the great power were justified by the result. The -inevitable lack of cohesion among the petty states weakened the national -cause. At Sennacherib's approach, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom -submitted; Ekron, Ascalon, Lachish and Jerusalem held out strenuously. -The southern allies (with "Egypt") were defeated at Eltekeh (Josh. xix. -44). Hezekiah was besieged and compelled to submit (701). The small -kings who had remained faithful were rewarded by an extension of their -territories, and Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Judah's -expense. These events are related in Sennacherib's inscription; the -biblical records preserve their own traditions (see HEZEKIAH). If the -impression left upon current thought can be estimated from certain of -the utterances of the court-prophet Isaiah and the Judaean countryman -Micah (q.v.), the light which these throw upon internal conditions must -also be used to gauge the real extent of the religious changes ascribed -to Hezekiah. A brazen serpent, whose institution was attributed to -Moses, had not hitherto been considered out of place in the cult; its -destruction was perhaps the king's most notable reform. - -In the long reign of his son Manasseh later writers saw the deathblow to -the Judaean kingdom. Much is related of his wickedness and enmity to the -followers of Yahweh, but few political details have come down. It is -uncertain whether Sennacherib invaded Judah again shortly before his -death, nevertheless the land was practically under the control of -Assyria. Both Esar-haddon (681-668) and Assur-bani-pal (668-c. 626) -number among their tributaries Tyre, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Ascalon, Gaza -and Manasseh himself,[28] and cuneiform dockets unearthed at Gezer -suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons there (and no doubt also -elsewhere) to ensure allegiance. The situation was conducive to the -spread of foreign customs, and the condemnation passed upon Manasseh -thus perhaps becomes more significant. Precisely what form his worship -took is a matter of conjecture; but it is possible that the religion -must not be judged too strictly from the standpoint of the late -compiler, and that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh-worship -to new Assyrian forms.[29] Politics and religion, however, were -inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria meant the supremacy of the -Assyrian pantheon. - -If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns against -Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would only be in -accordance with a vassal's duty. But when tradition preserves some -recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was taken to Babylon to -explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxiii.), also of the settling of foreign -colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon (Ezra iv. 2), there is just a -possibility that Judah made some attempt to gain independence. According -to Assur-bani-pal all the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of -his brother Samas-sum-ukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic -disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on behalf of -Assyria, is unknown (see MOAB). Manasseh's son Amon fell in a court -intrigue and "the people of the land," after avenging the murder, set up -in his place the infant Josiah (637). The circumstances imply a regency, -but the records are silent upon the outlook. The assumption that the -decay of Assyria awoke the national feeling of independence is perhaps -justified by those events which made the greatest impression upon the -compiler, and an account is given of Josiah's religious reforms, based -upon a source apparently identical with that which described the work of -Jehoash. In an age when the oppression and corruption of the ruling -classes had been such that those who cherished the old worship of Yahweh -dared not confide in their most intimate companions (Mic. vii. 5, 6), no -social reform was possible; but now the young Josiah, the popular -choice, was upon the throne. A roll, it is said, was found in the -Temple, its contents struck terror into the hearts of the priests and -king, and it led to a solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the -provisions of the law-book which had been so opportunely recovered. - - That the writer (2 Kings xxii. seq.) meant to describe the discovery - of Deuteronomy is evident from the events which followed; and this - identification of the roll, already made by Jerome, Chrysostom and - others, has been substantiated by modern literary criticism since De - Wette (1805). (See DEUTERONOMY; JOSIAH.) Some very interesting - parallels have been cited from Egyptian and Assyrian records where - religious texts, said to have been found in temples, or oracles from - the distant past, have come to light at the very time when "the days - were full."[30] There is, however, no real proof for the traditional - antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very distinctive landmark - in the religious history by reason of its attitude to cult and ritual - (see HEBREW RELIGION, S 7). In particular it is aimed against the - worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries and inculcates the sole - pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary--the Temple of Jerusalem. This - centralization involved the removal of the local priests and a - modification of ritual and legal observance. The fall of Samaria, - Sennacherib's devastation of Judah, and the growth of Jerusalem as the - capital, had tended to raise the position of the Temple, although - Israel itself, as also Judah, had famous sanctuaries of its own. From - the standpoint of the popular religion, the removal of the local - altars, like Hezekiah's destruction of the brazen serpent, would be an - act of desecration, an iconoclasm which can be partly appreciated from - the sentiments of 2 Kings xviii. 22, and partly also from the modern - Wahhabite reformation (of the 19th century). But the details and - success of the reforms, when viewed in the light of the testimony of - contemporary prophets, are uncertain. The book of Deuteronomy - crystallizes a doctrine; it is the codification of teaching which - presupposes a carefully prepared soil. The account of Josiah's work, - like that of Hezekiah, is written by one of the Deuteronomic school: - that is to say, the writer describes the promulgation of the teaching - under which he lives. It is part of the scheme which runs through the - book of Kings, and its apparent object is to show that the Temple - planned by David and founded by Solomon ultimately gained its true - position as the only sanctuary of Yahweh to which his worshippers - should repair. Accordingly, in handling Josiah's successors the writer - no longer refers to the high places. But if Josiah carried out the - reforms ascribed to him they were of no lasting effect. This is - conclusively shown by the writings of Jeremiah (xxv. 3-7, xxxvi. 2 - seq.) and Ezekiel. Josiah himself is praised for his justice, but - faithless Judah is insincere (Jer. iii. 10), and those who claim to - possess Yahweh's law are denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear - to be better than Judah (iii. 11; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious - revival was a practical failure, and it was not until a century later - that the opportunity again came to put any new teaching into effect (S - 20). On the other hand, the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic - social-religious side; its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the - distinctive features of its laws, and Josiah's reputation (Jer. xxii. - 15 seq.) and the circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest - that he, like Jehoash (2 Kings xi. 17; cf. xxiii. 3), had entered into - a reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah's writings would - indicate, had suffered grievous oppression and misery.[31] - -17. _The Fall of the Judaean Monarchy._--In Josiah's reign a new era was -beginning in the history of the world. Assyria was rapidly decaying and -Egypt had recovered from the blows of Assur-bani-pal (to which the -Hebrew prophet Nahum alludes, iii. 8-10). Psammetichus (Psamtek) I., one -of the ablest of Egyptian rulers for many centuries, threw off the -Assyrian yoke with the help of troops from Asia Minor and employed -these to guard his eastern frontiers at Defneh. He also revived the old -trading-connexions between Egypt and Phoenicia. A Chaldean prince, -Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia, and Assyria was compelled to -invoke the aid of the Askuza. It was perhaps after this that an inroad -of Scythians (q.v.) occurred (c. 626 B.C.); if it did not actually touch -Judah, the advent of the people of the north appears to have caused -great alarm (Jer. iv.-vi.: Zephaniah). Bethshean in Samaria has perhaps -preserved in its later (though temporary) name Scythopolis an echo of -the invasion.[32] Later, Necho, son of Psammetichus, proposed to add to -Egypt some of the Assyrian provinces, and marched through Palestine. -Josiah at once interposed; it is uncertain whether, in spite of the -power of Egypt, he had hopes of extending his kingdom, or whether the -famous reformer was, like Manasseh, a vassal of Assyria. The book of -Kings gives the standpoint of a later Judaean writer, but Josiah's -authority over a much larger area than Judah alone is suggested by -xxiii. 19 (part of an addition), and by the references to the border at -Riblah in Ezek. vi. 14, xi. 10 seq. He was slain at Megiddo in 608, and -Egypt, as in the long-distant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The -Judaeans made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished -him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother Jehoiakim. -Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the empire which had -dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over two centuries (see S 10). -Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Babylonia (556 B.C.) saw in the disaster -the vengeance of the gods for the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew -prophets, for their part, exulted over Yahweh's far-reaching judgment. -The newly formed Chaldean power at once recognized in Necho a dangerous -rival and Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who overthrew the -Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was the turning-point of -the age, and with it the succession of the new Chaldean or Babylonian -kingdom was assured. But the relations between Egypt and Judah were not -broken off. The course of events is not clear, but Jehoiakim (q.v.) at -all events was inclined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as -Nebuchadrezzar, seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay -siege to Jerusalem. His young son Jehoiachin surrendered after a three -months' reign, with his mother and the court; they were taken away to -Babylonia, together with a number of the artisan class (596). -Jehoiakim's brother, Mattaniah or Zedekiah, was set in his place under -an oath of allegiance, which he broke, preferring Hophra the new king of -Egypt. A few years later the second siege took place. It began on the -tenth day of the tenth month, January 587. The looked-for intervention -of Egypt was unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege -inspired wild hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual -horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth month -586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah fled towards the Jordan -valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah (45 m. south -of Hamath). His sons were slain before his eyes, and he himself was -blinded and carried off to Babylon after a reign of eleven years. The -Babylonian Nebuzaradan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious -city, and on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 B.C. Jerusalem was -destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned, the walls -broken down, the chief priest Seraiah, the second priest Zephaniah, and -other leaders were put to death, and a large body of people was again -carried away. The disaster became the great epoch-making event for -Jewish history and literature. - -Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.v.) had realized -that Judah's only hope lay in submission to Babylonia. Stigmatized as a -traitor, scorned and even imprisoned, he had not ceased to utter his -warnings to deaf ears, although Zedekiah himself was perhaps open to -persuasion. Now the penalty had been paid, and the Babylonians, whose -policy was less destructive than that of Assyria, contented themselves -with appointing as governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was -Mizpah, a commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of -Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to be loyal -to Babylonia and to resume their former peaceful occupations. The land -had not been devastated, and many gladly returned from their -hiding-places in Moab, Edom and Ammon. But discontented survivors of the -royal family under Ishmael intrigued with Baalis, king of Ammon. The -plot resulted in the murder of Gedaliah and an unsuccessful attempt to -carry off various princesses and officials who had been left in the -governor's care. This new confusion and a natural fear of Babylonia's -vengeance led many to feel that their only safety lay in flight to -Egypt, and, although warned by Jeremiah that even there the sword would -find them, they fled south and took refuge in Tahpanhes (Daphnae, q.v.), -afterwards forming small settlements in other parts of Egypt. But the -thread of the history is broken, and apart from an allusion to the -favour shown to the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah -and Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent -events are viewed from a new standpoint (S 20). - - The last few years of the Judaean kingdom present several difficult - problems. - - (a) That there was some fluctuation of tradition is evident in the - case of Jehoiakim, with whose quiet end (2 Kings xxiv. 6 [see also - Lucian]; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 8 [Septuagint]) contrast the fate - foreshadowed in Jer. xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30 (cf. Jos. _Ant._ x. 6, 2 - seq.). The tradition of his captivity (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6; Dan. i. 2) - has apparently confused him with Jehoiachin, and the latter's reign is - so brief that some overlapping is conceivable. Moreover, the prophecy - in Jer. xxxiv. 5 that Zedekiah would die in peace is not borne out by - the history, nor does Josiah's fate agree with the promise in 2 Kings - xxii. 20. There is also an evident relation between the pairs: - Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah (e.g. length of - reigns), and the difficulty felt in regard to the second and third is - obvious in the attempts of the Jewish historian Josephus to provide a - compromise. The contemporary prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah and - Ezekiel require careful examination in this connexion, partly as - regards their traditional background (especially the headings and - setting), and partly for their contents, the details of which - sometimes do not admit of a literal interpretation in accordance with - our present historical material (cf. Ezek. xix. 3-9, where the two - brothers carried off to Egypt and Babylon respectively would seem to - be Jehoahaz and his nephew Jehoiachin). - - (b) Some fluctuation is obvious in the number, dates and extent of the - deportations. Jer. lii. 28-30 gives a total of 4600 persons, in - contrast to 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 16 (the numbers are not inclusive), and - reckons three deportations in the 7th (? 17th), 18th and 23rd years of - Nebuchadrezzar. Only the second is specifically said to be from - Jerusalem (the remaining are of Judaeans), and the last has been - plausibly connected with the murder of Gedaliah, an interval of five - years being assumed. For this twenty-third year Josephus (_Ant._ x. 9, - 7) gives an invasion of Egypt and an attack upon Ammon, Moab and - Palestine (see NEBUCHADREZZAR). - - (c) That the exile lasted seventy years (? from 586 B.C. to the - completion of the second temple) is the view of the canonical history - (2 Chron. xxxvi. 21; Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10; Zech. i. 12; cf. Tyre, - Isa. xxiii. 15), but it is usually reckoned from the first - deportation, which was looked upon as of greater significance than the - second (Jer. xxiv. xxix.), and it may be a round number. Another - difficulty is the interpretation of the 40 years in Ezek. iv. 6 (cf. - Egypt, xxix. 11), and the 390 in _v._ 5 (Septuagint 150 or 190; 130 in - Jos. x. 9, 7 end). A period of fifty years is allowed by the - chronological scheme (1 Kings vi. 1; cf. Jos. c. _Ap._ i. 21), and the - late book of Baruch (vi. 3) even speaks of seven generations. Varying - chronological schemes may have been current and some weight must be - laid upon the remarkable vagueness of the historical information in - later writings (see DANIEL). - - (d) The attitude of the neighbouring peoples constitutes another - serious problem (cf. 2 Kings xxiv. 2 and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5, where - Lucian's recension and the Septuagint respectively add the - Samaritans!), in view of the circumstances of Gedaliah's appointment - (Jer. xl. 11, see above) as contrasted with the frequent prophecies - against Ammon, Moab and Edom which seem to be contemporary (see EDOM; - MOAB). - - (e) Finally, the recurrence of similar historical situations in - Judaean history must be considered. The period under review, with its - relations between Judah and Egypt, can be illustrated by prophecies - ascribed to a similar situation in the time of Hezekiah. But the - destruction of Jerusalem is not quite unique, and somewhat later we - meet with indirect evidence for at least one similar disaster upon - which the records are silent. There are a number of apparently related - passages which, however, on internal grounds, are unsuitable to the - present period, and when they show independent signs of a later date - (in their present form), there is a very strong probability that they - refer to such subsequent disasters. The scantiness of historical - tradition makes a final solution impossible, but the study of these - years has an important bearing on the history of the later Judaean - state, which has been characteristically treated from the standpoint - of exiles who returned from Babylonia and regard themselves as the - kernel of "Israel." From this point of view, the desire to intensify - the denudation of Palestine and the fate of its remnant, and to look - to the Babylonian exiles for the future, can probably be recognized in - the writings attributed to contemporary prophets.[33] - -18. _Internal Conditions and the Exile._--Many of the exiles accepted -their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xxix. 4-7); Jewish -colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The agriculturists and -herdsmen who had been left in Palestine formed, as always, the staple -population, and it is impossible to imagine either Judah or Israel as -denuded of its inhabitants. The down-trodden peasants were left in peace -to divide the land among them, and new conditions arose as they took -over the ownerless estates. But the old continuity was not entirely -broken; there was a return to earlier conditions, and life moved more -freely in its wonted channels. The fall of the monarchy involved a -reversion to a pre-monarchical state. It had scarcely been otherwise in -Israel. The Israelites who had been carried off by the Assyrians were -also removed from the cult of the land (cf. 1 Sam. xxvi. 19; Ruth i. 15 -seq.). It is possible that some had escaped by taking timely refuge -among their brethren in Judah; indeed, if national tradition availed, -there were doubtless times when Judah cast its eye upon the land with -which it had been so intimately connected. It would certainly be unwise -to draw a sharp boundary line between the two districts; kings of Judah -could be tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional founder, or -Assyria might be complaisant towards a faithful Judaean vassal. The -character of the Assyrian domination over Israel must not be -misunderstood; the regular payment of tribute and the provision of -troops were the main requirements, and the position of the masses -underwent little change if an Assyrian governor took the place of an -unpopular native ruler. The two sections of the Hebrews who had had so -much in common were scarcely severed by a border-line only a few miles -to the north of Jerusalem. But Israel after the fall of Samaria is -artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a foreign -land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intrusion of -foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil, and strangers -had settled in her midst, had formed part of the royal guard, or had -even served as janissaries (S 15, end). - -Samaria had experienced several changes in its original population,[34] -and an instructive story tells how the colonists, in their ignorance of -the religion of their new home, incurred the divine wrath. _Cujus regio -ejus religio_--settlement upon a new soil involved dependence upon its -god, and accordingly priests were sent to instruct the Samaritans in the -fear of Yahweh. Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite -Yahweh along with their own native cults (2 Kings xvii. 24-28, 33). -Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of the -Judaeans (cf. Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves with the -old stock (Ezra iv. 2). Whatever recollection they preserved of their -origin and of the circumstances of their entry would be retold from a -new standpoint; the ethnological traditions would gain a new meaning; -the assimilation would in time become complete. In view of subsequent -events it would be difficult to find a more interesting subject of -inquiry than the internal religious and sociological conditions in -Samaria at this age. - -To the prophets the religious position was lower in Judah than in -Samaria, whose iniquities were less grievous (Jer. iii. 11 seq., xxiii. -11 sqq.; Ezek. xvi. 51). The greater prevalence of heathen elements in -Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of Josiah or in the writings of -the prophets (cf. Ezek. viii.), would at least suggest that the -destruction of the state was not entirely a disaster. To this -catastrophe may be due the fragmentary character of old Judaean -historical traditions. Moreover, the land was purified when it became -divorced from the practices of a luxurious court and lost many of its -worst inhabitants. In Israel as in Judah the political disasters not -only meant a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence -the old popular and non-official religion, the character of which is not -to be condemned because of the attitude of lofty prophets in advance of -their age. When there were sects like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when -the Judaean fields could produce a Micah or a Zephaniah, and when Israel -no doubt had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the -underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The writings of -the prophets were cherished, not only in the unfavourable atmosphere of -courts (see Jer. xxxvi., 21 sqq.), but also in the circles of their -followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the quiet smaller sanctuaries the old-time -beliefs were maintained, and the priests, often perhaps of the older -native stock (cf. 2 Kings xvii. 28 and above), were the recognized -guardians of the religious cults. The old stories of earlier days -encircle places which, though denounced for their corruption, were not -regarded as illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traditions of -the past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular -belief and thought. In the domestic circles of prophetic communities the -part played by their great heads in history did not suffer in the -telling, and it is probable that some part at least of the extant -history of the Israelite kingdom passed through the hands of men whose -interest lay in the pre-eminence of their seers and their beneficent -deeds on behalf of these small communities. This interest and the -popular tone of the history may be combined with the fact that the -literature does not take us into the midst of that world of activity in -which the events unfolded themselves. - - Although the records preserve complete silence upon the period now - under review, it is necessary to free oneself from the narrow outlook - of the later Judaean compilers. It is a gratuitous assumption that the - history of (north) Israel ceased with the fall of Samaria or that - Judah then took over Israelite literature and inherited the old - Israelite spirit: the question of the preservation of earlier writings - is of historical importance. It is true that the situation in Israel - or Samaria continues obscure, but a careful study of literary - productions, evidently not earlier than the 7th century B.C., reveals - a particular loftiness of conception and a tendency which finds its - parallels in Hosea and approximates the peculiar characteristics of - the Deuteronomic school of thought. But the history which the Judaean - writers have handed down is influenced by the later hostility between - Judah and Samaria. The traditional bond between the north and south - which nothing could efface (cf. Jos. _Ant._, xi. 8, 6) has been - carried back to the earliest ages; yet the present period, after the - age of rival kingdoms, Judah and Israel, and before the foundation of - Judaism, is that in which the historical background for the inclusion - of Judah among the "sons" of Israel is equally suitable (SS 5, 20, - end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance between the people - of Palestine, and a greater prominence of the old holy places (Hebron, - Bethel, Shechem, &c.), of which the ruined Jerusalem would not be one, - and the existing condition of Judah and Israel from internal and - non-political points of view--not their condition in the - pre-monarchical ages--is the more crucial problem in biblical - history.[35] - -19. _Persian Period._[36]--The course of events from the middle of the -6th century B.C. to the close of the Persian period is lamentably -obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates that this age holds -the key to the growth of written biblical history. It was an age of -literary activity which manifested itself, not in contemporary -historical records--only a few of which have survived--but rather in the -special treatment of previously existing sources. The problems are of -unusual intricacy and additional light is needed from external -evidence. It will be convenient to turn to this first. Scarcely 40 years -after the destruction of Jerusalem, a new power appeared in the east in -the person of Cyrus the Great. Babylon speedily fell (539 B.C.) and a -fresh era opened. To the petty states this meant only a change of -masters; they now became part of one of the largest empires of -antiquity. The prophets who had marked in the past the advent of -Assyrians and Chaldeans now fixed their eyes upon the advance of Cyrus, -confident that the fall of Babylon would bring the restoration of their -fortunes. Cyrus was hailed as the divinely appointed saviour, the -anointed one of Yahweh. The poetic imagery in which the prophets clothed -the doom of Babylon, like the romantic account of Herodotus (i. 191), -falls short of the simple contemporary account of Cyrus himself. He did -not fulfil the detailed predictions, and the events did not reach the -ideals of Hebrew writers; but these anticipations may have influenced -the form which the Jewish traditions subsequently took. Nevertheless, if -Cyrus was not originally a Persian and was not a worshipper of Yahweh -(Isa. xli. 25), he was at least tolerant towards subject races and their -religions, and the persistent traditions unmistakably point to the -honour in which his memory was held. Throughout the Persian supremacy -Palestine was necessarily influenced by the course of events in -Phoenicia and Egypt (with which intercourse was continual), and some -light may thus be indirectly thrown on its otherwise obscure political -history. Thus, when Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, made his great -expedition against Egypt, with the fleets of Phoenicia and Cyprus and -with the camels of the Arabians, it is highly probable that Palestine -itself was concerned. Also, the revolt which broke out in the Persian -provinces at this juncture may have extended to Palestine; although the -usurper Darius encountered his most serious opposition in the north and -north-east of his empire. An outburst of Jewish religious feeling is -dated in the second year of Darius (520), but whether Judah was making a -bold bid for independence or had received special favour for abstaining -from the above revolts, external evidence alone can decide. Towards the -close of the reign of Darius there was a fresh revolt in Egypt; it was -quelled by Xerxes (485-465), who did not imitate the religious tolerance -of his predecessors. Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (465-425), attracts -attention because the famous Jewish reformers Ezra and Nehemiah -flourished under a king of this name. Other revolts occurred in Egypt, -and for these and also for the rebellion of the Persian satrap Megabyzos -(c. 448-447), independent evidence for the position of Judah is needed, -since a catastrophe apparently befell the unfortunate state before -Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Little is known of the mild and -indolent Artaxerxes II. Mnemon (404-359). With the growing weakness of -the Persian empire Egypt reasserted its independence for a time. In the -reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus (359-338), Egypt, Phoenicia and Cyprus -were in revolt; the rising was quelled without mercy, and the details of -the vengeance are valuable for the possible fate of Palestine itself. -The Jewish historian Josephus (_Ant._ xi. 7) records the enslavement of -the Jews, the pollution of the Temple by a certain Bagoses (see BAGOAS), -and a seven years' punishment. Other late sources narrate the -destruction of Jericho and a deportation of the Jews to Babylonia and to -Hyrcania (on the Caspian Sea). The evidence for the catastrophes under -Artaxerxes I. and III. (see ARTAXERXES), exclusively contained in -biblical and in external tradition respectively, is of particular -importance, since several biblical passages refer to disasters similar -to those of 586 but presuppose different conditions and are apparently -of later origin.[37] The murder of Artaxerxes III. by Bagoses gave a -set-back to the revival of the Persian Empire. Under Darius Codomannus -(336-330) the advancing Greek power brought matters to a head, and at -the battle of Issus in 333 Alexander settled its fate. The overthrow of -Tyre and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish state -entered upon the Greek period. (See S 25.) - - During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been only one of - an aggregate of subject peoples enjoying internal freedom provided in - return for a regular tribute. They lived in comparative quietude; - although Herodotus knows the Palestinian coast he does not mention the - Jews. The earlier Persian kings acknowledged the various religions of - the petty peoples; they were also patrons of their temples and would - take care to preserve an ancient right of asylum or the privileges of - long-established cults.[38] Cyrus on entering Babylon had even - restored the gods to the cities to which they belonged.[39] - Consequently much interest attaches to the evidence which illustrates - the environment of the Jews during this period. Those who had been - scattered from Palestine lived in small colonies, sometimes mingling - and intermarrying with the natives, sometimes strictly preserving - their own individuality. Some took root in the strange lands, and, as - later popular stories indicate, evidently reached high positions; - others, retaining a more vivid tradition of the land of their fathers, - cherished the ideal of a restored Jerusalem. Excavation at Nippur - (q.v.) in Babylonia has brought to light numerous contract tablets of - the 5th century B.C. with Hebrew proper names (Haggai, Hanani, - Gedaliah, &c.). Papyri from Elephantine in Upper Egypt, of the same - age, proceed from Jewish families who carry on a flourishing business, - live among Egyptians and Persians, and take their oaths in courts of - law in the name of the god "Yahu," the "God of Heaven," whose temple - dated from the last Egyptian kings. Indeed, it was claimed that - Cambyses had left the sanctuary unharmed but had destroyed the temples - of the Egyptians. In Elephantine, as in Nippur, the legal usages show - that similar elements of Babylonio-Assyrian culture prevailed, and the - evidence from two such widely separated fields is instructive for - conditions in Palestine itself.[40] - -20. _The Restoration of Judah._--The biblical history for the Persian -period is contained in a new source--the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, -whose standpoint and period are that of Chronicles, with which they are -closely joined. After a brief description of the fall of Jerusalem the -"seventy years" of the exile are passed over, and we are plunged into a -history of the return (2 Chron. xxxvi.; Ezra i.). Although Palestine had -not been depopulated, and many of the exiled Jews remained in Persia, -the standpoint is that of those who returned from Babylon. Settled in -and around Jerusalem, they look upon themselves as the sole community, -the true Israel, even as it was believed that once before Israel entered -and developed independently in the land of its ancestors. They look back -from the age when half-suppressed hostility with Samaria had broken out, -and when an exclusive Judaism had been formed. The interest of the -writers is as usual in the religious history; they were indifferent to, -or perhaps rather ignorant of, the strict order of events. Their -narratives can be partially supplemented from other sources (Haggai; -Zechariah i.-viii.; Isa. xl.-lxvi.; Malachi), but a consecutive sketch -is impossible.[41] - -In 561 B.C. the captive Judaean king, Jehoiachin, had received special -marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar's son Amil-marduk. So little is -known of this act of recognition that its significance can only be -conjectured. A little later Tyre received as its king Merbaal (555-552) -who had been fetched from Babylonia. Babylonia was politically -unsettled, the representative of the Davidic dynasty had descendants; if -Babylon was assured of the allegiance of Judah further acts of clemency -may well have followed. But the later recension of Judaean history--our -sole source--entirely ignores the elevation of Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxv. -27 sqq.; Jer. lii. 31-34), and proceeds at once to the first year of -Cyrus, who proclaims as his divine mission the rebuilding of the Temple -(538). The Judaean Sheshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) -brought back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried away -and prepared to undertake the work at the expense of the royal purse. An -immense body of exiles is said to have returned at this time to -Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was of Davidic descent, and the priest -Jeshua or Joshua, the grandson of the murdered Seraiah (Ezra i.-iii.; v. -13-vi. 5). When these refused the proffered help of the people of -Samaria, men of the same faith as themselves (iv. 2), their troubles -began, and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The -next historical notice is dated in the second year of Darius (520) when -two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, came forward to kindle the Judaeans -to new efforts, and in spite of opposition the work went steadily -onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius, until the Temple was completed -four years later (Ezra v. 2, vi. 13 sqq.). On the other hand, from the -independent writings ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no -considerable body of exiles could have returned--it is still an event of -the future (Zech. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to -the Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel is the one to take in hand and -complete the great undertaking (Zech. iv. 9). The prophets address -themselves to men living in comfortable abodes with olive-fields and -vineyards, suffering from bad seasons and agricultural depression, and -though the country is unsettled there is no reference to any active -opposition on the part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson -from the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply that -Yahweh's wrath is still upon the unfortunate city and that Persia is -still the oppressor. Consequently, although small bodies of individuals -no doubt came back to Judah from time to time, and some special mark of -favour may have been shown by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since -the early arguments of E. Schrader (_Stud. u. Krit._, 1867, pp. -460-504), that the compiler's representation of the history is -untrustworthy. His main object is to make the new Israel, the -post-exilic community at Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the -old Israel.[42] Greater weight must be laid upon the independent -evidence of the prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine -could not have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah -without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question. -Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century B.C. can be -only indirectly estimated (S 18), and the political position must remain -for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel the people beheld once -more a ruler of the Davidic race. The new temple heralded a new future; -the mournful fasts commemorative of Jerusalem's disasters would become -feasts; Yahweh had left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now -returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged its -iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanctuary. So -Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the ideal kingdom, the -trusted and highly favoured minister who was the signet-ring upon -Yahweh's hand (contrast Hag. ii. 24 with Jer. xxii. 23). Zechariah, in -his turn, proclaims the overthrow of all difficulties in the path of the -new king, who shall rule in glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). -What political aspirations were revived, what other writers were -inspired by these momentous events are questions of inference. - - A work which inculcates the dependence of the state upon the purity of - its ruler is the unfinished book of Kings with its history of the - Davidic dynasty and the Temple. Its ideals culminate in Josiah (S 16, - end), and there is a strong presumption that it is intended to impress - upon the new era the lessons drawn from the past. Its treatment of the - monarchy is only part of a great and now highly complicated literary - undertaking (traceable in the books Joshua to Kings), inspired with - the thought and coloured by language characteristic of Deuteronomy - (especially the secondary portions), which forms the necessary - introduction. Whatever reforms Josiah actually accomplished, the - restoration afforded the opportunity of bringing the Deuteronomic - teaching into action; though it is more probable that Deuteronomy - itself in the main is not much earlier than the second half of the 6th - century B.C.[43] It shows a strong nationalist feeling which is not - restricted to Judah alone, but comprises a greater Israel from Kadesh - in Naphtali in the north to Hebron in the south, and even extends - beyond the Jordan. Distinctive non-Judaean features are included, as - in the Samaritan liturgical office (Deut. xxvii. 14-26), and the - evidence for the conclusion that traditions originally of (north) - Israelite interest were taken over and adapted to the later standpoint - of Judah and Jerusalem (viz. in the Deuteronomic book of Kings) - independently confirms the inferences drawn from Deuteronomy itself. - The absence of direct testimony can be partially supplied by later - events which presuppose the break-up of no inconsiderable state, and - imply relations with Samaria which had been by no means so unfriendly - as the historians represent. A common ground for Judaism and - Samaritanism is obvious, and it is in this obscure age that it is to - be sought. But the curtain is raised for too brief an interval to - allow of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean - fortunes; not until the time of Nehemiah, about 140 years after the - fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect. - - Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (SS 21, 23) - much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has long - been recognized that 1 Chron. ii. and iv. represent a Judah composed - mainly of groups which had moved up from the south (Hebron) to the - vicinity of Jerusalem. It includes Caleb and Jerahmeel, Kenite or - Rechabite families, scribes, &c., and these, as "sons" of Hezron, - claim some relationship with Gilead. The names point generally to an - affinity with south Palestine and north Arabia (Edom, Midian, &c.; see - especially the lists in Gen. xxxvi.), and suggest that certain members - of a closely related collection of groups had separated from the main - body and were ultimately enrolled as Israelites. It is also recognized - by many scholars that in the present account of the exodus there are - indications of the original prominence of traditions of Kadesh, and - also of a journey northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took - part (S 5). On these and on other grounds besides, it has long been - felt that south Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of - real importance in biblical research, and for many years efforts have - been made to determine the true significance of the evidence. The - usual tendency has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of - early Israelite history, which demands some reconstruction (S 8), and - to discern distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah - and Israel under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of T. - K. Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south - actually underlies our sources and can be recovered by emendation of - the text. Against the former is the fact that although certain groups - are ultimately found in Judah (Judg. i.), the evidence for the - movement--a conquest north of Kadesh, almost at the gate of the - promised land--explicitly mentions Israel; and against the latter the - evidence again shows that this representation has been deliberately - subordinated to the entrance of Israel from beyond the Jordan.[44] In - either case the history of separate sections of people may have been - extended to Israel as a whole, but there is no evidence for any - adequate reconstruction. Yet the presence of distinct representations - of the history may be recognized, and since the Judaean compilers of - the Old Testament have incorporated non-Judaean sources (e.g. the - history of the northern monarchy), it is obvious that, apart from - indigenous Judaean tradition, the southern groups which were - ultimately enrolled in Judah would possess their own stock of oral and - written lore. Hence it is noteworthy that the late editor of Judges - has given the first place to Othniel, a Kenizzite, and therefore of - Edomite affinity, though subsequently reckoned as a Judaean (Judg i. - 13, iii. 9; cf. Gen. xxxvi. 11; 1 Chron. iv. 13). Of Kenite interest - is the position of Cain, ancestor of heroes of culture and of the - worship of Yahweh (Gen. iv. 17 sqq.). One fragmentary source alludes - to a journey to the Midianite or Kenite father-in-law of Moses with - the Ark (q.v.); another knows of its movements with David and the - priest Abiathar (a name closely related to Jether or Jethro; cf. also - 1 Chron. iv. 17). Distinctively Calebite are the stories of the eponym - who, fearless of the "giants" of Palestine, gained striking divine - promises (Num. xiv. 11-24); Caleb's overthrow of the Hebronite giants - finds a parallel in David's conflicts before the capture of Jerusalem, - and may be associated with the belief that these primitive giants once - filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see S 7, and DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS - OF). Calebite, too, are Hebron and its patron Abraham, and both - increase in prominence in the patriarchal narratives, where, moreover, - an important body of tradition can have emanated only from outside - Israel and Judah (see GENESIS). Although Judah was always closely - connected with the south, these "southern" features (once clearly more - extensive and complete) are found in the Deuteronomic and priestly - compilations, and their presence in the historical records can hardly - be severed from the prominence of "southern" families in the vicinity - of Jerusalem, some time after the fall of Jerusalem. The background in - 1 Chron. ii. presupposes the desolation after that disaster, and some - traces of these families are found in Nehemiah's time; and while the - traditions know of a separation from Edom (viz. stories of Jacob and - his "brother" Esau), elsewhere Edom is frequently denounced for - unbrotherly conduct in connexion with some disaster which befell - Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 B.C. (see S 22).[45] The true - inwardness of this movement, its extent and its history, can hardly be - recovered at present, but it is noteworthy that the evidence generally - involves the Levites, an ecclesiastical body which underwent an - extremely intricate development. To a certain extent it would seem - that even as Chronicles (q.v.) has passed through the hands of one who - was keenly interested in the Temple service, so the other historical - books have been shaped not only by the late priestly writers - (symbolized in literary criticism by P), but also by rather earlier - writers, also of priestly sympathies, but of "southern" or - half-Edomite affinity. This is independently suggested by the contents - and vicissitudes of the purely ecclesiastical traditions.[46] - - Recent criticism goes to show that there is a very considerable body - of biblical material, more important for its attitude to the history - than for its historical accuracy, the true meaning of which cannot as - yet be clearly perceived. It raises many serious problems which - concentrate upon that age which is of the greatest importance for the - biblical and theological student. The perplexing relation between the - admittedly late compilations and the actual course of the early - history becomes still more intricate when one observes such a feature - as the late interest in the Israelite tribes. No doubt there is much - that is purely artificial and untrustworthy in the late (post-exilic) - representations of these divisions, but it is almost incredible that - the historical foundation for their early career is severed from the - written sources by centuries of warfare, immigration and other - disturbing factors. On the one hand, conservative scholars insist upon - the close material relation between the constituent sources; critical - scholars, on the other hand, while recognizing much that is relatively - untrustworthy, refrain from departing from the general outlines of the - canonical history more than is absolutely necessary. Hence the various - reconstructions of the earlier history, with all their inherent - weaknesses. But historical criticism is faced with the established - literary conclusions which, it should be noticed, place the - Deuteronomic and priestly compilations posterior to the great changes - at and after the fall of the northern monarchy, and, to some extent, - contemporary with the equally serious changes in Judah. There were - catastrophes detrimental to the preservation of older literary - records, and vicissitudes which, if they have not left their mark on - contemporary history--which is singularly blank--may be traced on the - representations of the past. There are external historical - circumstances and internal literary features which unite to show that - the application of the literary hypotheses of the Old Testament to the - course of Israelite history is still incomplete, and they warn us that - the intrinsic value of religious and didactic writings should not - depend upon the accuracy of their history.[47] Future research may not - be able to solve the problems which arise in the study of the period - now under discussion; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all - efforts should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see - further S 24; and PALESTINE: _History_). - -21. _Nehemiah and Ezra._--There is another remarkable gap in the -historical traditions between the time of Zerubbabel and the reign of -Artaxerxes I. In obscure circumstances the enthusiastic hopes have -melted away, the Davidic scion has disappeared, and Jerusalem has been -the victim of another disaster. The country is under Persian officials, -the nobles and priests form the local government, and the ground is -being prepared for the erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of -rebuilding and reorganization, of social and of religious reforms, which -we encounter in the last pages of biblical history, and in the records -of Ezra and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of -epoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of Artaxerxes at Susa, -plunged in grief at the news of the desolation of Jerusalem, obtained -permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided with an escort -and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for the buildings, he -returned to the city of his fathers' sepulchres (the allusion may -suggest his royal ancestry). His zeal is represented in a twofold -aspect. Having satisfied himself of the extent of the ruins, he aroused -the people to the necessity of fortifying and repopulating the city, and -a vivid account is given in his name of the many dangers which beset the -rebuilding of the walls. Sanballat of Horon, Tobiah the Ammonite, and -Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him. Tobiah and his -son Johanan were related by marriage to Judaean secular and priestly -families, and active intrigues resulted, in which nobles and prophets -took their part. It was insinuated that Nehemiah had his prophets to -proclaim that Judah had again its own king; it was even suggested that -he was intending to rebel against Persia! Nehemiah naturally gives us -only his version, and the attitude of Haggai and Zechariah to Zerubbabel -may illustrate the feeling of his partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan -themselves were worshippers of Yahweh (as their names also show), and -consequently, with prophets taking different sides and with the -Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3), all -the facts cannot be gathered from the narratives. Nevertheless the -undaunted Judaean pressed on unmoved by the threatening letters which -were sent around, and succeeded in completing the walls within fifty-two -days.[48] - -In the next place, Nehemiah appears as governor of the small district of -Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich, and the necessity -of providing tribute had brought the humbler classes to the lowest -straits. Some had mortgaged their houses, fields and vineyards to buy -corn; others had borrowed to pay the taxes, and had sold their children -to their richer brethren to repay the debt. Nehemiah was faced with old -abuses, and vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the -generosity of the exiles who would redeem their poor countrymen from -slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting the usual -provision which other governors had claimed; indeed, he had readily -entertained over 150 officials and dependants at his table, apart from -casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear something of a twelve-years' -governorship and of a second visit, but the evidence does not enable us -to determine the sequence (xiii. 6). Neh. v. is placed in the middle of -the building of the walls in fifty-two days; the other reforms during -the second visit are closely connected with the dedication of the walls -and with the events which immediately follow his first arrival when he -had come to rebuild the city. Nehemiah also turns his attention to -religious abuses. The sabbath, once a festival, had become more strictly -observed, and when he found the busy agriculturists and traders (some of -them from Tyre) pursuing their usual labours on that day, he pointed to -the disasters which had resulted in the past from such profanation, and -immediately took measures to put down the evil (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. -xvii. 20 sqq.; Ezek. xx. 13-24; Isa. lvi. 2, 6; lviii. 13). Moreover, -the maintenance of the Temple servants called for supervision; the -customary allowances had not been paid to the Levites who had come to -Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they had now -forsaken the city. His last acts were the most conspicuous of all. Some -of the Jews had married women of Ashdod, Ammon and Moab, and the -impetuous governor indignantly adjured them to desist from a practice -which was the historic cause of national sin. Even members of the -priestly families had intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat; the former -had his own chamber in the precincts of the Temple, the daughter of the -latter was the wife of a son of Joiada the son of the high priest -Eliashib. Again Nehemiah's wrath was kindled. Tobiah was cast out, the -offending priest expelled, and a general purging followed, in which all -the foreign element was removed. With this Nehemiah brings the account -of his reforms to a conclusion, and the words "Remember me, O my God, -for good" (xiii. 31) are not meaningless. The incidents can be -supplemented from Josephus. According to this writer (_Ant._ xi. 7, 2), -a certain Manasseh, the brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, -refused to divorce his wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was -driven out, and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival -temple and priesthood upon Mt Gerizim, to which repaired other priests -and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages. There is little -doubt that Josephus refers to the same events; but there is considerable -confusion in his history of the Persian age, and when he places the -schism and the foundation of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the -Great (after the obscure disasters of the reign of Artaxerxes III.), it -is usually supposed that he is a century too late.[49] At all events, -there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the -concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old -Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel and -rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title[50] (see S 5). - -In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social intercourse -with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (q.v.) requires notice. The -story of this scribe (now combined with the memoirs of Nehemiah) -crystallizes the new movement inaugurated after a return of exiles from -Babylonia. The age can also be illustrated from Isa. lvi.-lxvi. and -Malachi (q.v.). There was a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in -need of renovation, its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of -their office. On the one side was the grinding poverty of the poor; on -the other the abuses of the governors. There were two leading religious -parties: one of oppressive formalists, exclusive, strict and -ritualistic; the other, more cosmopolitan, extended a freer welcome to -strangers, and tolerated the popular elements and the superstitious -cults which are vividly depicted (Isa. lxv. seq.). But the former gained -the day, and, realizing that the only hope of maintaining a pure worship -of Yahweh lay in a forcible isolation from foreign influence, its -adherents were prepared to take measures to ensure the religious -independence of their assembly. It is related that Ezra, the scribe and -priest, returned to Jerusalem with priests and Levites, lay exiles, and -a store of vessels for the Temple. He was commissioned to inquire into -the religious condition of the land and to disseminate the teaching of -the Law to which he had devoted himself (Ezra vii.). On his arrival the -people were gathered together, and in due course he read the "book of -the Law of Moses" dally for seven days (Neh. viii.). They entered into -an agreement to obey its teaching, undertaking in particular to avoid -marriages with foreigners (x. 28 sqq.). A special account is given of -this reform (Ezra ix. seq.) and the description of Ezra's horror at the -prevalence of intermarriage, which threatened to destroy the distinctive -character of the community, sufficiently indicates the attitude of the -stricter party. The true seed of Israel separated themselves from all -foreigners (not, however, without some opposition) and formed an -exclusively religious body or "congregation." Dreams of political -freedom gave place to hopes of religious independence, and "Israel" -became a church, the foundation of which it sought in the desert of -Sinai a thousand years before. - - 22. _Post-exilic History._--The biblical history for the period in the - books of Ezra and Nehemiah is exceptionally obscure, and it is - doubtful how far the traditions can be trusted before we reach the - reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. sqq., Neh.). The records belonging to - this reign represent four different stages: (a) The Samaritans - reported that the Jews who had returned from the king to Jerusalem - were rebuilding the city and completing its walls, an act calculated - to endanger the integrity of the province. Artaxerxes accordingly - instructed them to stop the work until he should give the necessary - decree, and this was done by force (Ezra iv. 7-23, undated; 1 Esdras - ii. 16 sqq. mentions a building of the Temple!). (b) It was in the 7th - year (i.e. 458 B.C.) that Ezra returned with a small body of exiles to - promulgate the new laws he had brought and to set the Temple service - in order.[51] Fortified with remarkable powers, some of which far - exceed the known tolerance of Persian kings, he began wide-sweeping - marriage reforms; but the record ceases abruptly (vii.-x.). (c) In the - 20th year (445 B.C.) Nehemiah returned with permission to rebuild the - walls, the citadel and the governor's house (Neh. ii. 5, 8; see S 21 - above). But (d), whilst as governor he accomplishes various needed - reforms, there is much confusion in the present narratives, due partly - to the resumption of Ezra's labours after an interval of twelve years, - and partly to the closely related events of Nehemiah's activity in - which room must be found for his twelve-years' governorship and a - second visit. The internal literary and historical questions are - extremely intricate, and the necessity for some reconstruction is very - generally felt (for preliminary details, see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH). The - disaster which aroused Nehemiah's grief was scarcely the fall of - Jerusalem in 586 B.C., but a more recent one, and it has been - conjectured that it followed the work of Ezra (in _b_ above). On the - other hand, a place can hardly be found for the history of Ezra before - the appearance of Nehemiah; he moves in a settled and peaceful - community such as Nehemiah had helped to form, his reforms appear to - be more mature and schematic than those of Nehemiah; and, whilst - Josephus handles the two separately, giving Ezra the priority, many - recent scholars incline to place Nehemiah's first visit before the - arrival of Ezra.[52] That later tradition should give the pre-eminence - to the priestly reforms of Ezra is in every way natural, but it has - been found extremely difficult to combine the two in any - reconstruction of the period. Next, since there are three distinct - sources, for (a) above, and for the work of Nehemiah and of Ezra, - implicit reliance cannot be placed upon the present sequence of - narratives. Thus (a), with its allusion to a further decree, forms a - plausible prelude to the return of either Ezra (vii. 13) or Nehemiah - (i. 3, ii. 3); and if it is surprising that the Samaritans and other - opponents, who had previously waited to address Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. - 14 sqq., v. 5, 17), should now interfere when Nehemiah was armed with - a royal mandate (Neh. ii. 7-9), it is very difficult not to conclude - that the royal permits, as now detailed, have been coloured by Jewish - patriotism and the history by enmity to Samaria. Finally, the - situation in the independent and undated record (a) points to a - return, a rebuilding (apparently after some previous destruction), and - some interference. This agrees substantially with the independent - records of Nehemiah, and unless we assume two disasters not widely - separated in date--viz. those presupposed in (a) and (c)--the record - in (a), may refer to that stage in the history where the other source - describes the intrigues of the Samaritans and the letters sent by - Tobiah (cf. Tabeel in Ezra iv. 7) to frighten Nehemiah (Neh. vi. - 19).[53] Their insinuations that Nehemiah was seeking to be ruler and - their representations to Artaxerxes would be enough to alarm the king - (cf. Neh. vi. 5-9, 19, and Ezra iv. 15 seq., 20 seq.), and it may - possibly be gathered that Nehemiah at once departed to justify himself - (Neh. vii. 2, xiii. 4, 6). Nevertheless, since the narratives are no - longer in their original form or sequence, it is impossible to trace - the successive steps of the sequel; although if the royal favour was - endorsed (cf. the account ascribed to the time of Darius, Ezra v. - seq.), Nehemiah's position as a reformer would be more secure. - - Although there was a stock of tradition for the post-exilic age (cf. - Daniel, Esther, 1 Esdras, Josephus), the historical narratives are of - the scantiest and vaguest until the time of Artaxerxes, when the - account of a return (Ezra iv. 12), which otherwise is quite ignored, - appears to have been used for the times of Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.) - and subsequently of Cyrus (Ezra i.-iii.). Moreover, although general - opinion identifies our Artaxerxes with the first of that name, certain - features suggest that there has been some confusion with the - traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. (S 19). But the - problems are admittedly complicated, and since one is necessarily - dependent upon scanty narratives arranged and rearranged by later - hands in accordance with their own historical theories, it is - difficult to lay stress upon internal evidence which appears to be - conclusive for this or that reconstruction.[54] The main facts, - however, are clear. Jerusalem had suffered some serious catastrophe - before Nehemiah's return; a body of exiles returned, and in spite of - interference the work of rebuilding was completed; through their - influence the Judaean community underwent reorganization, and - separated itself from its so-called heathen neighbours. How many years - elapsed from beginning to end can hardly be said. Tradition - concentrated upon Ezra and his age many events and changes of - fundamental importance. The canonical history has allowed only one - great destruction of Jerusalem, and the disaster of 586 B.C. became - the type for similar disasters, but how many there were criticism can - scarcely decide.[55] Allusions to Judah's sufferings at the hands of - Edom, Moab and Ammon often imply conditions which are not applicable - to 586. A definite series knows of an invasion and occupation by Edom - (q.v. end), a people with whom Judah, as the genealogies show, had - once been intimately connected. The unfriendliness of the "brother" - people, which added so much to the bitterness of Judah, although - associated with the events of 586 (so especially 1 Esdras iv. 45), - probably belongs to a much later date.[56] The tradition that Edomites - burned the Temple and occupied part of Judah (ib. _vv._ 45, 50) is - partially confirmed by Ezek. xxxv. 5, 10, xxxvi. 5; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; - but the assumption that Darius, as in 1 Esdras, helped the Jews - against them can with difficulty be maintained. The interesting - conjecture that the second Temple suffered another disaster in the - obscure gap which follows the time of Zerubbabel has been urged, after - Isa. lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12, by Kuenen (afterwards withdrawn) and by - Sellin, and can be independently confirmed. In the records of Nehemiah - the ruins of the city are extensive (ii. 8, 17, iii.; cf. Ecclus. - xlix. 13), and the tradition that Nehemiah rebuilt this Temple (Jos. - _Ant._ xi. 5, 6; 2 Macc. i. 18) is supported (a) by the explicit - references to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Artaxerxes - (1 Esdras ii. 18, not in Ezra iv. 12; but both in a context relating - to the history of the Temple), and (b) by the otherwise inaccurate - statement that the Temple was finished according to the decree of - "Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes king of Persia" (Ezra vi. 14). - - The untrustworthy account of the return in the time of Cyrus (Ezra i. - sqq.) or Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.; probably the older form) is - curiously indebted to material which seems to have belonged to the - history of the work of Nehemiah (cf. Ezra ii. with Neh. vii.), and the - important return in the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 12) seems to be - connected with other references to some new settlement (Neh. xi. 20, - 23, 25, especially xii. 29). The independent testimony of the names in - Neh. iii. is against any previous large return from Babylon, and - clearly illustrates the strength of the groups of "southern" origin - whose presence is only to be expected (p. 285). Moreover, the late - compiler of 1 Chronicles distinguishes a Judah composed almost wholly - of "southern" groups (1 Chron. ii. and iv.) from a subsequent stage - when the first inhabitants of Jerusalem correspond in the main to the - new population after Nehemiah had repaired the ruins (1 Chron. ix. and - Neh. xi.). Consequently, underlying the canonical form of post-exilic - history, one may perhaps recognize some fresh disaster, after the - completion of Zerubbabel's temple, when Judah suffered grievously at - the hands of its Edomite brethren (in Malachi, date uncertain, - vengeance has at last been taken); Nehemiah restored the city, and the - traditions of the exiles who returned at this period have been thrown - back and focussed upon the work of Zerubbabel. The criticism of the - history of Nehemiah, which leads to this conjecture, suggests also - that if Nehemiah repulsed the Samaritan claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. - 3, where the building of the Temple is concerned) and refused a - compromise (vi. 2), it is extremely unlikely that Samaria had hitherto - been seriously hostile; see also C. C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_, pp. - 321-333. - - Biblical history ends with the triumph of the Judaean community, the - true "Israel," the right to which title is found in the distant past. - The Judaean view pervades the present sources, and whilst its David - and Solomon ruled over a united land, the separation under Jeroboam is - viewed as one of calf-worshipping northern tribes from Jerusalem with - its one central temple and the legitimate priesthood of the Zadokites. - It is from this narrower standpoint of an exclusive and confined Judah - (and Benjamin) that the traditions as incorporated in the late - recensions gain fresh force, and in Israel's renunciation of the - Judaean yoke the later hostility between the two may be read between - the lines. The history in Kings was not finally settled until a very - late date, as is evident from the important variations in the - Septuagint, and it is especially in the description of the time of - Solomon and the disruption that there continued to be considerable - fluctuations.[57] The book has no finale and the sudden break may not - be accidental. It is replaced by Chronicles, which, confining itself - to Judaean history from a later standpoint (after the Persian age), - includes new characteristic traditions wherein some recollection of - more recent events may be recognized. Thus, the south Judaean or south - Palestinian element shows itself in Judaean genealogies and lists; - there are circumstantial stories of the rehabilitation of the Temple - and the reorganization of cultus; there are fuller traditions of - inroads upon Judah by southern peoples and their allies. There is also - a more definite subordination of the royal authority to the priesthood - (so too in the writings of Ezekiel, q.v.); and the stories of - punishment inflicted upon kings who dared to contend against the - priests (Jehoash, Uzziah) point to a conflict of authority, a hint of - which is already found in the reconciliation of Zerubbabel and the - priest Joshua in a passage ascribed to Zechariah (ch. vi.). - -23. _Post-exilic Judaism._--With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter upon the era -in which a new impulse gave to Jewish life and thought that form which -became the characteristic orthodox Judaism. It was not a new religion -that took root; older tendencies were diverted into new paths, the -existing material was shaped to new ends. Judah was now a religious -community whose representative was the high priest of Jerusalem. Instead -of sacerdotal kings, there were royal priests, anointed with oil, -arrayed with kingly insignia, claiming the usual royal dues in addition -to the customary rights of the priests. With his priests and Levites, -and with the chiefs and nobles of the Jewish families, the high priest -directs this small state, and his death marks an epoch as truly as did -that of the monarchs in the past. This hierarchical government, which -can find no foundation in the Hebrew monarchy, is the forerunner of the -Sanhedrin (q.v.); it is an institution which, however inaugurated, set -its stamp upon the narratives which have survived. Laws were recast in -accordance with the requirements of the time, with the result that, by -the side of usages evidently of very great antiquity, details now appear -which were previously unknown or wholly unsuitable. The age, which the -scanty historical traditions themselves represent as one of supreme -importance for the history of the Jews, once seemed devoid of interest, -and it is entirely through the laborious scholarship of the 19th century -that it now begins to reveal its profound significance. The -Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, that the hierarchical law in its complete -form in the Pentateuch stands at the close and not at the beginning of -biblical history, that this mature Judaism was the fruit of the 5th -century B.C. and not a divinely appointed institution at the exodus -(nearly ten centuries previously), has won the recognition of almost all -Old Testament scholars. It has been substantiated by numerous subsidiary -investigations in diverse departments, from different standpoints, and -under various aspects, and can be replaced only by one which shall more -adequately explain the literary and historical evidence (see further, p. -289). - -The post-exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is absent -from the Judaean Deuteronomic book of Kings but is fully mature in the -later, and to some extent parallel, book of Chronicles (q.v.). The -"priestly" traditions of the creation and of the patriarchs mark a very -distinct advance upon the earlier narratives, and appear in a further -developed form in the still later book of Jubilees, or "Little Genesis," -where they are used to demonstrate the pre-Mosaic antiquity of the -priestly or Levitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable -development in the laws; and the priestly legislation, though ahead of -both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier usage, not -only continues to undergo continual internal modification, but finds a -further distinct development, in the way of definition and -interpretation, outside the Old Testament--in the Talmud (q.v.). Upon -the characteristics of the post-exilic priestly writings we need not -dwell.[58] Though one may often be repelled by their lifelessness, their -lack of spontaneity and the externalization of the ritual, it must be -recognized that they placed a strict monotheism upon a legal basis. "It -was a necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner; -without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its essential -elements would have proved impossible. At a time when all nationalities, -and at the same time all bonds of religion and national customs, were -beginning to be broken up in the seeming cosmos and real chaos of the -Graeco-Roman Empire, the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the -ocean. When the natural conditions of independent nationality all failed -them, they nevertheless artificially maintained it with an energy truly -marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves, and at the same time -for the whole world, an eternal good."[59] - -If one is apt to acquire too narrow a view of Jewish legalism, the whole -experience of subsequent history, through the heroic age of the -Maccabees (q.v.) and onwards, only proves that the minuteness of ritual -procedure could not cramp the heart. Besides, this was only one of the -aspects of Jewish literary activity. The work represented in Nehemiah -and Ezra, and put into action by the supporters of an exclusive Judaism, -certainly won the day, and their hands have left their impress upon the -historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects and -tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always had -followers. Whatever the predominant party might think of foreign -marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin of David serves, in -the beautiful idyll of Ruth (q.v.), to suggest the debt which Judah and -Jerusalem owed to one at least of its neighbours. Again, although some -may have desired a self-contained community opposed to the heathen -neighbours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah implicitly contends against -the attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflicting tendencies -were incompatible, but Judaism retained the incompatibilities within -its limits, and the two tendencies, prophetical and priestly, continue, -the former finding its further development in Christianity.[60] - - The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (S 4) does not pretend to be complete - in all its details and it is independent of its application to the - historical criticism of the Old Testament. No alternative hypothesis - prevails, mere desultory criticism of the internal intricacies being - quite inadequate. Maintaining that the position of the Pentateuch - alone explains the books which follow, conservative writers concede - that it is composite, has had some literary history, and has suffered - some revision in the post-exilic age. Their concessions continue to - become ever more significant, and all that follows from them should be - carefully noticed by those who are impressed by their arguments. They - identify with Deuteronomy the law-roll which explains the noteworthy - reforms of Josiah (S 16); but since it is naturally admitted that - religious conditions had become quite inconsistent with Mosaism, the - conservative view implies that the "long-lost" Deuteronomy must have - differed profoundly from any known Mosaic writings to which earlier - pious kings and prophets had presumably adhered. Similarly, the "book - of the Law of Moses," brought from Babylon by Ezra (Ezra vii.; Neh. - viii.), clearly contained much of which the people were ignorant, and - conservative writers, who oppose the theory that a new Law was then - introduced, emphasize (a) the previous existence of legislation (to - prove that Ezra's book was not entirely a novelty), and (b) the gross - wickedness in Judah (as illustrated by the prophets) from the time of - Josiah to the strenuous efforts of the reformers on behalf of the most - fundamental principles of the national religion. This again simply - means that the Mosaism of Ezra or Nehemiah must have differed - essentially from the priestly teaching prior to their arrival. The - arguments of conservative writers involve concessions which, though - often overlooked by their readers, are very detrimental to the - position they endeavour to support, and the objections they bring - against the theory of the introduction of new law-books (under a - Josiah or an Ezra) apply with equal force to the promulgation of - Mosaic teaching which had been admittedly ignored or forgotten. Their - arguments have most weight, however, when they show the hazardous - character of reconstructions which rely upon the trustworthiness of - the historical narratives. What book Ezra really brought from Babylon - is uncertain; the writer, it seems, is merely narrating the - introduction of the Law ascribed to Moses, even as a predecessor has - recounted the discovery of the Book of the Law, the Deuteronomic code - subsequently included in the Pentateuch. - - The importance which the biblical writers attach to the return from - Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes forms a starting-point for several - interesting inquiries. Thus, in any estimate of the influence of - Babylonia upon the Old Testament, it is obviously necessary to ask - whether certain features (a) are of true Babylonian origin, or (b) - merely find parallels or analogies in its stores of literature; - whether the indebtedness goes back to very early times or to the age - of the Assyrian domination or to the exiles who now returned. Again, - there were priestly and other families--some originally of "southern" - origin--already settled around Jerusalem, and questions inevitably - arise concerning their relation to the new-comers and the literary - vicissitudes which gave us the Old Testament in its present form. To - this age we may ascribe the literature of the Priestly writers - (symbolized by P), which differs markedly from the other sources. Yet - it is clear from the book of Genesis alone that in the age of Priestly - writers and compilers there were other phases of thought. Popular - stories with many features of popular religion were current. They - could be, and indeed had been made more edifying; but the very - noteworthy conservatism of even the last compiler or editor, in - contrast to the re-shaping and re-writing of the material in the book - of Jubilees, indicates that the Priestly spirit was not that of the - whole community. But through the Priestly hands the Old Testament - history passed, and their standpoint colours its records. This is - especially true of the history of the exilic and post-exilic periods, - where the effort is made to preserve the continuity of Israel and the - Israelite community (Chronicles--Ezra--Nehemiah). The bitterness - aroused by the ardent and to some extent unjust zeal of the reforming - element can only be conjectured. The traditions reveal a tendency to - legitimate new circumstances. Priesthoods, whose traditions connect - them with the south, are subordinated; the ecclesiastical records are - re-shaped or re-adjusted; and a picture is presented of hierarchical - jealousies and rivalries which (it was thought) were settled once and - for all in the days of the exodus from Egypt. Many features gain in - significance as the account of the Exodus, the foundation of Israel, - is read in the light of the age when, after the advent of a new - element from Babylonia, the Pentateuch assumed its present shape; it - must suffice to mention the supremacy of the Aaronite priests and the - glorification of uncompromising hostility to foreign marriages.[61] - The most "unhistorical" tradition has some significance for the - development of thought or of history-writing, and thus its internal - features are ultimately of historical value. Only from an exhaustive - comparison of controlling data can the scattered hints be collected - and classified. There is much that is suggestive, for example, in the - relation between the "post-exilic" additions to the prophecies and - their immediately earlier form; or in the singular prominence of the - Judaean family of Perez (its elevation over Zerah, a half-Edomite - family, Gen. xxxviii.; its connexion with the Davidic dynasty, Ruth - iv.; its position as head of all the Judaean sub-divisions, 1 Chron. - ii. 5 sqq.); or in the late insertion of local tradition encircling - Jerusalem; or in the perplexing attitude of the histories towards the - district of Benjamin and its famous sanctuary of Bethel (only about 10 - m. north of Jerusalem). Although these and other phenomena cannot yet - be safely placed in a historical frame, the methodical labours of past - scholars have shed much light upon the obscurities of the exilic and - post-exilic ages, and one must await the more comprehensive study of - the two or three centuries which are of the first importance for - biblical history and theology. - - 24. _Old Testament History and External Evidence._--Thus the Old - Testament, the history of the Jews during the first great period, - describes the relation of the Hebrews to surrounding peoples, the - superiority of Judah over the faithless (north) Israelite tribes, and - the reorganization of the Jewish community in and around Jerusalem at - the arrival of Ezra with the Book of the Law. The whole gives an - impression of unity, which is designed, and is to be expected in a - compilation. But closer examination reveals remarkable gaps and - irreconcilable historical standpoints. For all serious biblical study, - the stages in the growth of the written traditions and the historical - circumstances which they imply, must inevitably be carefully - considered, and upon the result depends, directly or indirectly, - almost every subject of Old Testament investigation. Yet it is - impossible to recover with confidence or completeness the development - of Hebrew history from the pages of the Old Testament alone. The keen - interest taken by the great prophets in the world around them is not - prominent in the national records; political history has been - subordinated, and the Palestine which modern discovery is revealing is - not conspicuous in the didactic narratives. To external evidence one - must look, therefore, for that which did not fall within the scope or - the horizon of the religious historians. They do not give us the - records of the age of the Babylonian monarch Khammurabi (perhaps - Amraphel, Gen. xiv.), of the Egyptian conquests in the XVIIIth and - following dynasties, or of the period illustrated by the Amarna - tablets (S 3). They treat with almost unique fullness a few years in - the middle of the 9th century B.C., but ignore Assyria; yet only the - Assyrian inscriptions explain the political situation (S 10 seq.), and - were it not for them the true significance of the 8th-7th centuries - could scarcely be realized (S 15 seq.). It would be erroneous to - confuse the extant sources with the historical material which might or - must have been accessible, or to assume that the antiquity of the - elements of history proves or presupposes the antiquity of the records - themselves, or even to deny the presence of some historical kernel - merely on account of unhistorical elements or the late dress in which - the events are now clothed. External research constantly justifies the - cautious attitude which has its logical basis in the internal - conflicting character of the written traditions or in their divergence - from ascertained facts; at the same time it has clearly shown that the - internal study of the Old Testament has its limits. Hence, in the - absence of more complete external evidence one is obliged to recognize - the limitations of Old Testament historical criticism, even though - this recognition means that positive reconstructions are more - precarious than negative conclusions. - - The naive impression that each period of history was handled by some - more or less contemporary authority is not confirmed by a criticism - which confines itself strictly to the literary evidence. An interest - in the past is not necessarily confined to any one age, and the - critical view that the biblical history has been compiled from - relatively late standpoints finds support in the still later treatment - of the events--in Chronicles as contrasted with Samuel--Kings or in - Jubilees as contrasted with Genesis.[62] It is instructive to observe - in Egypt the form which old traditions have taken in Manetho (Maspero, - _Rec. de travaux_, xxvii., 1905, l. 22 seq.); cf. also the late story - of Rameses II. and the Hittites (J. H. Breasted, _Anc. Rec. of Egypt_, - iii. 189 seq.); while in Babylonia one may note the didactic - treatment, after the age of Cyrus, of the events of the time of - Khammurabi (A. H. Sayce, _Proc. Soc. Biblical Archaeol._, 1907, pp. 13 - sqq.). - - The links which unite the traditional heroes with Babylonia (e.g. - Abraham, Ezra), Mesopotamia (e.g. Jacob), Egypt (e.g. Joseph, - Jeroboam), Midian (e.g. Moses, Jethro), &c., like the intimate - relationship between Israel and surrounding lands, have a significance - in the light of recent research. Israel can no longer be isolated from - the politics, culture, folk-lore, thought and religion of western Asia - and Egypt. Biblical, or rather Palestinian, thought has been brought - into the world of ancient Oriental life, and this life, in spite of - the various forms in which it has from time to time been shaped, still - rules in the East. This has far-reaching consequences for the - traditional attitude to Israelite history and religion. Research is - seriously complicated by the growing stores of material, which - unfortunately are often utilized without attention to the principles - of the various departments of knowledge or aspects of study. The - complexity of modern knowledge and the interrelation of its different - branches are often insufficiently realized, and that by writers who - differ widely in the application of such material as they use to their - particular views of the manifold problems of the Old Testament. It has - been easy to confuse the study of the Old Testament in its relation to - modern religious needs with the technical scientific study of the much - edited remains of the literature of a small part of the ancient East. - If there was once a tendency to isolate the Old Testament and ignore - comparative research, it is now sometimes found possible to exaggerate - its general agreement with Oriental history, life and thought. - Difficulties have been found in the supernatural or marvellous stories - which would be taken as a matter of course by contemporary readers, - and efforts are often made to recover historical facts or to adapt the - records to modern theology without sufficient attention to the - historical data as a whole or to their religious environment. The - preliminary preparation for research of any value becomes yearly more - exacting. - - Many traces of myth, legend and "primitive" thought survive in the Old - Testament, and on the most cautious estimate they presuppose a - vitality which is not a little astonishing. But they are now softened - and often bereft of their earlier significance, and it is this and - their divergence from common Oriental thought which make Old Testament - thought so profound and unique. The process finds its normal - development in later and non-biblical literature; but one can - recognize earlier, cruder and less distinctive stages, and, as surely - as writings reflect the mentality of an author or of his age, the - peculiar characteristics of the extant sources, viewed in the light of - a comprehensive survey of Palestinian and surrounding culture, demand - a reasonable explanation. The differences between the form of the - written history and the conditions which prevailed have impressed - themselves variously upon modern writers, and efforts have been made - to recover from the Old Testament earlier forms more in accordance - with the external evidence. It may be doubted, however, whether the - material is sufficient for such restoration or reconstruction.[63] In - the Old Testament we have the outcome of specific developments, and - the stage at which we see each element of tradition or belief is not - always isolated or final (cf. Kings and Chronicles). The early myths, - legends and traditions which can be traced differ profoundly from the - canonical history, and the gap is wider than that between the latter - and the subsequent apocalyptical and pseudepigraphical literature. - - Where it is possible to make legitimate and unambiguous comparisons, - the ethical and spiritual superiority of Old Testament thought has - been convincingly demonstrated, and to the re-shaping and re-writing - of the older history and the older traditions the Old Testament owes - its permanent value. While the history of the great area between the - Nile and the Tigris irresistibly emphasizes the insignificance of - Palestine, this land's achievements for humanity grow the more - remarkable as research tells more of its environment. Although the - light thrown upon ancient conditions of life and thought has destroyed - much that sometimes seems vital for the Old Testament, it has brought - into relief a more permanent and indisputable appreciation of its - significance, and it is gradually dispelling that pseudo-scientific - literalism which would fetter the greatest of ancient Oriental - writings with an insistence upon the verity of historical facts. Not - internal criticism, but the incontestable results of objective - observation have shown once and for all that the relationship between - the biblical account of the earliest history (Gen. i.-xi.) and its - value either as an authentic record (which requires unprejudiced - examination) _or_ as a religious document (which remains untouched) is - typical. If, as seems probable, the continued methodical - investigation, which is demanded by the advance of modern knowledge, - becomes more drastic in its results, it will recognize ever more - clearly that there were certain unique influences in the history of - Palestine which cannot be explained by purely historical research. The - change from Palestinian polytheism to the pre-eminence of Yahweh and - the gradual development of ethical monotheism are _facts_ which - external evidence continues to emphasize, which biblical criticism - must investigate as completely as possible. And if the work of - criticism has brought a fuller appreciation of the value of these - facts, the debt which is owed to the Jews is enhanced when one - proceeds to realize the immense difficulties against which those who - transmitted the Old Testament had to contend in the period of Greek - domination. The growth of the Old Testament into its present form, - and its preservation despite hostile forces, are the two remarkable - phenomena which most arrest the attention of the historian; it is for - the theologian to interpret their bearing upon the history of - religious thought. (S. A. C.) - - -II.--GREEK DOMINATION - -25. _Alexander the Great._--The second great period of the history of -the Jews begins with the conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great, -disciple of Aristotle, king of Macedon and captain-general of the -Greeks. It ends with the destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of the -Roman Empire, which was, like Alexander, at once the masterful pupil and -the docile patron of Hellenism. The destruction of Jerusalem might be -regarded as an event of merely domestic importance; for the Roman -cosmopolitan it was only the removal of the titular metropolis of a -national and an Oriental religion. But, since a derivative of that -religion has come to be a power in the world at large, this event has to -be regarded in a different light. The destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. -70 concludes the period of four centuries, during which the Jews as a -nation were in contact with the Greeks and exposed to the influence of -Hellenism, not wholly of their own will nor yet against it. Whether the -master of the provinces, in which there were Jews, be an Alexander, a -Ptolemy, a Seleucid or a Roman, the force by which he rules is the force -of Greek culture. These four centuries are the Greek period of Jewish -history. - -The ancient historians, who together cover this period, are strangely -indifferent to the importance of the Jews, upon which Josephus is at -pains to insist. When Alexander invaded the interior of the Eastern -world, which had hitherto remained inviolable, he came as the champion -of Hellenism. His death prevented the achievement of his designs; but he -had broken down the barrier, he had planted the seed of the Greek's -influence in the four quarters of the Persian Empire. His successors, -the Diadochi, carried on his work, but Antiochus Epiphanes was the first -who deliberately took in hand to deal with the Jews. Daniel (viii. 8) -describes the interval between Alexander and Antiochus thus: "The -he-goat (the king of Greece) did very greatly: and when he was strong -the great horn (Alexander) was broken; and instead of it came up four -other ones--four kingdoms shall stand up out of his nation but not with -his power. And out of one of them came forth a little horn (Antiochus -Epiphanes) which waxed exceeding great towards the south (Egypt) and -towards the East (Babylon) and towards the beauteous land (the land of -Israel)." The insignificance of the Jewish community in Palestine was -their salvation. The reforms of Nehemiah were directed towards the -establishment of a religious community at Jerusalem, in which the rigour -of the law should be observed. As a part of the Persian Empire the -community was obscure and unimportant. But the race whose chief -sanctuary it guarded and maintained was the heir of great traditions and -ideals. In Egypt, moreover, in Babylon and in Persia individual Jews had -responded to the influences of their environment and won the respect of -the aliens whom they despised. The law which they cherished as their -standard and guide kept them united and conscious of their unity. And -the individuals, who acquired power or wisdom among those outside -Palestine shed a reflected glory upon the nation and its Temple. - - In connexion with Alexander's march through Palestine Josephus gives a - tradition of his visit to Jerusalem. In Arrian's narrative of - Alexander's exploits, whose fame had already faded before the greater - glory of Rome, there is no mention of the visit or the city or the - Jews. Only Tyre and Gaza barred the way to Egypt. He took, presumably, - the coast-road in order to establish and retain his command of the - sea. The rest of Palestine, which is called Coele-Syria, made its - submission and furnished supplies. Seven days after the capture of - Gaza Alexander was at Pelusium. According to the tradition which - Josephus has preserved the high priest refused to transfer his - allegiance and Alexander marched against Jerusalem after the capture - of Gaza. The high priest dressed in his robes went out to meet him, - and at the sight Alexander remembered a dream, in which such a man had - appeared to him as the appointed leader of his expedition. So the - danger was averted: Alexander offered sacrifice and was shown the - prophecy of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that - at this time certain Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage - with the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the - Samaritan schism (S 21 above). The combination is certainly artificial - and not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it - illustrates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the - Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited - shrines in order to assure himself or his followers of victory. But it - is not clear that he had such need of the Jews or such regard for the - Temple of Jerusalem that he should turn aside on his way to Egypt for - such a purpose. - - However this may be, Alexander's tutor had been in Asia and had met a - Jew there, if his disciple Clearchus of Soli is to be trusted. "The - man," Aristotle says, "was by race a Jew out of Coele-Syria. His - people are descendants of the Indian philosophers. It is reported that - philosophers are called Calani among the Indians and Jews among the - Syrians. The Jews take their name from their place of abode, which is - called Judaea. The name of their city is very difficult; they call it - Hierusaleme. This man, then, having been a guest in many homes and - having come down gradually from the highlands to the sea-coast, was - Hellenic not only in speech but also in soul. And as we were staying - in Asia at the time, the man cast up at the same place and interviewed - us and other scholars, making trial of their wisdom. But inasmuch as - he had come to be at home with many cultured persons he imparted more - than he got." The date of this interview is probably determined by the - fact that Aristotle visited his friend Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus, in - 347-345 B.C. There is no reason to doubt the probability or even the - accuracy of the narrative. Megasthenes also describes the Jews as the - philosophers of Syria and couples them with the Brahmins of India. - This hellenized Jew who descended from the hills to the coast is a - figure typical of the period. - -26. _The Ptolemies._--After the death of Alexander Palestine fell in the -end to Ptolemy (301 B.C.) and remained an Egyptian province until 198 -B.C. For a century the Jews in Palestine and in Alexandria had no -history--or none that Josephus knew. But two individuals exemplify the -different attitudes which the nation adopted towards its new environment -and its wider opportunities, Joseph the tax-farmer and Jesus the sage. - - The wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach) is contained in the book - commonly called _Ecclesiasticus_ (q.v.). At a time when men were - attracted by the wisdom and science of the Greeks, he taught that all - wisdom came from Yahweh who had chosen Israel to receive it in trust. - He discouraged inquiries into the nature and purpose of things: it was - enough for him that Yahweh had created and ruled the universe. If a - man had leisure to be wise--and this is not for many--he should study - the Scriptures which had come down, and so become a scribe. For the - scribe, as for the man at the plough-tail, the Law was the rule of - life. All, however much or little preoccupied with worldly business, - must fear God, from whom come good things and evil, life, death, - poverty and riches. It was not for men to meddle with secrets which - are beyond human intelligence. Enough that the individual did his duty - in the state of life in which he was set and left behind him a good - name at his death. The race survives--"the days of Israel are - unnumbered." Every member of the congregation of Israel must labour, - as God has appointed, at some handicraft or profession to provide for - his home. It is his sacred duty and his private interest to beget - children and to train them to take his place. The scholar is apt to - pity the smith, the potter, the carpenter and the farmer: with better - reason he is apt to condemn the trader who becomes absorbed in greed - of gain and so deserts the way of righteousness and fair dealing. As a - teacher Jesus gave his own services freely. For the soldier he had no - commendation. There were physicians who understood the use of herbs, - and must be rewarded when their help was invited. But, whatever means - each head of a family adopted to get a livelihood, he must pay the - priest's dues. The centre of the life of Israel was the Temple, over - which the high priest presided and which was inhabited by Yahweh, the - God of Israel. The scribe could train the individual in morals and in - manners; but the high priest was the ruler of the nation. - - As ruler of the nation the high priest paid its tribute to Egypt, its - overlord. But Josephus reports of one Onias that for avarice he - withheld it. The sequel shows how a Jew might rise to power in the - civil service of the Egyptian Empire and yet remain a hero to some of - the Jews--provided that he did not intermarry with a Gentile. For - Joseph, the son of Tobiah and nephew of Onias, went to court and - secured the taxes of Palestine, when they were put up to auction. As - tax-farmer he oppressed the non-Jewish cities and so won the - admiration of Josephus. - -But while such men went out into the world and brought back wealth of -one kind or another to Palestine, other Jews were content to make their -homes in foreign parts. At Alexandria in particular Alexander provided -for a Jewish colony which soon became Hellenic enough in speech to -require a translation of the Law. It is probable that, as in Palestine -an Aramaic paraphrase of the Hebrew text was found to be necessary, so -in Alexandria the Septuagint grew up gradually, as need arose. The -legendary tradition which even Philo accepts gives it a formal nativity, -a royal patron and inspired authors. From the text which Philo uses, it -is probable that the translation had been transmitted in writing; and -his legend probably fixes the date of the commencement of the -undertaking for the reign of Ptolemy Lagus. - - The apology for the necessary defects of a translation put forward by - the translator of _Ecclesiasticus_ in his Prologue shows that the work - was carried on beyond the limits of the Law. Apparently it was in - progress at the time of his coming to Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy - Euergetes I. or II. He seems to regard this body of literature as the - answer to the charge that the Jews had contributed nothing useful for - human life. Once translated into Greek, the Scriptures became a bond - of union for the Jews of the dispersion and were at least capable of - being used as an instrument for the conversion of the world to - Judaism. So far as the latter function is concerned Philo confesses - that the Law in his day shared the obscurity of the people, and seems - to imply that the proselytes adopted little more than the monotheistic - principle and the observance of the Sabbath. According to Juvenal the - sons of such proselytes were apt to go farther and to substitute the - Jewish Law for the Roman-- - - Romanas autem soliti contemnere leges; - Judaicum ediscunt et servant ac metuunt ius - Tradidit arcano quodcunque volumine Moyses. - -27. _The Seleucids._--Toward the end of the 3rd century the Palestinian -Jews became involved in the struggle between Egypt and Syria. In -Jerusalem there were partisans of both the combatants. The more orthodox -or conservative Jews preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: the -rest, who chafed at the isolation of the nation, looked to the -Seleucids, who inherited Alexander's ideal of a united empire based on a -universal adoption of Hellenism. At this point Josephus cites the -testimony of Polybius:--"Scopas, the general of Ptolemy, advanced into -the highlands and subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. After -the defeat of Scopas, Antiochus gained Batanaea and Samaria and Abila -and Gadara, and a little later those of the Jews who live round the -Temple called Jerusalem adhered to him." From this it appears that the -pro-Syrian faction of the Jews had been strong and active enough to -bring an Egyptian army upon them (199-198 B.C.). Josephus adds that an -Egyptian garrison was left in Jerusalem. This act of oppression -presumably strengthened the Syrian faction of the Jews and led to the -transference of the nation's allegiance. The language of Polybius -suggests that he was acquainted with other Jewish communities and with -the fame of the Temple: in his view they are not an organized state. -They were not even a pawn in the game which Antiochus proposed to play -with Rome for the possession of Greece and Asia Minor. His defeat left -the resources of his kingdom exhausted and its extent diminished; and so -the Jews became important to his successors for the sake of their wealth -and their position on the frontier. To pay his debt to Rome he was -compelled to resort to extraordinary methods of raising money; he -actually met his death (187 B.C.) in an attempt to loot the temple of -Elymais. - -The pro-Syrian faction of the Palestinian Jews found their opportunity -in this emergency and informed the governor of Coele-Syria that the -treasury in Jerusalem contained untold sums of money. Heliodorus, prime -minister of Seleucus Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus, arrived at -Jerusalem in his progress through Coele-Syria and Phoenicia and declared -the treasure confiscate to the royal exchequer. According to the Jewish -legend Heliodorus was attacked when he entered the Temple by a horse -with a terrible rider and by two young men. He was scourged and only -escaped with his life at the intercession of Onias the high priest, who -had pleaded with him vainly that the treasure included the deposits of -widows and orphans and also some belonging to Hyrcanus, "a man in very -high position." Onias was accused by his enemies of having given the -information which led to this outrage and when, relying upon the support -of the provincial governor, they proceeded to attempt assassination, he -fled to Antioch and appealed to the king. - -When Seleucus was assassinated by Heliodorus, Antiochus IV., his -brother, who had been chief magistrate at Athens, came back secretly -"to seize the kingdom by guile" (Dan. xi. 21 seq.). On his accession he -appointed Jesus, the brother of Onias, to the high-priesthood, and -sanctioned his proposals for the conversion of Jerusalem into a Greek -city. The high priest changed his name to Jason and made a gymnasium -near the citadel. The principle of separation was abandoned. The priests -deserted the Temple for the palaestra and the young nobles wore the -Greek cap. The Jews of Jerusalem were enrolled as citizens of Antioch. -Jason sent money for a sacrifice to Heracles at Tyre; and the only -recorded opposition to his policy came from his envoys, who pleaded that -the money might be applied to naval expenditure. Thus Jason stripped the -high-priesthood of its sacred character and did what he could to stamp -out Judaism. - -Menelaus supplanted Jason, obtaining his appointment from the king by -the promise of a larger contribution. In order to secure his position, -he contrived the murder of Onias, who had taken sanctuary at Daphne. -This outrage, coupled with his appropriation of temple vessels, which he -used as bribes, raised against Menelaus the senate and the people of -Jerusalem. His brother and deputy was killed in a serious riot, and an -accusation was laid against Menelaus before Antiochus. At the inquiry he -bought his acquittal from a courtier and his accusers were executed. -Antiochus required peace in Jerusalem and probably regarded Onias as the -representative of the pro-Egyptian faction, the allies of his enemy. - -During his second Egyptian campaign a rumour came that Antiochus was -dead, and Jason made a raid upon Jerusalem. Menelaus held the citadel -and Jason was unable to establish himself in the city. The people were -presumably out of sympathy with Hellenizers, whether they belonged to -the house of Onias or that of Tobiah. When Antiochus finally evacuated -Egypt in obedience to the decree of Rome, he thought that Judaea was in -revolt. Though Jason had fled, it was necessary to storm the city; the -drastic measures which Menelaus advised seem to indicate that the poorer -classes had been roused to defend the Temple from further sacrilege. A -massacre took place, and Antiochus braved the anger of Yahweh by -entering and pillaging the Temple with impunity. The author of 2 -Maccabees infers from his success that the nation had forfeited all -right to divine protection for the time (2 Macc. v. 18-20). - -The policy which Antiochus thus inaugurated he carried on rigorously and -systematically. His whole kingdom was to be unified; Judaism was an -eccentricity and as such doomed to extinction. The Temple of Jerusalem -was made over to Zeus Olympius: the temple of Gerizim to Zeus Xenius. -All the religious rites of Judaism were proscribed and the neighbouring -Greek cities were requested to enforce the prohibition upon their Jewish -citizens. Jerusalem was occupied by an army which took advantage of the -Sabbath and proceeded to suppress its observance. An Athenian came to be -the missionary of Hellenism and to direct its ceremonies, which were -established by force up and down the country. - -28. _The Maccabees._--Jerusalem and Gerizim were purged and converted to -the state religion with some ease. Elsewhere, as there, some conformed -and some became martyrs for the faith. And the passive resistance of -those who refused to conform at length gave rise to active opposition. -"The king's officers who were enforcing the apostasy came into the city -of Modein to sacrifice, and many of Israel went over to them, but -Mattathias ... slew a Jew who came to sacrifice and the king's officer -and pulled down the altar" (1 Macc. ii. 15 sqq.). Whether led by this -Mattathias or not, certain Jews fled into the wilderness and found a -leader in Judas Maccabaeus his reputed son, the first of the five -Asmonean (Hasmonean) brethren. The warfare which followed was like that -which Saul and David waged against the Philistines. Antiochus was -occupied with his Parthian campaign and trusted that the Hellenized Jews -would maintain their ascendancy with the aid of the provincial troops. -In his last illness he wrote to express his confidence in their loyalty. -But the rebels collected adherents from the villages; and, when they -resolved to violate the sabbath to the extent of resisting attack, they -were joined by the company of the Assideans (Hasidim). Such a breach of -the sabbath was necessary if the whole Law was to survive at all in -Palestine. But the transgression is enough to explain the disfavour into -which the Maccabees seem to fall in the judgment of later Judaism, as, -in that judgment, it is enough to account for the instability of their -dynasty. Unstable as it was, their dynasty was soon established. In the -country-side of Judaea, Judaism--and no longer Hellenism--was propagated -by force. Apollonius, the commander of the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, -and Seron the commander of the army in Syria, came in turn against Judas -and his bands and were defeated. The revolt thus became important enough -to engage the attention of the governor of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, if -not of Lysias the regent himself. Nicanor was despatched with a large -army to put down the rebels and to pay the tribute due to Rome by -selling them as slaves. Judas was at Emmaus; "the men of the citadel" -guided a detachment of the Syrian troops to his encampment by night. The -rebels escaped in time, but not into the hills, as their enemies -surmised. At dawn they made an unexpected attack upon the main body and -routed it. Next year (165 B.C.) Lysias himself entered the Idumaean -country and laid siege to the fortress of Bethsura. Judas gathered what -men he could and joined battle. The siege was raised, more probably in -consequence of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes than because Judas had -gained any real victory. The proscription of the Jewish religion was -withdrawn and the Temple restored to them. But it was Menelaus who was -sent by the king "to encourage" (2 Macc. xi. 32) the Jews, and in the -official letters no reference is made to Judas. Such hints as these -indicate the impossibility of recovering a complete picture of the Jews -during the sovereignty of the Greeks, which the Talmudists regard as the -dark age, best left in oblivion. - -Judas entered Jerusalem, the citadel of which was still occupied by a -Syrian garrison, and the Temple was re-dedicated on the 25th of Kislev -(164 B.C.). So "the Pious" achieved the object for which presumably they -took up arms. The re-establishment of Judaism, which alone of current -religions was intolerant of a rival, seems to have excited the jealousy -of their neighbours who had embraced the Greek way of life. The -hellenizers had not lost all hope of converting the nation and were -indisposed to acquiesce in the concordat. Judas and his zealots were -thus able to maintain their prominence and gradually to increase their -power. At Joppa, for example, the Jewish settlers--two hundred in -all--"were invited to go into boats provided in accordance with the -common decree of the city." They accepted the invitation and were -drowned. Judas avenged them by burning the harbour and the shipping, and -set to work to bring into Judaea all such communities of Jews who had -kept themselves separate from their heathen neighbours. In this way he -became strong enough to deal with the apostates of Judaea. - -In 163 Lysias led another expedition against these disturbers of the -king's peace and defeated Judas at Bethzachariah. But while the forces -were besieging Bethzur and the fortress on Mount Zion, a pretender arose -in Antioch, and Lysias was compelled to come to terms--and now with -Judas. The Jewish refugees had turned the balance, and so Judas became -strategus of Judaea, whilst Menelaus was put to death. - -In 162 Demetrius escaped from Rome and got possession of the kingdom of -Syria. Jakim, whose name outside religion was Alcimus, waited upon the -new king on behalf of the loyal Jews who had hellenized. He himself was -qualified to be the legitimate head of a united state, for he was of the -tribe of Aaron. Judas and the Asmoneans were usurpers, who owed their -title to Lysias. So Alcimus-Jakim was made high priest and Bacchides -brought an army to instal him in his office. The Assideans made their -submission at once. Judas had won for them religious freedom: but the -Temple required a descendant of Aaron for priest and he was come. But -his first act was to seize and slay sixty of them: so it was clear to -Judas at any rate, if not also to the Assideans who survived, that -political independence was necessary if the religion was to be secure. -In face of his active opposition Alcimus could not maintain himself -without the support of Bacchides and was forced to retire to Antioch. -In response to his complaints Nicanor was appointed governor of Judaea -with power to treat with Judas. It appears that the two became friends -at first, but fresh orders from Antioch made Nicanor guilty of treachery -in the eyes of Judas's partisans. Warned by the change of his friend's -manner Judas fled. Nicanor threatened to destroy the Temple if the -priests would not deliver Judas into his hands. Soon it came to his -knowledge that Judas was in Samaria, whither he followed him on a -sabbath with Jews pressed into his service. The day was known afterwards -as Nicanor's day, for he was found dead on the field (Capharsalama) by -the victorious followers of Judas (13th of Adar, March 161 B.C.). After -this victory Judas made an alliance with the people of Rome, who had no -love for Demetrius his enemy, nor any intention of putting their -professions of friendship into practice. Bacchides and Alcimus returned -meanwhile into the land of Judah; at Elasa "Judas fell and the rest -fled" (1 Macc. ix. 18). Bacchides occupied Judaea and made a chain of -forts. Jonathan, who succeeded his brother Judas, was captain of a band -of fugitive outlaws. But on the death of Alcimus Bacchides retired and -Jonathan with his followers settled down beyond the range of the Syrian -garrisons. The Hellenizers still enjoyed the royal favour and Jonathan -made no attempt to dispossess them. After an interval of two years they -tried to capture him and failed. This failure seems to have convinced -Bacchides that it would be well to recognize Jonathan and to secure a -balance of parties. In 158 Jonathan began to rule as a judge in Michmash -and he destroyed the godless out of Israel--so far, that is, as his -power extended. In 153 Alexander Balas withdrew Jonathan from his -allegiance to Demetrius by the offer of the high-priesthood. He had -already made Jerusalem his capital and fortified the Temple mount: the -Syrian garrisons had already been withdrawn with the exception of those -of the Akra and Bethzur. In 147 Jonathan repaid his benefactor by -destroying the army of the governor of Coele-Syria, who had espoused the -cause of Demetrius. The fugitives took sanctuary in the temple of Dagon -at Azotus. "But Jonathan burned the temple of Dagon and those who fled -into it." After the death of Balas he laid siege to the Akra; and "the -apostates, who hated their own nation," appealed to Demetrius. Jonathan -was summoned to Antioch, made his peace and apparently relinquished his -attempt in return for the addition of three Samaritan districts to his -territory. Later, when the people of Antioch rose against the king, -Jonathan despatched a force of 3000 men who played a notable part in the -merciless suppression of the insurrection. 1 Maccabees credits them with -100,000 victims. Trypho, the regent of Antiochus VI., put even greater -political power into the hands of Jonathan and his brother Simon, but -finally seized Jonathan on the pretext of a conference. Simon was thus -left to consolidate what had been won in Palestine for the Jews and the -family whose head he had become. The weakness of the king enabled him to -demand and to secure immunity from taxation. The Jewish aristocracy -became peers of the Seleucid kingdom. Simon was declared high priest: -Rome and Sparta rejoiced in the elevation of their friend and ally. In -the hundred and seventieth year (142 B.C.) the yoke of the heathen was -taken away from Israel and the people began to date their legal -documents "in the first year of Simon the great high priest and -commander and leader of the Jews." The popular verdict received official -and formal sanction. Simon was declared by the Jews and the priests -their governor and high priest for ever, until there should arise a -faithful prophet. The garrison of the Akra had been starved by a close -blockade into submission, and beyond the boundaries of Judaea "he took -Joppa for a haven and made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura." - -29. _John Hyrcanus and the Sadducees._--But in 138 B.C. Antiochus -Sidetes entered Seleucia and required the submission of all the petty -states, which had taken advantage of the weakness of preceding kings. -From Simon he demanded an indemnity of 1000 talents for his oppression -and invasion of non-Jewish territory: Simon offered 100 talents. At -length Antiochus appeared to enforce his demand in 134. Simon was dead -(135 B.C.) and John Hyrcanus had succeeded his father. The Jewish forces -were driven back upon Jerusalem and the city was closely invested. At -the feast of tabernacles of 132 Hyrcanus requested and Antiochus granted -a week's truce. The only hope of the Jews lay in the clemency of their -victorious suzerain, and it did not fail them. Some of his advisers -urged the demolition of the nation on the ground of their exclusiveness, -but he sent a sacrifice and won thereby the name of "Pious." In -subsequent negotiations he accepted the disarmament of the besieged and -a tribute as conditions of peace, and in response to their entreaty left -Jerusalem without a garrison. When he went on his last disastrous -campaign, Hyrcanus led a Jewish contingent to join his army, partly -perhaps a troop of mercenaries (for Hyrcanus was the first of the Jewish -kings to hire mercenaries, with the treasure found in David's tomb). -After his death Hyrcanus took advantage of the general confusion to -extend Jewish territory with the countenance of Rome. He destroyed the -temple of Gerizim and compelled the Idumaeans to submit to circumcision -and embrace the laws of the Jews on pain of deportation. - -In Jerusalem and in the country, in Alexandria, Egypt and Cyprus, the -Jews were prosperous (Jos. _Ant._ xiii. 284). This prosperity and the -apparent security of Judaism led to a breach between Hyrcanus and his -spiritual directors, the Pharisees. His lineage was (in the opinion of -one of them at least) of doubtful purity; and so it was his duty to lay -down the high-priesthood and be content to rule the nation. That one man -should hold both offices was indeed against the example of Moses, and -could only be admitted as a temporary concession to necessity. Hyrcanus -could not entertain the proposal that he should resign the sacred office -to which he owed much of his authority. The allegation about his mother -was false: the Pharisee who retailed it was guilty of no small offence. -A Sadducean friend advised Hyrcanus to ask the whole body of the -Pharisees to prescribe the penalty. Their leniency, which was notorious, -alienated the king or probably furnished him with a pretext for breaking -with them. The Pharisees were troublesome counsellors and doubtful -allies for an ambitious prince. They were all-powerful with the people, -but Hyrcanus with his mercenaries was independent of the people, and the -wealthy belonged to the sect of the Sadducees. The suppression of the -Pharisaic ordinances and the punishment of those who observed them led -to some disturbance. But Hyrcanus "was judged worthy of the three great -privileges, the rule of the nation, the high-priestly dignity, and -prophecy." This verdict suggests that the Sadducees, with whom he allied -himself, had learned to affect some show of Judaism in Judaea. If the -poor were ardent nationalists who would not intermingle with the Greeks, -the rich had long outgrown and now could humour such prejudices; and the -title of their party was capable of recalling at any rate the sound of -the national ideal of righteousness, i.e. _Sadaqah_. - -The successor of Hyrcanus (d. 105) was Judas Aristobulus, "the friend of -the Greeks," who first assumed the title of king. According to Strabo he -was a courteous man and in many ways useful to the Jews. His great -achievement was the conquest of a part of Ituraea, which he added to -Judaea and whose inhabitants he compelled to accept Judaism. - -The Sadducean nobility continued in power under his brother and -successor Alexander Jannaeus (103-78); and the breach between the king -and the mass of the people widened. But Salome Alexandra, his brother's -widow, who released him from prison on the death of her husband and -married him, was connected with the Pharisees through her brother Simon -ben Shetach. If his influence or theirs dictated her policy, there is no -evidence of any objection to the union of the secular power with the -high-priesthood. The party may have thought that Jannaeus was likely to -bring the dynasty to an end. His first action was to besiege Ptolemais. -Its citizens appealed to Ptolemy Lathyrus, who had been driven from the -throne of Egypt by his mother Cleopatra and was reigning in Cyprus. -Alexander raised the siege, made peace with Ptolemy and secretly sent to -Cleopatra for help against her son. The result of this double-dealing -was that his army was destroyed by Ptolemy, who advanced into Egypt -leaving Palestine at the mercy of Cleopatra. But Cleopatra's generals -were Jews and by their protests prevented her from annexing it. Being -thus freed from fear on the side of Ptolemy, Alexander continued his -desultory campaigns across the Jordan and on the coast without any -apparent policy and with indifferent success. Finally, when he -officiated as high priest at the feast of tabernacles he roused the fury -of the people by a derisive breach of the Pharisaic ritual. They cried -out that he was unworthy of his office, and pelted him with the citrons -which they were carrying as the Law prescribed. Alexander summoned his -mercenaries, and 6000 Jews were killed before he set out on his -disastrous campaign against an Arabian king. He returned a fugitive to -find the nation in armed rebellion. After six years of civil war he -appealed to them to state the conditions under which they would lay -aside their hostility. They replied by demanding his death and called in -the Syrians. But when the Syrians chased him into the mountains, 6000 -Jews went over to him and, with their aid, he put down the rebellion. -Eight hundred Jews who had held a fortress against him were crucified; -8000 Pharisees fled to Egypt and remained there. Offering an ineffectual -resistance to the passage of the Syrian troops, Alexander was driven -back by Aretas, king of Arabia, against whom they had marched. His later -years brought him small victories over isolated cities. - -On his deathbed it is said that Alexander advised his wife to reverse -this policy and rely upon the Pharisees. According to the Talmud, he -warned her "to fear neither the Pharisees nor their opponents but the -hypocrites who do the deed of Zimri and claim the reward of Phinehas:" -the warning indicates his justification of his policy in the matter of -the crucifixions. In any case the Pharisees were predominant under -Alexandra, who became queen (78-69) under her husband's will. Hyrcanus -her elder son was only high priest, as the stricter Pharisees required. -All the Pharisaic ordinances which Hyrcanus had abolished were -reaffirmed as binding. Simon ben Shatach stood beside the queen: the -exiles were restored and among them his great colleague Jehudah ben -Tabai. The great saying of each of these rabbis is concerned with the -duties of a judge; the selection does justice to the importance of the -Sanhedrin, which was filled with Pharisees. The legal reforms which they -introduced tended for the most part to mercy, but the Talmud refers to -one case which is an exception: false witnesses were condemned to suffer -the penalty due to their victim, even if he escaped. This ruling may be -interpreted as part of a campaign directed against the counsellors of -Alexander or as an instance of their general principle that intention is -equivalent to commission in the eye of the Law. The queen interposed to -prevent the execution of those who had counselled the crucifixion of the -rebels and permitted them to withdraw with her younger son Aristobulus -to the fortresses outside Jerusalem. Against their natural desire for -revenge may be set the fact that the Pharisees did much to improve the -status of women among the Jews. - -On the death of Alexandra (69 B.C.) Aristobulus disputed the succession -of Hyrcanus. When their forces met at Jericho, Hyrcanus, finding that -the bulk of his following deserted to Aristobulus, fled with those who -remained to the tower Antonia and seized Aristobulus's wife and children -as hostages for his own safety. Having this advantage, he was able to -abdicate in favour of Aristobulus and to retire into private life. But -he was not able to save his friends, who were also the enemies of the -reigning king. In fear of reprisals Antipas (or Antipater), the -Idumaean, his counsellor, played on the fears of Hyrcanus and persuaded -him to buy the aid of the Nabataean Arabs with promises. Aristobulus -could not withstand the army of Aretas: he was driven back upon -Jerusalem and there besieged. The Jews deserted to the victorious -Hyrcanus: only the priests remained loyal to their accepted king; many -fled to Egypt. - -30. _The Romans and the Idumaeans._--At this point the power of Rome -appeared upon the scene in the person of M. Aemilius Scaurus (stepson of -Sulla) who had been sent into Syria by Pompey (65 B.C.). Both brothers -appealed to this new tribunal and Aristobulus bought a verdict in his -favour. The siege was raised. Aretas retired from Judaea; and -Aristobulus pursued the retreating army. But, when Pompey himself -arrived at Damascus, Antipater, who pulled the strings and exploited the -claims of Hyrcanus, realized that Rome and not the Arabs, who were cowed -by the threats of Scaurus, was the ruler of the East. To Rome, -therefore, he must pay his court. Others shared this conviction: Strabo -speaks of embassies from Egypt and Judaea bearing presents--one -deposited in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus bore the inscription of -Alexander, the king of the Jews. From Judaea there were three embassies -pleading, for Aristobulus, for Hyrcanus, and for the nation, who would -have no king at all but their God. - -Pompey deferred his decision until he should have inquired into the -state of the Nabataeans, who had shown themselves to be capable of -dominating the Jews in the absence of the Roman army. In the interval -Aristobulus provoked him by his display of a certain impatience. The -people had no responsible head, of whom Rome could take cognisance: so -Pompey decided in favour of Hyrcanus and humoured the people by -recognizing him, not as king, but as high priest. Antipater remained -secure, in power if not in place. The Roman supremacy was established: -the Jews were once more one of the subject states of Syria, now a Roman -province. Their national aspirations had received a contemptuous -acknowledgment, when their Temple had been desecrated by the entry of a -foreign conqueror. - -Aristobulus himself had less resolution than his partisans. When he -repented of his attempted resistance and treated with Pompey for peace, -his followers threw themselves into Jerusalem, and, when the faction of -Hyrcanus resolved to open the gates, into the Temple. There they held -out for three months, succumbing finally because in obedience to the Law -(as interpreted since the time of Antiochus Epiphanes) they would only -defend themselves from actual assault upon the sabbath day. The Romans -profited by this inaction to push on the siege-works, without provoking -resistance by actual assaults until the very end. Pompey finally took -the stronghold by choosing the day of the fast, when the Jews abstain -from all work, that is the sabbath (Strabo). Dio Cassius calls it the -day of Cronos. On this bloody sabbath the priests showed a devotion to -their worship which matched the inaction of the fighting men. Though -they saw the enemy advancing upon them sword in hand they remained at -worship untroubled and were slaughtered as they poured libation and -burned incense, for they put their own safety second to the service of -God. And there were Jews among the murderers of the 12,000 Jews who -fell. - -The Jews of Palestine thus became once more a subject state, stripped of -their conquests and confined to their own borders. Aristobulus and his -children were conveyed to Rome to grace their conqueror's triumphal -procession. But his son Alexander escaped during the journey, gathered -some force, and overran Judaea. The Pharisees decided that they could -not take action on either side, since the elder son of Alexandra was -directed by the Idumaean Antipater; and the people had an affection for -such Asmonean princes as dared to challenge the Roman domination of -their ancestral kingdom. The civil war was renewed; but Aulus Gabinius, -the proconsul, soon crushed the pretender and set up an aristocracy in -Judaea with Hyrcanus as guardian of the Temple. The country was divided -into five districts with five synods; and Josephus asserts that the -people welcomed the change from the monarchy. In spite of this, -Aristobulus (56 B.C.) and Alexander (55 B.C.) found loyalists to follow -them in their successive raids. But Antipater found supplies for the -army of Gabinius, who, despite Egyptian and Parthian distractions, -restored order according to the will of Antipater. M. Crassus, who -succeeded him, plundered the Temple of its gold and the treasure (54 -B.C.) which the Jews of the dispersion had contributed for its -maintenance. It is said that Eleazar, the priest who guarded the -treasure, offered Crassus the golden beam as ransom for the whole, -knowing, what no one else knew, that it was mainly composed of wood. So -Crassus departed to Parthia and died. When the Parthians, elated by -their victory over Crassus (53 B.C.) advanced upon Syria, Cassius -opposed them. Some of the Jews, presumably the partisans of Aristobulus, -were ready to co-operate with the Parthians. At any rate Antipater was -ready to aid Cassius with advice; Taricheae was taken and 30,000 Jews -were sold into slavery (51 B.C.). In spite of this vigorous coercion -Cassius came to terms with Alexander, before he returned to the -Euphrates to hold it against the Parthians. - -Two years later Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome and despatched -the captive Aristobulus with two legions to win Judaea (49 B.C.). But -Pompey's partisans were beforehand with him: he was taken off by poison -and got not so much as a burial in his fatherland. At the same time his -son Alexander was beheaded at Antioch by Pompey's order as an enemy of -Rome. After the defeat and death of Pompey (48 B.C.) Antipater -transferred his allegiance to Caesar and demonstrated its value during -Caesar's Egyptian campaign. He carried with him the Arabs and the -princes of Syria, and through Hyrcanus he was able to transform the -hostility of the Egyptian Jews into active friendliness. These services, -which incidentally illustrate the solidarity and unity of the Jewish -nation and the respect of the communities of the dispersion for the -metropolis, were recognized and rewarded. Before his assassination in 44 -B.C. Julius Caesar had confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood and -added the title of ethnarch. Antipater had been made a Roman citizen and -procurator of the reunited Judaea. Further, as confederates of the -senate and people of Rome, the Jews had received accession of territory, -including the port of Joppa and, with other material privileges, the -right of observing their religious customs not only in Palestine but -also in Alexandria and elsewhere. Idumaean or Philistine of Ascalon, -Antipater had displayed the capacity of his adoptive or adopted nation -for his own profit and theirs. And when Caesar died Suetonius notes that -he was mourned by foreign nations, especially by the Jews (_Caes._ 84). - -In the midst of all this civil strife the Pharisees and all who were -preoccupied with religion found it almost impossible to discern what -they should do to please God. The people whom they directed were called -out to fight, at the bidding of an alien, for this and that foreigner -who seemed most powerful and most likely to succeed. In Palestine few -could command leisure for meditation; as for opportunities of effective -intervention in affairs, they had none, it would seem, once Alexander -was dead. - - There is a story of a priest named Onias preserved both by Josephus - and in the Talmud, which throws some light upon the indecision of the - religious in the period just reviewed. When Aretas intervened in the - interest of Hyrcanus and defeated Aristobulus, the usurper of his - brother's inheritance, the people accepted the verdict of battle, - sided with the victor's client, and joined in the siege of Jerusalem. - The most reputable of the Jews fled to Egypt; but Onias, a righteous - man and dear to God, who had hidden himself, was discovered by the - besiegers. He had a name for power in prayer; for once in a drought he - prayed for rain and God had heard his prayer. His captors now required - of him that he should put a curse upon Aristobulus and his faction. On - compulsion he stood in their midst and said: "O God, king of the - universe, since these who stand with me are thy people and the - besieged are thy priests, I pray thee that thou hearken not to those - against these, nor accomplish what these entreat against those." So he - prayed--and the wicked Jews stoned him. - - Unrighteous Jews were in the ascendant. There were only Asmonean - princes, degenerate and barely titular sons of Levi, to serve as - judges of Israel--and they were at feud and both relied upon foreign - aid. The righteous could only flee or hide, and so wait dreaming of - the mercy of God past and to come. As yet our authorities do not - permit us to follow them to Egypt with any certainty, but the _Psalms - of Solomon_ express the mind of one who survived to see Pompey the - Great brought low. Although Pompey had spared the temple treasure, he - was the embodiment of the power of Rome, which was not always so - considerately exercised. And so the psalmist exults in his death and - dishonour (Ps. ii.): he prayed that the pride of the dragon might be - humbled and God shewed him the dead body lying upon the waves--and - there was none to bury it. As one of those who fear the Lord in truth - and in patience, he looks forward to the punishment of all sinners who - oppress the righteous and profane the sanctuary. For the sins of the - rulers God had rejected his people; but the remnant could not but - inherit the promises, which belong to the chosen people. For the Lord - is faithful unto those who walk in the righteousness of his - commandments (xiv. 1): in the exercise of their freewill and with - God's help they will attain salvation. As God's servant, Pompey - destroyed their rulers and every wise councillor: soon the righteous - and sinless king of David's house shall reign over them and over all - the nations (xvii.). - -31. _Herod the Great._--After the departure of Caesar, Antipater warned -the adherents of Hyrcanus against taking part in any revolutionary -attempts, and his son Herod, who, in spite of his youth, had been -appointed governor of Galilee, dealt summarily with Hezekiah, the robber -captain who was overrunning the adjacent part of Syria. The gratitude of -the Syrians brought him to the knowledge of Sextus Caesar the governor -of Syria; but his action inspired the chief men of the Jews with -apprehension. Complaint was made to Hyrcanus that Herod had violated the -law which prohibited the execution of even an evil man, unless he had -been first condemned to death by the Sanhedrin. At the same time the -mothers of the murdered men came to the Temple to demand vengeance. So -Herod was summoned to stand his trial. He came in answer to the -summons--but attended by a bodyguard and protected by the word of -Sextus. Of all the Sanhedrin only Sameas "a righteous man and therefore -superior to fear" dared to speak. Being a Pharisee he faced the facts of -Herod's power and warned the tribunal of the event, just as later he -counselled the people to receive him, saying that for their sins they -could not escape him. Herod put his own profit above the Law, acting -after his kind, and he also was God's instrument. The effect of the -speech was to goad the Sanhedrin into condemning Herod: Hyrcanus -postponed their decision and persuaded him to flee. Sextus Caesar made -him lieutenant-governor of Coele Syria, and only his father restrained -him from returning to wreak his revenge upon Hyrcanus. - - It is to be remembered that, in this and all narratives of the life of - Herod, Josephus was dependent upon the history of Herod's client, - Nicolaus of Damascus, and was himself a supporter of law and order. - The action of the Sanhedrin and the presence of the women suppliants - in the Temple suggest, if they do not prove, that this Hezekiah who - harassed the Syrians was a Jewish patriot, who could not acquiesce and - wait with Sameas. - -Malichus also, the murderer or reputed murderer of Antipater, appears to -have been a partisan of Hyrcanus, who had a zeal for Judaism. When -Cassius demanded a tribute of 700 talents from Palestine, Antipater set -Herod, Phasael and this Malichus, his enemy, to collect it. Herod -thought it imprudent to secure the favour of Rome by the sufferings of -others. But some cities defaulted, and they were apparently among those -assigned to Malichus. If he had been lenient for their sakes or in the -hope of damaging Antipater, he was disappointed; for Cassius sold four -cities into slavery and Hyrcanus made up the deficit. Soon after this -(43 B.C.) Malichus succeeded, it is said, in poisoning Antipater as he -dined with Hyrcanus, and was assassinated by Herod's bravoes. - -After the departure of Cassius, Antipater being dead, there was -confusion in Judaea. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, made a raid and -was with difficulty repulsed by Herod. The prince of Tyre occupied part -of Galilee. When Antony assumed the dominion of the East after the -defeat of Cassius at Philippi, an embassy of the Jews, amongst other -embassies, approached him in Bithynia and accused the sons of Antipater -as usurpers of the power which rightly belonged to Hyrcanus. Another -approached him at Antioch. But Hyrcanus was well content to forgo the -title to political power, which he could not exercise in practice, and -Antony had been a friend of Antipater. So Herod and Phasael continued to -be virtually kings of the Jews: Antony's court required large -remittances and Palestine was not exempt. - -In 40 B.C. Antony was absent in Egypt or Italy; and the Parthians swept -down upon Syria with Antigonus in their train. Hyrcanus and Phasael were -trapped: Herod fled by way of Egypt to Rome. Hyrcanus, who was -Antigonus' only rival, was mutilated and carried to Parthia. So he could -no more be high priest, and his life was spared only at the -intercession of the Parthian Jews, who had a regard for the Asmonean -prince. Thus Antigonus succeeded his uncle as "King Antigonus" in the -Greek and "Mattathiah the high priest" in the Hebrew by grace of the -Parthians. - -The senate of Rome under the influence of Antony and Octavian ratified -the claims of Herod, and after some delay lent him the armed force -necessary to make them good. In the hope of healing the breach, which -his success could only aggravate, and for love, he took to wife -Mariamne, grandniece of Hyrcanus. Galilee was pacified, Jerusalem taken -and Antigonus beheaded by the Romans. From this point to the end of the -period the Jews were dependents of Rome, free to attend to their own -affairs, so long as they paid taxes to the subordinate rulers, Herodian -or Roman, whom they detested equally. If some from time to time dared to -hope for political independence their futility was demonstrated. One by -one the descendants of the Asmoneans were removed. The national hope was -relegated to an indefinite future and to another sphere. At any rate the -Jews were free to worship their God and to study his law: their religion -was recognized by the state and indeed established. - -This development of Judaism was eminently to the mind of the rulers; and -Herod did much to encourage it. More and more it became identified with -the synagogue, in which the Law was expounded: more and more it became a -matter for the individual and his private life. This was so even in -Palestine--the land which the Jews hoped to possess--and in Jerusalem -itself, the holy city, in which the Temple stood. Herod had put down -Jewish rebels and Herod appointed the high priests. In his appointments -he was careful to avoid or to suppress any person who, being popular, -might legitimize a rebellion by heading it. The Pharisees, who regarded -his rule as an inevitable penalty for the sins of the people, he -encouraged. Pollio the Pharisee and Sameas his disciple were in special -honour with him, Josephus says, when he re-entered Jerusalem and put to -death the leaders of the faction of Antigonus. How well their teaching -served his purpose is shown by the sayings of two rabbis who, if not -identical with these Pharisees, belong to their period and their party. -Shemaiah said, "Love work and hate lordship and make not thyself known -to the government." Abtalion said, "Ye wise, be guarded in your words: -perchance ye may incur the debt of exile." Precepts such as these could -hardly fall to effect some modification of the reckless zeal of the -Galileans in the pupils of the synagogue. Many if not all of the -professed rabbis had travelled outside Palestine: some were even members -of the dispersion, like Hillel the Babylonian, who with Shammai forms -the second of the pairs. Through them the experience of the dispersion -was brought to bear upon the Palestinian Jews. Herod's nominees were not -the men to extend the prestige of the high-priesthood at the expense of -these rabbis: even in Jerusalem the synagogue became of more importance -than the Temple. Hillel also inculcated the duty of making converts to -Judaism. He said, "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace, and -pursuing peace, loving mankind and bringing them nigh to the Law." But -even he reckoned the books of Daniel and Esther as canonical, and these -were dangerous food for men who did not realize the full power of Rome. - -So long as Herod lived there was no insurrection. Formally he was an -orthodox Jew and set his face against intermarriage with the -uncircumcised. He was also ready and able to protect the Jews of the -dispersion. But that ability was largely due to his whole-hearted -Hellenism, which was shown by the Greek cities which he founded in -Palestine and the buildings he erected in Jerusalem. In its material -embodiments Greek civilization became as much a part of Jewish life in -Palestine as it was in Alexandria or Antioch; and herein the rabbis -could not follow him. - -When all the Jewish people swore to be loyal to Caesar and the king's -policy, the Pharisees--above 6000--refused to swear. The king imposed a -fine upon them, and the wife of Pheroras--Herod's brother--paid it on -their behalf. In return for her kindness, being entrusted with -foreknowledge by the visitation of God, they prophesied that God had -decreed an end of rule for Herod and his line and that the sovereignty -devolved upon her and Pheroras and their children. - -From the sequel it appears that the prophecy was uttered by one Pharisee -only, and that it was in no way endorsed by the party. When it came to -the ears of the king he slew the most responsible of the Pharisees and -every member of his household who accepted what the Pharisee said. An -explanation of this unwarrantable generalization may be found in the -fact that the incident is derived from a source which was unfavourable -to the Pharisees: they are described as a Jewish section of men who -pretend to set great store by the exactitude of the ancestral tradition -and the laws in which the deity delights--as dominant over -women-folk--and as sudden and quick in quarrel. - -Towards the end of Herod's life two rabbis attempted to uphold by -physical force the cardinal dogma of Judaism, which prohibited the use -of images. Their action is intelligible enough. Herod was stricken with -an incurable disease. He had sinned against the Law; and at last God had -punished him. At last the law-abiding Jews might and must assert the -majesty of the outraged Law. The most conspicuous of the many symbols -and signs of his transgression was the golden eagle which he had placed -over the great gate of the Temple; its destruction was the obvious means -to adopt for the quickening and assertion of Jewish principles. - -By their labours in the education of the youth of the nation, these -rabbis, Judas and Matthias, had endeared themselves to the populace and -had gained influence over their disciples. A report that Herod was dead -co-operated with their exhortations to send the iconoclasts to their -appointed work. And so they went to earn the rewards of their practical -piety from the Law. If they died, death was inevitable, the rabbis said, -and no better death would they ever find. Moreover, their children and -kindred would benefit by the good name and fame belonging to those who -died for the Law. Such is the account which Josephus gives in the -_Antiquities_; in the _Jewish War_ he represents the rabbis and their -disciples as looking forward to greater happiness for themselves after -such a death. But Herod was not dead yet, and the instigators and the -agents of this sacrilege were burned alive. - -32. _The Settlement of Augustus._--On the death of Herod in 4 B.C. -Archelaus kept open house for mourners as the Jewish custom, which -reduced many Jews to beggary, prescribed. The people petitioned for the -punishment of those who were responsible for the execution of Matthias -and his associates and for the removal of the high priest. Archelaus -temporized; the loyalty of the people no longer constituted a valid -title to the throne; his succession must first be sanctioned by -Augustus. Before he departed to Rome on this errand, which was itself an -insult to the nation, there were riots in Jerusalem at the Passover -which he needed all his soldiery to put down. When he presented himself -before the emperor--apart from rival claimants of his own family--there -was an embassy from the Jewish people who prayed to be rid of a monarchy -and rulers such as Herod. As part of the Roman province of Syria and -under its governors they would prove that they were not really -disaffected and rebellious. During the absence of Archelaus, who -would--the Jews feared--prove his legitimacy by emulating his father's -ferocity, and to whom their ambassadors preferred Antipas, the Jews of -Palestine gave the lie to their protestations of loyalty and -peaceableness. At the Passover the pilgrims attacked the Roman troops. -After hard fighting the procurator, whose cruelty provoked the attack, -captured the Temple and robbed the treasury. On this the insurgents were -joined by some of Herod's army and besieged the Romans in Herod's -palace. Elsewhere the occasion tempted many to play at being -king--Judas, son of Hezekiah, in Galilee; Simon, one of the king's -slaves, in Peraea. Most notable of all perhaps was the shepherd -Athronges, who assumed the pomp of royalty and employed his four -brothers as captains and satraps in the war which he waged upon Romans -and king's men alike--not even Jews escaped him unless they brought him -contributions. Order was restored by Varus the governor of Syria in a -campaign which Josephus describes as the most important war between that -of Pompey and that of Vespasian. - -At length Augustus summoned the representatives of the nation and -Nicholaus of Damascus, who spoke for Archelaus, to plead before him in -the temple of Apollo. Augustus apportioned Herod's dominions among his -sons in accordance with the provisions of his latest will. Archelaus -received the lion's share: for ten years he was ethnarch of Idumaea, -Judaea and Samaria, with a yearly revenue of 600 talents. Antipas became -tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, with a revenue of 200 talents. Philip, -who had been left in charge of Palestine pending the decision and had -won the respect of Varus, became tetrarch of Batanaea, Trachonitis and -Auranitis, with 100 talents. His subjects included only a sprinkling of -Jews. Up to his death (A.D. 34) he did nothing to forfeit the favour of -Rome. His coins bore the heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and his -government was worthy of the best Roman traditions--he succeeded where -proconsuls had failed. His capital was Caesarea Philippi, where Pan had -been worshipped from ancient times, and where Augustus had a temple -built by Herod the Great. - -33. _Archelaus._--Augustus had counselled Archelaus to deal gently with -his subjects. But there was an outstanding feud between him and them; -and his first act as ethnarch was to remove the high priest on the -ground of his sympathy with the rebels. In violation of the Law he -married a brother's widow, who had already borne children, and in -general he showed himself so fierce and tyrannical that the Jews joined -with the Samaritans to accuse him before the emperor. Archelaus was -summoned to Rome and banished to Gaul; his territory was entrusted to a -series of procurators (A.D. 6-41), among whom was an apostate Jew, but -none with any pretension even to a semi-legitimate authority. Each -procurator represented not David but Caesar. The Sanhedrin had its -police and powers to safeguard the Jewish religion; but the procurator -had the appointment of the high priests, and no capital sentence could -be executed without his sanction. - -34. _The Procurators._--So the Jews of Judaea obtained the settlement -for which they had pleaded at the death of Herod; and some of them began -to regret it at once. The first procurator Coponius was accompanied by -P. Sulpicius Quirinius, legate of Syria, who came to organize the new -Roman province. As a necessary preliminary a census (A.D. 6-7) was taken -after the Roman method, which did not conform to the Jewish Law. The -people were affronted, but for the most part acquiesced, under the -influence of Joazar the high priest. But Judas the Galilean, with a -Pharisee named Sadduc (Sadduk), endeavoured to incite them to rebellion -in the name of religion. The result of this alliance between a -revolutionary and a Pharisee was the formation of the party of Zealots, -whose influence--according to Josephus--brought about the great revolt -and so led to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70. So far as this -influence extended, the Jewish community was threatened with the danger -of suicide, and the distinction drawn by Josephus between the Pharisees -and the Zealots is a valid one. Not all Pharisees were prepared to take -such action, in order that Israel might "tread on the neck of the eagle" -(as is said in _The Assumption of Moses_). So long as the Law was not -deliberately outraged and so long as the worship was established, most -of the religious leaders of the Jews were content to wait. - -It seems that the Zealots made more headway in Galilee than in -Judaea--so much so that the terms Galilean and Zealot are practically -interchangeable. In Galilee the Jews predominated over the heathen and -their ruler Herod Antipas had some sort of claim upon their allegiance. -His marriage with the daughter of the Arabian king Aretas (which was at -any rate in accordance with the general policy of Augustus) seems to -have preserved his territory from the incursions of her people, so long -as he remained faithful to her. He conciliated his subjects by his -deference to the observances of Judaism, and--the case is probably -typical of his policy--he joined in protesting, when Pilate set up a -votive shield in the palace of Herod within the sacred city. He seems -to have served Tiberius as an official scrutineer of the imperial -officials and he commemorated his devotion by the foundation of the city -of Tiberias. But he repudiated the daughter of Aretas in order to marry -Herodias and so set the Arabians against him. Disaster overtook his -forces (A.D. 36) and Tiberius, his patron, died before the Roman power -was brought in full strength to his aid. Caligula was not predisposed to -favour the favourites of Tiberius; and Antipas, having petitioned him -for the title of king at the instigation of Herodias, was banished from -his tetrarchy and (apparently) was put to death in 39. - -Antipas is chiefly known to history in connexion with John the Baptist, -who reproached him publicly for his marriage with Herodias. According to -the earliest authority, he seems to have imprisoned John to save him -from the vengeance of Herodias. But--whatever his motive--Antipas -certainly consented to John's death. If the Fourth Gospel is to be -trusted, John had already recognized and acclaimed Jesus of Nazareth as -the Messiah for whom the Jews were looking. By common consent of -Christendom, John was the forerunner of the founder of the Christian -Church. It was, therefore, during the reign of Antipas, and partly if -not wholly within his territory, that the Gospel was first preached by -the rabbi or prophet whom Christendom came to regard as the one true -Christ, the Messiah of the Jews. Josephus' history of the Jews contains -accounts of John the Baptist and Jesus, the authenticity of which has -been called in question for plausible but not entirely convincing -reasons. However this may be, the Jews who believed Jesus to be the -Christ play no great part in the history of the Jews before 70, as we -know it. Many religious teachers and many revolutionaries were crucified -within this period; and the early Christians were outwardly -distinguished from other Jews only by their scrupulous observance of -religious duties. - -The crucifixion of Jesus was sanctioned by Pontius Pilate, who was -procurator of Judaea A.D. 26-36. Of the Jews under his predecessors -little enough is known. Speaking generally, they seem to have avoided -giving offence to their subjects. But Pilate so conducted affairs as to -attract the attention not only of Josephus but also of Philo, who -represents for us the Jewish community of Alexandria. Pilate inaugurated -his term of office by ordering his troops to enter Jerusalem at night -and to take their standards with them. There were standards and -standards in the Roman armies: those which bore the image of the -emperor, and therefore constituted a breach of the Jewish Law, had -hitherto been kept aloof from the holy city. On learning of this, the -Jews repaired to Caesarea and besought Pilate to remove these offensive -images. Pilate refused; and, when they persisted in their petition for -six days, he surrounded them with soldiers and threatened them with -instant death. They protested that they would rather die than dare to -transgress the wisdom of the laws; and Pilate yielded. But he proceeded -to expend the temple treasure upon an aqueduct for Jerusalem; and some -of the Jews regarded the devotion of sacred money to the service of man -as a desecration. Pilate came up to Jerusalem and dispersed the -petitioners by means of disguised soldiers armed with clubs. So the -revolt was put down, but the excessive zeal of the soldiers and Pilate's -obstinate adherence to his policy widened the breach between Rome and -the stricter Jews. But the death of Sejanus in 31 set Tiberius free from -prejudice against the Jews; and, when Pilate put up the votive shields -in Herod's palace at Jerusalem, the four sons of Herod came forward in -defence of Jewish principles and he was ordered to remove them. In 35 he -dispersed a number of Samaritans, who had assembled near Mt Gerizim at -the bidding of an impostor, in order to see the temple vessels buried -there by Moses. Complaint was made to Vitellius, then legate of Syria, -and Pilate was sent to Rome to answer for his shedding of innocent -blood. At the passover of 36 Vitellius came to Jerusalem and pacified -the Jews by two concessions: he remitted the taxes on fruit sold in the -city, and he restored to their custody the high priest's vestments, -which Herod Archelaus and the Romans had kept in the tower Antonia. The -vestments had been stored there since the time of the first high priest -named Hyrcanus, and Herod had taken them over along with the tower, -thinking that his possession of them would deter the Jews from rebellion -against his rule. At the same time Vitellius vindicated the Roman -supremacy by degrading Caiaphas from the high-priesthood, and appointing -a son of Annas in his place. The motive for this change does not appear, -and we are equally ignorant of the cause which prompted his transference -of the priesthood from his nominee to another son of Annas in 37. But it -is quite clear that Vitellius was concerned to reconcile the Jews to the -authority of Rome. When he marched against Aretas, his army with their -standards did not enter Judaea at all; but he himself went up to -Jerusalem for the feast and, on receipt of the news that Tiberius was -dead, administered to the Jews the oath of allegiance to Caligula. - -35. _Caligula and Agrippa I._--The accession of Caligula (A.D. 37-41) -was hailed by his subjects generally as the beginning of the Golden Age. -The Jews in particular had a friend at court. Agrippa, the grandson of -Herod the Great, was an avowed partisan of the new emperor and had paid -penalty for a premature avowal of his preference. But Caligula's favour, -though lavished upon Agrippa, was not available for pious Jews. His -foible was omnipotence, and he aped the gods of Greece in turn. In the -provinces and even in Italy his subjects were ready to acknowledge his -divinity--with the sole exception of the Jews. So we learn something of -the Palestinian Jews and more of the Jewish community in Alexandria. The -great world (as we know it) took small note of Judaism even when Jews -converted its women to their faith; but now the Jews as a nation refused -to bow before the present god of the civilized world. The new -Catholicism was promulgated by authority and accepted with deference. -Only the Jews protested: they had a notion of the deity which Caligula -at all events did not fulfil. - -The people of Alexandria seized the opportunity for an attack upon the -Jews. Images of Caligula were set up in the synagogues, an edict -deprived the Jews of their rights as citizens, and finally the governor -authorized the mob to sack the Jewish quarter, as if it had been a -conquered city (38). Jewesses were forced to eat pork and the elders -were scourged in the theatre. But Agrippa had influence with the emperor -and secured the degradation of the governor. The people and the Jews -remained in a state of civil war, until each side sent an embassy (40) -to wait upon the emperor. The Jewish embassy was headed by Philo, who -has described its fortunes in a tract dealing with the divine punishment -of the persecutors. Their opponents also had secured a friend at court -and seem to have prevented any effective measure of redress. While the -matter was still pending, news arrived that the emperor had commanded -Publius Petronius, the governor of Syria, to set up his statue in the -temple of Jerusalem. On the intervention of Agrippa the order was -countermanded, and the assassination of the emperor (41) effectually -stopped the desecration. - -36. _Claudius and the Procurators._--Claudius, the new emperor, restored -the civic rights of the Alexandrian Jews and made Agrippa I. king over -all the territories of Herod the Great. So there was once more a king of -Judaea, and a king who observed the tradition of the Pharisees and -protected the Jewish religion. There is a tradition in the Talmud which -illustrates his popularity. As he was reading the Law at the feast of -tabernacles he burst into tears at the words "Thou mayest not set a -stranger over thee which is not thy brother"; and the people cried out, -"Fear not, Agrippa; thou art our brother." The fact that he began to -build a wall round Jerusalem may be taken as further proof of his -patriotism. But the fact that he summoned five vassal-kings of the -empire to a conference at Tiberias suggests rather a policy of -self-aggrandisement. Both projects were prohibited by the emperor on the -intervention of the legate. In 44 he died. The Christian records treat -his death as an act of divine vengeance upon the persecutor of the -Christian Church. The Jews prayed for his recovery and lamented him. The -Gentile soldiers exulted in the downfall of his dynasty, which they -signalized after their own fashion. Claudius intended that Agrippa's -young son should succeed to the kingdom; but he was overruled by his -advisers, and Judaea was taken over once more by Roman procurators. The -success of Agrippa's brief reign had revived the hopes of the Jewish -nationalists, and concessions only retarded the inevitable insurrection. - -Cuspius Fadus, the first of these procurators, purged the land of -bandits. He also attempted to regain for the Romans the custody of the -high priest's vestments; but the Jews appealed to the emperor against -the revival of this advertisement of their servitude. The emperor -granted the petition, which indeed the procurator had permitted them to -make, and further transferred the nomination of the high priest and the -supervision of the temple from the procurator to Agrippa's brother, -Herod of Chalcis. But these concessions did not satisfy the hopes of the -people. During the government of Fadus, Theudas, who claimed to be a -prophet and whom Josephus describes as a wizard, persuaded a large -number to take up their possessions and follow him to the Jordan, saying -that he would cleave the river asunder with a word of command and so -provide them with an easy crossing. A squadron of cavalry despatched by -Fadus took them alive, cut off the head of Theudas and brought it to -Jerusalem. - -Under the second procurator Tiberius Alexander, an apostate Jew of -Alexandria, nephew of Philo, the Jews suffered from a great famine and -were relieved by the queen of Adiabene, a proselyte to Judaism, who -purchased corn from Egypt. The famine was perhaps interpreted by the -Zealots as a punishment for their acquiescence in the rule of an -apostate. At any rate Alexander crucified two sons of Simon the -Galilean, who had headed a revolt in the time of the census. They had -presumably followed the example of their father. - -Under Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) the mutual hatred of Jews and Romans, -Samaritans and Jews, found vent in insults and bloodshed. At the -passover, on the fourth day of the feast, a soldier mounting guard at -the porches of the Temple provoked an uproar, which ended in a massacre, -by indecent exposure of his person. Some of the rebels intercepted a -slave of the emperor on the high-road near the city and robbed him of -his possessions. Troops were sent to pacify the country, and in one -village a soldier found a copy of Moses' laws and tore it up in public -with jeers and blasphemies. At this the Jews flocked to Caesarea, and -were only restrained from a second outbreak by the execution of the -soldier. Finally, the Samaritans attacked certain Galileans who were (as -the custom was) travelling through Samaria to Jerusalem for the -passover. Cumanus was bribed and refused to avenge the death of the Jews -who were killed. So the Galileans with some of the lower classes of "the -Jews" allied themselves with a "robber" and burned some of the Samaritan -villages. Cumanus armed the Samaritans, and, with them and his own -troops, defeated these Jewish marauders. The leading men of Jerusalem -prevailed upon the rebels who survived the defeat to disperse. But the -quarrel was referred first to the legate of Syria and then to the -emperor. The emperor was still disposed to conciliate the Jews; and, at -the instance of Agrippa, son of Agrippa I., Cumanus was banished. - -37. _Felix and the Revolutionaries._--Under Antonius Felix (52-60) the -revolutionary movement grew and spread. The country, Josephus says, was -full of "robbers" and "wizards." The high priest was murdered in the -Temple by pilgrims who carried daggers under their cloaks. Wizards and -impostors persuaded the multitude to follow them into the desert, and an -Egyptian, claiming to be a prophet, led his followers to the Mount of -Olives to see the walls of Jerusalem fall at his command. Such -deceivers, according to Josephus, did no less than the murderers to -destroy the happiness of the city. Their hands were cleaner but their -thoughts were more impious, for they pretended to divine inspiration. - -Felix the procurator--a king, as Tacitus says, in power and in mind a -slave--tried in vain to put down the revolutionaries. The "chief-robber" -Eleazar, who had plundered the country for twenty years, was caught and -sent to Rome; countless robbers of less note were crucified. But this -severity cemented the alliance of religious fanatics with the -physical-force party and induced the ordinary citizens to join them, in -spite of the punishments which they received when captured. Agrippa II. -received a kingdom--first Chalcis, and then the tetrarchies of Philip -and Lysanias--but, though he had the oversight of the Temple and the -nomination of the high priest, and enjoyed a reputation for knowledge of -Jewish customs and questions, he was unable to check the growing power -of the Zealots. His sister Drusilla had broken the Law by her marriage -with Felix; and his own notorious relations with his sister Berenice, -and his coins which bore the images of the emperors, were an open -affront to the conscience of Judaism. When Felix was recalled by Nero in -60 the nation was divided against itself, the Gentiles within its gates -were watching for their opportunity, and the chief priests robbed the -lower priests with a high hand. - -In Caesarea there had been for some time trouble between the Jewish and -the Syrian inhabitants. The Jews claimed that the city was theirs, -because King Herod had founded it. The Syrians admitted the fact, but -insisted that it was a city for Greeks, as its temples and statues -proved. Their rivalry led to street-fighting: the Jews had the advantage -in respect of wealth and bodily strength, but the Greek party had the -assistance of the soldiers who were stationed there. On one occasion -Felix sent troops against the victorious Jews; but neither this nor the -scourge and the prison, to which the leaders of both factions had been -consigned, deterred them. The quarrel was therefore referred to the -emperor Nero, who finally gave his decision in favour of the Syrians or -Greeks. The result of this decision was that the synagogue at Caesarea -was insulted on a Sabbath and the Jews left the city taking their books -of the Law with them. So--Josephus says--the war began in the twelfth -year of the reign of Nero (A.D. 66). - -38. _Festus, Albinus and Florus._--Meanwhile the procurators who -succeeded Felix--Porcius Festus (60-62), Albinus (62-64) and Gessius -Florus (64-66)--had in their several ways brought the bulk of the nation -into line with the more violent of the Jews of Caesarea. Festus found -Judaea infested with robbers and the Sicarii, who mingled with the -crowds at the feasts and stabbed their enemies with the daggers -(_sicae_) from which their name was derived. He also, had to deal with a -wizard, who deceived many by promising them salvation and release from -evils, if they would follow him into the desert. His attempts to crush -all such disturbers of the peace were cut short by his death in his -second year of office. - -In the interval which elapsed before the arrival of Albinus, Ananus son -of Annas was made high priest by Agrippa. With the apparent intention of -restoring order in Jerusalem, he assembled the Sanhedrin, and being, as -a Sadducee, cruel in the matter of penalties, secured the condemnation -of certain lawbreakers to death by stoning. For this he was deposed by -Agrippa. Albinus fostered and turned to his profit the struggles of -priests with priests and of Zealots with their enemies. The general -release of prisoners, with which he celebrated his impending recall, is -typical of his policy. Meanwhile Agrippa gave the Levites the right to -wear the linen robe of the priests and sanctioned the use of the temple -treasure to provide work--the paving of the city with white stones--for -the workmen who had finished the Temple (64) and now stood idle. But -everything pointed to the destruction of the city, which one Jesus had -prophesied at the feast of tabernacles in 62. The Zealots' zeal for the -Law and the Temple was flouted by their pro-Roman king. - -By comparison with Florus, Albinus was, in the opinion of Josephus, a -benefactor. When the news of the troubles at Caesarea reached Jerusalem, -it became known also that Florus had seized seventeen talents of the -temple treasure (66). At this the patience of the Jews was exhausted. -The sacrilege, as they considered it, may have been an attempt to -recover arrears of tribute; but they were convinced that Florus was -providing for himself and not for Caesar. The revolutionaries went about -among the excited people with baskets, begging coppers for their -destitute and miserable governor. Stung by this insult, he neglected the -fire of war which had been lighted at Caesarea, and hastened to -Jerusalem. His soldiers sacked the upper city and killed 630 -persons--men, women and children. Berenice, who was fulfilling a -Nazarite vow, interposed in vain. Florus actually dared to scourge and -crucify Jews who belonged to the Roman order of knights. For the moment -the Jews were cowed, and next day they went submissively to greet the -troops coming from Caesarea. Their greetings were unanswered, and they -cried out against Florus. On this the soldiers drew their swords and -drove the people into the city; but, once inside the city, the people -stood at bay and succeeded in establishing themselves upon the -temple-hill. Florus withdrew with all his troops, except one cohort, to -Caesarea. The Jews laid complaint against him, and he complained against -the Jews before the governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who sent an -officer to inquire into the matter. Agrippa, who had hurried from -Alexandria, entered Jerusalem with the governor's emissary. So long as -he counselled submission to the overwhelming power of Rome the people -complied, but when he spoke of obedience to Florus he was compelled to -fly. The rulers, who desired peace, and upon whom Florus had laid the -duty of restoring peace, asked him for troops; but the civil war ended -in their complete discomfiture. The rebels abode by their decision to -stop the daily sacrifice for the emperor; Agrippa's troops capitulated -and marched out unhurt; and the Romans, who surrendered on the same -condition and laid down their arms, were massacred. As if to emphasize -the spirit and purpose of the rebellion, one and only one of the Roman -soldiers was spared, because he promised to become a Jew even to the -extent of circumcision. - -39. _Josephus and the Zealots._--Simultaneously with this massacre the -citizens of Caesarea slaughtered the Jews who still remained there; and -throughout Syria Jews effected--and suffered--reprisals. At length the -governor of Syria approached the centre of the disturbance in Jerusalem, -but retreated after burning down a suburb. In the course of his retreat -he was attacked by the Jews and fled to Antioch, leaving them his -engines of war. Some prominent Jews fled from Jerusalem--as from a -sinking ship--to join him and carried the news to the emperor. The rest -of the pro-Roman party were forced or persuaded to join the rebels and -prepared for war on a grander scale. Generals were selected by the -Sanhedrin from the aristocracy, who had tried to keep the peace and -still hoped to make terms with Rome. Ananus the high priest, their -leader, remained in command at Jerusalem; Galilee, where the first -attack was to be expected, was entrusted to Josephus, the historian of -the war. The revolutionary leaders, who had already taken the field, -were superseded. - -Josephus set himself to make an army of the inhabitants of Galilee, many -of whom had no wish to fight, and to strengthen the strongholds. His -organization of local government and his efforts to maintain law and -order brought him into collision with the Zealots and especially with -John of Giscala, one of their leaders. The people, whom he had tried to -conciliate, were roused against him; John sent assassins and finally -procured an order from Jerusalem for his recall. In spite of all this -Josephus held his ground and by force or craft put down those who -resisted his authority. - -In the spring of 67 Vespasian, who had been appointed by Nero to crush -the rebellion, advanced from his winter quarters at Antioch. The -inhabitants of Sepphoris--whom Josephus had judged to be so eager for -the war that he left them to build their wall for themselves--received a -Roman garrison at their own request. Joined by Titus, Vespasian advanced -into Galilee with three legions and the auxiliary troops supplied by -Agrippa and other petty kings. Before his advance the army of Josephus -fled. Josephus with a few stalwarts took refuge in Tiberias, and sent a -letter to Jerusalem asking that he should be relieved of his command or -supplied with an adequate force to continue the war. Hearing that -Vespasian was preparing to besiege Jotapata, a strong fortress in the -hills, which was held by other fugitives, Josephus entered it just -before the road approaching it was made passable for the Roman horse and -foot. A deserter announced his arrival to Vespasian, who rejoiced -(Josephus says) that the cleverest of his enemies had thus voluntarily -imprisoned himself. After some six weeks' siege the place was stormed, -and its exhausted garrison were killed or enslaved. Josephus, whose -pretences had postponed the final assault, hid in a cave with forty men. -His companions refused to permit him to surrender and were resolved to -die. At his suggestion they cast lots, and the first man was killed by -the second and so on, until all were dead except Josephus and (perhaps) -one other. So Josephus saved them from the sin of suicide and gave -himself up to the Romans. He had prophesied that the place would be -taken--as it was--on the forty-seventh day, and now he prophesied that -both Vespasian and his son Titus would reign over all mankind. The -prophecy saved his life, though many desired his death, and the rumour -of it produced general mourning in Jerusalem. By the end of the year -(67) Galilee was in the hands of Vespasian, and John of Giscala had -fled. Agrippa celebrated the conquest at Caesarea Philippi with -festivities which lasted twenty days. - -In accordance with ancient custom Jerusalem welcomed the fugitive -Zealots. The result was civil war and famine. Ananus incited the people -against these robbers, who arrested, imprisoned and murdered prominent -friends of Rome, and arrogated to themselves the right of selecting the -high priest by lot. The Zealots took refuge in the Temple and summoned -the Idumaeans to their aid. Under cover of a storm, they opened the -city-gates to their allies and proceeded to murder Ananus the high -priest, and, against the verdict of a formal tribunal, Zacharias the son -of Baruch in the midst of the Temple. The Idumaeans left, but John of -Giscala remained master of Jerusalem. - -40. _The Fall of Jerusalem._--Vespasian left the rivals to consume one -another and occupied his army with the subjugation of the country. When -he had isolated the capital and was preparing to besiege it, the news of -Nero's death reached him at Caesarea. For a year (June 68-June 69) he -held his hand and watched events, until the robber-bands of Simon -Bar-Giora (son of the proselyte) required his attention. But, before -Vespasian took action to stop his raids, Simon had been invited to -Jerusalem in the hope that he would act as a counterpoise to the tyrant -John. And so, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in fulfilment of -Josephus' prophecy, and deputed the command to Titus, there were three -rivals at war in Jerusalem--Eleazar, Simon and John. The temple -sacrifices were still offered and worshippers were admitted; but John's -catapults were busy, and priest and worshippers at the altar were -killed, because Eleazar's party occupied the inner courts of the Temple. -A few days before the passover of 70 Titus advanced upon Jerusalem, but -the civil war went on. When Eleazar opened the temple-gates to admit -those who wished to worship God, John of Giscala introduced some of his -own men, fully armed under their garments, and so got possession of the -Temple. Titus pressed the attack, and the two factions joined hands at -last to repel it. In spite of their desperate sallies, Jerusalem was -surrounded by a wall, and its people, whose numbers were increased by -those who had come up for the passover, were hemmed in to starve. The -famine affected all alike--the populace, who desired peace, and the -Zealots, who were determined to fight to the end. At last John of -Giscala portioned out the sacred wine and oil, saying that they who -fought for the Temple might fearlessly use its stores for their -sustenance. Steadily the Romans forced their way through wall after -wall, until the Jews were driven back to the Temple and the daily -sacrifices came to an end on the 17th of July for lack of men. Once more -Josephus appealed in vain to John and his followers to cease from -desecrating and endangering the Temple. The siege proceeded and the -temple-gates were burned. According to Josephus, Titus decided to spare -the Temple, but--whether this was so or not--on the 10th of August it -was fired by a soldier after a sortie of the Jews had been repelled. The -legions set up their standards in the temple-court and hailed Titus as -imperator. - -Some of the Zealots escaped with John and Simon to the upper city and -held it for another month. But Titus had already earned the triumph -which he celebrated at Rome in 71. The Jews, wherever they might be, -continued to pay the temple-tax; but now it was devoted to Jupiter -Capitolinus. The Romans had taken their holy place, and the Law was all -that was left to them. - - 41. _From_ A.D. 70 _to_ A.D. 135.--The destruction of the Temple - carried with it the destruction of the priesthood and all its power. - The priests existed to offer sacrifices, and by the Law no sacrifice - could be offered except at the Temple of Jerusalem. Thenceforward the - remnant of the Jews who survived the fiery ordeal formed a church - rather than a nation or a state, and the Pharisees exercised an - unchallenged supremacy. With the Temple and its Sadducean high priests - perished the Sanhedrin in which the Sadducees had competed with the - Pharisees for predominance. The Sicarii or Zealots who had appealed to - the arm of flesh were exterminated. Only the teachers of the Law - survived to direct the nation and to teach those who remained loyal - Jews, how they should render to Caesar what belonged to Caesar, and to - God what belonged to God. Here and there hot-headed Zealots rose up to - repeat the errors and the disasters of their predecessors. But their - fate only served to deepen the impression already stamped upon the - general mind of the nation. The Temple was gone, but they had the Law. - Already the Jews of the Dispersion had learned to supplement the - Temple by the synagogue, and even the Jews of Jerusalem had not been - free to spend their lives in the worship of the Temple. There were - still, as always, rites which were independent of the place and of the - priest; there had been a time when the Temple did not exist. So - Judaism survived once more the destruction of its central sanctuary. - - When Jerusalem was taken, the Sicarii still continued to hold three - strongholds: one--Masada--for three years. But the commander of Masada - realized at length that there was no hope of escaping captivity except - by death, and urged his comrades to anticipate their fate. Each man - slew his wife and children; ten men were selected by lot to slay the - rest; one man slew the nine executioners, fired the palace and fell - upon his sword. When the place was stormed the garrison consisted of - two old women and five children who had concealed themselves in caves. - So Vespasian obtained possession of Palestine--the country which Nero - had given him--and for a time it was purged of revolutionaries. Early - Christian writers assert that he proceeded to search out and to - execute all descendants of David who might conceivably come forward as - claimants of the vacant throne. - - In Egypt and in Cyrene fugitive Zealots endeavoured to continue their - rebellion against the emperor, but there also with disastrous results. - The doors of the Temple in Egypt were closed, and its sacrifices which - had been offered for 243 years were prohibited. Soon afterwards this - temple also was destroyed. Apart from these local outbreaks, the Jews - throughout the empire remained loyal citizens and were not molested. - The general hope of the nation was not necessarily bound up with the - house of David, and its realization was not incompatible with the yoke - of Rome. They still looked for a true prophet, and meanwhile they had - their rabbis. - - Under Johanan ben Zaccai (q.v.) the Pharisees established themselves - at Jamnia. A new Sanhedrin was formed there under the presidency of a - ruler, who received yearly dues from all Jewish communities. The - scribes through the synagogues preserved the national spirit and - directed it towards the religious life which was prescribed by - Scripture. The traditions of the elders were tested and gradually - harmonized in their essentials. The canon of Scripture was decided in - accordance with the touchstone of the Pentateuch. Israel had retired - to their tents to study their Bible. - - Under Vespasian and Titus the Jews enjoyed freedom of conscience and - equal political rights with non-Jewish subjects of Rome. But Domitian, - according to pagan historians, bore hardly on them. The temple-tax was - strictly exacted; Jews who lived the Jewish life without openly - confessing their religion and Jews who concealed their nationality - were brought before the magistrates. Proselytes to Judaism were - condemned either to death or to forfeiture of their property. Indeed - it would seem that Domitian instituted a persecution of the Jews, to - which Nerva his successor put an end. Towards the end of Trajan's - reign (114-117) the Jews of Egypt and Cyrene rose against their Greek - neighbours and set up a king. The rebellion spread to Cyprus; and when - Trajan advanced from Mesopotamia into Parthia the Jews of Mesopotamia - revolted. The massacres they perpetrated were avenged in kind and all - the insurrections were quelled when Hadrian succeeded Trajan. - - In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had forbidden - circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced Jerusalem by - a city of his own, Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of Yahweh by a - temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provocations--the - prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration of the - sacred place--the Jews had a leader who was recognized as Messiah by - the rabbi Aqiba. Though the majority of the rabbis looked for no such - deliverer and refused to admit his claims, Barcochebas (q.v.) drew the - people after him to struggle for their national independence. For - three years and a half he held his own and issued coins in the name of - Simon, which commemorate the liberation of Jerusalem. Some attempt was - apparently made to rebuild the Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, - who had perhaps been won over by Aqiba, supported the rebellion. - Indeed even Gentiles helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius - says) was stirred. Hadrian sent his best generals against the rebels, - and at length they were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The - Jews were forbidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of - death. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive of modern books dealing with the - period is Emil Schurer, _Geschichte des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter - Jesu Christi_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foll.). Exception has been taken - to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, especially the rabbis, - which has been detected in the author. But at least the book remains - an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient and modern - authorities. An earlier edition was translated into English under the - title _History of the Jewish People_ (Edinburgh, 1890, 1891). Of - shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's _Geschichte Israel's von - Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian_ (2nd ed., 1906) is perhaps the - least dependent upon Schurer and attempts more than others to - interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr R. H. Charles has - done much by his editions to restore to their proper prominence in - connexion with Jewish history the _Testaments of the Twelve - Patriarchs_, _The Book of Jubilees_, _Enoch_, &c. But Schurer gives a - complete bibliography to which it must suffice to refer. For the - Sanhedrin see SYNEDRIUM. (J. H. A. H.) - - -III.--FROM THE DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES - -42. _The Later Empire._--With the failure in 135 of the attempt led by -Barcochebas to free Judaea from Roman domination a new era begins in the -history of the Jews. The direct consequence of the failure was the -annihilation of political nationality. Large numbers fell in the actual -fighting. Dio Cassius puts the total at the incredible figure of -580,000, besides the incalculable number who succumbed to famine, -disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin lxix. 11-15). Jerusalem was rebuilt by -Hadrian, orders to this effect being given during the emperor's first -journey through Syria in 130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, -Tiberias and Petra (Reinach, _Textes relatifs au Judaisme_, p. 198). The -new city was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of -Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To Eusebius the -erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre of Christ was an act of -mockery against the Christian religion. Rome had been roused to unwonted -fury, and the truculence of the rebels was matched by the cruelty of -their masters. The holy city was barred against the Jews; they were -excluded, under pain of death, from approaching within view of the -walls. Hadrian's policy in this respect was matched later on by the -edict of the caliph Omar (c. 638), who, like his Roman prototype, -prevented the Jews from settling in the capital of their ancient -country. The death of Hadrian and the accession of Antoninus Pius (138), -however, gave the dispersed people of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman -law was by no means intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of -Caracalla (198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the -civil rights of the _Cives Romani_ (Scherer, _Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der -Juden_, p. 10). - -Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of material -ruin. The synagogue had become a firmly established institution, and the -personal and social life of the masses had come under the control of -communal law. The dialectic of the school proved stronger to preserve -than the edge of the sword to destroy. Pharisaic Judaism, put to the -severest test to which a religious system has ever been subject, showed -itself able to control and idealize life in all its phases. Whatever -question may be possible as to the force or character of Pharisaism in -the time of Christ, there can be no doubt that it became both -all-pervading and ennobling among the successors of Aqiba (q.v.), -himself one of the martyrs to Hadrian's severity. Little more than half -a century after the overthrow of the Jewish nationality, the Mishnah was -practically completed, and by this code of rabbinic law--and law is here -a term which includes the social, moral and religious as well as the -ritual and legal phases of human activity--the Jewish people were -organized into a community, living more or less autonomously under the -Sanhedrin or Synedrium (q.v.) and its officials. - -Judah the prince, the patriarch or _nasi_ who edited the Mishnah, died -early in the 3rd century. With him the importance of the Palestinian -patriarchate attained its zenith. Gamaliel II. of Jamnia (Jabne Yebneh) -had been raised to this dignity a century before, and, as members of the -house of Hillel and thus descendants of David, the patriarchs enjoyed -almost royal authority. Their functions were political rather than -religious, though their influence was by no means purely secular. They -were often on terms of intimate friendship with the emperors, who -scarcely interfered with their jurisdiction. As late as Theodosius I. -(379-395) the internal affairs of the Jews were formally committed to -the patriarchs, and Honorius (404) authorized the collection of the -patriarch's tax (_aurum coronarium_), by which a revenue was raised from -the Jews of the diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the -patriarchate was finally abolished after a regime of three centuries and -a half (Graetz, _History of the Jews_, Eng. trans. vol. ii. ch. xxii.), -though ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a -time elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The real -turning-point had been reached earlier, when Christianity became the -state religion under Constantine I. in 312. - - Religion under the Christian emperors became a significant source of - discrimination in legal status, and non-conformity might reach so far - as to produce complete loss of rights. The laws concerning the Jews - had a repressive and preventive object: the repression of Judaism and - the prevention of inroads of Jewish influences into the state - religion. The Jews were thrust into a position of isolation, and the - Code of Theodosius and other authorities characterize the Jews as a - lower order of depraved beings (_inferiores_ and _perversi_), their - community as a godless, dangerous sect (_secta nefaria, feralis_), - their religion a superstition, their assemblies for religious worship - a blasphemy (_sacrilegi coetus_) and a contagion (Scherer, _op. cit._ - pp. 11-12). Yet Judaism under Roman Christian law was a lawful - religion (_religio licita_), Valentinian I. (364-375) forbade the - quartering of soldiers in the synagogues, Theodosius I. prohibited - interference with the synagogue worship ("Judaeorum sectam nulla lege - prohibitam satis constat"), and in 412 a special edict of protection - was issued. But the admission of Christians into the Jewish fold was - punished by confiscation of goods (357), the erection of new - synagogues was arrested by Theodosius II. (439) under penalty of a - heavy fine, Jews were forbidden to hold Christian slaves under pain of - death (423). A similar penalty attached to intermarriage between Jews - and Christians, and an attempt was made to nullify all Jewish - marriages which were not celebrated in accordance with Roman law. But - Justinian (527-565) was the first to interfere directly in the - religious institutions of the Jewish people. In 553 he interdicted the - use of the Talmud (which had then not long been completed), and the - Byzantine emperors of the 8th and 9th centuries passed even more - intolerant regulations. As regards civil law, Jews were at first - allowed to settle disputes between Jew and Jew before their own - courts, but Justinian denied to them and to heretics the right to - appear as witnesses in the public courts against orthodox Christians. - To Constantine V. (911-959) goes back the Jewish form of oath which in - its later development required the Jew to gird himself with thorns; - stand in water; and, holding the scroll of the Torah in his hand, - invoke upon his person the leprosy of Naaman, the curse of Eli and the - fate of Korah's sons should he perjure himself. This was the original - of all the medieval forms of oath _more judaico_, which still - prevailed in many European lands till the 19th century, and are even - now maintained by some of the Rumanian courts. Jews were by the law of - Honorius excluded from the army, from public offices and dignities - (418), from acting as advocates (425); only the curial offices were - open to them. Justinian gave the finishing touch by proclaiming in 537 - the Jews absolutely ineligible for any honour whatsoever ("honore - fruantur nullo"). - -43. _Judaism in Babylonia._--The Jews themselves were during this period -engaged in building up a system of isolation on their own side, but they -treated Roman law with greater hospitality than it meted out to them. -The Talmud shows the influence of that law in many points, and may -justly be compared to it as a monument of codification based on great -principles. The Palestinian Talmud was completed in the 4th century, but -the better known and more influential version was compiled in Babylonia -about 500. The land which, a millennium before, had been a prison for -the Jewish exiles was now their asylum of refuge. For a long time it -formed their second fatherland. Here, far more than on Palestinian soil, -was built the enduring edifice of rabbinism. The population of the -southern part of Mesopotamia--the strip of land enclosed between the -Tigris and the Euphrates--was, according to Graetz, mainly Jewish; while -the district extending for about 70 m. on the east of the Euphrates, -from Nehardea in the north to Sura in the south, became a new Palestine -with Nehardea for its Jerusalem. The Babylonian Jews were practically -independent, and the exilarch (_resh-galutha_) or prince of the -captivity was an official who ruled the community as a vassal of the -Persian throne. The exilarch claimed, like the Palestinian patriarch, -descent from the royal house of David, and exercised most of the -functions of government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance -for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was completed. The -great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea, the former of which -retained something of its dominant role till the 11th century, had been -founded, Sura by Abba Arika (q.v.) (c. 219), but Nehardea, the more -ancient seat of the two, famous in the 3rd century for its association -with Abba Arika's renowned contemporary Samuel, lost its Jewish -importance in the age of Mahomet. - -To Samuel of Nehardea (q.v.) belongs the honour of formulating the -principle which made it possible for Jews to live under alien laws. -Jeremiah had admonished his exiled brothers: "Seek ye the peace of the -city whither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray -unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace" -(Jer. xxix. 7). It was now necessary to go farther, and the rabbis -proclaimed a principle which was as influential with the synagogue as -"Give unto Caesar that which is Caesar's" became with the Church. "The -law of the government is law" (_Baba Qama_ 113 b.), said Samuel, and -ever since it has been a religious duty for the Jews to obey and -accommodate themselves as far as possible to the laws of the country in -which they are settled or reside. In 259 Odenathus, the Palmyrene -adventurer whose memory has been eclipsed by that of his wife Zenobia, -laid Nehardea waste for the time being, and in its neighbourhood arose -the academy of Pumbedita (Pombeditha) which became a new focus for the -intellectual life of Israel in Babylonia. These academies were organized -on both scholastic and popular lines; their constitution was democratic. -An outstanding feature was the _Kallah_ assemblage twice a year (in Elul -at the close of the summer, and in Adar at the end of the winter), when -there were gathered together vast numbers of outside students of the -most heterogeneous character as regards both age and attainments. -Questions received from various quarters were discussed and the final -decision of the _Kallah_ was signed by the _Resh-Kallah_ or president of -the general assembly, who was only second in rank to the _Resh-Metibta_, -or president of the scholastic sessions. Thus the Babylonian academies -combined the functions of specialist law-schools, universities and -popular parliaments. They were a unique product of rabbinism; and the -authors of the system were also the compilers of its literary -expression, the Talmud. - -44. _Judaism in Islam._--Another force now appears on the scene. The new -religion inaugurated by Mahomet differed in its theory from the Roman -Catholic Church. The Church, it is true, in council after council, -passed decisions unfriendly to the Jews. From the synod at Elvira in the -4th century this process began, and it was continued in the West-Gothic -Church legislation, in the Lateran councils (especially the fourth in -1215), and in the council of Trent (1563). The anti-social tendency of -these councils expressed itself in the infliction of the badge, in the -compulsory domicile of Jews within ghettos, and in the erection of -formidable barriers against all intercourse between church and -synagogue. The protective instinct was responsible for much of this -interference with the natural impulse of men of various creeds towards -mutual esteem and forbearance. The church, it was conceived, needed -defence against the synagogue at all hazards, and the fear that the -latter would influence and dominate the former was never absent from the -minds of medieval ecclesiastics. But though this defensive zeal led to -active persecution, still in theory Judaism was a tolerated religion -wherever the Church had sway, and many papal bulls of a friendly -character were issued throughout the middle ages (Scherer, p. 32 seq.). - -Islam, on the other hand, had no theoretic place in its scheme for -tolerated religions; its principle was fundamentally intolerant. Where -the mosque was erected, there was no room for church or synagogue. The -caliph Omar initiated in the 7th century a code which required -Christians and Jews to wear peculiar dress, denied them the right to -hold state offices or to possess land, inflicted a poll-tax on them, and -while forbidding them to enter mosques, refused them the permission to -build new places of worship for themselves. Again and again these -ordinances were repeated in subsequent ages, and intolerance for -infidels is still a distinct feature of Mahommedan law. But Islam has -often shown itself milder in fact than in theory, for its laws were made -to be broken. The medieval Jews on the whole lived, under the crescent, -a fuller and freer life than was possible to them under the cross. -Mahommedan Babylonia (Persia) was the home of the gaonate (see GAON), -the central authority of religious Judaism, whose power transcended that -of the secular exilarchate, for it influenced the synagogue far and -wide, while the exilarchate was local. The gaonate enjoyed a practical -tolerance remarkable when contrasted with the letter of Islamic law. And -as the Bagdad caliphate tended to become more and more supreme in Islam, -so the gaonate too shared in this increased influence. Not even the -Qaraite schism was able to break the power of the geonim. But the -dispersion of the Jews was proceeding in directions which carried masses -from the Asiatic inland to the Mediterranean coasts and to Europe. - -45. _In Medieval Europe: Spain._--This dispersion of the Jews had begun -in the Hellenistic period, but it was after the Barcochebas war that it -assumed great dimensions in Europe. There were Jews in the Byzantine -empire, in Rome, in France and Spain at very early periods, but it is -with the Arab conquest of Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival -in culture and importance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before -this date the Jews had been learning the role they afterwards filled, -that of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already under -Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his generous treatment of -the Jews this Christian emperor stood in marked contrast to his -contemporary the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who persecuted Jews and -Christians with equal vigour. But by the 10th century Judaism had -received from Islam something more than persecution. It caught the -contagion of poetry, philosophy and science.[64] The schismatic Qaraites -initiated or rather necessitated a new Hebrew philology, which later on -produced Qimhi, the gaon Saadiah founded a Jewish philosophy, the -statesman Hasdai introduced a new Jewish culture--and all this under -Mahommedan rule. It is in Spain that above all the new spirit manifested -itself. The distinctive feature of the Spanish-Jewish culture was its -comprehensiveness. Literature and affairs, science and statecraft, -poetry and medicine, these various expressions of human nature and -activity were so harmoniously balanced that they might be found in the -possession of one and the same individual. The Jews of Spain attained to -high places in the service of the state from the time of the Moorish -conquest in 711. From Hasdai ibn Shaprut in the 10th century and Samuel -the nagid in the 11th the line of Jewish scholar-statesmen continued -till we reach Isaac Abrabanel in 1492, the date of the expulsion of the -Jews from Spain. This last-named event synchronized with the discovery -of America; Columbus being accompanied by at least one Jewish navigator. -While the Spanish period of Jewish history was thus brilliant from the -point of view of public service, it was equally notable on the literary -side. Hebrew religious poetry was revived for synagogue hymnology, and, -partly in imitation of Arabian models, a secular Hebrew poetry was -developed in metre and rhyme. The new Hebrew _Piyut_ found its first -important exponent in Kalir, who was not a Spaniard. But it is to Spain -that we must look for the best of the medieval poets of the synagogue, -greatest among them being Ibn Gabirol and Halevi. So, too, the greatest -Jew of the middle ages, Maimonides, was a Spaniard. In him culminates -the Jewish expression of the Spanish-Moorish culture; his writings had -an influence on European scholasticism and contributed significant -elements to the philosophy of Spinoza. But the reconquest of Andalusia -by the Christians associated towards the end of the 15th century with -the establishment of the Inquisition, introduced a spirit of intolerance -which led to the expulsion of the Jews and Moors. The consequences of -this blow were momentous; it may be said to inaugurate the ghetto -period. In Spain Jewish life had participated in the general life, but -the expulsion--while it dispersed the Spanish Jews in Poland, Turkey, -Italy and France, and thus in the end contributed to the Jewish -emancipation at the French Revolution--for the time drove the Jews -within their own confines and barred them from the outside world.[65] - -46. _In France, Germany, England, Italy._--In the meantime Jewish life -had been elsewhere subjected to other influences which produced a result -at once narrower and deeper. Under Charlemagne, the Jews, who had begun -to settle in Gaul in the time of Caesar, were more than tolerated. They -were allowed to hold land and were encouraged to become--what their -ubiquity qualified them to be--the merchant princes of Europe. The reign -of Louis the Pious (814-840) was, as Graetz puts it, "a golden era for -the Jews of his kingdom, such as they had never enjoyed, and were -destined never again to enjoy in Europe"--prior, that is, to the age of -Mendelssohn. In Germany at the same period the feudal system debarred -the Jews from holding land, and though there was as yet no material -persecution they suffered moral injury by being driven exclusively into -finance and trade. Nor was there any widening of the general horizon -such as was witnessed in Spain. The Jewries of France and Germany were -thus thrown upon their own cultural resources. They rose to the -occasion. In Mainz there settled in the 10th century Gershom, the "light -of the exile," who, about 1000, published his ordinance forbidding -polygamy in Jewish law as it had long been forbidden in Jewish practice. -This ordinance may be regarded as the beginning of the Synodal -government of Judaism, which was a marked feature of medieval life in -the synagogues of northern and central Europe from the 12th century. -Soon after Gershom's death, Rashi (1040-1106) founded at Troyes a new -school of learning. If Maimonides represented Judaism on its rational -side, Rashi was the expression of its traditions. - -French Judaism was thus in a sense more human if less humane than the -Spanish variety; the latter produced thinkers, statesmen, poets and -scientists; the former, men with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of -robuster because of more naive and concentrated piety. In Spain and North -Africa persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon -Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or Christianity -combined with a private fidelity to the rites of Judaism. But in England, -France and Germany persecution altogether failed to shake the courage of -the Jews, and martyrdom was borne in preference to ostensible apostasy. -The crusades subjected the Jews to this ordeal. The evil was wrought, not -by the regular armies of the cross who were inspired by noble ideals, but -by the undisciplined mobs which, for the sake of plunder, associated -themselves with the genuine enthusiasts. In 1096 massacres of Jews -occurred in many cities of the Rhineland. During the second crusade -(1145-1147) Bernard of Clairvaux heroically protested against similar -inhumanities. The third crusade, famous for the participation of Richard -I., was the occasion for bloody riots in England, especially in York, -where 150 Jews immolated themselves to escape baptism. Economically and -socially the crusades had disastrous effects upon the Jews (see J. -Jacobs, _Jewish Encyclopedia_, iv. 379). Socially they suffered by the -outburst of religious animosity. One of the worst forms taken by this -ill-will was the oft-revived myth of ritual murder (q.v.), and later on -when the Black Death devastated Europe (1348-1349) the Jews were the -victims of an odious charge of well-poisoning. Economically the results -were also injurious. "Before the crusades the Jews had practically a -monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connexion between -Europe and the East brought about by the crusades raised up a class of -merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onwards -restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent" (_op. cit._). -After the second crusade the German Jews fell into the class of _servi -camerae_, which at first only implied that they enjoyed the immunity of -imperial servants, but afterwards made of them slaves and pariahs. At the -personal whim of rulers, whether royal or of lower rank, the Jews were -expelled from states and principalities and were reduced to a condition -of precarious uncertainty as to what the morrow might bring forth. Pope -Innocent III. gave strong impetus to the repression of the Jews, -especially by ordaining the wearing of a badge. Popular animosity was -kindled by the enforced participation of the Jews in public disputations. -In 1306 Philip IV. expelled the Jews from France, nine years later Louis -X. recalled them for a period of twelve years. Such vicissitudes were the -ordinary lot of the Jews for several centuries, and it was their own -inner life--the pure life of the home, the idealism of the synagogue, and -the belief in ultimate Messianic redemption--that saved them from utter -demoralization and despair. Curiously enough in Italy--and particularly -in Rome--the external conditions were better. The popes themselves, -within their own immediate jurisdiction, were often far more tolerant -than their bulls issued for foreign communities, and Torquemada was less -an expression than a distortion of the papal policy. In the early 14th -century, the age of Dante, the new spirit of the Renaissance made Italian -rulers the patrons of art and literature, and the Jews to some extent -shared in this gracious change. Robert of Aragon--vicar-general of the -papal states--in particular encouraged the Jews and supported them in -their literary and scientific ambitions. Small coteries of Jewish minor -poets and philosophers were formed, and men like Kalonymos and -Immanuel--Dante's friend--shared the versatility and culture of Italy. -But in Germany there was no echo of this brighter note. Persecution was -elevated into a system, a poll-tax was exacted, and the rabble was -allowed (notably in 1336-1337) to give full vent to its fury. Following -on this came the Black Death with its terrible consequences in Germany; -even in Poland, where the Jews had previously enjoyed considerable -rights, extensive massacres took place. - -In effect the Jews became outlaws, but their presence being often -financially necessary, certain officials were permitted to "hold Jews," -who were liable to all forms of arbitrary treatment, on the side of -their "owners." The Jews had been among the first to appreciate the -commercial advantages of permitting the loan of money on interest, but -it was the policy of the Church that drove the Jews into money-lending -as a characteristic trade. Restrictions on their occupations were -everywhere common, and as the Church forbade Christians to engage in -usury, this was the only trade open to the Jews. The excessive demands -made upon the Jews forbade a fair rate of interest. "The Jews were -unwilling sponges by means of which a large part of the subjects' wealth -found its way into the royal exchequer" (Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the -Middle Ages_, ch. xii.). Hence, though this procedure made the Jews -intensely obnoxious to the peoples, they became all the more necessary -to the rulers. A favourite form of tolerance was to grant a permit to -the Jews to remain in the state for a limited term of years; their -continuance beyond the specified time was illegal and they were -therefore subject to sudden banishment. Thus a second expulsion of the -Jews of France occurred in 1394. Early in the 15th century John -Hus--under the inspiration of Wycliffe--initiated at Prague the revolt -against the Roman Catholic Church. The Jews suffered in the persecution -that followed, and in 1420 all the Austrian Jews were thrown into -prison. Martin V. published a favourable bull, but it was ineffectual. -The darkest days were nigh. Pope Eugenius (1442) issued a fiercely -intolerant missive; the Franciscan John of Capistrano moved the masses -to activity by his eloquent denunciations; even Casimir IV. revoked the -privileges of the Jews in Poland, when the Turkish capture of -Constantinople (1453) offered a new asylum for the hunted Jews of -Europe. But in Europe itself the catastrophe was not arrested. The -Inquisition in Spain led to the expulsion of the Jews (1492), and this -event involved not only the latter but the whole of the Jewish people. -"The Jews everywhere felt as if the temple had again been destroyed" -(Graetz). Nevertheless, the result was not all evil. If fugitives are -for the next half-century to be met with in all parts of Europe, yet, -especially in the Levant, there grew up thriving Jewish communities -often founded by Spanish refugees. Such incidents as the rise of Joseph -Nasi (q.v.) to high position under the Turkish government as duke of -Naxos mark the coming change. The reformation as such had no favourable -influence on Jewish fortunes in Christian Europe, though the -championship of the cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable -value. But the age of the ghetto (q.v.) had set in too firmly for -immediate amelioration to be possible. It is to Holland and to the 17th -century that we must turn for the first real steps towards Jewish -emancipation. - -47. _Period of Emancipation._--The ghetto, which had prevailed more or -less rigorously for a long period, was not formally prescribed by the -papacy until the beginning of the 16th century. The same century was not -ended before the prospect of liberty dawned on the Jews. Holland from -the moment that it joined the union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set -its face against religious persecution (_Jewish Encyclopedia_, i. 537). -Maranos, fleeing to the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were -wealthy, enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled to -conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle of the 17th -century the Jews of Holland had become of such importance that Charles -II. of England (then in exile) entered into negotiations with the -Amsterdam Jews (1656). In that same year the Amsterdam community was -faced by a serious problem in connexion with Spinoza. They brought -themselves into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher--an act of -weak self-defence on the part of men who had themselves but recently -been admitted to the country, and were timorous of the suspicion that -they shared Spinoza's then execrated views. It is more than a mere -coincidence that this step was taken during the absence in England of -one of the ablest and most notable of the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, -Menasseh ben Israel (q.v.) was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The -Jews had been expelled from England by Edward I., after a sojourn in the -country of rather more than two centuries, during which they had been -the licensed and oppressed money-lenders of the realm, and had--through -the special exchequer of the Jews--been used by the sovereign as a means -of extorting a revenue from his subjects. In the 17th century a -considerable number of Jews had made a home in the English colonies, -where from the first they enjoyed practically equal rights with the -Christian settlers. Cromwell, upon the inconclusive termination of the -conference summoned in 1655 at Whitehall to consider the Jewish -question, tacitly assented to the return of the Jews to this country, -and at the restoration his action was confirmed. The English Jews -"gradually substituted for the personal protection of the crown, the -sympathy and confidence of the nation" (L. Wolf, _Menasseh ben Israel's -Mission to Cromwell_, p. lxxv.). The city of London was the first to be -converted to the new attitude. "The wealth they brought into the -country, and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the -colonial trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the -prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the -millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for their -naturalization on the score of their commercial utility. For the same -reason the city found itself compelled at first to connive at their -illegal representation on 'Change, and then to violate its own rules by -permitting them to act as brokers without previously taking up the -freedom. At this period they controlled more of the foreign and colonial -trade than all the other alien merchants in London put together. The -momentum of their commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved -irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber, thence to -the aldermanic court, and eventually to the mayoralty itself, were -inevitable stages of an emancipation to which their large interests in -the city and their high character entitled them. Finally the city of -London--not only as the converted champion of religious liberty but as -the convinced apologist of the Jews--sent Baron Lionel de Rothschild to -knock at the door of the unconverted House of Commons as parliamentary -representative of the first city in the world" (Wolf, loc. cit.). - -The pioneers of this emancipation in Holland and England were Sephardic -(or Spanish) Jews--descendants of the Spanish exiles. In the meantime -the Ashkenazic (or German) Jews had been working out their own -salvation. The chief effects of the change were not felt till the 18th -century. In England emancipation was of democratic origin and concerned -itself with practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more -aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual -renaissance which found its most striking expression in the principles -of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the 18th century was less an -era of stagnation than of transition. The condition of the European Jews -seems, on a superficial examination, abject enough. But, excluded though -they were from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters -of the city, disabled from sharing most of the amenities of life, the -Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from the ghetto and -from the moral degeneration which it had caused. Some ghettos (as in -Moravia) were actually not founded till the 18th century, but the -careful observer can perceive clearly that at that period the ghetto was -a doomed institution. In the "dark ages" Jews enjoyed neither rights nor -privileges; in the 18th century they were still without rights but they -had privileges. A grotesque feature of the time in Germany and Austria -was the class of court Jews, such as the Oppenheims, the personal -favourites of rulers and mostly their victims when their usefulness had -ended. These men often rendered great services to their fellow-Jews, and -one of the results was the growth in Jewish society of an aristocracy of -wealth, where previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even -more important was another privileged class--that of the _Schutz-Jude_ -(protected Jew). Where there were no rights, privileges had to be -bought. While the court Jews were the favourites of kings, the protected -Jews were the proteges of town councils. Corruption is the frequent -concomitant of privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for -a price at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was -illegal. Many Jews found it possible to evade laws of domicile by -residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could they be -effectually excluded from the fairs, the great markets of the 18th -century. The Sephardic Jews in all these respects occupied a superior -position, and they merited the partiality shown to them. Their personal -dignity and the vast range of their colonial enterprises were in -striking contrast to the retail traffic of the Ashkenazim and their -degenerate bearing and speech. Peddling had been forced on the latter by -the action of the gilds which were still powerful in the 18th century on -the Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack assaults on -the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers were to be met on -every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were full of Jews who, pack on -shoulder, were seeking a precarious livelihood at a time when peddling -was neither lucrative nor safe. - -But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The 18th century -has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal-work, makers of pottery, -and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans and wholesale -manufacturers of many important commodities. The last attempts at -exclusion were irritating enough; but they differed from the earlier -persecution. Such strange enactments as the _Familianten-Gesetz_, which -prohibited more than one member of a family from marrying, broke up -families by forcing the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the -fact that a Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of -living with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II. -initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. This Austrian reformation -was so typical of other changes elsewhere, and so expressive of the -previous disabilities of the Jews, that, even in this rapid summary, -space must be spared for some of the details supplied by Graetz. "By -this new departure (19th of October 1781) the Jews were permitted to -learn handicrafts, arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to -devote themselves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and -academies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open.... An ordinance of -November 2 enjoined that the Jews were everywhere considered fellow-men, -and all excesses against them were to be avoided. The Leibzoll -(body-tax) was also abolished, in addition to the special law-taxes, the -passport duty, the night-duty and all similar imposts which had stamped -the Jews as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal rights -with the Christian inhabitants." The Jews were not, indeed, granted -complete citizenship, and their residence and public worship in Vienna -and other Austrian cities were circumscribed and even penalized. "But -Joseph II. annulled a number of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such -as the compulsory wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out -in the forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure -resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale merchants, notables -and their sons, to wear swords (January 2, 1782), and especially -insisted that Christians should behave in a friendly manner towards -Jews." - -48. _The Mendelssohn Movement._--This notable beginning to the removal -of "the ignominy of a thousand years" was causally connected with the -career of Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786; q.v.). He found on both sides an -unreadiness for approximation: the Jews had sunk into apathy and -degeneration, the Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. -The failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (q.v.) had plunged -the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan pretender not only -proclaimed himself Messiah (c. 1650) but he was accepted in that role by -vast numbers of his brethren. At the moment when Spinoza was publishing -a system which is still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this -other son of Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles -were reported and eagerly believed everywhere; "from Poland, Hamburg and -Amsterdam treasures poured into his court; in the Levant young men and -maidens prophesied before him; the Persian Jews refused to till the -fields. 'We shall pay no more taxes,' they said, 'our Messiah is come.'" -The expectation that he would lead Israel in triumph to the Holy Land -was doomed to end in disappointment. Sabbatai lacked one quality without -which enthusiasm is ineffective; he failed to believe in himself. At the -critical moment he embraced Islam to escape death, and though he was -still believed in by many--it was not Sabbatai himself but a phantom -resemblance that had assumed the turban!--his meteoric career did but -colour the sky of the Jews with deeper blackness. Despite all this, one -must not fall into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into -which the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 17th till the -middle of the 18th century. For Judaism had organized itself; the -_Shulhan aruch_ of Joseph Qaro (q.v.), printed in 1564 within a decade -of its completion, though not accepted without demur, was nevertheless -widely admitted as the code of Jewish life. If in more recent times -progress in Judaism has implied more or less of revolt against the -rigors and fetters of Qaro's code, yet for 250 years it was a powerful -safeguard against demoralization and stagnation. No community living in -full accordance with that code could fail to reach a high moral and -intellectual level. - -It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period to -abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves in the -general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased to desire it. -Their children were taught without any regard to outside conditions, -they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their whole training, both by what it -included and by what it excluded, tended to produce isolation from their -neighbours. Moses Mendelssohn, both by his career and by his propaganda, -for ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man. -Born in the ghetto of Dessau, he was not of the ghetto. At the age of -fourteen he found his way to Berlin, where Frederick the Great, inspired -by the spirit of Voltaire, held the maxim that "to oppress the Jews -never brought prosperity to any government." Mendelssohn became a warm -friend of Lessing, the hero of whose drama _Nathan the Wise_ was drawn -from the Dessau Jew. Mendelssohn's _Phaedo_, on the immortality of the -soul, brought the author into immediate fame, and the simple home of the -"Jewish Plato" was sought by many of the leaders of Gentile society in -Berlin. Mendelssohn's translation of the Pentateuch into German with a -new commentary by himself and others introduced the Jews to more modern -ways of thinking. Two results emanated from Mendelssohn's work. A new -school of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the -names of Leopold Zunz (q.v.), H. Graetz (q.v.) and many others. On the -other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic conception of religion -(specially in his _Jerusalem_) weakened the belief of certain minds in -the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus his own grandchildren (including -the famous musician Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, -Borne, Gans and Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself -two parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as time -went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves. Holdheim -(q.v.) and Geiger (q.v.) led the reform movement in Germany and at the -present day the effects of the movement are widely felt in America on -the Liberal side and on the opposite side in the work of the -neo-orthodox school founded by S. R. Hirsch (q.v.). Modern seminaries -were established first in Breslau by Zacharias Frankel (q.v.) and later -in other cities. Brilliant results accrued from all this participation -in the general life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and -pursuits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public life, -claiming such names as Riesser (d. 1863) and Lasker in politics, -Auerbach in literature, Rubinstein and Joachim in music, Traube in -medicine, and Lazarus in psychology. Especially famous have been the -Jewish linguists, pre-eminent among them Theodor Benfey (1809-1881), the -pioneer of modern comparative philology; and the Greek scholar and -critic Jakob Bernays (1824-1881). - -49. _Effect of the French Revolution._--In close relation to the German -progress in Mendelssohn's age, events had been progressing in France, -where the Revolution did much to improve the Jewish condition, thanks -largely to the influence of Mirabeau. In 1807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish -assembly in Paris. Though the decisions of this body had no binding -force on the Jews generally, yet in some important particulars its -decrees represent principles widely adopted by the Jewish community. -They proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of Mendelssohn's -reconciliation of the Jews to modern life. They assert the citizenship -and patriotism of Jews, their determination to accommodate themselves to -the present as far as they could while retaining loyalty to the past. -They declare their readiness to adapt the law of the synagogue to the -law of the land, as for instance in the question of marriage and -divorce. No Jew, they decided, may perform the ceremony of marriage -unless civil formalities have been fulfilled; and divorce is allowed to -the Jews only if and so far as it is confirmatory of a legal divorce -pronounced by the civil law of the land. The French assembly did not -succeed in obtaining formal assent to these decisions (except from -Frankfort and Holland), but they gained the practical adhesion of the -majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the report of the -assembly, established the consistorial system which remained in force, -with its central consistory in the capital, until the recent separation -of church and state. Many French Jews acquired fame, among them the -ministers Cremieux (1796-1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the -archaeologists and philologians Oppert, Halevy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, -Darmesteters and Reinachs; the musicians Halevy, Waldteufel and -Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendes and A. d'Ennery, -and many others, among them several distinguished occupants of civil and -military offices. - -50. _Modern Italy._--Similar developments occurred in other countries, -though it becomes impossible to treat the history of the Jews, from this -time onwards, in general outline. We must direct our attention to the -most important countries in such detail as space permits. And first as -to Italy, where the Jews in a special degree have identified themselves -with the national life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected -the position of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought -considerable gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria -in the year named, Isaac Pesaro Marogonato was finance minister in -Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined to the -ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor Emanuel II., the -Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege which was extended also to -Rome itself in 1870. The Italian Jews devoted themselves with ardour to -the service of the state. Isaac Artom was Cavour's secretary, L' Olper a -counsellor of Mazzini. "The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the -cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their Christian -fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their honour" (_Jewish -Encyclopedia_, vii. 10). More recently men like Wollemberg, Ottolenghi -and Luzzatti rose to high positions as ministers of state. Most noted of -recent Jewish scholars in Italy was S. D. Luzzatto (q.v.). - -51. _Austria._--From Italy we may turn to the country which so much -influenced Italian politics, Austria, which had founded the system of -"Court Jews" in 1518, had expelled the Jews from Vienna as late as 1670, -when the synagogue of that city was converted into a church. But -economic laws are often too strong for civil vagaries or sectarian -fanaticism, and as the commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of -the Jews, it was impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs in the -provinces or from the markets of the capital. As has been pointed out -above, certain protected Jews were permitted to reside in places where -the expulsion of the Jews had been decreed. But Maria Theresa -(1740-1780) was distinguished for her enmity to the Jews, and in 1744 -made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion from Bohemia. "In 1760 -she issued an order that all unbearded Jews should wear a yellow badge -on their left arm" (_Jewish Encyclopedia_, ii. 330). The most petty -limitations of Jewish commercial activity continued; thus at about this -period the community of Prague, in a petition, "complain that they are -not permitted to buy victuals in the market before a certain hour, -vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before 11 o'clock; to buy fish is -sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish druggists are not permitted to -buy victuals at the same time with Christians" (_op. cit._). So, too, -with taxation. It was exorbitant and vexatious. To pay for rendering -inoperative the banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 -florins annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that the -Jews should pay "a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right to import -their citrons for the feast of booths." Nevertheless, Joseph II. -(1780-1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of his empire. Soon after -his accession he abolished the distinctive Jewish dress, abrogated the -poll-tax, admitted the Jews to military service and their children to -the public schools, and in general opened the era of emancipation by the -_Toleranzpatent_ of 1782. This enlightened policy was not continued by -the successors of Joseph II. Under Francis II. (1792-1835) economic and -social restrictions were numerous. Agriculture was again barred; indeed -the Vienna congress of 1815 practically restored the old discriminations -against the Jews. As time went on, a more progressive policy intervened, -the special form of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, as a -result of the revolutionary movement in which Jews played an active -part, legislation took a more liberal turn. Francis Joseph I. ascended -the throne in that year, and though the constitution of 1849 recognized -the principle of religious liberty, an era of reaction supervened, -especially when "the concordat of 1855 delivered Austria altogether into -the hands of the clericals." But the day of medieval intolerance had -passed, and in 1867 the new constitution "abolished all disabilities on -the ground of religious differences," though anti-Semitic manipulation -of the law by administrative authority has led to many instances of -intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath, some have -risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian Jews have -contributed their quota to learning, the arts and literature. Low, -Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish field; as poets and -novelists, Kompert, Franzos, L. A. Frankl; the pianist Moscheles, the -dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer -and the chess-player Steinitz are some of the most prominent names. The -law of 1890 makes it "compulsory for every Jew to be a member of the -congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives to every -congregation the right to tax the individual members" (_op. cit._). A -similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany. A Jew can avoid the -communal tax only by formally declaring himself as outside the Jewish -community. The Jews of Hungary shared with their brethren in Austria the -same alternations of expulsion and recall. By the law "De Judaeis" -passed by the Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection, but half a -century passed before their tolerated condition was regularized. The -"toleration-tax" was abolished in 1846. During the revolutionary -outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary, but as many as -20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army. Kossuth succeeded in -granting them temporary emancipation, but the suppression of the War of -Independence led to an era of royal autocracy which, while it advanced -Jewish culture by enforcing the establishment of modern schools, -retarded the obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so -in Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867. But -one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider themselves fully -emancipated until the Synagogue was "duly recognized as one of the -legally acknowledged religions of the country." This recognition was -granted by the law of 1895-1896. In the words of Buchler (_Jewish -Encyclopedia_, vi. 503): "Since their emancipation the Jews have taken -an active part in the political, industrial, scientific and artistic -life of Hungary. In all these fields they have achieved prominence. They -have also founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not -been arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first developed in 1883 at -the time of the Tisza-Eslar accusation of ritual murder." - -52. _Other European Countries._--According to M. Caimi the present -Jewish communities of Greece are divisible into five groups: (1) Arta -(Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens (Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa -and Trikala (Thessaly); and (5) Corfu and Zante (Ionian Islands). The -Greek constitution admits no religious disabilities, but anti-Semitic -riots in Corfu and Zante in 1891 caused much distress and emigration. In -Spain there has been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, -and there is a small congregation (without a public synagogue) in -Madrid. In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the -other hand, having abolished the Inquisition in 1821, has since 1826 -allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues in Lisbon and -Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to political liberty in 1796. At -present more than half of the Dutch Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, -being largely engaged in the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous -names of recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. -In 1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still the -most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full freedom to the -Jews in 1815, and the community has since 1808 been organized on the -state consistorial system, which till recently also prevailed in France. -It was not till 1874 that full religious equality was granted to the -Jews of Switzerland. But there has been considerable interference -(ostensibly on humanitarian grounds) with the Jewish method of -slaughtering animals for food (_Shehitah_) and the method was prohibited -by a referendum in 1893. In the same year a similar enactment was passed -in Saxony, and the subject is a favourite one with anti-Semites, who -have enlisted on their side some scientific authorities, though the bulk -of expert opinion is in favor of _Shehitah_ (see Dembo, _Das -Schlachten_, 1894). In Sweden the Jews have all the rights which are -open to non-Lutherans; they cannot become members of the council of -state. In Norway there is a small Jewish settlement (especially in -Christiania) who are engaged in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete -liberty. Denmark has for long been distinguished for its liberal policy -towards the Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible as -magistrates, and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many -Copenhagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants and -bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be specially named -Georg Brandes. - -The story of the Jews in Russia and Rumania remains a black spot on the -European record. In Russia the Jews are more numerous and more harshly -treated than in any other part of the world. In the remotest past Jews -were settled in much of the territory now included in Russia, but they -are still treated as aliens. They are restricted to the pale of -settlement which was first established in 1791. The pale now includes -fifteen governments, and under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of -the Jewish population, the denial of free movement, and the exclusion -from the general rights of citizens were rendered more oppressive than -ever before. The right to leave the pale is indeed granted to merchants -of the first gild, to those possessed of certain educational diplomas, -to veteran soldiers and to certain classes of skilled artisans. But -these concessions are unfavourably interpreted and much extortion -results. Despite a huge emigration of Jews from Russia, the congestion -within the pale is the cause of terrible destitution and misery. Fierce -massacres occurred in Nizhniy-Novgorod in 1882, and in Kishinev in 1903. -Many other pogroms have occurred, and the condition of the Jews has been -reduced to one of abject poverty and despair. Much was hoped from the -duma, but this body has proved bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for -liberty. Yet in spite of these disabilities there are amongst the -Russian Jews many enterprising contractors, skilful doctors, and -successful lawyers and scientists. In Rumania, despite the Berlin -Treaty, the Jews are treated as aliens, and but a small number have been -naturalized. They are excluded from most of the professions and are -hampered in every direction. - -53. _Oriental Countries._--In the Orient the condition of the Jews has -been much improved by the activity of Western organizations, of which -something is said in a later paragraph. Modern schools have been set up -in many places, and Palestine has been the scene of a notable -educational and agricultural revival, while technical schools--such as -the agricultural college near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and -the more recent Bezalel in Jerusalem--have been established. Turkey has -always on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the new -regime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th century were -often persecuted, are still confined to a _mellah_ (separate quarter), -but at the coast-towns there are prosperous Jewish communities mostly -engaged in commerce. In other parts of the same continent, in Egypt and -in South Africa, many Jews have settled, participating in all industrial -and financial pursuits. Recently a mission has been sent to the Falashas -of Abyssinia, and much interest has been felt in such outlying branches -of the Jewish people as the Black Jews of Cochin and the Bene Israel -community of Bombay. In Persia Jews are often the victims of popular -outbursts as well as of official extortion, but there are fairly -prosperous communities at Bushire, Isfahan, Teheran and Kashan (in -Shiraz they are in low estate). The recent advent of constitutional -government may improve the condition of the Jews. - -54. _The United Kingdom._--The general course of Jewish history in -England has been indicated above. The Jews came to England at least as -early as the Norman Conquest; they were expelled from Bury St Edmunds in -1190, after the massacres at the coronation of Richard I.; they were -required to wear badges in 1218. At the end of the 12th century was -established the "exchequer of the Jews," which chiefly dealt with suits -concerning money-lending, and arranged a "continual flow of money from -the Jews to the royal treasury," and a so-called "parliament of the -Jews" was summoned in 1241; in 1275 was enacted the statute _de -Judaismo_ which, among other things, permitted the Jews to hold land. -But this concession was illusory, and as the statute prevented Jews from -engaging in finance--the only occupation which had been open to them--it -was a prelude to their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England -from that date till the Commonwealth, but Jews settled in the American -colonies earlier in the 17th century, and rendered considerable services -in the advancement of English commerce. The Whitehall conference of 1655 -marks a change in the status of the Jews in England itself, for though -no definite results emerged it was clearly defined by the judges that -there was no legal obstacle to the return of the Jews. Charles II. in -1664 continued Cromwell's tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards -the emancipation of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of -1753, which was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached -to the Synagogue, such as the Herschels and Disraelis, attained to fame. -In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought in by Robert -Grant, but it was not till the legislation of 1858-1860 that Jews -obtained full parliamentary rights. In other directions progress was -more rapid. The office of sheriff was thrown open to Jews in 1835 (Moses -Montefiore, sheriff of London was knighted in 1837); Sir I. L. Goldsmid -was made a baronet in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to -Parliament in 1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman -(Sir David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and Francis -Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George Jessel was made a -judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the House of Lords as the -first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair proportion of Jews have been elected -to the House of Commons, and Mr Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in -1909. Sir Matthew Nathan has been governor of Hong-Kong and Natal, and -among Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L. -Solomon have been prime ministers (HYAMSON: _A History of the Jews in -England_, p. 342). It is unnecessary to remark that in the British -colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship. In fact, the -colonies emancipated the Jews earlier than did the mother country. Jews -were settled in Canada from the time of Wolfe, and a congregation was -founded at Montreal in 1768, and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to -sit in the Canadian parliament. There are some thriving Jewish -agricultural colonies in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from -the first were welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest -congregation is that of Sydney (1817); the Melbourne community dates -from 1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in 1870 the -abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at Oxford -and Cambridge, and both universities have since elected Jews to -professorships and other posts of honour. The communal organization of -English Jewry is somewhat inchoate. In 1841 an independent reform -congregation was founded, and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews have -always maintained their separate existence with a Haham as the -ecclesiastical head. In 1870 was founded the United Synagogue, which is -a metropolitan organization, and the same remark applies to the more -recent Federation of Synagogues. The chief rabbi, who is the -ecclesiastical head of the United Synagogue, has also a certain amount -of authority over the provincial and colonial Jewries, but this is -nominal rather than real. The provincial Jewries, however, participate -in the election of the chief rabbi. At the end of 1909 was held the -first conference of Jewish ministers in London, and from this is -expected some more systematic organization of scattered communities. -Anglo-Jewry is rich, however, in charitable, educational and literary -institutions; chief among these respectively may be named the Jewish -board of guardians (1859), the Jews' college (1855), and the Jewish -historical society (1893). Besides the distinctions already noted, -English Jews have risen to note in theology (C. G. Montefiore), in -literature (Israel Zangwill and Alfred Sutro), in art (S. Hart, R.A., -and S. J. Solomon, R.A.) in music (Julius Benedict and Frederick Hymen -Cowen). More than 1000 English and colonial Jews participated as active -combatants in the South African War. The immigration of Jews from Russia -was mainly responsible for the ineffective yet oppressive Aliens Act of -1905. (Full accounts of Anglo-Jewish institutions are given in the -_Jewish Year-Book_ published annually since 1895.) - -55. _The American Continent._--Closely parallel with the progress of the -Jews in England has been their steady advancement in America. Jews made -their way to America early in the 16th century, settling in Brazil prior -to the Dutch occupation. Under Dutch rule they enjoyed full civil -rights. In Mexico and Peru they fell under the ban of the Inquisition. -In Surinam the Jews were treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, -Jamaica and New York they are found as early as the first half of the -17th century. During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a -prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many had risen -to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration of -Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they have long -enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously increased in numbers, -owing particularly to immigration from Russia. The American Jews bore -their share in the Civil War (7038 Jews were in the two armies), and -have always identified themselves closely with national movements such -as the emancipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all -branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid instances -of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. Within the Synagogue the -reform movement began in 1825, and soon won many successes, the central -conference of American rabbis and Union College (1875) at Cincinnati -being the instruments of this progress. At the present time orthodox -Judaism is also again acquiring its due position and the Jewish -theological seminary of America was founded for this purpose. In 1908 an -organization, inclusive of various religious sections, was founded under -the description "the Jewish community of New York." There have been four -Jewish members of the United States senate, and about 30 of the national -House of Representatives. Besides filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew -(O. S. Straus) has been a member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled -professorial chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in -art, literature (there is a notable Jewish publication society), -industry and commerce have rendered considerable services to national -culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much to Jewish -generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many other American -institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institutions as the Gratz and -Dropsie colleges are further indications of the splendid activity of -American Jews in the educational field. The Jews of America have also -taken a foremost place in the succour of their oppressed brethren in -Russia and other parts of the world. (Full accounts of American Jewish -institutions are given in the _American Jewish Year-Book_, published -annually since 1899.) - -56. _Anti-Semitism._--It is saddening to be compelled to close this -record with the statement that the progress of the European Jews -received a serious check by the rise of modern anti-Semitism in the last -quarter of the 19th century. While in Russia this took the form of -actual massacre, in Germany and Austria it assumed the shape of social -and civic ostracism. In Germany Jews are still rarely admitted to the -rank of officers in the army, university posts are very difficult of -access, Judaism and its doctrines are denounced in medieval language, -and a tone of hostility prevails in many public utterances. In Austria, -as in Germany, anti-Semitism is a factor in the parliamentary elections. -The legend of ritual murder (q.v.) has been revived, and every obstacle -is placed in the way of the free intercourse of Jews with their -Christian fellow-citizens. In France Edouard Adolphe Drumont led the way -to a similar animosity, and the popular fury was fanned by the Dreyfus -case. It is generally felt, however, that this recrudescence of -anti-Semitism is a passing phase in the history of culture (see -ANTI-SEMITISM). - -57. _The Zionist Movement._--The Zionist movement (see ZIONISM), founded -in 1895 by Theodor Herzl (q.v.) was in a sense the outcome of -anti-Semitism. Its object was the foundation of a Jewish state in -Palestine, but though it aroused much interest it failed to attract the -majority of the emancipated Jews, and the movement has of late been -transforming itself into a mere effort at colonization. Most Jews not -only confidently believe that their own future lies in progressive -development _within_ the various nationalities of the world, but they -also hope that a similar consummation is in store for the as yet -unemancipated branches of Israel. Hence the Jews are in no sense -internationally organized. The influence of the happier communities has -been exercised on behalf of those in a worse position by individuals -such as Sir Moses Montefiore (q.v.) rather than by societies or leagues. -From time to time incidents arise which appeal to the Jewish sympathies -everywhere and joint action ensues. Such incidents were the Damascus -charge of ritual murder (1840), the forcible baptism of the Italian -child Mortara (1858), and the Russian pogroms at various dates. But all -attempts at an international union of Jews, even in view of such -emergencies as these, have failed. Each country has its own local -organization for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance -Israelite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Association -(founded in 1871), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, and -in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded 1872), in America -the American Jewish Committee (founded 1906), and similar organizations -in other countries deal only incidentally with political affairs. They -are concerned mainly with the education of Jews in the Orient, and the -establishment of colonies and technical institutions. Baron Hirsch -(q.v.) founded the Jewish colonial association, which has undertaken -vast colonizing and educational enterprises, especially in Argentina, -and more recently the Jewish territorial organization has been started -to found a home for the oppressed Jews of Russia. All these institutions -are performing a great regenerative work, and the tribulations and -disappointments of the last decades of the 19th century were not all -loss. The gain consisted in the rousing of the Jewish consciousness to -more virile efforts towards a double end, to succour the persecuted and -ennoble the ideals of the emancipated. - - 58. _Statistics._--Owing to the absence of a religious census in - several important countries, the Jewish population of the world can - only be given by inferential estimate. The following approximate - figures are taken from the _American Jewish Year-Book_ for 1909-1910 - and are based on similar estimates in the English _Jewish Year-Book_, - the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, Nossig's _Judische Statistik_ and the - _Reports_ of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. According to these - estimates the total Jewish population of the world in the year named - was approximately 11,500,000. Of this total there were in the British - Empire about 380,000 Jews (British Isles 240,000, London accounts for - 150,000 of these; Canada and British Columbia 60,000; India 18,000; - South Africa 40,000). The largest Jewish populations were those of - Russia (5,215,000), Austria-Hungary (2,084,000), United States of - America (1,777,000), Germany (607,000, of whom 409,000 were in - Prussia), Turkey (463,000, of whom some 78,000 resided in Palestine), - Rumania (250,000), Morocco (109,000) and Holland (106,000). Others of - the more important totals are: France 95,000 (besides Algeria 63,000 - and Tunis 62,000); Italy 52,000; Persia 49,000; Egypt 39,000; Bulgaria - 36,000; Argentine Republic 30,000; Tripoli 19,000; Turkestan and - Afghanistan 14,000; Switzerland and Belgium each 12,000; Mexico 9000; - Greece 8000; Servia 6000; Sweden and Cuba each 4000; Denmark 3500; - Brazil and Abyssinia (Falashas) each 3000; Spain and Portugal 2500; - China and Japan 2000. There are also Jews in Curacoa, Surinam, - Luxemburg, Norway, Peru, Crete and Venezuela; but in none of these - does the Jewish population much exceed 1000. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. GRAETZ, _Geschichte der Juden_ (11 vols., 1853-1875; - several subsequent editions of separate volumes; Eng. trans. 5 vols., - 1891-1892); the works of L. Zunz; _Jewish Encyclopedia passim_; - publications of Jewish societies, such as _Etudes Juives_, Jewish - historical societies of England and America, German historical - commission, Julius Barasch society (Rumania), Societas Litteraria - Hungarico-Judaica, the Viennese communal publications, and many others - to which may be added the 20 vols. of the _Jewish Quarterly Review_; - Scherer, _Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden_ (1901); M. Gudemann - _Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden_ (1880, - &c.); A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_ (1895); I. - Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_ (1896); G. F. Abbott, - _Israel in Europe_ (1905); G. Caro, _Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden_ - (1908); M. Philippson, _Neueste Geschichte des judischen Volkes_ - (1907, &c.); Nossig, _Judische Statistik_ (1903); and such special - works as H. Gross, _Gallia Judaica_ (1897), &c. (I. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] On the homogeneity of the population, see further, W. R. Smith, - _Religion of the Semites_ (2nd ed., chaps, i.-iii.); T. Noldeke, - _Sketches from Eastern History_, pp. 1-20 (on "Some Characteristics - of the Semitic Race"); and especially E. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Altertums_ - (2nd ed., i. SS 330, sqq.). For the relation between the geographical - characteristics and the political history, see G. A. Smith, - _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_. - - [2] For fuller information on this section see PALESTINE: _History_, - and the related portions of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, EGYPT, HITTITES, - SYRIA. - - [3] Or _land_ Israel, W. Spiegelberg, _Orient. Lit. Zeit._ xi. - (1908), cols. 403-405. - - [4] It is useful to compare the critical study of the Koran (q.v.), - where, however, the investigation of its various "revelations" is - simpler than that of the biblical "prophecies" on account of the - greater wealth of independent historical tradition. See also G. B. - Gray, _Contemporary Review_ (July 1907); A. A. Bevan, _Cambridge - Biblical Essays_ (ed. Swete, 1909), pp. 1-19. - - [5] See primarily BIBLE: _Old Testament_; the articles on the - contents and literary structure of the several books; the various - biographical, topographical and ethnical articles, and the separate - treatment of the more important subjects (e.g. LEVITES, PROPHET, - SACRIFICE). - - [6] On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical - records, see especially S. R. Driver's essay in Hogarth's _Authority - and Archaeology_; cf. also A. A. Bevan, _Critical Review_ (1897, p. - 406 sqq., 1898, pp. 131 sqq.); G. B. Gray, _Expositor_, May 1898; W. - G. Jordan, _Bib. Crit. and Modern Thought_ (1909), pp. 42 sqq. - - [7] For the sections which follow the present writer may be permitted - to refer to his introductory contributions in the _Expositor_ (June, - 1906; "The Criticism of the O.T."); the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ - (July 1905-January 1907 = _Critical Notes on O.T. History_, - especially sections vii.-ix.); July and October 1907, April 1908; - _Amer. Journ. Theol._ (July 1909, "Simeon and Levi: the Problem of - the Old Testament"); and Swete's _Cambridge Bib. Essays_, pp. 54-89 - ("The Present Stage of O.T. Research"). - - [8] On the name see JEHOVAH, TETRAGRAMMATON. - - [9] The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its own, - and appears to be from an independent cycle, which has been used to - form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus; see - also Ed. Meyer, _Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme_ (1906), pp. - 228, 433; B. Luther, ibid. pp. 108 seq., 142 sqq. Neither of the - poems in Deut. xxxii. seq. alludes to an escape from Egypt; Israel is - merely a desert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently - even the older accounts of the exodus are not of very great - antiquity; according to Jeremiah ii. 2, 7 (cf. Hos. ii. 15) some - traditions of the wilderness must have represented Israel in a very - favourable light; for the "canonical" view, see Ezekiel xvi., xx., - xxiii. - - [10] The capture of central Palestine itself is not recorded; - according to its own traditions the district had been seized by Jacob - (Gen. xlviii. 22; cf. the late form of the tradition in Jubilees - xxxiv.). This conception of a conquering hero is entirely distinct - from the narratives of the descent of Jacob into Egypt, &c. (see - Meyer and Luther, _op. cit._ pp. 110, 227 seq., 415, 433). - - [11] This is especially true of the various ingenious attempts to - combine the invasion of the Israelites with the movements of the - Habiru in the Amarna period (S 3). - - [12] Cf. Winckler, _Keil. u. das Alte Test._ p. 212 seq.; also his - "Der alte Orient und die Geschichtsforschung" in _Mitteilungen der - Vorderasiat. Gesellschaft_ (Berlin, 1906) and - _Religionsgeschichtlicher u. gesch. Orient_ (Leipzig, 1906); A. - Jeremias, _Alte Test._ (p. 464 seq.); B. Baentsch, _Altorient. u. - Israel. Monotheismus_ (pp. 53, 79, 105, &c.); also _Theolog. Lit. - Blatt_ (1907) No. 19. On the reconstructions of the tribal history, - see especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ art. "Tribes." The most - suggestive study of the pre-monarchical narratives is that of E. - Meyer and B. Luther (above; see the former's criticisms on the - reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. 1 and _passim_). - - [13] 2 Chron. xii. 8, which is independent of the chronicler's - artificial treatment of his material, apparently points to some - tradition of Egyptian suzerainty. - - [14] See for chronology, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, SS v. and viii. - - [15] See _Jew. Quart. Rev._ (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent - Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points of - contact with those of Saul in 1 Samuel, and the relation is highly - suggestive for the study of their growth, as also for the perspective - of the various writers. - - [16] See W. R. Smith (after Kuenen), _Ency. Bib._, col. 2670; also W. - E. Addis, ib., 1276, the commentaries of Benzinger (p. 130) and - Kittel (pp. 153 seq.) on Kings; J. S. Strachan, Hastings's _Dict. - Bible_, i. 694; G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog. of Holy Land_, p. 582; - Konig and Hirsch, _Jew. Ency._ v. 137 seq. ("legend ... as - indifferent to accuracy in dates as it is to definiteness of places - and names"); W. R. Harper, _Amos and Hosea_, p. xli. seq. ("the lack - of chronological order ... the result is to create a wrong impression - of Elisha's career"). The bearing of this displacement upon the - literary and historical criticism of the narratives has never been - worked out. - - [17] Careful examination shows that no a priori distinction can be - drawn between "trustworthy" books of Kings and "untrustworthy books" - of Chronicles. Although the latter have special late and unreliable - features, they agree with the former in presenting the same general - trend of past history. The "canonical" history in Kings is further - embellished in Chronicles, but the gulf between them is not so - profound as that between the former and the underlying and - half-suppressed historical traditions which can still be recognized. - (See also PALESTINE: _History_.) - - [18] For the former (2 Kings xii. 17 seq.) cf. Hezekiah and - Sennacherib (xviii. 13-15), and for the latter, cf. Asa and Baasha (1 - Kings xv. 18-20; above). - - [19] It is possible that Hadad-nirari's inscription refers to - conditions in the latter part of his reign (812-783 B.C.), when Judah - apparently was no longer independent and when Jeroboam II. was king - of Israel. The accession of the latter has been placed between 785 - and 782. It is now known, also, that Ben-hadad and a small coalition - were defeated by the king of Hamath; but the bearing of this upon - Israelite history is uncertain. - - [20] Cf. generally, 1 Sam. iv., xxxi.; 2 Sam. ii. 8; 1 Kings xx., - xxii.; 2 Kings vi. 8-vii. 20; also Judges v. (see DEBORAH). - - [21] Special mention is made of Jonah, a prophet of Zebulun in - (north) Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). Nothing is known of him, unless the - very late prophetical writing with the account of his visit to - Nineveh rests upon some old tradition, which, however, can scarcely - be recovered (see JONAH). - - [22] This is philosophically handled by the Arabian historian Ibn - Khaldun, whose Prolegomena is well worthy of attention; see De Slane, - _Not. et extraits_, vols. xix.-xxi., with Von Kremer's criticisms in - the _Sitz. d. Kais. Akad._ of Vienna (vol. xciii., 1879); cf. also R. - Flint, _History of the Philosophy of History_, i. 157 sqq. - - [23] Cf. J. G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_ (1907), p. 67: - "Prophecy of the Hebrew type has not been limited to Israel; it is - indeed a phenomenon of almost world-wide occurrence; in many lands - and in many ages the wild, whirling words of frenzied men and women - have been accepted as the utterances of an in-dwelling deity. What - does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius - of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful - instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the interest of a - high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity. - That is indeed the glory of Israel...." - - [24] The use which was made in Apocalyptic literature of the - traditions of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the - Old Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late - prophecies of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam - II. (see S 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this - nature from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely - the Oriental mind and Oriental usage. - - [25] The condemnation passed upon the impetuous and fiery zeal of the - adherents of the new movement (cf. Hos. i. 4), like the remarkable - vicissitudes in the traditions of Moses, Aaron and the Levites - (qq.v.), represents changing situations of real significance, whose - true place in the history can with difficulty be recovered. - - [26] Formerly thought to be the third of the name. - - [27] Perhaps Judah had come to an understanding with Tiglath-pileser - (H. M. Haydn, _Journ. Bib. Lit._, xxviii. 1909, pp. 182-199); see - UZZIAH. - - [28] The fact that these lists are of the kings of the "land Hatti" - would suggest that the term "Hittite" had been extended to Palestine. - - [29] So K. Budde, _Rel. of Israel to Exile_, pp. 165-167. For an - attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, _Hebraer_ - (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 150 sqq. - - [30] See G. Maspero, _Gesch. d. morgenland. Volker_ (1877), p. 446; - E. Naville, _Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol._ (1907), pp. 232 sqq., and T. - K. Cheyne, _Decline and Fall of Judah_ (1908), p. 13, with - references. [The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a - matter for historical criticism to decide. Thus the discovery of - Numa's laws in Rome (Livy xl. 29), upon which undue weight has - sometimes been laid (see Klostermann, _Der Pentateuch_ (1906), pp. - 155 sqq., was not accepted as genuine by the senate (who had the laws - destroyed), and probably not by Pliny himself. Only the later - antiquaries clung to the belief in their - trustworthiness.--(_Communicated._)] - - [31] Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at - existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see KINGS). - - [32] But see N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, "Scythians," S 1. - - [33] So also one can now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in - Egypt in Jer. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are - known to have prevailed later at Elephantine, where a small Jewish - colony worshipped Yahu (Yahweh) at their own temple (see E. Sachau, - "Drei aram. Papyrusurkunde," in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Prussian - Academy, Berlin, 1907). - - [34] Sargon had removed Babylonians into the land of Hatti (Syria and - Palestine), and in 715 B.C. among the colonists were tribes - apparently of desert origin (Tamud, Hayapa, &c.); other settlements - are ascribed to Esar-haddon and perhaps Assur-bani-pal (Ezra iv. 2, - 10). See for the evidence, A. E. Cowley, _Ency. Bib._, col. 4257; J. - A. Montgomery, _The Samaritans_, pp. 46-57 (Philadelphia, 1907). - - [35] The growing recognition that the land was not depopulated after - 586 is of fundamental significance for the criticism of "exilic" and - "post-exilic" history. G. A. Smith thus sums up a discussion of the - extent of the deportations: "... A large majority of the Jewish - people remained on the land. This conclusion may startle us with our - generally received notions of the whole nation as exiled. But there - are facts which support it" (_Jerusalem_, ii. 268). - - [36] On the place of Palestine in Persian history see PERSIA: - _History, ancient_, especially S 5 ii.; also ARTAXERXES; CAMBYSES; - CYRUS; DARIUS, &c. - - [37] The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others - (see W. R. Smith, _Old Testament in Jewish Church_, p. 438 seq.; W. - Judeich, _Kleinasiat. Stud._, p. 170; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, - col. 2202; F. C. Kent, _Hist._ [1899], pp. 230 sqq.) has however been - questioned by Willrich, _Judaica_, 35-39 (see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, - col. 3941). The account of Josephus (above) raises several - difficulties, especially the identity of Bagoses. It has been - supposed that he has placed the record too late, and that this - Bagoses is the Judaean governor who flourished about 408 B.C. (See p. - 286, n. 3.) - - [38] Thus a decree of Darius I. takes the part of his subjects - against the excessive zeal of the official Gadatas, and grants - freedom of taxation and exemption from forced labour to those - connected with a temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (_Bulletin de - correspondance hellenique_, xiii. 529; E. Meyer, _Entstehung des - Judenthums_, p. 19 seq.; cf. id. _Forschungen_, ii. 497). - - [39] In addition to this, the Egyptian story of the priest Uza-hor at - the court of Cambyses and Darius reflects a policy of religious - tolerance which illustrates the biblical account of Ezra and Nehemiah - (Brugsch, _Gesch. Aeg._ pp. 784 sqq.; see Cheyne, _Jew. Relig. Life - after the Exile_, pp. 40-43). - - [40] From Tema in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence of - the 5th century B.C. for Babylonian and Assyrian influence upon the - language, cult and art. For Nippur, see _Bab. Exped. of Univ. of - Pennsylvania_, series A., vol. ix. (1898), by H. V. Hilprecht; for - Elephantine, the Mond papyri, A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley, _Aramaic - Papyri Discovered at Assuan_ (1906), and those cited above (p. 282, - n. 1). For the Jewish colonies in general, see H. Guthe, _Ency. - Bib._, art. "Dispersion" (with references); also below, S 25 sqq. - - [41] See EZRA AND NEHEMIAH with bibliographical references, also T. - K. Cheyne, _Introd. to Isaiah_ (1895); _Jew. Religious Life after the - Exile_ (1898); E. Sellin, _Stud. z. Entstehungsgesch. d. jud. - Gemeinde_ (1901); R. H. Kennett in Swete's _Cambridge Biblical - Essays_ (pp. 92 sqq.); G. Jahn, _Die Bucher Esra u. Nehemja_ (1909); - and C. C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_ (1910). - - [42] There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of - tradition (a) in Ezra ii. which gives a list of families who returned - from exile each to its own city, and (b) in the return of the holy - vessels in the time of Cyrus (contrast 1 Esdras iv. 43 seq.), a view - which, in spite of Dan. i. 2, v. 2 seq., conflicts with 2 Kings xxiv. - 13 and xxv. 13 (see, however, v. 14). That attempts have been made to - adjust contradictory representations is suggested by the prophecy - ascribed to Jeremiah (xxvii. 16 sqq.) where the restoration of the - holy vessels finds no place in the shorter text of the Septuagint - (see W. R. Smith, _Old Test. and Jew. Church_, pp. 104 sqq.). - - [43] The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has been - suggested by M. Vernes, _Nouvelle hypothese sur la comp. et l'origine - du Deut._ (1887); Havet, _Christian. et ses origines_ (1878); Horst, - in _Rev. de l'hist. des relig._, 1888; and more recently by E. Day, - _Journ. Bib. Lit._ (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, _Journ. - Theol. Stud._ (1906), pp. 486 sqq. The strongest counter-arguments - (see W. E. Addis, _Doc. of Hexat._ ii. 2-9) rely upon the historical - trustworthiness of 2 Kings xxii. seq. Weighty reasons are brought - also by conservative writers against the theory that Deuteronomy - dates from or about the age of Josiah, and their objections to the - "discovery" of a new law-roll apply equally to the "re-discovery" and - promulgation of an old and authentic code. - - [44] See, for Cheyne's view, his _Decline and Fall of Judah. - Introduction_ (1908). The former tendency has many supporters; see, - among recent writers, N. Schmidt, _Hibbert Journal_ (1908), pp. 322 - sqq.; C. F. Burney, _Journ. Theol. Stud._ (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; O. A. - Toffteen, _The Historic Exodus_ (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially - Meyer and Luther, _Die Israeliten_, pp. 442-440, &c. For the early - recognition of the evidence in question, see J. Wellhausen, _De - gentibus et familiis Judaeis_ (Gottingen, 1870); _Prolegomena_ (Eng. - trans.), pp. 216 sqq., 342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. "Israel," S - 2, _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.); also A. Kuenen, _Relig. of Israel_ (i. 135 - seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith, _Prophets of Israel_, pp. 28 seq., 379. - - [45] For the prominence of the "southern" element in Judah see E. - Meyer, _Entstehung d. Judenthums_ (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177, 183 - n. 1; _Israeliten_, pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 seq. - - [46] See S 23 end, and LEVITES. When Edom is renowned for wisdom and - a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have south - Palestinian affinity (1 Chron. ii. 6), and when such names as Korah, - Heman, Ethan and Obed-edom, are associated with psalmody, there is no - inherent improbability in the conjecture that the "southern" families - settled around Jerusalem may have left their mark in other parts of - the Old Testament. It is another question whether such literature can - be identified (for Cheyne's views, see _Ency. Bib._ "Prophetic - Literature," "Psalms," and his recent studies). - - [47] One may recall, in this connexion, Caxton's very interesting - prologue to Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ and his remarks on the - permanent value of the "histories" of this British hero. [Cf. also - Horace, _Ep._ 1. ii. and R. Browning, "Development."] - - [48] It is noteworthy that Josephus, who has his own representation - of the post-exilic age, allows two years and four months for the work - (_Ant._ xi. 5, 8). - - [49] The papyri from Elephantine (p. 282, n. 1, above) mention as - contemporaries the Jerusalem priest Johanan (cf. the son of Joiada - and father of Jaddua, Neh. xii. 22), Bagohi (Bagoas), governor of - Judah, and Delaiah and Shelemiah sons of Sanballat (408-407 B.C.) - They ignore any strained relations between Samaria and Judah, and - Delaiah and Bagohi unite in granting permission to the Jewish colony - to rebuild their place of worship. If this fixes the date of - Sanballat and Nehemiah in the time of the first Artaxerxes, the - probability of confusion in the later written sources is enhanced by - the recurrence of identical names of kings, priests, &c., in the - history. - - [50] The Samaritans, for their part, claimed the traditions of their - land and called themselves the posterity of Joseph, Ephraim and - Manasseh. But they were ready to deny their kinship with the Jews - when the latter were in adversity, and could have replied to the - tradition that they were foreigners with a _tu quoque_ (Josephus, - _Ant._ ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6; xii. 5, 5) (see SAMARITANS). - - [51] The statement that the king desired to avoid the divine wrath - may possibly have some deeper meaning (e.g. some recent revolt, Ezra - vii. 23). - - [52] It must suffice to refer to the opinions of Bertholet, Buhl, - Cheyne, Guthe, Van Hoonacker, Jahn, Kennett, Kent, Kosters, Marquart, - Torrey, and Wildeboer. - - [53] C. F. Kent, _Israel's Hist. and Biog. Narratives_ (1905), p. 358 - seq. The objections against this very probable view undervalue Ezra - iv. 7-23 and overlook the serious intricacies in the book of - Nehemiah. - - [54] There are three inquiries: (a) the critical value of 1 Esdras, - (b) the character of the different representations of post-exilic - internal and external history, and (c) the recovery of the historical - facts. To start with the last before considering (a) and (b) would be - futile. - - [55] For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (S 19) have - been ascribed such passages as Isa. lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12; Ps. xliv., - lxxiv., lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii. (see also LAMENTATIONS). In their - present form they are not of the beginning of the 6th century and, if - the evidence for Artaxerxes III. proves too doubtful, they may belong - to the history preceding Nehemiah's return, provided the internal - features do not stand in the way (e.g. prior or posterior to the - formation of the exclusive Judaean community, &c.). Since the book of - Baruch (named after Jeremiah's scribe) is now recognized to be - considerably later (probably after the destruction of Jerusalem A.D. - 70), it will be seen that the recurrence of similar causes leads to a - similarity in the contemporary literary productions (with a reshaping - of earlier tradition), the precise date of which depends upon - delicate points of detail and not upon the apparently obvious - historical elements. - - [56] See H. Winckler, _Keil. u. Alte Test._, 295, and Kennett, - _Journ. Theol. Stud._ (1906), p. 487; _Camb. Bib. Essays_, p. 117. - The Chaldeans alone destroyed Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv.); Edom was - friendly or at least neutral (Jer. xxvii. 3, xl. 11 seq.). The - proposal to read "Edomites" for "Syrians" in the list of bands which - troubled Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2) is not supported by the - contemporary reference, Jer. xxxv. 11. - - [57] It is at least a coincidence that the prophet who took the part - of Tobiah and Sanballat against Nehemiah (vi. 10 seq.) bears the same - name as the one who advised Rehoboam to acquiesce in the disruption - (1 Kings xii. 21-24), or announced the divine selection of Jeroboam - (ib. v. 24, Septuagint only). - - [58] See HEBREW RELIGION, S 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the - histories of Israel. - - [59] J. Wellhausen, art. "Israel," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed., vol. xiii. - p. 419; or his _Prolegomena_, pp. 497 seq. - - [60] An instructive account of Judaism in the early post-exilic age - on critical lines (from the Jewish standpoint) is given by C. G. - Montefiore, _Hibbert Lectures_ (1892), pp. 355 sqq.; cf. also the - sketch by I. Abrahams, _Judaism_ (1907). - - [61] Cf. the story of Phinehas, Num. xxv. 6 sqq.; on Gen. xxxiv., see - SIMEON. Apropos of hostility towards Samaria, it is singular that the - term of reproach, "Cutheans," applied to the Samaritans is derived - from Cutha, the famous seat of the god Nergal, only some 25 m. N.E. - of Babylon itself (see above, p. 286, n. 4). - - [62] The various tendencies which can be observed in the later - pseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings are of considerable - value in any consideration of the development of thought illustrated - in the Old Testament itself. - - [63] Reference may be made to H. Winckler, _Gesch. Israels_, ii. - (1900); W. Erbt, _Die Hebraer_ (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, _Traditions - and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (1907). - - [64] On the writers mentioned below see articles s.v. - - [65] For the importance of the Portuguese Jews, see PORTUGAL: - _History_. - - - - -JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR (1812-1880), English writer, daughter of -Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant, was born in 1812 at Measham, -Derbyshire. Her first novel, _Zoe: the History of Two Lives_, was -published in 1845, and was followed by _The Half Sisters_ (1848), -_Marian Withers_ (1851), _Constance Herbert_ (1855), _The Sorrows of -Gentility_ (1856), _Right or Wrong_ (1859). In 1850 she was invited by -Charles Dickens to write for _Household Words_; for many years she was a -frequent contributor to the _Athenaeum_ and other journals and -magazines. It is, however, mainly on account of her friendship with -Thomas Carlyle and his wife that her name is remembered. Carlyle -described her, after their first meeting in 1841, as "one of the most -interesting young women I have seen for years; clear delicate sense and -courage looking out of her small sylph-like figure." From this time till -Mrs Carlyle's death in 1866, Geraldine Jewsbury was the most intimate of -her friends. The selections from Geraldine Jewsbury's letters to Jane -Welsh Carlyle (1892, ed. Mrs Alexander Ireland) prove how confidential -were the relations between the two women for a quarter of a century. In -1854 Miss Jewsbury removed from Manchester to London to be near her -friend. To her Carlyle turned for sympathy when his wife died; and at -his request she wrote down some "biographical anecdotes" of Mrs -Carlyle's childhood and early married life. Carlyle's comment was that -"few or none of these narratives are correct in details, but there is a -certain mythical truth in all or most of them;" and he added, "the -Geraldine accounts of her (Mrs Carlyle's) childhood are substantially -correct." He accepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on "Jane -Welsh Carlyle," with which they were therefore incorporated by Froude -when editing Carlyle's _Reminiscences_. Miss Jewsbury was consulted by -Froude when he was preparing Carlyle's biography, and her recollection -of her friend's confidences confirmed the suspicion that Carlyle had on -one occasion used physical violence towards his wife. Miss Jewsbury -further informed Froude that the secret of the domestic troubles of the -Carlyles lay in the fact that Carlyle had been "one of those persons who -ought never to have married," and that Mrs Carlyle had at one time -contemplated having her marriage legally annulled (see _My Relations -with Carlyle_, by James Anthony Froude, 1903). The endeavour has been -made to discredit Miss Jewsbury in relation to this matter, but there -seems to be no sufficient ground for doubting that she accurately -repeated what she had learnt from Mrs Carlyle's own lips. Miss Jewsbury -died in London on the 23rd of September 1880. - - - - -JEW'S EARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botanically as _Hirneola -auricula-judae_, so called from its shape, which somewhat resembles a -human ear. It is very thin, flexible, flesh-coloured to dark brown, and -one to three inches broad. It is common on branches of elder, which it -often kills, and is also found on elm, willow, oak and other trees. It -was formerly prescribed as a remedy for dropsy. - - - - -JEW'S HARP, or JEW'S TRUMP (Fr. _guimbarde_, O. Fr. _trompe_, _gronde_; -Ger. _Mundharmonica_, _Maultrommel_, _Brummeisen_; Ital. -_scaccia-pensieri_ or _spassa-pensiero_), a small musical instrument of -percussion, known for centuries all over Europe. "Jew's trump" is the -older name, and "trump" is still used in parts of Great Britain. -Attempts have been made to derive "Jew's" from "jaws" or Fr. _jeu_, but, -though there is no apparent reason for associating the instrument with -the Jews, it is certain that "Jew's" is the original form (see the _New -English Dictionary_ and C. B. Mount in _Notes and Queries_ (Oct. 23, -1897, p. 322). The instrument consists of a slender tongue of steel -riveted at one end to the base of a pear-shaped steel loop; the other -end of the tongue, left free and passing out between the two branches of -the frame, terminates in a sharp bend at right angles, to enable the -player to depress it by an elastic blow and thus set it vibrating while -firmly pressing the branches of the frame against his teeth. The -vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound composed of a -fundamental and its harmonics. By using the cavity of the mouth as a -resonator, each harmonic in succession can be isolated and reinforced, -giving the instrument the compass shown. The lower harmonics of the -series cannot be obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the -resonating cavity. The black notes on the stave show the scale which may -be produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the other. The -player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the harmonics, frames his -mouth as though intending to pronounce the various vowels. At the -beginning of the 19th century, when much energy and ingenuity were being -expended in all countries upon the invention of new musical instruments, -the _Maultrommel_, re-christened _Mundharmonica_ (the most rational of -all its names), attracted attention in Germany. Heinrich Scheibler -devised an ingenious holder with a handle, to contain five Jew's harps, -all tuned to different notes; by holding one in each hand, a large -compass, with duplicate notes, became available; he called this complex -Jew's harp _Aura_[1] and with it played themes with variations, marches, -Scotch reels, &c. Other virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of -Wurtemberg, achieved the same result by placing the variously tuned -Jew's harps upon the table in front of him, taking them up and setting -them down as required. Eulenstein created a sensation in London in 1827 -by playing on no fewer than sixteen Jew's harps. In 1828 Sir Charles -Wheatstone published an essay on the technique of the instrument in the -_Quarterly Journal of Science_. (K. S.) - -[Illustration] - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1816), p. 506, and Beilage 5, - where the construction of the instruments is described and - illustrated and the system of notation shown in various pieces of - music. - - - - -JEZEBEL (Heb. _i-zebel_, perhaps an artificial form to suggest -"un-exalted," a divine name or its equivalent would naturally be -expected instead of the first syllable), wife of Ahab, king of Israel (1 -Kings xvi. 31), and mother of Athaliah, in the Bible. Her father -Eth-baal (Ithobal, Jos., _contra Ap._ i. 18) was king of Tyre and priest -of the goddess Astarte. He had usurped the throne and was the first -important Phoenician king after Hiram (see PHOENICIA). Jezebel, a true -daughter of a priest of Astarte, showed herself hostile to the worship -of Yahweh, and to his prophets, whom she relentlessly pursued (1 Kings -xviii. 4-13; see ELIJAH). She is represented as a woman of virile -character, and became notorious for the part she took in the matter of -Naboth's vineyard. When the Jezreelite[1] sheikh refused to sell the -family inheritance to the king, Jezebel treacherously caused him to be -arrested on a charge of treason, and with the help of false witnesses he -was found guilty and condemned to death. For this the prophet Elijah -pronounced a solemn curse upon Ahab and Jezebel, which was fulfilled -when Jehu, who was anointed king at Elisha's instigation, killed the son -Jehoram, massacred all the family, and had Jezebel destroyed (1 Kings -xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 11-28). What is told of her comes from sources written -under the influence of strong religious bias; among the exaggerations -must be reckoned 1 Kings xviii. 13, which is inconsistent with xix. 18 -and xxii. 6. A literal interpretation of the reference to Jezebel's -idolatry (2 Kings ix. 22) has made her name a byword for a false -prophetess in Rev. ii. 20. Her name is often used in modern English as a -synonym for an abandoned woman or one who paints her face. (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi. 1 - [LXX.], 18 seq.; cf. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the - king's home appears in 2 Kings x. 11 compared with vv. 1, 17. - - - - -JEZREEL (Heb. "God sows"), the capital of the Israelite monarchy under -Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events (1 Sam. xxix. 1; 1 Kings -xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was also applied to the great plain -(Esdraelon) dominated by the city ("valley of Jezreel," Josh. xvii. 16, -&c.). The site has never been lost, and the present village _Zercin_ -retains the name radically unchanged. In Greek (e.g. Judith) the name -appears under the form [Greek: Esdraela]; it is _Stradela_ in the -_Bordeaux Pilgrim_, and to the Crusaders the place was known as _Parvum -Gerinum_. The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500 ft. -above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a long ledge, -terminating in steep cliffs, forming part of the chain of Mt Gilboa. The -buildings are modern, but some scanty remains of rock-hewn wine presses -and a few scattered sarcophagi mark the antiquity of the site. The view -over the plains is fine and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's -palace or Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in 1 Sam. xxix. 1 is -perhaps the fine spring _'Ain el Meiyyita_, north of the village, a -shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between black -basalt boulders: or more probably the copious _'Ain Jalud_. - -A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah, somewhere -near Hebron (Josh. xv. 56). This was the native place of David's wife -Abinoam (1 Sam. xxv. 43). - - See, for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the - Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog._ xix. - - - - -JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar agency. Area, -with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 80,889. More -than half the inhabitants belong to the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated -revenue, L7000; tribute, L1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The -chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended -from a branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested in -1898 with the powers of administration. - -The town of JHABUA (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake, and is -surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guesthouse were constructed -to commemorate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897. - - - - -JHALAWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, pop. (1901), -90,175; estimated revenue, L26,000; tribute, L2000. Area, 810 sq. m. The -ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and -their ancestors were petty chiefs of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, -in Kathiawar. About 1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan -left his country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah he -left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with the maharaja, -and received from him an important post, which became hereditary. On the -death of one of the Kotah rajas (1771), the country was left to the -charge of Zalim Singh, a descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim -Singh was the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderful state of -prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over forty-five -years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties. In 1838 it was -resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the -state, and to create the new principality of Jhalawar as a separate -provision for the descendants of Zalim Singh. The districts then severed -from Kotah were considered to represent one-third (L120,000) of the -income of Kotah; by treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the -British, and agreed to pay an annual tribute of L8000. Madan Singh -received the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing -as the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son of his -successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becoming chief of -Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested with governing powers till -1884. Owing to his maladministration, his relations with the British -government became strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, "on -account of persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers -of a ruling chief." He went to live at Benares, on a pension of L2000; -and the administration was placed in the hands of the British resident. -After much consideration, the government resolved in 1897 to break up -the state, restoring the greater part to Kotah, but forming the two -districts of Shahabad and the Chaumahla into a new state, which came -into existence in 1899, and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant -of the original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief. - -The chief town is PATAN, or JHALRAPATAN (pop. 7955), founded close to an -old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of an artificial lake. It -is the centre of trade, the chief exports of the state being opium, -oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m. -north. The ancient site near the town was occupied by the city of -Chandrawati, said to have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The -finest feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva (c. -600). - - - - -JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Multan division of -the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality with the newer and -now more important quarter of Maghiana, is about 3 m. from the right -bank of the river Chenab. Founded by Mal Khan, a Sial chieftain, in -1462, it long formed the capital of a Mahommedan state. Pop. (1901), -24,382. Maghiana has manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware. - -The DISTRICT OF JHANG extends along both sides of the Chenab, including -its confluences with the Jhelum and the Ravi. Area, 3726 sq. m. Pop. -(1901), 378,695, showing an apparent decrease of 13% in the decade, due -to the creation of the district of Lyallpur in 1904. But actually the -population increased by 132% on the old area, owing to the opening of -the Chenab canal and the colonization of the tract irrigated by it. -Within Jhang many thousands of acres of government waste have been -allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing. A branch of -the North-Western railway enters the district in this quarter, extending -throughout its entire length. The Southern Jech Doab railway serves the -south. The principal industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of -cotton. - -Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identified with one of the towns -taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of Jhang centres in the -famous clan of Sials, who exercised an extensive sway over a large tract -between Shahpur and Multan, with little dependence on the imperial court -at Delhi, until they finally fell before the all-absorbing power of -Ranjit Singh. The Sials of Jhang are Mahommedans of Rajput descent, -whose ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the 13th -century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the 19th century -Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and captured the Sial chieftain's -territory. The latter recovered a small portion afterwards, which he was -allowed to retain on payment of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the -establishment of the British agency at Lahore, the district came under -the charge of the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial -leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for which -he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Sial leader again -proved his loyalty by serving in person on the British side. His pension -was afterwards increased, and he obtained the title of khan bahadur, -with a small _jagir_ for life. - - - - -JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad division -oL the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the Indian Midland -railway system, whence four lines diverge to Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad -and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724. A stone fort crowns a neighbouring -rock. Formerly the capital of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to -the British in 1853, it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection -and massacre. It was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back -in exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within Gwalior, -the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at Jhansi Naoabad, under -its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre for the agricultural trade of -the district, but its manufactures are small. - -The DISTRICT OF JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incorporation of the -former district of Lalitpur, which extends farther into the hill -country, almost entirely surrounded by native states. Combined area, -3628 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 616,759 showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, -due to the results of famine. The main line and branches of the Indian -Midland railway serve the district, which forms a portion of the hill -country of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan -range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north. The -extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and narrow-ridged -hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers flow down impetuously -over ledges of granite or quartz. North of the hilly region, the rocky -granite chains gradually lose themselves in clusters of smaller hills. -The northern portion consists of the level plain of Bundelkhand, -distinguished for its deep black soil, known as _mar_, and admirably -adapted for the cultivation of cotton. The district is intersected or -bounded by three principal rivers--the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The -district is much cut up, and portions of it are insulated by the -surrounding native states. The principal crops are millets, cotton, -oil-seeds, pulses, wheat, gram and barley. The destructive _kans_ grass -has proved as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is -especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epidemics, -and their natural consequence--famine. - -Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this district -before the period of Chandel rule, about the 11th century of our era. To -this epoch must be referred the artificial reservoirs and architectural -remains of the hilly region. The Chandels were succeeded by their -servants the Khangars, who built the fort of Karar, lying just outside -the British border. About the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon -the plains, and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which -now bears their name. The Mahommedan governors were constantly making -irruptions into the Bundela country; and in 1732 Chhatar Sal, the -Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the Mahrattas. They came to his -assistance with their accustomed promptitude, and were rewarded on the -raja's death in 1734, by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. -Their general founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with -inhabitants from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised -to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the East India -Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853 the raja died -childless, and his territories lapsed to the British. The Jhansi state -and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were then formed into a -superintendency. The widow of the raja considered herself aggrieved -because she was not allowed to adopt an heir, and because the slaughter -of cattle was permitted in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread -which excited the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857 -accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men of the 12th -native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and magazine, -and massacred the European officers of the garrison. Everywhere the -usual anarchic quarrels rose among the rebels, and the country was -plundered mercilessly. The rani put herself at the head of the rebels, -and died bravely in battle. It was not till November 1858, after a -series of sharp contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of -reorganization was fairly set on foot. - - - - -JHELUM, or JEHLAM (_Hydaspes_ of the Greeks), a river of northern India. -It is the most westerly of the "five rivers" of the Punjab. It rises in -the north-east of the Kashmir state, flows through the city of Srinagar -and the Wular lake, issues through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow -pass of Baramula, and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. -Thence it flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary -between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally joins the -Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The Jhelum colony, in the -Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on the example of the Chenab -colony in 1901, is designed to contain a total irrigable area of -1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a smaller work than the Chenab -canal, but its silt is noted for its fertilizing qualities. Both -projects have brought great prosperity to the cultivators. - - - - -JHELUM, or JEHLAM, a town and district of British India, in the -Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the right -bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge of the North-Western -railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 14,951. It is a modern town -with river and railway trade (principally in timber from Kashmir), -boat-building and cantonments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments. - -The DISTRICT OF JEHLUM stretches from the river Jhelum almost to the -Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 501,424, showing a decrease of 2% -in the decade. Salt is quarried at the Mayo mine in the Salt Range. -There are two coal-mines, the only ones worked in the province, from -which the North-Western railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The -chief centre of the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770). The -district is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway, and -also traversed along the south by a branch line. The river Jhelum is -navigable throughout the district, which forms the south-eastern portion -of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending between the Indus and Jhelum to -the borders of the Sind Sagar Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque, -although not of so wild a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi -to the north, and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of -cultivated valley. The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt -Range, a treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from -east to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold -precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and traversed by -streams which are at first pure, but soon become impregnated with the -saline matter over which they pass. Between the line of hills lies a -picturesque table-land, in which the beautiful little lake of Kallar -Kahar nestles amongst the minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the -country extends upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless -ravines and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of -Rawalpindi mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and -difficult, the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the -Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil lies along the banks of -the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous villages. The drainage -of the district is determined by a low central watershed running north -and south at right angles to the Salt Range. The waters of the western -portion find their way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those -of the opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty -themselves into the Jhelum. - -The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical period of -the _Mahabharata_. Hindu tradition represents the Salt Range as the -refuge of the five Pandava brethren during the period of their exile, -and every salient point in its scenery is connected with some legend of -the national heroes. Modern research has fixed the site of the conflict -between Alexander and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the -exact point at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or -Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little information with -regard to the condition of the district until the Mahommedan conquest -brought back literature and history to Upper India. The Janjuahs and -Jats, who now hold the Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, -appear to have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to -represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still -inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the Awans, who -now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later invaders from the -opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the dominant race at the period of -the first Mahommedan incursions, and long continued to retain their -independence. During the flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the -Ghakkar chieftains were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of -Baber; but after the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its -neighbours, under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated -the last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild mountaineers -to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions, until 1810, when he -fell before the irresistible power of Ranjit Singh. In 1849 the district -passed, with the rest of the Sikh territories, into the hands of the -British. - - - - -JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1892), German jurist, was born on the 22nd of -August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland, where his father practised as a -lawyer. Young Jhering entered the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, -after the fashion of German students, visited successively Gottingen and -Berlin. G. F. Puchta, the author of _Geschichte des Rechts bei dem -romischen Volke_, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his -admiration and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating _doctor -juris_, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as _privatdocent_ -for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on the _Geist des romischen -Rechts_, the theme which may be said to have constituted his life's -work. In 1845 he became an ordinary professor at Basel, in 1846 at -Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in 1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats -of learning he left his mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he -animated the dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still -under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older school -looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who essayed to -adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a system of natural -jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his famous work, _Geist des -romischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung_ -(1852-1865), which for originality of conception and lucidity of -scientific reasoning placed its author in the forefront of modern Roman -jurists. It is no exaggeration to say that in the second half of the -19th century the reputation of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in -the first. Their methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and -his school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In Jhering -the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a science to be -utilized for the further advancement of the moral and social interests -of mankind, was predominant. In 1868 Jhering accepted the chair of Roman -Law at Vienna, where his lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular -students but with men of all professions and even of the highest ranks -in the official world. He became one of the lions of society, the -Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1872 a title of hereditary -nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions of -the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly exchanged its -brilliant circles for the repose of Gottingen, where he became professor -in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna before an admiring audience -a lecture, published under the title of _Der Kampf um's Recht_ (1872; -Eng. trans., _Battle for Right_, 1884). Its success was extraordinary. -Within two years it attained twelve editions, and it has been translated -into twenty-six languages. This was followed a few years later by _Der -Zweck im Recht_ (2 vols., 1877-1883). In these two works is clearly seen -Jhering's individuality. The _Kampf um's Recht_ shows the firmness of -his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and his juristic -method and logic: "to assert his rights is the duty that every -responsible person owes to himself." In the _Zweck im Recht_ is -perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But perhaps the happiest -combination of all his distinctive characteristics is to be found in his -_Jurisprudenz des taglichen Lebens_ (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great -feature of his lectures was his so-called _Praktika_, problems in Roman -law, and a collection of these with hints for solution was published as -early as 1847 under the title _Civilrechtsfalle ohne Entscheidungen_. In -Gottingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of September -1892. A short time previously he had been the centre of a devoted crowd -of friends and former pupils, assembled at Wilhelmshohe near Cassel to -celebrate the jubilee of his doctorate. Almost all countries were -worthily represented, and this pilgrimage affords an excellent -illustration of the extraordinary fascination and enduring influence -that Jhering commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face -clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and beaming -with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best when dispensing -hospitality in his own house. With him died the best beloved and the -most talented of Roman-law professors of modern times. It was said of -him by Professor Adolf Merkel in a memorial address, _R. v. Jhering_ -(1893), that he belonged to the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's -lines are applicable: "Was ich in der Jugend gewunscht, das habe ich im -Alter die Fulle," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not -live to complete his _Geist des romischen Rechts_ and his -_Rechtsgeschichte_. For this work the span of a single life would have -been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument of -vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original thinker -and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation) of the spirit -of Roman law. - - Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author - and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: _Beitrage zur - Lehre von Besitz_, first published in the _Jahrbucher fur die Dogmatik - des heutigen romischen und deutschen Privat-rechts_, and then - separately; _Der Besitzwille_, and an article entitled "Besitz" in the - _Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_ (1891), which aroused at the - time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition - manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also _Scherz - und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz_ (1885); _Das Schuldmoment im romischen - Privat-recht_ (1867); _Das Trinkgeld_ (1882); and among the papers he - left behind him his _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropaer_, a fragment, has - been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his life - also M. de Jonge, _Rudolf v. Jhering_ (1888); and A. Merkel, _Rudolf - von Jhering_ (1893). (P. A. A.) - - - - -JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with by the -Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga river, in the -Peruvian province of Loreto. After their conversion they settled in -villages on the western bank of the river. - - - - -JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French Somaliland, in -11 deg. 35' N., 43 deg. 10' E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and -on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. -The town is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of -mud flats, which are spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the -governor's palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station -of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European quarter are -built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with verandas. There is a -good water supply, drawn from a reservoir about 2(1/2) m. distant. The -harbour is land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter -it at all states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native -town, consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well thatched -roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the disposal of live -stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular calling-place and also -a coaling station for the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, and -there is a local service to Aden. Trade is confined to coaling passing -ships and to importing goods for and exporting goods from southern -Abyssinia via Harrar, there being no local industries. (For statistics -see SOMALILAND, FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races--Somali, -Danakil, Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, -Italians, French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900 when -the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in 1907 to some -5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans. - -Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its -superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation and in -nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor of the colony -since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely native police force. The -port is not fortified. - - - - -JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. Their -former range was in New Mexico, about the headwaters of the Rio Grande -and the Pecos, and they are now settled in a reservation on the northern -border of New Mexico. Originally a scourge of the district, they are now -subdued, but remain uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily -decreasing. The name is said to be from the Spanish _jicara_, a basket -tray, in reference to their excellent basket-work. - - - - -JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in Arabia on the -Red Sea coast in 21 deg. 28' N. and 39 deg. 10' E. It is of importance -mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to Mecca, from which -it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a low sandy plain backed by -a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with higher mountains behind. The -town extends along the beach for about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall -with towers at intervals, the seaward angles being commanded by two -forts, in the northern of which are the prison and other public -buildings. There are three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the -Mecca gate on the east, and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south; -there are also three small posterns on the west side, the centre one -leading to the quay. In front of the Mecca gate is a rambling suburb -with shops, coffee houses, and an open market place; before the Medina -gate are the Turkish barracks, and beyond them the holy place of Jidda, -the tomb of "our mother Eve," surrounded by the principal cemetery. - - The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the - body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is a small - erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than half-way down - a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel within which is the - black stone known as _El Surrah_, the navel. The grave of Eve is - mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black stone nothing bears any - aspect of antiquity (see Burton's _Pilgrimage_, vol. ii.). - -The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are lofty -and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along the shore. -The streets are narrow and winding. There are two mosques of -considerable size and a number of smaller ones. The outer suburbs are -merely collections of brushwood huts. The bazaars are well supplied with -food-stuffs imported by sea, and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi -Fatima. The water supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, -two sweet wells and a spring 7(1/2) m. from the town, and most of the -houses have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and -damp, but fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour though -inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs; there are, -however, no wharves or other dock facilities and cargo is landed in -small Arab boats, _sambuks_. - -The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz, and there is -a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca, however, through his -agent at Jidda exercises an authority practically superior to that of -the sultan's officials. Consulates are maintained by Great Britain, -France, Austria, Russia, Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent -population is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, -and of these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut, the -remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and Greek traders. - -Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the caliphate -of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates from the beginning -of the 15th century when it became the centre of trade between Egypt and -India. Down to the time of Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no -farther than Jidda, where they were met by Indian vessels. The -introduction of steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not -only for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which -formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported direct by -steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden. At the same time it gave a -great impulse to the pilgrim traffic which is now regarded as the annual -harvest of Jidda. The average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds -50,000, and in 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of -the port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased -from L250,000 in 1880 to L25,000 in 1904, its imports in the latter year -amounted to over L1,400,000. The adverse balance of trade is paid by a -very large export of specie, collected from the pilgrims during their -stay in the country. - - - - -JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of which have -varied at different times and in the various countries in which it has -been danced (see DANCE). The music of the "jig," or such as is written -in its rhythm, is in various times and has been used frequently to -finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and Handel. The word has usually been -derived from or connected with Fr. _gigue_, Ital. _giga_, Ger. _Geige_, -a fiddle. The French and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance -or dance rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as -adapted from the English "jig," which may have been originally an -onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking movement has given rise -to many applications of "jig" and its derivative "jigger" to mechanical -and other devices, such as the machine used for separating the heavier -metal-bearing portions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a -tackle consisting of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word -"jigger," a corruption of the West Indian _chigoe_, is also used as the -name of a species of flea, the _Sarcopsylla penetrans_, which burrows -and lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, and -causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA). - - - - -JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word of which the -literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used to designate the -religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the followers of Mahomet to -wage war upon those who do not accept the doctrines of Islam. This duty -is laid down in five suras--all of these suras belonging to the period -after Mahomet had established his power. Conquered peoples who will -neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (_jizya_) are to be put to the -sword. (See further MOHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By Mahommedan commentators -the commands in the Koran are not interpreted as a general injunction on -all Moslems constantly to make war on the infidels. It is generally -supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the -caliph (an office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans who -do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman sultan, such -as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers for the proclamation -of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Moslems on -unbelievers since the early days of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally -proclaimed by all persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Ahmad -(the Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of -Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken straight to -paradise. - - - - -JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436-1517), Spanish -cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at Torrelaguna in Castile, of -good but poor family. He studied at Alcala de Henares and afterwards at -Salamanca; and in 1459, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. -Returning to Spain in 1465, he brought with him an "expective" letter -from the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the -archpriestship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, -archbishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to give -way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held out, and at length -in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice. This Jimenes exchanged -almost at once for a chaplaincy at Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza, -bishop of Siguenza, who shortly appointed him vicar-general of his -diocese. In that position Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic -and layman; and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among -the secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk. Throwing -up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name Gonzales for that -of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de los -Reyes, recently founded by Ferdinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content -with the ordinary severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary -austerities. He slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his -fasts, and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his -whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life was -most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought crowds to -confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely monastery of Our -Lady of Castanar; and he even built with his own hands a rude hut in the -neighbouring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite. He was -afterwards guardian of a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now -archbishop of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended -him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes, was -pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the office upon -him. The post was politically important, for Isabella submitted to the -judgment of her father-confessor not only her private affairs but also -matters of state. Jimenes's severe sanctity soon won him considerable -influence over Isabella; and thus it was that he first emerged into -political life. In 1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial -of the order of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of -the conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans. -Intense opposition was continued even after Jimenes became archbishop of -Toledo. The general of the order himself came from Rome to interfere -with the archbishop's measures of reform, but the stern inflexibility of -Jimenes, backed by the influence of the queen, subdued every obstacle. -Cardinal Mendoza had died in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a -papal bull nominating her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the -richest and most powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity -of the Roman Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove -to evade the honour; but his _nolo episcopari_ was after six months -overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration. With the -primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity of high chancellor of -Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his lowly life; and, although a -message from Rome required him to live in a style befitting his rank, -the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes -accompanied the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and -pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. Talavera -had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred to proceed by -haranguing the _fakihs_, or doctors of religion, and loading them with -gifts. Outwardly the latter method was successful; in two months the -converts were so numerous that they had to be baptized by aspersion. The -indignation of the unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes -was besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in -quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors as a -punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism; and Isabella, -who had been momentarily annoyed at her archbishop's imprudence, was -satisfied that he had done good service to Christianity. - -On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at once resigned -the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter Joan and her -husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead that of regent. Philip -was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pretensions to the regency; and it -required all the tact of Jimenes to bring about a friendly interview -between the princes. Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though -Jimenes remained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden -death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already tottering -intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a child; and -Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile, mutually jealous, agreed -to entrust affairs to the archbishop of Toledo, who, moved more by -patriotic regard for his country's welfare than by special friendship -for Ferdinand, strove to establish the final influence of that king in -Castile. Ferdinand did not return till August 1507; and he brought a -cardinal's hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of Spain -was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Leon. - -The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition against -the Moorish city of Oran in the north of Africa, in which his religious -zeal was supported by the prospect of the political and material gain -that would accrue to Spain from the possession of such a station. A -preliminary expedition, equipped, like that which followed, at the -expense of Jimenes, captured the port of Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in -1509 a strong force, accompanied by the cardinal in person, set sail for -Africa, and in one day the wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the -army remained to make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and -occupied himself with the administration of his diocese, and in -endeavouring to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran -expedition. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving Jimenes -as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.), then a youth -of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at once took firm hold of -the reins of government, and ruled in a determined and even autocratic -manner, the haughty and turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous -intriguing Flemish councillors of Charles combined to render his -position peculiarly difficult; while the evils consequent upon the -unlimited demands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium upon -the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to Charles's -desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person of Charles's younger -brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat of the cortes at Madrid; and he -established a standing army by drilling the citizens of the great towns. -Immediately on Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards -pope, produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent. Jimenes -admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that neither he nor -the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever had any real share of -power. In September 1517 Charles landed in the province of Asturias, and -Jimenes hastened to meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not -without a suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter -from Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him leave -to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual dismissal, -which some, however, say the cardinal never saw, Francisco Jimenes died -at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517. - -Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly and inflexibly, -with a confidence that became at times overbearing, he carried through -what he had decided to be right, with as little regard for the -convenience of others as for his own. In the midst of a corrupt clergy -his morals were irreproachable. He was liberal to all, and founded and -maintained very many benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole -time was devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation -was in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most -noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of life at -which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such leading parts. -Whether his abrupt change from the secular to the regular clergy was the -fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm or the far-seeing move of a wily -schemer has been disputed; but the constant austerity of his life, his -unvarying superiority to small personal aims, are arguments for the -former alternative that are not to be met by merely pointing to the -actual honours and power he at last attained. - - In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of Alcala - de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose sole expense - it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magnificence and - internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within its walls. In - 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the costly buildings - were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the romances generally - found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused to be published - religious treatises by himself and others. He revived also the - Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to - be used. But his most famous literary service was the printing at - Alcala (in Latin _Complutum_) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the - first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original text. In - this work, on which he is said to have expended half a million of - ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica (D. Lopez de - Zuniga), the Greek scholar Nunez de Guzman (Pincianus), the Hebraist - Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas, - and by three Jewish converts, of whom Zamora edited the Targum to the - Pentateuch. The other Targums are not included. In the Old Testament - Jerome's version stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue - and the Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the - thieves on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman - Church) in the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth - contains a Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New - Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April 1517. - It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by the Antwerp - firm of Plantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano at the expense - of Philip II. The second edition is known as the _Biblia Regia_ or - _Filipina_. - - The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, _De Rebus Gestis Francisci - Ximenii_ (folio, 1659, Alcala), is the quarry whence have come the - materials for biographies of Jimenes--in Spanish by Robles (1604) and - Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier (1684), - Flechier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele (1844, - translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Havemann (1848); - and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's _Ferdinand and - Isabella_; _Revue des Deux Mondes_ (May 1841) and _Mem. de l'Acad. - d'hist. de Madrid_, vol. iv. - - - - -JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the -Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The -territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts. -Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, showing a decrease of 1% -in the decade. Estimated gross revenue L109,000; there is no tribute. -Grain and cotton are exported, and there are manufactures of gold and -silver ornaments, leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose -title is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian -family. The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was -recognized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has always been -famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the Mutiny, -which has been rewarded with accessions of territory. In 1857 the raja -of Jind was actually the first man, European or native, who took the -field against the mutineers; and his contingent collected supplies in -advance for the British troops marching upon Delhi, besides rendering -excellent service during the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a -minor in 1887, and was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah -expedition of 1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially -distinguished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has a -station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. -(1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the raja since 1827 -is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852. - - - - -JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chuai, the 14th mikado -(191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the government, and fitted -out an army for the invasion of Korea (see JAPAN, S 9). She returned to -Japan completely victorious after three years' absence. Subsequently her -son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was -canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan -till 270. She is still worshipped. - -As regards the English oath, usually "By Jingo," or "By the living -Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification with the name of -Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint who was martyred on the 11th -of May 760, was a joke on the part of R. H. Barham, author of the -_Ingoldsby Legends_. Some explain the word as a corruption of Jainko, -the Basque name for God. It has also been derived from the Persia _jang_ -(war), St Jingo being the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and -is even explained as a corruption of "Jesus, Son of God," Je-n-go. In -support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was first -common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I. imported a -number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not, however, appear in -literature before the 17th century, first as conjurer's jargon. Motteux, -in his "Rabelais," is the first to use "by jingo," translating _par -dieu_. The political use of the word as indicating an aggressive -patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism) originated in 1877 during the weeks of -national excitement preluding the despatch of the British Mediterranean -squadron to Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on -Constantinople. While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to -what policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song -with the refrain "We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do," &c., -was produced in London by a singer known as "the great MacDermott," and -instantly became very popular. Thus the war-party came to be called -Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since been the term applied to those who -advocate a national policy of arrogance and pugnacity. - - For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see _Notes and Queries_, - (August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149. - - - - -JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (_genii_) in Arabian -mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and the -propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. They are ruled by -a race of kings named "Suleyman," one of whom is considered to have -built the pyramids. Their central home is the mountain Kaf, and they -manifest themselves to men under both animal and mortal form and become -invisible at will. There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case -reach the extremes of beauty and ugliness. - - - - -JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at Vysoke Myto in -Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of -education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the -Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational -privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought -him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the -Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His -merits as a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president -of the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on the 25th -of November 1888. - - With Hermenegild Jirecek he defended in 1862 the genuineness of the - Koniginhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He published in the - Czech language an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-1861), - a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-1876), a - Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw's Czech grammar and of some - Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law Pavel Josef - Safarik (1795-1861). - -His brother HERMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow (1827- ), Bohemian -jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoke Myto on the 13th of April 1827, was -also an official in the education department. - - Among his important works on Slavonic law were _Codex juris bohemici_ - (11 parts, 1867-1892), and a _Collection of Slav Folk-Law_ (Czech, - 1880), _Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th Century_ - (Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873). - -JIRECEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854- ), son of Josef, taught history at -Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in 1879, and in 1881 became -minister of education at Sofia. In 1884 he became professor of universal -history in Czech at Prague, and in 1893 professor of Slavonic -antiquities at Vienna. - - The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the - southern Slavs and their literature. They include a _History of the - Bulgars_ (Czech and German, 1876), _The Principality of Bulgaria_ - (1891), _Travels in Bulgaria_ (Czech, 1888), &c. - - - - -JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Samarkand, on -the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city of Samarkand. Pop. -(1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of Bokhara it was captured by the -Russians in 1866. - - - - -JOAB (Heb. "Yah[weh] is a father"), in the Bible, the son of Zeruiah, -David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were Asahel and Abishai. -All three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in David's -history. Abishai on one occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine -giant (2 Sam. xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly -responsible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according -to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron. xi. 4-9); with Abishai -and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israelites who had -rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the -campaign against Ammon and Edom (2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 Kings xi. 15). -He showed his sturdy character by urging the king after the death of -Absalom to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of -his favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's -proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been -regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.; 1 Chron. -xxi. 6). - - The hostility of the "sons of Zeruiah" towards the tribe of Benjamin - is characteristically contrasted with David's own generosity towards - Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul when David - surprised him asleep (1 Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious to slay Shimei - when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David was resigned to the - will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the suggestions. After Asahel - met his death at the hands of Abner, Joab expostulated with David for - not taking revenge upon the guilty one, and indeed the king might be - considered bound in honour to take up his nephew's cause. But when - Joab himself killed Abner, David's imprecation against him and his - brother Abishai showed that he dissociated himself from the act of - vengeance, although it brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel - (2 Sam. iii.). Fear of a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and - this at all events led him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13). - The two deeds are similar, and the impression left by them is - expressed in David's last charges to Solomon (1 Kings ii.). But here - Joab had taken the side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to - death by Benaiah at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the - charges are the fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible - blame from Solomon (q.v.). It is singular that Joab is not blamed for - killing Absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped - to reconcile father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so - cruel an act in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5, - 10-16). A certain animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie - some of the popular narratives of the life of David (q.v.). - (S. A. C.) - - - - -JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the monastery of San -Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot, Italian mystic theologian, was -born at Celico, near Cosenza, in Calabria. He was of noble birth and was -brought up at the court of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went -to visit the holy places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the -plague at Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on -his return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic -retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In August -1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of Corazzo, near -Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope Lucius III. at Veroli, -and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona. There is extant a letter of -Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of June 1188, in which Clement alludes -to two of Joachim's works, the _Concordia_ and the _Expositio in -Apocalypsin_, and urges him to continue them. Joachim, however, was -unable to continue his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in -prophetic exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself -but ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly -retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded with -some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of San -Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the _massif_ of La Sila. The pope -and the emperor befriended this foundation; Frederick II. and his wife -Constance made important donations to it, and promoted the spread of -offshoots of the parent house; while Innocent III., on the 21st of -January 1204, approved the "ordo Florensis" and the "institutio" which -its founder had bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the -20th of March. - - Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed to - Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enumerated in - his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These are the - _Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti_ (first printed at Venice in - 1519), the _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ (Venice, 1527), the _Psalterium - decem chordarum_ (Venice, 1527), together with some "libelli" against - the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is very - probable that these "libelli" are the writings entitled _Concordia - Evangeliorum_, _Contra Judaeos_, _De articulis fidei_, _Confessio - fidei_ and _De unitate Trinitatis_. The last is perhaps the work which - was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an - erroneous criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This - council, though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the - author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks - continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until - they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing - Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples. - - It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to - Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, being - powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the - revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. Among - the most widely circulated were the commentaries on Jeremiah, Isaiah - and Ezekiel, the _Vaticinia pontificum_ and the _De oneribus - ecclesiae_. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very - simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and - future, into three periods, which, in his _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ - (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the Father; - the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, which - will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there is a - period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with - Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam. The - initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while the - actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the - Church--_mulier amicta sole_ (Rev. xii. 1)--remaining hidden in the - wilderness 1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details - of the other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of - perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments, which, - according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. Far more - interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and social - importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second and third - ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second was - intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third was to - be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period of study - and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic knowledge. In the - age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience; in the age of - the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit was to be - devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the _plena - spiritus libertas_, the age of contemplation, the monastic age _par - excellence_, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy, - more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not conceal his - sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In his opinion--which - is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox--the church of Peter will be, - not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in - the third age before the order of the monks, the _viri spirituales_. - The entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will - be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. In various passages in - Joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and - the contemplative order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to - efface herself before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and - the Apostles on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and - explicitly, as transitory, as representing that passage from the - _significantia_ to the _significata_ which Joachim signalizes at every - stage of his demonstration. Joachim was not disturbed during his - lifetime. In 1200 he submitted all his writings to the judgment of the - Holy See, and unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran - council, which condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no - allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull of 1220 was a - formal certificate of his orthodoxy. - - The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and especially - after a division had been produced in the Franciscan order. The - rigorists, who soon became known as "Spirituals," represented St - Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age. Certain convents - became centres of Joachimism. Around the hermit of Hyeres, Hugh of - Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans who expected from the advent - of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. The Joachimites - even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected - John of Parma, one of their number, general of the order. Pope - Alexander IV., however, compelled John of Parma to renounce his - dignity, and the Joachimite opposition became more and more vehement. - Pseudo-Joachimite treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in - 1254, there appeared in Paris the _Liber introductorius ad Evangelium - aeternum_, the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San - Donnino. This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the - three principal works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made - some interpolations.[1] Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been - supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely that - the Calabrian abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and that with - the help of that _intelligentia mystica_ it would be possible to - extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning, the - gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be written; - as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order set - apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in this order - the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations provoked - very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The secular masters of - the university of Paris denounced the work to Pope Innocent IV., and - the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It was Innocent's successor, - Alexander IV., who appointed a commission to examine it; and as a - result of this commission, which sat at Anagni, the destruction of the - _Liber introductorius_ was ordered by a papal breve dated the 23rd of - October 1255. In 1260 a council held at Arles condemned Joachim's - writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region. - The Joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the Spirituals, and - acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the - Apocalypse. This book, probably published after the death of its - author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides - Joachimite principles, an affirmation even clearer than that of - Gherardo da Borgo of the elect character of the Franciscan order, as - well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite - literature is extremely vast. From the 14th century to the middle of - the 16th, Ubertin of Casale (in his _Arbor Vitae crucifixae_), - Bartholomew of Pisa (author of the _Liber Conformitatum_), the - Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of - Fermo, Johannes Annius of Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of - other writers, repeated or complicated _ad infinitum_ the exegesis of - Abbot Joachim. A treatise entitled _De ultima aetate ecclesiae_, which - appeared in 1356, has been attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly - from the pen of an anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox - movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of - the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, - were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as - Roger Bacon, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Delicieux often - comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace - promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has - placed him in Paradise (_Par._, xii. 140-141). - - See _Acta Sanctorum, Boll._ (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in _Abhandl. - der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3 - (Munich, 1874); idem, _Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter_, - vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, "Joachim de Flore et l'Evangile - eternel" in _Nouvelles etudes d'histoire religieuse_ (Paris, 1884); F. - Tocco, _L'Eresia nel medio evo_ (Florence, 1884); H. Denifle, "Das - Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni" in _Archiv fur - Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, vol. i.; Paul - Fournier, "Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence" in _Revue - des questions historiques_, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, _History of the - Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); F. - Ehrle's article "Joachim" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_. On - Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, "Recherches nouvelles sur l'histoire du - Joachimisme" in _Revue historique_, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, "Zur - Gesch. des Joachimismus" in _Briegers Zeitschrift fur Kirchengesch._, - vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three books - in their primitive form date from 1254. - - - - -JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Brandenburg, elder -son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 21st of -February 1484. He received an excellent education, became elector of -Brandenburg on his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards -married Elizabeth, daughter of John, king of Denmark. He took some part -in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the -early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his -electorate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring -some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the -administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a -friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial election of 1519, -Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Francis I., -king of France, and by those of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles -V. Having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties, -he appears to have hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the -election came he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In -spite of this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the -elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was -frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles. Joachim is best -known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic orthodoxy. He was one of the -princes who urged upon the emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict -of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the -Reformers. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was a -member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But his wife -adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony; and -he had the mortification of seeing these doctrines also favoured by -other members of his family. Joachim, who was a patron of learning, -established the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at -Stendal on the 11th of July 1535. - - See T. von Buttlar, _Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen den - Adel_ (1889); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen Politik - (1855-1886)._ - - - - -JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Brandenburg, the -elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 13th of -January 1505. Having passed some time at the court of the emperor -Maximilian I., he married in 1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. -In 1532 he led a contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against -the Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married -Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became elector of -Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and undertook the -government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his -brother John. Joachim took a prominent part in imperial politics as an -advocate of peace, though with a due regard for the interests of the -house of Habsburg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants -and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subsequently at -other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on an unsuccessful -campaign against the Turks. When the war broke out between Charles and -the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained -neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor. -With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of -Hesse, to surrender to Charles after the imperial victory at Muhlberg in -April 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. -But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by -this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack on Charles. He -supported the _Interim_, which was issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and -took part in the negotiations that resulted in the treaty of Passau -(1552), and the religious peace of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics -he sought to consolidate and strengthen the power of his house by -treaties with neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the -bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up as a -strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of wavering soon -after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free entrance to the reformed -teaching in the electorate. He took the communion himself in both kinds, -and established a new ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but -retained much of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was -not unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly explained -by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of -the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace of Augsburg the elector -mainly confined his attention to Brandenburg, where he showed a keener -desire to further the principles of the Reformation. By his luxurious -habits and his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a -great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates -of the land in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes -upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt, -both of which he secured for his son Frederick in 1551. When Frederick -died in the following year, the elector's son Sigismund obtained the two -sees; and on Sigismund's death in 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his -nephew, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, -who was a prince of generous and cultured tastes, died at Kopenick on -the 3rd of January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In -1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau. - - See Steinmuller, _Einfuhrung der Reformation in die Kurmark - Brandenburg durch Joachim II._ (1903); S. Isaacsohn, "Die Finanzen - Joachims II." in the _Zeitschrift fur Preussische Geschichte und - Landeskunde_ (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen - Politik_ (1855-1886). - - - - -JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and composer, was born at -Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June 1831, the son of Jewish -parents. His family moved to Budapest when he was two years old, and he -studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when -he was only eight years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder -Hellmesberger and Joseph Bohm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in -the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly -founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers, -pronounced that the regular training of a music school was not needed, -but recommended that he should receive a thorough general education in -music from Ferdinand David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited -England, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his -playing of Ernst's fantasia on _Otello_ made a great sensation; he also -played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert conducted by -Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited England, and after the -foundation of the popular concerts in 1859, up to 1899, he played there -regularly in the latter part of the season. On Liszt's invitation he -accepted the post of _Konzertmeister_ at Weimar, and was there from 1850 -to 1853. This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced -school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was strongly tempted -to give his allegiance to what was beginning to be called the "music of -the future"; but his artistic convictions forced him to separate himself -from the movement, and the tact and good taste he displayed in the -difficult moment of explaining his position to Liszt afford one of the -finest illustrations of his character. - -His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into a different -atmosphere, and his playing at the Dusseldorf festival of 1853 procured -him the intimate friendship of Robert Schumann. His introduction of the -young Brahms to Schumann is a famous incident of this time. Schumann and -Brahms collaborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin -and piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Dusseldorf. At Hanover he was -_koniglicher Konzertdirektor_ from 1853 to 1868, when he made Berlin his -home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano singer, Amalie Weiss, who -died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was appointed head of the newly founded -_konigliche Hochschule fur Musik_ in Berlin. The famous "Joachim -quartet" was started in the _Sing-Akademie_ in the following year. Of -his later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is -little to say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the -rise of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged -master of all. He died on the 15th of August 1907. - -Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make him famous in -his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of interpreting the -greatest music in absolute perfection: while Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and -Brahms were masters, whose works he played with a degree of insight that -has never been approached, he was no less supreme in the music of -Mendelssohn and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory -has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's artistic -career would be complete which omitted mention of his absolute freedom -from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing, and his unselfish -character. His devotion to the highest ideals, combined with a certain -austerity and massivity of style, brought against him an accusation of -coldness from admirers of a more effusive temperament. But the answer to -this is given by the depth and variety of expression which his mastery -of the resources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer -(1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in the -words, "He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the service of -an ideal." - -As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the works -of his earlier life never attained the public success which, in the -opinion of many, they deserve (see MUSIC). They undoubtedly have a -certain austerity of character which does not appeal to every hearer, -but they are full of beauty of a grave and dignified kind; and in such -things as his "Hungarian concerto" for his own instrument the utmost -degree of difficulty is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. -The "romance" in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and -orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in memory -of Kleist, as well as the scena for mezzo soprano from Schiller's -_Demetrius_, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestration as well -as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical history as a -composer can only be properly appreciated in the light of his intimate -relations with Brahms, with whom he studiously refrained from putting -himself into independent rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he -gave the co-operation of one who might himself have ranked as a master. - - There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866) and by - J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the 16th of May - 1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his first - appearance in England. - - - - -JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between Leo IV. -(847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account has it that she was -born in England, another in Germany of English parents. After an -education at Cologne, she fell in love with a Benedictine monk and fled -with him to Athens disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome -under the alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the -priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. She was elected pope -under the title of John VIII., and died in childbirth during a papal -procession. - - A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the legend in - his _Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit_. He is believed to have derived - it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors between the - 13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. Its explosion - was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a French Calvinist, - in his _Eclaircissement de la question si une femme a ete assise au - siege papal de Rome_ (1647); and _De Joanna Papissa_ (1657). The - refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his _Papstfabeln des - Mittelalters_ (1863; Eng. trans. 1872). - - - - -JOAN OF ARC, more properly JEANNETON DARC, afterwards known in France as -JEANNE D'ARC[1] (1411-1431), the "Maid of Orleans," was born between -1410 and 1412, the daughter of Jacques Darc, peasant proprietor, of -Domremy, a small village in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly -in Lorraine, and of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who -from having made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of -Romee. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan never -learned to read or write, and received her sole religious instruction -from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, -and Credo. She sometimes guarded her father's flocks, but at her trial -in 1431 she strongly resented being referred to as a shepherd girl. In -all household work she was specially proficient, her skill in the use of -the needle not being excelled (she said) by that of any matron even of -Rouen. In her childhood she was noted for her abounding physical energy; -but her vivacity, so far from being tainted by any coarse or unfeminine -trait, was the direct outcome of an abnormally sensitive nervous -temperament. Towards her parents her conduct was uniformly exemplary, -and the charm of her unselfish kindness made her a favourite in the -village. As she grew to womanhood she became inclined to silence, and -spent much of her time in solitude and prayer. She repelled all attempts -of the young men of her acquaintance to win her favour; and while active -in the performance of her duties, and apparently finding her life quite -congenial, inwardly she was engrossed with thoughts reaching far beyond -the circle of her daily concerns. - -At this time, through the alliance and support of Philip of Burgundy, -the English had extended their conquest over the whole of France north -of the Loire in addition to their possession of Guienne; and while the -infant Henry VI. of England had in 1422 been proclaimed king of France -at his father's grave at St Denis, Charles the dauphin (still uncrowned) -was forced to watch the slow dismemberment of his kingdom. Isabella, the -dauphin's mother, had favoured Henry V. of England, the husband of her -daughter Catherine; and under Charles VI. a visionary named Marie -d'Avignon declared that France was being ruined by a woman and would be -restored by an armed virgin from the marches of Lorraine. To what extent -this idea worked in Joan's mind is doubtful. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's -tract, _De prophetiis Merlini_, there is a reference to an ancient -prophecy of the enchanter Merlin concerning a virgin _ex nemore canuto_, -and it appears that this _nemus canutum_ had been identified in -folk-lore with the oak wood of Domremy. Joan's knowledge of the prophecy -does not, however, appear till 1429; and already before that, from 1424, -according to her account at her trial, she had become imbued with a -sense of having a mission to free France from the English. She heard the -voices of St Michael, St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. In May -1428 she tried to obtain from Robert de Baudricourt, governor of -Vaucouleurs, an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would send -him aid, but she was rebuffed. When, however, in September the English -(under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key to the south of -France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt, her mission being to -relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at Reims. By persistent -importunity, the effect of which was increased by the simplicity of her -demeanour and her calm assurance of success, she at last prevailed on -the governor to grant her request; and in February 1429, accompanied by -six men-at-arms, she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the -dauphin at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular -feeling in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three -days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded him of the -divine character of her commission by discovering him though disguised -in the crowd of his courtiers, and by reassuring him regarding his -secret doubts as to his legitimacy. And Charles was impressed by her -knowledge of a secret prayer, which (he told Dunois) could only be known -to God and himself. Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had -reported that they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the -Catholic faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity, -she was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men designed -for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she rode clothed in a -coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said to be that with which -Charles Martel had vanquished the Saracens, the hiding-place of which, -under the altar of the parish church of the village of Ste Catherine de -Fierbois, the "voices" had revealed to her; she carried a white standard -of her own design embroidered with lilies, and having on the one side -the image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His hand, -and on the other a representation of the Annunciation. Joan succeeded in -entering Orleans on the 29th of April 1429, and through the vigorous and -unremitting sallies of the French the English gradually became so -discouraged that on the 8th of May they raised the siege. It is admitted -that her extraordinary pluck and sense of leadership were responsible -for this result. In a single week (June 12 to 19), by the capture of -Jargeau and Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where -Talbot was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire. -With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out towards -Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men on the 16th of July, -Troyes having yielded on the way. On the following day, holding the -sacred banner, Joan stood beside Charles at his coronation in the -cathedral. - -The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detaching -Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity, remained with -the army, but the king played her false when she attempted the capture -of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of September, when Joan was -wounded,[2] his troops were disbanded. Joan went into Normandy to assist -the duke of Alencon, but in December returned to the court, and on the -29th she and her family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. -Unconsoled by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to -assist in the defence of Compiegne against the duke of Burgundy; and on -the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the besiegers, -when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles, partly perhaps on -account of his natural indolence, partly on account of the intrigues at -the court, made no effort to effect her ransom, and never showed any -sign of interest in her fate. By means of negotiations instigated and -prosecuted with great perseverance by the university of Paris and the -Inquisition, and through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the -bishop of Beauvais--a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own see, -hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen--she was sold in November by -John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the English, who on the 3rd of January -1431, at the instance of the university of Paris, delivered her over to -the Inquisition for trial. After a public examination, begun on the 9th -of January and lasting six days, and another conducted in the prison, -she was, on the 20th of March, publicly accused as a heretic and witch, -and, being in the end found guilty, she made her submission at the -scaffold on the 24th of May, and received pardon. She was still, -however, the prisoner of the English, and, having been induced by those -who had her in charge to resume her male clothes, she was on this -account judged to have relapsed, was sentenced to death, and burned at -the stake on the streets of Rouen on the 30th of May 1431. In 1436 an -impostor appeared, professing to be Joan of Arc escaped from the flames, -who succeeded in inducing many people to believe in her statement, but -afterwards confessed her imposture. The sentence passed on Joan of Arc -was revoked by the pope on the 7th of July 1456, and since then it has -been the custom of Catholic writers to uphold the reality of her divine -inspiration. - -During the latter part of the 19th century a popular cult of the Maid of -Orleans sprang up in France, being greatly stimulated by the clerical -party, which desired to advertise, in the person of this national -heroine, the intimate union between patriotism and the Catholic faith, -and for this purpose ardently desired her enrolment among the Saints. On -the 27th of January 1894 solemn approval was given by Pope Leo XIII., -and in February 1903 a formal proposal was entered for her canonization. -The Feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 6), 1904 was made the occasion for a -public declaration by Pope Pius X. that she was entitled to the -designation Venerable. On the 13th of December 1908 the decree of -beatification was published in the Consistory Hall of the Vatican. - -As an historical figure, it is impossible to dogmatize concerning the -personality of Joan of Arc. The modern clerical view has to some extent -provoked what appears, in Anatole France's learned account, ably -presented as it is, to be a retaliation, in regarding her as a clerical -tool in her own day. But her character was in any case exceptional. She -undoubtedly nerved the French at a critical time, and inspired an army -of laggards and pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with -that of Cromwell's Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military -qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d'Alencon; and Captain -Marin, in his _Jeanne d'Arc, tacticien et strategiste_ (1891), takes a -high view of her achievements. The nobility of her purpose and the -genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined with her purity of -character and simple patriotism, stand clear. As to her "supranormal" -faculties, a matter concerning which belief largely depends on the point -of view, it is to be remarked that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly -devoid of clerical influences, admits them (_Apercus nouveaux_, 1850), -saying that the evidence is as good as for any facts in her history. See -also A. Lang on "the voices" in _Proc. Soc. Psychical Research_, vol. -xi. - - AUTHORITIES.--For bibliography see _Le Livre d'or de Jeanne d'Arc_ - (1894), and A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (1904). - Until the 19th century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely - neglected; Voltaire's scurrilous satire _La Pucelle_, while indicative - of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair - praises in the _Encyclopedie_. The first attempt at a study of the - sources was that of L'Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume of - _Memoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the base - for all lives until J. Quicherat's great work, _Le Proces de Jeanne - d'Arc_ (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid - that they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great - distinctness. Michelet's sketch of her work in his _Histoire de - France_, one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid - than these sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that - of H. A. Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, _L'Histoire de - Jeanne d'Arc d'apres des documents originaux_, with introduction by M. - Sepet (1907); P. H. Dunand, _Jeanne d'Arc et l'eglise_ (1908); and - especially Andrew Lang, _The Maid of France_ (1908). The _Vie de - Jeanne d'Arc_, by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and - erudite, but in some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and - prejudice in its handling of the sources (see the criticism by Andrew - Lang in _The Times_, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1908). The attempt to - establish the reality of the "revelations" and consequently to obtain - the canonization of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to - publish lives (such as Sepet's, 1869) in support of their claims. - Excellent works worth special mention are: Simeon Luce, _Jeanne d'Arc - a Domremy_; L. Jarry, _L'Armee anglaise au siege d'Orleans_ (1892); - J. J. Bourasse, _Miracles de Madame Sainte Katherine de Fierbois_ - (1858, trans. by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beaucorps, - _L'Armee anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d'Arc_ (1892); R. P. Agroles, - S.J., _La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc_. For the "false Pucelle" see A. Lang's - article in his _Valet's Tragedy_ (1903). Of the numerous dramas and - poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject, mention can only be - made of _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_ of Schiller, and of the _Joan of - Arc_ of Southey. A drama in verse by Jules Barbier was set to music by - C. Gounod (1873). (J. T. S.*; H. Ch.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In the act of ennoblement the name is spelt Day, due probably to - the peculiar pronunciation. It has been disputed whether the name was - written originally d'Arc or Darc. It is beyond doubt that the father - of Joan was not of noble origin, but Bouteiller suggests that at that - period the apostrophe did not indicate nobility. Her mother, it may - be noted, is called "de Vouthon." - - [2] The Porte St Honore where Joan was wounded stood where the - Comedie Francaise now stands. - - - - -JOANES (or JUANES), VICENTE (1506-1579), head of the Valencian school of -painters, and often called "the Spanish Raphael," was born at Fuente de -la Higuera in the province of Valencia in 1506. He is said to have -studied his art for some time in Rome, with which school his affinities -are closest, but the greater part of his professional life was spent in -the city of Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are -now to be found. All relate to religious subjects, and are characterized -by dignity of conception, accuracy of drawing, truth and beauty of -colour, and minuteness of finish. He died at Bocairente (near Jativa) -while engaged upon an altarpiece in the church there, on the 21st of -December 1579. - - - - -JOANNA (1479-1555), called the Mad (_la Loca_), queen of Castile and -mother of the emperor Charles V., was the second daughter of Ferdinand -and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, and was born at Toledo on the 6th -of November 1479. Her youngest sister was Catherine of Aragon, the first -wife of Henry VIII. In 1496 at Lille she was married to the archduke -Philip the Handsome, son of the German King Maximilian I., and at Ghent, -in February 1500, she gave birth to the future emperor. The death of her -only brother John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of Portugal, and -then of the latter's infant son Miguel, made Joanna heiress of the -Spanish kingdoms, and in 1502 the cortes of Castile and of Aragon -recognized her and her husband as their future sovereigns. Soon after -this Joanna's reason began to give way. She mourned in an extravagant -fashion for her absent husband, whom at length she joined in Flanders; -in this country her passionate jealousy, although justified by Philip's -conduct, led to deplorable scenes. In November 1504 her mother's death -left Joanna queen of Castile, but as she was obviously incapable of -ruling, the duties of government were undertaken by her father, and then -for a short time by her husband. The queen was with Philip when he was -wrecked on the English coast and became the guest of Henry VII. at -Windsor; soon after this event, in September 1506, he died and Joanna's -mind became completely deranged, it being almost impossible to get her -away from the dead body of her husband. The remaining years of her -miserable existence were spent at Tordesillas, where she died on the -11th of April 1555. In spite of her afflictions the queen was sought in -marriage by Henry VII. just before his death. Nominally Joanna remained -queen of Castile until her death, her name being joined with that of -Charles in all public documents, but of necessity she took no part in -the business of state. In addition to Charles she had a son Ferdinand, -afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., and four daughters, among them -being Maria (1505-1558), wife of Louis II., king of Hungary, afterwards -governor-general of the Netherlands. - - See R. Villa, _La Reina dona Juana la Loca_ (Madrid, 1892); Rosler, - _Johanna die Wahnsinnige_ (Vienna, 1890); W. H. Prescott, _Hist. of - Ferdinand and Isabella_ (1854); and H. Tighe, _A Queen of Unrest_ - (1907). - - - - -JOANNA I. (c. 1327-1382), queen of Naples, was the daughter of Charles -duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of Naples in succession -to her grandfather King Robert in 1343. Her first husband was Andrew, -son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, who like the queen herself was a -member of the house of Anjou. In 1345 Andrew was assassinated at Aversa, -possibly with his wife's connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis, -son of Philip prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then came to -Naples to avenge his brother's death, and the queen took refuge in -Provence--which came under her rule at the same time as -Naples--purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling to him the -town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having returned to Naples -in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna lost her second husband in -1362, and married James, king of Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of -Brunswick, prince of Taranto. The queen had no sons, and as both her -daughters were dead she made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles -V. of France, her heir. This proceeding so angered Charles, duke of -Durazzo, who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, that he -seized the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at Aversa on -the 22nd of May 1382. The queen was a woman of intellectual tastes, and -was acquainted with some of the poets and scholars of her time, -including Petrarch and Boccaccio. - - See Crivelli, _Della prima e della seconda Giovanna, regine di Napoli_ - (1832); G. Battaglia, _Giovanna I., regina di Napoli_ (1835); W. St C. - Baddeley, _Queen Joanna I. of Naples_ (1893); Scarpetta, _Giovanna I. - di Napoli_ (1903); and Francesca M. Steele, _The Beautiful Queen - Joanna I. of Naples_ (1910). - - - - -JOANNA II. (1371-1435), queen of Naples, was descended from Charles II. -of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had been married to -William, son of Leopold III. of Austria, and at the death of her brother -King Ladislaus in 1414 she succeeded to the Neapolitan crown. Her life -had always been very dissolute, and although now a widow of forty-five, -she chose as her lover Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she -made seneschal of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo -Sforza completely dominated her, and the turbulent barons wished to -provide her with a husband who would be strong enough to break her -favourites yet not make himself king. The choice fell on James of -Bourbon, a relative of the king of France, and the marriage took place -in 1415. But James at once declared himself king, had Alopo killed and -Sforza imprisoned, and kept his wife in a state of semi-confinement; -this led to a counter-agitation on the part of the barons, who forced -James to liberate Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit -the country. The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in -Rome, whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of -Ladislaus; Sforza entered the city and obliged the _condottiere_ Braccio -da Montone, who was defending it in the pope's name, to depart (1416). -But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as Martin V., he allied himself -with Joanna, who promised to give up Rome, while Sforza returned to -Naples. The latter found, however, that he had lost all influence with -the queen, who was completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni -(Sergianni) Caracciolo. Hoping to re-establish his position and crush -Caracciolo, Sforza favoured the pretensions of Louis III. of Anjou, who -wished to obtain the succession of Naples at Joanna's death, a course -which met with the approval of the pope. Joanna refused to adopt Louis -owing to the influence of Caracciolo, who hated Sforza; she appealed for -help instead to Alphonso of Aragon, promising to make him her heir. War -broke out between Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and -Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fighting by land -and sea, Alphonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace was made. But -dissensions broke out between the Aragonese and Catalans and the -Neapolitans, and Alphonso had Caracciolo arrested; whereupon Joanna, -fearing for her own safety, invoked the aid of Sforza, who with -difficulty carried her off to Aversa. There she was joined by Louis whom -she adopted as her successor instead of the ungrateful Alphonso. Sforza -was accidentally drowned, but when Alphonso returned to Spain, leaving -only a small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese -fleet recaptured the city. For a few years there was peace in the -kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the queen, was -seized and murdered by his enemies. Internal disorders broke out, and -Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto, led a revolt against Joanna in -Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while conducting a campaign against the -rebels (1434), and Joanna herself died on the 11th of February 1435, -after having appointed his son Rene her successor. Weak, foolish and -dissolute, she made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the -kingdom to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues and -her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy and foreign -invasions, destroying all sense of patriotism and loyalty both in the -barons and the people. - - AUTHORITIES.--A. von Platen, _Storia del reame di Napoli dal 1414 al - 1423_ (1864). C. Cipolla, _Storia, della signoria Italiana_ (1881), - where the original authorities are quoted. (See also NAPLES; SFORZA.) - - - - -JOASH, or JEHOASH (Heb. "Yahweh is strong, _or_ hath given"), the name -of two kings of Palestine in the Bible. - -1. Son of Ahaziah (see JEHORAM, 2) and king of Judah. He obtained the -throne by means of a revolt in which Athaliah (q.v.) perished, and his -accession was marked by a solemn covenant, and by the overthrow of the -temple of Baal and of its priest Mattan(-Baal). In this the priest -Jehoiada (who must have continued to act as regent) took the leading -part. The account of Joash's reign is not from a contemporary source (2 -Kings xi. 4-xii. 16), and 2 Chronicles adds several new details, -including a tradition of a conflict between the king and priests after -the death of Jehoiada (xxii. 11; xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.).[1] At an unstated -period, the Aramaeans under Hazael captured Gath, and Jerusalem only -escaped by buying off the enemy (2 Kings xii. 17 sqq.). This may perhaps -be associated with the Aramaean attacks upon Israel (2 below), but the -tradition recorded in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 seq. differs widely and cannot -be wholly rejected. The king perished in a conspiracy, the origin of -which is not clear; it may have been for his attack upon the priests, it -was scarcely for the course he took to save Jerusalem. He was succeeded -by his son Amaziah, whose moderation in avenging his father's death -receives special mention. After defeating the Edomites, Amaziah turned -his attention to Israel. - -2. Son of Jehoahaz and king of Israel. Like his grandfather Jehu, he -enjoyed the favour of the prophet Elisha, who promised him a triple -defeat of the Aramaeans at Aphek (2 Kings xiii. 14 sqq. 22-25). The -cities which had been taken from his father by Hazael the father of -Ben-hadad were recovered (cf. 1 Kings xx. 34, time of Ahab) and the -relief gained by Israel from the previous blows of Syria prepared the -way for its speedy extension of power. When challenged by Amaziah of -Judah, Joash uttered the famous fable of the thistle and cedar (for -another example see Judg. ix. 8-15; see also ABIMELECH), and a battle -was fought at Beth-shemesh, in which Israel was completely successful. -An obscure statement in 2 Chron. xxv. 13 would show that this was not -the only conflict; at all events, Amaziah was captured, the -fortifications of Jerusalem were partially destroyed, the treasures of -the Temple and palace were looted, and hostages were carried away to -Samaria. According to one statement, Amaziah survived the disaster -fifteen years, and lost his life in a conspiracy; but there is a gap in -the history of Judah which the narratives do not enable us to fill (1 -Kings xv. 1; see xiv. 17, 23). See further UZZIAH; JEROBOAM (2); and -JEWS. (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] That the murder of Zechariah the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron. - _l.c._) is referred to in Matt. xxiii. 35, Luke xi. 51 is commonly - held; but see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 5373. - - - - -JOB. The book of Job (Heb. [Hebrew: Iyyob] _'Iyyob_, Gr. [Greek: Iob]), -in the Bible, the most splendid creation of Hebrew poetry, is so called -from the name of the man whose history and afflictions and sayings form -the theme of it. - - _Contents._--As it now lies before us it consists of five parts. 1. - The prologue, in prose, chr. i.-ii., describes in rapid and dramatic - steps the history of this man, his prosperity and greatness - corresponding to his godliness; then how his life is drawn in under - the operation of the sifting providence of God, through the suspicion - suggested by the Satan, the minister of this aspect of God's - providence, that his godliness is selfish and only the natural return - for unexampled prosperity, and the insinuation that if stripped of his - prosperity he will curse God to His face. These suspicions bring down - two severe calamities on Job, one depriving him of children and - possessions alike, and the other throwing the man himself under a - painful malady. In spite of these afflictions Job retains his - integrity and ascribes no wrong to God. Then is described the advent - of Job's three friends--Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and - Zophar the Naamathite--who, having heard of Job's calamities, come to - condole with him. 2. The body of the book, in poetry, ch. iii.-xxxi., - contains a series of speeches in which the problem of Job's - afflictions and the relation of external evil to the righteousness of - God and the conduct of men are brilliantly discussed. This part, after - Job's passionate outburst in ch. iii., is divided into three cycles, - each containing six speeches, one by each of the friends, and three by - Job, one in reply to each of theirs (ch. iv.-xiv.; xv.-xxi.; - xxii.-xxxi.), although in the last cycle the third speaker Zophar - fails to answer (unless his answer is to be found in ch. xxvii.). Job, - having driven his opponents from the field, carries his reply through - a series of discourses in which he dwells in pathetic words upon his - early prosperity, contrasting with it his present humiliation, and - ends with a solemn repudiation of all the offences that might be - suggested against him, and a challenge to God to appear and put His - hand to the charge which He had against him and for which He afflicted - him. 3. Elihu, the representative of a younger generation, who has - been a silent observer of the debate, intervenes to express his - dissatisfaction with the manner in which both Job and his friends - conducted the cause, and offers what is in some respects a new - solution of the question (xxxii.-xxxvii.). 4. In answer to Job's - repeated demands that God would appear and solve the riddle of his - life, the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind. The divine speaker - does not condescend to refer to Job's individual problem, but in a - series of ironical interrogations asks him, as he thinks himself - capable of fathoming all things, to expound the mysteries of the - origin and subsistence of the world, the phenomena of the atmosphere, - the instincts of the creatures that inhabit the desert, and, as he - judges God's conduct of the world amiss, invites him to seize the - reins, gird himself with the thunder and quell the rebellious forces - of evil in the universe (xxxviii.-xlii. 6). Job is humbled and - abashed, lays his hand upon his mouth, and repents his hasty words in - dust and ashes. No solution of his problem is vouchsafed; but God - Himself effects that which neither the man's own thoughts of God nor - the representations of the friends could accomplish: he had heard of - him with the hearing of the ear without effect, but now his eye sees - Him. This is the profoundest religious deep in the book. 5. The - epilogue, in prose, xlii. 7-17, describes Job's restoration to a - prosperity double that of his former estate, his family felicity and - long life. - -_Design._--With the exception of the episode of Elihu, the connexion of -which with the original form of the poem may be doubtful, all five parts -of the book are essential elements of the work as it came from the hand -of the first author, although some parts of the second and fourth -divisions may have been expanded by later writers. The idea of the -composition is to be derived not from any single element of the book, -but from the teaching and movement of the whole piece. Job is -unquestionably the hero of the work, and in his ideas and his history -combined we may assume that we find the author himself speaking and -teaching. The discussion between Job and his friends of the problem of -suffering occupies two-thirds of the book, or, if the space occupied by -Elihu be not considered, nearly three-fourths, and in the direction -which the author causes this discussion to take we may see revealed the -main didactic purpose of the book. When the three friends, the -representatives of former theories of providence, are reduced to -silence, we may be certain that it was the author's purpose to discredit -the ideas which they represent. Job himself offers no positive -contribution to the doctrine of evil; his position is negative, merely -antagonistic to that of the friends. But this negative position -victoriously maintained by him has the effect of clearing the ground, -and the author himself supplies in the prologue the positive truth, when -he communicates the real explanation of his hero's calamities, and -teaches that they were a trial of his righteousness. It was therefore -the author's main purpose in his work to widen men's views of the -providence of God and set before them a new view of suffering. This -purpose, however, was in all probability subordinate to some wider -practical design. No Hebrew writer is merely a poet or a thinker. He is -always a teacher. He has men before him in their relations to God,[1] -and usually not men in their individual relations, but members of the -family of Israel, the people of God. It is consequently scarcely to be -doubted that the book has a national scope. The author considered his -new truth regarding the meaning of affliction as of national interest, -and as the truth then needful for the heart of his people. But the -teaching of the book is only half its contents. It contains also a -history--deep and inexplicable affliction, a great moral struggle, and a -victory. The author meant his new truth to inspire new conduct, new -faith, and new hopes. In Job's sufferings, undeserved and inexplicable -to him, yet capable of an explanation most consistent with the goodness -and faithfulness of God, and casting honour upon his faithful servants; -in his despair bordering on unbelief, at last overcome; and in the happy -issue of his afflictions--in all this Israel may see itself, and from -the sight take courage, and forecast its own history. Job, however, is -not to be considered Israel, the righteous servant of the Lord, under a -feigned name; he is no mere parable (though such a view is found as -early as the Talmud); he and his history have both elements of reality -in them. It is these elements of reality common to him with Israel in -affliction, common even to him with humanity as a whole, confined within -the straitened limits set by its own ignorance, wounded to death by the -mysterious sorrows of life, tortured by the uncertainty whether its cry -finds an entrance into God's ear, alarmed and paralysed by the -irreconcilable discrepancies which it seems to discover between its -necessary thoughts of Him and its experience of Him in His providence, -and faint with longing that it might come into His place, and behold -him, not girt with His majesty, but in human form, as one looketh upon -his fellow--it is these elements of truth that make the history of Job -instructive to Israel in the times of affliction when it was set before -them, and to men of all races in all ages. It would probably be a -mistake, however, to imagine that the author consciously stepped outside -the limits of his nation and assumed a human position antagonistic to -it. The chords he touches vibrate through all humanity--but this is -because Israel is the religious kernel of humanity, and because from -Israel's heart the deepest religious music of mankind is heard, whether -of pathos or of joy. - - Two threads requiring to be followed, therefore, run through the - book--one the discussion of the problem of evil between Job and his - friends, and the other the varying attitude of Job's mind towards God, - the first being subordinate to the second. Both Job and his friends - advance to the discussion of his sufferings and of the problem of - evil, ignorant of the true cause of his calamities--Job strong in his - sense of innocence, and the friends armed with their theory of the - righteousness of God, who giveth to every man according to his works. - With fine psychological instinct the poet lets Job altogether lose his - self-control first when his three friends came to visit him. His - bereavements and his malady he bore with a steady courage, and his - wife's direct instigations to godlessness he repelled with severity - and resignation. But when his equals and the old associates of his - happiness came to see him, and when he read in their looks and in - their seven days' silence the depth of his own misery, his - self-command deserted him, and he broke out into a cry of despair, - cursing his day and crying for death (iii.). Job had somewhat - misinterpreted the demeanour of his friends. It was not all pity that - it expressed. Along with their pity they had also brought their - theology, and they trusted to heal Job's malady with this. Till a few - days before, Job would have agreed with them on the sovereign virtues - of this remedy. But he had learned through a higher teaching, the - events of God's providence, that it was no longer a specific in his - case. His violent impatience, however, under his afflictions and his - covert attacks upon the divine rectitude only served to confirm the - view of his sufferings which their theory of evil had already - suggested to his friends. And thus commences the high debate which - continues through twenty-nine chapters. - - The three friends of Job came to the consideration of his history with - the principle that calamity is the result of evil-doing, as prosperity - is the reward of righteousness. Suffering is not an accident or a - spontaneous growth of the soil; man is born unto trouble as the sparks - fly upwards; there is in human life a tendency to do evil which draws - down upon men the chastisement of God (v. 6). The principle is thus - enunciated by Eliphaz, from whom the other speakers take their cue: - where there is suffering there has been sin in the sufferer. Not - suffering in itself, but the effect of it on the sufferer is what - gives insight into his true character. Suffering is not always - punitive; it is sometimes disciplinary, designed to wean the good man - from his sin. If he sees in his suffering the monition of God and - turns from his evil, his future shall be rich in peace and happiness, - and his latter estate more prosperous than his first. If he murmurs or - resists, he can only perish under the multiplying chastisements which - his impenitence will provoke. Now this principle is far from being a - peculiar crotchet of the friends; its truth is undeniable, though they - erred in supposing that it would cover the wide providence of God. The - principle is the fundamental idea of moral government, the expression - of the natural conscience, a principle common more or less to all - peoples, though perhaps more prominent in the Semitic mind, because - all religious ideas are more prominent and simple there--not suggested - to Israel first by the law, but found and adopted by the law, though - it may be sharpened by it. It is the fundamental principle of prophecy - no less than of the law, and, if possible, of the wisdom of philosophy - of the Hebrews more than of either. Speculation among the Hebrews had - a simpler task before it than it had in the West or in the farther - East. The Greek philosopher began his operations upon the sum of - things; he threw the universe into his crucible at once. His object - was to effect some analysis of it, so that he could call one element - cause and another effect. Or, to vary the figure, his endeavour was to - pursue the streams of tendency which he could observe till he reached - at last the central spring which sent them all forth. God, a single - cause and explanation, was the object of his search. But to the Hebrew - of the later time this was already found. The analysis resulting in - the distinction of God and the world had been effected for him so long - ago that the history and circumstances of the process had been - forgotten, and only the unchallengeable result remained. His - philosophy was not a quest of God whom he did not know, but a - recognition on all hands of God whom he knew. The great primary idea - to his mind was that of God, a Being wholly just, doing all. And the - world was little more than the phenomena that revealed the mind and - the presence and the operations of God. Consequently the nature of God - as known to him and the course of events formed a perfect equation. - The idea of what God was in Himself was in complete harmony with His - manifestation of Himself in providence, in the events of individual - human lives, and in the history of nations. The philosophy of the wise - did not go behind the origin of sin, or referred it to the freedom of - man; but, sin existing, and God being in immediate personal contact - with the world, every event was a direct expression of His moral will - and energy; calamity fell on wickedness, and success attended - right-doing. This view of the moral harmony between the nature of God - and the events of providence in the fortunes of men and nations is the - view of the Hebrew wisdom in its oldest form, during what might be - called the period of principles, to which belong Prov. x. seq.; and - this is the position maintained by Job's three friends. And the - significance of the book of Job in the history of Hebrew thought - arises in that it marks the point when such a view was definitely - overcome, closing the long period when this principle was merely - subjected to questionings, and makes a new positive addition to the - doctrine of evil. - - Job agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God, and - also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins. But his - conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinuated by his - friends or implied in God's chastisement of him. Hence he was driven - to conclude that God was unjust. The position of Job appeared to his - friends nothing else but impiety; while theirs was to him mere - falsehood and the special pleading of sycophants on behalf of God - because He was the stronger. Within these two iron walls the debate - moves, making little progress, but with much brilliancy, if not of - argument, of illustration. A certain advance indeed is perceptible. In - the first series of speeches (iv.-xiv.), the key-note of which is - struck by Eliphaz, the oldest and most considerate of the three, the - position is that affliction is caused by sin, and is chastisement - designed for the sinner's good; and the moral is that Job should - recognize it and use it for the purpose for which it was sent. In the - second (xv.-xxi.) the terrible fate of the sinner is emphasized, and - those brilliant pictures of a restored future, thrown in by all the - speakers in the first series, are absent. Job's demeanour under the - consolations offered him afforded little hope of his repentance. In - the third series (xxii. seq.) the friends cast off all disguise, and - openly charge Job with a course of evil life. That their armoury was - now exhausted is shown by the brevity of the second speaker, and the - failure of the third (at least in the present text) to answer in any - form. In reply Job disdains for a time to touch what he well knew lay - under all their exhortations; he laments with touching pathos the - defection of his friends, who were like the winter torrents looked for - in vain by the perishing caravan in the summer heat; he meets with - bitter scorn their constant cry that God will not cast off the - righteous man, by asking: How can one be righteous with God? what can - human weakness, however innocent, do against infinite might and - subtlety? they are righteous whom an omnipotent and perverse will - thinks fit to consider so; he falls into a hopeless wail over the - universal misery of man, who has a weary campaign of life appointed - him; then, rising up in the strength of his conscience, he upbraids - the Almighty with His misuse of His power and His indiscriminate - tyranny--righteous and innocent He destroys alike--and challenges Him - to lay aside His majesty and meet His creature as a man, and then he - would not fear Him. Even in the second series Job can hardly bring - himself to face the personal issue raised by the friends. His - relations to God absorb him almost wholly--his pitiable isolation, the - indignities showered on his once honoured head, the loathsome - spectacle of his body; abandoned by all, he turns for pity from God to - men and from men to God. Only in the third series of debates does he - put out his hand and grasp firmly the theory of his friends, and their - "defences of mud" fall to dust in his hands. Instead of that roseate - moral order on which they are never weary of insisting, he finds only - disorder and moral confusion. When he thinks of it, trembling takes - hold of him. It is not the righteous but the wicked that live, grow - old, yea, wax mighty in strength, that send forth their children like - a flock and establish them in their sight. Before the logic of facts - the theory of the friends goes down; and with this negative result, - which the author skilfully reaches through the debate, has to be - combined his own positive doctrine of the uses of adversity advanced - in the prologue. - - To a modern reader it appears strange that both parties were so - entangled in the meshes of their preconceptions regarding God as to be - unable to break through the broader views. The friends, while - maintaining that injustice on the part of God is inconceivable, might - have given due weight to the persistent testimony of Job's conscience - as that behind which it is impossible to go, and found refuge in the - reflection that there might be something inexplicable in the ways of - God, and that affliction might have some other meaning than to punish - the sinner or even to wean him from his sin. And Job, while - maintaining his innocence from overt sins, might have confessed that - there was such sinfulness in every human life as was sufficient to - account for the severest chastisement from heaven, or at least he - might have stopped short of charging God foolishly. Such a position - would certainly be taken up by an afflicted saint now, and such an - explanation of his sufferings would suggest itself to the sufferer, - even though it might be in truth a false explanation. Perhaps here, - where an artistic fault might seem to be committed, the art of the - writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary freedom with - which he moves among his materials, as well as the power and - individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remarkable. The role - which the author reserved for himself was to teach the truth on the - question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by allowing his - performers to push their false principles to their proper extreme. - There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as the character - of God. They are ever ready to take Him in their own hand, to - interpret His providence in their own sense, to say what things are - consistent or not with His character and word, and beat down the - opposing consciences of other men by His so-called authority, which is - nothing but their own. The friends of Job were religious Orientals, - men to whom God was a being in immediate contact with the world and - life, to whom the idea of second causes was unknown, on whom science - had not yet begun to dawn, nor the conception of a divine scheme - pursuing a distant end by complicated means, in which the individual's - interest may suffer for the larger good. The broad sympathies of the - author and his sense of the truth lying in the theory of the friends - are seen in the scope which he allows them, in the richness of the - thought and the splendid luxuriance of the imagery--drawn from the - immemorial moral consent of mankind, the testimony of the living - conscience, and the observation of life--with which he makes them - clothe their views. He remembered the elements of truth in the theory - from which he was departing, that it was a national heritage, which he - himself perhaps had been constrained not without a struggle to - abandon; and, while showing its insufficiency, he sets it forth in its - most brilliant form. - - The extravagance of Job's assertions was occasioned greatly by the - extreme position of his friends, which left no room for his conscious - innocence along with the rectitude of God. Again, the poet's purpose, - as the prologue shows, was to teach that afflictions may fall on a man - out of all connexion with any offence of his own, and merely as the - trial of his righteousness; and hence he allows Job, as by a true - instinct of the nature of his sufferings, to repudiate all connexion - between them and sin in himself. And further, the terrible conflict - into which the suspicions of the Satan brought Job could not be - exhibited without pushing him to the verge of ungodliness. These are - all elements of the poet's art; but art and nature are one. In ancient - Hebrew life the sense of sin was less deep than it is now. In the - desert, too, men speak boldly of God. Nothing is more false than to - judge the poet's creation from our later point of view, and construct - a theory of the book according to a more developed sense of sin and a - deeper reverence for God than belonged to antiquity. In complete - contradiction to the testimony of the book itself, some critics, as - Hengstenberg and Budde, have assumed that Job's spiritual pride was - the cause of his afflictions, that this was the root of bitterness in - him which must be killed down ere he could become a true saint. The - fundamental position of the book is that Job was already a true saint; - this is testified by God Himself, is the radical idea of the author in - the prologue, and the very hypothesis of the drama. We might be ready - to think that Job's afflictions did not befall him out of all - connexion with his own condition of mind, and we might be disposed to - find a vindication of God's ways in this. There is no evidence that - such an idea was shared by the author of the book. It is remarkable - that the attitude which we imagine it would have been so easy for Job - to assume, namely, while holding fast his integrity, to fall back upon - the inexplicableness of providence, of which there are such imposing - descriptions in his speeches, is just the attitude which is taken up - in ch. xxviii. It is far from certain, however, that this chapter is - an integral part of the original book. - - The other line running through the book, the varying attitude of Job's - mind towards God, exhibits dramatic action and tragic interest of the - highest kind, though the movement is internal. That the exhibition of - this struggle in Job's mind was a main point in the author's purpose - is seen from the fact that at the end of each of his great trials he - notes that Job sinned not, nor ascribed wrong to God (i. 22; ii. 10), - and from the effect which the divine voice from the whirlwind is made - to produce upon him (xl. 3). In the first cycle of debate (iv.-xiv.) - Job's mind reaches the deepest limit of estrangement. There he not - merely charges God with injustice, but, unable to reconcile His former - goodness with His present enmity, he regards the latter as the true - expression of God's attitude towards His creatures, and the former, - comprising all his infinite creative skill in weaving the delicate - organism of human nature and the rich endowments of His providence, - only as the means of exercising His mad and immoral cruelty in the - time to come. When the Semitic skin of Job is scratched, we find a - modern pessimist beneath. Others in later days have brought the keen - sensibility of the human frame and the torture which it endures - together, and asked with Job to whom at last all this has to be - referred. Towards the end of the cycle a star of heavenly light seems - to rise on the horizon; the thought seizes the sufferer's mind that - man might have another life, that God's anger pursuing him to the - grave might be sated, and that He might call him out of it to Himself - again (xiv. 13). This idea of a resurrection, unfamiliar to Job at - first, is one which he is allowed to reach out of the necessities of - the moral complications around him, but from the author's manner of - using the idea we may judge that it was familiar to himself. In the - second cycle the thought of a future reconciliation with God is more - firmly grasped. That satisfaction or at least composure which, when we - observe calamities that we cannot morally account for, we reach by - considering that providence is a great scheme moving according to - general laws, and that it does not always truly reflect the relation - of God to the individual, Job reached in the only way possible to a - Semitic mind. He drew a distinction between an outer God whom events - obey, pursuing him in His anger, and an inner God whose heart was with - him, who was aware of his innocence; and he appeals from God to God, - and beseeches God to pledge Himself that he shall receive justice from - God (xvi. 19; xvii. 3). And so high at last does this consciousness - that God is at one with him rise that he avows his assurance that He - will yet appear to do him justice before men, and that he shall see - Him with his own eyes, no more estranged but on his side, and for this - moment he faints with longing (xix. 25 seq.).[2] - - After this expression of faith Job's mind remains calm, though he ends - by firmly charging God with perverting his right, and demanding to - know the cause of his afflictions (xxvii. 2 seq.; xxxi. 35, where - render: "Oh, that I had the indictment which mine adversary has - written!"). In answer to this demand the Divine voice answers Job out - of the tempest: "Who is this that darkeneth counsel by words without - knowledge?" The word "counsel" intimates to Job that God does not act - without a design, large and beyond the comprehension of man; and to - impress this is the purpose of the Divine speeches. The speaker does - not enter into Job's particular cause; there is not a word tending to - unravel his riddle; his mind is drawn away to the wisdom and majesty - of God Himself. His own words and those of his friends are but - re-echoed, but it is God Himself who now utters them. Job is in - immediate nearness to the majesty of heaven, wise, unfathomable, - ironical over the littleness of man, and he is abased; God Himself - effects what neither the man's own thoughts of God nor the - representations of his friends could accomplish, though by the same - means. The religious insight of the writer sounds here the profoundest - deeps of truth. - -_Integrity._--Doubts whether particular portions of the present book -belonged to the original form of it have been raised by many. M. L. De -Wette expressed himself as follows: "It appears to us that the present -book of Job has not all flowed from one pen. As many books of the Old -Testament have been several times written over, so has this also" (Ersch -and Gruber, _Ency._, sect. ii. vol. viii.). The judgment formed by De -Wette has been adhered to more or less by most of those who have studied -the book. Questions regarding the unity of such books as this are -difficult to settle; there is not unanimity among scholars regarding the -idea of the book, and consequently they differ as to what parts are in -harmony or conflict with unity; and it is dangerous to apply modern -ideas of literary composition and artistic unity to the works of -antiquity and of the East. The problem raised in the book of Job has -certainly received frequent treatment in the Old Testament; and there is -no likelihood that all efforts in this direction have been preserved to -us. It is probable that the book of Job was but a great effort amidst or -after many smaller. It is scarcely to be supposed that one with such -poetic and literary power as the author of chap. iii-xxxi., -xxxviii.-xli. would embody the work of any other writer in his own. If -there be elements in the book which must be pronounced foreign, they -have been inserted in the work of the author by a later hand. It is not -unlikely that our present book may, in addition to the great work of the -original author, contain some fragments of the thoughts of other -religious minds upon the same question, and that these, instead of being -loosely appended, have been fitted into the mechanism of the first work. -Some of these fragments may have originated at first quite independently -of our book, while others may be expansions and insertions that never -existed separately. At the same time it is scarcely safe to throw out -any portion of the book merely because it seems to us out of harmony -with the unity of the main part of the poem, or unless several distinct -lines of consideration conspire to point it out as an extraneous -element. - - The arguments against the originality of the prologue--as, that it is - written in prose, that the name Yahweh appears in it, that sacrifice - is referred to, and that there are inconsistencies between it and the - body of the book--are of little weight. There must have been some - introduction to the poem explaining the circumstances of Job, - otherwise the poetical dispute would have been unintelligible, for it - is improbable that the story of Job was so familiar that a poem in - which he and his friends figured as they do here would have been - understood. And there is no trace of any other prologue or - introduction having ever existed. The prologue, too, is an essential - element of the work, containing the author's positive contribution to - the doctrine of suffering, for which the discussion in the poem - prepares the way. The intermixture of prose and poetry is common in - Oriental works containing similar discussions; the reference to - sacrifice is to primitive not to Mosaic sacrifice; and the author, - while using the name Yahweh freely himself, puts the patriarchal - Divine names into the mouth of Job and his friends because he regards - them as belonging to the patriarchal age and to a country outside of - Israel. That the observance of this rule had a certain awkwardness for - the writer appears perhaps from his allowing the name Yahweh to slip - in once or twice (xii. 9, cf. xxviii. 28) in familiar phrases in the - body of the poem. The discrepancies, such as Job's references to his - children as still alive (xix. 17, the interpretation is doubtful), and - to his servants, are trivial, and even if real imply nothing in a book - admittedly poetical and not historical. The objections to the epilogue - are equally unimportant--as that the Satan is not mentioned in it, and - that Job's restoration is in conflict with the main idea of the - poem--that earthly felicity does not follow righteousness. The - epilogue confirms the teaching of the poem when it gives the divine - sanction to Job's doctrine regarding God in opposition to that of the - friends (xlii. 7). And it is certainly not the intention of the poem - to teach that earthly felicity does not follow righteousness; its - purpose is to correct the exclusiveness with which the friends of Job - maintained that principle. The Satan is introduced in the prologue, - exercising his function as minister of God in heaven; but it is to - misinterpret wholly the doctrine of evil in the Old Testament to - assign to the Satan any such personal importance or independence of - power as that he should be called before the curtain to receive the - hisses that accompany his own discomfiture. The Satan, though he here - appears with the beginnings of a malevolent will of his own, is but - the instrument of the sifting providence of God. His work was to try; - that done he disappears, his personality being too slight to have any - place in the result. - - Much graver are the suspicions that attach to the speeches of Elihu. - Most of those who have studied the book carefully hold that this part - does not belong to the original cast, but has been introduced at a - considerably later time. The piece is one of the most interesting - parts of the book; both the person and the thoughts of Elihu are - marked by a strong individuality. This individuality has indeed been - very diversely estimated. The ancients for the most part passed a very - severe judgment on Elihu: he is a buffoon, a boastful youth whose - shallow intermeddling is only to be explained by the fewness of his - years, the incarnation of folly, or even the Satan himself gone - a-mumming. Some moderns on the other hand have regarded him as the - incarnation of the voice of God or even of God himself. The main - objections to the connexion of the episode of Elihu with the original - book are: that the prologue and epilogue know nothing of him; that on - the cause of Job's afflictions he occupies virtually the same position - as the friends; that his speeches destroy the dramatic effect of the - divine manifestation by introducing a lengthened break between Job's - challenge and the answer of God; that the language and style of the - piece are marked by an excessive mannerism, too great to have been - created by the author of the rest of the poem; that the allusions to - the rest of the book are so minute as to betray a reader rather than a - hearer; and that the views regarding sin, and especially the scandal - given to the author by the irreverence of Job, indicate a religious - advance which marks a later age. The position taken by Elihu is almost - that of a critic of the book. Regarding the origin of afflictions he - is at one with the friends, although he dwells more on the general - sinfulness of man than on actual sins, and his reprobation of Job's - position is even greater than theirs. His anger was kindled against - Job because he made himself righteous before God, and against his - friends because they found no answer to Job. His whole object is to - refute Job's charge of injustice against God. What is novel in Elihu, - therefore, is not his position but his arguments. These do not lack - cogency, but betray a kind of thought different from that of the - friends. Injustice in God, he argues, can only arise from selfishness - in Him; but the very existence of creation implies unselfish love on - God's part, for if He thought only of Himself, He would cease actively - to uphold creation, and it would fall into death. Again, without - justice mere earthly rule is impossible; how then is injustice - conceivable in Him who rules over all? It is probable that the - original author found his three interlocutors a sufficient medium for - expression, and that this new speaker is the creation of another. To a - devout and thoughtful reader of the original book, belonging perhaps - to a more reverential age, it appeared that the language and bearing - of Job had scarcely been sufficiently reprobated by the original - speakers, and that the religious reason, apart from any theophany, - could suggest arguments sufficient to condemn such demeanour on the - part of any man. (For an able though hardly convincing argument for - the originality of the discourses of Elihu see Budde's _Commentary_.) - - It is more difficult to come to a decision in regard to some other - portions of the book, particularly ch. xxvii. 7-xxviii. In the latter - part of ch. xxvii. Job seems to go over to the camp of his opponents, - and expresses sentiments in complete contradiction to his former - views. Hence some have thought the passage to be the missing speech of - Zophar. Others, as Hitzig, believe that Job is parodying the ideas of - the friends; while others, like Ewald, consider that he is recanting - his former excesses, and making such a modification as to express - correctly his views on evil. None of these opinions is quite - satisfactory, though the last probably expresses the view with which - the passage was introduced, whether it be original or not. The meaning - of ch. xxviii. can only be that "Wisdom," that is, a theoretical - comprehension of providence, is unattainable by man, whose only wisdom - is the fear of the Lord or practical piety. But to bring Job to the - feeling of this truth was just the purpose of the theophany and the - divine speeches; and, if Job had reached it already through his own - reflection, the theophany becomes an irrelevancy. It is difficult, - therefore, to find a place for these two chapters in the original - work. The hymn on Wisdom is a most exquisite poem, which probably - originated separately, and was brought into our book with a purpose - similar to that which suggested the speeches of Elihu. Objections have - also been raised to the descriptions of leviathan and behemoth (ch. - xl. 15-xli.). Regarding these it may be enough to say that in meaning - these passages are in perfect harmony with other parts of the Divine - words, although there is a breadth and detail in the style unlike the - sharp, short, ironical touches otherwise characteristic of this part - of the poem. (Other longer passages, the originality of which has been - called into question, are: xvii. 8 seq.; xxi. 16-18; xxii. 17 seq.; - xxiii. 8 seq.; xxiv. 9, 18-24; xxvi. 5-14. On these see the - commentaries.) - -_Date._--The age of such a book as Job, dealing only with principles -and having no direct references to historical events can be fixed only -approximately. Any conclusion can be reached only by an induction -founded on matters which do not afford perfect certainty, such as the -comparative development of certain moral ideas in different ages, the -pressing claims of certain problems for solution at particular epochs -of the history of Israel, and points of contact with other writings of -which the age may with some certainty be determined. The Jewish -tradition that the book is Mosaic, and the idea that it is a production -of the desert, written in another tongue and translated into Hebrew, -want even a shadow of probability. The book is a genuine outcome of the -religious life and thought of Israel, the product of a religious -knowledge and experience that were possible among no other people. That -the author lays the scene of the poem outside his own nation and in the -patriarchal age is a proceeding common to him with other dramatic -writers, who find freer play for their principles in a region removed -from the present, where they are not hampered by the obtrusive forms of -actual life, but are free to mould occurrences into the moral form that -their ideas require. - -It is the opinion of some scholars, e.g. Delitzsch, that the book -belongs to the age of Solomon. It cannot be earlier than this age, for -Job (vii. 17) travesties the ideas of Ps. viii. in a manner which shows -that this hymn was well known. To infer the date from a comparison of -literary coincidences and allusions is however a very delicate -operation. For, first, owing to the unity of thought and language which -pervades the Old Testament, in which, regarded merely as a national -literature, it differs from all other national literatures, we are apt -to be deceived, and to take mere similarities for literary allusions and -quotations; and, secondly, even when we are sure that there is -dependence, it is often uncommonly difficult to decide which is the -original source. The reference to Job in Ezek. xiv. 14 is not to our -book, but to the man (a legendary figure) who was afterwards made the -hero of it. The affinities on the other hand between Job and Isa. -xl.-lv. are very close. The date, however, of this part of Isaiah is -uncertain, though it cannot have received its final form, if it be -composite, long before the return. Between Job iii. and Jer. xx. 14 seq. -there is, again, certainly literary connexion. But the judgment of -different minds differs on the question which passage is dependent on -the other. The language of Jeremiah, however, has a natural pathos and -genuineness of feeling in it, somewhat in contrast with the elaborate -poetical finish of Job's words, which might suggest the originality of -the former. - -The tendency among recent scholars is to put the book of Job not earlier -than the 5th century B.C. There are good reasons for putting it in the -4th century. It stands at the beginning of the era of Jewish -philosophical inquiry--its affinities are with Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, -Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of Solomon, a body of writings that belongs -to the latest period of pre-Christian Jewish literary development (see -WISDOM LITERATURE). Its points of connexion with Isa. xl.-lv. relate -only to the problem of the suffering of the righteous, and that it is -later than the Isaiah passage appears from the fact that this latter is -national and ritual in scope, while Job is universal and ethical. - -The book of Job is not literal history, though it reposes on historical -tradition. To this tradition belong probably the name of Job and his -country, and the names of his three friends, and perhaps also many other -details impossible to specify particularly. The view that the book is -entirely a literary creation with no basis in historical tradition is as -old as the Talmud (_Baba Bathra_, xv. 1), in which a rabbi is cited who -says: Job was not, and was not created, but is an allegory. This view is -supported by Hengstenberg and others. But pure poetical creations on so -extensive a scale are not probable in the East and at so early an age. - -_Author._--The author of the book is wholly unknown. The religious life -of Israel was at certain periods very intense, and at those times the -spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself almost impersonally, -through men who forgot themselves and were speedily forgotten in name by -others. Hitzig conjectures that the author was a native of the north on -account of the free criticism of providence which he allows himself. -Others, on account of some affinities with the prophet Amos, infer that -he belonged to the south of Judah, and this is supposed to account for -his intimate acquaintance with the desert. Ewald considers that he -belonged to the exile in Egypt, on account of his minute acquaintance -with that country. But all these conjectures localize an author whose -knowledge was not confined to any locality, who was a true child of the -East and familiar with life and nature in every country there, who was -at the same time a true Israelite and felt that the earth was the Lord's -and the fullness thereof, and whose sympathies and thought took in all -God's works. - - LITERATURE.--Commentaries by Ewald (1854); Renan (1859); Delitzsch - (1864); Zockler in Lange's _Bibelwerk_ (1872); F. C. Cook in - _Speaker's Comm._ (1880); A. B. Davidson in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); - Dillmann (1891); K. Budde (1896); Duhm (1897). See also Hoekstra, "Job - de Knecht van Jehovah" in _Theol. Tijdschr._ (1871), and, in reply, A. - Kuenen, "Job en de leidende Knecht van Jahveh," ibid. (1873); C. H. H. - Wright in _Bib. Essays_ (1886); G. G. Bradley, _Lects. on Job_ (2nd - ed., 1888); Cheyne, _Job and Solomon_ (1887); Dawson, _Wisd. Lit._ - (1893); D. B. Macdonald, "The Original Form of the Legend of Job" in - _Journ. Bib. Lit._ (1895); E. Hatch, _Essays in Bib. Gk._ (1889); A. - Dillmann, in _Trans. of Roy. Pruss. Acad._ (1890). - (A. B. D., C. H. T.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Exceptions must be made in the cases of Esther and the Song of - Songs, which do not mention God, and the original writer in - Ecclesiastes who is a philosopher. - - [2] This remarkable passage reads thus: "_But I know that my redeemer - liveth, and afterwards he shall arise upon the dust, and after my - skin, even this body, is destroyed, without my flesh shall I see God; - whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not as a - stranger; my reins within me are consumed_ with longing." The - redeemer who liveth and shall arise or stand upon the earth is God - whom he shall see with his own eyes, on his side. The course of - exegesis was greatly influenced by the translation of Jerome, who, - departing from the Itala, rendered: "In novissimo die de terra - surrecturus sum ... et rursum circumdabor pelle mea et in carne mea - videbo deum meum." The only point now in question is whether: (a) Job - looks for this manifestation of God to him while he is still alive, - or (b) after death, and therefore in the sense of a spiritual vision - and union with God in another life; that is, whether the words - "destroyed" and "without my flesh" are to be taken relatively only, - of the extremest effects of his disease upon him, or literally, of - the separation of the body in death. A third view which assumes that - the words rendered "without my flesh," which run literally, "out of - my flesh," mean _looking_ out from my flesh, that is, clothed with a - new body, and finds the idea of resurrection repeated, perhaps - imports more into the language than it will fairly bear. In favour of - (b) may be adduced the persistent refusal of Job throughout to - entertain the idea of a restoration in this life: the word - "afterwards"; and perhaps the analogy of other passages where the - same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and lxxiii., although the actual - denouement of the tragedy supports (a). The difference between the - two senses is not important, when the Old Testament view of - immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the life beyond was not what - it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and admission to an - immediate divine fellowship not attainable here. To him the life - beyond was at best a prolongation of the life here; all he desired - was that his fellowship with God here should not be interrupted in - death, and that Sheol, the place into which deceased persons - descended and where they remained, cut off from all life with God, - might be overleapt. On this account the theory of Ewald, which throws - the centre of gravity of the book into this passage in ch. xix., - considering its purpose to be to teach that the riddles of this life - shall be solved and its inequalities corrected in a future life, - appears one-sided. The point of the passage does not lie in any - distinction which it draws between this life and a future life; it - lies in the assurance which Job expresses that God, who even now - knows his innocence, will vindicate it in the future, and that, - though estranged now, He will at last take him to His heart. - - - - -JOBST, or JODOCUS (c. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia, was a son of John -Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, and grandson of John, the blind -king of Bohemia. He became margrave of Moravia on his father's death in -1375, and his clever and unscrupulous character enabled him to amass a -considerable amount of wealth, while his ambition led him into constant -quarrels with his brother Procop, his cousins, the German king -Wenceslaus and Sigismund, margrave of Brandenburg, and others. By taking -advantage of their difficulties he won considerable power, and the -record of his life is one of warfare and treachery, followed by broken -promises and transitory reconciliations. In 1385 and 1388 he purchased -Brandenburg from Sigismund, and the duchy of Luxemburg from Wenceslaus; -and in 1397 he also became possessed of upper and lower Lusatia. For -some time he had entertained hopes of the German throne and had -negotiated with Wenceslaus and others to this end. When, however, King -Rupert died in 1410 he maintained at first that there was no vacancy, as -Wenceslaus, who had been deposed in 1400, was still king; but changing -his attitude, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 1st of -October 1410 in opposition to Sigismund, who had been elected a few days -previously. Jobst however was never crowned, and his death on the 17th -of January 1411 prevented hostilities between the rival kings. - - See F. M. Pelzel, _Lebensgeschichte des romischen und bohmischen - Konigs Wenceslaus_ (1788-1790); J. Heidemann, _Die Mark Brandenburg - unter Jobst von Mahren_ (1881); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte Kaiser - Sigmunds_ (1838-1845); F. Palacky, _Geschichte von Bohmen_, iii. - (1864-1874); and T. Lindner, _Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom - Ende des 14 Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation_, i. (1875-1880). - - - - -JOB'S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for _Coix Lachryma-Jobi_, a -species of grass, of the tribe _maydeae_, which also includes the maize -(see GRASSES). The seeds, or properly fruits, are contained singly in a -stony involucre or bract, which does not open until the enclosed seed -germinates. The young involucre surrounds the female flower and the -stalk supporting the spike of male flowers, and when ripe has the -appearance of bluish-white porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large -drop of fluid, the form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent, -but the involucres are the part chiefly used, for making necklaces and -other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now widely -spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in marshy places; and is -cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed value as a diuretic and -anti-phthisic. It was cultivated by John Gerard, author of the famous -_Herball_, at the end of the 16th century as a tender annual. - - - - -JOCASTA, or IOCASTA ([Greek: Iokaste]; in Homer, [Greek: Epikaste]), in -Greek legend, wife of Laius, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus (q.v.), -daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon. According to Homer -(_Od._ xi. 271) and Sophocles (_Oed. Tyr._ 1241), on learning that -Oedipus was her son she immediately hanged herself; but in Euripides -(_Phoenissae_, 1455) she stabs herself over the bodies of her sons -Eteocles and Polynices, who had slain each other in single combat before -the walls of Thebes. - - - - -JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the current usage (see -HORSE-RACING). The word is by origin a diminutive of "Jock," the -Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the name "John" (cf. JACK). A -familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in "Jockey of -Norfolk" in Shakespeare's _Richard III._ v. 3, 304. In the 16th and 17th -centuries the word was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant -minstrels and vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a -cunning trickster, a "sharp," whence "to jockey," to outwit, or "do" a -person out of something. The current usage is found in John Evelyn's -_Diary_, 1670, when it was clearly well known. George Borrow's attempt -to derive the word from the gipsy _chukni_, a heavy whip used by -horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation. - - - - -JODELLE, ETIENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573), French dramatist and -poet, was born in Paris of a noble family. He attached himself to the -poetic circle of the Pleiade (see DAURAT) and proceeded to apply the -principles of the reformers to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at -creating a classical drama that should be in every respect different -from the moralities and _soties_ that then occupied the French stage. -His first play, _Cleopatre captive_, was represented before the court at -Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title role, and the cast -included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Peruse. In honour of -the play's success the friends organized a little fete at Arcueil when a -goat garlanded with flowers was led in procession and presented to the -author--a ceremony exaggerated by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a -renewal of the pagan rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two -other plays. _Eugene_, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less -success than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle's -predecessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so very -different from theirs. _Didon se sacrifiant_, a tragedy which follows -Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented. Jodelle died -in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected the year after his -death by Charles de la Mothe. They include a quantity of miscellaneous -verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's youth. The intrinsic value of his -tragedies is small. _Cleopatre_ is lyric rather than dramatic. -Throughout the five acts of the piece nothing actually happens. The -death of Antony is announced by his ghost in the first act; the story of -Cleopatra's suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each -act is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as the -inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on human pride. But -the play was the starting-point of French classical tragedy, and was -soon followed by the _Medee_ (1553) of Jean de la Peruse and the _Aman_ -(1561) of Andre de Rivaudeau. Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and -fond of dissipation. His friend Ronsard said that his published poems -gave no adequate idea of his powers. - - Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the _Pleiade francaise_ of - Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full information of - the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism is - reprinted in its entirety. - - - - -JODHPUR, or MARWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. -Area, 34,963 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935,565, showing a decrease of 23% in -the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue, L373,600; -tribute, L14,000. The general aspect of the country is that of a sandy -plain, divided into two unequal parts by the river Luni, and dotted with -picturesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 ft. -The river Luni is the principal feature in the physical aspects of -Jodhpur. One of its head-streams rises in the sacred lake of Pushkar in -Ajmere, and the main river flows through Jodhpur in a south-westerly -direction till it is finally lost in the marshy ground at the head of -the Runn of Cutch. It is fed by numerous tributaries and occasionally -overflows its banks, fine crops of wheat and barley being grown on the -saturated soil. Its water is, as a rule, saline or brackish, but -comparatively sweet water is obtained from wells sunk at a distance of -20 or 30 yds. from the river bank. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is -situated on the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller lakes of -the same description lie within the limits of the state, from which -large quantities of salt are extracted. Marble is mined in the north of -the state and along the south-east border. - -The population consists of Rathor Rajputs (who form the ruling class), -Brahmans, Charans, Bhats, Mahajans or traders, and Jats. The Charans, a -sacred race, hold large religious grants of land, and enjoy peculiar -immunities as traders in local produce. The Bhats are by profession -genealogists, but also engage in trade. Marwari traders are an -enterprising class to be found throughout the length and breadth of -India. - -The principal crops are millets and pulses, but wheat and barley are -largely produced in the fertile tract watered by the Luni river. The -manufactures comprise leather boxes and brass utensils; and turbans and -scarfs and a description of embroidered silk knotted thread are -specialities of the country. - -The Maharaja belongs to the Rathor clan of Rajputs. The family -chronicles relate that after the downfall of the Rathor dynasty of -Kanauj in 1194, Sivaji, the grandson of Jai Chand, the last king of -Kanauj, entered Marwar on a pilgrimage to Dwarka, and on halting at the -town of Pali he and his followers settled there to protect the Brahman -community from the constant raids of marauding bands. The Rathor chief -thus laid the foundation of the state, but it was not till the time of -Rao Chanda, the tenth in succession from Sivaji, that Marwar was -actually conquered. His grandson Jodha founded the city of Jodhpur, -which he made his capital. In 1561 the country was invaded by Akbar, and -the chief was forced to submit, and to send his son as a mark of homage -to take service under the Mogul emperor. When this son Udai Singh -succeeded to the chiefship, he gave his sister Jodhbai in marriage to -Akbar, and was rewarded by the restoration of most of his former -possessions. Udai Singh's son, Gaj Singh, held high service under Akbar, -and conducted successful expeditions in Gujarat and the Deccan. The -bigoted and intolerant Aurangzeb invaded Marwar in 1679, plundered -Jodhpur, sacked all the large towns, and commanded the conversion of the -Rathors to Mahommedanism. This cemented all the Rajput clans into a bond -of union, and a triple alliance was formed by the three states of -Jodhpur, Udaipur and Jaipur, to throw off the Mahommedan yoke. One of -the conditions of this alliance was that the chiefs of Jodhpur and -Jaipur should regain the privilege of marriage with the Udaipur family, -which they had forfeited by contracting alliances with the Mogul -emperors, on the understanding that the offspring of Udaipur princesses -should succeed to the state in preference to all other children. The -quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted through many generations, -and led to the invitation of Mahratta help from the rival aspirants to -power, and finally to the subjection of all the Rajput states to the -Mahrattas. Jodhpur was conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of -L60,000, and took from it the fort and town of Ajmere. Internecine -disputes and succession wars disturbed the peace of the early years of -the century, until in January 1818 Jodhpur was taken under British -protection. In 1839 the misgovernment of the raja led to an insurrection -which compelled the interference of the British. In 1843, the chief -having died without a son, and without having adopted an heir, the -nobles and state officials were left to select a successor from the -nearest of kin. Their choice fell upon Raja Takht Sinh, chief of -Ahmednagar. This chief, who did good service during the Mutiny, died in -1873. Maharaja Jaswant Singh, who died in 1896, was a very enlightened -ruler. His brother, Sir Pertab Singh (q.v.), conducted the -administration until his nephew, Sardar Singh, came of age in 1898. The -imperial service cavalry formed part of the reserve brigade during the -Tirah campaign. - -The state maintains a railway running to Bikanir, and there is also a -branch railway into Sind. Gold, silver and copper money is coined. The -state emblems are a _jhar_ or sprig of seven branches and a _khanda_ or -sword. Jodhpur practically escaped the plague, but it suffered more -severely than any other part of Rajputana from the famine of 1899-1900. -In February 1900 more than 110,000 persons were in receipt of famine -relief. - -The city of JODHPUR is 64 m. by rail N.W. of Marwar junction, on the -Rajputana railway. Pop. (1901), 60,437. It was built by Rao Jodha in -1459, and from that time has been the seat of government. It is -surrounded by a strong wall nearly 6 m. in extent, with seventy gates. -The fort, which stands on an isolated rock, contains the maharaja's -palace, a large and handsome building, completely covering the crest of -the hill on which it stands, and overlooking the city, which lies -several hundred feet below. The city contains palaces of the maharaja, -and town residences of the _thakurs_ or nobles, besides numerous fine -temples and tanks. Building stone is plentiful and close at hand, and -the architecture is solid and handsome. Three miles north of Jodhpur are -the ruins of Mandor, the site of the ancient capital of the Parihar -princes of Marwar, before its conquest by the Rathors. Mills for -grinding flour and crushing grain have been constructed for the imperial -service troops. The Jaswant college is affiliated to the B.A. standard -of the Allahabad university. To the Hewson hospital a wing for eye -diseases was added in 1898, and the Jaswant hospital for women is under -an English lady doctor. - - - - -JOEL. The second book among the minor prophets in the Bible is entitled -_The word of Yahweh that came to Joel the son of Pethuel_, or, as the -Septuagint, Latin, Syriac and other versions read, _Bethuel_. Nothing is -recorded as to the date or occasion of the prophecy. Most Hebrew -prophecies contain pointed references to the foreign politics and social -relations of the nation at the time. In the book of Joel there are only -scanty allusions to Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt and Edom, couched in -terms applicable to very different ages, while the prophet's own people -are exhorted to repentance without specific reference to any of those -national sins of which other prophets speak. The occasion of the -prophecy, described with great force of rhetoric, is no known historical -event, but a plague of locusts, perhaps repeated in successive seasons; -and even here there are features in the description which have led many -expositors to seek an allegorical interpretation. The most remarkable -part of the book is the eschatological picture with which it closes; and -the way in which the plague of locusts appears to be taken as -foreshadowing the final judgment--the great day or assize of Yahweh, in -which Israel's enemies are destroyed--is so unique as greatly to -complicate the exegetical problem. It is not therefore surprising that -the most various views are still held as to the date and meaning of the -book. Allegorists and literalists still contend over the first and still -more over the second chapter, and, while the largest number of recent -interpreters accept Credner's view that the prophecy was written in the -reign of Joash of Judah (835-796 B.C.?), a powerful school of critics -(including A. B. Davidson) follow the view suggested by Vatke (_Bib. -Theol._ p. 462 seq.), and reckon Joel among the post-exile prophets. -Other scholars give yet other dates: see the particulars in the -elaborate work of Merx. The followers of Credner are literalists; the -opposite school of moderns includes some literalists (as Duhm), while -others (like Hilgenfeld, and in a modified sense Merx) adopt the old -allegorical interpretation which treats the locusts as a figure for the -enemies of Jerusalem. - - There are cogent reasons for placing Joel either earlier or later than - the great series of prophets extending from the time when Amos first - proclaimed the approach of the Assyrian down to the Babylonian exile. - In Joel the enemies of Israel are the nations collectively, and among - those specified by name neither Assyria nor Chaldaea finds a place. - This circumstance might, if it stood alone, be explained by placing - Joel with Zephaniah in the brief interval between the decline of the - empire of Nineveh and the advance of the Babylonians. But it is - further obvious that Joel has no part in the internal struggle between - spiritual Yahweh-worship and idolatry which occupied all the prophets - from Amos to the captivity. He presupposes a nation of - Yahweh-worshippers, whose religion has its centre in the temple and - priesthood of Zion, which is indeed conscious of sin, and needs - forgiveness and an outpouring of the Spirit, but is not visibly - divided, as the kingdom of Judah was between the adherents of - spiritual prophecy and a party whose national worship of Yahweh - involved for them no fundamental separation from the surrounding - nations. The book, therefore, must have been written before the - ethico-spiritual and the popular conceptions of Yahweh came into - conscious antagonism, or else after the fall of the state and the - restoration of the community of Jerusalem to religious rather than - political existence had decided the contest in favour of the - prophets, and of the Law in which their teaching was ultimately - crystallized. - - The considerations which have given currency to an early date for Joel - are of various kinds. The absence of all mention of one great - oppressing world-power seems most natural before the westward march of - Assyria involved Israel in the general politics of Asia. The purity of - the style is also urged, and a comparison of Amos i. 2, Joel iii. 16 - (Heb. iv. 16), and Amos ix. 13, Joel iii. 18 (iv. 18), has been taken - as proving that Amos knew our book. The last argument might be - inverted with much greater probability, and numerous points of contact - between Joel and other parts of the Old Testament (e.g. Joel ii. 2, - Exod. x. 14; Joel ii. 3, Ezek. xxxvi. 35; Joel iii. 10, Mic. iv. 3) - make it not incredible that the purity of his style--which is rather - elegant than original and strongly marked--is in large measure the - fruit of literary culture. The absence of allusion to a hostile or - oppressing empire may be fairly taken in connexion with the fact that - the prophecy gives no indication of political life at Jerusalem. When - the whole people is mustered in ch. i., the elders or sheikhs of the - municipality and the priests of the temple are the most prominent - figures. The king is not mentioned--which on Credner's view is - explained by assuming that the plague fell in the minority of Joash, - when the priest Jehoiada held the reins of power--and the princes, - councillors and warriors necessary to an independent state, and so - often referred to by the prophets before the exile, are altogether - lacking. The nation has only a municipal organization with a priestly - aristocracy, precisely the state of things that prevailed under the - Persian empire. That the Persians do not appear as enemies of Yahweh - and his people is perfectly natural. They were hard masters but not - invaders, and under them the enemies of the Jews were their - neighbours, just as appears in Joel.[1] Those, however, who place our - prophet in the minority of King Joash draw a special argument from the - mention of Phoenicians, Philistines and Edomites (iii. 4 seq., 19), - pointing to the revolt of Edom under Joram (2 Kings viii. 20) and the - incursion of the Philistines in the same reign (2 Chron. xxi. 16, - xxii. 1). These were recent events in the time of Joash, and in like - manner the Phoenician slave trade in Jewish children is carried back - to an early date by the reference in Amos i. 9. This argument is - rather specious than sound. Edom's hostility to Judah was incessant, - but the feud reached its full intensity only after the time of - Deuteronomy (xxiii. 7), when the Edomites joined the Chaldaeans, drew - profit from the overthrow of the Jews, whose land they partly - occupied, and exercised barbarous cruelty towards the fugitives of - Jerusalem (Obad. _passim_; Mal. i. 2 seq.; Isa. lxiii.). The offence - of shedding innocent blood charged on them by Joel is natural after - these events, but hardly so in connexion with the revolt against - Joram. - - As regards the Philistines, it is impossible to lay much weight on the - statement of Chronicles, unsupported as it is by the older history, - and in Joel the Philistines plainly stand in one category with the - Phoenicians, as slave dealers, not as armed foes. Gaza in fact was a - slave emporium as early as the time of Amos (i. 6), and continued so - till Roman times. - - Thus, if any inference as to date can be drawn from ch. iii., it must - rest on special features of the trade in slaves, which was always an - important part of the commerce of the Levant. In the time of Amos the - slaves collected by Philistines and Tyrians were sold _en masse_ to - Edom, and presumably went to Egypt or Arabia. Joel complains that they - were sold to the Grecians (Javan, Ionians).[2] It is probable that - some Hebrew and Syrian slaves were exported to the Mediterranean - coasts from a very early date, and Isa. xi. 11 already speaks of - Israelites captive in these districts as well as in Egypt, Ethiopia - and the East. But the traffic in this direction hardly became - extensive till a later date. In Deut. xxviii. 68, Egypt is still the - chief goal of the maritime slave trade, and in Ezek. xxvii. 13 Javan - exports slaves to Tyre, not conversely. Thus the allusion to Javan in - Joel better suits a later date, when Syrian slaves were in special - request in Greece.[3] And the name of Javan is not found in any part - of the Old Testament certainly older than Ezekiel. In Joel it seems to - stand as a general representative of the distant countries reached by - the Mediterranean (in contrast with the southern Arabians, _Sabaeans_, - ch. iii. 8), the farthest nation reached by the fleets of the Red Sea. - This is precisely the geographical standpoint of the post-exile author - of Gen. x. 4, where (assuming that Elishah = Carthage and Tarshish = - Tartessus) Javan includes Carthage and Tartessus. - - Finally, the allusion to Egypt in Joel iii. 19 must on Credner's - theory be explained of the invasion of Shishak a century before - Joash. From this time down to the last period of the Hebrew monarchy - Egypt was not the enemy of Judah. - - If the arguments chiefly relied on for an early date are so precarious - or can even be turned against their inventors, there are others of an - unambiguous kind which make for a date in the Persian period. It - appears from ch. iii. 1, 2, that Joel wrote after the exile. The - phrase "to bring again the captivity" would not alone suffice to prove - this, for it is used in a wide sense, and perhaps means rather to - "reverse the calamity,"[4] but the dispersion of Israel among the - nations, and the allotment of the Holy Land to new occupants, cannot - fairly be referred to any calamity less than that of the captivity. - With this the whole standpoint of the prophecy agrees. To Joel Judah - and the people of Yahweh are synonyms; northern Israel has - disappeared. Now it is true that those who take their view of the - history from Chronicles, where the kingdom of Ephraim is always - treated as a sect outside the true religion, can reconcile this fact - with an early date. But in ancient times it was not so; and under - Joash, the contemporary of Elisha, such a limitation of the people of - Yahweh is wholly inconceivable. The earliest prophetic books have a - quite different standpoint; otherwise indeed the books of northern - prophets and historians could never have been admitted into the Jewish - canon. Again, the significant fact that there is no mention of a king - and princes, but only of sheikhs and priests, has a force not to be - invalidated by the ingenious reference of the book to the time of - Joash's minority and the supposed regency of Jehoiada.[5] And the - assumption that there was a period before the prophetic conflicts of - the 8th century B.C. when spiritual prophecy had unchallenged sway, - when there was no gross idolatry or superstition, when the priests of - Jerusalem, acting in accord with prophets like Joel, held the same - place as heads of a pure worship which they occupied after the exile - (cf. Ewald, _Propheten_, i. 89), is not consistent with history. It - rests on the old theory of the antiquity of the Levitical legislation, - so that in fact all who place that legislation later than Ezekiel are - agreed that the book of Joel is also late. In this connexion one point - deserves special notice. The religious significance of the plague of - drought and locusts is expressed in ch. i. 9 in the observation that - the daily meat and drink offering are cut off, and the token of new - blessing is the restoration of this service, ch. ii. 14. In other - words, the daily offering is the continual symbol of gracious - intercourse between Yahweh and his people and the main office of - religion. This conception, which finds its parallel in Dan. viii. 11, - xi. 31, xii. 11, is quite in accordance with the later law. But under - the monarchy the daily oblation was the king's private offering, and - not till Ezra's reformation did it become the affair of the community - and the central act of national worship (Neh. x. 33 seq.).[6] That - Joel wrote not only after the exile but after the work of Ezra and - Nehemiah may be viewed as confirmed by the allusions to the walls of - Jerusalem in ch. ii. 7, 9. Such is the historical basis which we seem - to be able to lay for the study of the exegetical problems of the - book. - -The style of Joel is clear (which hardly favours an early date), and his -language presents peculiarities which are evidences of a late origin. -But the structure of the book, the symbolism and the connexion of the -prophet's thoughts have given rise to much controversy. It seems safest -to start from the fact that the prophecy is divided into two well-marked -sections by ch. ii. 18, 19a. According to the Massoretic vocalization, -which is in harmony with the most ancient exegetical tradition as -contained in the LXX, these words are historical: "Then the Lord was -jealous,... and answered and said unto his people, Behold," &c. Such is -the natural meaning of the words as pointed. - -Thus the book falls into two parts. In the first the prophet speaks in -his own name, addressing himself to the people in a lively description -of a present calamity caused by a terrible plague of locusts which -threatens the entire destruction of the country, and appears to be the -vehicle of a final consuming judgment (the day of Yahweh). There is no -hope save in repentance and prayer; and in ch. ii. 12 the prophet, -speaking now for the first time in Yahweh's name, calls the people to a -solemn fast at the sanctuary, and invites the intercession of the -priests. The calamity is described in the strongest colours of Hebrew -hyperbole, and it seems arbitrary to seek too literal an interpretation -of details, e.g. to lay weight on the four names of locusts, or to take -ch. i. 20 of a conflagration produced by drought, when it appears from -ii. 3 that the ravages of the locusts themselves are compared to those -of fire. But when due allowance is made for Eastern rhetoric, there is -no occasion to seek in this section anything else than literal locusts. -Nay, the allegorical interpretation, which takes the locusts to be -hostile invaders, breaks through the laws of all reasonable writing; for -the poetical hyperbole which compares the invading swarms to an army -(ii. 4 seq.) would be inconceivably lame if a literal army was already -concealed under the figure of the locusts. Nor could the prophet so far -forget himself in his allegory as to speak of a victorious host as -entering the conquered city like a thief (ii. 9). The second part of the -book is Yahweh's answer to the people's prayer. The answer begins with a -promise of deliverance from famine, and of fruitful seasons compensating -for the ravages of the locusts. In the new prosperity of the land the -union of Yahweh and his people shall be sealed anew, and so the Lord -will proceed to pour down further and higher blessings. The aspiration -of Moses (Num. xi. 29) and the hope of earlier prophets (Isa. xxxii. 15, -lix. 21; Jer. xxxi. 33) shall be fully realized in the outpouring of the -Spirit on all the Jews and even upon their servants (Isa. lxi. 5 with -lvi. 6, 7); and then the great day of judgment, which had seemed to -overshadow Jerusalem in the now averted plague, shall draw near with -awful tokens of blood and fire and darkness. But the terrors of that day -are not for the Jews but for their enemies. The worshippers of Yahweh on -Zion shall be delivered (cf. Obad. v. 17, whose words Joel expressly -quotes in ch. ii. 32), and it is their heathen enemies, assembled before -Jerusalem to war against Yahweh, who shall be mowed down in the valley -of Jehoshaphat ("Yahweh judgeth") by no human arm, but by heavenly -warriors. Thus definitively freed from the profane foot of the stranger -(Isa. lii. 1), Jerusalem shall abide a holy city for ever. The fertility -of the land shall be such as was long ago predicted in Amos ix. 13, and -streams issuing from the Temple, as Ezekiel had described in his picture -of the restored Jerusalem (Ezek. xlvii.), shall fertilize the barren -Wadi of Acacias. Egypt and Edom, on the other hand, shall be desolate, -because they have shed the blood of Yahweh's innocents. Compare the -similar predictions against Edom, Isa. xxxiv. 9 seq. (Mal. i. 3), and -against Egypt, Isa. xix. 5 seq., Ezek. xxix. Joel's eschatological -picture appears indeed to be largely a combination of elements from -older unfulfilled prophecies. Its central feature, the assembling of the -nations to judgment, is already found in Zeph. iii. 8, and in Ezekiel's -prophecy concerning Gog and Magog, where the wonders of fire and blood -named in Joel ii. 30 are also mentioned (Ezek. xxxviii. 22). The other -physical features of the great day, the darkening of the lights of -heaven, are a standing figure of the prophets from Amos v. 6, viii. 9, -downwards. It is characteristic of the prophetic eschatology that images -suggested by one prophet are adopted by his successors, and gradually -become part of the permanent scenery of the last times; and it is a -proof of the late date of Joel that almost his whole picture is made up -of such features. In this respect there is a close parallelism, -extending to minor details, between Joel and the last chapters of -Zechariah. - -That Joel's delineation of the final deliverance and glory attaches -itself directly to the deliverance of the nation from a present calamity -is quite in the manner of the so-called prophetic perspective. But the -fact that the calamity which bulks so largely is natural and not -political is characteristic of the post-exile period. Other prophets of -the same age speak much of dearth and failure of crops, which in -Palestine then as now were aggravated by bad government, and were far -more serious to a small and isolated community than they could ever have -been to the old kingdom. It was indeed by no means impossible that -Jerusalem might have been altogether undone by the famine caused by the -locusts; and so the conception of these visitants as the destroying -army, executing Yahweh's final judgment, is really much more natural -than appears to us at first sight, and does not need to be explained -away by allegory. The chief argument relied upon by those who still find -allegory at least in ch. ii. is the expression _hassephoni_, "the -northerner"[7] [if this rendering is correct], in ii. 20. In view of the -other points of affinity between Joel and Ezekiel, this word inevitably -suggests Gog and Magog, and it is difficult to see how a swarm of -locusts could receive such a name, or if they came from the north could -perish, as the verse puts it, in the desert between the Mediterranean -and the Dead Sea. The verse remains a _crux interpretum_, and no -exegesis hitherto given can be deemed thoroughly satisfactory; but the -interpretation of the whole book must not be made to hinge on a single -word in a verse which might be altogether removed without affecting the -general course of the prophet's argument. - -The whole verse is perhaps the addition of an allegorizing glossator. -The prediction in _v._ 19, that the seasons shall henceforth be -fruitful, is given after Yahweh has shown his zeal and pity for Israel, -not of course by mere words, but by acts, as appears in verses 20, 21, -where the verbs are properly perfects recording that Yahweh hath already -done great things, and that vegetation has already revived. In other -words, the mercy already experienced in the removal of the plague is -taken as a pledge of future grace not to stop short till all God's old -promises are fulfilled. In this context v. 20 is out of place. Observe -also that in v. 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language of -chap. i. - - See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wunsche - (1872), Merx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history of - interpretation from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends the - Ethiopic text edited by Dillmann. Nowack and Marti should also be - consulted (see their respective series of commentaries); also G. A. - Smith, in _The Book of the Twelve Prophets_, vol. i. (1896), and S. R. - Driver, _Joel and Amos_ (1897). On the language of Joel, see - Holzinger, _Z. A. T. W._ (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the - most valuable is Pocock's (Oxford, 1691). Bochart's _Hierozoicon_ may - also be consulted. (W. R. S.; T. K. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In the A.V. of ii. 17 it appears that subjection to a foreign - power is not a present fact but a thing feared. But the parallelism - and v. 19 justify the rendering in margin of R.V. "use a byword - against them." - - [2] The hypothesis of an Arabian Javan, applied to Joel iii. 6 by - Credner, Hitzig, and others, may be viewed as exploded (see Stade, - "Das Volk Javan," 1880, reprinted in his _Akad. Reden u. - Abhandlungen_, 1899, pp. 123-142). The question, however, has to be - re-examined; later interpreters, e.g. the LXX translators, may have - misunderstood. The text of the passages has to be critically treated - anew. See Cheyne, _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (on Gen. - x. 2). - - [3] Compare Movers, _Phonizisches Alterthum_, iii. i. 70 seq. - - [4] See Ewald on Jer. xlviii. 47, Kuenen, _Theol. Tijdschrift_ - (1873), p. 519; Schwally, _Z. A. T. W._, viii. 200, and Briggs on Ps. - xiv. 7. - - [5] Stade not unreasonably questions whether 2 Kings xii. 1-3 implies - the paramount political influence of Jehoiada. - - [6] See Wellhausen, _Geschichte Israels_, p. 78 seq.; _Prolegomena - zur Gesch. Israels_ (1883), p. 82 seq. - - [7] It has been suggested that _Saphon_, which is often rather - troublesome if rendered "the north," may be a weakened form of - _sib'on_, a current popular corruption of _shimo'n_ = Ishmael. In - Ezek. xxxviii. 15 it is distinctly said that Gog is to come from the - recesses of Saphon. "Meshech" and "Tubal" are no hindrance to this - view, if the names of the so-called "sons of Japheth" are critically - examined. For they, too, as well as Saphon, can be plausibly shown to - represent regions of North Arabia. See Cheyne, _Traditions and - Beliefs of Anc. Israel_, on Gen. x. 2-4. - - - - -JOEL, MANUEL (1826-1890), Jewish philosopher and preacher. After -teaching for several years at the Breslau rabbinical seminary, founded -by Z. Frankel, he became the successor of Abraham Geiger in the -rabbinate of Breslau. He made important contributions to the history of -the school of Aqiba (q.v.) as well as to the history of Jewish -philosophy, his essays on Ibn Gabirol and Maimonides being of permanent -worth. But his most influential work was connected with the relations -between Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed how -Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonides and how -Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to Hasdai Crescas. -These essays were collected in two volumes of _Beitrage zur Geschichte -der Philosophie_ (1876), while another two volumes of _Blicke in die -Religionsgeschichte_ (1880-1883) threw much light on the development of -religious thought in the early centuries of the Christian era. Equally -renowned were Joel's pulpit addresses. Though he was no orator, his -appeal to the reason was effective, and in their published form his -three volumes of _Predigten_ (issued posthumously) have found many -readers. (I. A.) - - - - -JOFFRIN, JULES FRANCOIS ALEXANDRE (1846-1890), French politician, was -born at Troyes on the 16th of March 1846. He served in the Franco-German -War, was involved in the Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a -political exile. He attached himself to the "possibilist" group of the -socialist party, the section opposed to the root-and-branch measures of -Jules Guesde. He became a member of the municipal council of Paris in -1882, and vice-president in 1888-1889. Violently attacked by the -Boulangist organs, _L'Intransigeant_ and _La France_, he won a suit -against them for libel, and in 1889 he contested the 18th arrondissement -of Paris with General Boulanger, who obtained a majority of over 2000 -votes, but was declared ineligible. Joffrin was only admitted to the -Chamber after a heated discussion, and continued to be attacked by the -nationalists. He died in Paris on the 17th of September 1890. - - - - -JOGUES, ISAAC (1607-1646), French missionary in North America, was born -at Orleans on the 10th of January 1607. He entered the Society of Jesus -at Rouen in 1624, and in 1636 was ordained and sent, by his own wish, to -the Huron mission. In 1639 he went among the Tobacco Nation, and in 1641 -journeyed to Sault Sainte Marie, where he preached to the Algonquins. -Returning from an expedition to Three Rivers he was captured by Mohawks, -who tortured him and kept him as a slave until the summer of 1643, when, -aided by some Dutchmen, he escaped to the manor of Rensselaerwyck and -thence to New Amsterdam. After a brief visit to France, where he was -treated with high honour, he returned to the Mohawk country in May 1646 -and ratified a treaty between that tribe and the Canadian government. -Working among them as the founder of the Mission of the Martyrs, he -incurred their enmity, was tortured as a sorcerer, and finally killed at -Ossernenon, near Auriesville, N.Y. - - See Parkman, _The Jesuits in North America_ (1898). - - - - -JOHANAN BEN ZACCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary of the Apostles. He -was a disciple of Hillel (q.v.), and after the destruction of the Temple -of Jerusalem by Titus was the main instrument in the preservation of the -Jewish religion. During the last decades of the Temple Johanan was a -member of the Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the -Sadducees. He is also reported to have been head of a great school in -the capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace party, and -finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their revolt to its -inevitable sequel, Johanan had himself conveyed out of Jerusalem in a -coffin. In the Roman camp the rabbi was courteously received, and -Vespasian (whose future elevation to the imperial dignity Johanan, like -Josephus, is said to have foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he -desired. Johanan obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia -(Jabneh), which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically -exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see JEWS, S 40 ad -fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the Mishnah, was -the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia. Johanan solaced his disciples -on the fall of the Temple by the double thought that charity could -replace sacrifice, and that a life devoted to the religious law could -form a fitting continuation of the old theocratic state. "Johanan felt -the fall of his people more deeply than anyone else, but--and in this -lies his historical importance--he did more than any one else to prepare -the way for Israel to rise again" (Bacher). - - See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. xiii.; - Weiss, _Dor dor ve-doreshav_, ii. 36; Bacher, _Die Agada der - Tannaiten_, vol. i. ch. iii. (I. A.) - - - - -JOHANNESBURG, a city of the Transvaal and the centre of the Rand -gold-mining industry. It is the most populous city and the commercial -capital of South Africa. It is built on the southern slopes of the -Witwatersrand in 26 deg. 11' S. 28 deg. 2' E., at an elevation of 5764 -ft. above the sea. The distances by rail from Johannesburg to the -following seaports are: Lourenco Marques, 364 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East -London, 659 m.; Port Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, -by rail, 46 m. N. by E. - -The town lies immediately north of the central part of the main gold -reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west or north and -south. The chief open spaces are Market Square in the west and -Government Square in the south of the town. Park railway station lies -north of the business quarter, and farther north are the Wanderers' -athletic sports ground and Joubert's Park. The chief business streets, -such as Commissioner Street, Market Street, President Street and -Pritchard Street, run east and west. In these thoroughfares and in -several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the -mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels and shops, -the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings, while the survival -of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron buildings recalls the early -character of the town. - -_Chief Buildings, &c._--In the centre of Market Square are the market -buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph offices, a -handsome block of buildings with a facade 200 ft. long and a tower 106 -ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile long, is the largest in -South Africa. The offices of the Witwatersrand chamber of mines face the -market buildings. The stock exchange is in Marshall Square. The -telephone exchange is in the centre of the city, in Von Brandis Square. -The law courts are in the centre of Government Square. The Transvaal -university college is in Plein Square, a little south of Park station. -In the vicinity is St Mary's (Anglican) parish hall (1905-1907), the -first portion of a large building planned to take the place of "Old" St -Mary's Church, the "mother" church of the Rand, built in 1887. The chief -Jewish synagogue is in the same neighbourhood. In Kerk Street, on the -outskirts of central Johannesburg, is the Roman Catholic Church of the -Immaculate Conception, the headquarters of the vicar apostolic of the -Transvaal. North of Joubert's Park is the general hospital, and beyond, -near the crest of the hills, commanding the town and the road to -Pretoria, is a fort built by the Boer government and now used as a gaol. -On the hills, some 3 m. E.N.E. of the town, is the observatory, built in -1903. Johannesburg has several theatres and buildings adapted for public -meetings. There is a race-course 2 m. south of the town under the -control of the Johannesburg Turf Club. - -_The Suburbs._--North, east and west of the city proper are suburbs, -laid out on the same rectangular plan. The most fashionable are to the -east and north--Jeppestown, Belgravia, Doornfontein, the Berea, -Hillbrow, Parktown, Yeoville and Bellevue. Braamfontein (with a large -cemetery) lies north-west and Fordsburg due west of the city. At -Fordsburg are the gas and electric light and power works, and north of -Doornfontein there is a large reservoir. There are also on the Rand, and -dependent on the gold-mining, three towns possessing separate -municipalities--Germiston and Boksburg (q.v.), respectively 9 m. and 15 -m. E. of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (q.v.), 21 m. W. - -_The Mines and other Industries._--South, east and west of the city are -the gold mines, indicated by tall chimneys, battery houses and the -compounds of the labourers. The bare veld is dotted with these unsightly -buildings for a distance of over fifty miles. The mines are worked on -the most scientific lines. Characteristic of the Rand is the fine white -dust arising from the crushing of the ore, and, close to the batteries, -the incessant din caused by the stamps employed in that operation. The -compounds in general, especially those originally made for Chinese -labourers, are well built, comfortable, and fulfil every hygienic -requirement. Besides the buildings, the compounds include wide stretches -of veld. To enter and remain in the district, Kaffirs require a monthly -pass for which the employer pays 2s. (For details of gold-mining, see -GOLD.) A railway traverses the Rand, going westward past Krugersdorp to -Klerksdorp and thence to Kimberley, and eastward past Springs to Delagoa -Bay. From Springs, 25 m. E. of Johannesburg, is obtained much of the -coal used in the Rand mines. - -The mines within the municipal area produce nearly half the total gold -output of the Transvaal. The other industries of Johannesburg include -brewing; printing and bookbinding, timber sawing, flour milling, iron -and brass founding, brick making and the manufacture of tobacco. - -_Health, Education and Social Conditions._--The elevation of -Johannesburg makes it, despite its nearness to the tropics, a healthy -place for European habitation. Built on open undulating ground, the town -is, however, subject to frequent dust storms and to considerable -variations in the temperature. The nights in winter are frosty and snow -falls occasionally. The average day temperature in winter is 53 deg. F., -in summer 75 deg.; the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate -among white inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal -causes of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants, are -diseases of the lungs--including miners' phthisis and -pneumonia--diarrhoea, dysentery and enteric. The death-rate among young -children is very high. - -Education is provided in primary and secondary schools maintained by the -state. In the primary schools education is free but not compulsory. The -Transvaal university college, founded in 1904 as the technical institute -(the change of title being made in 1906), provides full courses in -science, mining, engineering and law. In 1906 Alfred Beit (q.v.) -bequeathed L200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping -university buildings. - -In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town and -Durban. The white population is not only far larger but more -cosmopolitan, less stationary and more dependent on a single industry; -it has few links with the past, and both city and citizens bear the -marks of youth. The cost of living is much higher than in London or New -York. House rent, provisions, clothing, are all very dear, and more than -counter-balance the lowness of rates. The customary unit of expenditure -is the threepenny-bit or "tickey." - -_Sanitary and other Services._--There is an ample supply of water to the -town and mines, under a water board representing all the Rand -municipalities and the mining companies. A water-borne sewerage system -began to be introduced in 1906. The general illuminant is electricity, -and both electrical and gas services are owned by the municipality. The -tramway service, opened in 1891, was taken over by the municipality in -1904. Up to 1906 the trams were horse-drawn; in that year electric cars -began running. Rickshaws are also a favourite means of conveyance. The -police force is controlled by the government. - -_Area, Government and Rateable Value._--The city proper covers about 6 -sq. m. The municipal boundary extends in every direction some 5 m. from -Market Square, encloses about 82 sq. m. and includes several of the -largest mines. The local government is carried on by an elected -municipal council, the franchise being restricted to white British -subjects (men and women) who rent or own property of a certain value. In -1908 the rateable value of the municipality was L36,466,644, the rate -2(1/4)d. in the L, and the town debt L5,500,000. - -_Population._--In 1887 the population was about 3000. By the beginning -of 1890 it had increased to over 25,000. A census taken in July 1896 -showed a population within a radius of 3 m. from Market Square of -102,078, of whom 50,907 were whites. At the census of April 1904 the -inhabitants of the city proper numbered 99,022, the population within -the municipal area being 155,642, of whom 83,363 were whites. Of the -white inhabitants, 35% were of British origin, 51,629 were males, and -31,734 females. Of persons aged sixteen or over, the number of males was -almost double the number of females. The coloured population included -about 7000 British Indians--chiefly small traders. A municipal census -taken in August 1908 gave the following result: whites 95,162; natives -and coloured 78,781; Asiatics 6780--total 180,687. - -_History._--Johannesburg owes its existence to the discovery of gold in -the Witwatersrand reefs. The town, named after Johannes Rissik, then -surveyor-general of the Transvaal, was founded in September 1886, the -first buildings being erected on the part of the reef where are now the -Ferreira and Wemmer mines. These buildings were found to cover valuable -ore, and in December following the Boer government marked out the site -of the city proper, and possession of the plots was given to purchasers -on the 1st of January 1887. The exploitation of the mines led to a rapid -development of the town during the next three years. The year 1890 was -one of great depression following the exhaustion of the surface ore, but -the provision of better machinery and cheaper coal led to a revival in -1891. By 1892 the leading mines had proved their dividend-earning -capacity, and in 1895 there was a great "boom" in the shares of the -mining companies. The linking of the town to the seaports by railways -during 1892-1895 gave considerable impetus to the gold-mining industry. -Material prosperity was accompanied, however, by political, educational -and other disadvantages, and the desire of the Johannesburgers--most of -whom were foreigners or "Uitlanders"--to remedy the grievances under -which they suffered led, in January 1896, to an abortive rising against -the Boer government (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). One result of this -movement was a slight advance in municipal self-government. Since 1887 -the management of the town had been entrusted to a nominated sanitary -board, under the chairmanship of the mining commissioner appointed by -the South African Republic. In 1890 elected members had been admitted to -this board, but at the end of 1897 an elective _stadsraad_ (town -council) was constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. -There was a great development in the mining industry during 1897-1898 -and 1899, the value of the gold extracted in 1898 exceeding L15,000,000, -but the political situation grew worse, and in September 1899, owing to -the imminence of war between the Transvaal and Great Britain, the -majority of the Uitlanders fled from the city. Between October 1899, -when war broke out, and the 31st of May 1900, when the city was taken by -the British, the Boer government worked certain mines for their own -benefit. After a period of military administration and of government by -a nominated town council, an ordinance was passed in June 1903 providing -for elective municipal councils, and in December following the first -election to the new council took place. In 1905 the town was divided -into wards. In that year the number of municipal voters was 23,338. In -1909 the proportional representation system was adopted in the election -of town councillors. - -During 1901-1903, while the war was still in progress or but recently -concluded, the gold output was comparatively slight. The difficulty in -obtaining sufficient labour for the mines led to a successful agitation -for the importation of coolies from China (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). -During 1904-1906 over 50,000 coolies were brought to the mines, a -greatly increased output being the result, the value of the gold -extracted in 1905 exceeding L20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased -production of gold, Johannesburg during 1905-1907 passed through a -period of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the -unsettled political situation. In June 1907 the repatriation of the -Chinese coolies began; it was completed in February 1910. - - An excellent compilation, entitled _Johannesburg Statistics_, dealing - with almost every phase of the city's life, is issued monthly (since - January 1905) by the town council. See also the _Post Office - Directory, Transvaal_ (Johannesburg, annually), which contains - specially prepared maps, and the annual reports of the Johannesburg - chamber of commerce. For the political history of Johannesburg, see - the bibliography under TRANSVAAL. - - - - -JOHANNISBERG, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of -Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 6 m. S. -of Rudesheim by railway. The place is mainly celebrated for the -beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill overlooking the Rhine valley, and -is surrounded by vineyards yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The -Schloss, built in 1757-1759 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a -Benedictine monastery founded in 1090, was bestowed, in 1807, by -Napoleon upon Marshal Kellermann. In 1814 it was given by Francis, -emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich, in whose family it still -remains. - - - - -JOHN (Heb. [Hebrew: Yohanan]), _Yohanan_, "Yahweh has been gracious," -Gr. [Greek: Ioannes], Lat. _Joannes_, Ital. _Giovanni_, Span. _Juan_, -Port. _Joao_, Fr. _Jean_, Ger. _Johannes_, _Johann_ [abbr. _Hans_], -Gael. _Ian_, Pol. and Czech _Jan_, Hung. _Janos_), a masculine proper -name common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to its -having been borne by the "Beloved Disciple" of Christ, St John the -Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the Baptist. It has -been the name of twenty-two popes--the style of Popes John XXII. and -XXIII. being due to an error in the number assumed by John XXI. -(q.v.)--and of many sovereigns, princes, &c. The order followed in the -biographical notices below is as follows: (1) the Apostle, (2) the -Baptist, (3) popes, (4) Roman emperors, (5) kings; John of England -first, the rest in the alphabetical order of their countries, (6) other -sovereign princes, (7) non-sovereign princes, (8) saints, (9) -theologians, chroniclers, &c. These princes who are known by a name in -addition to John (John Albert, &c.) will be found after the article -JOHN, GOSPEL OF. - - - - -JOHN, THE APOSTLE, in the Bible, was the son of Zebedee, a Galilean -fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born at Bethsaida, -where along with his brother James he followed his father's occupation. -The family appears to have been in easy circumstances; at least we find -that Zebedee employed hired servants, and that Salome was among those -women who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Mark i. 20, xv. 40, -41, xvi. 1). John's "call" to follow our Lord occurred simultaneously -with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after that addressed to -the brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i. 19, 20). John speedily took -his place among the twelve apostles, sharing with James the title of -Boanerges ("sons of thunder," perhaps strictly "sons of anger," i.e. men -readily angered), and became a member of that inner circle to which, in -addition to his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. -33). John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery -Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus, "We saw one -casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth not us," and tells Him, -"We forbade him" for that reason (Mark ix. 38); and who with his -brother, when a Samaritan village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, -"Wilt thou that we command fire to come down from heaven and consume -them?" (Luke ix. 54). The book of Acts confirms this tradition. After -the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem with Peter -and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the most prominent -among those who bear testimony to the fact of the resurrection (iii. -12-26, iv. 13, 19-22); and is sent with Peter to Samaria, to confirm the -newly converted Christians there (viii. 14, 25). St Paul tells us -similarly that when, on his second visit to Jerusalem, "James," the -Lord's brother, "and Cephas and John, who were considered pillars, -perceived the grace that was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas -the right hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and -they unto the circumcision" (Gal. ii. 9). John thus belonged in 46-47 to -the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know whether to the stricter -group of James or to the milder group of Peter (ibid. ii. 11-14). - -The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates, bishop of -Ephesus (in Euseb., _H. E._ iii. 31; v. 24), attests in 196 that John -"who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus"; but previously in -this very sentence he has declared that "Philip one of the twelve -apostles rests in Hierapolis," although Eusebius (doubtless rightly) -identifies this Philip not with the apostle but with the -deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also declares that John was -a priest wearing the [Greek: petalon] (gold plate) that distinguished -the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in various passages of his works, -181-191, holds a similar tradition. He says that John lived up to the -time of Trajan and published his gospel in Ephesus, and identifies the -apostle with John the disciple of the Lord, who wrote the Apocalypse -under Domitian, whom Irenaeus's teacher Polycarp had known personally -and of whom Polycarp had much to tell. These traditions are accepted and -enlarged by later authors, Tertullian adding that John was banished to -Patmos after he had miraculously survived the punishment of immersion in -burning oil. As it is evident that legend was busy with John as early as -the time of Polycrates, the real worth of these traditions requires to -be tested by examination of their ultimate source. This inquiry has been -pressed upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse -or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been disputed. (See -JOHN, GOSPEL OF, and REVELATION, BOOK OF.) The question has not been -strictly one between advanced and conservative criticism, for the -Tubingen school recognized the Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it -a confirmation of John's residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, -Lutzelberger (1840), Th. Keim (_Jesus v. Naz._, vol. i., 1867), J. H. -Scholten (1872), H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in _Einl. in d. N. T._, 3rd ed., -1902), and other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had -able defenders in Steitz (_Stud. u. Krit._, 1868), Hilgenfeld (_Einl._, -1875) and Lightfoot (_Essays on Supernatural Religion_, collected 1889). -W. Sanday (_Criticism of Fourth Gospel_, 1905) makes passing admissions -eloquent as to the strength of the negative position; whilst amongst -Roman Catholic scholars, A. Loisy (_Le 4me. Ev._, 1903) stands with -Holtzmann, and Th. Calmes (_Ev. selon S. Jean_, 1904, 1906) and L. -Duchesne (_Hist. anc. de l'Egl._, 1906) exhibit, with papal -approbation, the inconclusiveness of the conservative arguments. - -The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of positive -evidence before the latter part of the 2nd century, especially in Papias -and in the epistles of Ignatius and of Irenaeus's authority, Polycarp. -They find it necessary to assume that Irenaeus mistook Polycarp; but -this is not a difficult task, since already Eusebius (c. 310-313) is -compelled to point out that Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle -and a presbyter, and that Irenaeus is mistaken in identifying those two -Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John the Apostle (_H. E._ -iii. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless correctly, that Papias was -"the companion of Polycarp": this fact alone would suffice, given his -two mistakes concerning Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp -had seen John the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) -in the 9th century, and an epitome dating from the 7th or 8th century -but probably based on the _Chronicle_ of Philip of Side (c. 430), -declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias, that John the -Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in 60-70). Adolf Harnack, -_Chron. d. altchr. Litt._ (1897), pp. 656-680), rejects the assertion; -but the number of scholars who accept it as correct is distinctly on the -increase. (F. v. H.) - - - - -JOHN THE BAPTIST, in the Bible, the "forerunner" of Jesus Christ in the -Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he evidently made a great -impression upon his contemporaries (cf. Josephus, _Ant._ xviii., S 5). -According to the birth-narrative embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was -born in "a city of Judah" in "the hill country" (possibly Hebron[1]) of -priestly parentage. His father Zacharias was a priest "of the course of -Abijah," and his mother Elizabeth, who was also of priestly descent, was -related to Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was by six -months. This narrative of the Baptist's birth seems to embody some very -primitive features, Hebraic and Palestinian in character, and possibly -at one time independent of the Christian tradition. In the apocryphal -gospels John is sometimes made the subject of special miraculous -experiences (e.g. in the _Protevangelium Jacobi_, ch. xxii., where -Elizabeth fleeing from Herod's assassins cried: "Mount of God, receive a -mother with her child," and suddenly the mountain was divided and -received her). - -In his 30th year (15th year of the emperor Tiberius, ? A.D. 25-26) John -began his public life in the "wilderness of Judaea," the wild district -that lies between the Kedron and the Dead Sea, and particularly in the -neighbourhood of the Jordan, where multitudes were attracted by his -eloquence. The central theme of his preaching was, according to the -Synoptic Gospels, the nearness of the coming of the Messianic kingdom, -and the consequent urgency for preparation by repentance. John was -evidently convinced that he himself had received the divine commission -to bring to a close and complete the prophetic period, by inaugurating -the Messianic age. He identified himself with the "voice" of Isa. xl. 3. -Noteworthy features of his preaching were its original and prophetic -character, and its high ethical tone, as shown e.g. in its -anti-Pharisaic denunciation of trust in mere racial privilege (Matt. -iii. 9). Herein also lay, probably, the true import of the baptism which -he administered to those who accepted his message and confessed their -sins. It was an act symbolizing moral purification (cf. Ezek. xxxvi. 25; -Zech. xiii. 1) by way of preparation for the coming "kingdom of heaven," -and implied that the Jew so baptized no longer rested in his privileged -position as a child of Abraham. John's appearance, costume and habits of -life, together with the tone of his preaching, all suggest the prophetic -character. He was popularly regarded as a prophet, more especially as a -second Elijah. His preaching awoke a great popular response, -particularly among the masses of the people, "the people of the land." -He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii. 18, &c.), who visited him -regularly in prison (Matt. xi. 2, xiv. 12), and to whom he taught -special forms of prayer (Luke v. 33, xi. 1). Some of these afterwards -became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John's activity indeed had -far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced the Messianic movement -depicted in the Gospels. The preaching of Jesus shows traces of this, -and the Fourth Gospel (as well as the Synoptists) displays a marked -interest in connecting the Johannine movement with the beginnings of -Christianity. The fact that after the lapse of a quarter of a century -there were Christians in Ephesus who accepted John's baptism (Acts -xviii. 25, xix. 3) is highly significant. This influence also persisted -in later times. Christ's estimate of John (Matt. xi. 7 seq.) was a very -high one. He also pointedly alludes to John's work and the people's -relation to it, in many sayings and parables (sometimes in a tone of -irony). The duration of John's ministry cannot be determined with -certainty: it terminated in his imprisonment in the fortress of -Machaerus, to which he had been committed by Herod Antipas, whose -incestuous marriage with Herodias, the Baptist had sternly rebuked. His -execution cannot with safety be placed later than A.D. 28. - -In the church calendar this event is commemorated on the 29th of August. -According to tradition he was buried at Samaria (Theodoret, _H. E._ iii. -3). (G. H. Bo.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] There is no reason to suppose that Jutta is intended by the - [Greek: polis Iouda] of Luke i. 39: the tradition which makes 'Ain - Karim, near Jerusalem, the birthplace of the Baptist only dates from - the crusading period. - - - - -JOHN I., pope from 523 to 526, was a Tuscan by birth, and was -consecrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. In 525 he was sent by -Theodoric at the head of an embassy to Constantinople to obtain from the -emperor Justin toleration for the Arians; but he succeeded so -imperfectly in his mission that Theodoric on his return, suspecting that -he had acted only half-heartedly, threw him into prison, where he -shortly afterwards died, Felix IV. succeeding him. He was enrolled among -the martyrs, his day being May 27. - - - - -JOHN II., pope from 533 to 535, also named Mercurius, was elevated to -the papal chair on the death of Boniface II. During his pontificate a -decree against simony was engraven on marble and placed before the altar -of St Peter's. At the instance of the emperor Justinian he adopted the -proposition _unus de Trinitate passus est in carne_ as a test of the -orthodoxy of certain Scythian monks accused of Nestorian tendencies. He -was succeeded by Agapetus I. - - - - -JOHN III., pope from 561 to 574, successor to Pelagius, was descended -from a noble Roman family. He is said to have been successful in -preventing an invasion of Italy by the recall of the deposed exarch -Narses, but the Lombards still continued their incursions, and, -especially during the pontificate of his successor Benedict I., -inflicted great miseries on the province. - - - - -JOHN IV., pope from 640 to 642, was a Dalmatian by birth, and succeeded -Severinus after the papal chair had been vacant four months. While he -adhered to the repudiation of the Monothelitic doctrine by Severinus, he -endeavoured to explain away the connexion of Honorius I. with the -heresy. His successor was Theodorus I. - - - - -JOHN V., pope from 685 to 686, was a Syrian by birth, and on account of -his knowledge of Greek had in 680 been named papal legate to the sixth -ecumenical council at Constantinople. He was the successor of Benedict -II., and after a pontificate of little more than a year, passed chiefly -in bed, was followed by Conon. - - - - -JOHN VI., pope from 701 to 705, was a native of Greece, and succeeded to -the papal chair two months after the death of Sergius I. He assisted the -exarch Theophylact, who had been sent into Italy by the emperor -Justinian II., and prevented him from using violence against the Romans. -Partly by persuasion and partly by means of a bribe, John succeeded in -inducing Gisulf, duke of Benevento, to withdraw from the territories of -the empire. - - - - -JOHN VII., pope from 705 to 707, successor of John VI., was also of -Greek nationality. He seems to have acceded to the request of the -emperor Justinian II. that he should give his sanction to the decrees of -the Quinisext or Trullan council of 692. There are several monuments of -John in the church of St Maria Antiqua at the foot of the Palatine hill; -others were formerly in the chapel of the Virgin, built by him in the -basilica of St Peter. He was succeeded by Sisinnius. - - - - -JOHN VIII., pope from 872 to 882, successor of Adrian II., was a Roman -by birth. His chief aim during his pontificate was to defend the Roman -state and the authority of the Holy See at Rome from the Saracens, and -from the nascent feudalism which was represented outside by the dukes of -Spoleto and the marquises of Tuscany and within by a party of Roman -nobles. Events, however, were so fatally opposed to his designs that no -sooner did one of his schemes begin to realize itself in fact than it -was shattered by an unlooked-for chance. To obtain an influential -alliance against his enemies, he agreed in 875, after death had deprived -him of his natural protector, the emperor Louis II., to bestow the -imperial crown on Charles the Bald; but that monarch was too much -occupied in France to grant him much effectual aid, and about the time -of the death of Charles he found it necessary to come to terms with the -Saracens, who were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of -an annual tribute. Carloman, the opponent of Charles's son Louis, soon -after invaded northern Italy, and, securing the support of the bishops -and counts, demanded from the pope the imperial crown. John attempted to -temporize, but Lambert, duke of Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom -sickness had recalled to Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an -overwhelming force, and for thirty days virtually held John a prisoner -in St Peter's. Lambert was, however, unsuccessful in winning any -concession from the pope, who after his withdrawal carried out a -previous purpose of going to France. There he presided at the council of -Troyes, which promulgated a ban of excommunication against the -supporters of Carloman--amongst others Adalbert of Tuscany, Lambert of -Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porto, who was afterwards elevated to -the papal chair. In 879 John returned to Italy accompanied by Boso, duke -of Provence, whom he adopted as his son, and made an unsuccessful -attempt to get recognized as king of Italy. In the same year he was -compelled to give a promise of his sanction to the claims of Charles the -Fat, who received from him the imperial crown in 881. Before this, in -order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor against the Saracens, he -had agreed to sanction the restoration of Photius to the see of -Constantinople, and had withdrawn his consent on finding that he reaped -from the concession no substantial benefit. Charles the Fat, partly from -unwillingness, partly from natural inability, gave him also no effectual -aid, and the last years of John VIII. were spent chiefly in hurling vain -anathemas against his various political enemies. According to the -annalist of Fulda, he was murdered by members of his household. His -successor was Marinus. - - - - -JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 900, not only confirmed the judgment of his -predecessor Theodore II. in granting Christian burial to Formosus, but -at a council held at Ravenna decreed that the records of the synod which -had condemned him should be burned. Finding, however, that it was -advisable to cement the ties between the empire and the papacy, John -gave unhesitating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also -induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecration of the -popes should take place only in the presence of the imperial legates. -The sudden death of Lambert shattered the hopes which this alliance -seemed to promise. John was succeeded by Benedict IV. - - - - -JOHN X., pope from 914 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted -the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, the most powerful -noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see -of Bologna and then to the archbishopric of Ravenna. In direct -opposition to a decree of council, he was also at the instigation of -Theodora promoted to the papal chair as the successor of Lando. Like -John IX. he endeavoured to secure himself against his temporal enemies -through a close alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of -Camerino, then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 he -granted the imperial crown to Berengar, and with the assistance of the -forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula he took the field in -person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a great victory on the -banks of the Garigliano. The defeat and death of Berengar through the -combination of the Italian princes, again frustrated the hopes of a -united Italy, and after witnessing several years of anarchy and -confusion John perished through the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of -Theodora. His successor was Leo VI. - - - - -JOHN XI., pope from 931 to 935, was the son of Marozia and the reputed -son of Sergius III. Through the influence of his mother he was chosen to -succeed Stephen VII. at the early age of twenty-one. He was the mere -exponent of the purposes of his mother, until her son Alberic succeeded -in 933 in overthrowing their authority. The pope was kept a virtual -prisoner in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935, in which -year Leo VII. was consecrated his successor. - - - - -JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964, was the son of Alberic, whom he -succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only sixteen years of -age. His original name was Octavian, but when he assumed the papal tiara -as successor to Agapetus II., he adopted the apostolic name of John, the -first example, it is said, of the custom of altering the surname in -connexion with elevation to the papal chair. As a temporal ruler John -was devoid of the vigour and firmness of his father, and his union of -the papal office--which through his scandalous private life he made a -byword of reproach--with his civil dignities proved a source of weakness -rather than of strength. In order to protect himself against the -intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of Italy, he called to -his aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom he granted the imperial crown -in 962. Even before Otto left Rome the pope had, however, repented of -his recognition of a power which threatened altogether to overshadow his -authority, and had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His -intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated and taken -prisoner Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned a council which deposed -John, who was in hiding in the mountains of Campania, and elected Leo -VIII. in his stead. An attempt at an insurrection was made by the -inhabitants of Rome even before Otto left the city, and on his departure -John returned at the head of a formidable company of friends and -retainers, and caused Leo to seek safety in immediate flight. Otto -determined to make an effort in support of Leo, but before he reached -the city John had died, in what manner is uncertain, and Benedict V. had -mounted the papal chair. - - - - -JOHN XIII., pope from 965 to 972, was descended from a noble Roman -family, and at the time of his election as successor to Leo VIII. was -bishop of Narni. He had been somewhat inconsistent in his relations with -his predecessor Leo, but his election was confirmed by the emperor Otto, -and his submissive attitude towards the imperial power was so -distasteful to the Romans that they expelled him from the city. On -account of the threatening procedure of Otto, they permitted him shortly -afterwards to return, upon which, with the sanction of Otto, he took -savage vengeance on those who had formerly opposed him. Shortly after -holding a council along with the emperor at Ravenna in 967, he gave the -imperial crown to Otto II. at Rome in assurance of his succession to his -father; and in 972 he also crowned Theophano as empress immediately -before her marriage. On his death in the same year he was followed by -Benedict VI. - - - - -JOHN XIV., pope from 983 to 984, successor to Benedict VII., was born at -Pavia, and before his elevation to the papal chair was imperial -chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his election, when -Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular feeling against the new -pope, returned from Constantinople and placed John in prison, where he -died either by starvation or poison. - - - - -JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 996, generally recognized as the successor of -Boniface VII., the pope John who was said to have ruled for four months -after John XIV., being now omitted by the best authorities. John XV. was -the son of Leo, a Roman presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal -chair Crescentius was patrician of Rome, but, although his influence was -on this account very much hampered, the presence of the empress -Theophano in Rome from 989 to 991 restrained also the ambition of -Crescentius. On her departure the pope, whose venality and nepotism had -made him very unpopular with the citizens, died of fever before the -arrival of Otto III., who elevated his own kinsman Bruno to the papal -dignity under the name of Gregory V. - - - - -JOHN XVI.,, pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian Greek by -birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from whom he had -received the bishopric of Placentia. His original name was Philagathus. -In 995 he was sent by Otto III. on an embassy to Constantinople to -negotiate a marriage with a Greek princess. On his way back he either -accidentally or at the special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A -little before this Gregory V., at the end of 996, had been compelled to -flee from the city; and the wily and ambitious Greek had now no scruple -in accepting the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius. The arrival -of Otto at Rome in the spring of 998 put a sudden end to the treacherous -compact. John sought safety in flight, but was discovered in his place -of hiding and brought back to Rome, where after enduring cruel and -ignominious tortures he was immured in a dungeon. - - - - -JOHN XVII., whose original name was Sicco, succeeded Silvester II. as -pope in June 1003, but died less than five months afterwards. - - - - -JOHN XVIII., pope from 1003 to 1009, was, during his whole pontificate, -the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius, and ultimately he -abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he died shortly afterwards. -His successor was Sergius IV. - - - - -JOHN XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033, succeeded his brother Benedict VIII., -both being members of the powerful house of Tusculum. He merely took -orders to enable him to ascend the papal chair, having previously been a -consul and senator. He displayed his freedom from ecclesiastical -prejudices, if also his utter ignorance of ecclesiastical history, by -agreeing, on the payment of a large bribe, to grant to the patriarch of -Constantinople the title of an ecumenical bishop, but the general -indignation which the proposal excited throughout the church compelled -him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On the death of -the emperor Henry II. in 1024 he gave his support to Conrad II., who -along with his consort was crowned with great pomp at St Peter's in -Easter of 1027. John died in 1033, in the full possession of his -dignities. A successor was found for him in his nephew Benedict IX., a -boy of only twelve years of age. (L. D.*) - - - - -JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo), pope from the 8th of September 1276 -to the 20th of May 1277 (should be named John XX., but there is an error -in the reckoning through the insertion of an antipope), a native of -Portugal, educated for the church, became archdeacon and then archbishop -of Braga, and so ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of -Lyons (1274) that he was taken to Rome as cardinal-bishop of Frascati, -and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days. As pope he -excommunicated Alphonso III. of Portugal for interfering with episcopal -elections and sent legates to the Great Khan. He was devoted to secular -science, and his small affection for the monks awakened the distrust of -a large portion of the clergy. His life was brought to a premature close -through the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Viterbo. His -successor was Nicholas III. - -JOHN XXI. has been identified since the 14th century, most probably -correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portuguese physician and -philosopher, author of several medical works--notably the curious _Liber -de oculo_, trans. into German and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, -1899), and of a popular textbook in logic, the _Summulae logicales_. -John XXI. is constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant -chroniclers. - - See _Les Registres de Gregoire X. et Jean XXI._, published by J. - Guiraud and E. Cadier in _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes - et de Rome_ (Paris, 1898); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._, vol. - 2 (Berlin, 1875); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. v., - trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); R. Stapper, _Papst - Johann XXI._ (Munster, 1898); J. T. Kohler, _Vollstandige Nachricht - von Papst Johann XXI._ (Gottingen, 1760). (C. H. Ha.) - - - - -JOHN XXII., pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors, France, in 1249. -His original name was Jacques Duese, and he came either of a family of -petty nobility or else of well-to-do middle-class parents, and was not, -as has been popularly supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his -education with the Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at -Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught at Cahors -and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with the bishop Louis, son -of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he was elevated to the episcopal -see of Frejus by Pope Boniface VIII. at the instance of the king of -Naples, and in 1308 was made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining -this office under Charles's successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1310 Pope -Clement V. summoned Jacques to Avignon and instructed him to advise upon -the affair of the Templars and also upon the question of condemning the -memory of Boniface VIII. Jacques decided on the legality of suppressing -the order of the Templars, holding that the pope would be serving the -best interests of the church by pronouncing its suppression; but he -rejected the condemnation of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the -church and a monstrous abuse of the lay power. On the 23rd of December -1312 Clement appointed him cardinal-bishop of Porto, and it was while -cardinal of Porto that he was elected pope, on the 7th of August 1316. -Clement had died in April 1314, but the cardinals assembled at -Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor. As the two-thirds -majority requisite for an election could not be obtained, the cardinals -separated, and it was not until the 28th of June 1316 that they -reassembled in the cloister of the Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in -deference to the pressure exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. -After deliberating for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou's -candidate, Jacques Duese, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and -on the 2nd of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained for the rest -of his life. - -More jurist than theologian, John defended the rights of the papacy with -rigorous zeal and as rigorous logic. For the restoration of the papacy -to its old independence, which had been so gravely compromised under his -immediate predecessors, and for the execution of the vast enterprises -which the papacy deemed useful for its prestige and for Christendom, -considerable sums were required; and to raise the necessary money John -burdened Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated fiscal -system, which was fraught with serious consequences. For his personal -use, however, he retained but a very small fraction of the sums thus -acquired, and at his death his private fortune amounted to scarce a -million florins. The essentially practical character of his -administration has led many historians to tax him with avarice, but -later research on the fiscal system of the papacy of the period, -particularly the joint work of Samaran and Mollat, enables us very -sensibly to modify the severe judgment passed on John by Gregorovius and -others. - -John's pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict with Louis -of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the Spiritual Franciscans. -In October 1314 Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had each been -elected German king by the divided electors. Louis was gradually -recognized by the whole of Germany, especially after his victory at -Muhldorf (1322), and gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he -supported the Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope. -John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th of -October 1323 forbade his recognition as king of the Romans. After -demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nuremberg from the -future sentence of the pope to a general council (December 8, 1323). The -conflict then assumed a grave doctrinal character. The doctrine of the -rights of the lay monarchy sustained by Occam and John of Paris, by -Marsilius of Padua, John of Jandun and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed -by the jurists and theologians, penetrated into the parlements and the -universities, and was combated by the upholders of papal absolutism, -such as Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo. Excommunicated on the 21st of -March 1324, Louis retorted by appealing for a second time to a general -council, which was held on the 22nd of May 1324, and accused John of -being an enemy to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic -on the ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty as -professed by the strict Franciscans. From this moment Louis appeared in -the character of the natural ally and even the protector of the -Spirituals against the persecution of the pope. On the 11th of July 1324 -the pope laid under an interdict the places where Louis or his adherents -resided, but this bull had no effect in Germany. Equally futile was -John's declaration (April 3, 1327) that Louis had forfeited his crown -and abetted heresy by granting protection to Marsilius of Padua. Having -reconciled himself with Frederick of Austria, Louis penetrated into -Italy and seized Rome on the 7th of January 1328, with the help of the -Roman Ghibellines led by Sciarra Colonna. After installing himself in -the Vatican, Louis got himself crowned by the deputies of the Roman -people; instituted proceedings for the deposition of John, whom the -Roman people, displeased by the spectacle of the papacy abandoning Rome, -declared to have forfeited the pontificate (April 18, 1328); and finally -caused a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucci da Corvara, to be elected -pope under the name of Nicholas V. John preached a platonic crusade -against Louis, who burned the pope's effigy at Pisa and in Amelia. Soon, -however, Louis felt his power waning, and quitted Rome and Italy (1329). -Incapable of independent action, the antipope was abandoned by the -Romans and handed over to John, who forced him to make a solemn -submission with a halter round his neck (August 15, 1330). Nicholas was -condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity at Avignon; -while the Roman people submitted to King Robert, who governed the church -through his vicars. In 1317, in execution of a bull of Clement V., the -royal vicariate in Italy had been conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, -and this appointment was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of -excommunication against any one who should seize the vicariate of Italy -without the authorization of the pope. One of John's last acts was his -decision to separate Italy from the Empire, but this bull was of no -avail and fell into oblivion. After his death, however, the interdict -was not removed from Germany, and the resistance of Louis and his -theologians continued. - -A violent manifestation of this resistance took place in connexion with -the accusation of heresy brought against the pope. On the third Sunday -in Advent 1329, and afterwards in public consistory, John had preached -that the souls of those who have died in a state of grace go into -Abraham's bosom, _sub altari Dei_, and do not enjoy the beatific vision -(_visio facie ad faciem_) of the Lord until after the Last Judgment and -the Resurrection; and he had even instructed a Minorite friar, Gauthier -of Dijon, to collect the passages in the Fathers which were in favour of -this doctrine. On the 27th of December 1331 a Dominican, Thomas of -England, preached against this doctrine at Avignon itself and was thrown -into prison. When news of this affair had reached Paris, the pope sent -the general of the Minorites, Gerard Odonis, accompanied by a Dominican, -to sustain his doctrine in that city, but King Philip VI., perhaps at -the instigation of the refugee Spirituals in Paris, referred the -question to the faculty of theology, which, on the 2nd of January 1333, -declared that the souls of the blessed were elevated to the beatific -vision immediately after death; the faculty, nevertheless, were of -opinion that the pope should have propounded his erroneous doctrine only -"_recitando_," and not "_determinando, asserendo, seu etiam opinando_." -The king notified this decision to the pope, who assembled his -consistory in November 1333, and gave a haughty reply. The theologians -in Louis's following who were opposed to papal absolutism already spoke -of "the new heretic, Jacques de Cahors," and reiterated with increasing -insistency their demands for the convocation of a general council to try -the pope. John appears to have retracted shortly before his death, which -occurred on the 4th of December 1334.[1] - -John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the upholders of -the independence of the lay power, but also among the upholders of -absolute religious poverty, the exalted Franciscans. Clement V., at the -council of Vienne, had attempted to bring back the Spirituals to the -common rule by concessions; John, on the other hand, in the bull -_Quorundam exigit_ (April 13, 1317), adopted an uncompromising and -absolute attitude, and by the bull _Gloriosam ecclesiam_ (January 23, -1318) condemned the protests which had been raised against the bull -_Quorundam_ by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed to -Avignon by the monk Bernard Delicieux. Shortly afterwards four -Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were immediately hailed as -martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted Franciscans at Naples and in -Sicily and the south of France the pope was regarded as antichrist. In -the bull _Sancta Romana et universa ecclesia_ (December 28, 1318) John -definitively excommunicated them and condemned their principal book, the -_Postil_ (commentary) on the Apocalypse (February 8, 1326). The bull -_Quia nonnunquam_ (March 26, 1322) defined the derogations from the rule -punished by the pope, and the bull _Cum inter nonnullos_ (November 12, -1323) condemned the proposition which had been admitted at the general -chapter of the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which -Christ and the Apostles were represented as possessing no property, -either personal or common. The minister general, Michael of Cesena, -though opposed to the exaggerations of the Spirituals, joined with them -in protesting against the condemnation of the fundamental principle of -evangelical poverty, and the agitation gradually gained ground. The -pope, by the bull _Quia quorundam_ (November 10, 1324), cited Michael to -appear at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia. All three -fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328), while the majority -of the Franciscans made submission and elected a general entirely -devoted to the pope. But the resistance, aided by Louis and merged as it -now was in the cause sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, -became daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the -party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the -condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals, -confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with Fraticelli of -every description, maintained themselves in the south of France in spite -of the reign of terror instituted in that region by the Inquisition. - - See M. Souchon, _Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII. bis Urban VI._ - (Brunswick, 1888); Abbe Albe, _Autour de Jean XXII._ (Rome, 1904); K. - Muller, _Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie_ (Tubingen, 1879 - seq.); W. Preger, "Memoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et Louis de - Baviere" in _Abhandl. der bayr. Akad._, hist. sec., xv., xvi., xvii.; - S. Riezler, _Die litterar. Widersacher der Papste zur Zeit Ludwigs des - Baiers_ (Leipzig, 1874); F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen" in _Archiv fur - Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (vols. i. and ii.); - C. Samaran and G. Mollat, _La Fiscalite pontificale en France au xiv^e - siecle_ (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, _Lettres secretes et - curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant a la France_ (Paris, 1899, seq.). - (P. A.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] On the 29th of January 1336 Pope Benedict XII. pronounced a long - judgment on this point of doctrine, a judgment which he declared had - been included by John in a bull which death had prevented him from - sealing. - - - - -JOHN XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather antipope from 1410 to -1415, was born of a good Neapolitan family, and began by leading the -life of a corsair before entering the service of the Church under the -pontificate of Boniface IX. His abilities, which were mainly of an -administrative and military order, were soon rewarded by the cardinal's -hat and the legation of Bologna. On the 29th of June 1408 he and seven -of his colleagues broke away from Gregory XII., and together with six -cardinals of the obedience of Avignon, who had in like manner separated -from Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assembling of a general -council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs, an expedient which they -considered would put an end to the great schism of the Western Church, -but which resulted in the election of yet a third pope. This act was -none the less decisive for Baldassare Cossa's future. Alexander V., the -first pope elected at Pisa, was not perhaps, as has been maintained, -merely a man of straw put forward by the ambitious cardinal of Bologna; -but he reigned only ten months, and on his death, which happened rather -suddenly on the 4th of May 1410, Baldassare Cossa succeeded him. -Whether the latter had bought his electors by money and promises, or -owed his success to his dominant position in Bologna, and to the support -of Florence and of Louis II. of Anjou, he seems to have received the -unanimous vote of all the seventeen cardinals gathered together at -Bologna (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII., and France, England, -and part of Italy and Germany recognized him as head of the Catholic -church. - -The struggle in which he and Louis II. of Anjou engaged with Ladislaus -of Durazzo, king of Sicily, and Gregory XII.'s chief protector in Italy, -at first went in John's favour. After the brilliant victory of -Roccasecca (May 19, 1411) he had the satisfaction of dragging the -standards of Pope Gregory and King Ladislaus through the streets of -Rome. But the dispersion of Louis of Anjou's troops and his -carelessness, together with the lack of success which attended the -preaching of a crusade in Germany, France and England, finally decided -John XXIII. to abandon the French claimant to the throne of Sicily; he -recognized Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples, and Ladislaus -did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory XII. -(June 15, 1412). This was a fatal step: John XXIII. was trusting in a -dishonest and insatiable prince; he would have acted more wisely in -remaining the ally of the weak but loyal Louis of Anjou. However, it -seemed desirable that the reforms announced by the council of Pisa, -which the popes set up by this synod seemed in no hurry to carry into -effect, should be further discussed in the new council which it had been -agreed should be summoned about the spring of 1412. But John was anxious -that this council should be held in Rome, a city where he alone was -master; the few prelates and ambassadors who very slowly gathered there -held only a small number of sessions, in which John again condemned the -writings of Wycliffe. John was attacked by the representatives of the -various nations and reprimanded even for his private conduct, but -endeavoured to extricate himself from this uncomfortable position by -gratifying their desires, if not by reforming abuses. It is, however, -only fair to add that he took various half-measures and gave many -promises which, if they had been put into execution, would have -confirmed or completed the reforms inaugurated at Pisa. But on the 3rd -of March 1413 John adjourned the council of Rome till December, without -even fixing the place where the next session should be held. It was held -at Constance in Germany, and John could only have resigned himself to -accepting such an uncertain meeting-place because he was forced by -distress, isolation and fear to turn towards the head of the empire. -Less than a year after the treaty concluded with Ladislaus of Durazzo, -the latter forced his way into Rome (June 8, 1413), which he sacked, -expelling John, to whom even the Florentines did not dare to throw open -their gates for fear of the king of Sicily. Sigismund, king of the -Romans, not only extorted, it is said, a sum of 50,000 florins from the -pontiff in his extremity, but insisted upon his summoning the council at -Constance (December 9). It was in vain that, on the death of Ladislaus, -which took place unexpectedly (August 6, 1414), John was inspired with -the idea of breaking his compact with Sigismund and returning to Rome, -at the same time appealing to Louis of Anjou. It was too late. The -cardinals forced him towards Germany by the most direct road, without -allowing him to go by way of Avignon as he had projected, in order to -make plans with the princes of France. - -On the 5th of November 1414 John opened the council of Constance, where, -on Christmas Day, he received the homage of the head of the empire, but -where his lack of prestige, the defection of his allies, the fury of his -adversaries, and the general sense of the necessity for union soon -showed only too clearly how small was the chance of his retaining the -tiara. He had to take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals would -do the same, and this concession, which was not very sincere, gained him -for the last time the honour of seeing Sigismund prostrate at his feet -(March 2, 1415). But on the night of the 20th-21st of March, having -donned the garments of a layman, with a cross-bow slung at his side, he -succeeded in making his escape from Constance, accompanied only by a -single servant, and took refuge first in the castle of Schaffhausen, -then in that of Laufenburg, then at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and finally at -Brisach, whence he hoped to reach Alsace, and doubtless ultimately -Avignon, under the protection of an escort sent by the duke of Burgundy. -The news of the pope's escape was received at Constance with an -extraordinary outburst of rage, and led to the subversive decrees of the -4th and 5th sessions, which proclaimed the superiority of the council -over the pope. Duke Frederick of Austria had hitherto sheltered John's -flight; but, laid under the ban of the empire, attacked by powerful -armies, and feeling that he was courting ruin, he preferred to give up -the pontiff who had trusted to him. John was brought back to Freiburg -(April 27), and there in vain attempted to appease the wrath which he -had aroused by more or less vague promises of resignation. His trial, -however, was already beginning. The three cardinals whom he charged with -his defence hastily declined this compromising task. Seventy-four -charges were drawn up, only twenty of which were set aside after the -witnesses had been heard. The accusation of having poisoned Alexander V. -and his doctor at Bologna was not maintained. But enough deeds of -immorality, tyranny, ambition and simony were found proved to justify -the severest judgment. He was suspended from his functions as pope on -the 14th of May 1415, and deposed on the following 29th of May. - -However irregular this sentence may have been from the canonical point -of view (for the accusers do not seem to have actually proved the crime -of heresy, which was necessary, according to most scholars of the -period, to justify the deposition of a sovereign pontiff), the condemned -pope was not long in confirming it. Baldassare Cossa, now as humble and -resigned as he had before been energetic and tenacious, on his -transference to the castle of Rudolfzell admitted the wrong which he had -done by his flight, refused to bring forward anything in his defence, -acquiesced entirely in the judgment of the council which he declared to -be infallible, and finally, as an extreme precaution, ratified _motu -proprio_ the sentence of deposition, declaring that he freely and -willingly renounced any rights which he might still have in the papacy. -This fact has subsequently been often quoted against those who have -appealed to the events of 1415 to maintain that a council can depose a -pope who is _scandalizator ecclesiae_. - -Cossa kept his word never to appeal against the sentence which stripped -him of the pontificate. He was held prisoner for three years in Germany, -but in the end bought his liberty from the count palatine. He used this -liberty only to go to Florence, in 1419, and throw himself on the mercy -of the legitimate pope. Martin V. appointed him cardinal-bishop of -Tusculum, a dignity which Cossa only enjoyed for a few months. He died -on the 22nd of December 1419, and all visitors to the Baptistery at -Florence may admire, under its high baldacchino, the sombre figure -sculptured by Donatello of the dethroned pontiff, who had at least the -merit of bowing his head under his chastisement, and of contributing by -his passive resignation to the extinction of the series of popes which -sprang from the council of Pisa. (N. V.) - - - - -JOHN I. (925-976), surnamed Tzimisces, East Roman emperor, was born of a -distinguished Cappadocian family. After helping his uncle Nicephorus -Phocas (q.v.) to obtain the throne and to restore the empire's eastern -provinces he was deprived of his command by an intrigue, upon which he -retaliated by conspiring with Nicephorus' wife Theophania to assassinate -him. Elected ruler in his stead, John proceeded to justify his -usurpation by the energy with which he repelled the foreign invaders of -the empire. In a series of campaigns against the newly established -Russian power (970-973) he drove the enemy out of Thrace, crossed Mt -Haemus and besieged the fortress of Dorystolon on the Danube. In several -hard-fought battles he broke the strength of the Russians so completely -that they left him master of eastern Bulgaria. He further secured his -northern frontier by transplanting to Thrace some colonies of Paulicians -whom he suspected of sympathising with their Saracen neighbours in the -east. In 974 he turned against the Abassid empire and easily recovered -the inland parts of Syria and the middle reaches of the Euphrates. He -died suddenly in 976 on his return from his second campaign against the -Saracens. John's surname was apparently derived from the Armenian -_tshemshkik_ (red boot). - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol. vi. - (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, ii. 334-360 (ed. - 1877); G. Schlumberger, _L'Epopee Byzantine_, i. 1-326 (1896). - - - - -JOHN II. (1088-1143), surnamed Comnenus and also Kalojoannes (John the -Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest son of the East Roman emperor -Alexius, whom he succeeded in 1118. On account of his mild and just -reign he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. By the personal -purity of his character he effected a notable improvement in the manners -of his age, but he displayed little vigour in internal administration or -in extirpating the long-standing corruptions of the government. Nor did -his various successes against the Hungarians, Servians and Seljuk Turks, -whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and proposed to expel from Jerusalem, -add much to the stability of his empire. He was accidentally killed -during a wild-boar hunt on Mt Taurus, on the 8th of April 1143. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, v. 228 seq. - (ed. Bury, 1896). - - - - -JOHN III. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas, East Roman -emperor, earned for himself such distinction as a soldier that in 1222 -he was chosen to succeed his father-in-law Theodore I. Lascaris. He -reorganized the remnant of the East Roman empire, and by his -administrative skill made it the strongest and richest principality in -the Levant. Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with the -Turks, he set himself to recover the European possessions of his -predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins in the Aegean Sea and -extended his realm to Rhodes, his army, reinforced by Frankish -mercenaries, defeated the Latin emperor's forces in the open field. -Though unsuccessful in a siege of Constantinople, which he undertook in -concert with the Bulgarians (1235), he obtained supremacy over the -despotats of Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of -Constantinople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 431-462 - (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, iii. 196-320 (ed. - 1877); A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Historia tou Basileiou tes Nikaias kai - tou Despotatou tes Epeirou], pp. 155-421 (1898). - - - - -JOHN IV. (c. 1250-c. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman emperor, son -of Theodore II. His father dying in 1258, Michael Palaeologus conspired -shortly after to make himself regent, and in 1261 dethroned and blinded -the boy monarch, and imprisoned him in a remote castle, where he died a -long time after. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 459-466 - (ed. Bury, 1896); A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Historia tou Basileiou tes - Nikaias] (Athens, 1898), pp. 491-528. - - - - -JOHN V. or VI. (1332-1391), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, -was the son of Andronicus III., whom he succeeded in 1341. At first he -shared his sovereignty with his father's friend John Cantacuzene, and -after a quarrel with the latter was practically superseded by him for a -number of years (1347-1355). His reign was marked by the gradual -dissolution of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son -Andronicus and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381 -John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to secure the -help of the popes by submitting to the supremacy of the Roman Church. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 495 - seq., vii. 38 seq. (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, _The Destruction of the - Greek Empire_, pp. 70-96 (1903). - - - - -JOHN VI. or V. (c. 1292-1383), surnamed Cantacuzene, East Roman emperor, -was born at Constantinople. Connected with the house of Palaeologus on -his mother's side, on the accession of Andronicus III. (1328) he was -entrusted with the supreme administration of affairs. On the death of -the emperor in 1341, Cantacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his -son John Palaeologus, who was but nine years of age. Being suspected by -the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, he rebelled, and -got himself crowned emperor at Didymoteichos in Thrace, while John -Palaeologus and his supporters maintained themselves at Constantinople. -The civil war which ensued lasted six years, during which the rival -parties called in the aid of the Servians and Turks, and engaged -mercenaries of every description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, -with whom he made a disgraceful bargain, that Cantacuzene brought the -war to a termination favourable to himself. In 1347 he entered -Constantinople in triumph, and forced his opponents to an arrangement by -which he became joint emperor with John Palaeologus and sole -administrator during the minority of his colleague. During this period, -the empire, already broken up and reduced to the narrowest limits, was -assailed on every side. There were wars with the Genoese, who had a -colony at Galata and had money transactions with the court; and with the -Servians, who were at that time establishing an extensive empire on the -north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous alliance with the -Turks, who made their first permanent settlement in Europe, at -Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the reign (1354). Cantacuzene -was far too ready to invoke the aid of foreigners in his European -quarrels; and as he had no money to pay them, this gave them a ready -pretext for seizing upon a European town. The financial burdens imposed -by him had long been displeasing to his subjects, and a strong party had -always favoured John Palaeologus. Hence, when the latter entered -Constantinople at the end of 1354, his success was easy. Cantacuzene -retired to a monastery (where he assumed the name of Joasaph -Christodulus) and occupied himself in literary labours. He died in the -Peloponnese and was buried by his sons at Mysithra in Laconia. His -_History_ in four books deals with the years 1320-1356. Really an -apologia for his own actions, it needs to be read with caution; -fortunately it can be supplemented and corrected by the work of a -contemporary, Nicephorus Gregoras. It possesses the merit of being well -arranged and homogeneous, the incidents being grouped round the chief -actor in the person of the author, but the information is defective on -matters with which he is not directly concerned. - - Cantacuzene was also the author of a commentary on the first five - books of Aristotle's _Ethics_, and of several controversial - theological treatises, one of which (_Against Mohammedanism_) is - printed in Migne (_Patrologia Graeca_, cliv.). _History_, ed. pr. by - J. Pontanus (1603); in Bonn, _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, by J. - Schopen (1828-1832) and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, - _Cantacuzene, homme d'etat et historien_ (1845); E. Gibbon, _Decline - and Fall_, ch. lxiii.; and C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der - byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). - - - - -JOHN VI. or VII. (1390-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, -son of Manuel II., succeeded to the throne in 1425. To secure protection -against the Turks he visited the pope and consented to the union of the -Greek and Roman churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The -union failed of its purpose, but by his prudent conduct towards the -Ottomans he succeeded in holding possession of Constantinople, and in -1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I. - - See TURKEY: _History_; and also E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of - the Roman Empire_, vi. 97-107 (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, _The - Destruction of the Greek Empire_, pp. 115-130 (1903). - - - - -JOHN (1167-1216), king of England, the youngest son of Henry II. by -Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford on the 24th of December 1167. -He was given at an early age the nickname of Lackland because, unlike -his elder brothers, he received no apanage in the continental provinces. -But his future was a subject of anxious thought to Henry II. When only -five years old John was betrothed (1173) to the heiress of Maurienne and -Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the chief routes from France -and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a consequence out of all proportion to -its area. Later, when this plan had fallen through, he was endowed with -castles, revenues and lands on both sides of the channel; the vacant -earldom of Cornwall was reserved for him (1175); he was betrothed to -Isabella the heiress of the earldom of Gloucester (1176); and he was -granted the lordship of Ireland with the homage of the Anglo-Irish -baronage (1177). Henry II. even provoked a civil war by attempting to -transfer the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of Richard Coeur de Lion -to those of John (1183). In spite of the incapacity which he displayed -in this war, John was sent a little later to govern Ireland (1185); but -he returned in a few months covered with disgrace, having alienated the -loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and entirely failed to defend the -settlers from the hostile septs. Remaining henceforth at his father's -side he was treated with the utmost indulgence. But he joined with his -brother Richard and the French king Philip Augustus in the great -conspiracy of 1189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of -the old king (see HENRY II.). - -Richard on his accession confirmed John's existing possessions; married -him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides other grants, the -entire revenues of six English shires; but excluded him from any share -in the regency which was appointed to govern England during the third -crusade; and only allowed him to live in the kingdom because urged to -this concession by their mother. Soon after the king's departure for the -Holy Land it became known that he had designated his nephew, the young -Arthur of Brittany, as his successor. John at once began to intrigue -against the regents with the aim of securing England for himself. He -picked a quarrel with the unpopular chancellor William Longchamp (q.v.), -and succeeded, by the help of the barons and the Londoners, in expelling -this minister, whose chief fault was that of fidelity to the absent -Richard. Not being permitted to succeed Longchamp as the head of the -administration, John next turned to Philip Augustus for help. A bargain -was struck; and when Richard was captured by Leopold, duke of Austria -(December 1192), the allies endeavoured to prevent his release, and -planned a partition of his dominions. They were, however, unable to win -either English or Norman support and their schemes collapsed with -Richard's return (March 1194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother, -and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five years. On his -deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements, caused his barons -to swear fealty to John (1199), although the hereditary claim of Arthur -was by the law of primogeniture undoubtedly superior. - -England and Normandy, after some hesitation, recognized John's title; -the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the rights of Arthur ended -disastrously by the capture of the young prince at Mirebeau in Poitou -(1202). But there was no part of his dominions in which John inspired -personal devotion. Originally accepted as a political necessity, he soon -came to be detested by the people as a tyrant and despised by the nobles -for his cowardice and sloth. He inherited great difficulties--the feud -with France, the dissensions of the continental provinces, the growing -indifference of England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his -subjects with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he cannot be -acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes. Astute in -small matters, he had no breadth of view or foresight; his policy was -continually warped by his passions or caprices; he flaunted vices of the -most sordid kind with a cynical indifference to public opinion, and -shocked an age which was far from tender-hearted by his ferocity to -vanquished enemies. He treated his most respectable supporters with base -ingratitude, reserved his favour for unscrupulous adventurers, and gave -a free rein to the licence of his mercenaries. While possessing -considerable gifts of mind and a latent fund of energy, he seldom acted -or reflected until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great -humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders. By -his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the English baronage -(1200); by his marriage with Isabella of Angouleme, the betrothed of -Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an opportunity to the discontented Poitevins -for invoking French assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing -against him a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (1203) ruined -his cause in Normandy and Anjou; the story that the court of the peers -of France condemned him for the murder is a fable, but no legal process -was needed to convince men of his guilt. In the later quarrel with -Innocent III. (1207-1213; see LANGTON, STEPHEN) he prejudiced his case -by proposing a worthless favourite for the primacy and by plundering -those of the clergy who bowed to the pope's sentences. Threatened with -the desertion of his barons he drove all whom he suspected to -desperation by his terrible severity towards the Braose family (1210); -and by his continued misgovernment irrevocably estranged the lower -classes. When submission to Rome had somewhat improved his position he -squandered his last resources in a new and unsuccessful war with France -(1214), and enraged the feudal classes by new claims for military -service and scutages. The barons were consequently able to exact, in -Magna Carta (June 1215), much more than the redress of legitimate -grievances; and the people allowed the crown to be placed under the -control of an oligarchical committee. When once the sovereign power had -been thus divided, the natural consequence was civil war and the -intervention of the French king, who had long watched for some such -opportunity. John's struggle against the barons and Prince Louis (1216), -afterwards King Louis VIII., was the most creditable episode of his -career. But the calamitous situation of England at the moment of his -death, on the 19th of October 1216, was in the main his work; and while -he lived a national reaction in favour of the dynasty was out of the -question. - -John's second wife, Isabella of Angouleme (d. 1246), who married her -former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the English king's death, bore the -king two sons, Henry III. and Richard, earl of Cornwall; and three -daughters, Joan (1210-1238), wife of Alexander II., king of Scotland, -Isabella (d. 1241), wife of the emperor Frederick II., and Eleanor (d. -1274), wife of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and then of Simon de -Montfort, earl of Leicester. John had also two illegitimate sons, -Richard and Oliver, and a daughter, Joan or Joanna, who married Llewelyn -I. ab Iorwerth, prince of North Wales, and who died in 1236 or 1237. - - AUTHORITIES.--The chief chronicles for the reign are Gervase of - Canterbury's _Gesta regum_, Ralf of Coggeshall's _Chronicon_, Walter - of Coventry's _Memoriale_, Roger of Wendover's _Flores historiarum_, - the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan--all these in the Rolls - Series. The French chronicle of the so-called "Anonyme de Bethune" - (Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_, vol. - xxiv.), the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre_ - (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) and the metrical biography of William the - Marshal (_Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal_, ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., - Paris, 1891, &c.) throw valuable light on certain episodes. H. S. - Sweetman's _Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland_, vol. i. (Rolls - Series); W. H. Bliss's _Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers_, - vol. i. (Rolls Series); Potthast's _Regesta pontificum_, vol. i. - (Berlin, 1874); Sir T. D. Hardy's _Rotuli litterarum clausarum_ (Rec. - Commission, 1835) and _Rotuli litterarum patentium_ (Rec. Commission, - 1835) and L. Delisle's _Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste_ - (Paris, 1856) are the most important guides to the documents. Of - modern works W. Stubbs's _Constitutional history_, vol. i. (Oxford, - 1897); the same writer's preface to _Walter of Coventry_, vol. ii. - (Rolls Series); Miss K. Norgate's _John Lackland_ (London, 1902); C. - Petit-Dutaillis' _Etude sur la vie et le regne de Louis VIII._ (Paris, - 1894) and W. S. McKechnie's _Magna Carta_ (Glasgow, 1905) are among - the most useful. (H. W. C. D.) - - - - -JOHN I. (1350-1395), king of Aragon, was the son of Peter IV. and his -third wife Eleanor of Sicily. He was born on the 27th of December 1350, -and died by a fall from his horse, like his namesake, cousin and -contemporary of Castile. He was a man of insignificant character, with a -taste for artificial verse. - - - - -JOHN II. (1397-1479), king of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. and of his -wife Eleanor of Albuquerque, born on the 29th of June 1397, was one of -the most stirring and most unscrupulous kings of the 15th century. In -his youth he was one of the _infantes_ (princes) of Aragon who took part -in the dissensions of Castile during the minority and reign of John II. -Till middle life he was also lieutenant-general in Aragon for his -brother and predecessor Alphonso V., whose reign was mainly spent in -Italy. In his old age he was engaged in incessant conflicts with his -Aragonese and Catalan subjects, with Louis XI. of France, and in -preparing the way for the marriage of his son Ferdinand with Isabella of -Castile, which brought about the union of the crowns. His troubles with -his subjects were closely connected with the tragic dissensions in his -own family. John was first married to Blanche of Navarre, of the house -of Evreux. By right of Blanche he became king of Navarre, and on her -death in 1441 he was left in possession of the kingdom for his life. But -a son Charles, called, as heir of Navarre, prince of Viana, had been -born of the marriage. John from the first regarded his son with -jealousy, which after his second marriage with Joan Henriquez, and under -her influence, grew into absolute hatred. He endeavoured to deprive his -son of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon -during his father's absence. The cause of the son was taken up by the -Aragonese, and the king's attempt to join his second wife in the -lieutenant-generalship was set aside. There followed a long conflict, -with alternations of success and defeat, which was not terminated till -the death of the prince of Viana, perhaps by poison given him by his -stepmother, in 1461. The Catalans, who had adopted the cause of Charles -and who had grievances of their own, called in a succession of foreign -pretenders. In conflict with these the last years of King John were -spent. He was forced to pawn Rousillon, his possession on the north-east -of the Pyrenees, to Louis XI., who refused to part with it. In his old -age he was blinded by cataract, but recovered his eyesight by the -operation of couching. The Catalan revolt was pacified in 1472, but John -had war, in which he was generally unfortunate, with his neighbour the -French king till his death on the 20th of January 1479. He was succeeded -by Ferdinand, his son by his second marriage, who was already associated -with his wife Isabella as joint sovereign of Castile. - - For the history, see Rivadeneyra, "Cronicas de los reyes de Castilla," - _Biblioteca de antares espanoles_, vols. lxvi, lxviii (Madrid, 1845, - &c.); G. Zurita, _Anales de Aragon_ (Saragossa, 1610). The reign of - John II. of Aragon is largely dealt with in W. H. Prescott's _History - of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_ (1854). - - - - -JOHN (1296-1346), king of Bohemia, was a son of the emperor Henry VII. -by his wife Margaret, daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and was a -member of the family of Luxemburg. Born on the 10th of August 1296, he -became count of Luxemburg in 1309, and about the same time was offered -the crown of Bohemia, which, after the death of Wenceslas III., the last -king of the Premyslides dynasty in 1306, had passed to Henry, duke of -Carinthia, under whose weak rule the country was in a very disturbed -condition. The emperor accepted this offer on behalf of his son, who -married Elizabeth (d. 1330), a sister of Wenceslas, and after Henry's -departure for Italy, John was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague in -February 1311. Henry of Carinthia was driven from the land, where a -certain measure of order was restored, and Moravia was again united with -Bohemia. As imperial vicar John represented his father at the diet of -Nuremberg in January 1313, and was leading an army to his assistance in -Italy when he heard of the emperor's death, which took place in August -1313. John was now a candidate for the imperial throne; but, on account -of his youth, his claim was not regarded seriously, and he was persuaded -to give his support to Louis, duke of Upper Bavaria, afterwards the -emperor Louis the Bavarian. At Esslingen and elsewhere he aided Louis in -his struggle with Frederick the Fair, duke of Austria, who also claimed -the Empire; but his time was mainly passed in quelling disturbances in -Bohemia, where his German followers were greatly disliked and where he -himself soon became unpopular, especially among the nobles; or in -Luxemburg, the borders of which county he was constantly and -successfully striving to extend. Restless, adventurous and warlike, John -had soon tired of governing his kingdom, and even discussed exchanging -it with the emperor Louis for the Palatinate; and while Bohemia was -again relapsing into a state of anarchy, her king was winning fame as a -warrior in almost every part of Europe. He fought against the citizens -of Metz and against his kinsman, John III., duke of Brabant; he led the -knights of the Teutonic Order against the heathen in Lithuania and -Pomerania and promised Pope John XXII. to head a crusade; and claiming -to be king of Poland he attacked the Poles and brought Silesia under his -rule. He obtained Tirol by marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret -Maultasch, the heiress of the county, assisted the emperor to defeat and -capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Muhldorf in 1322, and was -alternately at peace and at war with the dukes of Austria and with his -former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He was a frequent and welcome visitor to -France, in which country he had a personal and hereditary interest; and -on several occasions his prowess was serviceable to his brother-in-law -King Charles IV., and to Charles's successor Philip VI., whose son John, -afterwards King John II., married a daughter of the Bohemian king. Soon -after the battle of Muhldorf, the relations between John and the emperor -became somewhat strained, partly owing to the king's growing friendship -with the Papacy and with France, and partly owing to territorial -disputes. An agreement, however, was concluded, and John undertook his -invasion of Italy, which was perhaps the most dazzling of his exploits. -Invited by the citizens of Brescia, he crossed the Alps with a meagre -following in 1331, quickly received the homage of many of the cities of -northern Italy, and soon found himself the ruler of a great part of the -peninsula. But his soldiers were few and his enemies were many, and a -second invasion of Italy in 1333 was followed by the dissipation of his -dreams of making himself king of Lombardy and Tuscany, and even of -supplanting Louis on the imperial throne. The fresh trouble between king -and emperor, caused by this enterprise, was intensified by a quarrel -over the lands left by Henry of Carinthia, and still later by the -interference of Louis in Tirol; and with bewildering rapidity John was -allying himself with the kings of Hungary and Poland, fighting against -the emperor and his Austrian allies, defending Bohemia, governing -Luxemburg, visiting France and negotiating with the pope. About 1340 the -king was overtaken by blindness, but he continued to lead an active -life, successfully resisting the attacks of Louis and his allies, and -campaigning in Lithuania. In 1346 he made a decisive move against the -emperor. Acting in union with Pope Clement VI. he secured the formal -deposition of Louis and the election of his own son Charles, margrave of -Moravia, as German king, or king of the Romans, in July 1346. Then -journeying to help Philip of France against the English, he fought at -the battle of Crecy, where his heroic death on the 26th of August 1346 -was a fitting conclusion to his adventurous life. - -John was a chivalrous and romantic personage, who enjoyed a great -reputation for valour both before and after his death; but as a ruler he -was careless and extravagant, interested only in his kingdom when -seeking relief from his constant pecuniary embarrassments. After the -death of his first wife, who bore him two sons, Charles, afterwards the -emperor Charles IV., and John Henry (d. 1375), and who had been -separated from her husband for some years, the king married Beatrice (d. -1383), daughter of Louis I., duke of Bourbon, by whom he had a son, -Wenceslas (d. 1383). According to Camden the crest or badge of three -ostrich feathers, with the motto _Ich dien_, borne by the prince of -Wales was originally that of John of Bohemia and was first assumed by -Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crecy. There is no proof, -however, that this badge was ever worn by John--it certainly was not his -crest--and its origin must be sought elsewhere. - - See J. Schotter, _Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and Konig von Bohmen_ - (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer und Konig - Johann von Bohmen_ (Munich, 1860), and U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des - sources historiques_, tome v. (Paris, 1905). - - - - -JOHN I. (1358-1390), king of Castile, was the son of Henry II., and of -his wife Joan, daughter of John Manuel of Villena, head of a younger -branch of the royal house of Castile. In the beginning of his reign he -had to contend with the hostility of John of Gaunt, who claimed the -crown by right of his wife Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel. The -king of Castile finally bought off the claim of his English competitor -by arranging a marriage between his son Henry and Catherine, daughter of -John of Gaunt, in 1387. Before this date he had been engaged in -hostilities with Portugal which was in alliance with John of Gaunt. His -first quarrel with Portugal was settled by his marriage, in 1382, with -Beatrix, daughter of the Portuguese king Ferdinand. On the death of his -father-in-law in 1383, John endeavoured to enforce the claims of his -wife, Ferdinand's only child, to the crown of Portugal. He was resisted -by the national sentiment of the people, and was utterly defeated at -the battle of Aljubarrota, on the 14th of August 1385. King John was -killed at Alcala on the 9th of October 1390 by the fall of his horse, -while he was riding in a _fantasia_ with some of the light horsemen -known as the _farfanes_, who were mounted and equipped in the Arab -style. - - - - -JOHN II. (1405-1454), king of Castile, was born on the 6th of March -1405, the son of Henry III. of Castile and of his wife Catherine, -daughter of John of Gaunt. He succeeded his father on the 25th of -December 1406 at the age of a year and ten months. It was one of the -many misfortunes of Castile that the long reign of John II.--forty-nine -years--should have been granted to one of the most incapable of her -kings. John was amiable, weak and dependent on those about him. He had -no taste except for ornament, and no serious interest except in -amusements, verse-making, hunting and tournaments. He was entirely under -the influence of his favourite, Alvaro de Luna, till his second wife, -Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her -instigation he threw over his faithful and able favourite, a meanness -which is said to have caused him well-deserved remorse. He died on the -20th of July 1454 at Valladolid. By his second marriage he was the -father of Isabella "the Catholic." - - - - -JOHN I. (b. and d. 1316), king of France, son of Louis X. and Clemence, -daughter of Charles Martel, who claimed to be king of Hungary, was born, -after his father's death, on the 15th of November 1316, and only lived -seven days. His uncle, afterwards Philip V. has been accused of having -caused his death, or of having substituted a dead child in his place; -but nothing was ever proved. An impostor calling himself John I., -appeared in Provence, in the reign of John II., but he was captured and -died in prison. - - - - -JOHN II. (1319-1364), surnamed the Good, king of France, son of Philip -VI. and Jeanne of Burgundy, succeeded his father in 1350. At the age of -13 he married Bona of Luxemburg, daughter of John, king of Bohemia. His -early exploits against the English were failures and revealed in the -young prince both avarice and stubborn persistence in projects obviously -ill-advised. It was especially the latter quality which brought about -his ruin. His first act upon becoming king was to order the execution of -the constable, Raoul de Brienne. The reasons for this are unknown, but -from the secrecy with which it was carried out and the readiness with -which the honour was transferred to the king's close friend Charles of -La Cesda, it has been attributed to the influence and ambition of the -latter. John surrounded himself with evil counsellors, Simon de Buci, -Robert de Lorris, Nicolas Braque, men of low origin who robbed the -treasury and oppressed the people, while the king gave himself up to -tournaments and festivities. In imitation of the English order of the -Garter, he established the knightly order of the Star, and celebrated -its festivals with great display. Raids of the Black Prince in Languedoc -led to the states-general of 1355, which readily voted money, but -sanctioned the right of resistance against all kinds of pillage--a -distinct commentary on the incompetence of the king. In September 1356 -John gathered the flower of his chivalry and attacked the Black Prince -at Poitiers. The utter defeat of the French was made the more -humiliating by the capture of their king, who had bravely led the third -line of battle. Taken to England to await ransom, John was at first -installed in the Savoy Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and -at last in the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive -companions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with luxuries -imported by him from France. The treaty of Bretigny (1360), which fixed -his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him to return to France, but -although he married his daughter Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of -Milan, for a gift of 600,000 golden crowns, imposed a heavy feudal "aid" -on merchandise, and various other taxes, John was unable to pay more -than 400,000 crowns to Edward III. His son Louis of Anjou, who had been -left as hostage, escaped from Calais in the summer of 1363, and John, -far in arrears in the payments of the ransom, surrendered himself again -"to maintain his royal honour which his son had sullied." He landed in -England in January 1364 and was received with great honour, lodged again -in the Savoy, and was a frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. He -died on the 8th of April, and the body was sent back to France with -royal honours. - - See Froissart's _Chronicles_; Duc d'Aumale, _Notes et documents - relatifs a Jean, roi de France, et a sa captivite_ (1856); A. Coville, - in Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, vol. iv., and authorities cited - there. - - - - -JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the son of the palatine -Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of Teschen, and was born at the -castle of Szepesvar. He began his public career at the famous Rakos diet -of 1505, when, on his motion, the assembly decided that after the death -of the reigning king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be -elected king of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for -the throne, which his family had long coveted. As far back as 1491 his -mother had proposed to the sick king that his daughter Anne should be -committed to her care in order, subsequently, to be married to her son; -but Wladislaus frustrated this project by contracting a matrimonial -alliance with the Habsburgs. In 1510 Zapolya sued in person for the hand -of the Princess Anne in vain, and his appointment to the voivody of -Transylvania (1511) was with the evident intention of removing him far -from court. In 1513, after a successful raid in Turkish territory, he -hastened to Buda at the head of 1000 horsemen and renewed his suit, -which was again rejected. In 1514 he stamped out the dangerous peasant -rising under Dozsa (q.v.) and the infernal torments by means of which -the rebel leader was slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. -With the gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to -revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of -Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rakos (1516) appointed him the -governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the dignity of -palatine also, but the council of state and the court party combined -against him and appointed Istvan Bathory instead (1519). The strife of -factions now burnt more fiercely than ever at the very time when the -pressure of the Turk demanded the combination of all the national forces -against a common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and -dissensions of Zapolya and Bathory that the great fortress of Belgrade -was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the fate of Hungary. In -1522 the diet would have appointed both Zapolya and Bathory -captains-general of the realm, but the court set Zapolya aside and chose -Bathory only. At the diets of Hatvan and Rakos in 1522, Zapolya placed -himself at the head of a confederation to depose the palatine and the -other great officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following -year, however, the revolutionary Hatvan diet drove out all the members -of the council of state and made Istvan Verboczy, the great jurist, and -a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this hopeless anarchy, -Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary with a countless army, and -the young king perished on the field of Mohacs in a vain attempt to stay -his progress, the contradictory orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya -from arriving in time to turn the fortunes of the day. The court party -accused him of deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge -must be pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed at -Mohacs, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya was elected king -of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj (Oct. 14), the election was -confirmed by the diet of Szekesfehervar (10th of November), and he was -crowned on the following day with the holy crown. - -A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdinand I., at -once ensued (see HUNGARY: _History_) and it was only with the aid of the -Turks that king John was able to exhaust his opponent and compel him to -come to terms. Finally, in 1538, by the compact of Nagyvarad, Ferdinand -recognized John as king of Hungary, but secured the right of succession -on his death. Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the -kingdom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection. John -was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a statesman, lies -in his stout vindication of the national independence, though without -the assistance of his great minister Gyorgy Utiesenovich, better known -as "Frater George" (Cardinal Martinuzzi (q.v.)), this would have been -impossible. Indirectly he contributed to the subsequent conquest of -Hungary by admitting the Turk as a friend. - - See Vilmos Fraknoi, _Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohacs_ (Budapest, - 1886); L. Kupelwieser, _Die Kampfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen bis zur - Schlacht bei Mohacs_ (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsady, _History of the - Hungarian Realm_, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902-1904). - - - - -JOHN OF BRIENNE (c. 1148-1237), king of Jerusalem and Latin emperor of -Constantinople, was a man of sixty years of age before he began to play -any considerable part in history. Destined originally for the Church, he -had preferred to become a knight, and in forty years of tournaments and -fights he had won himself a considerable reputation, when in 1208 envoys -came from the Holy Land to ask Philip Augustus, king of France, to -select one of his barons as husband to the heiress, and ruler of the -kingdom, of Jerusalem. Philip selected John of Brienne, and promised to -support him in his new dignity. In 1210 John married the heiress Mary -(daughter of Isabella and Conrad of Montferrat), assuming the title of -king in right of his wife. In 1211, after some desultory operations, he -concluded a six years' truce with Malik-el-Adil; in 1212 he lost his -wife, who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married an -Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) he was a prominent -figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the command; and insisting -on the advance from Damietta, in spite of the warnings of King John, he -refused to accept the favourable terms of the sultan, as the king -advised, until it was too late. After the failure of the crusade, King -John came to the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met -Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where, in -order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy Land, -Frederick was betrothed to John's daughter Isabella, now heiress of the -kingdom. After the meeting at Ferentino, John went to France and -England, finding little consolation; and thence he travelled to -Compostella, where he married a new wife, Berengaria of Castile. After a -visit to Germany he returned to Rome (1225). Here he received a demand -from Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella) that he should abandon -his title and dignity of king, which--so Frederick claimed--had passed -to himself along with the heiress of the kingdom. John was now a -septuagenarian "king in exile," but he was still vigorous enough to -revenge himself on Frederick, by commanding the papal troops which -attacked southern Italy during the emperor's absence on the sixth -crusade (1228-1229). In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited -by the barons of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, -on condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second daughter -and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constantinople, and in 1235, -with a few troops, he repelled a great siege of the city by Vataces of -Nicaea and Azen of Bulgaria. After this last feat of arms, which has -perhaps been exaggerated by the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to -Hector and the Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar. -An aged paladin, somewhat uxorious and always penniless, he was a -typical knight errant, whose wanderings led him all over Europe, and -planted him successively on the thrones of Jerusalem and Constantinople. - - The story of John's career must be sought partly in histories of the - kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East, partly in - monographs. Among these, of which R. Rohricht gives a list - (_Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem_, p. 699, n. 3), see especially - that of E. de Montcarmet, _Un chevalier du temps passe_ (Limoges, 1876 - and 1881). - - - - -JOHN III. (SOBIESKI) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the eldest son of -James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Theofila Danillowiczowna, -grand-daughter of the great Hetman Zolkiewski. After being educated at -Cracow, he made the grand tour with his brother Mark and returned to -Poland in 1648. He served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was -present at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but was -one of the first to desert his unhappy country when invaded by the -Swedes in 1654, and actually assisted them to conquer the Prussian -provinces in 1655. He returned to his lawful allegiance in the -following year and assisted Czarniecki in his difficult task of -expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish provinces. For -his subsequent services to King John Casimir, especially in the Ukraine -against the Tatars and Cossacks, he received the grand baton of the -crown, or commandership-in-chief (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded -Czarniecki as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned these -distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but he was now to -exhibit a less pleasing side of his character. He was in fact a typical -representative of the unscrupulous self-seeking Polish magnates of the -17th century who were always ready to sacrifice everything, their -country included, to their own private ambition. At the election diet of -1669 he accepted large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the -French candidates; after the election of Michael Wisniowiecki (June 19, -1669) he openly conspired, again in the French interest, against his -lawful sovereign, and that too at the very time when the Turk was -ravaging the southern frontier of the republic. Michael was the feeblest -monarch the Poles could have placed upon the throne, and Sobieski -deliberately attempted to make government of any kind impossible. He -formed a league with the primate Prazmowski and other traitors to -dethrone the king; when (1670) the plot was discovered and participation -in it repudiated by Louis XIV., the traitors sought the help of the -elector of Brandenburg against their own justly indignant countrymen. -Two years later the same traitors again conspired against the king, at -the very time when the Turks had defeated Sobieski's unsupported -lieutenant, Luzecki, at Czertwertyworska and captured the fortress of -Kamieniec (Kamenetz-Podolskiy), the key of south-eastern Poland, while -Lemberg was only saved by the valour of Elias Lancki. The unhappy king -did the only thing possible in the circumstances. He summoned the -_tuszenia pospolite_, or national armed assembly; but it failed to -assemble in time, whereupon Michael was constrained to sign the -disgraceful peace of Buczacz (Oct. 17, 1672) whereby Poland ceded to the -Porte the whole of the Ukraine with Podolia and Kamieniec. Aroused to -duty by a series of disasters for which he himself was primarily -responsible, Sobieski now hastened to the frontier, and won four -victories in ten days. But he could not recover Kamieniec, and when the -_tuszenia pospolite_ met at Golenba and ordered an inquiry into the -conduct of Sobieski and his accomplices he frustrated all their efforts -by summoning a counter confederation to meet at Szczebrzeszyn. Powerless -to oppose a rebel who was at the same time commander-in-chief, both the -king and the diet had to give way, and a compromise was come to whereby -the peace of Buczacz was repudiated and Sobieski was given a chance of -rehabilitating himself, which he did by his brilliant victory over an -immense Turkish host at Khotin (Nov. 10, 1673). The same day King -Michael died and Sobieski, determined to secure the throne for himself, -hastened to the capital, though Tatar bands were swarming over the -frontier and the whole situation was acutely perilous. Appearing at the -elective diet of 1674 at the head of 6000 veterans he overawed every -other competitor, and despite the persistent opposition of the -Lithuanians was elected king on the 21st of May. By this time, however, -the state of things in the Ukraine was so alarming that the new king had -to hasten to the front. Assisted by French diplomacy at the Porte (Louis -XIV. desiring to employ Poland against Austria), and his own skilful -negotiations with the Tatar khan, John III. now tried to follow the -example of Wladislaus IV. by leaving the guardianship of the Ukraine -entirely in the hands of the Cossacks, while he assembled as many -regulars and militiamen as possible at Lemberg, whence he might hasten -with adequate forces to defend whichever of the provinces of the -Republic might be in most danger. But the appeal of the king was like -the voice of one crying in the wilderness, and not one gentleman in a -hundred hastened to the assistance of the fatherland. Even at the end of -August Sobieski had but 3000 men at his disposal to oppose to 60,000 -Turks. Only his superb strategy and the heroic devotion of his -lieutenants--notably the converted Jew, Jan Samuel Chrzanowski, who held -the Ottoman army at bay for eleven days behind the walls of -Trembowla--enabled the king to remove "the pagan yoke from our -shoulders"; and he returned to be crowned at Cracow on the 14th of -February 1676. In October 1676, in his entrenched camp at Zaravno, he -with 13,000 men withstood 80,000 Turks for three weeks, and recovered by -special treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty -of Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676). - -Having now secured peace abroad Sobieski was desirous of strengthening -Poland at home by establishing absolute monarchy; but Louis XIV. looked -coldly on the project, and from this time forth the old familiar -relations between the republic and the French monarchy were strained to -breaking point, though the final rupture did not come till 1682 on the -arrival of the Austrian minister, Zerowski, at Warsaw. After resisting -every attempt of the French court to draw him into the anti-Habsburg -league, Sobieski signed the famous treaty of alliance with the emperor -Leopold against the Turks (March 31, 1683), which was the prelude to the -most glorious episode of his life, the relief of Vienna and the -liberation of Hungary from the Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of -the 12th of September 1683 was ultimately decided by the charge of the -Polish cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Unfortunately Poland profited -little or nothing by this great triumph, and now that she had broken the -back of the enemy she was left to fight the common enemy in the Ukraine -with whatever assistance she could obtain from the unwilling and unready -Muscovites. The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a -period of unmitigated humiliation and disaster. He now reaped to the -full the harvest of treason and rebellion which he himself had sown so -abundantly during the first forty years of his life. A treasonable -senate secretly plotting his dethronement, a mutinous diet rejecting the -most necessary reforms for fear of "absolutism," ungrateful allies who -profited exclusively by his victories--these were his inseparable -companions during the remainder of his life. Nay, at last his evil -destiny pursued him to the battlefield and his own home. His last -campaign (in 1690) was an utter failure, and the last years of his life -were embittered by the violence and the intrigues of his dotingly -beloved wife, Marya Kazimiera d'Arquien, by whom he had three sons, -James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on the 17th of June 1696, a -disillusioned and broken-hearted old man. - - See Tadeusz Korzon, _Fortunes and Misfortunes of John Sobieski_ (Pol.) - (Cracow, 1898); E. H. R. Tatham, _John Sobieski_ (Oxford, 1881); - Kazimierz Waliszewski, _Archives of French Foreign Affairs_, - 1674-1696, v. (Cracow, 1881); Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, _John Sobieski and - His Times_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882-1885); Kazimierz Waliszewski, - _Marysienka Queen of Poland_ (London, 1898); Georg Rieder, _Johann - Sobieski_ in Wien (Vienna, 1882). (R. N. B.) - - - - -JOHN I. (1357-1433), king of Portugal, the natural son of Pedro I. (_el -Justicieiro_), was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of April 1357, and in 1364 -was created grand-master of Aviz. On the death of his lawful brother -Ferdinand I., without male issue, in October 1383, strenuous efforts -were made to secure the succession for Beatrice, the only child of -Ferdinand I., who as heiress-apparent had been married to John I. of -Castile (Spain), but the popular voice declared against an arrangement -by which Portugal would virtually have become a Spanish province, and -John was after violent tumults proclaimed protector and regent in the -following December. In April 1385 he was unanimously chosen king by the -estates of the realm at Coimbra. The king of Castile invaded Portugal, -but his army was compelled by pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently -by the decisive battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability of -John's throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued -intermittently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by -Beatrice, in 1390. Meanwhile the king of Portugal went on consolidating -the power of the crown at home and the influence of the nation abroad. -In 1415 Ceuta was taken from the Moors by his sons who had been born to -him by his wife Philippa, daughter of John, duke of Lancaster; specially -distinguished in the siege was Prince Henry (q.v.) afterwards generally -known as "the Navigator." John I., sometimes surnamed "the Great," and -sometimes "father of his country," died on the 11th of August 1433, in -the forty-eighth year of a reign which had been characterized by great -prudence, ability and success; he was succeeded by his son Edward or -Duarte, so named out of compliment to Edward III. of England. - - See J. P. Oliveira Martins, _Os filhos de D. Joao I._ and _A vida de - Nun' Alvares_ (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894). - - - - -JOHN II. (1455-1495), the Perfect, king of Portugal, succeeded his -father, Alphonso V., in August 1481. His first business was to curtail -the overgrown power of his aristocracy; noteworthy incidents in the -contest were the execution (1483) of the duke of Braganza for -correspondence with Castile, and the murder, by the king's own hand, of -the youthful duke of Viseu for conspiracy. This reign was signalized by -Bartholomeu Diaz's discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Maritime -rivalry led to disputes between Portugal and Castile until their claims -were adjusted by the famous treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). John -II. died, without leaving male issue, in October 1495, and was succeeded -by his brother-in-law Emmanuel (Manoel) I. - - See J. P. Oliveira Martins, _O principe perfeito_ (Lisbon, 1895). - - - - -JOHN III. (1502-1557), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon, on the 6th -of June 1502, and ascended the throne as successor of his father -Emmanuel I. in December 1521. In 1524 he married Catherine, sister to -the Emperor Charles V., who shortly afterwards married the infanta -Isabella, John's sister. Succeeding to the crown at a time when Portugal -was at the height of its political power, and Lisbon in a position of -commercial importance previously unknown, John III., unfortunately for -his dominions, became subservient to the clerical party among his -subjects, with disastrous consequences to the commercial and social -prosperity of his kingdom. He died of apoplexy on the 6th of June 1557, -and was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian, then a child of only three -years. - - - - -JOHN IV. (1603-1656), the Fortunate, king of Portugal, was born at -Villaviciosa in March 1603, succeeded to the dukedom of Braganza in -1630, and married Luisa de Guzman, eldest daughter of the duke of Medina -Sidonia, in 1633. By the unanimous voice of the people he was raised to -the throne of Portugal (of which he was held to be the legitimate heir) -at the revolution effected in December 1640 against the Spanish king, -Philip IV. His accession led to a protracted war with Spain, which only -ended with the recognition of Portuguese independence in a subsequent -reign (1668). He died on the 6th of November 1656, and was succeeded by -his son Alphonso VI. - - - - -JOHN V. (1689-1750), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of -October 1689, and succeeded his father Pedro II. in December 1706, being -proclaimed on the 1st of January 1707. One of his first acts was to -intimate his adherence to the Grand Alliance, which his father had -joined in 1703. Accordingly his general Das Minas, along with Lord -Galway, advanced into Castile, but sustained the defeat of Almanza -(April 14). In October 1708 he married Maria Anna, daughter of Leopold -I., thus strengthening the alliance with Austria; the series of -unsuccessful campaigns which ensued ultimately terminated in a -favourable peace with France in 1713 and with Spain in 1715. The rest of -his long reign was characterized by royal subservience to the clergy, -the kingdom being administered by ecclesiastical persons and for -ecclesiastical objects to an extent that gave him the best of rights to -the title "Most Faithful King," bestowed upon him and his successors by -a bull of Pope Benedict XIV. in 1748. John V. died on the 31st of July -1750, and was succeeded by his son Joseph. - - - - -JOHN VI. (1769-1826), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon on the 13th -of May 1769, and received the title of prince of Brazil in 1788. In 1792 -he assumed the reins of government in name of his mother Queen Mary I., -who had become insane. He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical -atmosphere, and, being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless -character, was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus -called on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which he -retained until his mother's death in 1816. (For the political history of -his regency, see PORTUGAL.) In 1816 he was recognized as king of -Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil; the consequent spread of -dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of 1820, and the -proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity -on his return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in 1823, -he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, whom he -ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. He died at Lisbon on the -26th of March 1826, and was succeeded by Pedro IV. - - - - -JOHN (1801-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and -his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was born at Dresden on the 12th of -December 1801. As a boy he took a keen interest in literature and art -(also in history, law, and political science), and studied with the -greatest ardour classical and German literature (Herder, Schiller, -Goethe). He soon began to compose poetry himself, and drew great -inspiration from a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure of which -was however darkened by the death of his brother Clemens. In Pavia the -prince met with Biagioli's edition of Dante, and this gave rise to his -lifelong and fruitful studies of Dante. The first part of his German -translation of Dante was published in 1828, and in 1833 appeared the -complete work, with a valuable commentary, which met with a great -success. Several new editions appeared under his constant supervision, -and he collected a complete library of works on Dante. - -On his return from Italy he was betrothed to Princess Amalia of Bavaria, -daughter of King Maximilian Joseph. He thus became the brother-in-law of -Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, with whom he had a deep and -lasting friendship. His wife Amalia died on the 8th of November 1877, -having borne him nine children, two of whom, Albert and George, later -became kings of Saxony. - -On his return to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy board of -finance (_Geheimes Finanzkollegium_) and in 1825 became its -vice-president. Under the leadership of the president, Freiherr von -Manteuffel, he acquired a thorough knowledge of administration and of -political economy, and laid the foundations of that conservatism which -he retained throughout life. These new activities did not, however, -interrupt his literary and artistic studies. He came into still closer -relations with politics and government after his entry into the privy -council in 1830. During the revolution in Saxony he helped in the -pacification of the country, became commandant of the new national -guard, the political tendencies of which he tried to check, and took an -exceptionally active part in the organization of the constitution of the -4th of September 1831 and especially in the deliberations of the upper -chamber, where he worked with unflagging energy and great ability. -Following the example of his father, he taught his children in person, -and had a great influence on their education. On the 12th of August -1845, during a stay at Leipzig, the prince was the object of hostile -public demonstrations, the people holding him to be the head of an -alleged ultramontane party at court, and the revolution of 1848 -compelled him to interrupt his activities in the upper chamber. -Immediately after the suppression of the revolution he resumed his place -and took part chiefly in the discussion of legal questions. He was also -interested in the amalgamation of the German historical and -archaeological societies. On the death of his brother Frederick Augustus -II., John became, on the 9th of August 1854, king of Saxony. As king he -soon won great popularity owing to his simplicity, graciousness and -increasingly evident knowledge of affairs. In his policy as regards the -German confederation he was entirely on the side of Austria. Though not -opposed to a reform of the federal constitution, he held that its -maintenance under the presidency of Austria was essential. This view he -supported at the assembly of princes at Frankfort in August and -September 1863. He was unable to uphold his views against Prussia, and -in the war of 1866 fought on the side of Austria. It was with difficulty -that, on the conclusion of peace, Austrian diplomacy succeeded in -enabling the king to retain his crown. After 1866 King John gradually -became reconciled to the new state of affairs. He entered the North -German confederation, and in the war of 1870-71 with France his troops -fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on the 29th of -October 1873. - - See J. Petzholdt, "Zur Litteratur des Konigs Johann," _Neuer Anzeiger - fur Bibliographie_ (1858, 1859, 1871, 1873, 1874); "Aphorismen uber - unsern Konig J.," _Bote von Geising_ (1866-1869); _Das Buchlein vom - Konig Johann_ (Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, _Preussische - Jahrbucher_ 23 (1869); A. Reumont, "Elogio di Giovanni, Re di - Sassonia," _Dagli Atti della Accademia della Crusca_ (Florence, 1874); - J. P. von Winterstein, _Johann, Konig von Sachsen_ (Dresden, 1878), - and in _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_ (1881); H. Ermisch, _Die - Wettiner und die Landesgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1902); O. Kaemmel, - _Sachsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Goschen). (J. Hn.) - - - - -JOHN I. (d. 1294), duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed the -Victorious, one of the most gifted and chivalrous princes of his time, -was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of Burgundy. In 1267 -his elder brother Henry, being infirm of mind and body, was deposed in -his favour. In 1271 John married Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of -France, and on her death in childbirth he took as his second wife (1273) -Margaret of Flanders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was -espoused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France, and during the -reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were close relations of -friendship and alliance between Brabant and France. In 1285 John -accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against Peter III., king of -Aragon, but the duchy of Limburg was the scene of his chief activity and -greatest successes. After the death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the -succession to this duchy was disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had -married Reinald I. count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her -husband continued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed -by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (see Limburg). Not being -strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his rights to John of -Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283. Harassed by desultory -warfare and endless negotiations, and seeing no prospect of holding his -own against the powerful duke of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights -to Henry III. count of Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran III. -of Limburg. Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and -other allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant -at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of Woeringen -near Bonn. Here he was attacked by the forces of the confederacy on the -5th of June 1288. After a bloody struggle John of Brabant, though at the -head of far inferior numbers, was completely victorious. Limburg was -henceforth attached to the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his -conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxemburg -(1291). John the Victorious was a perfect model of a feudal prince in -the days of chivalry, brave, adventurous, excelling in every form of -active exercise, fond of display, generous in temper. He delighted in -tournaments, and was always eager personally to take part in jousts. On -the 3rd of May 1294, on the occasion of some marriage festivities at -Bar, he was wounded in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner, and -died from the effects of the hurt. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Barlandus, _Rerum gestarum a Brabantiae ducibus - historia usque in annum 1526_ (Louvain, 1566); G. C. van der Berghe, - _Jean le Victorieux, duc de Brabant_ (1259-1294), (Louvain, 1857); K. - F. Stallaert, _Gesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en zijne tijdvak_ - (Brussels, 1861); A. Wauters, _Le Duc Jean I^er et le Brabant sous le - regne de ce prince_ (Brussels, 1859). - - - - -JOHN, or HANS (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin, was the -younger son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, and was born at -Tangermunde on the 3rd of August 1513. In spite of the _dispositio -Achillea_ which decreed the indivisibility of the electorate, John -inherited the new mark of Brandenburg on his father's death in July -1535. He had been brought up as a strict Catholic, but soon wavered in -his allegiance, and in 1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the -Reformers. About the same time he joined the league of Schmalkalden; but -before the war broke out between the league and the emperor Charles V. -the promises of the emperor had won him over to the imperial side. After -the conclusion of the war, the relations between John and Charles became -somewhat strained. The margrave opposed the _Interim_, issued from -Augsburg in May 1548; and he was the leader of the princes who formed a -league for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in February 1550. The -alliance of these princes, however, with Henry II., king of France, does -not appear to have commended itself to him and after some differences of -opinion with Maurice, elector of Saxony, he returned to the emperor's -side. His remaining years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he -ruled carefully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase -of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Custrin and Peitz. He -died at Custrin on the 13th of January 1571. His wife Catherine was a -daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick, and as he left no sons the new -mark passed on his death to his nephew John George, elector of -Brandenburg. - - See Berg, _Beitrage zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von Kustrin_ - (Landsberg, 1903). - - - - -JOHN (1371-1419), called the Fearless (_Sans Peur_), duke of Burgundy, -son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Flanders, was -born at Dijon on the 28th of May 1371. On the death of his maternal -grandfather in 1384 he received the title of count of Nevers, which he -bore until his father's death. Though originally destined to be the -husband of Catherine, sister of Charles VI. of France, he married in -1385 Margaret, daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria, an alliance which -consolidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of 1396 he -took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the 28th of September was -taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I. at the bloody battle of -Nicopolis, where he earned his surname of "the Fearless." He did not -recover his liberty until 1397, and then only by paying an enormous -ransom. He succeeded his father in 1404, and immediately found himself -in conflict with Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The -history of the following years is filled with the struggles between -these two princes and with their attempts to seize the authority in the -name of the demented king. John endeavoured to strengthen his position -by marrying his daughter Margaret to the dauphin Louis, and by -betrothing his son Philip to a daughter of Charles VI. Like his father, -he looked for support to the popular party, to the tradesmen, -particularly the powerful gild of the butchers, and also to the -university of Paris. In 1405 he opposed in the royal council a scheme of -taxation proposed by the duke of Orleans, which was nevertheless -adopted. Louis retaliated by refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy's -projected expedition against Calais, whereupon John quitted the court in -chagrin on the pretext of taking up his mother's heritage. He was, -however, called back to the council to find that the duke of Orleans and -the queen had carried off the dauphin. John succeeded in bringing back -the dauphin to Paris, and open war seemed imminent between the two -princes. But an arrangement was effected in October 1405, and in 1406 -John was made by royal decree guardian of the dauphin and the king's -children. - -The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force. Hostilities -had been resumed with England; the duke of Orleans had squandered the -money raised for John's expedition against Calais; and the two rivals -broke out into open threats. On the 20th of November 1407 their uncle, -the duke of Berry, brought about a solemn reconciliation, but three days -later Louis was assassinated by John's orders in the Rue Barbette, -Paris. John at first sought to conceal his share in the murder, but -ultimately decided to confess to his uncles, and abruptly left Paris. -His vassals, however, showed themselves determined to support him in his -struggle against the avengers of the duke of Orleans. The court decided -to negotiate, and called upon the duke to return. John entered Paris in -triumph, and instructed the Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) -to pronounce an apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to -his estates by a rising of the people of Liege against his -brother-in-law, the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party -took every advantage of his absence and had Petit's discourse solemnly -refuted. John's victory over the Liegeois at Hasbain on the 23rd of -September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he was reinstated -in his ancient privileges. By the peace of Chartres (March 9, 1409) the -king absolved him from the crime, and Valentina Visconti, the widow of -the murdered duke, and her children pledged themselves to a -reconciliation; while an edict of the 27th of December 1409 gave John -the guardianship of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed -against the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the -instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party opposed to -the Burgundians took its name. The peace of Bicetre (Nov. 2, 1410) -prevented the outbreak of hostilities, inasmuch as the parties were -enjoined by its terms to return to their estates; but in 1411, in -consequence of ravages committed by the Armagnacs in the environs of -Paris, the duke of Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more -than ever on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the -reforming _Ordonnance Cabochienne_ (so called from Simon Caboche, a -prominent member of the gild of the butchers). But the bloodthirsty -excesses of the populace brought a change. John was forced to withdraw -to Burgundy (August 1413), and the university of Paris and John Gerson -once more censured Petit's propositions, which, but for the lavish -bribes of money and wines offered by John to the prelates, would have -been solemnly condemned at the council of Constance. John's attitude was -undecided; he negotiated with the court and also with the English, who -had just renewed hostilities with France. Although he talked of helping -his sovereign, his troops took no part in the battle of Agincourt -(1415), where, however, two of his brothers, Anthony, duke of Brabant, -and Philip, count of Nevers, fell fighting for France. - -In 1417 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through his loitering -at Lagny;[1] but on the 30th of May 1418 a traitor, one Perrinet -Leclerc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian captain, Villiers -de l'Isle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI., fled from the -town, and John betook himself to the king, who promised to forget the -past. John, however, did nothing to prevent the surrender of Rouen, -which had been besieged by the English, and on which the fate of the -kingdom seemed to depend; and the town was taken in 1419. The dauphin -then decided on a reconciliation, and on the 11th of July the two -princes swore peace on the bridge of Pouilly, near Melun. On the ground -that peace was not sufficiently assured by the Pouilly meeting, a fresh -interview was proposed by the dauphin and took place on the 10th of -September 1419 on the bridge of Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was -felled with an axe by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin's -companions, and done to death by the other members of the dauphin's -escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and afterwards removed to -the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in a magnificent tomb sculptured by -Juan de la Huerta; the tomb was afterwards transferred to the museum in -the _hotel de ville_. - -By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son, Philip the Good, who -succeeded him; and seven daughters--Margaret, who married in 1404 Louis, -son of Charles VI., and in 1423 Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards -duke of Brittany; Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in -1410 to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Chatillon, -count of Penthievre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who married John, -duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married Charles I., duke of -Bourbon, in 1425. - - See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_, - (Brussels, 1835-1836); B. Zeller, _Louis de France et Jean sans Peur_ - (Paris, 1886); and E. Petit, _Itineraire de Philippe le Hardi et de - Jean sans Peur_ (Paris, 1888). (R. Po.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This incident earned for him among the Parisians the contemptuous - nickname of "John of Lagny, who does not hurry." - - - - -JOHN (1468-1532), called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony, fourth son of -the elector Ernest, was born on the 30th of June 1468. In 1486, when his -eldest brother became elector as Frederick III., John received a part of -the paternal inheritance and afterwards assisted his kinsman, the German -king Maximilian I., in several campaigns. He was an early adherent of -Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother's death in May -1525, was soon prominent among the Reformers. Having assisted to -suppress the rising led by Thomas Munzer in 1525, he helped Philip, -landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of Gotha, formed in 1526 for the -protection of the Reformers. He was active at the diet of Spires in -1526, and the "recess" of this diet gave him an opportunity to reform -the church in Saxony, where a plan for divine service was drawn up by -Luther. The assertions of Otto von Pack that a league had been formed -against the elector and his friends induced John to ally himself again -with Philip of Hesse in March 1528, but he restrained Philip from making -an immediate attack upon their opponents. He signed the protest against -the "recess" of the diet of Spires in 1529, being thus one of the -original Protestants, and was actively hostile to Charles V. at the diet -of Augsburg in 1530. Having signed the confession of Augsburg, he was -alone among the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, -afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was among -the first members of the league of Schmalkalden, assented to the -religious peace of Nuremberg in 1532, and died at Schweidnitz on the -16th of August 1532. John was twice married and left two sons and two -daughters. His elder son, John Frederick, succeeded him as elector, and -his younger son was John Ernest (d. 1553). He rendered great services to -the Protestant cause in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely -refused to come to any understanding with other opponents of the older -faith. - - See J. Becker, _Kurfurst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen zu - Luther_ (Leipzig, 1890); J. Janssen, _History of the German People_ - (English translation), vol. v. (London, 1903); L. von Ranke, _Deutsche - Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Leipzig, 1882). - - - - -JOHN, DON (1545-1578), of Austria, was the natural son of the emperor -Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of an opulent citizen of -Regensburg. He was born in that free imperial city on the 24th of -February 1545, the anniversary of his father's birth and coronation and -of the battle of Pavia, and was at first confided under the name of -Geronimo to foster parents of humble birth, living at a village near -Madrid; but in 1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalena da -Ulloa, the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance -of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from -Valladolid. Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Geronimo as -his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. In September -1559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the boy as a member of the -royal family, and he was known at court as Don Juan de Austria. For -three years he was educated at Alcala, and had as school companions his -nephews, the infante Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. -With Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been -Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he showed a -strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king yielded. In 1568 -Don John was appointed to the command of a squadron of 33 galleys, and -his first operations were against the Algerian pirates. His next -services were (1560-70) against the rebel Moriscos in Granada. In 1571 a -nobler field of action was opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the -Turks had led the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the -safety of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was effected -by the efforts of Pope Pius V. to resist the Turkish advance to the -west, and Don John was named admiral in chief of the combined fleets. At -the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses and a number of smaller craft, Don -John encountered the Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October -1571, and gained a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected -their escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain or -captured while 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released. -Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the allies, the -fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in history were to a -great extent lost. - -This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled his -imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement. He thought of -erecting first a principality in Albania and the Morea, and then a -kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by Venice of a separate peace with -the sultan put an end to the league, and though Don John captured Tunis -in 1573, it was again speedily lost. The schemes of Don John found no -support in Philip II., who refused to entertain them, and even withheld -from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain. At last, however, -he was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Netherlands, in -succession to Luis de Requesens. The administration of the latter had -not been successful, the revolt headed by the prince of Orange had -spread, and at the time of Don John's nomination the Pacification of -Ghent appeared to have united the whole of the seventeen provinces of -the Netherlands in determined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy -of Philip II. The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of -which he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He was, -however, now brought into contact with an adversary of a very different -calibre from himself. This was William of Orange, whose influence was -now supreme throughout the Netherlands. The Pacification of Ghent, which -was really a treaty between Holland and Zeeland and the other provinces -for the defence of their common interests against Spanish oppression, -had been followed by an agreement between the southern provinces, known -as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintaining the Catholic -religion and the king's authority, aimed at the expulsion of the Spanish -soldiery and officials from the Netherlands. Confronted by the refusal -of the states general to accept him as governor unless he assented to -the conditions of the Pacification of Ghent, swore to maintain the -rights and privileges of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders -in his service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations, -saw himself compelled to give way. At Huey on the 12th of February 1577 -he signed a treaty, known as the "Perpetual Edict," in which he complied -with these terms. On the 1st of May he made his entry into Brussels, but -he found himself governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange -master of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur and -withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith took up his -residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the archduke Matthias, -afterwards emperor, whom the states-general accepted as their sovereign. -Meanwhile Philip had sent large reinforcements to Don John under the -leadership of his cousin Alexander Farnese. At the head of a powerful -force Don John now suddenly attacked the patriot army at Gemblours, -where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farnese, a complete victory -was gained on the 31st of January 1578. He could not, however, follow up -his success for lack of funds, and was compelled to remain inactive all -the summer, chafing with impatience at the cold indifference with which -his appeals for the sinews of war were treated by Philip. His health -gave way, he was attacked with fever, and on the 1st of October 1578, at -the early age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure of all -his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he had received -of the king his brother's jealousy and neglect. - - See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, _Don John of Austria 1547-1575_ (1883) - and the bibliography under PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. - - - - -JOHN, DON (1629-1679), of Austria, the younger, recognized as the -natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother, Maria Calderon, or -Calderona, being an actress. Scandal accused her of a prodigality of -favours which must have rendered the paternity of Don John very dubious. -He was, however, recognized by the king, received a princely education -at Ocana, and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military -orders, and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647 to -Naples--then in the throes of the popular rising first led by -Masaniello--with a squadron and a military force, to support the -viceroy. The restoration of royal authority was due rather to the -exhaustion of the insurgents and the follies of their French leader, the -duke of Guise, than to the forces of Don John. He was next sent as -viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651 to complete the -pacification of Catalonia, which had been in revolt since 1640. The -excesses of the French, whom the Catalans had called in, had produced a -reaction, and Don John had not much more to do than to preside over the -final siege of Barcelona and the convention which terminated the revolt -in October 1652. On both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and -this sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners and -handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven-black hair--a -complete contrast to the fair complexions of the Habsburgs--made him a -popular favourite. In 1656 he was sent to command in Flanders, in -combination with the prince of Conde, then in revolt against his own -sovereign. At the storming of the French camp at Valenciennes in 1656, -Don John displayed brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry -charge. When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at -the Dunes in the battle fought against Turenne and the British forces -sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten, in spite of the -efforts of Conde, whose advice he neglected, and of the hard fighting of -English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and 1662 he commanded against the -Portuguese in Estremadura. The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, -irregularly paid and untrustworthy, but they were superior in numbers -and some successes were gained. If Don John had not suffered from the -indolence which Clarendon, who knew him, considered his chief defect, -the Portuguese would have been hard pressed. The greater part of the -south of Portugal was overrun, but in 1663 the Portuguese were -reinforced by a body of English troops, and were put under the command -of the Huguenot Schomberg. By him Don John was completely beaten at -Estremos. Even now he might not have lost the confidence of his father, -if Queen Mariana, mother of the sickly infante Carlos, the only -surviving legitimate son of the king, had not regarded the bastard with -distrust and dislike. Don John was removed from command and sent to his -commandery at Consuegra. After the death of Philip IV. in 1665 Don John -became the recognized leader of the opposition to the government of -Philip's widow, the queen regent. She and her favourite, the German -Jesuit Nithard, seized and put to death one of his most trusted -servants, Don Jose Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the -head of a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of -Nithard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however, forced to -content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In 1677, the queen -mother having aroused universal opposition by her shameless favour for -Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John was able to drive her from court, and -establish himself as prime minister. Great hopes were entertained of his -administration, but it proved disappointing and short. Don John died on -the 17th of September 1679. - - The career of Don John can be followed in J. C. Dunlop's _Memoirs of - Spain_ 1621-1700 (Edin. 1834). - - - - -JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST (d. 721), English bishop, is said to have been born -of noble parents at Harpham, in the east riding of Yorkshire. He -received his education at Canterbury under Archbishop Theodore, the -statement that he was educated at Oxford being of course untrue. He was -for a time a member of the Whitby community, under St Hilda, and in 687 -he was consecrated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was promoted to the -bishopric of York. He resigned the latter see in 718, and retired to a -monastery which he had founded at Beverley, where he died on the 7th of -May 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast is celebrated annually -in the Roman Church on the 7th of May. Many miracles of healing are -ascribed to John, whose pupils were numerous and devoted to him. He was -celebrated for his scholarship as well as for his virtues. - - The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: _Pro Luca - exponendo_ (an exposition of Luke); _Homiliae in Evangelia_; - _Epistolae ad Herebaldum_, _Audenam, et Bertinum_; and _Epistolae ad - Hyldam abbatissam_. See life by Folcard, based on Bede, in _Acta SS. - Bolland_.; and J. Raine's _Fasti eboracenses_ (1863). - - - - -JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST (1542-1591), Spanish mystic, was born at Ontiveros -(Old Castile) on the 24th of June 1542. He became a professed Carmelite -in 1564, and was ordained priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much -opposition in his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St -Theresa, and was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de -Yepez y Alvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San Matias till -1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz. Broken by -persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda, where he died in -1591; his _Obras espirituales_ were published posthumously in 1618. He -was beatified in 1674 and canonized on the 27th of December 1726. The -lofty symbolism of his prose is frequently obscure, but his lyrical -verses are distinguished for their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of -expression. - - Some of his poems have been translated with great success by Arthur - Symons in _Images of Good and Evil_; the most convenient edition of - his works, which have been frequently reprinted, is that contained in - vol. xvi. of the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_. - - - - -JOHN OF ASIA (or OF EPHESUS), a leader of the Monophysite -Syriac-speaking Church in the 6th century, and one of the earliest and -most important of Syriac historians. Born at Amid (Diarbekr) about 505, -he was there ordained as a deacon in 529, but in 534 we find him in -Palestine, and in 535 he passed to Constantinople. The cause of his -leaving Amid was probably either the great pestilence which broke out -there in 534 or the furious persecution directed against the -Monophysites by Ephraim (patriarch of Antioch 529-544) and Abraham -(bishop of Amid c. 520-541). In Constantinople he seems to have early -won the notice of Justinian, one of the main objects of whose policy was -the consolidation of Eastern Christianity as a bulwark against the -heathen power of Persia. John is said by Barhebraeus (_Chron. eccl._ i. -195) to have succeeded Anthimus as Monophysite bishop of Constantinople, -but this is probably a mistake.[1] Anyhow he enjoyed the emperor's -favour until the death of the latter in 565 and (as he himself tells us) -was entrusted with the administration of the entire revenues of the -Monophysite Church. He was also sent, with the rank of bishop, on a -mission for the conversion of such heathen as remained in Asia Minor, -and informs us that the number of those whom he baptized amounted to -70,000. He also built a large monastery at Tralles on the hills skirting -the valley of the Meander, and more than 90 other monasteries. Of the -mission to the Nubians which he promoted, though he did not himself -visit their country, an interesting account is given in the 4th book of -the 3rd part of his _History_.[2] In 546 the emperor entrusted him with -the task of rooting out the secret practice of idolatry in -Constantinople and its neighbourhood. But his fortunes changed soon -after the accession of Justin II. About 571 Paul of Asia, the orthodox -or Chalcedonian patriarch, began (with the sanction of the emperor) a -rigorous persecution of the Monophysite Church leaders, and John was -among those who suffered most. He gives us a detailed account of his -sufferings in prison, his loss of civil rights, &c., in the third part -of his _History_. The latest events recorded are of the date 585, and -the author cannot have lived much longer; but of the circumstances of -his death nothing is known. - - John's main work was his _Ecclesiastical History_, which covered more - than six centuries, from the time of Julius Caesar to 585. It was - composed in three parts, each containing six books. The first part - seems to have wholly perished. The second, which extended from - Theodosius II. to the 6th or 7th year of Justin II., was (as F. Nau - has recently proved)[3] reproduced in full or almost in full, in - John's own words, in the third part of the _Chronicle_ which was till - lately attributed to the patriarch Dionysius Telmaharensis, but is - really the work of an unknown compiler. Of this second division of - John's _History_, in which he had probably incorporated the so-called - _Chronicle_ of Joshua the Stylite, considerable portions are found in - the British Museum MSS. Add. 14647 and 14650, and these have been - published in the second volume of Land's _Anecdota Syriaca_. But the - whole is more completely presented in the Vatican MS. (clxii.), which - contains the third part of the _Chronicle_ of pseudo-Dionysius. The - third part of John's history, which is a detailed account of the - ecclesiastical events which happened in 571-585, as well as of some - earlier occurrences, survives in a fairly complete state in Add. - 14640, a British Museum MS. of the 7th century. It forms a - contemporary record of great value to the historian. Its somewhat - disordered state, the want of chronological arrangement, and the - occasional repetition of accounts of the same events are due, as the - author himself informs us (ii. 50), to the work being almost entirely - composed during the times of persecution. The same cause may account - for the somewhat slovenly Syriac style. The writer claims to have - treated his subject impartially, and though written from the narrow - point of view of one to whom Monophysite "orthodoxy" was - all-important, it is evidently a faithful reproduction of events as - they occurred. This third part was edited by Cureton (Oxford, 1853), - and was translated into English by R. Payne-Smith (Oxford, 1860) and - into German by J. M. Schonfelder (Munich, 1862). - - John's other known work was a series of _Biographies of Eastern - Saints_, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in - _Anecdota Syriaca_, ii. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen and - Land (Amsterdam, 1889). An interesting estimate of John as an - ecclesiastic and author was given by the Abbe Duchesne in a memoir - read before the five French Academies on the 25th of October 1892. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Land, _Joannes Bischof von Ephesos_, pp. 57 seq. - - [2] Cf. Land's Appendix (_op. cit._ 172-193). - - [3] See _Bulletin critique_, 15th June and 25th Aug. 1896, and 25th - Jan. 1897; _Journal asiatique_, 9th series, vol. viii. (1896) pp. 346 - sqq. and vol. ix. (1897) p. 529; also _Revue de l'Orient chretien, - Suppl. trimestriel_ (1897), pp. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Noldeke - in _Vienna Oriental Journal_ (1896), pp. 160 sqq. The facts are - briefly stated in Duval's _Litterature syriaque_, p. 192. A full - analysis of this second part of John's history has been given by M. - Nau. - - - - -JOHN OF DAMASCUS (JOHANNES DAMASCENUS) (d. before 754), an eminent -theologian of the Eastern Church, derives his surname from Damascus, -where he was born about the close of the 7th century. His Arabic name -was Mansur (the victor), and he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas -(gold-pouring) on account of his eloquence. The principal account of his -life is contained in a narrative of the 10th century, much of which is -obviously legendary. His father Sergius was a Christian, but -notwithstanding held a high office under the Saracen caliph, in which he -was succeeded by his son. John is said to have owed his education in -philosophy, mathematics and theology to an Italian monk named Cosmas, -whom Sergius had redeemed from a band of captive slaves. About the year -730 he wrote several treatises in defence of image-worship, which the -emperor, Leo the Isaurian, was making strenuous efforts to suppress. - -Various pieces of evidence go to show that it was shortly after this -date that he resolved to forsake the world, divided his fortune among -his friends and the poor, and betook himself to the monastery of St -Sabas, near Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his life. After the -customary probation he was ordained priest by the patriarch of -Jerusalem. In his last years he travelled through Syria contending -against the iconoclasts, and in the same cause he visited Constantinople -at the imminent risk of his life during the reign of Constantine -Copronymus. With him the "mysteries," the entire ritual, are an integral -part of the Orthodox system, and all dogma culminates in image-worship. -The date of his death is uncertain; it is probably about 752. John -Damascenus is a saint both in the Greek and in the Latin Churches, his -festival being observed in the former on the 29th of November and on the -4th of December, and in the latter on the 6th of May. - - The works of Damascenus give him a foremost place among the - theologians of the early Eastern Church, and, according to Dorner, he - "remains in later times the highest authority in the theological - literature of the Greeks." This is not because he is an original - thinker but because he compiled into systematic form the scattered - teaching of his theological predecessors. Several treatises attributed - to him are probably spurious, but his undoubted works are numerous and - embrace a wide range. The most important contains three parts under - the general title [Greek: Pege gnoseos] ("The Fountain of Knowledge"). - The first part, entitled [Greek: Kephalaia philosophika], is an - exposition and application of theology of Aristotle's Dialectic. The - second, entitled [Greek: Peri aireseon] ("Of Heresies"), is a - reproduction of the earlier work of Epiphanius, with a continuation - giving an account of the heresies that arose after the time of that - writer. The third part, entitled [Greek: Hekdosis akribes tes - orthodoxou pisteos] ("An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith"), - is much the most important, containing as it does a complete system of - theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church councils, - from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the finished result - of the theological thought of the early Greek Church. Through a Latin - translation made by Burgundio of Pisa in the 12th century, it was well - known to Peter Lombard and Aquinas, and in this way it influenced the - scholastic theology of the West. Another well-known work is the _Sacra - parallela_, a collection of biblical passages followed by - illustrations drawn from other scriptural sources and from the - fathers. There is much merit in his hymns and "canons"; one of the - latter is very familiar as the hymn "The Day of Resurrection, Earth - tell it out abroad." John of Damascus has sometimes been called the - "Father of Scholasticism," and the "Lombard of the Greeks," but these - epithets are appropriate only in a limited sense. - - The Christological position of John may be summed up in the following - description:[1] "He tries to secure the unity of the two natures by - relegating to the divine Logos the formative and controlling agency. - It is not a human individual that the Logos assumes, nor is it - humanity, or human nature in general. It is rather a potential human - individual, a nature not yet developed into a person or hypostasis. - The hypostasis through which this takes place is the personal Logos - through whose union with this potential man, in the womb of Mary, the - potential man acquires a concrete reality, an individual existence. He - has, therefore, no hypostasis of himself but only in and through the - Logos. It is denied that he is _non-hypostatic_ ([Greek: - anypostatos]); it is affirmed that he is _en-hypostatic_ ([Greek: - enypostatos]). Two natures may form a unity, as the body and soul in - man. So man, both soul and body, is brought into unity with the Logos; - there being then one hypostasis for both natures." There is an - interchange of the divine and human attributes, a communication of the - former which deifies the receptive and passive human nature. In Christ - the human will has become the organ of the divine will. Thus while - John is an adherent of Chalcedon and a dyothelite, the drift of his - teaching is in the monophysite direction. "The Chalcedonian - _Definition_ is victorious, but Apollinaris is not overcome"; what - John gives with the one hand he takes away with the other. On the - question of the Atonement he regards the death of Christ as a - sacrifice offered to God and not a ransom paid to the devil. - - LITERATURE.--The _Life_ of John of Damascus was written by John, - patriarch of Jerusalem in the 10th century (Migne, _Patrol. Graec._, - xciv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols., fol., - Paris, 1712) and form vols. 94 to 96 in Migne's Greek series. A - monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879. A. Harnack's _History of - Dogma_ is very full (see especially vols. iii. and iv.; on the - image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so are the similar works - of F. Loofs-Seeberg and A. Dorner. See also O. Bardenhewer's - _Patrologie_, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch's excellent - article in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. ix. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] G. P. Fisher, _Hist. of Chr. Doctrine_, 159 seq. More fully in R. - L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_, ii. 138-146. - - - - -JOHN OF HEXHAM (c. 1160-1209), English chronicler, is known to us merely -as the author of a work called the _Historia XXV. annorum_, which -continues the _Historia regum_ of Simeon of Durham and contains an -account of English events 1130-1153. From the title, as given in the -only manuscript, we learn John's name and the fact that he was prior of -Hexham. It must have been between 1160 and 1209 that he held this -position; but the date at which he lived and wrote cannot be more -accurately determined. Up to the year 1139 he follows closely the -history written by his predecessor, Prior Richard; thenceforward he is -an independent though not a very valuable authority. He is best informed -as to the events of the north country; his want of care, when he -ventures farther afield, may be illustrated by the fact that he places -in 1145 King Stephen's siege of Oxford, which really occurred in 1142. -Even for northern affairs his chronology is faulty; from 1140 onwards -his dates are uniformly one year too late. Prior Richard is not the only -author to whom John is indebted; he incorporates in the annal of 1138 -two other narratives of the battle of the Standard, one in verse by the -monk Serlo, another in prose by Abbot Ailred of Rievaux; and also a -poem, by a Glasgow clerk, on the death of Sumerled of the Isles. - - The one manuscript of John's chronicle is a 13th century copy; MS. C. - C. C. Cambridge, cxxxix. 8. The best edition is that of T. Arnold in - _Symeonis monachi opera_, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, 1885). There is an - English translation in J. Stevenson's _Church Historians of England_, - vol. iv. (London, 1856). (H. W. C. D.) - - - - -JOHN OF IRELAND (JOHANNIS DE IRLANDIA), (_fl._ 1480), Scottish writer, -perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for thirty years in Paris and -later a professor of theology. He was confessor to James IV. and also to -Louis XI. of France, and was rector of Yarrow (de Foresta) when he -completed, at Edinburgh, the work on which rests his sole claim as a -vernacular writer. This book, preserved in MS. in the Advocates' -Library, Edinburgh (MS. 18, 2, 8), and labelled "Johannis de Irlandia -opera theologica," is a treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline -necessary to a prince, especially intended for the use of the young -James IV. The book is the earliest extant example of original Scots -prose. It was still in MS. in 1910, but an edition was promised by the -Scottish Text Society. In this book John refers to two other vernacular -writings, one "of the commandementis and uthir thingis pretenand to the -salvacioune of man," the other, "of the tabill of confessioune." No -traces of these have been discovered. The author's name appears on the -registers of the university of Paris and on the rolls of the Scottish -parliaments, and he is referred to by the Scottish historians, Leslie -and Dempster. - - See the notices in John Lyden's Introduction to his edition of the - _Complaynt of Scotlande_ (1801), pp. 85 seq.; _The Scottish - Antiquary_, xiii. 111-115 and xv. 1-14. Annotated extracts are given - in Gregory Smith's _Specimens of Middle Scots_ (1902). - - - - -JOHN OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of this name, formerly confused -and identified with a third (anonymous) Ravennese in Petrarch's letters, -lived at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century. - -1. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went to live with -Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 he set out to see the world and make a -name for himself, returned in a state of destitution, but, growing -restless again, left his employer for good in 1368. He is not mentioned -again in Petrarch's correspondence, unless a letter "to a certain -wanderer" (_vago cuidam_), congratulating him on his arrival at Rome in -1373, is addressed to him. - -2. Son of Conversanus (Conversinus, Convertinus). He is first heard of -(Nov. 17, 1368) as appointed to the professorship of rhetoric at -Florence, where he had for some time held the post of notary at the -courts of justice. This differentiates him from (1). He entered (c. -1370) the service of the ducal house of Padua, the Carraras, in which he -continued at least until 1404, although the whole of that period was not -spent in Padua. From 1375 to 1379 he was a schoolmaster at Belluno, and -was dismissed as too good for his post and not adapted for teaching -boys. On the 22nd of March 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric -at Padua. During the struggle between the Carraras and Viscontis, he -spent five years at Udine (1387-1392). From 1395-1404 he was chancellor -of Francis of Carrara, and is heard of for the last time in 1406 as -living at Venice. His history of the Carraras, a tasteless production in -barbarous Latin, says little for his literary capacity; but as a teacher -he enjoyed a great reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da -Feltre and Guarino of Verona. - -3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinis), the most important. Born about 1356, he -was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to 1374. On the 19th of -September 1397 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and eloquence at -Florence. On the 9th of June 1412, on the re-opening of the studio, -which had been shut from 1405 to 1411 owing to the plague, his -appointment was renewed for five years, before the expiration of which -period he died (May 1417). Although Malpaghini left nothing behind him, -he did much to encourage the study of Latin; among his pupils was Poggio -Bracciolini. - - The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be found - in E. T. Klette, _Beitrage zur Geschichte und Litteratur der - italienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance_, vol. i. (1888); see also G. - Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_, who, however, - identifies (1) and (2). - - - - -JOHN OF SALISBURY (c. 1115-1180), English author, diplomatist and -bishop, was born at Salisbury between the years 1115 and 1120. Beyond -the fact that he was of Saxon, not of Norman race, and applies to -himself the cognomen of _Parvus_, "short," or "small," few details are -known regarding his early life; but from his own statements it is -gathered that he crossed to France about 1136, and began regular studies -in Paris under Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his -famous school on Mont St Genevieve. After Abelard's retirement, John -carried on his studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of Melun. From -1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the classics under William of -Conches and Richard l'Eveque, the disciples of Bernard of Chartres, -though it is still a matter of controversy whether it was in Chartres or -not (cf. A. Clerval, _Les Ecoles de Chartres au moyen age_, 1895). -Bernard's teaching was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic -tendency, partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater -Latin writers; and the influence of the latter feature is noticeable in -all John of Salisbury's works. About 1140 he was at Paris studying -theology under Gilbert de la Porree, then under Robert Pullus and Simon -of Poissy. In 1148 he resided at Moutiers la Celle in the diocese of -Troyes, with his friend Peter of Celle. He was present at the council of -Reims, presided over by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented -by Bernard of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose -court he settled, probably about 1150. Appointed secretary to Theobald, -he was frequently sent on missions to the papal see. During this time he -composed his greatest works, published almost certainly in 1159, the -_Policraticus, sive de nugis curialium et de vestigiis philosophorum_ -and the _Metalogicus_, writings invaluable as storehouses of information -regarding the matter and form of scholastic education, and remarkable -for their cultivated style and humanist tendency. After the death of -Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to Thomas Becket, and took -an active part in the long disputes between that primate and his -sovereign, Henry II. His letters throw light on the constitutional -struggle then agitating the English world. With Becket he withdrew to -France during the king's displeasure; he returned with him in 1170, and -was present at his assassination. In the following years, during which -he continued in an influential situation in Canterbury, but at what -precise date is unknown, he drew up the _Life of Thomas Becket_. In 1176 -he was made bishop of Chartres, where he passed the remainder of his -life. In 1179 he took an active part in the council of the Lateran. He -died at or near Chartres on the 25th of October 1180. - - John's writings enable us to understand with much completeness the - literary and scientific position of the 12th century. His views imply - a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs, opposing - to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical common - sense. His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a strong leaning - on the speculative side to the modified literary scepticism of Cicero, - for whom he had unbounded admiration. He was a humanist before the - Renaissance, surpassing all other representatives of the school of - Chartres in his knowledge of the Latin classics, as in the purity of - his style, which was evidently moulded on that of Cicero. Of Greek - writers he appears to have known nothing at first hand, and very - little in translations. The _Timaeus_ of Plato in the Latin version of - Chalcidius was known to him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, - and probably he had access to translations of the _Phaedo_ and _Meno_. - Of Aristotle he possessed the whole of the _Organon_ in Latin; he is, - indeed, the first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole - was known. Of other Aristotelian writings he appears to have known - nothing. - - The collected editions of the works are by J. A. Giles (5 vols., - Oxford, 1848), and by Migne, in the _Patrologiae cursus_, vol. 199: - neither accurate. The _Policraticus_ was edited with notes and - introductions by C. C. I. Webb, _Ioannis Saresberiensis episcopi - Carnotensis Policratici_ (Oxford, 1909), 2 vols. The most complete - study of John of Salisbury is the monograph by C. Schaarschmidt, - _Johannes Sarisberiensis nach Leben und Studien, Schriften und - Philosophie_, 1862, which is a model of accurate and complete - workmanship. See also the article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ - - - - -JOHN (1290-c. 1320), surnamed the Parricide, and called also John of -Swabia, was a son of Rudolph II. count of Habsburg and Agnes daughter of -Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, and consequently a grandson of the German -king Rudolph I. Having passed his early days at the Bohemian court, when -he came of age he demanded a portion of the family estates from his -uncle, the German king Albert I. His wishes were not gratified, and with -three companions he formed a plan to murder the king. On the 1st of May -1308 Albert in crossing the river Reuss at Windisch became separated -from his attendants, and was at once attacked and killed by the four -conspirators. John escaped the vengeance of Albert's sons, and was -afterwards found in a monastery at Pisa, where in 1313 he is said to -have been visited by the emperor Henry VII., who had placed him under -the ban. From this time he vanishes from history. The character of John -is used by Schiller in his play _Wilhelm Tell_. - - - - -JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF. The so-called epistles of John, in the Bible, are -not epistles in the strict sense of the term, for the first is a homily, -and encyclical or pastoral (as has been recognized since the days of -Bretschneider and Michaelis), while the other two are brief notes or -letters. Nor are they John's, if John means the son of Zebedee. The -latter conclusion depends upon the particular hypothesis adopted with -regard to the general Johannine problem, yet even when it is held that -John the apostle (q.v.) survived to old age in Ephesus, the second and -third epistles may be fairly ascribed (with Erasmus, Grotius, Credner, -Bretschneider, Reuss, &c.) to John the presbyter[1], as several circles -in the early church held ("Opinio a plerisque tradita," Jerome: _De vir. -ill._ 18). An apostle indeed might call himself a presbyter (cf. 1 Pet. -v. 1). But these notes imply no apostolic claim on the part of the -author, and, although their author is anonymous, the likelihood is that -their composition by the great Asiatic presbyter John led afterwards to -their incorporation in the "instrumentum" of John the apostle's -writings, when the prestige of the latter had obscured the former. All -hypotheses as to their pseudonymity or composition by different hands -may be dismissed. They would never have floated down the stream of -tradition except on the support of some primitive authority. If this was -not connected with John the apostle the only feasible alternative is to -think of John the presbyter, for Papias refers to the latter in -precisely this fashion (Euseb. _H. E._ iii. 39, 15; [Greek: kai touto ho -p. elege]). - -The period of all three lies somewhere within the last decade of the 1st -century and the first decade of the 2nd. No evidence is available to -determine in what precise order they were written, but it will be -convenient to take the two smaller notes before the larger. The -so-called Second Epistle of John is one of the excommunicating notes -occasionally despatched by early Christian leaders to a community (cf. 2 -Cor. v. 9). The presbyter or elder warns a Christian community, -figuratively addressed as "the elect lady" (cf. 13 with 1 Pet. i. 1; v, -13; also the plural of 6, 8, 10 and 13), against some itinerant (cf. -_Didache_ xi. 1-2) teachers who were promulgating advanced Docetic views -(7) upon the person of Christ. The note is merely designed to serve (12) -until the writer arrives in person. He sends greetings to his -correspondents from some community in which he is residing at present -(13), and with which they had evidently some connexion. - -The note was familiar to Irenaeus[2] who twice (i. 16, 3, iii. 16, 8) -cites 10-11, once quoting it from the first epistle by mistake, but no -tradition has preserved the name of the community in question, and all -opinions on the matter are guess-work. The reference to "all who know -the truth" (ver. 1) is, of course, to be taken relatively (cf. Rev. ii. -23); it does not necessarily imply a centre like Antioch or Rome -(Chapman). Whiston thought of Philadelphia, and probably it must have -been one of the Asiatic churches. - -The so-called Third Epistle of John belongs to the [Greek: epistolai -systatikai] (2 Cor. iii. 1) of the early church, like Rom. xvi. It is a -private note addressed by the presbyter to a certain Gaius, a member of -the same community or house-church (9) as that to which 2 John is -written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (9-10) had repudiated the -authority of the writer and his party, threatening even to excommunicate -Gaius and others from the church (cf. Abbott's _Diatessarica_, S 2258). -With this opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person -before very long. Meantime (14) he despatches the present note, in -hearty appreciation of his correspondent's attitude and character. - -The allusion in 9 ([Greek: egrapsa]) refers in all likelihood to the -"second" epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c.). In order to avoid the -suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, [Greek: an] was inserted at -an early stage in the textual history of the note. If [Greek: ekklesias] -could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter; in any case, he is -not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is there any reason to -suppose (with Harnack)[3] that the note of 9 was written to, and -suppressed by, him. What the presbyter is afraid of is not so much that -his note would not be read (Ewald, Harnack), as that it would not be -acted upon. - -These notes, written originally on small sheets of papyrus, reveal the -anonymous presbyter travelling (so Clem. Alex. _Quis dives salv._ xlii.) -in his circuit or diocese of churches, and writing occasional pastoral -letters, in which he speaks not only in his own name but in that of a -coterie of like-minded Christians.[4] It is otherwise with the brochure -or manifesto known as the "first epistle." This was written neither at -the request of its readers nor to meet any definite local emergency, but -on the initiative of its author (i. 4) who was evidently concerned about -the effect produced upon the Church in general by certain contemporary -phases of semi-gnostic teaching. The polemic is directed against a -dualism which developed theoretically into docetic views of Christ's -person (ii. 22, iv. 2, &c.), and practically into libertinism (ii. 4, -&c.).[5] It is natural to think, primarily, of the churches in Asia -Minor as the circle addressed, but all indications of date or place are -absent, except those which may be inferred from its inner connexion with -the Fourth Gospel. - -The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated, resembling a -series of variations upon one or two favourite themes rather than a -carefully constructed melody. Fellowship ([Greek: koinonia]) with God -and man is its dominant note. After defining the essence of Christian -[Greek: koinonia] (i. 1-3),[6] the writer passes on to its conditions -(i. 5-ii. 17), under the antithesis of light and darkness. These -conditions are twofold: (a) a sense of sin, which leads Christians to a -sense of forgiveness[7] through Jesus Christ, (b) and obedience to the -supreme law of brotherly love (cf. Ignat. _Ad Smyrn._ 6). If these -conditions are unfulfilled, moral darkness is the issue, a darkness -which spells ruin to the soul. This prompts the writer to explain the -dangers of [Greek: koinonia] (ii. 18-29), under the antithesis of truth -and falsehood, the immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the -person of Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then -developed (iii. 1-12), as sinlessness and brotherly love, under the -antithesis of children of God (cf. ii. 29, "born of Him") and children -of the devil. This brotherly love bulks so largely in the writer's mind -that he proceeds to enlarge upon its main elements of confidence towards -God (iii. 13-24), moral discernment (iv. 1-6), and assurance of union -with God (iv. 7-21), all these being bound up with a true faith in Jesus -as the Christ (v. 1-12).[8] A brief epilogue gives what is for the most -part a summary (v. 13-21) of the leading ideas of the homily.[9] - -Disjointed as the cause of the argument may seem, a close scrutiny of -the context often reveals a subtle connexion between paragraphs which at -first sight appear unlinked. Thus the idea of the [Greek: kosmos] -passing away (ii. 17) suggests the following sentences upon the nearness -of the [Greek: parousia] (ii. 18 seq.), whose signs are carefully noted -in order to reassure believers, and whose moral demands are underlined -(ii. 28, iii. 3). Within this paragraph[10] even the abrupt mention of -the [Greek: chrysma] has its genetical place (ii. 20). The heretical -[Greek: antichristoi], it is implied, have no [Greek: chrisma] from God; -Christians have (note the emphasis on [Greek: hymeis]), owing to their -union with the true [Greek: Christos]. Again, the genetic relation of -iii. 4 seq. to what precedes becomes evident when we consider that the -norm of Christian purity (iii. 3) is the keeping of the divine -commandments, or conduct resembling Christ's on earth (iii. 3-ii. 4-6), -so that the Gnostic[11] breach of this law not only puts a man out of -touch with Christ (iii. 6 seq.), but defeats the very end of Christ's -work, i.e. the abolition of sin (iii. 8). Thus iii. 7-10 resumes and -completes the idea of ii. 29; the Gnostic is shown to be out of touch -with the righteous God, partly because he will not share the brotherly -love which is the expression of the righteousness, and partly because -his claims to sinlessness render God's righteous forgiveness (i. 9) -superfluous. Similarly the mention of the Spirit (iii. 24) opens -naturally into a discussion of the decisive test for the false claims of -the heretics or gnostic _illuminati_ to spiritual powers and gifts (iv. -1 seq.); and, as this test of the genuine Spirit of God is the -confession of Jesus Christ as really human and incarnate, the writer, on -returning (in iv. 17 seq.) to his cardinal idea of brotherly love, -expresses it in view of the incarnate Son (iv. 9), whose mission -furnishes the proof of God's love as well as the example and the energy -of man's (iv. 10 seq.). The same conception of the real humanity of -Jesus Christ as essential to faith's being and well-being is worked out -in the following paragraph (v. 1-12), while the allusion to eternal life -(v. 11-12) leads to the closing recapitulation (v. 13-21) of the -homily's leading ideas under this special category. - -The curious idea, mentioned by Augustine (_Quaest. evang._ ii. 39), that -the writing was addressed _ad Parthos_, has been literally taken by -several Latin fathers and later writers (e.g. Grotius, Paulus, Hammond), -but this title probably was a corruption of _ad sparsos_ (Wetstein, -Wegschneider) or of [Greek: pros parthenous] (Whiston: the Christians -addressed as virgin, i.e. free from heresy), if not of [Greek: -parthenos], as applied in early tradition to John the apostle. The -circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the first -instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to determine -whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger treatise. The -division of opinion on this point (cf. J. Moffat, _Historical New -Testament_, 1901, p. 534) is serious, but the evidence for either -position is purely subjective. There are sufficient peculiarities of -style and conception[12] to justify provisionally some hesitation on the -matter of the authorship. The epistle may have been written by a -different author, or, from a more popular standpoint, by the author of -the gospel, possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxi. -But _res lubrica, opinio incerta_. - -It is unsafe to lay much stress upon the apparent reminiscence of iv. -2-3 (or of 2 John 7) in Polycarp, _ad Phil._ 7 reading [Greek: -eleluthota] instead of [Greek: eleluthenai]), though, if a literary -filiation is assumed, the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from -the epistle, not vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his _Ursprung d. -unseren Evglien_ 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (_H. E._ iii. -39) to have used [Greek: e 'Ioannou protera] (= [Greek: e 'Ioannou -prote], v. 8?), i.e. the anonymous tract, which, by the time of -Eusebius, had come to be known as 1 John, and we have no reason to -suspect or reject this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another -Asiatic writer, furnishes clear echoes of the epistle (_Dial._ 123). The -tract must have been in circulation throughout Asia Minor at any rate -before the end of the first quarter of the 2nd century.[13] The -_terminus a quo_ is approximately the period of the Fourth Gospel's -composition, but there is no valid evidence to indicate the priority of -either, even upon the hypothesis that both came from the same pen. The -aim of each is too special to warrant the conclusion that the epistle -was intended to accompany or to introduce the gospel. - - LITERATURE.--The most adequate modern editions of the three epistles - are by Westcott (3rd ed., 1892), H. J. Holtzmann (_Hand-Commentar zum - N. T._, 3rd ed., 1908), B. Weiss (in Meyer, 6th ed., 1900), Baljon - (1904) and J. E. Belser (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906). Briefer English - notes are furnished by W. Alexander (_Speaker's Commentary_, 1881), W. - H. Bennett (_Century Bible_, 1901) and H. P. Forbes (_Internat. - Handbooks to New Testament_, vol. iv. 1907), while Plummer has a - concise edition of the Greek text (in _The Cambridge Greek Testament_, - 1886). Huther's edition (in Meyer, 1880) has been translated into - English (Edinburgh, 1882), like Rothe's (1878) invaluable commentary - on the first epistle (cf. _Expository Times_, vols. iii. v.). Otto - Baumgarten's popular edition in _Die Schriften des N. T._ (1907) is, - like that of Forbes, written from practically the same standpoint as - Holtzmann's. The earlier commentaries of Alford (2nd ed., 1862), C. - A. Wolf (2nd ed., 1885), Ewald (_Die Joh. Briefe ubersetzt und - erklaert_, Gottingen, 1861-1862), and Lucke (3rd ed., revised by - Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions - those of W. Whiston (_Comm. on St John's Three Catholic Epistles_, - 1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegetical - interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by - John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (1851; Eng. trans. New York, - 1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C. Watson - (1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern (_De - epistolae Joh. consilio_, Tubingen, 1830), Erdmann (_Primae Joh. - epistolae argumentum, nexus et consilium_, Berlin, 1855), C. E. - Luthardt (_De primae Joannis epistolae compositione_, 1860), J. - Stockmeyer (_Die Structur des ersten Joh. Briefes_, Basel, 1873) and, - most elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (_Jahrb. fur protest. Theologie_, - 1881, pp. 690 seq.; 1882, pp. 128 seq., 316 seq., 460 seq.). To the - monographs already noted in the course of this article may be added - the essays by Wiesinger (_Studien und Kritiken_, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) - and Wohlenberg ("Glossen zum ersten Johannisbrief," _Neue Kirchliche - Zeitschrift_, 1902, pp. 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are - special commentaries and studies by Ritmeier (_De electa domina_, - 1706), C. A. Kriegele (_De_ [Greek: kuria] _Johannis_, 1758), Carpzov - (_Theolog. exegetica_, pp. 105-208), H. G. B. Muller (_Comment. in - secundam epistolam Joannis_, 1783), C. Klug (_De authentia_, &c., - 1823), J. Rendel Harris (_Expositor_, 6th series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), - W. M. Ramsay (ibid., pp. 354 seq.) and Gibbins (ibid., 1902, pp. - 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann's _Comment, in Joan. ep. III._ - (1778), P. L. Gachon (_Authenticite de la deuxieme et troisieme - epitres de Jean_, 1851), Poggel (_Der zweite und dritte Briefe d. - Apostel Johannis_, 1896), and Chapman (_Journal of Theological - Studies_, 1904, "The Historical Setting of the Second and the Third - Epistles of St John"), have discussed both of the minor epistles - together. General studies of all three are furnished by H. J. - Holtzmann in Schenkel's _Bibel-Lexicon_, iii. 342-352, Sabatier - (_Encyclop. des sciences religieuses_, vii. 177 seq.), S. Cox (_The - Private Letters of St Paul and St John_, 1867), Farrar (_Early Days of - Christianity_, chs. xxxi., xxxiv. seq.), Gloag (_Introduction to - Catholic Epistles_, 1887, pp. 256-350), S. D. F. Salmond in Hasting's - _Dict. Bible_ (vol. ii), G. H. Gilbert (_The First Interpreters of - Jesus_, 1901, pp. 301-332), and V. Bartlet (_The Apostolic Age_, 1900, - pp. 418 seq.; from a more advanced critical position by Cone (_The - Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations_, 1893, pp. 320-327), P. W. - Schmiedel (_Ency. Bib._, 2556-2562, also in a pamphlet, _Evangelium, - Briefe, und Offenbarung des Johannes_, 1906; Eng. trans. 1908), J. - Reville (_Le Quatrieme Evangile_, 1901, pp. 49 seq.) and Pfleiderer - (_Das Urchristentum_, 2nd ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq.). The problem of the - epistles is discussed incidentally by many writers on the Fourth - Gospel, as well as by writers on New Testament introduction like Zahn, - Jacquier, Barth and Belser, on the Conservative side, and Hilgenfeld, - Julicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On the older Syriac version of - 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn's article in _Hermathena_ (1890), pp. 281 seq. - On the general reception of the three epistles in the early Church, - Zahn's paragraphs (in his _Geschichte d. N. T. Kanons_, i. 209 seq., - 374 seq., 905 seq.; ii. 48 seq., 88 seq.) are the most adequate. - (J. Mt.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] So Selwyn, _Christian Prophets_ (pp. 133-145), Harnack, Heinrici - (_Das Urchristenthum_, 1902, pp. 129 seq.), and von Soden (_History - of Early Christian Literature_, pp. 445-446), after Renan (_L'Eglise - chretienne_, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschutz (_Christian Life in the - Primitive Church_, pp. 218 seq.) and R. Knopf (_Das nachapost. - Zeitalter_, 1905, pp. 32 seq., &c.) are among the most recent critics - who ascribe all three epistles to the presbyter. - - [2] On the early allusions to these brief notes, cf. Gregory: _The - Canon and Text of the New Testament_ (1907), pp. 131, 190 seq., - Westcott's _Canon of the New Testament_, pp. 218 seq., 355, 357, 366, - &c., and Leipoldt's _Geschichte d. neut. Kanons_ (1907), i. pp. 66 - seq., 78 seq., 99 seq., 151 seq., 192 seq., 232 seq. - - [3] In his ingenious study (_Texte und Untersuchungen_, xv. 3), whose - main contention is adopted by von Dobschutz and Knopf. On this view - (for criticism see Belser in the _Tubing. Quartalschrift_, 1897, pp. - 150 seq., Kruger in _Zeitschrift fur die wiss. Theologie_, 1898, pp. - 307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316-320), Diotrephes was voicing a - successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the older - itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedel, _Ency. Bib._, 3146-3147). As - Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (_Hermes_, 1898, pp. 529 seq.) points out, - there is a close connexion between ver. 11 and ver. 10. The same - writer argues that, as the substitution of [Greek: agapetos] for - [Greek: philtatos] (ver. 1) "ist Schonrednerei und nicht vom besten - Geschmacke," the writer adds [Greek: on ego agapo en aletheia]. - - [4] This is the force of the [Greek: emeis] in 3 John 9-10 (cf. 1 - John iv. 6, 14) "The truth" (3 John 3-5) seems to mean a life - answering to the apostolic standard thus enforced and exemplified. - - [5] Several of these traits were reproduced in the teaching of - Cerinthus, others may have been directly Jewish or Jewish Christian. - The opposition to the Messianic role of Jesus had varied adherents. - The denial of the Virgin-birth, which also formed part of the system - of Cerinthus, was met by anticipation in the stories of Matthew and - Luke, which pushed back the reception of the spirit from the baptism - to the birth, but the Johannine school evidently preferred to answer - this heresy by developing the theory of the Logos, with its implicate - of pre-existence. - - [6] On the vexed question whether the language of this paragraph is - purely spiritual or includes a realistic reference, cf. G. E. Findlay - (_Expositor_, 1893, pp. 97 seq.), and Dr E. A. Abbott's recent study - in _Diatessarica_, SS 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the - Docetic heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of - communications with the apostolic base. - - [7] The universal range (ii. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work of - Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic - narrowing of salvation to Israel; only [Greek: emeis] here denotes - Christians in general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the - Gnostic pride of perfectionism (i. 8), cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19. The - emphasis on "you all" (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic - system of degrees among believers, which naturally tended to break up - brotherly love (cf. 1 Cor. viii. 1 seq.). The Gnostics also held that - a spiritual seed (cf. iii. 9) was implanted in man, as the germ of - his higher development into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea - cf. Iren. _Adv. Haer._ i. 64, and Tertull. _De anima_, 11 [haeretici] - "nescio quod spiritale semen infulciunt animae". Cf. the general - discussions by Haring in _Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsacker - gewidmet_ (1892), pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in _Wanderungen durch - Schrift u. Geschichte_ (1892), pp. 3-74. - - [8] Cf. Denney, _The Death of Christ_ (1902), pp. 269-281. The - polemical reference to Cerinthus is specially clear at this point. - The death of Jesus was not that of a phantom, nor was his ministry - from the baptism to the crucifixion that of a heavenly aeon which - suffered nothing: such is the writer's contention. "In every case the - historical is asserted, but care is taken that it shall not be - materialized: a primacy is given to the spiritual.... Except through - the historical, there is no Christianity at all, but neither is there - any Christianity till the historical has been spiritually - comprehended." The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly - witnesses (v. 7) has now been proved by Karl Kunstle (_Das Comma - Johanneum_, 1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th - century Spaniard, Priscillian, who himself denied all distinctions of - person in the Godhead. - - [9] On the "sin to death" (v. 16) cf. Jubilees xxi. 22, xxvi. 34 with - Karl's _Johann. Studien_ (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel's _La - Notion johannique de l'esprit_ (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general - theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best - handled by Grill in his _Untersuchungen uber die Entstehung des - vierten Evgliums_ (1902), pp. 301 seq., 312 seq. - - [10] In Preuschen's _Zeitschrift fur die neutest. Wissenschaft_ - (1907), pp. 1-8, von Dobschutz tries to show that the present text of - ii. 28-iii. 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier - text. Cludius (_Uransichten des Christentums_, Altona, 1808) had - already conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a - Jewish Christian document. - - [11] Dr Alois Wurm's attempt (_Die Irrlehrer im ersten - Johannesbriefe_, 1903) to read the references to errorists solely in - the light of Jewish Christianity ignores or underrates several of the - data. He is supported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen's - _Zeitschrift_ (1905), pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish - touch, e.g. in the claim of iii. 1 (note the emphatic [Greek: - hemin]), when one recollects the saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and - Philo's remark, [Greek: kai gar ei mepo ikanoi theou paides - nomizesthai gegonamen, alla toi tes aeidous eikonos autou, logou tou - hierot atou theou gar eikon logos ho presbytatos] (_De conf. ling._ - 28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, unlike that of Paul - and Cerinthus (Epiph. _Haer._ xxviii.), is too well based in the - tradition of the early Church to be dismissed as a later dogmatic - reflection, and the internal evidence of this manifesto corroborates - it clearly. - - [12] "The style is not flowing and articulated; the sentences come - like minute-guns, as they would drop from a natural Hebrew. The - writer moves, indeed, amidst that order of religious ideas which - meets us in the Fourth Gospel, and which was that of the Greek world - wherein he found himself. He moves amongst these new ideas, however, - not with the practised felicity of the evangelist, but with something - of helplessness, although the depth and serene beauty of his spirit - give to all he says an infinite impressiveness and charm" (M. Arnold; - _God and the Bible_, ch. vi.). - - [13] By the end of the 2nd century it appears to have been fairly - well-known, to judge from Origen, Irenaeus (iii. 16, 8), and Clement - of Alexandria (_Stran._ ii. 15, 66). In the Muratorian canon, which - mentions two epistles of John, it seems to be reckoned (cf. Kuhn, - _Das Murat. Fragment_, pp. 58 f.) as an appendix or sequel to the - Fourth Gospel. The apparent traces of its use in Ignatius (cf. - _Smyrn._ vi. 2 = 1 John iii. 17; _Smyrn._ vii = 1 John iii. 14, and - _Eph._ xviii. = 1 John v. 6) seem too insecure, of themselves, to - warrant any hypothesis of filiation. - - - - -JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST, the fourth and latest of the Gospels, in the Bible, -and, next to that of St Mark, the shortest. The present article will -first describe its general structure and more obvious contents; compare -it with the Synoptic Gospels; and draw out its leading characteristics -and final object. It will then apply the tests thus gained to the -narratives special to this Gospel; and point out the book's special -difficulties and limits, and its abiding appeal and greatness. And it -will finally consider the questions of its origin and authorship. - - _Analysis of Contents._--The book's chief break is at xiii. 1, the - solemn introduction to the feet-washing: all up to here reports Jesus' - signs and apologetic or polemical discourses to the outer world; hence - onwards it pictures the manifestation of His glory to the inner circle - of His disciples. These two parts contain three sections each. - - 1. (i.) Introduces the whole work (i. 1-ii. 11). (a) The prologue, i. - 1-18. The Logos existed before creation and time; was with the very - God and was God; and all things were made through Him. For in this - Logos is Life, and this Life is a Light which, though shining in - darkness, cannot be suppressed by it. This true Light became flesh and - tabernacled amongst us; and we beheld His glory, as of an - Only-Begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth. John the - Baptist testified concerning Him, the Logos-Light and Logos-Life - incarnate; but this Logos alone, who is in the bosom of the Father, - hath declared the very God. (b) The four days' work (i. 19-51). On the - first three days John declares that he is not the Christ, proclaims - Jesus to be the Christ, and sends his own disciples away to Jesus. On - the fourth day, Jesus Himself calls Philip and Nathanael. (c) The - seventh day's first manifestation of the Incarnate Light's glory (ii. - 1-11 ); Jesus at Cana turns water into wine. - - (ii.) Records the manifestations of the Light's and Life's glory and - power to friend and foe (ii. 22-vi. 71). (d) Solemn inauguration of - the Messianic ministry (ii. 12-iii. 21): cleansing of the Temple and - prophecy of His resurrection; discourse to Nicodemus on baptismal - regeneration. (e) Three scenes in Judea, Samaria, Galilee respectively - (iii. 32-iv. 54): the Baptist's second testimony; Jesus' discourse - with the woman at the well concerning the spiritual, universal - character of the new religion; and cure of the ruler's son, the reward - of faith in the simple word of Jesus. (f) Manifestation of Jesus as - the vivifying Life-Logos and its contradiction in Judea, v.: the - paralytic's cure. (g) Manifestation of Jesus as the heaven-descended - living Bread and its contradiction in Galilee, vi.: multiplication of - the loaves; walking on the waters; and His discourse on the holy - Eucharist. - - (iii.) Acute conflict between the New Light and the old darkness - (vii.-xii). (h) Self-manifestation of the Logos-Light in the Temple - (vii. 1-x. 39). Journey to the feast of tabernacles; invitation to the - soul athirst to come to Him (the fountain of Life) and drink, and - proclamation of Himself as the Light of the world; cure of the man - born blind; allegory of the good shepherd. The allegory continued at - the feast of the dedication. They strive to stone or to take Him. (i) - The Logos-Life brings Lazarus to life; effects of the act (x. 40-xii. - 50). Jesus withdraws beyond Jordan, and then comes to Bethany, His - friend Lazarus being buried three days; proclaims Himself the - Resurrection and the Life; and calls Lazarus back to life. Some who - saw it report the act to the Pharisees; the Sanhedrim meets, Caiaphas - declares that one man must die for the people, and henceforward they - ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus withdraws to the Judaean desert, but - soon returns, six days before Passover, to Bethany; Mary anoints Him, - a crowd comes to see Him and Lazarus, and the hierarchs then plan the - killing of Lazarus also. Next morning He rides into Jerusalem on an - ass's colt. Certain Greeks desire to see Him: He declares the hour of - His glorification to have come: "Now My soul is troubled.... Father, - save Me from this hour. But for this have I come unto this hour: - Father, glorify Thy Name." A voice answers, "I have glorified it and - will glorify it again": some think that an angel spoke; but Jesus - explains that this voice was not for His sake but for theirs. When - lifted up from earth, He will draw all men to Himself; they are to - believe in Him, the Light. The writer's concluding reflection: the - small success of Jesus' activity among the Jews. Once again He cries: - "I am come a Light into the world, that whoso believeth in Me should - not abide in darkness." - - 2. The Logos-Christ's manifestation of His life and love to His - disciples, during the last supper, the passion, the risen life - (xiii.-xx.). - - (iv.) The Last Supper (xiii.-xvii.) (j) Solemn washing of the - disciples' feet; the beloved disciple; designates the traitor; Judas - goes forth, it is night (xiii. 1-30). (k) Last discourses, first - series (xiii. 31-xiv. 31): the new commandment, the other helper; - "Arise, let us go hence." Second series (xv. 1-xvi. 33): allegory of - the true vine; "Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down - his life for his friend"; the world's hatred; the spirit of truth - shall lead them into all truth; "I came forth from the Father and am - come into the world, again I leave the world and go to the Father"; - "Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world." (l) The high-priestly - prayer (xvii). "Father, glorify Thy Son ... with the glory which I had - with Thee before the world was ... that to as many as Thou hast given - Him, He should give eternal life." "I pray for them, I pray not for - the world. I pray also for them that shall believe in Me through their - word, that they may be all one, as Thou Father art in Me, and I in - Thee." - - (v.) The Passion (xviii.-xix.). (m) In the garden: the Roman soldiers - come to apprehend Him, fall back upon the ground at His declaration "I - am He." Peter and Malchus. (n) Before Annas at night and Caiaphas at - dawn; Peter's denials (xviii. 12-27). (o) Before Pilate (xviii. - 28-40). Jesus declares, "My kingdom is not of this world. I have come - into the world that I may bear witness to the truth: everyone that is - of the truth, heareth My voice"; Pilate asks sceptically "What is - truth?" and the crowd prefers Barabbas. (p) The true king presented to - the people as a mock-king; His rejection by the Jews and abandonment - to them (xix. 1-16). (q) Jesus carries His cross to Golgotha, and is - crucified there between two others; the cross's title and Pilate's - refusal to alter it (xix. 17-22). (r) The soldiers cast lots upon His - garments and seamless tunic; His mother with two faithful women and - the beloved disciple at the cross's foot; His commendation of His - mother and the disciple to each other; His last two sayings in - deliberate accomplishment of scripture "I thirst," "It is - accomplished." He gives up the spirit; His bones remain unbroken; and - from His spear-lanced side blood and water issue (xix. 23-37). (s) The - two nobles, Joseph of Arimathaea and Nicodemus, bind the dead body in - a winding sheet with one hundred pounds of precious spices, and place - it in a new monument in a near garden, since the sabbath is at hand. - - (vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and God (xx.). (t) At early dawn on the - first day of the week, Mary Magdalen, finding the stone rolled away - from the monument, runs to tell Peter and the beloved disciple that - the Lord's body has been removed. Peter and the other disciple run to - the grave; the latter, arriving first, enters only after Peter has - gone in and noted the empty grave-clothes--enters and believes. After - their departure, Mary sees two angels where His body had lain and - turning away beholds Jesus standing, yet recognizes Him only when He - addresses her. He bids her "Do not touch Me, for I have not yet - ascended"; but to tell His brethren "I ascend to My Father and to your - Father, to My God and to your God." And she does so. (u) Second - apparition (xx. 19-23). Later on the same day, the doors being shut, - Jesus appears amongst His disciples, shows them His (pierced) hands - and side, and solemnly commissions and endows them for the apostolate - by the words, "As the Father hath sent Me, so I send you," and by - breathing upon them saying "Receive the Holy Spirit: whose sins ye - remit, they are remitted to them; whose sins ye retain, they are - retained." (v) Third apparition and culminating saying; conclusion of - entire book (xx. 24-31). Thomas, who had been absent, doubts the - resurrection; Jesus comes and submits to the doubter's tests. Thomas - exclaims, "My Lord and my God"; but Jesus declares "Blessed are they - that have not seen and yet have believed." "Now Jesus," concludes the - writer, "did many other signs, ... but these are written, that ye may - believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing - ye may have life in His name." - - The above analysis is rough, since even distantly placed sections, - indeed the two parts themselves, are interrelated by delicate complex - references on and back. And it omits the account of the adulteress - (vii. 53-viii. 11): (a valuable report of an actual occurrence which - probably belonged to some primitive document otherwise incorporated by - the Synoptists), because it is quite un-Johannine in vocabulary, style - and character, intercepts the Gospel's thread wherever placed, and is - absent from its best MSS. It also omits xxi. This chapter's first two - stages contain an important early historical document of Synoptic - type: Jesus' apparition to seven disciples by the Lake of Galilee and - the miraculous draught of fishes; and Peter's threefold confession and - Jesus' threefold commission to him. And its third stage, Jesus' - prophecies to Peter and to the beloved disciple concerning their - future, and the declaration "This is the disciple who testifies to - these things and who has written them, and we know that his testimony - is true," is doubtless written by the redactor of the previous two - stages. This writer imitates, but is different from, the great author - of the first twenty chapters. - - _Comparison with the Synoptists._--The following are the most obvious - differences between the original book and the Synoptists. John has a - metaphysical prologue; Matthew and Luke have historical prologues; and - Mark is without any prologue. The earthly scene is here Judea, indeed - Jerusalem, with but five breaks (vi. 1-vii. 10) is the only long one; - whilst over two-thirds of each Synoptist deal with Galilee or Samaria. - The ministry here lasts about three and a half years (it begins some - months before the first Passover, ii. 13; the feast of v. 1 is - probably a second; the third occurs vi. 4; and on the fourth, xi. 55, - He dies): whilst the Synoptists have but the one Passover of His - death, after barely a year of ministry. Here Jesus' teaching contains - no parables and but three allegories, the Synoptists present it as - parabolic through and through. Here not one exorcism occurs; in the - Synoptists the exorcisms are as prominent as the cures and the - preaching, John has, besides the passion, seven accounts in common - with the Synoptists: the Baptist and Jesus, (i. 19-34); cleansing of - the Temple (ii. 13-16); cure of the centurion's (ruler's) servant - (son) (iv. 46-54); multiplication of the loaves (vi. 1-13); walking - upon the water (vi. 16-21); anointing at Bethany, (xii. 1-8); entry - into Jerusalem (xii. 12-16): all unique occurrences. In the first, - John describes how the Baptist, on Jesus' approach, cries "Behold the - Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world"; and how he says - "I saw the spirit descending upon Him, and I bore witness that this is - the Son of God." But the Synoptists, especially Mark, give the slow - steps in even the apostles' realization of Jesus' Messianic character; - only at Caesarea Philippi Simon alone, for the first time, clearly - discerns it, Jesus declaring that His Father has revealed it to Him, - and yet Simon is still scandalized at the thought of a suffering - Messiah (Mark viii. 28-34). Only some two weeks before the end is He - proclaimed Messiah at Jericho (x. 46-48); then in Jerusalem, five days - before dying for this upon the cross (xi. 1-10, xv. 37). As to the - Baptist, in all three Synoptists, he baptizes Jesus, and in Mark i. - 10, 11 it is Jesus who sees the Spirit descending upon Himself on His - emerging from beneath the water, and it is to Himself that God's voice - is addressed; in John, Jesus' baptism is ignored, only the Spirit - remains hovering above Him, as a sign for the Baptist's instruction. - And in Matt. xi. 2-6, the Baptist, several months after the Jordan - scene, sends from his prison to ascertain if Jesus is indeed the - Messiah; in John, the Baptist remains at large so as again (iii. - 22-36) to proclaim Jesus' heavenly provenance. The cleansing of the - Temple occurs in the Synoptists four days before His death, and - instantly determines the hierarchs to seek His destruction (Mark xi. - 15-18); John puts it three years back, as an appropriate frontispiece - to His complete claims and work. - - The passion-narratives reveal the following main differences. John - omits, at the last supper, its central point, the great historic act - of the holy eucharist, carefully given by the Synoptists and St Paul, - having provided a highly doctrinal equivalent in the discourse on the - living bread, here spoken by Jesus in Capernaum over a year before the - passion (vi. 4), the day after the multiplication of the loaves. This - transference is doubtless connected with the change in the relations - between the time of the Passover meal and that of His death: in the - Synoptists, the Thursday evening's supper is a true Passover meal, the - lamb had been slain that afternoon and Jesus dies some twenty-four - hours later; in John, the supper is not a Passover-meal, the Passover - is celebrated on Friday, and Jesus, proclaimed here from the first, - the Lamb of God, dies whilst the paschal lambs, His prototypes, are - being slain. The scene in the garden is without the agony of - Gethsemane; a faint echo of this historic anguish appears in the scene - with the Greeks four days earlier, and even that peaceful appeal to, - and answer of, the Father occurs only for His followers' sakes. In the - garden Jesus here Himself goes forth to meet His captors, and these - fall back upon the ground, on His revealing Himself as Jesus of - Nazareth. The long scenes with Pilate culminate in the great sayings - concerning His kingdom not being of this world and the object of this - His coming being to bear witness to the truth, thus explaining how, - though affirming kingship (Mark xv. 2) He could be innocent. In John - He does not declare Himself Messiah before the Jewish Sanhedrin (Mark - xiv. 61) but declares Himself supermundane regal witness to the truth - before the Roman governor. The scene on Calvary differs as follows: In - the Synoptists the soldiers divide His garments among them, casting - lots (Mark xv. 24); in John they make four parts of them and cast lots - concerning His seamless tunic, thus fulfilling the text, "They divided - My garments among them and upon My vesture they cast lots": the - parallelism of Hebrew poetry, which twice describes one fact, being - taken as witnessing to two, and the tunic doubtless symbolizing the - unity of the Church, as in Philo the high priest's seamless robe - symbolizes the indivisible unity of the universe, expressive of the - Logos (_De ebrietate_, xxi.). In the Synoptists, of His followers only - women--the careful, seemingly exhaustive lists do not include His - mother--remain, looking on "from afar" (Mark xv. 40); in John, His - mother stands with the two other Marys and the beloved disciple - beneath the cross, and "from that hour the disciple took her unto his - own (house)," while in the older literature His mother does not appear - in Jerusalem till just before Pentecost, and with "His brethren" (Acts - i. 14). And John alone tells how the bones of the dead body remained - unbroken, fulfilling the ordinance as to the paschal lamb (Exod. xii. - 46) and how blood and water flow from His spear-pierced side: thus the - Lamb "taketh away the sins of the world" by shedding His blood which - "cleanseth us from every sin"; and "He cometh by water and blood," - historically at His baptism and crucifixion, and mystically to each - faithful soul in baptism and the eucharist. The story of the risen - Christ (xx.) shows dependence on and contrast to the Synoptic - accounts. Its two halves have each a negative and a positive scene. - The empty grave (1-10) and the apparition to the Magdalen (11-18) - together correspond to the message brought by the women (Matt. xxviii. - 1-10); and the apparition to the ten joyously believing apostles - (19-23) and then to the sadly doubting Thomas (24-29) together - correspond to Luke xxiv. 36-43, where the eleven apostles jointly - receive one visit from the risen One, and both doubt and believe, - mourn and rejoice. - - The Johannine discourses reveal differences from the Synoptists so - profound as to be admitted by all. Here Jesus, the Baptist and the - writer speak so much alike that it is sometimes impossible to say - where each speaker begins and ends: e.g. in iii. 27-30, 31-36. The - speeches dwell upon Jesus' person and work, as we shall find, with a - didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denunciatory - exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. "This is eternal - life, that they may know Thee the only true God and Jesus Christ whom - Thou hast sent" (xvii. 3), is part of the high-priestly prayer; yet - Pere Calmes, with the papal censor's approbation, says, "It seems to - us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic developments - explicable rather by the evangelist's habits of mind than by the - actual words of Jesus." "I have told you of earthly things and you - believe not; how shall ye believe if I tell you of heavenly things?" - (iii. 12), and "Ye are from beneath, I am from above" (viii. 23), give - us a Plato-(Philo-) like upper, "true" world, and a lower, delusive - world. "Ye shall die in your sins" (viii. 21); "ye are from your - father the devil" (viii. 44); "I am the door of the sheep, all they - that came before Me are thieves and robbers," (x. 7, 8); "they have no - excuse for their sin" (xv. 22)--contrast strongly with the yearning - over Jerusalem: "The blood of Abel the just" and "the blood of - Zacharias son of Barachias" (Matt. xxiii. 35-37; and "Father, forgive - them; for they know not what they do" Luke xxiii. 34). And whilst the - Synoptist speeches and actions stand in loose and natural relation to - each other, the Johannine deeds so closely illustrate the sayings that - each set everywhere supplements the other: the history itself here - tends to become one long allegory. So with the woman at the well and - "the living water"; the multiplication of the loaves and "the living - Bread"; "I am the Light of the world" and the blind man's cure; "I am - the Resurrection and the Life" and the raising of Lazarus; indeed even - with the Temple-cleansing and the prophecy as to His resurrection, - Nicodemus's night visit and "men loved the darkness rather than the - light," the cure of the inoperative paralytic and "My Father and I - work hitherto," the walking phantom-like upon the waters (John vi. - 15-21; Mark vi. 49), and the declaration concerning the eucharist, - "the spirit it is that quickeneth" (John vi. 63). Only some sixteen - Synoptic sayings reappear here; but we are given some great new - sayings full of the Synoptic spirit. - -_Characteristics and Object._--The book's character results from the -continuous operation of four great tendencies. There is everywhere a -readiness to handle traditional, largely historical, materials with a -sovereign freedom, controlled and limited by doctrinal convictions and -devotional experiences alone. There is everywhere the mystic's deep love -for double, even treble meanings: e.g. the "again" in iii. 2, means, -literally, "from the beginning," to be physically born again; morally, -to become as a little child; mystically, "from heaven, God," to be -spiritually renewed. "Judgment" ([Greek: krisis]), in the popular sense, -condemnation, a future act; in the mystical sense, discrimination, a -present fact. There is everywhere the influence of certain central -ideas, partly identical with, but largely developments of, those less -reflectively operative in the Synoptists. Thus six great terms are -characteristic of, or even special to, this Gospel. "The Only-Begotten" -is most nearly reached by St Paul's term "His own Son." The "Word," or -"Logos," is a term derived from Heracleitus of Ephesus and the Stoics, -through the Alexandrian Jew Philo, but conceived here throughout as -definitely personal. "The Light of the World" the Jesus-Logos here -proclaims Himself to be; in the Synoptists He only declares His -disciples to be such. "The Paraclete," as in Philo, is a "helper," -"intercessor"; but in Philo he is the intelligible universe, whilst here -He is a self-conscious Spirit. "Truth," "the truth," "to know," have -here a prominence and significance far beyond their Synoptic or even -their Pauline use. And above all stand the uses of "Life," "Eternal -Life." The living ever-working Father (vi. 57; v. 17) has a Logos in -whom is Life (i. 4), an ever-working Son (v. 17), who declares Himself -"the living Bread," "the Resurrection and the Life," "the Way, the Truth -and the Life" (vi. 51; xi. 25; xiv. 16): so that Father and Son quicken -whom they will (v. 21); the Father's commandment is life everlasting, -and Jesus' words are spirit and life (xii. 50; vi. 63, 68). The term, -already Synoptic, takes over here most of the connotations of the -"Kingdom of God," the standing Synoptic expression, which appears here -only in iii. 3-5; xviii. 36. Note that the term "the Logos" is peculiar -to the Apocalypse (xix. 13), and the prologue here; but that, as Light -and Life, the Logos-conception is present throughout the book. And thus -there is everywhere a striving to contemplate history _sub specie -aeternitatis_ and to englobe the successiveness of man in the -simultaneity of God. - -_Narratives Peculiar to John._--Of his seven great symbolical, -doctrinally interpreted "signs," John shares three, the cure of the -ruler's son, the multiplication of the loaves, the walking on the -waters, with the Synoptists: yet here the first is transformed almost -beyond recognition; and the two others only typify and prepare the -eucharistic discourse. Of the four purely Johannine signs, two--the -cures of the paralytic (v. 1-16), and of the man born blind (ix. -1-34)--are, admittedly, profoundly symbolical. In the first case, the -man's physical and spiritual lethargy are closely interconnected and -strongly contrasted with the ever-active God and His Logos. In the -second case there is also the closest parallel between physical -blindness cured, and spiritual darkness dispelled, by the Logos-Light as -described in the accompanying discourse. Both narratives are doubtless -based upon actual occurrences--the cures narrated in Mark ii., iii., -viii., x. and scenes witnessed by the writer in later times; yet here -they do but picture our Lord's spiritual work in the human soul achieved -throughout Christian history. We cannot well claim more than these three -kinds of reality for the first and the last signs, the miracle at Cana -and the resurrection of Lazarus. - -For the marriage-feast sign yields throughout an allegorical meaning. -Water stands in this Gospel for what is still but symbol; thus the -water-pots serve here the external Jewish ablutions--old bottles which -the "new wine" of the Gospel is to burst (Mark ii. 22). Wine is the -blood of the new covenant, and He will drink the fruit of the vine new -in the Kingdom of God (Mark xiv. 23-25); the vineyard where He Himself -is the true Vine (Mark xii. 1; John xv. 1). And "the kingdom of heaven -is like to a marriage-feast" (Matt. xxii. 2); Jesus is the Bridegroom -(Mark ii. 19); "the marriage of the Lamb has come" (Rev. xix. 7). "They -have no wine": the hopelessness of the old conditions is announced here -by the true Israel, the Messiah's spiritual mother, the same "woman" who -in Rev. xii. 2, 5 "brought forth a man-child who was to rule all -nations." Cardinal Newman admits that the latter woman "represents the -church, this is the real or direct sense"; yet as her man-child is -certainly the Messiah, this church must be the faithful Jewish church. -Thus also the "woman" at the wedding and beneath the cross stands -primarily for the faithful Old Testament community, corresponding to the -beloved disciple, the typical New Testament follower of her Son, the -Messiah: in each case the devotional accommodation to His earthly mother -is equally ancient and legitimate. He answers her "My hour is not yet -come," i.e. in the symbolic story, the moment for working the miracle; -in the symbolized reality, the hour of His death, condition for the -spirit's advent; and "what is there between Me and thee?" i.e. "My -motives spring no more from the old religion," words devoid of -difficulty, if spoken thus by the Eternal Logos to the passing Jewish -church. The transformation is soon afterwards accomplished, but in -symbol only; the "hour" of the full sense is still over three years off. -Already Philo says "the Logos is the master of the spiritual -drinking-feast," and "let Melchisedeck"--the Logos--"in lieu of water -offer wine to souls and inebriate them" (_De somn._ ii. 37; _Legg. all._ -iii. 26). But in John this symbolism figures a great historic fact, the -joyous freshness of Jesus' ministerial beginnings, as indicated in the -sayings of the Bridegroom and of the new wine, a freshness typical of -Jesus' ceaseless renovation of souls. - -The raising of Lazarus, in appearance a massive, definitely localized -historical fact, requires a similar interpretation, unless we would, in -favour of the direct historicity of a story peculiar to a profoundly -allegorical treatise, ruin the historical trustworthiness of the largely -historical Synoptists in precisely their most complete and verisimilar -part. For especially in Mark, the passing through Jericho, the entry -into Jerusalem, the Temple-cleansing and its immediate effect upon the -hierarchs, their next day's interrogatory, "By what authority doest thou -these things?" i.e. the cleansing (x. 46-xi. 33), are all closely -interdependent and lead at once to His discussions with His Jerusalem -opponents (xii. xiii.), and to the anointing, last supper, and passion -(xiv. xv). John's last and greatest symbolic sign replaces those -historic motives, since here it is the raising of Lazarus which -determines the hierarchs to kill Jesus (xi. 46-52), and occasions the -crowds which accompany and meet Him on His entry (xii. 9-19). The -intrinsic improbabilities of the narrative, if taken as direct history, -are also great: Jesus' deliberate delay of two days to secure His -friend's dying, and His rejoicing at the death, since thus He can -revivify His friend and bring His disciples to believe in Himself as the -Life; His deliberate weeping over the death which He has thus let -happen, yet His anger at the similar tears of Lazarus's other friends; -and His praying, as He tells the Father in the prayer itself, simply to -edify the bystanders: all point to a doctrinal allegory. Indeed the -climax of the whole account is already reached in Jesus' great saying: -"I am the Resurrection and the Life; he that believeth in Me ... shall -not die for ever," and in Martha's answer: "I believe that Thou art the -Christ, the Son of God, who hast come into the world" (xi. 26, 27); the -sign which follows is but the pictorial representation of this abiding -truth. The materials for the allegory will have been certain Old -Testament narratives, but especially the Synoptic accounts of Jesus' -raisings of Jairus's daughter and of the widow's son (Mark v.; Luke -vii.). Mary and Martha are admittedly identical with the sisters in Luke -x. 38-42; and already some Greek fathers connect the Lazarus of this -allegory with the Lazarus of the parable (Luke xvi. 19-31). In the -parable Lazarus returns not to earth, since Abraham foresees that the -rich man's brethren would disbelieve even if one rose from the dead; in -the corresponding allegory, Lazarus does actually return to life, and -the Jews believe so little as to determine upon killing the very Life -Himself. - -_Special Difficulties and Special Greatness._--The difficulties, -limitations and temporary means special to the book are closely -connected with its ready appeal and abiding power; let us take both sets -of things together, in three couples of interrelated price and gift. - -The book's method and form are pervadingly allegorical; its instinct and -aim are profoundly mystical. Now from Philo to Origen we have a long -Hellenistic, Jewish and Christian application of that all-embracing -allegorism, where one thing stands for another and where no factual -details resist resolution into a symbol of religious ideas and forces. -Thus Philo had, in his life of Moses, allegorized the Pentateuchal -narratives so as to represent him as mediator, saviour, intercessor of -his people, the one great organ of revelation, and the soul's guide from -the false lower world into the upper true one. The Fourth Gospel is the -noblest instance of this kind of literature, of which the truth depends -not on the factual accuracy of the symbolizing appearances but on the -truth of the ideas and experiences thus symbolized. And Origen is still -full of spontaneous sympathy with its pervading allegorism. But this -method has lost its attraction; the Synoptists, with their rarer and -slighter pragmatic rearrangements and their greater closeness to our -Lord's actual words, deeds, experiences, environment, now come home to -us as indefinitely richer in content and stimulative appeal. Yet -mysticism persists, as the intuitive and emotional apprehension of the -most specifically religious of all truths, viz. the already full, -operative existence of eternal beauty, truth and goodness, of infinite -Personality and Spirit independently of our action, and not, as in -ethics, the simple possibility and obligation for ourselves to produce -such-like things. And of this elemental mode of apprehension and -root-truth, the Johannine Gospel is the greatest literary document and -incentive extant: its ultimate aim and deepest content retain all their -potency. - -The book contains an intellectualist, static, determinist, abstractive -trend. In Luke x. 25-28, eternal life depends upon loving God and man; -here it consists in knowing the one true God and Christ whom He has -sent. In the Synoptists, Jesus "grows in favour with God and man," -passes through true human experiences and trials, prays alone on the -mountain-side, and dies with a cry of desolation; here the Logos' -watchword is "I am," He has deliberately to stir up emotion in Himself, -never prays for Himself, and in the garden and on the cross shows but -power and self-possession. Here we find "ye cannot hear, cannot believe, -because ye are not from God, not of My sheep" (viii. 47, x. 26); "the -world cannot receive the spirit of truth" (xiv. 17). Yet the ethical -current appears here also strongly: "he who doeth the truth, cometh to -the light" (iii. 21), "if you love Me, keep My commandments" (xiv. 15). -Libertarianism is here: "the light came, but men loved the darkness -better than the light," "ye will not come to Me" (iii. 19, v. 40); hence -the appeal "abide in Me"--the branch can cease to be in Him the Vine -(xv. 4, 2). Indeed even those first currents stand here for the deepest -religious truths, the prevenience of God and man's affinity to Him. "Not -we loved God (first), but He (first) loved us"; "let us love Him, -because He first loved us" (1 John iv. 10, 19); "no man can come to Me, -unless the Father draw him" (vi. 44), a drawing which effects a hunger -and thirst for Christ and God (iv. 14, vi. 35). Thus man's spirit, ever -largely but potential, can respond actively to the historic Jesus, -because already touched and made hungry by the all-actual Spirit-God who -made that soul akin unto Himself. - -The book has an outer protective shell of acutely polemical and -exclusive moods and insistences, whilst certain splendid Synoptic -breadths and reconciliations are nowhere reached; but this is primarily -because it is fighting, more consciously than they, for that inalienable -ideal of all deepest religion, unity, even external and corporate, -amongst all believers. The "Pneumatic" Gospel comes thus specially to -emphasize certain central historical facts; and, the most explicitly -institutional and sacramental of the four, to proclaim the most -universalistic and developmental of all Biblical sayings. Here indeed -Jesus will not pray for the world (xvii. 9); "ye shall die in your -sins," He insists to His opponents (viii. 44, 24); it is the Jews -generally who appear throughout as such; nowhere is there a word as to -forgiving our enemies; and the commandment of love is designated by -Jesus as His, as new, and as binding the disciples to "love one another" -within the community to which He gives His "example" (xv. 12, xiii. 34, -15). In the Synoptists, the disciples' intolerance is rebuked (Mark ix. -38-41); Jesus' opposition is everywhere restricted to the Pharisees and -the worldly Sadducees; He ever longs for the conversion of Jerusalem; -the great double commandment of love is proclaimed as already formulated -in the Mosaic law (Mark xii. 28-34); the neighbour to be thus loved and -served is simply any and every suffering fellow-man; and the pattern for -such perfect love is found in a schismatical Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). -Yet the deepest strain here is more serenely universalist even than St -Paul, for here Jesus says: "God so loved the world, that He gave His -only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should ... have -everlasting life" (iii. 16). True, the great prologue passage (i. 9) -probably reads "He was the true Light coming into the world, that -enlighteneth every man," so that the writer would everywhere concentrate -his mind upon the grace attendant upon explicit knowledge of the -incarnate, historic Christ. Yet Christian orthodoxy, which itself has, -all but uniformly, understood this passage of the spiritual radiation -throughout the world of the Word before His incarnation, has been aided -towards such breadth as to the past by the Johannine outlook into the -future. For, in contrast to the earliest Synoptic tradition, where the -full Christian truth and its first form remain undistinguished, and -where its earthly future appears restricted to that generation, in John -the Eternal Life conception largely absorbs the attention away from all -successiveness; Jesus' earthly life does not limit the religion's -assimilation of further truth and experience: "I have many things to -tell you, but you cannot bear them now," "the Father will give you -another Helper, the spirit of truth, who will abide with you for ever" -(xvi. 12, xiv. 15). This universalism is not simply spiritual; the -external element, presupposed in the Synoptists as that of the Jewish -church within which Jesus' earthly life was spent, is here that of the -now separate Christian community: He has other sheep not of this -fold--them also He must bring, there will be one fold, one shepherd; and -His seamless tunic, and Peter's net which, holding every kind of fish, -is not rent, are symbols of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations -exist in this church; Jesus begins the feet-washing with Peter, who -alone speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns Peter to -Jesus' monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done so first; and in -the appendix the treble pastoral commission is to Peter alone: a Petrine -pre-eminence which but echoes the Synoptists. And sacramentalism informs -the great discourses concerning rebirth by water and the spirit, and -feeding on the Living Bread, Jesus' flesh and blood, and the narrative -of the issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus' side. Indeed so -severe a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its -specific means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by water -and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the blood to which -entrance into the Kingdom and possession of interior life are here -exclusively attached, as often represented by a simple sincere desire -and will for spiritual purification and a keen hunger and thirst for -God's aid, together with such cultual acts as such souls can know or -find, even without any knowledge of the Christian rites. Thus there is -many "a pedagogue to Christ," and the Christian visible means and -expressions are the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees -and forms, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all -human history. - -_Origin and Authorship._--The question as to the book's origin has lost -its poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition of the book's -intrinsic character. Thus the recent defenders of the apostolic -authorship, the Unitarian James Drummond (1903), the Anglican William -Sanday (1905), the Roman Catholic Theodore Calmes (1904), can tell us, -the first, that "the evangelist did not aim at an illustrative picture -of what was most characteristic of Jesus"; the second, that "the author -sank into his own consciousness and at last brought to light what he -found there"; the third, that "the Gospel contains an entire theological -system," "history is seen through the intervening dogmatic development," -"the Samaritan woman is ... a personification," "the behaviour of the -Greeks is entirely natural in such a book." We thus get at -cross-purposes with this powerful, profound work. Only some such -position as Abbe Loisy's critical summing up (1903) brings out its -specific greatness. "What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, -tells us to some extent: a Christian of Judeo-Alexandrine formation; a -believer without, apparently, any personal reminiscence of what had -actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a theologian far -removed from every historical preoccupation, though he retains certain -principal facts of tradition without which Christianity would evaporate -into pure ideas; and a seer who has lived the Gospel which he -propounds." "To find his book beautiful and true, we need but take it as -it is and understand it." "The church, which has never discussed the -literary problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth." - -Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately maintained -or reconquered against the critics. As to the Gospel's date, critics -have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150 (Zeller), 130 (Keim), to 110-115 -(Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack): since Irenaeus says its author lived into -the times of Trajan (90-117), a date somewhere about 105 would satisfy -tradition. As to the place, the critics accept proconsular Asia with -practical unanimity, thus endorsing Irenaeus's declaration that the -Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author's antecedents, critics -have ceased to hold that he could not have been a Jew-Christian (so -Bretschneider, 1820), and admit (so Schmiedel, (1901) that he must have -been by birth a Jew of the Dispersion, or the son of Christian parents -who had been such Jews. And as to the vivid accuracy of many of his -topographical and social details, the predominant critical verdict now -is that he betrays an eye-witness's knowledge of the country between -Sichem and Jordan and as to Jerusalem; he will have visited these -places, say in 90, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before its -fall. But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or any -other eyewitness of Jesus' earthly life have accumulated to a practical -demonstration. - -As to the external evidence for the book's early date, we must remember -that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation, though -admittedly earlier, are of the same school, and, with the great Pauline -Epistles, show many preformations of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other -slighter prolusions will have circulated in that Philonian centre -Ephesus, before the great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the -precariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels -to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr (163-167) -certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus' life is so -strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it as from an -apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in his _Exposition of the -Lord's Sayings_ (145-160) appears nowhere to have mentioned it, and -clearly distinguishes between "what Andrew, Peter, ... John or Matthew -or any other of the Lord's disciples spoke," and "what Aristion and the -presbyter John, the Lord's disciples, say." Thus Papias, as Eusebius -about 314 insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him a far-away -figure; indeed early medieval chroniclers recount that Papias "in the -second book of the Lord's sayings" asserted that both the sons of -Zebedee were "slain by Jews," so that the apostle John would have died -before 70. Irenaeus's testimony is the earliest and admittedly the -strongest we possess for the Zebedean authorship; yet, as Calmes admits, -"it cannot be considered decisive." In his work against the Heresies and -in his letter to Florinus, about 185-191, he tells how he had himself -known Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp "used to recount his -familiar intercourse with John and the others who had seen the Lord"; -and explicitly identifies this John with the Zebedean and the -evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most fifteen when thus frequenting -Polycarp; writes thirty-five to fifty years later in Lyons, admitting -that he noted down nothing at the time; and, since his mistaken -description of Papias as "a hearer of John" the Zebedean was certainly -reached by mistaking the presbyter for the apostle, his additional words -"and a companion of Polycarp" point to this same mistaken identification -having also operated in his mind with regard to Polycarp. In any case, -the very real and important presbyter is completely unknown to -Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the book's authorship resulted -apparently from a comparison of its contents with Polycarp's teaching. -If the presbyter wrote Revelation and was Polycarp's master, such a -mistake could easily arise. Certainly Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, -made a precisely similar mistake when about 190 he described the Philip -"who rests in Hierapolis" as "one of the twelve apostles," since -Eusebius rightly identifies this Philip with the deacon of Acts xxi. A -positive testimony for the critical conclusion is derived from the -existence of a group of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 rejected the -Gospel as not by John but by Cerinthus. The attribution is doubtless -mistaken. But could Christians sufficiently numerous to deserve a long -discussion by St Epiphanius in 374-377, who upheld the Synoptists, -stoutly opposed the Gnostics and Montanists, and had escaped every -special designation till the bishop nicknamed them the "Alogoi" -(irrational rejectors of the Logos-Gospel), dare, in such a time and -country, to hold such views, had the apostolic origin been -incontestable? Surely not. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, -Eusebius, Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is -traceable to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of Revelation -and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long-lived Asian -presbyter. - -As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various imperfect or -sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman and Thomas; if even -the mother appears to symbolize faithful Israel: then, profoundly -spiritual and forward-looking as it is, a type of the perfect disciple, -not all unlike Clement's perfect "Gnostic," could hardly be omitted by -it; and the precise details of this figure may well be only ideally, -mystically true. The original work nowhere identifies this disciple with -any particular historic figure. "He who saw" the lance-thrust "hath -borne witness, and his witness is true," is asserted (xix. 35) of the -disciple. Yet "to see" is said also of intuitive faith, "whoso hath seen -Me, hath seen the Father" (xiv. 9); and "true" appears also in "the true -Light," "the true Bread from heaven," as characterizing the realities of -the upper, alone fully true world, and equals "heavenly" (iii. 12); thus -a "true witness" testifies to some heavenly reality, and appeals to the -reader's "pneumatic," i.e. allegorical, understanding. - -Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification with a -particular historic person: "this is the disciple who witnessed to and -who wrote these things" (24) refers doubtless to the whole previous work -and to "the disciple whom Jesus loved," identified here with an unnamed -historic personage whose recent death had created a shock, evidently -because he was the last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly -expected the second coming (18-23). This man was so great that the -writer strives to win his authority for this Gospel; and yet this man -was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is dead and gone, not -proclaim the fact? If the dead man was John the presbyter--if this John -had in youth just seen Jesus and the Zebedean, and in extreme old age -had still seen and approved the Gospel--to attribute this Gospel to him, -as is done here, would not violate the literary ethics of those times. -Thus the heathen philosopher Iamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: "this was -admirable" amongst the Neo-Pythagoreans "that they ascribed everything -to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge their own works as their own" -(_de Pythag. vita_, 198). And as to Christians, Tertullian about 210 -tells how the presbyter who, in proconsular Asia, had "composed the -_Acts of Paul and Thecla_" was convicted and deposed, for how could it -be credible that Paul should confer upon women the power to "teach and -baptize" as these _Acts_ averred? The attribution as such, then, was not -condemned. - -The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the hypothesis that -John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead, wrote the book of -Revelation (its more ancient Christian portions) say in 69, and died at -Ephesus say in 100; that the author of the Gospel wrote the first draft, -here, say in 97; that this book, expanded by him, first circulated -within a select Ephesian Christian circle; and that the Ephesian church -officials added to it the appendix and published it in 110-120. But -however different or more complicated may have been the actual origins, -three points remain certain. The real situation that confronts us is not -an unbroken tradition of apostolic eye-witnesses, incapable of -re-statement with any hope of ecclesiastical acceptance, except by -another apostolic eye-witness. On one side indeed there was the record, -underlying the Synoptists, of at least two eye-witnesses, and the -necessity of its preservation and transmission; but on the other side a -profound double change had come over the Christian outlook and -requirements. St Paul's heroic labours (30-64) had gradually gained full -recognition and separate organization for the universalist strain in our -Lord's teaching; and he who had never seen the earthly Jesus, but only -the heavenly Christ, could even declare that Christ "though from the -Jewish fathers according to the flesh" had died, "so that henceforth, -even if we have known Christ according to the flesh, now we no further -know Him thus," "the Lord is the Spirit," and "where the Spirit of the -Lord is, there is liberty." And the Jewish church, within which -Christianity had first lived and moved, ceased to have a visible centre. -Thus a super-spatial and super-temporal interpretation of that first -markedly Jewish setting and apprehension of the Christian truth became -as necessary as the attachment to the original contingencies. The Fourth -Gospel, inexplicable without St Paul and the fall of Jerusalem, is fully -understandable with them. The attribution of the book to an eye-witness -nowhere resolves, it everywhere increases, the real difficulties; and by -insisting upon having history in the same degree and way in John as in -the Synoptists, we cease to get it sufficiently anywhere at all. And the -Fourth Gospel's true greatness lies well within the range of this its -special character. In character it is profoundly "pneumatic"; Paul's -super-earthly Spirit-Christ here breathes and speaks, and invites a -corresponding spiritual comprehension. And its greatness appears in its -inexhaustibly deep teachings concerning Christ's sheep and fold; the -Father's drawing of souls to Christ; the dependence of knowledge as to -Christ's doctrine upon the doing of God's will; the fulfilling of the -commandment of love, as the test of true discipleship; eternal life, -begun even here and now; and God a Spirit, to be served in spirit and in -truth. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See also the independent discussion, under REVELATION, - BOOK OF, of the authorship of that work. Among the immense literature - of the subject, the following books will be found especially - instructive by the classically trained reader: Origen's commentary, - finished (only to John xiii. 33) in 235-237 (best ed. by Preuschen, - 1903). St Augustine's _Tractatus in Joannis Ev. et Ep._, about 416. - The Spanish Jesuit Juan Maldonatus' Latin commentary, published 1596 - (critical reprint, edited by Raich, 1874), a pathfinder on many - obscure points, is still a model for tenacious penetration of - Johannine ideas. Bretschneider's short _Probabilia de Evangelii ... - Joannis Apostoli indole et origine_ (1820), the first systematic - assault on the traditional attribution, remains unrefuted in its main - contention. The best summing up and ripest fruit of the critical - labour since then are Professor H. J. Holtzmann's _Handkommentar_ (2nd - ed., 1893) and the respective sections in his _Einleitung in d. N. T._ - (3rd ed., 1892) and his _Lehrbuch der N. T. Theologie_ (1897), vol. 2. - Professor C. E. Luthardt's _St John, Author of the Fourth Gospel_ - (Eng. trans., with admirable bibliography by C. R. Gregory, 1875), - still remains the best conservative statement. Among the few - critically satisfactory French books, Abbe Loisy's _Le Quatrieme - evangile_ (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological - analysis and continuous sense of the book's closely knit unity; whilst - Pere Th. Calmes' _Evangile selon S. Jean_ (1904) indicates how - numerous are the admissions as to the book's character and the - evidences for its authorship, made by intelligent Roman Catholic - apologists with Rome's explicit approbation. In England a considerably - less docile conservatism has been predominant. Bp Lightfoot's _Essays - on ... Supernatural Religion_ (1874-1877; collected 1889) are often - masterly conservative interpretations of the external evidence; but - they leave this evidence still inconclusive, and the formidable - contrary internal evidence remains practically untouched. Much the - same applies to Bp Westcott's _Gospel according to St John_ (1882), - devotionally so attractive, and in textual criticism excellent. Dr - James Drummond's _Inquiry into the Character and Authorship of the - Fourth Gospel_ (1903) does not, by its valuable survey of the external - evidence, succeed in giving credibility to the eyewitness origin of - such a book as this is admitted to be. Professor W. Sanday's slighter - _Criticism of the Fourth Gospel_ (1905) is in a similar position. - Professor P. W. Schmiedel's article "John s. of Zebedee" in the _Ency. - Bib._ (1901) is the work of a German of the advanced left. Dr E. A. - Abbott's laborious _From Letter to Spirit_ (1903), _Joannine - Vocabulary_ (1904) and _Grammar_ (1906) overflow with statistical - details and ever acute, often fanciful, conjecture. Professor F. C. - Burkitt's _The Gospel History_ (1906) vigorously sketches the book's - dominant characteristics and true function. E. F. Scott's _The Fourth - Gospel_ (1906) gives a lucid, critical and religiously tempered - account of the Gospel's ideas, aims, affinities, difficulties and - abiding significance. (F. v. H.) - - - - -JOHN ALBERT (1459-1501), king of Poland, third son of Casimir IV. king -of Poland and Elizabeth of Austria. As crown prince he distinguished -himself by his brilliant victory over the Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. -He succeeded his father in 1492. The loss of revenue consequent upon the -secession of Lithuania placed John Albert at the mercy of the Polish -Sejmiki or local diets, where the _szlachta_, or country gentry, made -their subsidies dependent upon the king's subservience. Primarily a -warrior with a strong taste for heroic adventure, John Albert desired to -pose as the champion of Christendom against the Turks. Circumstances -seemed, moreover, to favour him. In his brother Wladislaus, who as king -of Hungary and Bohemia possessed a dominant influence in Central Europe, -he found a counterpoise to the machinations of the emperor Maximilian, -who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III. of -Muscovy, while, as suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was favourably -situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference of Leutschau in 1494 -the details of the expedition were arranged between the kings of Poland -and Hungary and the elector Frederick of Brandenburg, with the -co-operation of Stephen, hospodar of Moldavia, who had appealed to John -Albert for assistance. In the course of 1496 John Albert with great -difficulty collected an army of 80,000 men in Poland, but the crusade -was deflected from its proper course by the sudden invasion of Galicia -by the hospodar, who apparently--for the whole subject is still very -obscure--had been misled by reports from Hungary that John Albert was -bent upon placing his younger brother Sigismund on the throne of -Moldavia. Be that as it may, the Poles entered Moldavia not as friends, -but as foes, and, after the abortive siege of Suczawa, were compelled to -retreat through the Bukowina to Sniatyn, harassed all the way by the -forces of the hospodar. The insubordination of the _szlachta_ seems to -have been one cause of this disgraceful collapse, for John Albert -confiscated hundreds of their estates after his return; in spite of -which, to the end of his life he retained his extraordinary popularity. -When the new grand master of the Teutonic order, Frederic of Saxony, -refused to render homage to the Polish crown, John Albert compelled him -to do so. His intention of still further humiliating the Teutonic order -was frustrated by his sudden death in 1501. A valiant soldier and a man -of much enlightenment, John Albert was a poor politician, recklessly -sacrificing the future to the present. - - See V. Czerny, _The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jagiello_ - (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882). - - - - -JOHN ANGELUS (d. 1244), emperor of Thessalonica. In 1232 he received the -throne from his father Theodore, who, after a period of exile, had -re-established his authority, but owing to his loss of eyesight resolved -to make John the nominal sovereign. His reign is chiefly marked by the -aggressions of the rival emperor of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, who laid -siege to Thessalonica in 1243 and only withdrew upon John Angelus -consenting to exchange the title "emperor" for the subordinate one of -"despot." - - See G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, vol. iii. (1877). - - - - -JOHN FREDERICK I. (1503-1554), called the Magnanimous, elector of -Saxony, was the elder son of the elector, John the Steadfast, and -belonged to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin family. Born at Torgau on -the 30th of June 1503 and educated as a Lutheran, he took some part in -imperial politics and in the business of the league of Schmalkalden -before he became elector by his father's death in August 1532. His lands -comprised the western part of Saxony, and included Thuringia, but in -1542 Coburg was surrendered to form an apanage for his brother, John -Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an ardent Lutheran and had a -high regard for Luther, continued the religious policy of his father. In -1534 he assisted to make peace between the German king Ferdinand I. and -Ulrich, duke of Wurttemberg, but his general attitude was one of -vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous colleague in the -league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of Hesse. He was often at -variance with Philip, whose bigamy he disliked, and his belief in the -pacific intentions of Charles V. and his loyalty to the Empire prevented -him from pursuing any definite policy for the defence of Protestantism. -In 1541 his kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous -eyes upon the electoral dignity. A cause of quarrel soon arose. In 1541 -John Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of Naumburg in spite -of the chapter, who had elected a Roman Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and -about the same time he seized Wurzen, the property of the bishop of -Meissen, whose see was under the joint protection of electoral and ducal -Saxony. Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of -Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive Henry, -duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, from his duchy, but in spite of this his -relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in 1544 were very -amicable. This was, however, only a lull in the storm, and the emperor -soon began to make preparations for attacking the league of -Schmalkalden, and especially John Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The -support, or at least the neutrality, of Maurice was won by the hope of -the electoral dignity, and in July 1546 war broke out between Charles -and the league. In September John Frederick was placed under the -imperial ban, and in November Maurice invaded the electorate. Hastening -from southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from the land, took his -ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, prisoner at Rochlitz, and -overran ducal Saxony. His progress, however, was checked by the advance -of Charles V. Notwithstanding his valour he was wounded and taken -prisoner at Muhlberg on the 24th of April 1547, and was condemned to -death in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was not -carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May 1547) he -renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his lands in favour of -Maurice, steadfastly refusing however to make any concessions on -religious matters, and remained in captivity until May 1552, when he -returned to the Thuringian lands which his sons had been allowed to -retain, his return being hailed with wild enthusiasm. During his -imprisonment he had refused to accept the _Interim_, issued from -Augsburg in May 1548, and had urged his sons to make no peace with -Maurice. After his release the emperor had restored his dignities to -him, and his assumption of the electoral arms and title prevented any -arrangement with Maurice. However, after the death of this prince in -July 1553, a treaty was made at Naumburg in February 1554 with his -successor Augustus. John Frederick consented to the transfer of the -electoral dignity, but retained for himself the title of "born elector," -and received some lands and a sum of money. He was thus the last -Ernestine elector of Saxony. He died at Weimar on the 3rd of March 1554, -having had three sons by his wife, Sibylla (d. 1554), daughter of John -III., duke of Cleves, whom he had married in 1527, and was succeeded by -his eldest son, John Frederick. The elector was a great hunter and a -hard drinker, whose brave and dignified bearing in a time of misfortune -won for him his surname of Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger -Ascham and Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a -benefactor to that of Leipzig. - - See Mentz, _Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige_ (Jena, 1903); Rogge, - _Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige_ (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, - _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Leipzig, 1882). - - - - -JOHN FREDERICK (1529-1595), called _der Mittlere_, duke of Saxony, was -the eldest son of John Frederick, who had been deprived of the Saxon -electorate by the emperor Charles V. in 1547. Born at Torgau on the 8th -of January 1529, he received a good education, and when his father was -imprisoned in 1547 undertook the government of the remnant of electoral -Saxony which the emperor allowed the Ernestine branch of the Wettin -family to keep. Released in 1552 John Frederick the elder died two years -later, and his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony together until 1557, -when John Frederick was made sole ruler. This arrangement lasted until -1565, when John Frederick shared his lands with his surviving brother, -John William (1530-1573), retaining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The -duke was a strong, even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views -were gradually subordinated to the one idea of regaining the electoral -dignity then held by Augustus I. To attain this end he lent a willing -ear to the schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbach, who came to his court about -1557 and offered to regain the electoral dignity and even to acquire the -Empire for his patron. In spite of repeated warnings from the emperor -Ferdinand I., John Frederick continued to protect Grumbach, and in 1566 -his obstinacy caused him to be placed under the imperial ban. Its -execution was entrusted to Augustus who, aided by the duke's brother, -John William, marched against Gotha with a strong force. In consequence -of a mutiny the town surrendered in April 1567, and John Frederick was -delivered to the emperor Maximilian II. He was imprisoned in Vienna, his -lands were given to his brother, and he remained in captivity until his -death at Steyer on the 6th of May 1595. These years were mainly occupied -with studying theology and in correspondence. John Frederick married -firstly Agnes (d. 1555) daughter of Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and -widow of Maurice, elector of Saxony, and secondly Elizabeth (d. 1594) -daughter of Frederick III., elector palatine of the Rhine, by whom he -left two sons, John Casimir (1564-1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638). -Elizabeth shared her husband's imprisonment for twenty-two years. - - See A. Beck, _Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, Herzog zu Sachsen_ - (Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachischen Handel_ - (Jena, 1868-1870). - - - - -JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second son of the elector -Christian I., was born on the 5th of March 1585, succeeding to the -electorate in June 1611 on the death of his elder brother, Christian II. -The geographical position of electoral Saxony hardly less than her high -standing among the German Protestants gave her ruler much importance -during the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however, -the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His personal -allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but he liked neither the growing -strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing prestige of the Palatinate; -the adherence of the other branches of the Saxon ruling house to -Protestantism seemed to him to suggest that the head of electoral Saxony -should throw his weight into the other scale, and he was prepared to -favour the advances of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party. Thus -he was easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, archduke of -Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified the -anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new emperor -secured the help of John George for the impending campaign in Bohemia by -promising that he should be undisturbed in his possession of certain -ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out his share of the bargain by occupying -Silesia and Lusatia, where he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector -had thus some part in driving Frederick V., elector palatine of the -Rhine, from Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the -crown of which he himself had previously refused. Gradually, however, he -was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the imperial policy towards the -annihilation of Protestantism, and by a dread lest the ecclesiastical -lands should be taken from him; and the issue of the edict of -restitution in March 1629 put the coping-stone to his fears. Still, -although clamouring vainly for the exemption of the electorate from the -area covered by the edict, John George took no decided measures to break -his alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631 call a -meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite of the appeals of -the preacher Matthias Hoe von Hohenegg (1580-1645) he contented himself -with a formal protest. Meanwhile Gustavus Adolphus had landed in -Germany, and the elector had refused to allow him to cross the Elbe at -Wittenberg, thus hindering his attempt to relieve Magdeburg. But John -George's reluctance to join the Protestants disappeared when the -imperial troops under Tilly began to ravage Saxony, and in September -1631 he concluded an alliance with the Swedish king. The Saxon troops -were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were routed by the -imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in flight. Nevertheless -he soon took the offensive. Marching into Bohemia the Saxons occupied -Prague, but John George soon began to negotiate for peace and -consequently his soldiers offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who -drove them back into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of -Gustavus Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the -position was changed by the death of the king at Lutzen in 1632, and the -refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under Swedish -leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory fashion -against the imperialists, John George again negotiated for peace, and in -May 1635 he concluded the important treaty of Prague with Ferdinand II. -His reward was Lusatia and certain other additions of territory; the -retention by his son Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and -some concessions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once -he declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten at -Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides, was soon in a -deplorable condition. At length in September 1645 the elector was -compelled to agree to a truce with the Swedes, who, however, retained -Leipzig; and as far as Saxony was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' -War. After the peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did -little more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died on the -8th of October 1656. Although not without political acumen, he was not a -great ruler; his character appears to have been harsh and unlovely, and -he was addicted to drink. He was twice married, and in addition to his -successor John George II. he left three sons, Augustus (1614-1680), -Christian (d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who were all endowed with -lands in Saxony, and who founded cadet branches of the Saxon house. - -JOHN GEORGE II. (1613-1680), elector of Saxony, was born on the 31st of -May 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he made an arrangement with -his three brothers with the object of preventing disputes over their -separate territories, and in 1664 he entered into friendly relations -with Louis XIV. He received money from the French king, but the -existence of a strong anti-French party in Saxony induced him -occasionally to respond to the overtures of the emperor Leopold I. The -elector's primary interests were not in politics, but in music and art. -He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre of -Germany; welcoming foreign musicians and others he gathered around him a -large and splendid court, and his capital was the constant scene of -musical and other festivals. His enormous expenditure compelled him in -1661 to grant greater control over monetary matters to the estates, a -step which laid the foundation of the later system of finance in Saxony. -John George died at Freiberg on the 22nd of August 1680. - -JOHN GEORGE III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the only son of John -George II., was born on the 20th of June 1647. He forsook the -vacillating foreign policy of his father and in June 1683 joined an -alliance against France. Having raised the first standing army in the -electorate he helped to drive the Turks from Vienna in September 1680, -leading his men with great gallantry; but disgusted with the attitude of -the emperor Leopold I. after the victory, he returned at once to Saxony. -However, he sent aid to Leopold in 1685. When Louis XIV.'s armies -invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one of the first to -take up arms against the French, and after sharing in the capture of -Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. He had -not, however, met with any notable success when he died at Tubingen on -the 12th of September 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, -but he appears to have been less extravagant than John George II. His -wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick III. king of Denmark, and -both his sons, John George and Frederick Augustus, became electors of -Saxony, the latter also becoming king of Poland as Augustus II. - -JOHN GEORGE IV. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on the 18th of -October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his chief adviser was Hans -Adam von Schoning (1641-1696), who counselled a union between Saxony and -Brandenburg and a more independent attitude towards the emperor. In -accordance with this advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I. -to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops withdrew -from the imperial army, a proceeding which led the chagrined emperor to -seize and imprison Schoning in July 1692. Although John George was -unable to procure his minister's release, Leopold managed to allay the -elector's anger, and early in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the -imperialists. This elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for -Magdalene Sibylle von Neidschutz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of -Rochlitz, whom on his accession he publicly established as his mistress. -John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27th of April -1694. - - - - -JOHN[1] MAURICE OF NASSAU (1604-1679), surnamed the Brazilian, was the -son of John the Younger, count of Nassau-Siegen-Dillenburg, and the -grandson of John, the elder brother of William the Silent and the chief -author of the Union of Utrecht. He distinguished himself in the -campaigns of his cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and -was by him recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India company -in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in Brazil recently -conquered by the company. He landed at the Recife, the port of -Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By a -series of successful expeditions he gradually extended the Dutch -possessions from Sergipe on the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the -north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of St George del -Mina and St Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of -the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, he transformed the Recife -by building a new town adorned with splendid public edifices and -gardens, which was called after his name Mauritstad. By his -statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most flourishing -condition and succeeded even in reconciling the Portuguese settlers to -submit quietly to Dutch rule. His large schemes and lavish expenditure -alarmed however the parsimonious directors of the West India company, -but John Maurice refused to retain his post unless he was given a free -hand, and he returned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards -appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the States -army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and 1646. When the war -was ended by the peace of Munster in January 1648, he accepted from the -elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and -Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was -as great as it had been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and -wise ruler. At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St -John and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; -when the war broke out with England supported by an invasion from the -bishop of Munster, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Dutch -forces on land. Though hampered in his command by the restrictions of -the states-general, he repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph -von Galen, was forced to conclude peace. His campaigning was not yet at -an end, for in 1673 he was appointed by the stadtholder William III. to -command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend the eastern -frontier of the Provinces. In 1675 his health compelled him to give up -active military service, and he spent his last years in his beloved -Cleves, where he died on the 20th of December 1679. The house which he -built at the Hague, named after him the Maurits-huis, now contains the -splendid collections of pictures so well known to all admirers of Dutch -art. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Caspar Barlaeus, _Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et - alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefectura illustrissimi comitis - J. Mauritii Nassoviae_ (Amsterdam, 1647); L. Driessen, _Leben des - Fursten Johann Moritz von Nassau_ (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, _Leven - van Jaan Maurits_, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem, 1840). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This name is usually written Joan, the form used by the man - himself in his signature--see the facsimile in Netscher's _Les - Hollandais en Bresil_. - - - - -JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caithness, Scotland, -14 m. N. of Wick and 1(3/4) m. W. of Duncansby Head. It is the mythical site -of an octagonal house said to have been erected early in the 16th -century by one John Groot, a Dutchman who had migrated to the north of -Scotland by permission of James IV. According to the legend, other -members of the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around -Duncansby. When there were eight Groot families, disputes began to arise -as to precedence at annual feasts. These squabbles John Groot is said to -have settled by building an octagonal house which had eight entrances -and eight tables, so that the head of each family could enter by his own -door and sit at the head of his own table. Being but a few miles south -of Dunnet Head, John o' Groat's is a colloquial term for the most -northerly point of Scotland. The site of the traditional building is -marked by an outline traced in turf. Descendants of the Groot family, -now Groat, still live in the neighbourhood. The cowry-shell, _Cypraea -europaea_, is locally known as "John o' Groat's bucky." - - - - -JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educational institution at -Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Its trustees, chosen by Johns Hopkins -(1794-1873), a successful Baltimore merchant, were incorporated on the -24th of August 1867 under a general act "for the promotion of education -in the state of Maryland." But nothing was actually done until after the -death of Johns Hopkins (Dec. 24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,000 -was equally divided between the projected university and a hospital, -also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary to the medical -school of the university. The trustees of the university consulted with -many prominent educationists, notably Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, -Andrew D. White of Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of -Michigan; on the 30th of December 1874 they elected Daniel Coit Gilman -(q.v.) president. The university was formally opened on the 3rd of -October 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley. The first -year was largely given up to consultation among the newly chosen -professors, among whom were--in Greek, B. L. Gildersleeve; in -mathematics, J. J. Sylvester; in chemistry, Ira Remsen; in biology, -Henry Newell Martin (1848-1896); in zoology, William Keith Brooks -(1848-1908); and in physics, Henry Augustus Rowland (1848-1901). -Prominent among later teachers were Arthur Cayley in mathematics, the -Semitic scholar Paul Haupt (b. 1858), Granville Stanley Hall in -psychology, Maurice Bloomfield in Sanskrit and comparative philology, -James Rendel Harris in Biblical philology, James Wilson Bright in -English philology, Herbert B. Adams in history, and Richard T. Ely (b. -1854) in economics. The university at once became a pioneer in the -United States in teaching by means of seminary courses and laboratories, -and it has been eminently successful in encouraging research, in -scientific production, and in preparing its students to become -instructors in other colleges and universities. It includes a college in -which each of five parallel courses leads to the degree of Bachelor of -Arts, but its reputation has been established chiefly by its other two -departments, the graduate school and the medical school. The graduate -school offers courses in philosophy and psychology, physics, chemistry -and biology, historical and economic science, language and literature, -and confers the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after at least three -years' residence. From its foundation the university had novel features -and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellowships of $500 each -were opened to the graduates of any college. Petrography and laboratory -psychology were among the new sciences fostered by the new university. -Such eminent outsiders were secured for brief residence and lecture -courses as J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child, Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Holst, F. -A. Walker, William James, Sidney Lanier, James Bryce, E. A. Freeman, W. -W. Goodwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. President Gilman gave up his -presidential duties on the 1st of September 1901, Ira Remsen[1] -succeeding him in the office. The medical department, inaugurated in -1893, is closely affiliated with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins -Hospital (opened in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it -admits only students holding the bachelor's degree or its equivalent. -The degree of Doctor of Medicine is conferred after four years of -successful study, and advanced courses are offered. The department's -greatest teachers have been William Osler (b. 1849) and William Henry -Welch (b. 1850). - -The buildings of the university were in 1901 an unpretentious group on -crowded ground near the business centre of the city. In 1902 a new site -was secured, containing about 125 acres amid pleasant surroundings in -the northern suburbs, and new buildings were designed in accordance with -a plan formed with a view to secure harmony and symmetry. In 1907 the -library contained more than 133,000 bound volumes. Among the numerous -publications issued by the university press are: _American Journal of -Mathematics_, _Studies in Historical and Political Science_, _Reprint of -Economic Tracts, American Journal of Philology_, _Contributions to -Assyriology and Semitic Philology_, _Modern Language Notes_, _American -Chemical Journal_, _American Journal of Insanity_, _Terrestrial -Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity_, _Reports of the Maryland -Geological Survey_, and _Reports of the Maryland Weather Service_. The -institution is maintained chiefly with the proceeds of the endowment -fund. It also receives aid from the state, and charges tuition fees. Its -government is entrusted to a board of trustees, while the direction of -affairs of a strictly academic nature is delegated to an academic -council and to department boards. In 1907-1908 the regular faculty -numbered 175, and there was an enrolment of 683 students, of whom 518 -were in post-graduate courses. - -On the history of the university see Daniel C. Gilman, _The Launching of -a University_ (New York, 1906), and the annual reports of the president. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the 10th of February - 1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865, - studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at the - university of Gottingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams - College in 1872-1876, and in 1876 became professor cf chemistry at - Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of chemistry, - organic and inorganic, which were republished in England and were - translated abroad. In 1879 he founded the _American Chemical - Journal_. - - - - -JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808-1875), seventeenth president of the United States, -was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the 29th of December 1808. His -parents were poor, and his father died when Andrew was four years old. -At the age of ten he was apprenticed to a tailor, his spare hours being -spent in acquiring the rudiments of an education. He learned to read -from a book which contained selected orations of great British and -American statesmen. The young tailor went to Laurens Court House, South -Carolina, in 1824, to work at his trade, but returned to Raleigh in 1826 -and soon afterward removed to Greeneville in the eastern part of -Tennessee. He married during the same year Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), -much his superior by birth and education, who taught him the common -school branches of learning and was of great assistance in his later -career. In East Tennessee most of the people were small farmers, while -West Tennessee was a land of great slave plantations. Johnson began in -politics to oppose the aristocratic element and became the spokesman and -champion of the poorer and labouring classes. In 1828 he was elected an -alderman of Greeneville and in 1830-1834 was mayor. In 1834, in the -Tennessee constitutional convention he endeavoured to limit the -influence of the slaveholders by basing representation in the state -legislature on the white population alone. In 1835-1837 and 1839-1841 -Johnson was a Democratic member of the state House of Representatives, -and in 1841-1843 of the state Senate; in both houses he uniformly upheld -the cause of the "common people," and, in addition, opposed legislation -for "internal improvements." He soon was recognized as the political -champion of East Tennessee. Though his favourite leaders became Whigs, -Johnson remained a Democrat, and in 1840 canvassed the state for Van -Buren for president. - -In 1843 he was elected to the national House of Representatives and -there remained for ten years until his district was gerrymandered by the -Whigs and he lost his seat. But he at once offered himself as a -candidate for governor and was elected and re-elected, and was then sent -to the United States Senate, serving from 1857 to 1862. As governor -(1853-1857) he proved to be able and non-partisan. He championed popular -education and recommended the homestead policy to the national -government, and from his sympathy with the working classes and his -oft-avowed pride in his former calling he became known as the "mechanic -governor." In Congress he proved to be a tireless advocate of the claims -of the poorer whites and an opponent of the aristocracy. He favoured the -annexation of Texas, supported the Polk administration on the issues of -the Mexican War and the Oregon boundary controversy, and though voting -for the admission of free California demanded national protection for -slavery. He also advocated the homestead law and low tariffs, opposed -the policy of "internal improvements," and was a zealous worker for -budget economies. Though opposed to a monopoly of political power in the -South by the great slaveholders, he deprecated anti-slavery agitation -(even favouring denial of the right of petition on that subject) as -threatening abolition or the dissolution of the Union, and went with his -sectional leaders so far as to demand freedom of choice for the -Territories, and protection for slavery where it existed--this even so -late as 1860. He supported in 1860 the ultra-Democratic ticket of -Breckinridge and Lane, but he did not identify the election of Lincoln -with the ruin of the South, though he thought the North should give -renewed guarantees to slavery. But he followed Jackson rather than -Calhoun, and above everything else set his love of the Union, though -believing the South to be grievously wronged. He was the only Southern -member of Congress who opposed secession and refused to "go with his -state" when it withdrew from the Union in 1861. In the judgment of a -leading opponent (O. P. Morton) "perhaps no man in Congress exerted the -same influence on the public sentiment of the North at the beginning of -the war" as Johnson. During the war he suffered much for his loyalty to -the Union. In March 1862 Lincoln made him military governor of the part -of Tennessee captured from the Confederates, and after two years of -autocratic rule (with much danger to himself) he succeeded in organizing -a Union government for the state. In 1864, to secure the votes of the -war Democrats and to please the border states that had remained in the -Union, Johnson was nominated for vice-president on the ticket with -Lincoln. - -A month after the inauguration the murder of Lincoln left him president, -with the great problem to solve of reconstruction of the Union. All his -past career and utterances seemed to indicate that he would favour the -harshest measures toward ex-Confederates, hence his acceptability to the -most radical republicans. But, whether because he drew a distinction -between the treason of individuals and of states, or was influenced by -Seward, or simply, once in responsible position, separated Republican -party politics from the question of constitutional interpretation, at -least he speedily showed that he would be influenced by no acrimony, and -adopted the lenient reconstruction policy of Lincoln. In this he had for -some time the cordial support of his cabinet. During the summer of 1865 -he set up provisional civil governments in all the seceded states except -Texas, and within a few months all those states were reorganized and -applying for readmission to the Union. The radical congress (Republican -by a large majority) sharply opposed this plan of restoration, as they -had opposed Lincoln's plan: first, because the members of Congress from -the Southern States (when readmitted) would almost certainly vote with -the Democrats; secondly, because relatively few of the Confederates were -punished; and thirdly, because the newly organized Southern States did -not give political rights to the negroes. The question of the status of -the negro proved the crux of the issue. Johnson was opposed to general -or immediate negro suffrage. A bitter contest began in Feb. 1866, -between the president and the Congress, which refused to admit -representatives from the South and during 1866 passed over his veto a -number of important measures, such as the Freedmen's Bureau Act and the -Civil Rights Act, and submitted to the States the Fourteenth Amendment -to the Constitution. Johnson took a prominent and undignified part in -the congressional campaign of 1866, in which his policies were voted -down by the North. In 1867 Congress threw aside his work of restoration -and proceeded with its own plan, the main features of which were the -disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the enfranchisement of negroes. -On the 2nd of March 1867 Congress passed over the president's veto the -Tenure of Office Act, prohibiting the president from dismissing from -office without the consent of the Senate any officer appointed by and -with the advice and consent of that body, and in addition a section was -inserted in the army appropriation bill of this session designed to -subordinate the president to the Senate and the general-in-chief of the -army in military matters. The president was thus deprived of practically -all power. Stanton and other members of his cabinet and General Grant -became hostile to him, the president attempted to remove Stanton without -regard to the Tenure of Office Act, and, finally, to get rid of the -president, Congress in 1868(February-May) made an attempt to impeach and -remove him, his disregard of the Tenure of Office Act being the -principal charge against him. The charges[1] were in part quite trivial, -and the evidence was ridiculously inadequate for the graver charges. A -two-thirds majority was necessary for conviction; and the votes being 35 -to 19 (7 Republicans and 12 Democrats voting in his favour on the -crucial clauses) he was acquitted. The misguided animus of the -impeachment as a piece of partisan politics was soon very generally -admitted; and the importance of its failure, in securing the continued -power and independence of the presidential element in the constitutional -system, can hardly be over-estimated. The rest of his term as president -was comparatively quiet and uneventful. In 1869 he retired into private -life in Tennessee, and after several unsuccessful efforts was elected to -the United States Senate, free of party trammels, in 1875, but died at -Carter's Station, Tenn., on the 31st of July 1875. The only speech he -made was a skilful and temperate arraignment of President Grant's policy -towards the South. - -President Johnson's leading political principles were a reverence of -Andrew Jackson, unlimited confidence in the people, and an intense -veneration for the constitution. Throughout his life he remained in some -respects a "backwoodsman." He lacked the finish of systematic education. -But his whole career sufficiently proves him to have been a man of -extraordinary qualities. He did not rise above untoward circumstances by -favour, nor--until after his election as senator--by fortunate and -fortuitous connexion with great events, but by strength of native -talents, persistent purpose, and an iron will. He had strong, rugged -powers, was a close reasoner and a forcible speaker. Unfortunately his -extemporaneous speeches were commonplace, in very bad taste, fervently -intemperate and denunciatory; and though this was probably due largely -to temperament and habits of stump-speaking formed in early life, it was -attributed by his enemies to drink. Resorting to stimulants after -illness, his marked excess in this respect on the occasion of his -inauguration as vice-president undoubtedly did him harm with the public. -Faults of personality were his great handicap. Though approachable and -not without kindliness of manner, he seemed hard and inflexible; and -while president, physical pain and domestic anxieties, added to the -struggles of public life, combined to accentuate a naturally somewhat -severe temperament. A lifelong Southern Democrat, he was forced to lead -(nominally at least) a party of Northern Republicans, with whom he had -no bond of sympathy save a common opposition to secession; and his -ardent, aggressive convictions and character, above all his complete -lack of tact, unfitted him to deal successfully with the passionate -partisanship of Congress. The absolute integrity and unflinching courage -that marked his career were always ungrudgingly admitted by his greatest -enemies. - - See L. Foster, _The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson_ (1866); D. M. - De Witt, _The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson_ (1903); C. E. - Chadsey, _The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress over - Reconstruction_ (1896); and W. A. Dunning, _Essays on the Civil War - and Reconstruction_ (1898). Also see W. A. Dunning's paper "More Light - on Andrew Johnson" (in the _American Historical Review_, April 1906), - in which apparently conclusive evidence is presented to prove that - Johnson's first inaugural, a notable state paper, was written by the - historian George Bancroft. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The charges centred in the president's removal of Secretary - Stanton, his _ad interim_ appointment of Lorenzo Thomas, his campaign - speeches in 1866, and the relation of these three things to the - Tenure of Office Act. Of the eleven charges of impeachment the first - was that Stanton's removal was contrary to the Tenure of Office Act; - the second, that the appointment of Thomas was a violation of the - same law; the third, that the appointment violated the Constitution; - the fourth, that Johnson conspired with Thomas "to hinder and prevent - Edwin M. Stanton ... from holding ... office of secretary for the - department of war"; the fifth, that Johnson had conspired with Thomas - to "prevent and hinder the execution" of the Tenure of Office Act; - the sixth, that he had conspired with Thomas "to seize, take and - possess the property of the United States in the department of war," - in violation of the Tenure of Office Act; the seventh, that this - action was "a high misdemeanour"; the eighth, that the appointment of - Thomas was "with intent unlawfully to control the disbursements of - the moneys appropriated for the military service and for the - department of war"; the ninth, that he had instructed Major-General - Emory, in command of the department of Washington, that an act of - 1867 appropriating money for the army was unconstitutional; the - tenth, that his speeches in 1866 constituted "a high misdemeanour in - office"; and the eleventh, the "omnibus" article, that he had - committed high misdemeanours in saying that the 39th Congress was not - an authorized Congress, that its legislation was not binding upon - him, and that it was incapable of proposing amendments. The actual - trial began on the 30th of March (from the 5th of March it was - adjourned to the 23rd, and on the 24th of March to the 30th). On the - 16th of May, after sessions in which the Senate repeatedly reversed - the rulings of the chief justice as to the admission of evidence, in - which the president's counsel showed that their case was excellently - prepared and the prosecuting counsel appealed in general to political - passions rather than to judicial impartiality, the eleventh article - was voted on and impeachment failed by a single vote (35 to 19; 7 - republicans and 12 democrats voting "Not guilty") of the necessary - two-thirds. After ten days' interval, during which B. F. Butler of - the prosecuting counsel attempted to prove that corruption had been - practised on some of those voting "Not guilty," on the 26th of May a - vote was taken on the second and third articles with the same result - as on the eleventh article. There was no vote on the other articles. - - - - -JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742), English actor, was first a scene -painter, then acted in the provinces, and appeared in London in 1695 at -Drury Lane after Betterton's defection. He was the original Captain -Driver in _Oronooko_ (1696), Captain Fireball in Farquhar's _Sir Harry -Wildair_ (1701), Sable in Steele's _Funeral_ (1702), &c.; as the First -Gravedigger in _Hamlet_ and in several characters in the plays of Ben -Jonson he was particularly good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett's -roles. - - - - -JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824-1906), American artist, was born at Lovell, -Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at Dusseldorf, Paris, Rome -and The Hague, the last city being his home for four years. In 1860 he -was elected to the National Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished -portrait and genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his -own, depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual -interest. Such pictures as "Old Kentucky Home" (1867), "Husking Bee" -(1876), "Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket" (1880), and his portrait group -"The Funding Bill" (1881) achieved a national reputation. Among his -sitters were many prominent men, including Daniel Webster; Presidents -Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. -Folger; Emerson, Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and -Sir Edward Archbald. He died in New York City on the 5th of April 1906. - - - - -JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876), American political leader and jurist, was -born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 21st of May 1796. His father, John -Johnson (1770-1824), was a distinguished lawyer, who served in both -houses of the Maryland General Assembly, as attorney-general of the -state (1806-1811), as a judge of the court of appeals (1811-1821), and -as a chancellor of his state (1821-1824). Reverdy graduated from St -John's college in 1812. He then studied law in his father's office, was -admitted to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough, -Prince George's county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore, where he became -the professional associate of Luther Martin, William Pinkney and Roger -B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he reported the decisions of the court of -appeals in _Harris and Johnson's Reports_ (1820-1827); and in 1818 he -was appointed chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825 -he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to his -practice; from 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of the United -States Senate; and from March 1849 to July 1850 he was attorney-general -of the United States. In 1856 he became identified with the conservative -wing of the Democratic party, and four years later supported Stephen A. -Douglas for the presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to -the peace convention at Washington; in 1861-1862 he was a member of the -Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New Orleans he was -commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions of the military -commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard to foreign governments, and -reversed all those decisions to the entire satisfaction of the -administration. In 1863 he again took his seat in the United States -Senate. In 1868 he was appointed minister to Great Britain and soon -after his arrival in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for -the settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War; this, however, -the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the accession of -General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming his practice he -was engaged by the government in the prosecution of Ku-Klux cases. He -died on the 10th of February 1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the -doctrine of secession, and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. -Opposed to the Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground -that it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably -the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged during his -later years in most of the especially important cases in the Supreme -Court of the United States and in the courts of Maryland. - - - - -JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573-1659?), English romance writer, was baptized in -London on the 24th of May 1573. His most famous romance is The _Famous -Historie of the Seaven Champions of Christendom_ (1596?). The success of -this book was so great that the author added a second and a third part -in 1608 and 1616. His other stories include: _The Nine Worthies of -London_ (1592); _The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields_ (1607); _The -Pleasant Conceites of Old Hobson_ (1607), the hero being a well-known -haberdasher in the Poultry; _The Most Pleasant History of Tom a -Lincolne_ (1607); _A Remembrance of ... Robert Earle of Salisbury_ -(1612); _Looke on Me, London_ (1613); _The History of Tom Thumbe_ -(1621). _The Crown Garland of Golden Roses ... set forth in Many -Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets_ (1612) was reprinted for the Percy -Society (1842 and 1845). - - - - -JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781-1850), ninth vice-president of the -United States, was born at Bryant's Station, Kentucky, on the 17th of -October 1781. He was admitted to the bar in 1800, and became prominent -as a lawyer and Democratic politician, serving in the Federal House of -Representatives and in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to 1841 he -was vice-president of the United States, to which position he was -elected over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates -for the vice-presidency having received a majority of the electoral -votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly increased -during his term, and the Democratic national convention of 1840 adopted -the unprecedented course of refusing to nominate anyone for the -vice-presidency. In the ensuing election Johnson received most of the -Democratic electoral votes, but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John -Tyler. He died in Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1850. - - - - -JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784), English writer and lexicographer, was the -son of Michael Johnson (1656-1731), bookseller and magistrate of -Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford (1669-1759). Michael's -abilities and attainments seem to have been considerable. He was so well -acquainted with the contents of the volumes which he exposed for sale -that the country rectors of Staffordshire and Worcestershire thought him -an oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy, indeed, -there was a strong religious and political sympathy. He was a zealous -churchman, and, though he had qualified himself for municipal office by -taking the oaths to the sovereigns in possession, was to the last a -Jacobite in heart. The social position of Samuel's paternal grandfather, -William Johnson, remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of -Cornelius Ford, "a little Warwickshire Gent." - -At a house (now the Johnson Museum) in the Market Square, Lichfield, -Samuel Johnson was born on the 18th of September 1709 and baptized on -the same day at St Mary's, Lichfield. In the child the physical, -intellectual and moral peculiarities which afterwards distinguished the -man were plainly discernible: great muscular strength accompanied by -much awkwardness and many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a -morbid propensity to sloth and procrastination; a kind and generous -heart, with a gloomy and irritable temper. He had inherited from his -ancestors a scrofulous taint, and his parents were weak enough to -believe that the royal touch would cure him. In his third year he was -taken up to London, inspected by the court surgeon, prayed over by the -court chaplains and stroked and presented with a piece of gold by Queen -Anne. Her hand was applied in vain. The boy's features, which were -originally noble and not irregular, were distorted by his malady. His -cheeks were deeply scarred. He lost for a time the sight of one eye; and -he saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his mind -overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he acquired knowledge -with such ease and rapidity that at every school (such as those at -Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he was sent he was soon the best -scholar. From sixteen to eighteen he resided at home, and was left to -his own devices. He learned much at this time, though his studies were -without guidance and without plan. He ransacked his father's shelves, -dipped into a multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed -over what was dull. An ordinary lad would have acquired little or no -useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to ordinary lads -was interesting to Samuel. He read little Greek; for his proficiency in -that language was not such that he could take much pleasure in the -masters of Attic poetry and eloquence. But he had left school a good -Latinist, and he soon acquired an extensive knowledge of Latin -literature. He was peculiarly attracted by the works of the great -restorers of learning. Once, while searching for some apples, he found a -huge folio volume of Petrarch's works. The name excited his curiosity, -and he eagerly devoured hundreds of pages. Indeed, the diction and -versification of his own Latin compositions show that he had paid at -least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to the -original models. - -While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was sinking -into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much better qualified to -pore over books, and to talk about them, than to trade in them. His -business declined; his debts increased; it was with difficulty that the -daily expenses of his household were defrayed. It was out of his power -to support his son at either university; but a wealthy neighbour offered -assistance; and, in reliance on promises which proved to be of very -little value, Samuel was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When the -young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society, they were -amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric manners than by the -quantity of extensive and curious information which he had picked up -during many months of desultory but not unprofitable study. On the first -day of his residence he surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and -one of the most learned among them declared that he had never known a -freshman of equal attainments. - -At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly less. He was -poor, even to raggedness; and his appearance excited a mirth and a pity -which were equally intolerable to his haughty spirit. He was driven from -the quadrangle of Christ Church by the sneering looks which the members -of that aristocratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some -charitable person placed a new pair at his door; but he spurned them -away in a fury. Distress made him, not servile, but reckless and -ungovernable. No opulent gentleman commoner, panting for one-and-twenty, -could have treated the academical authorities with more gross -disrespect. The needy scholar was generally to be seen under the gate of -Pembroke, a gate now adorned with his effigy, haranguing a circle of -lads, over whom, in spite of his tattered gown and dirty linen, his wit -and audacity gave him an undisputed ascendancy. In every mutiny against -the discipline of the college he was the ringleader. Much was pardoned, -however, to a youth so highly distinguished by abilities and -acquirements. He had early made himself known by turning Pope's -"Messiah" into Latin verse. The style and rhythm, indeed, were not -exactly Virgilian; but the translation found many admirers, and was read -with pleasure by Pope himself. - -The time drew near at which Johnson would, in the ordinary course of -things, have become a Bachelor of Arts; but he was at the end of his -resources. Those promises of support on which he had relied had not been -kept. His family could do nothing for him. His debts to Oxford tradesmen -were small indeed, yet larger than he could pay. In the autumn of 1731 -he was under the necessity of quitting the university without a degree. -In the following winter his father died. The old man left but a -pittance; and of that pittance almost the whole was appropriated to the -support of his widow. The property to which Samuel succeeded amounted to -no more than twenty pounds. - -His life, during the thirty years which followed, was one hard struggle -with poverty. The misery of that struggle needed no aggravation, but was -aggravated by the sufferings of an unsound body and an unsound mind. -Before the young man left the university, his hereditary malady had -broken forth in a singularly cruel form. He had become an incurable -hypochondriac. He said long after that he had been mad all his life, or -at least not perfectly sane; and, in truth, eccentricities less strange -than his have often been thought ground sufficient for absolving felons -and for setting aside wills. His grimaces, his gestures, his mutterings, -sometimes diverted and sometimes terrified people who did not know him. -At a dinner table he would, in a fit of absence, stoop down and twitch -off a lady's shoe. He would amaze a drawing-room by suddenly ejaculating -a clause of the Lord's Prayer. He would conceive an unintelligible -aversion to a particular alley, and perform a great circuit rather than -see the hateful place. He would set his heart on touching every post in -the streets through which he walked. If by any chance he missed a post, -he would go back a hundred yards and repair the omission. Under the -influence of his disease, his senses became morbidly torpid, and his -imagination morbidly active. At one time he would stand poring on the -town clock without being able to tell the hour. At another he would -distinctly hear his mother, who was many miles off, calling him by his -name. But this was not the worst. A deep melancholy took possession of -him, and gave a dark tinge to all his views of human nature and of human -destiny. Such wretchedness as he endured has driven many men to shoot -themselves or drown themselves. But he was under no temptation to commit -suicide. He was sick of life; but he was afraid of death; and he -shuddered at every sight or sound which reminded him of the inevitable -hour. In religion he found but little comfort during his long and -frequent fits of dejection; for his religion partook of his own -character. The light from heaven shone on him indeed, but not in a -direct line, or with its own pure splendour. The rays had to struggle -through a disturbing medium; they reached him refracted, dulled and -discoloured by the thick gloom which had settled on his soul, and, -though they might be sufficiently clear to guide him, were too dim to -cheer him. - -With such infirmities of body and of mind, he was left, at -two-and-twenty, to fight his way through the world. He remained during -about five years in the midland counties. At Lichfield, his birthplace -and his early home, he had inherited some friends and acquired others. -He was kindly noticed by Henry Hervey, a gay officer of noble family, -who happened to be quartered there. Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the -ecclesiastical court of the diocese, a man of distinguished parts, -learning and knowledge of the world, did himself honour by patronizing -the young adventurer, whose repulsive person, unpolished manners and -squalid garb moved many of the petty aristocracy of the neighbourhood to -laughter or disgust. At Lichfield, however, Johnson could find no way of -earning a livelihood. He became usher of a grammar school in -Leicestershire; he resided as a humble companion in the house of a -country gentleman; but a life of dependence was insupportable to his -haughty spirit. He repaired to Birmingham, and there earned a few -guineas by literary drudgery. In that town he printed a translation, -little noticed at the time, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about -Abyssinia. He then put forth proposals for publishing by subscription -the poems of Politian, with notes containing a history of modern Latin -verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and the volume never appeared. - -While leading this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in love. The -object of his passion was Mrs Elizabeth Porter (1688-1752), widow of -Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy was born only six years -after Johnson himself. To ordinary spectators the lady appeared to be a -short, fat, coarse woman, painted half an inch thick, dressed in gaudy -colours, and fond of exhibiting provincial airs and graces which were -not exactly those of the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however, -whose passions were strong, whose eyesight was too weak to distinguish -rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or never been in the same -room with a woman of real fashion, his Tetty, as he called her, was the -most beautiful, graceful and accomplished of her sex. That his -admiration was unfeigned cannot be doubted; she had, however, a jointure -of L600 and perhaps a little more; she came of a good family, and her -son Jervis (d. 1763) commanded H.M.S. "Hercules." The marriage, in spite -of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been expected. -The lover continued to be under the illusions of the wedding-day (July -9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth year. On her monument at -Bromley he placed an inscription extolling the charms of her person and -of her manners; and when, long after her decease, he had occasion to -mention her, he exclaimed with a tenderness half ludicrous, half -pathetic, "Pretty creature!" - -His marriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more strenuously -than he had hitherto done. He took a house at Edial near Lichfield and -advertised for pupils. But eighteen months passed away, and only three -pupils came to his academy. The "faces" that Johnson habitually made -(probably nervous contortions due to his disorder) may well have alarmed -parents. Good scholar though he was, these twitchings had lost him -usherships in 1735 and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the pupils, -used, many years later, to throw the best company of London into -convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master and his lady. - -At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, determined to -seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer. He set out with a -few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of _Irene_ in manuscript, and two -or three letters of introduction from his friend Walmesley. Never since -literature became a calling in England had it been a less gainful -calling than at the time when Johnson took up his residence in London. -In the preceding generation a writer of eminent merit was sure to be -munificently rewarded by the Government. The least that he could expect -was a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any aptitude for -politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a lord of the -treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But literature had ceased -to flourish under the patronage of the great, and had not yet begun to -flourish under the patronage of the public. One man of letters, indeed, -Pope, had acquired by his pen what was then considered as a handsome -fortune, and lived on a footing of equality with nobles and ministers of -state. But this was a solitary exception. Even an author whose -reputation was established, and whose works were popular--such an author -as Thomson, whose _Seasons_ was in every library, such an author as -Fielding, whose _Pasquin_ had had a greater run than any drama since -_The Beggar's Opera_--was sometimes glad to obtain, by pawning his best -coat, the means of dining on tripe at a cookshop underground, where he -could wipe his hands, after his greasy meal, on the back of a -Newfoundland dog. It is easy, therefore, to imagine what humiliations -and privations must have awaited the novice who had still to earn a -name. One of the publishers to whom Johnson applied for employment -measured with a scornful eye that athletic though uncouth frame, and -exclaimed, "You had better get a porter's knot and carry trunks." Nor -was the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully fed, -and as comfortably lodged, as a poet. - -Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able to form any -literary connexion from which he could expect more than bread for the -day which was passing over him. He never forgot the generosity with -which Hervey, who was now residing in London, relieved his wants during -this time of trial. "Harry Hervey," said Johnson many years later, "was -a vicious man; but he was very kind to me. If you call a dog Hervey, I -shall love him." At Hervey's table Johnson sometimes enjoyed feasts -which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in general he dined, and -thought that he dined well, on sixpennyworth of meat and a pennyworth of -bread at an alehouse near Drury Lane. - -The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured at this -time was discernible to the last in his temper and his deportment. His -manners had never been courtly. They now became almost savage. Being -frequently under the necessity of wearing shabby coats and dirty shirts, -he became a confirmed sloven. Being often very hungry when he sat down -to his meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness. -Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great, the -sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds of prey. -His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries and _a la mode_ -beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he was so fortunate as to -have near him a hare that had been kept too long, or a meat pie made -with rancid butter, he gorged himself with such violence that his veins -swelled and the moisture broke out on his forehead. The affronts which -his poverty emboldened stupid and low-minded men to offer to him would -have broken a mean spirit into sycophancy, but made him rude even to -ferocity. Unhappily the insolence which, while it was defensive, was -pardonable, and in some sense respectable, accompanied him into -societies where he was treated with courtesy and kindness. He was -repeatedly provoked into striking those who had taken liberties with -him. All the sufferers, however, were wise enough to abstain from -talking about their beatings, except Osborne, the most rapacious and -brutal of booksellers, who proclaimed everywhere that he had been -knocked down by the huge fellow whom he had hired to puff the Harleian -Library. - -About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he was -fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward Cave (q.v.) on -the _Gentleman's Magazine_. That periodical, just entering on the ninth -year of its long existence, was the only one in the kingdom which then -had what would now be called a large circulation. Johnson was engaged to -write the speeches in the "Reports of the Debates of the Senate of -Lilliput" (see REPORTING), under which thin disguise the proceedings of -parliament were published. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre -indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he had to -find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and for the -opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational conviction--for his -serious opinion was that one form of government was just as good or as -bad as another--but from mere passion, such as inflamed the Capulets -against the Montagues, or the Blues of the Roman circus against the -Greens. In his infancy he had heard so much talk about the villainies of -the Whigs, and the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious -partisan when he could scarcely speak. Before he was three he had -insisted on being taken to hear Sacheverel preach at Lichfield -Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect and -probably with as much intelligence, as any Staffordshire squire in the -congregation. The work which had been begun in the nursery had been -completed by the university. Oxford, when Johnson resided there, was the -most Jacobitical place in England; and Pembroke was one of the most -Jacobitical colleges in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to -London were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest. -Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever reigned. -Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over whose tomb Art and Genius -still continued to weep. Hampden deserved no more honourable name than -that of the "zealot of rebellion." Even the ship-money Johnson would not -pronounce to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government -which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech and -action, he fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters and -stock-jobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parliaments, and -Continental connexions. He long had an aversion to the Scots, an -aversion of which he could not remember the commencement, but which, he -owned, had probably originated in his abhorrence of the conduct of the -nation during the Great Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner -debates on great party questions were likely to be reported by a man -whose judgment was so much disordered by party spirit. A show of -fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the _Magazine_. But -Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved appearances, he -had taken care that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it; and, -in fact, every passage which has lived, every passage which bears the -marks of his higher faculties, is put into the mouth of some member of -the opposition. - -A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure labours, he -published a work which at once placed him high among the writers of his -age. It is probable that what he had suffered during his first year in -London had often reminded him of some parts of the satire in which -Juvenal had described the misery and degradation of a needy man of -letters, lodged among the pigeons' nests in the tottering garrets which -overhung the streets of Rome. Pope's admirable imitations of Horace's -_Satires and Epistles_ had recently appeared, were in every hand, and -were by many readers thought superior to the originals. What Pope had -done for Horace, Johnson aspired to do for Juvenal. - -Johnson's _London_ appeared without his name in May 1738. He received -only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem; but the sale was -rapid and the success complete. A second edition was required within a -week. Those small critics who are always desirous to lower established -reputations ran about proclaiming that the anonymous satirist was -superior to Pope in Pope's own peculiar department of literature. It -ought to be remembered, to the honour of Pope, that he joined heartily -in the applause with which the appearance of a rival genius was -welcomed. He made inquiries about the author of _London_. Such a man, he -said, could not long be concealed. The name was soon discovered; and -Pope, with great kindness, exerted himself to obtain an academical -degree and the mastership of a grammar school for the poor young poet. -The attempt failed, and Johnson remained a bookseller's hack. - -It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent writer of the -generation which was going out, and the most eminent writer of the -generation which was coming in, ever saw each other. They lived in very -different circles, one surrounded by dukes and earls, the other by -starving pamphleteers and index-makers. Among Johnson's associates at -this time may be mentioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, -scrawled Latin verses sitting up in bed with his arms through two holes -in his blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he was -sober, and who was at last run over by a hackney coach when he was -drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who, instead of -attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical diagrams on the -board where he sat cross-legged; and the penitent impostor, George -Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a humble lodging, on the -folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian fathers, indulged himself at night -with literary and theological conversation at an alehouse in the City. -But the most remarkable of the persons with whom at this time Johnson -consorted was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice, -who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue ribands -in St James's Square, and had lain with fifty pounds weight of irons on -his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate. This man had, after many -vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last into abject and hopeless poverty. -His pen had failed him. His patrons had been taken away by death, or -estranged by the riotous profusion with which he squandered their -bounty, and the ungrateful insolence with which he rejected their -advice. He now lived by begging. He dined on venison and champagne -whenever he had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If his questing -had been unsuccessful, he appeased the rage of hunger with some scraps -of broken meat, and lay down to rest under the piazza of Covent Garden -in warm weather, and, in cold weather, as near as he could get to the -furnace of a glass house. Yet in his misery he was still an agreeable -companion. He had an inexhaustible store of anecdotes about that gay and -brilliant world from which he was now an outcast. He had observed the -great men of both parties in hours of careless relaxation, had seen the -leaders of opposition without the mask of patriotism, and had heard the -prime minister roar with laughter and tell stories not over-decent. -During some months Savage lived in the closest familiarity with Johnson; -and then the friends parted, not without tears. Johnson remained in -London to drudge for Cave. Savage went to the west of England, lived -there as he had lived everywhere, and in 1743 died, penniless and -heartbroken, in Bristol Gaol. - -Soon after his death, while the public curiosity was strongly excited -about his extraordinary character and his not less extraordinary -adventures, a life of him appeared widely different from the catchpenny -lives of eminent men which were then a staple article of manufacture in -Grub Street. The style was indeed deficient in ease and variety; and the -writer was evidently too partial to the Latin element of our language. -But the little work, with all its faults, was a masterpiece. No finer -specimen of literary biography existed in any language, living or dead; -and a discerning critic might have confidently predicted that the author -was destined to be the founder of a new school of English eloquence. - -The _Life of Savage_ was anonymous; but it was well known in literary -circles that Johnson was the writer. During the three years which -followed, he produced no important work; but he was not, and indeed -could not be, idle. The fame of his abilities and learning continued to -grow. Warburton pronounced him a man of parts and genius; and the praise -of Warburton was then no light thing. Such was Johnson's reputation -that, in 1747, several eminent booksellers combined to employ him in the -arduous work of preparing a _Dictionary of the English Language_, in two -folio volumes. The sum which they agreed to pay him was only fifteen -hundred guineas; and out of this sum he had to pay several poor men of -letters who assisted him in the humbler parts of his task. - -The prospectus of the _Dictionary_ he addressed to the earl of -Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the politeness -of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit, and the delicacy of his -taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the House of -Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momentous conjuncture, -with eminent firmness, wisdom and humanity; and he had since become -secretary of state. He received Johnson's homage with the most winning -affability, and requited it with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless in a -very graceful manner, but was by no means desirous to see all his -carpets blackened with the London mud, and his soups and wines thrown to -right and left over the gowns of fine ladies and the waistcoats of fine -gentlemen, by an absent, awkward scholar, who gave strange starts and -uttered strange growls, who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like a -cormorant. During some time Johnson continued to call on his patron, -but, after being repeatedly told by the porter that his lordship was not -at home, took the hint, and ceased to present himself at the -inhospitable door. - -Johnson had flattered himself that he should have completed his -_Dictionary_ by the end of 1750; but it was not till 1755 that he at -length gave his huge volumes to the world. During the seven years which -he passed in the drudgery of penning definitions and marking quotations -for transcription, he sought for relaxation in literary labour of a more -agreeable kind. In January 1749 he published _The Vanity of Human -Wishes_, an excellent imitation of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for -which he received fifteen guineas. - -A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of _Irene_, -begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his old pupil, -David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre. The relation between -him and his old preceptor was of a very singular kind. They repelled -each other strongly, and yet attracted each other strongly. Nature had -made them of very different clay; and circumstances had fully brought -out the natural peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned -Garrick's head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson's temper. Johnson -saw with more envy than became so great a man the villa, the plate, the -china, the Brussels carpet, which the little mimic had got by repeating, -with grimaces and gesticulations, what wiser men had written; and the -exquisitely sensitive vanity of Garrick was galled by the thought that, -while all the rest of the world was applauding him, he could obtain from -one morose cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely -any compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield men had -so many early recollections in common, and sympathized with each other -on so many points on which they sympathized with nobody else in the vast -population of the capital, that, though the master was often provoked by -the monkey-like impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish -rudeness of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by -death. Garrick now brought _Irene_ out, with alterations sufficient to -displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece pleasing to -the audience. After nine representations the play was withdrawn. The -poet however cleared by his benefit nights, and by the sale of the -copyright of his tragedy, about three hundred pounds, then a great sum -in his estimation. - -About a year after the representation of _Irene_, he began to publish a -series of short essays on morals, manners and literature. This species -of composition had been brought into fashion by the success of the -_Tatler_, and by the still more brilliant success of the _Spectator_. A -crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival Addison. The _Lay -Monastery_, the _Censor_, the _Freethinker_, the _Plain Dealer_, the -_Champion_, and other works of the same kind had had their short day. At -length Johnson undertook the adventure in which so many aspirants had -failed. In the thirty-sixth year after the appearance of the last number -of the _Spectator_ appeared the first number of the _Rambler_. From -March 1750 to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday -and Saturday. - -From the first the _Rambler_ was enthusiastically admired by a few -eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had appeared, pronounced -it equal if not superior to the _Spectator_. Young and Hartley expressed -their approbation not less warmly. In consequence probably of the good -offices of Bubb Dodington, who was then the confidential adviser of -Prince Frederick, two of his royal highness's gentlemen carried a -gracious message to the printing office, and ordered seven copies for -Leicester House. But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the -great to last him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other -door as he had haunted the door of Chesterfield. - -By the public the _Rambler_ was at first very coldly received. Though -the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did not amount to five -hundred. The profits were therefore very small. But as soon as the -flying leaves were collected and reprinted they became popular. The -author lived to see thirteen thousand copies spread over England alone. -Separate editions were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A -large party pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in -some essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a -single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous, vehemently -accused him of having corrupted the purity of the English tongue. The -best critics admitted that his diction was too monotonous, too obviously -artificial, and now and then turgid even to absurdity. But they did -justice to the acuteness of his observations on morals and manners, to -the constant precision and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the -weighty and magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the -solemn yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers. - -The last _Rambler_ was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs Johnson had -been given over by the physicians. Three days later she died. She left -her husband almost broken-hearted. Many people had been surprised to see -a man of his genius and learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying -himself almost every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, -affected old woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but -little gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her. He -had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughter. Her opinion of -his writings was more important to him than the voice of the pit of -Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the _Monthly Review_. The chief -support which had sustained him through the most arduous labour of his -life was the hope that she would enjoy the fame and the profit which he -anticipated from his _Dictionary_. She was gone; and in that vast -labyrinth of streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he -was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as he expressed -it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious years, the _Dictionary_ -was at length complete. - -It had been generally supposed that this great work would be dedicated -to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom the prospectus had -been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew the value of such a -compliment; and therefore, when the day of publication drew near, he -exerted himself to soothe, by a show of zealous and at the same time of -delicate and judicious kindness, the pride which he had so cruelly -wounded. Since the _Rambler_ had ceased to appear, the town had been -entertained by a journal called the _World_, to which many men of high -rank and fashion contributed. In two successive numbers of the _World_, -the _Dictionary_ was, to use the modern phrase, puffed with wonderful -skill. The writings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was proposed that -he should be invested with the authority of a dictator, nay, of a pope, -over our language, and that his decisions about the meaning and the -spelling of words should be received as final. His two folios, it was -said, would of course be bought by everybody who could afford to buy -them. It was soon known that these papers were written by Chesterfield. -But the just resentment of Johnson was not to be so appeased. In a -letter written with singular energy and dignity of thought and language, -he repelled the tardy advances of his patron. The _Dictionary_ came -forth without a dedication. In the Preface the author truly declared -that he owed nothing to the great, and described the difficulties with -which he had been left to struggle so forcibly and pathetically that the -ablest and most malevolent of all the enemies of his fame, Horne Tooke, -never could read that passage without tears. - -Johnson's _Dictionary_ was hailed with an enthusiasm such as no similar -work has ever excited. It was indeed the first dictionary which could be -read with pleasure. The definitions show so much acuteness of thought -and command of language, and the passages quoted from poets, divines and -philosophers are so skilfully selected, that a leisure hour may always -be very agreeably spent in turning over the pages. The faults of the -book resolve themselves, for the most part, into one great fault. -Johnson was a wretched etymologist. He knew little or nothing of any -Teutonic language except English, which indeed, as he wrote it, was -scarcely a Teutonic language; and thus he was absolutely at the mercy of -Junius and Skinner. - -The _Dictionary_, though it raised Johnson's fame, added nothing to his -pecuniary means. The fifteen hundred guineas which the booksellers had -agreed to pay him had been advanced and spent before the last sheets -issued from the press. It is painful to relate that twice in the course -of the year which followed the publication of this great work he was -arrested and carried to sponging-houses, and that he was twice indebted -for his liberty to his excellent friend Richardson. It was still -necessary for the man who had been formerly saluted by the highest -authority as dictator of the English language to supply his wants by -constant toil. He abridged his _Dictionary_. He proposed to bring out an -edition of Shakespeare by subscription, and many subscribers sent in -their names and laid down their money; but he soon found the task so -little to his taste that he turned to more attractive employments. He -contributed many papers to a new monthly journal, which was called the -_Literary Magazine_. Few of these papers have much interest; but among -them was one of the best things that he ever wrote, a masterpiece both -of reasoning and of satirical pleasantry, the review of Jenyns' _Inquiry -into the Nature and Origin of Evil_. - -In the spring of 1758 Johnson put forth the first of a series of essays, -entitled the _Idler_. During two years these essays continued to appear -weekly. They were eagerly read, widely circulated, and indeed impudently -pirated, while they were still in the original form, and had a large -sale when collected into volumes. The _Idler_ may be described as a -second part of the _Rambler_, somewhat livelier and somewhat weaker than -the first part. - -While Johnson was busied with his _Idlers_, his mother, who had -accomplished her ninetieth year, died at Lichfield. It was long since he -had seen her, but he had not failed to contribute largely out of his -small means to her comfort. In order to defray the charges of her -funeral, and to pay some debts which she had left, he wrote a little -book in a single week, and sent off the sheets to the press without -reading them over. A hundred pounds were paid him for the copyright, and -the purchasers had great cause to be pleased with their bargain, for the -book was _Rasselas_, and it had a great success. - -The plan of _Rasselas_ might, however, have seemed to invite severe -criticism. Johnson has frequently blamed Shakespeare for neglecting the -proprieties of time and place, and for ascribing to one age or nation -the manners and opinions of another. Yet Shakespeare has not sinned in -this way more grievously than Johnson. Rasselas and Imlac, Nekayah and -Pekuah, are evidently meant to be Abyssinians of the 18th century; for -the Europe which Imlac describes is the Europe of the 18th century, and -the inmates of the Happy Valley talk familiarly of that law of -gravitation which Newton discovered and which was not fully received -even at Cambridge till the 18th century. Johnson, not content with -turning filthy savages, ignorant of their letters, and gorged with raw -steaks cut from living cows, into philosophers as eloquent and -enlightened as himself or his friend Burke, and into ladies as highly -accomplished as Mrs Lennox or Mrs Sheridan, transferred the whole -domestic system of England to Egypt. Into a land of harems, a land of -polygamy, a land where women are married without ever being seen, he -introduced the flirtations and jealousies of our ball-rooms. In a land -where there is boundless liberty of divorce, wedlock is described as the -indissoluble compact. "A youth and maiden meeting by chance, or brought -together by artifice, exchange glances, reciprocate civilities, go home, -and dream of each other. Such," says Rasselas, "is the common process of -marriage." A writer who was guilty of such improprieties had little -right to blame the poet who made Hector quote Aristotle, and represented -Julio Romano as flourishing in the days of the Oracle of Delphi. - -By such exertions as have been described Johnson supported himself till -the year 1762. In that year a great change in his circumstances took -place. He had from a child been an enemy of the reigning dynasty. His -Jacobite prejudices had been exhibited with little disguise both in his -works and in his conversation. Even in his massy and elaborate -_Dictionary_ he had, with a strange want of taste and judgment, inserted -bitter and contumelious reflexions on the Whig party. The excise, which -was a favourite resource of Whig financiers, he had designated as a -hateful tax. He had railed against the commissioners of excise in -language so coarse that they had seriously thought of prosecuting him. -He had with difficulty been prevented from holding up the lord privy -seal by name as an example of the meaning of the word "renegade." A -pension he had defined as pay given to a state hireling to betray his -country; a pensioner as a slave of state hired by a stipend to obey a -master. It seemed unlikely that the author of these definitions would -himself be pensioned. But that was a time of wonders. George III. had -ascended the throne, and had, in the course of a few months, disgusted -many of the old friends, and conciliated many of the old enemies of his -house. The city was becoming mutinous; Oxford was becoming loyal. -Cavendishes and Bentincks were murmuring; Somersets and Wyndhams were -hastening to kiss hands. The head of the treasury was now Lord Bute, who -was a Tory, and could have no objection to Johnson's Toryism. Bute -wished to be thought a patron of men of letters; and Johnson was one of -the most eminent and one of the most needy men of letters in Europe. A -pension of three hundred a year was graciously offered, and with very -little hesitation accepted. - -This event produced a change in Johnson's whole way of life. For the -first time since his boyhood he no longer felt the daily goad urging him -to the daily toil. He was at liberty, after thirty years of anxiety and -drudgery, to indulge his constitutional indolence, to lie in bed till -two in the afternoon, and to sit up talking till four in the morning, -without fearing either the printer's devil or the sheriff's officer. - -One laborious task indeed he had bound himself to perform. He had -received large subscriptions for his promised edition of Shakespeare; he -had lived on those subscriptions during some years; and he could not -without disgrace omit to perform his part of the contract. His friends -repeatedly exhorted him to make an effort, and he repeatedly resolved to -do so. But, notwithstanding their exhortations and his resolutions, -month followed month, year followed year, and nothing was done. He -prayed fervently against his idleness; he determined, as often as he -received the sacrament, that he would no longer doze away and trifle -away his time; but the spell under which he lay resisted prayer and -sacrament. Happily for his honour, the charm which held him captive was -at length broken by no gentle or friendly hand. He had been weak enough -to pay serious attention to a story about a ghost which haunted a house -in Cock Lane, and had actually gone himself, with some of his friends, -at one in the morning, to St John's Church, Clerkenwell, in the hope of -receiving a communication from the perturbed spirit. But the spirit, -though adjured with all solemnity, remained obstinately silent; and it -soon appeared that a naughty girl of eleven had been amusing herself by -making fools of so many philosophers. Churchill, who, confident in his -powers, drunk with popularity, and burning with party spirit, was -looking for some man of established fame and Tory politics to insult, -celebrated the Cock Lane ghost in three cantos, nicknamed Johnson -Pomposo, asked where the book was which had been so long promised and so -liberally paid for, and directly accused the great moralist of cheating. -This terrible word proved effectual, and in October 1765 appeared, after -a delay of nine years, the new edition of Shakespeare. - -This publication saved Johnson's character for honesty, but added -nothing to the fame of his abilities and learning. The Preface, though -it contains some good passages, is not in his best manner. The most -valuable notes are those in which he had an opportunity of showing how -attentively he had during many years observed human life and human -nature. The best specimen is the note on the character of Polonius. -Nothing so good is to be found even in Wilhelm Meister's admirable -examination of _Hamlet_. But here praise must end. It would be difficult -to name a more slovenly, a more worthless edition of any great -classic.[1] Johnson had, in his prospectus, told the world that he was -peculiarly fitted for the task which he had undertaken, because he had, -as a lexicographer, been under the necessity of taking a wider view of -the English language than any of his predecessors. But, unfortunately, -he had altogether neglected that very part of our literature with which -it is especially desirable that an editor of Shakespeare should be -conversant. In the two folio volumes of the _English Dictionary_ there -is not a single passage quoted from any dramatist of the Elizabethan age -except Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Even from Ben the quotations are few. -Johnson might easily in a few months have made himself well acquainted -with every old play that was extant. But it never seems to have occurred -to him that this was a necessary preparation for the work which he had -undertaken. He would doubtless have admitted that it would be the height -of absurdity in a man who was not familiar with the works of Aeschylus -and Euripides to publish an edition of Sophocles. Yet he ventured to -publish an edition of Shakespeare, without having ever in his life, as -far as can be discovered, read a single scene of Massinger, Ford, -Dekker, Webster, Marlow, Beaumont or Fletcher. His detractors were noisy -and scurrilous. He had, however, acquitted himself of a debt which had -long lain heavy on his conscience and he sank back into the repose from -which the sting of satire had roused him. He long continued to live upon -the fame which he had already won. He was honoured by the university of -Oxford with a doctor's degree, by the Royal Academy with a -professorship, and by the king with an interview, in which his majesty -most graciously expressed a hope that so excellent a writer would not -cease to write. In the interval between 1765 and 1775 Johnson published -only two or three political tracts. - -But, though his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The influence -exercised by his conversation, directly upon those with whom he lived, -and indirectly on the whole literary world, was altogether without a -parallel. His colloquial talents were indeed of the highest order. He -had strong sense, quick discernment, wit, humour, immense knowledge of -literature and of life, and an infinite store of curious anecdotes. As -respected style, he spoke far better than he wrote. Every sentence which -dropped from his lips was as correct in structure as the most nicely -balanced period of the _Rambler_. But in his talk there were no pompous -triads, and little more than a fair proportion of words in -_osity_ and --_ation_. All was simplicity, ease and vigour. He uttered his short, -weighty, and pointed sentences with a power of voice, and a justness and -energy of emphasis, of which the effect was rather increased than -diminished by the rollings of his huge form, and by the asthmatic -gaspings and puffings in which the peals of his eloquence generally -ended. Nor did the laziness which made him unwilling to sit down to his -desk prevent him from giving instruction or entertainment orally. To -discuss questions of taste, of learning, of casuistry, in language so -exact and so forcible that it might have been printed without the -alteration of a word, was to him no exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, -as he said, to fold his legs and have his talk out. He was ready to -bestow the overflowings of his full mind on anybody who would start a -subject: on a fellow-passenger in a stage coach, or on the person who -sat at the same table with him in an eating-house. But his conversation -was nowhere so brilliant and striking as when he was surrounded by a few -friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled them, as he once -expressed it, to send him back every ball that he threw. Some of these, -in 1764, formed themselves into a club, which gradually became a -formidable power in the commonwealth of letters. The verdicts pronounced -by this conclave on new books were speedily known over all London, and -were sufficient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the -sheets to the service of the trunkmaker and the pastrycook. Goldsmith -was the representative of poetry and light literature, Reynolds of the -arts, Burke of political eloquence and political philosophy. There, too, -were Gibbon the greatest historian and Sir William Jones the greatest -linguist of the age. Garrick brought to the meetings his inexhaustible -pleasantry, his incomparable mimicry, and his consummate knowledge of -stage effect. Among the most constant attendants were two high-born and -high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together by friendship, but of widely -different characters and habits--Bennet Langton, distinguished by his -skill in Greek literature, by the orthodoxy of his opinions, and by the -sanctity of his life, and Topham Beauclerk, renowned for his amours, his -knowledge of the gay world, his fastidious taste and his sarcastic wit. - -Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whom it has owed -the greater part of its celebrity, yet who was regarded with little -respect by his brethren, and had not without difficulty obtained a seat -among them. This was James Boswell (q.v.), a young Scots lawyer, heir to -an honourable name and a fair estate. That he was a coxcomb and a bore, -weak, vain, pushing, curious, garrulous, was obvious to all who were -acquainted with him. - -To a man of Johnson's strong understanding and irritable temper, the -silly egotism and adulation of Boswell must have been as teasing as the -constant buzz of a fly. Johnson hated to be questioned; and Boswell was -eternally catechizing him on all kinds of subjects, and sometimes -propounded such questions as, "What would you do, sir, if you were -locked up in a tower with a baby?" Johnson was a water-drinker and -Boswell was a wine-bibber, and indeed little better than an habitual -sot. It was impossible that there should be perfect harmony between two -such companions. Indeed, the great man was sometimes provoked into fits -of passion, in which he said things which the small man, during a few -hours, seriously resented. Every quarrel, however, was soon made up. -During twenty years the disciple continued to worship the master; the -master continued to scold the disciple, to sneer at him, and to love -him. The two friends ordinarily resided at a great distance from each -other. Boswell practised in the Parliament House of Edinburgh, and could -pay only occasional visits to London. During those visits his chief -business was to watch Johnson, to discover all Johnson's habits, to turn -the conversation to subjects about which Johnson was likely to say -something remarkable, and to fill quarto notebooks with minutes of what -Johnson had said. In this way were gathered the materials out of which -was afterwards constructed the most interesting biographical work in the -world. - -Soon after the club began to exist, Johnson formed a connexion less -important indeed to his fame, but much more important to his happiness, -than his connexion with Boswell. Henry Thrale, one of the most opulent -brewers in the kingdom, a man of sound and cultivated understanding, -rigid principles, and liberal spirit, was married to one of those -clever, kind-hearted, engaging, vain, pert young women who are -perpetually doing or saying what is not exactly right, but who, do or -say what they may, are always agreeable. In 1765 the Thrales became -acquainted with Johnson, and the acquaintance ripened fast into -friendship. They were astonished and delighted by the brilliancy of his -conversation. They were flattered by finding that a man so widely -celebrated preferred their house to any other in London. Johnson soon -had an apartment at the brewery in Southwark, and a still more pleasant -apartment at the villa of his friends on Streatham Common. A large part -of every year he passed in those abodes, which must have seemed -magnificent and luxurious indeed, when compared with the dens in which -he had generally been lodged. But his chief pleasures were derived from -what the astronomer of his Abyssinian tale called "the endearing -elegance of female friendship." Mrs Thrale rallied him, soothed him, -coaxed him, and if she sometimes provoked him by her flippancy, made -ample amends by listening to his reproofs with angelic sweetness of -temper. When he was diseased in body and in mind, she was the most -tender of nurses. No comfort that wealth could purchase, no contrivance -that womanly ingenuity, set to work by womanly compassion, could devise, -was wanting to his sick room. It would seem that a full half of -Johnson's life during about sixteen years was passed under the roof of -the Thrales. He accompanied the family sometimes to Bath, and sometimes -to Brighton, once to Wales and once to Paris. But he had at the same -time a house in one of the narrow and gloomy courts on the north of -Fleet Street. In the garrets was his library, a large and miscellaneous -collection of books, falling to pieces and begrimed with dust. On a -lower floor he sometimes, but very rarely, regaled a friend with a plain -dinner--a veal pie, or a leg of lamb and spinach, and a rice pudding. -Nor was the dwelling uninhabited during his long absences. It was the -home of the most extraordinary assemblage of inmates that ever was -brought together. At the head of the establishment Johnson had placed an -old lady named Williams, whose chief recommendations were her blindness -and her poverty. But, in spite of her murmurs and reproaches, he gave an -asylum to another lady who was as poor as herself, Mrs Desmoulins, whose -family he had known many years before in Staffordshire. Room was found -for the daughter of Mrs Desmoulins, and for another destitute damsel, -who was generally addressed as Miss Carmichael, but whom her generous -host called Polly. An old quack doctor named Levett, who had a wide -practice, but among the very poorest class, poured out Johnson's tea in -the morning and completed this strange menagerie. All these poor -creatures were at constant war with each other, and with Johnson's negro -servant Frank. Sometimes, indeed, they transferred their hostilities -from the servant to the master, complained that a better table was not -kept for them, and railed or maundered till their benefactor was glad to -make his escape to Streatham or to the Mitre Tavern. And yet he, who was -generally the haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who was but too -prompt to resent anything which looked like a slight on the part of a -purse-proud bookseller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore -patiently from mendicants, who, but for his bounty, must have gone to -the workhouse, insults more provoking than those for which he had -knocked down Osborne and bidden defiance to Chesterfield. Year after -year Mrs Williams and Mrs Desmoulins, Polly and Levett, continued to -torment him and to live upon him. - -The course of life which has been described was interrupted in Johnson's -sixty-fourth year by an important event. He had early read an account of -the Hebrides, and had been much interested by learning that there was so -near him a land peopled by a race which was still as rude and simple as -in the Middle Ages. A wish to become intimately acquainted with a state -of society so utterly unlike all that he had ever seen frequently -crossed his mind. But it is not probable that his curiosity would have -overcome his habitual sluggishness, and his love of the smoke, the mud, -and the cries of London, had not Boswell importuned him to attempt the -adventure, and offered to be his squire. At length, in August 1773, -Johnson crossed the Highland line, and plunged courageously into what -was then considered, by most Englishmen, as a dreary and perilous -wilderness. After wandering about two months through the Celtic region, -sometimes in rude boats which did not protect him from the rain, and -sometimes on small shaggy ponies which could hardly bear his weight, he -returned to his old haunts with a mind full of new images and new -theories. During the following year he employed himself in recording his -adventures. About the beginning of 1775 his _Journey to the Hebrides_ -was published, and was, during some weeks, the chief subject of -conversation in all circles in which any attention was paid to -literature. His prejudice against the Scots had at length become little -more than matter of jest; and whatever remained of the old feeling had -been effectually removed by the kind and respectful hospitality with -which he had been received in every part of Scotland. It was, of course, -not to be expected that an Oxonian Tory should praise the Presbyterian -polity and ritual, or that an eye accustomed to the hedgerows and parks -of England should not be struck by the bareness of Berwickshire and East -Lothian. But even in censure Johnson's tone is not unfriendly. The most -enlightened Scotsmen, with Lord Mansfield at their head, were well -pleased. But some foolish and ignorant Scotsmen were moved to anger by a -little unpalatable truth which was mingled with much eulogy, and -assailed him whom they chose to consider as the enemy of their country -with libels much more dishonourable to their country than anything that -he had ever said or written. They published paragraphs in the -newspapers, articles in the magazines, sixpenny pamphlets, five-shilling -books. One scribbler abused Johnson for being blear-eyed, another for -being a pensioner; a third informed the world that one of the doctor's -uncles had been convicted of felony in Scotland, and had found that -there was in that country one tree capable of supporting the weight of -an Englishman. Macpherson, whose _Fingal_ had been treated in the -_Journey_ as an impudent forgery, threatened to take vengeance with a -cane. The only effect of this threat was that Johnson reiterated the -charge of forgery in the most contemptuous terms, and walked about, -during some time, with a cudgel. - -Of other assailants Johnson took no notice whatever. He had early -resolved never to be drawn into controversy; and he adhered to his -resolution with a steadfastness which is the more extraordinary because -he was, both intellectually and morally, of the stuff of which -controversialists are made. In conversation he was a singularly eager, -acute and pertinacious disputant. When at a loss for good reasons, he -had recourse to sophistry; and when heated by altercation, he made -unsparing use of sarcasm and invective. But when he took his pen in his -hand, his whole character seemed to be changed. A hundred bad writers -misrepresented him and reviled him; but not one of the hundred could -boast of having been thought by him worthy of a refutation, or even of a -retort. One Scotsman, bent on vindicating the fame of Scots learning, -defied him to the combat in a detestable Latin hexameter:-- - - "Maxime, si tu vis, cupio contendere tecum." - -But Johnson took no notice of the challenge. He always maintained that -fame was a shuttlecock which could be kept up only by being beaten back -as well as beaten forward, and which would soon fall if there were only -one battledore. No saying was oftener in his mouth than that fine -apophthegm of Bentley, that no man was ever written down but by himself. - -Unhappily, a few months after the appearance of the _Journey to the -Hebrides_, Johnson did what none of his envious assailants could have -done, and to a certain extent succeeded in writing himself down. The -disputes between England and her American colonies had reached a point -at which no amicable adjustment was possible. War was evidently -impending; and the ministers seem to have thought that the eloquence of -Johnson might with advantage be employed to inflame the nation against -the opposition at home, and against the rebels beyond the Atlantic. He -had already written two or three tracts in defence of the foreign and -domestic policy of the government; and those tracts, though hardly -worthy of him, were much superior to the crowd of pamphlets which lay on -the counters of Almon and Stockdale. But his _Taxation no Tyranny_ was a -pitiable failure. Even Boswell was forced to own that in this -unfortunate piece he could detect no trace of his master's powers. The -general opinion was that the strong faculties which had produced the -_Dictionary_ and the _Rambler_ were beginning to feel the effect of time -and of disease, and that the old man would best consult his credit by -writing no more. But this was a great mistake. Johnson had failed, not -because his mind was less vigorous than when he wrote _Rasselas_ in the -evenings of a week, but because he had foolishly chosen, or suffered -others to choose for him, a subject such as he would at no time have -been competent to treat. He was in no sense a statesman. He never -willingly read or thought or talked about affairs of state. He loved -biography, literary history, the history of manners; but political -history was positively distasteful to him. The question at issue between -the colonies and the mother country was a question about which he had -really nothing to say. Happily, Johnson soon had an opportunity of -proving most signally that his failure was not to be ascribed to -intellectual decay. - -On Easter Eve 1777 some persons, deputed by a meeting which consisted of -forty of the first booksellers in London, called upon him. Though he had -some scruples about doing business at that season, he received his -visitors with much civility. They came to inform him that a new edition -of the English poets, from Cowley downwards, was in contemplation, and -to ask him to furnish short biographical prefaces. He readily undertook -the task for which he was pre-eminently qualified. His knowledge of the -literary history of England since the Restoration was unrivalled. That -knowledge he had derived partly from books, and partly from sources -which had long been closed: from old Grub Street traditions; from the -talk of forgotten poetasters and pamphleteers, who had long been lying -in parish vaults; from the recollections of such men as Gilbert -Walmesley, who had conversed with the wits of Button, Cibber, who had -mutilated the plays of two generations of dramatists, Orrery, who had -been admitted to the society of Swift and Savage, who had rendered -services of no very honourable kind to Pope. The biographer therefore -sat down to his task with a mind full of matter. He had at first -intended to give only a paragraph to every minor poet, and only four or -five pages to the greatest name. But the flood of anecdote and criticism -overflowed the narrow channel. The work, which was originally meant to -consist only of a few sheets, swelled into ten volumes--small volumes, -it is true, and not closely printed. The first four appeared in 1779, -the remaining six in 1781. - -The _Lives of the Poets_ are, on the whole, the best of Johnson's works. -The narratives are as entertaining as any novel. The remarks on life and -on human nature are eminently shrewd and profound. The criticisms are -often excellent, and, even when grossly and provokingly unjust, well -deserve to be studied. _Savage's Life_ Johnson reprinted nearly as it -had appeared in 1744. Whoever, after reading that life, will turn to the -other lives will be struck by the difference of style. Since Johnson had -been at ease in his circumstances he had written little and had talked -much. When therefore he, after the lapse of years, resumed his pen, the -mannerism which he had contracted while he was in the constant habit of -elaborate composition was less perceptible than formerly, and his -diction frequently had a colloquial ease which it had formerly wanted. -The improvement may be discerned by a skilful critic in the _Journey to -the Hebrides_, and in the _Lives of the Poets_ is so obvious that it -cannot escape the notice of the most careless reader. Among the _Lives_ -the best are perhaps those of Cowley, Dryden and Pope. The very worst -is, beyond all doubt, that of Gray; the most controverted that of -Milton. - -This great work at once became popular. There was, indeed, much just and -much unjust censure; but even those who were loudest in blame were -attracted by the book in spite of themselves. Malone computed the gains -of the publishers at five or six thousand pounds. But the writer was -very poorly remunerated. Intending at first to write very short -prefaces, he had stipulated for only two hundred guineas. The -booksellers, when they saw how far his performance had surpassed his -promise, added only another hundred. Indeed Johnson, though he did not -despise or affect to despise money, and though his strong sense and long -experience ought to have qualified him to protect his own interests, -seems to have been singularly unskilful and unlucky in his literary -bargains. He was generally reputed the first English writer of his time. -Yet several writers of his time sold their copyrights for sums such as -he never ventured to ask. To give a single instance, Robertson received -L4500 for the _History of Charles V._ - -Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities of age were -coming fast upon him. That inevitable event of which he never thought -without horror was brought near to him; and his whole life was darkened -by the shadow of death. The strange dependants to whom he had given -shelter, and to whom, in spite of their faults, he was strongly attached -by habit, dropped off one by one; and, in the silence of his home, he -regretted even the noise of their scolding matches. The kind and -generous Thrale was no more; and it was soon plain that the old -Streatham intimacy could not be maintained upon the same footing. Mrs -Thrale herself confessed that without her husband's assistance she did -not feel able to entertain Johnson as a constant inmate of her house. -Free from the yoke of the brewer, she fell in love with a music master, -high in his profession, from Brescia, named Gabriel Piozzi, in whom -nobody but herself could discover anything to admire. The secret of this -attachment was soon discovered by Fanny Burney, but Johnson at most only -suspected it. - -In September 1782 the place at Streatham was from motives of economy let -to Lord Shelburne, and Mrs Thrale took a house at Brighton, whither -Johnson accompanied her; they remained for six weeks on the old familiar -footing. In March 1783 Boswell was glad to discover Johnson well looked -after and staying with Mrs Thrale in Argyll Street, but in a bad state -of health. Impatience of Johnson's criticisms and infirmities had been -steadily growing with Mrs Thrale since 1774. She now went to Bath with -her daughters, partly to escape his supervision. Johnson was very ill in -his lodgings during the summer, but he still corresponded affectionately -with his "mistress" and received many favours from her. He retained the -full use of his senses during the paralytic attack, and in July he was -sufficiently recovered to renew his old club life and to meditate -further journeys. In June 1784 he went with Boswell to Oxford for the -last time. In September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health -was rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary regime. His asthma -tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms made their -appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured terms against the -re-marriage of his old friend Mrs Thrale, the news of which he heard -this summer. The whole dispute seems, to-day, entirely uncalled-for, but -the marriage aroused some of Johnson's strongest prejudices. He wrote -inconsiderately on the subject, but we must remember that he was at the -time afflicted in body and mentally haunted by dread of impending -change. Throughout all his troubles he had clung vehemently to life. The -feeling described in that fine but gloomy paper which closes the series -of his _Idlers_ seemed to grow stronger in him as his last hour drew -near. He fancied that he should be able to draw his breath more easily -in a southern climate, and would probably have set out for Rome and -Naples but for his fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, -indeed, he had the means of defraying; for he had laid up about two -thousand pounds, the fruit of labours which had made the fortune of -several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in upon this hoard, -and he seems to have wished even to keep its existence a secret. Some of -his friends hoped that the Government might be induced to increase his -pension to six hundred pounds a year, but this hope was disappointed, -and he resolved to stand one English winter more. - -That winter was his last. His legs grew weaker; his breath grew shorter; -the fatal water gathered fast, in spite of incisions which he, -courageous against pain but timid against death, urged his surgeons to -make deeper and deeper. Though the tender care which had mitigated his -sufferings during months of sickness at Streatham was withdrawn, and -though Boswell was absent, he was not left desolate. The ablest -physicians and surgeons attended him, and refused to accept fees from -him. Burke parted from him with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the -sick-room. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cherished with fatherly -kindness, stood weeping at the door; while Langton, whose piety -eminently qualified him to be an adviser and comforter at such a time, -received the last pressure of his friend's hand within. When at length -the moment, dreaded through so many years, came close, the dark cloud -passed away from Johnson's mind. Windham's servant, who sat up with him -during his last night, declared that "no man could appear more -collected, more devout or less terrified at the thoughts of the -approaching minute." At hour intervals, often of much pain, he was moved -in bed and addressed himself vehemently to prayer. In the morning he was -still able to give his blessing, but in the afternoon he became drowsy, -and at a quarter past seven in the evening on the 13th of December 1784, -in his seventy-sixth year, he passed away. He was laid, a week later, in -Westminster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had been the -historian--Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Congreve, Gay, Prior and -Addison. (M.) - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The splendid example of his style which Macaulay - contributed in the article on Johnson to the 8th edition of this - encyclopaedia has become classic, and has therefore been retained - above with a few trifling modifications in those places in which his - invincible love of the picturesque has drawn him demonstrably aside - from the dull line of veracity. Macaulay, it must be noted, - exaggerated persistently the poverty of Johnson's pedigree, the - squalor of his early married life, the grotesqueness of his entourage - in Fleet Street, the decline and fall from complete virtue of Mrs - Thrale, the novelty and success of the _Dictionary_, the complete - failure of the Shakespeare and the political tracts. Yet this - contribution is far more mellow than the article contributed on - Johnson twenty-five years before to the _Edinburgh Review_ in - correction of Croker. Matthew Arnold, who edited six selected _Lives_ - of the poets, regarded it as one of Macaulay's happiest and ripest - efforts. It was written out of friendship for Adam Black, and "payment - was not so much as mentioned." The big reviews, especially the - quarterlies, have always been the natural home of Johnsonian study. - Sir Walter Scott, Croker, Hayward, Macaulay, Thomas Carlyle (whose - famous Fraser article was reprinted in 1853) and Whitwell Elwin have - done as much as anybody perhaps to sustain the zest for Johnsonian - studies. Macaulay's prediction that the interest in the man would - supersede that in his "Works" seemed and seems likely enough to - justify itself; but his theory that the man alone mattered and that a - portrait painted by the hand of an inspired idiot was a true measure - of the man has not worn better than the common run of literary - propositions. Johnson's prose is not extensively read. But the same is - true of nearly all the great prose masters of the 18th century. As in - the case of all great men, Johnson has suffered a good deal at the - hands of his imitators and admirers. His prose, though not nearly so - uniformly monotonous or polysyllabic as the parodists would have us - believe, was at one time greatly overpraised. From the "Life of - Savage" to the "Life of Pope" it developed a great deal, and in the - main improved. To the last he sacrificed expression rather too much to - style, and he was perhaps over conscious of the balanced epithet. But - he contributed both dignity and dialectical force to the prose - movement of his period. - - The best edition of his works is still the Oxford edition of 1825 in 9 - vols. At the present day, however, his periodical writings are - neglected, and all that can be said to excite interest are, first the - _Lives of the Poets_ (best edition by Birkbeck Hill and H. S. Scott, 3 - vols., 1905), and then the _Letters_, the _Prayers_ and _Meditations_, - and the _Poems_, to which may doubtfully be added the once idolized - _Rasselas_. The _Poems_ and _Rasselas_ have been reprinted times - without number. The others have been re-edited with scrupulous care - for the Oxford University Press by the pious diligence of that most - enthusiastic of all Johnsonians, Dr Birkbeck Hill. But the tendency at - the present day is undoubtedly to prize Johnson's personality and - sayings more than any of his works. These are preserved to us in a - body of biographical writing, the efficiency of which is unequalled in - the whole range of literature. The chief constituents are Johnson's - own _Letters_ and _Account of his Life from his Birth to his Eleventh - Year_ (1805), a fragment saved from papers burned in 1784 and not seen - by Boswell; the life by his old but not very sympathetic friend and - club-fellow, Sir John Hawkins (1787); Mrs Thrale-Piozzi's _Anecdotes_ - (1785) and _Letters_; the _Diary_ and _Letters_ of Fanny Burney - (D'Arblay) (1841); the shorter Lives of Arthur Murphy, T. Tyers, &c.; - far above all, of course, the unique Life by James Boswell, first - published in 1791, and subsequently encrusted with vast masses of - Johnsoniana in the successive editions of Malone, Croker, Napier, - Fitzgerald, Mowbray Morris (Globe), Birrell, Ingpen (copiously - illustrated) and Dr Birkbeck Hill (the most exhaustive). - - The sayings and Johnsoniana have been reprinted in very many and - various forms. Valuable work has been done in Johnsonian genealogy and - topography by Aleyn Lyell Reade in his _Johnsonian Gleanings_, &c., - and in the _Memorials of Old Staffordshire_ (ed. W. Beresford). The - most excellent short Lives are those by F. Grant (Eng. Writers) and - Sir Leslie Stephen (Eng. Men of Letters). Professor W. Raleigh's essay - (Stephen Lecture), Lord Rosebery's estimate (1909), and Sir Leslie - Stephen's article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, with - bibliography and list of portraits, should be consulted. Johnson's - "Club" ("The Club") still exists, and has contained ever since his - time a large proportion of the public celebrities of its day. A - "Johnson Club," which has included many Johnson scholars and has - published papers, was founded in 1885. Lichfield has taken an active - part in the commemoration of Johnson since 1887, when Johnson's - birthplace was secured as a municipal museum, and Lichfield was the - chief scene of the Bicentenary Celebrations of September 1909 (fully - described in A. M. Broadley's _Dr Johnson and Mrs Thrale_, 1909), - containing, together with new materials and portraits, an essay - dealing with Macaulay's treatment of the Johnson-Thrale episodes by T. - Seccombe). Statues both of Johnson and Boswell are in the market-place - at Lichfield. A statue was erected in St Paul's in 1825, and there are - commemorative tablets in Lichfield Cathedral, St Nicholas (Brighton), - Uttoxeter, St Clement Danes (London), Gwaynynog and elsewhere. - (T. Se.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This famous dictum of Macaulay, though endorsed by Lord Rosebery, - has been energetically rebutted by Professor W. Raleigh and others, - who recognize both sagacity and scholarship in Johnson's Preface and - Notes. Johnson's wide grasp of the discourse and knowledge of human - nature enable him in a hundred entangled passages to go straight to - the dramatist's meaning.--(T. Se.) - - - - -JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729), English merchant, was born in Liverpool -in November 1664. He succeeded his father in 1689 as bailiff and in 1695 -as mayor. From 1701 to 1723 he represented Liverpool in parliament, and -he was knighted by Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of -Liverpool from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he -obtained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle -where he planned the town market; while the construction of the first -floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St George's -churches were due in great measure to his efforts. He was interested in -the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130 Jacobite prisoners to the -American plantations. In 1723, having lost in speculation the fortune -which he had inherited from his father, he went himself to Virginia as -collector of customs on the Rappahannock river. He died in Jamaica in -1729. A Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him. - - - - -JOHNSON, THOMAS, English 18th-century wood-carver and furniture -designer. Of excellent repute as a craftsman and an artist in wood, his -original conceptions and his adaptations of other men's ideas were -remarkable for their extreme flamboyance, and for the merciless manner -in which he overloaded them with thin and meretricious ornament. Perhaps -his most inept design is that for a table in which a duck or goose is -displacing water that falls upon a mandarin, seated, with his head on -one side, upon the rail below. No local school of Italian rococo ever -produced more extravagant absurdities. His clocks bore scythes and -hour-glasses and flashing sunbeams, together with whirls and -convolutions and floriated adornments without end. On the other hand, he -occasionally produced a mirror frame or a mantelpiece which was simple -and dignified. The art of artistic plagiarism has never been so well -understood or so dexterously practised as by the 18th-century designers -of English furniture, and Johnson appears to have so far exceeded his -contemporaries that he must be called a barefaced thief. The three -leading "motives" of the time--Chinese, Gothic and Louis Quatorze--were -mixed up in his work in the most amazing manner; and he was exceedingly -fond of introducing human figures, animals, birds and fishes in highly -incongruous places. He appears to have defended his enormities on the -ground that "all men vary in opinion, and a fault in the eye of one may -be a beauty in that of another; 'tis a duty incumbent on an author to -endeavour at pleasing every taste." Johnson, who was in business at the -"Golden Boy" in Grafton Street, Westminster, published a folio volume of -_Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra, Ceilings, &c._ (1758); and _One -Hundred and Fifty New Designs_ (1761). - - - - -JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715-1774), British soldier and American pioneer, -was born in Smithtown, County Meath, Ireland, in 1715, the son of -Christopher Johnson, a country gentleman. As a boy he was educated for a -commercial career, but in 1738 he removed to America for the purpose of -managing a tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to -his uncle, Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703-1752). He established himself -on the south bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m. W. of Schenectady. -Before 1743 he removed to the north side of the river. The new -settlement prospered from the start, and a valuable trade was built up -with the Indians, over whom Johnson exercised an immense influence. The -Mohawks adopted him and elected him a sachem. In 1744 he was appointed -by Governor George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent of the affairs of -the Six Nations (Iroquois). In 1746 he was made commissary of the -province for Indian affairs, and was influential in enlisting and -equipping the Six Nations for participation in the warfare with French -Canada, two years later (1748) being placed in command of a line of -outposts on the New York frontier. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle put a -stop to offensive operations, which he had begun. In May 1750 by royal -appointment he became a member for life of the governor's council, and -in the same year he resigned the post of superintendent of Indian -affairs. In 1754 he was one of the New York delegates to the -inter-colonial convention at Albany, N.Y. In 1755 General Edward -Braddock, the commander of the British forces in America, commissioned -him major-general, in which capacity he directed the expedition against -Crown Point, and in September defeated the French and Indians under -Baron Ludwig A. Dieskau (1701-1767) at the battle of Lake George, where -he himself was wounded. For this success he received the thanks of -parliament, and was created a baronet (November 1755). From July 1756 -until his death he was "sole superintendent of the Six Nations and other -Northern Indians." He took part in General James Abercrombie's -disastrous campaign against Ticonderoga (1758), and in 1759 he was -second in command in General John Prideaux's expedition against Fort -Niagara, succeeding to the chief command on that officer's death, and -capturing the fort. In 1760 he was with General Jeffrey Amherst -(1717-1797) at the capture of Montreal. As a reward for his services the -king granted him a tract of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk -river. It was due to his influence that the Iroquois refused to join -Pontiac in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging the -treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. After the war Sir William retired to his -estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown, he built his -residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of an English baron. -He devoted himself to colonizing his extensive lands, and is said to -have been the first to introduce sheep and blood horses into the -province. He died at Johnstown, N.Y., on the 11th of July 1774. In 1739 -Johnson had married Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children. -After her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the -Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the famous chief -Joseph Brant. - -His son, SIR JOHN JOHNSON (1742-1830), who was knighted in 1765 and -succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death, took part in the -French and Indian War and in the border warfare during the War of -Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment known as the "Queen's Royal -Greens," which he led at the battle of Oriskany and in the raids (1778 -and 1780) on Cherry Valley and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of -the officers of the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the -engagement at Newtown (Elmira), N.Y., on the 29th of August 1779. He was -made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates had -been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where he held -from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-general of Indian -affairs for British North America. He received L45,000 from the British -government for his losses. - -Sir William's nephew, GUY JOHNSON (1740-1788), succeeded his uncle as -superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served in the French and -Indian War and, on the British side, in the War of Independence. - - See W. L. Stone, _Life of Sir William Johnson_ (2 vols., 1865); W. E. - Griffis, _Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations_ (1891) in "Makers - of America" series; Augustus C. Buell, _Sir William Johnson_ (1903) in - "Historic Lives Series"; and J. Watts De Peyster, "The Life of Sir - John Johnson, Bart.," in _The Orderly Book of Sir John Johnson during - the Oriskany Campaign_, 1776-1777, annotated by William L. Stone - (1882). - - - - -JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Confederate general in the -Civil War, was born at Washington, Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of -February 1803. He graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for -eight years in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and -staff officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1836 to -Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. His rise was -very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander-in-chief in -preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he fought a duel. From -1838 to 1840 he was Texan secretary for war, and in 1839 he led a -successful expedition against the Cherokee Indians. From 1840 to the -outbreak of the Mexican War he lived in retirement on his farm, but in -1846 he led a regiment of Texan volunteers in the field, and at -Monterey, as a staff officer, he had three horses shot under him. In -1849 he returned to the United States army as major and paymaster, and -in 1855 became colonel of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in -which his lieut.-colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee -and Thomas. In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the -Mormons, and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so -successfully that the objects of the expedition were attained without -bloodshed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general. At the -outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 Johnston, then in command of the -Pacific department, resigned his commission and made his way to -Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom he had known at West Point, -at once made him a full general in the Confederate army and assigned him -to command the department of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and -weak line from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was -dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of covering -friendly country. The first serious advance of the Federals forced him -back at once, and he was freely criticized and denounced for what, in -ignorance of the facts, the Southern press and people regarded as a weak -and irresolute defence. Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil -War with the reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side, -bore with fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, and Davis loyally -supported his old friend. Johnston then marched to join Beauregard at -Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took the offensive against -Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The battle of Shiloh (q.v.) took -place on the 6th and 7th of April, 1862. The Federals were completely -surprised, and Johnston was in the full tide of success when he fell -mortally wounded. He died a few minutes afterwards. President Davis -said, in his message to the Confederate Congress, "Without doing -injustice to the living, it may safely be said that our loss is -irreparable," and the subsequent history of the war in the west went far -to prove the truth of his eulogy. - -His son, WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON (1831-1899), who served on the staff -of General Johnston and subsequently on that of President Davis, was a -distinguished professor and president of Tulane University. His chief -work is the _Life of General Albert Sidney Johnston_ (1878), a most -valuable and exhaustive biography. - - - - -JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), American historian, was born in -Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He studied at the -Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at Rutgers College in 1870, -and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in New Brunswick, New Jersey, where -he taught in the Rutgers College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He -was principal of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1879-1883, -and was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the College -of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until his death in -Princeton, N.J., on the 21st of July 1889. He wrote _A History of -American Politics_ (1881); _The Genesis of a New England -State--Connecticut_ (1883), in "Johns Hopkins University Studies"; _A -History of the United States for Schools_ (1886); _Connecticut_ (1887) -in the "American Commonwealths Series"; the article on the history of -the United States for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, -reprinted as _The United Stales: Its History and Constitution_ (1887); a -chapter on the history of American political parties in the seventh -volume of Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History of America_, and many -articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of -Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the -United States_ (1881-1884). These last articles, which like his other -writings represent much original research and are excellent examples of -Johnston's rare talent for terse narrative and keen analysis and -interpretation of facts, were republished in two volumes entitled -_American Political History 1763-1876_ (1905-1906), edited by Professor -J. A. Woodburn. - - - - -JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish geographer, was born at -Kirkhill near Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1804. After an education -at the high school and the university of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to -an engraver; and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William -Johnston, lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving -business, the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston. -His interest in geography had early developed, and his first important -work was the _National Atlas_ of general geography, which gained for him -in 1843 the appointment of Geographer-Royal for Scotland. Johnston was -the first to bring the study of physical geography into competent notice -in England. His attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt; -and after years of labour he published his magnificent _Physical Atlas_ -in 1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. This, by -means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the geology, -hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the globe. -The rest of Johnston's life was devoted to geography, his later years to -its educational aspects especially. His services were recognized by the -leading scientific societies of Europe and America. He died at Ben -Rhydding, Yorkshire, on the 9th of July 1871. Johnston published a -_Dictionary of Geography_ in 1850, with many later editions; _The Royal -Atlas of Modern Geography_, begun in 1855; an atlas of military -geography to accompany Alison's _History of Europe_ in 1848 seq.; and a -variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific -purposes. His son of the same name (1844-1879) was also the author of -various geographical works and papers; in 1873-1875 he was geographer to -a commission for the survey of Paraguay; and he died in Africa while -leading the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to Lake Nyasa. - - - - -JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641), Scottish physician and writer of Latin -verse, was the son of an Aberdeenshire laird Johnston of Johnston and -Caskieben, and on his mother's side a grandson of the seventh Lord -Forbes. It is probable that he began his university studies at one, or -both, of the colleges at Aberdeen, but in 1608 he proceeded to Italy and -graduated M.D. at Padua in 1610. Thereafter he resided at Sedan, in the -company of the exiled Andrew Melville (q.v.), and in 1619 was in -practice in Paris. He appears to have returned to England about the time -of James I.'s death and to have been in Aberdeen about 1628. He met Laud -in Edinburgh at the time of Charles I.'s Scottish coronation (1633) and -was encouraged by him in his literary efforts, partly, it is said, for -the undoing of Buchanan's reputation as a Latin poet. He was appointed -rector of King's College, Aberdeen, in June 1637. Four years later he -died at Oxford, on his way to London, whither Laud had invited him. - - Johnston left more than ten works, all in Latin. On two of these, - published in the same year, his reputation entirely rests: (a) his - version of the Psalms (_Psalmorum Davidis paraphrasis poetica et - canticorum evangelicorum_, Aberdeen, 1637), and (b) his anthology of - contemporary Latin verse by Scottish poets (_Deliciae poetarum - scotorum hujus aevi illustrium_, Amsterdam, 1637). He had published in - 1633 a volume entitled _Cantici Salomonis paraphrasis poetica_, which, - dedicated to Charles I., had brought him to the notice of Laud. The - full version of the Psalms was the result of Laud's encouragement. The - book was for some time a strong rival of Buchanan's work, though its - good Latinity was not superior to that of the latter. The _Deliciae_, - in two small thick volumes of 699 and 575 pages, was a patriotic - effort in imitation of the various volumes (under a similar title) - which had been popular on the Continent during the second decade of - the century. The volumes are dedicated by Johnston to John Scot of - Scotstarvet, at whose expense the collected works were published after - Johnston's death, at Middelburg (1642). Selections from his own poems - occupy pages 439-647 of the first volume, divided into three sections, - _Parerga_, _Epigrammata_ and _Musae Aulicae_. He published a volume of - epigrams at Aberdeen in 1632. In these pieces he shows himself at his - best. His sacred poems, which had appeared in the _Opera_ (1642), were - reprinted by Lauder in his _Poetarum Scotorum musae sacrae_ (1739). - The earliest lives are by Lauder (_u.s._) and Benson (in _Psalmi - Davidici_, 1741). Ruddiman's _Vindication of Mr George Buchanan's - Paraphrase_ (1745) began a pamphlet controversy regarding the merits - of the rival poets. - - - - -JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- ), British administrator and -explorer, was born on the 12th of June 1858 at Kennington, London, and -educated at Stockwell grammar school and King's College, London. He was -a student for four years in the painting schools of the Royal Academy. -At the age of eighteen he began a series of travels in Europe and North -Africa, chiefly as a student of painting, architecture and languages. In -1879-1880 he visited the then little known interior of Tunisia. He had -also a strong bent towards zoology and comparative anatomy, and carried -on work of this description at the Royal College of Surgeons, of whose -Hunterian Collection he afterwards became one of the trustees. In 1882 -he joined the earl of Mayo in an expedition to the southern part of -Angola, a district then much traversed by Transvaal Boers. In 1883 -Johnston visited H. M. Stanley on the Congo, and was enabled by that -explorer to visit the river above Stanley Pool at a time when it was -scarcely known to other Europeans than Stanley and De Brazza. These -journeys attracted the attention of the Royal Geographical Society and -the British Association, and the last-named in concert with the Royal -Society conferred on Johnston the leadership of the scientific -expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro which started from Zanzibar in April -1884. Johnston's work in this region was also under the direction of Sir -John Kirk, British consul at Zanzibar. While in the Kilimanjaro district -Johnston concluded treaties with the chiefs of Moshi and Taveta -(Taveita). These treaties or concessions were transferred to the -merchants who founded the British East Africa Company, and in the final -agreement with Germany Taveta fell to Great Britain. In October 1885 -Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in Cameroon and in the Niger -delta, and he became in 1887 acting consul for that region. A British -protectorate over the Niger delta had been notified in June 1885, and -between the date of his appointment and 1888, together with the consul -E. H. Hewett, Johnston laid the foundations of the British -administration in that part of the delta not reserved for the Royal -Niger Company. His action in removing the turbulent chief Ja-ja (an -ex-slave who had risen to considerable power in the palm-oil trade) -occasioned considerable criticism but was approved by the Foreign -Office. It led to the complete pacification of a region long disturbed -by trade disputes. During these three years of residence in the Gulf of -Guinea Johnston ascended the Cameroon Mountain, and made large -collections of the flora and fauna of Cameroon for the British Museum. - -In the spring of 1889 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate an arrangement -for the delimitation of the British and Portuguese spheres of influence -in South-East Africa, but the scheme drawn up, though very like the -later arrangement of those regions, was not given effect to at the time. -On his return from Lisbon he was despatched to Mozambique as consul for -Portuguese East Africa, and was further charged with a mission to Lake -Nyasa to pacify that region, then in a disturbed state owing to the -attacks of slave-trading Arabs on the stations of the African Lakes -Trading Company--an unofficial war, in which Captain (afterwards Colonel -Sir Frederick) Lugard and Mr (afterwards Sir Alfred) Sharpe -distinguished themselves. Owing to the unexpected arrival on the scene -of Major Serpa Pinto, Johnston was compelled to declare a British -protectorate over the Nyasa region, being assisted in this work by John -Buchanan (vice-consul), Sir Alfred Sharpe, Alfred Swann and others. A -truce was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and within twelve -months the British flag, by agreement with the natives, had been hoisted -over a very large region which extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the -vicinity of Uganda, to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shire -Highlands and the central Zambezi. Johnston's scheme, in fact, was that -known as the "Cape-to-Cairo," a phrase which he had brought into use in -an article in _The Times_ in August 1888. According to his arrangement -there would have been an all-British route from Alexandria to Cape Town. -But by the Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 the British -sphere north of Tanganyika was abandoned to Germany, and the -Cape-to-Cairo route broken by a wedge of German territory. Johnston -returned to British Central Africa as commissioner and consul-general in -1891, and retained that post till 1896, in which year he was made a -K.C.B. His health having suffered much from African fever, he was -transferred to Tunis as consul-general (1897). In the autumn of 1899 Sir -Harry Johnston was despatched to Uganda as special commissioner to -reorganize the administration of that protectorate after the suppression -of the mutiny of the Sudanese soldiers and the long war with Unyoro. His -two years' work in Uganda and a portion of what is now British East -Africa were rewarded at the close of 1901 by a G.C.M.G. In the spring of -the following year he retired from the consular service. After 1904 he -interested himself greatly in the affairs of the Liberian republic, and -negotiated various arrangements with that negro state by which order was -brought into its finances, the frontier with France was delimited, and -the development of the interior by means of roads was commenced. In 1903 -he was defeated as Liberal candidate for parliament at a by-election at -Rochester. He met with no better success at West Marylebone at the -general election of 1906. - -For his services to zoology he was awarded the gold medal of the -Zoological Society in 1902, and in the same year was made an honorary -doctor of science at Cambridge. He received the gold medal of the Royal -Geographical and the Royal Scottish Geographical societies, and other -medals for his artistic work from South Kensington and the Society of -Arts. His pictures, chiefly dealing with African subjects, were -frequently exhibited at the Royal Academy. He was the author of numerous -books on Africa, including _British Central Africa_ (1897); _The -Colonization of Africa_ (1899); _The Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); -_Liberia_ (1906); _George Grenfell and the Congo_ (1908). During his -travels in the north-eastern part of the Congo Free State in 1900 he was -instrumental in discovering and naming the okapi, a mammal nearly allied -to the giraffe. His name has been connected with many other discoveries -in the African fauna and flora. - - - - -JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891), American Confederate general in -the Civil War, was born near Farmville, Prince Edward county, Virginia, -on the 3rd of February 1807. His father, Peter Johnston (1763-1841), a -Virginian of Scottish descent, served in the War of Independence, and -afterwards became a distinguished jurist; his mother was a niece of -Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point, in the same class with Robert -E. Lee, and was made brevet second lieutenant, 4th Artillery, in 1829. -He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole wars, and left the army in 1837 -to become a civil engineer, but a year afterwards he was reappointed to -the army as first lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, and breveted -captain for his conduct in the Seminole war. During the Mexican war he -was twice severely wounded in a reconnaissance at Cerro Gordo, 1847, was -engaged in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battles of Contreras, Churubusco, -and Molino del Rey, the storming of Chapultepec, and the assault on the -city of Mexico, and received three brevets for gallant and meritorious -service. From 1853 to 1855 he was employed on Western river -improvements, and in 1855 he became lieut.-colonel of the 1st U.S. -Cavalry. In 1860 he was made quartermaster-general, with the rank of -brigadier-general. In April 1861 he resigned from the United States army -and entered the Confederate service. He was commissioned major-general -of volunteers in the Army of Virginia, and assisted in organizing the -volunteers. He was later appointed a general officer of the Confederacy, -and assigned to the command of the Army of the Shenandoah, being opposed -by the Federal army under Patterson. When McDowell advanced upon the -Confederate forces under Beauregard at Manassas, Johnston moved from the -Shenandoah Valley with great rapidity to Beauregard's assistance. As -senior officer he took command on the field, and at Bull Run (Manassas) -(q.v.) won the first important Confederate victory. In August 1861 he -was made one of the five full generals of the Confederacy, remaining in -command of the main army in Virginia. He commanded in the battle of Fair -Oaks (May 31, 1862), and was so severely wounded as to be incapacitated -for several months. In March 1863, still troubled by his wound, he was -assigned to the command of the south-west, and in May was ordered to -take immediate command of all the Confederate forces in Mississippi, -then threatened by Grant's movement on Vicksburg. When Pemberton's army -was besieged in Vicksburg by Grant, Johnston used every effort to -relieve it, but his force was inadequate. Later in 1863, when the battle -of Chattanooga brought the Federals to the borders of Georgia, Johnston -was assigned to command the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the -early days of May 1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman -advanced against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign -between Sherman and Johnston see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (S 29). From the 9th -of May to the 17th of July there were skirmishes, actions and combats -almost daily. The great numerical superiority of the Federals enabled -Sherman to press back the Confederates without a pitched battle, but the -severity of the skirmishing may be judged from the casualties of the two -armies (Sherman's about 26,000 men, Johnston's over 10,000), and the -obstinate steadiness of Johnston by the fact that his opponent hardly -progressed more than one mile a day. But a Fabian policy is never -acceptable to an eager people, and when Johnston had been driven back to -Atlanta he was superseded by Hood with orders to fight a battle. The -wisdom of Johnston's plan was soon abundantly clear, and the Confederate -cause was already lost when Lee reinstated him on the 23rd of February -1865. With a handful of men he opposed Sherman's march through the -Carolinas, and at Bentonville, N.C., fought and almost won a most -gallant and skilful battle against heavy odds. But the Union troops -steadily advanced, growing in strength as they went, and a few days -after Lee's surrender at Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis -that it was in his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict, -and he was authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered into -between these generals, on the 18th of April, having been rejected by -the United States government, another agreement was signed on the 26th -of April, the new terms being similar to those of the surrender of Lee. -After the close of the war Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874 -he published a _Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War_. -In 1877 he was elected to represent the Richmond district of Virginia in -Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland U.S. -commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in early life to Louisa -(d. 1886), daughter of Louis M'Lane. He died at Washington, D.C., on the -21st of March 1891, leaving no children. - -It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige which so -much assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he possess the power of -enforcing his will on others in the same degree, but his methods were -exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and, if he showed himself less -daring than his comrades, he was unsurpassed in steadiness. The duel of -Sherman and Johnston is almost as personal a contest between two great -captains as were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To -Montecucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in the -incidents of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance. - - See Hughes, _General Johnston_, in "Great Commanders Series" (1893). - - - - -JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the Black Cart, -11 m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), -10,503. The leading industries include flax-spinning, cotton -manufactures (with the introduction of which in 1781 the prosperity of -the town began), paper-making, shoe-lace making, iron and brass -foundries and engineering works. There are also coal mines and oil works -in the vicinity. Elderslie, 1 m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir -William Wallace, but it is doubtful if "Wallace's Yew," though of great -age, and "Wallace's Oak," a fine old tree that perished in a storm in -1856, and the small castellated building (traditionally his house) which -preceded the present mansion in the west end of the village, existed in -his day. - - - - -JOHNSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Fulton county, New York, -U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the Mohawk river and about -48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890), 7768; (1900), 10,130 (1653 -foreign-born); (1905, state census), 9765; (1910) 10,447. It is served -by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line -to Schenectady. The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a -city hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building -is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William -Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just outside -the present St John's episcopal church. Originally the hall was flanked -by two stone forts, one of which is still standing. In 1907 the hall was -bought by the state and was placed in the custody of the Johnstown -Historical Society, which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson -established in 1766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United -States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm House and -the Fulton county court house, built by Sir William Johnson in 1763 and -1772 respectively, and the gaol (1772), at first used for all New York -west of Schenectady county, and during the War of Independence as a -civil and a military prison. The court house is said to be the oldest in -the United States. Three miles south of the city is the Butler House, -built in 1742 by Colonel John Butler (d. 1794), a prominent Tory leader -during the War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the -first in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William -Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 m. distant) the -principal glove-making centre in the United States, the product being -valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14.6% of the total value of this -industry in the United States. The manufacture of gloves in commercial -quantities was introduced into the United States and Johnstown in 1809 -by Talmadge Edwards, who was buried there in the colonial cemetery. The -value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a decrease of -11.3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about 1760 by a colony of Scots -brought to America by Sir William Johnson, within whose extensive grant -it was situated, and in whose honour, in 1771, it was named. A number of -important conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois -Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during the War -of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830) defeated here a -force of British and Indians, whose leader, Walter Butler, a son of -Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a participant in the Wyoming -massacres, was mortally wounded near West Canada creek during the -pursuit. Johnstown was incorporated as a village in 1808, and was -chartered as a city in 1895. - - - - -JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the -confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about 75 m. E. by S. -of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (1900), 35,936, of whom 7318 were -foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians, 1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians; -(1910 census) 55,482. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore -& Ohio railways. The city lies about 1170 ft. above the sea, on level -ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly enclosed -by high and precipitous hills. Among the public buildings and -institutions are the Cambria free library (containing about 14,000 -volumes in 1908), the city hall, a fine high school, and the Conemaugh -Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park, about 3 m. from the city, is -reached by electric lines. Coal, iron ore, fire clay and limestone -abound in the vicinity, and the city has large plants for the -manufacture of iron and steel. The total value of the factory product in -1905 was $28,891,806, an increase of 35.2% since 1900. A settlement was -established here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named, -and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incorporated -as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown flood. In -1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended to provide a -storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had been built across the -South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh river, 12 m. above the city, but -the Pennsylvania canal was subsequently abandoned, and in 1888 the dam -was bought and repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and -Conemaugh lake was formed. On the 31st of May 1889, during a heavy -rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water 20 ft. or more in height -at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of about 20 m. an hour, -almost completely destroying the city. The Pennsylvania railroad bridge -withstood the strain, and against it the flood piled up a mass of -wreckage many feet in height and several acres in area. On or in this -confused mass many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to -be burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and villages in -the valley were also swept away, and the total loss of lives was 2000 or -more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000 was raised, and the city was -quickly rebuilt. - - - - -JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling), an -independent Malayan state at the southern end of the peninsula, -stretching from 2 deg. 40' S. to Cape Romania (Ramunya), the most -southerly point on the mainland of Asia, and including all the small -islands adjacent to the coast which lie to the south of parallel 2 deg. -40' S. It is bounded N. by the protected native state of Pahang, N.W. by -the Negri Sembilan and the territory of Malacca, S. by the strait which -divides Singapore island from the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. -by the Straits of Malacca. The province of Muar was placed under the -administration of Johor by the British government as a temporary measure -in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions in 1910. The -coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest length from N.W. to S.E. -is 165 m., the greatest breadth from E. to W. 100 m. The area is -estimated at about 9000 sq. m. The principal rivers are the Muar, the -most important waterway in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up -which river the old capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which -marks the boundary with Pahang; and the Batu Pahat and Sedeli, of -comparative unimportance. Johor is less mountainous than any other state -in the peninsula. The highest peak is Gunong Ledang, called Mt Ophir by -Europeans, which measures some 4000 ft. in height. Like the rest of the -peninsula, Johor is covered from end to end by one vast spread of -forest, only broken here and there by clearings and settlements of -insignificant area. The capital is Johor Bharu (pop. about 20,000), -situated at the nearest point on the mainland to the island of -Singapore. The fine palace built by the sultan Abubakar is the principal -feature of the town. It is a kind of Oriental Monte Carlo, and is much -resorted to from Singapore. The capital of the province of Muar is -Bandar Maharani, named after the wife of the sultan before he had -assumed his final title. The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for -a country situated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of -Singapore. The shade temperature varies from 98.5 deg. F. to 68.2 deg. -F. The rainfall averages 97.28 in. per annum. No exact figures can be -obtained as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates place it -at about 200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000 Malays, 15,000 -Javanese. We are thus presented with the curious spectacle of a country -under Malay rule in which the Chinese outnumber the people of the land -by more than four to one. It is not possible to obtain any exact data on -the subject of the revenue and expenditure of the state. The revenue, -however, is probably about 750,000 dollars, and the expenditure under -public service is comparatively small. The revenue is chiefly derived -from the revenue farms for opium, spirits, gambling, &c., and from duty -on pepper and gambier exported by the Chinese. The cultivation of these -products forms the principal industry. Areca-nuts and copra are also -exported in some quantities, more especially from Muar. There is little -mineral wealth of proved value. - -_History._--It is claimed that the Mahommedan empire of Johor was -founded by the sultan of Malacca after his expulsion from his kingdom by -the Portuguese in 1511. It is certain that Johor took an active part, -only second to that of Achin, in the protracted war between the -Portuguese and the Dutch for the possession of Malacca. Later we find -Johor ruled by an officer of the sultan of Riouw (Riau), bearing the -title of Tumenggong, and owing feudal allegiance to his master in common -with the Bendahara of Pahang. In 1812, however, this officer seems to -have thrown off the control of Riouw, and to have assumed the title of -sultan, for one of his descendants, Sultan Husain, ceded the island of -Singapore to the East India Company in 1819. In 1855 the then sultan, -Ali, was deposed, and his principal chief, the Tumenggong, was given the -supreme rule by the British. His son Tumenggong Abubakar proved to be a -man of exceptional intelligence. He made numerous visits to Europe, took -considerable interest in the government and development of his country, -and was given by Queen Victoria the title of maharaja in 1879. On one of -his visits to England he was made the defendant in a suit for breach of -promise of marriage, but the plaintiff was non-suited, since it was -decided that no action lay against a foreign sovereign in the English -law courts. In 1885 he entered into a new agreement with the British -government, and was allowed to assume the title of sultan of the state -and territory of Johor. He was succeeded in 1895 by his son Sultan -Ibrahim. The government of Johor has been comparatively so free from -abuses under its native rulers that it has never been found necessary to -place it under the residential system in force in the other native -states of the peninsula which are under British control, and on several -occasions Abubakar used his influence with good effect on the side of -law and order. The close proximity of Johor to Singapore has constantly -subjected the rulers of the former state to the influence of European -public opinion. None the less, the Malay is by nature but ill fitted for -the drudgery which is necessary if proper attention is to be paid to the -dull details whereby government is rendered good and efficient. -Abubakar's principal adviser, the Dato 'Mentri, was a worthy servant of -his able master. Subsequently, however, the reins of government came -chiefly into the hands of a set of young men who lacked either -experience or the serious devotion to dull duties which is the -distinguishing mark of the English civil service. Muar, in imitation of -the British system, is ruled by a raja of the house of Johor, who bears -the title of resident. (H. Cl.) - - - - -JOIGNY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the -department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre by the -Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. It is situated on -the flank of the hill known as the Cote St Jacques on the right bank of -the Yonne. Its streets are steep and narrow, and old houses with carved -wooden facades are numerous. The church of St Jean (16th century), which -once stood within the _enceinte_ of the old castle, contains a -representation (15th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble. -Other interesting buildings are the church of St Andre (12th, 16th and -17th centuries), of which the best feature is the Renaissance portal -with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of St Thibault (16th century), -in which the stone crown suspended from the choir vaulting is chiefly -noticeable. The Porte du Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking -towers, is a relic of the 10th century castle; there is also a castle of -the 16th and 17th centuries, in part demolished. The hotel de ville -(18th century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the -sepulchral chapel of the Ferrands (16th century). The town is the seat -of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, -and a communal college for boys. It is industrially unimportant, but the -wine of the Cote St Jacques is much esteemed. - -Joigny (_Joviniacum_) was probably of Roman origin. In the 10th century -it became the seat of a countship dependent on that of Champagne, which -after passing through several hands came in the 18th century into the -possession of the family of Villeroi. A fragment of a ladder preserved -in the church of St Andre commemorates the successful resistance offered -by the town to the English in 1429. - - - - -JOINDER, in English law, a term used in several connexions. - -_Joinder of causes of action_ is the uniting in the same action several -causes of action. Save in actions for the recovery of land and in -actions by a trustee in bankruptcy a plaintiff may without leave join in -one action, not several actions, but several "causes of action." Claims -by or against husband and wife may be joined with claims by or against -either of them separately. Claims by or against an executor or -administrator as such may be joined with claims by or against him -personally, provided such claims are alleged to arise with reference to -the estate of which the plaintiff or defendant sues or is sued as -executor or administrator. Claims by plaintiffs jointly may be joined -with claims by them or any of them separately against the same -defendant. - -_Joinder in pleading_ is the joining by the parties on the point of -matter issuing out of the allegations and pleas of the plaintiff and the -defendant in a cause and the putting the cause upon trial. - -_Joinder of parties._--Where parties may jointly, severally or in the -alternative bring separate actions in respect of or arising out of the -same transaction or series of transactions they may, by Order XVI. of -the rules of the supreme court, be joined in one action as plaintiffs. - - - - -JOINERY, one of the useful arts which contribute to the comfort and -convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and carpentry are often -followed by the same individual, it appears natural to conclude that the -same principles are common to both, but a closer examination leads to a -different conclusion. The art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to -the support of weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be -sought in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the -rough timber work necessary for support, division or connexion, and its -proper object is to give firmness and stability. The art of joinery has -for its object the addition in a building of all the fixed woodwork -necessary for convenience or ornament. The joiner's works are in many -cases of a complicated nature, and often require to be executed in an -expensive material, therefore joinery requires much skill in that part -of geometrical science which treats of the projection and description of -lines, surfaces and solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the -structure and nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without -being a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being -competent, at least, to supervise all the operations required in -carpentry. The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree -unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is expected -from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the habit of neatness -and the great precision of the joiner make him a much slower workman -than the man practised in works of carpentry. In carpentry framing owes -its strength mainly to the form and position of its parts, but in -joinery the strength of a frame depends to a larger extent upon the -strength of the joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together -as accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable -that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so that he -shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials with firmness -and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance that the work when -thus put together shall be constructed of such sound and dry materials, -and on such principles, that the whole shall bear the various changes of -temperature and of moisture and dryness, so that the least possible -shrinkage or swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so -that, if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to -the work. - -In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most artless -manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern joinery appear in the -thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early Gothic cathedrals and -churches, but even in these it is indebted to the carver for everything -that is worthy of regard. With the revival of classic art, however, -great changes took place in every sort of construction. Forms began to -be introduced in architecture which could not be executed at a moderate -expense without the aid of new principles, and these principles were -discovered and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their -scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of these -principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often obscure, and -sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of small panels gave way to the -large bolection moulded panelling. Doors which were formerly heavily -framed and hung on massive posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now -framed in light panels and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The -scarcity of oak timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led -to the importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and this -gradually superseded all other material save for special work. - -_Tools and Materials._--The joiner operates with saws, planes, chisels, -gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instruments (aided and -directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares, hammers, wallets, floor -cramps and a great many other tools. His operations consist principally -of sawing and planing in all their varieties, and of setting out and -making joints of all kinds. There is likewise a great range of other -operations--such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting -and hanging--and many which depend on nailing and screwing, such as -laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls, bracketing, -cradling, firring, and the like. In addition to the wood on which the -joiner works, he requires also glue, white lead, nails, brads, screws -and hinges, and accessorily he applies bolts, locks, bars and other -fastenings, together with pulleys, lines, weights, holdfasts, wall -hooks, &c. The joiner's work for a house is for the most part prepared -at the shop, where there should be convenience for doing everything in -the best and readiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is -ready and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames, -doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together, -i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed and -prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying, and the moulded -work--the picture and dado rails, architraves, skirtings and -panelling--is all got out at the shop. On a new building the joiner fits -up a temporary workshop with benches, sawing stools and a stove for his -glue pot. Here he adjusts the work for fitting up and makes any small -portions that may still be required. - -The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the exception--a fact -due to the ever-increasing use of machines, which have remarkably -shortened the time required to execute the ordinary operations. Various -machines rapidly and perfectly execute planing and surfacing, mortising -and moulding, leaving the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large -quantities of machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now -imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe. The -timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this, coupled with -the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily obtainable on the -Continent, enables the cost of production to be kept very low. - -The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly understood by -every joiner. The man who has made the nature of timber his study has -always a decided advantage over those who have neglected this. Timber -shrinks considerably in the width, but not appreciably in the length. -Owing to this shrinkage certain joints and details, hereinafter -described and illustrated, are in common use for the purpose of -counteracting the bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all -joinery work. - - The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different - species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and - mahogany (see TIMBER). The greater part of English joiners' work is - executed in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries. - Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from - which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from the - sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable - time and labour being saved in this way. - - A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a _balk_. In - section it may range from 1 to 1(1/2) ft. square. _Planks_ are formed - by sawing the balk into sections from 11 to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. - thick, and the term _deal_ is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 - to 4(1/2) in. thick. _Battens_ are boards running not more than 3 in. - thick and 4 to 7 in. wide. A _strip_ is not thicker than 1(1/2) in., - the width being about 4 in. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.] - - _Joints.--Side joints_ (fig. 1) are used for joining boards together - edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the _square_ - joint the edges of the boards are carefully shot, the two edges to be - joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards tightly - clamped and left to dry, when the surface is cleaned off with the - smoothing plane. A joint in general use for joining up boards for - fascias, panels, linings, window-boards, and other work of a like - nature is formed in a similar manner to the above, but with a - cross-grained tongue inserted, thereby greatly strengthening the work - at an otherwise naturally weak point. This is termed a _cross-tongued - and glued_ joint. The _dowelled_ joint is a square glued joint - strengthened with hard wood or iron dowels inserted in the edge of - each board to a depth of about 3/4 in. and placed about 18 in. apart. - The _matched_ joint is shown in two forms, beaded and jointed. Matched - boarding is frequently used as a less expensive substitute for - panelled framing. Although of course in appearance it cannot compare - with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance, and the - moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detriment to the - appearance of the work. The _rebated_ joint is used in the meeting - styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in excluding - draughts and preventing observation through the joint. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.] - - Of the _angle joints_ (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the - following are the most important. The _mitre_ is shown in the drawing, - and is so well known as to need little description. Although simple, - it needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper execution. The - common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued - into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened - with a feather of wood or iron. Other variations of the mitre are the - _mitre and butt_, used where the pieces connected are of unequal - thickness; the _mitre and rebate_, with a square section which - facilitates nailing or screwing; the _mitre rebate and feather_, - similar to the latter, with a feather giving additional strength to - the joint; and the _mitre groove and tongue_, having a tongue worked - on the material itself in place of the feather of the last-named - joint. The last two methods are used in the best work, and, carefully - worked and glued, with the assistance of angle blocks glued at the - back, obviate the necessity of face screws or nails. The _keyed mitre_ - consists of a simple mitre joint, which after being glued up has a - number of pairs of saw cuts made across the angle, into which are - fitted and glued thin triangular slips of hard wood, or as an - alternative, pieces of brass or other metal. Other forms of angle - joints are based on the rebate with a bead worked on in such a - position as to hide any bad effects caused by the joint opening by - shrinkage. They may be secured either by nailing or screwing, or by - glued angle blocks. - - The _dovetail_ is a most important joint; its most usual forms are - illustrated in fig. 3. The _mitre dovetail_ is used in the best work. - It will be seen that the dovetail is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and - it is this distinguishing feature which gives it great strength - irrespective of glue or screws. It is invaluable in framing together - joiners' fittings; its use in drawers especially provides a good - example of its purpose and structure. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Dovetails.] - - _Warping in Wide Boards._--It is necessary to prevent the tendency to - warp, twist and split, which boards of great width, or several boards - glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other hand, - swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the - atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous. To - effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction of - the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when the - boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and glued - up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let into a - wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted and - driven tightly home, but, of course, not glued. Battens of hard wood - may be used for the same purpose, fixed either with hard-wood buttons - or by means of brass slots and screws, the slots allowing for any - slight movement that may take place. With boards of a substantial - thickness light iron rods may be used, holes being bored through the - thickness of the boards and rods passed through; the edges are then - glued up. This method is very effective and neat in appearance, and is - specially suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of - the work. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Prevention of Warping.] - - _Mouldings_ are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the - contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to ornament - or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may wish to - bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are required in - designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls to the - qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the - practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate and - finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character of a - moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the wood - in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly grained - wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant if worked in - a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings worked on woods of - the former type may consist of small and delicate members; woods of - the latter class require bold treatment. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Mouldings.] - - The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work used in - connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance with - full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are designed - by him to conform with the style and class of building. There are, - however, a number of moulded forms in common use which have particular - names; sections are shown of many of these in fig. 5. Most of them - occur in the classic architecture of both Greeks and Romans. A - striking distinction, however, existed in the mouldings of these two - peoples; the curves of the Greek mouldings were either derived from - conic sections or drawn in freehand, while in typical Roman work the - curved components were segments of a circle. Numerous examples of the - use of these forms occur in ordinary joinery work, and may be - recognized on reference to the illustrations, which will be easily - understood without further description. - - Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A _stuck_ moulding is - worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a _planted_ - moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or - screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; larger - ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted on - panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding into - the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel. By - adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink--as it - undoubtedly will do--without altering the good appearance of the work, - but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the latter - shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap between it - and the framing. - - _Flooring._--When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have prepared - the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations - is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked - under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order to be - thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work - of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The joints of - flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in - the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during - the process of laying. An additional expense will then be incurred by - the necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued - and driven into place. Boards of narrow width are better and more - expensive than wide ones. They may be of various woods, the kinds - generally preferred, on account of their low comparative cost and ease - of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is - an inferior wood, but is frequently used with good results for the - floors of less important apartments. A better floor is obtained with - yellow deal, which, when of good quality and well seasoned, is lasting - and wears well. For floors where a fine appearance is desired, or - which will be subjected to heavy wear, some harder and tougher - material, such as pitch pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid. - These woods are capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this - way, form a beautiful as well as a durable floor. - - Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. 1 are applied to flooring - boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side of - the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the tendency - will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead of - curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground - floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will drop - through the crevices and damage the ceiling beneath. Dowelled joints - are open to the same objection. One of the best and most economical - methods is the _ploughed and tongued_ joint. The tongue may be of hard - wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and occupies - very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of - the board as is practicable, leaving as much wearing material as - possible. Two varieties of secret joints are shown in fig. 1.--the - _splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued_, and the _rebated, grooved and - tongued_. Owing to the waste of material in forming these joints and - the extra labour involved in laying the boards, they are costly and - are only used when it is required that no heads of nails or screws - should appear on the surface. The heading joints of flooring are often - specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is far better to rebate - them. - - _Wood block floors_ are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The - blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a - damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double - purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks - in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however, - the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by - dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from - 1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide. - - _Parquet_ floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in - patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from 1/4 to - 1(1/4) in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, - especially for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow - widths of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the - sub-floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on - the parquet which is laid upon it. _Plated parquet_ consists of - selected hard woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made - in sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the - apartment for which they are intended. When secured to the joists - these form a perfect floor. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Built-up Skirting tongued to floor.] - - _Skirtings._--In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the - base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall (see - fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the wall, - and protects the base of the wall from injury. Skirtings may be placed - in two classes--those formed from a plain board with its upper edge - either left square or moulded, and those formed of two or more - separate members and termed a _built-up_ skirting (fig. 6). Small - angle fillets or mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirting - should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed with the heart side of - the wood outwards; any tendency to warp will then only serve to press - the top edge more closely to the wall. In good work a groove should be - formed in the floor and the skirting tongued into it so that an open - joint is avoided should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be nailed - only near the top to wood grounds fixed to wood plugs in the joints of - the brickwork. These grounds are about 3/4 to 1 in. thick, i.e. the - same thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on - the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should - always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to prevent the - space becoming a harbourage for vermin. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.] - - _Dados._--A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative and - a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that - portion of the wall between the _chair_ or _dado rail_ and the - skirting. It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with - cross tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, - or of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The - last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety - of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which are - nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7 shows - an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and skirting. A - _picture rail_ also is shown; it is a small moulding with the top edge - grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are hung. - - Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very fine - effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough - grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In - England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak - framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and - decoration, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining - buildings of that period. - - _Windows._--The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the same - terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, being - formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing. The - upright sides are _styles_; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned - into the styles, are _rails_ (fig. 7). - - Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called _casements_ - (fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed - are used as such, as for example _French casements_ (fig. 9). They may - be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult with - the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those opening - outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This form - of window, though almost superseded in England by the case frame with - hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the Continent. _Yorkshire - sliding sashes_ move in a horizontal direction upon grooved runners - with the meeting styles vertical. They are little used, and are apt to - admit draughts and wet unless efficient checks are worked upon the - sashes and frames. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Casement window fitted with shutters.] - - Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on _centre - pivots_. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots - are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work are - screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord fixed so - that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired extent, - and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round, a small - metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be used. For the - side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and factories this form - of window is in general use. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Details of French Casement to open inwards.] - - In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window is - the _cased frame with double hung sliding sashes_. This style has many - advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, ventilation - may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered and raised with - ease without interference with any blinds, curtains or other fittings, - that may be applied to the windows. In the ordinary window of this - style, however, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the external - glass without assuming a dangerous position on the sill, but there are - many excellent inventions now on the market which obviate this - difficulty by allowing--usually on the removal of a small - thumb-screw--the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge. For a small - extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they will be greatly - appreciated by those who clean the windows. The cased frames are in - the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead weights which balance - the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style--which takes the - wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on this account--an - inside lining, and an outside lining; these three members are - continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are connected with - the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys fixed in the - pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains are sometimes - used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the purpose of - fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket piece. A thin - back lining is provided to the sides only and is not required in the - head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off the water. A parting - bead separates the sashes, and the inside bead keeps them in position. - A parting slip hung from the head inside the cased frame separates the - balancing weights and ensures their smooth working. The inside lining - is usually grooved to take the elbow and soffit linings, and the - window board is fitted into a groove formed in the sill. The example - shown in fig. 7 has an extra deep bottom rail and bead; this enables - the lower sash to be raised so as to permit of ventilation between the - meeting rails without causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. - This is a considerable improvement upon the ordinary form, and the - cost of constructing the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater. - - _Bay windows_ with cased frames and double hung sashes often require - the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction in order - that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more light - than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily and the - whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be mitred and - tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt. Frequently it - is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, the side lights - being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions to be obtained, the - cords of the front windows may be taken by means of pulleys over the - heads of the side lights and attached to counter-balance weights - working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This - enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are - required to be hung the difficulty may be surmounted by hanging two - sashes to one weight. Lead weights take up less space than iron, and - are used for heavy sashes. - - In framing and fixing _skylights_ and _lantern lights_ also great care - is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough - weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in - any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere - and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the water - which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, by means - of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc or copper pipe - outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at least 6 in. to allow - of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The sashes of the lantern - usually take the form of fixed or hung casements fitted to solid - mullions and angle posts which are framed into and support a solid - head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars - framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, these rest on the head, - projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water. - - _Shutters_ for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse, - but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps - necessary. They may be divided into two classes--those fixed to the - outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened, - panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a - little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of hinges - to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these - hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large projection to - enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the wall. - Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either vertically - or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown in the - illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method of - working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by - means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting - shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, and - the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be - raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters are - balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner described for - double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in with wood and - not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a thumb-screw through - the meeting rails, the lower sash being supported on the window board - which is closed down when the sashes have been lifted out. Shutters - sliding horizontally are also used in some cases, but they are not so - convenient as the forms described above. - - _Shop-fronts._--The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a - separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction are - attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly - varying with almost every trade, careful study and close attention to - detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts, in order to - allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of - obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and stanchions are - used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron or steel of - suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and - fittings has been specialized by makers having a knowledge of the - requirements of different trades and with facilities for making the - special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. Fig. 10 shows - an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany with rolling - shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical - construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on - many points which need no further description. The London Building - Act. 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied with in - shop-fronts:--(1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft. a - shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the building - to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In streets - of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-front may - be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building line. No - woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. above the - level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be fixed nearer than 4 - in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of brick or stone must - project at least an inch in front of the woodwork. These by-laws will - be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of a shop-front - designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide. - - _Rolling shutters_ for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, and - are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the - makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow strips - of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at every - joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction allows - it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and usually - fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter is guided into - position by the edges working in metal grooves a little under an inch - wide. When the width of the opening to be closed renders it necessary - to divide the shutters into more than one portion, grooved movable - pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be lowered these are - fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working on the grooved edges - of the pilasters. _Spring roller canvas blinds_ work on a similar - principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are capable, when the blind is - extended, of being pushed up by means of a sliding arrangement, and - fixed with a pin at a level high enough to allow foot passengers to - pass along the pavement under them. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Shop-front.] - - _Doors._--External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed in - the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for the - door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. The - _jambs_ or _posts_ are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the - feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid - window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for - casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal - doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1(1/2) - in. thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, - panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are - nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds 1 in. in thickness plugged - or nailed to the wall or partition. _Architraves_ are the borders or - finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door opening, and screwed - or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously moulded according to the - fancy of the designer. The ordinary form of architrave is shown in the - illustration of a cased window frame (fig. 8), and a variation appears - in the combined architrave and over door frieze and capping fitted - around the six-panelled door (fig. 7). The latter would need to be - worked and framed in the shop and fixed entire. Polished hard wood - architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. without the heads of nails or - screws showing on the face, by putting screws into the grounds with - their heads slightly projecting, and hanging the moulding on them by - means of keyhole slots formed in the back. - - Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, the _common - ledged_ door, consists of vertical boards with plain or matched joints - nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the rails in framed - doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors should be - furnished with braces. _Ledged and braced_ doors are similar, but - have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique braces which - prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper end of the brace - is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near the lock edge of - the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction to be - birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the hanging - edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails. _Framed - ledged and braced_ doors are a further development of this form of - door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle and - bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These members are - tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. The top rail and - styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces and middle and - bottom rails being less by the thickness of the sheathing boards, - which are tongued into the top rail and styles and carried down over - the other members to the bottom of the door. The three forms of door - described above are used mainly for temporary purposes, and stables, - farm buildings and outhouses of all descriptions. They are usually - hung by wrought-iron cross garnet or strap hinges fixed with screws or - through bolts and nuts. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Forms of Panelling.] - - The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character - are commonly _framed and panelled_ in one of the many ways possible. - The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, and - these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which are - inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up. The common - forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and although they - may be made with any form and number of panels, the principles of - construction remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 is of a - six-panel door, with bolection moulded raised panels on one side, and - moulded and flat panels on the other (fig. 11). - - A clear idea of the method of jointing the various members may be - obtained from fig. 12. The tongues of raised panels should be of - parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at the moulding. The - projecting ends or _horns_ of the styles are cut off after the door - has been glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends of the styles - being damaged by the wedging process. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Joints.] - - Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions _swing - doors_, either single or double, are used. To open them it is - necessary simply to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and - shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring - causes the door to return to its original position without noise. They - are usually glazed and should be of substantial construction. The door - is hinged at the top on a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a - metal shoe connected with the spring, which is placed in a box fixed - below the floor. - - For large entrances, notably for hotels and banks, a form of door - working on the _turnstile_ principle is frequently adopted. It is - formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top - and bottom central ball-bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing - which forms a kind of vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted - with slips of india-rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the - circular framing, prevent draughts. - - When an elegant appearance is desired, and it is at the same time - necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of - pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a _veneer_ or thin - layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the - appearance of a solid door of the better material. Made in the - ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is - very liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel off. Veneered doors - made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed - on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of - pine with the grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200 deg. F., - and glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer - are grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting glue is - applied; the two portions are then welded together under hydraulic - pressure. By reason of their construction these doors possess the - advantages of freedom from shrinking, warping and splitting, defects - which are all too common in the ordinary veneered and solid hard wood - doors. - - The best glue for internal woodwork is that made in Scotland. Ordinary - animal glue should not be used in work exposed to the weather as it - absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a compound termed - _beaumontique_, composed of white lead, linseed oil and litharge, - should be employed. - - _Church Work._--Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of - church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner's - art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English - oak; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and - made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added - to the interior of the church which cannot be obtained in any other - medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently - enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens of - early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and - churches; good work of a later date will be found in many churches and - public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples of Old - English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple Church in - London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and Haddon - Hall. Specimens of modern work are to be seen in Beverley Minster in - Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, London, and the - Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other examples both ancient and modern - abound in the country. - - _Carving_ is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a - special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful - execution. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and - carved ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid. - Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and, - being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour, are - used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved panels - also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work done - entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in its - power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the finishing - touches to the work. - - _Ironmongery._--In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail - calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate fixing - of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, locks, door - and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal finishings - required for the completion of a building. The task of the selection - belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is performed by - the joiner. - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.] - - Of _hinges_, the variety termed _butts_ are in general use for hanging - doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the - door. They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to - snap should they sustain a shock. _Lifting butts_ are made with a - removable pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without - unscrewing. _Rising butts_ have oblique joints which cause the door to - rise and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the - floor when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special - circumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the - _cross garnet_ and the _strap_. There are many varieties of _spring - hinges_ designed to bring the door automatically to a desired - position. With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor - or other convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door - being forced back. - - Among _locks and fastenings_ the ordinary _barrel_ or _tower_ bolt - needs no description. The _flush barrel_ is a bolt let in flush with - the face of a door. The _espagnolette_ is a development of the tower - bolt and extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a - convenient height, when turned, shooting bolts at the top and bottom - simultaneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The _padlock_ - is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The _stock_ lock - is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables, - church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a - key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The _metal - cased_ rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. The use - of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice in the - thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock is used. - _Finger plates_ add greatly to the good appearance of a door, and - protect the painted work. _Sash fasteners_ are fixed at the meeting - rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened from - the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly together. - They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife inserted - between the rails. _Sash lifts_ and _pulls_ of brass or bronze are - fitted to large sashes. Ornamental _casement stays_ and fasteners in - many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles. - _Fanlight openers_ for single lights, or geared for a number of - sashes, may be designed to suit positions difficult of access. - - The following are the principal books of reference on this subject: J. - Gwilt, _Encyclopaedia of Architecture_; Sutcliffe, _Modern House - Construction_; Rivington, _Notes on Building Construction_ (3 vols.); - H. Adams, _Building Construction_; C. F. Mitchell, _Building - Construction_; Robinson, _Carpentry and Joinery_; J. P. Allen, - _Practical Building Construction_; J. Newlands, _Carpenter and - Joiner's Assistant_; Bury, _Ecclesiastical Woodwork_; T. Tredgold and - Young, _Joinery_; Peter Nicholson, _Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant_. - (J. Bt.) - - - - -JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. _junctum_, _jungere_, to join), that which -joins two parts together or the place where two parts are joined. (See -JOINERY; JOINTS.) In law, the word is used adjectivally as a term -applied to obligations, estates, &c., implying that the rights in -question relate to the aggregate of the parties joined. Obligations to -which several are parties may be _several_, i.e. enforceable against -each independently of the others, or _joint_, i.e. enforceable only -against all of them taken together, or _joint and several_, i.e. -enforceable against each or all at the option of the claimant (see -GUARANTEE). So an interest or estate given to two or more persons for -their joint lives continues only so long as all the lives are in -existence. _Joint-tenants_ are co-owners who take together at the same -time, by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or -extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-tenants -dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses to his -co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to be carefully -distinguished from _tenancy in common_, when the co-tenants have each a -separate interest which on death passes to the heirs and not to the -surviving tenants. When several take an estate together any words or -facts implying severance will prevent the tenancy from being construed -as joint. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 4, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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