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diff --git a/41055-0.txt b/41055-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b9825aa --- /dev/null +++ b/41055-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17964 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41055 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE JEWELRY: "Etruscan jewelry at its best is not easily + distinguished from the Greek, but it tends in its later forms to + become florid and diffuse, without precision of design." 'jewelry' + amended from 'jewlery'. + + ARTICLE JEWELRY: "For the Aah-hotep jewels, see Mariette, Album de + Musée de Boulaq, pls. 29-31; Birch, Facsimiles of the Egyptian + Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-hotep (1863)." 'hotep' + amended from 'hotp'. + + ARTICLE JEWS: "Biblical history ends with the triumph of the + Judaean community, the true 'Israel,' the right to which title is + found in the distant past." 'Biblical' amended from 'Bibilical'. + + ARTICLE JEWS: "The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in + addition to the special law-taxes, the passport duty, the + night-duty and all similar imposts which had stamped the Jews as + outcast ..." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'. + + ARTICLE JEWS: "But economic laws are often too strong for civil + vagaries or sectarian fanaticism, and as the commerce of Austria + suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was impossible to exclude + the latter from the fairs in the provinces or from the markets of + the capital." 'or' amended from 'of'. + + ARTICLE JOB: "And further, the terrible conflict into which the + suspicions of the Satan brought Job could not be exhibited without + pushing him to the verge of ungodliness." 'Job' amended from 'Iob'. + + ARTICLE JOB: "For, first, owing to the unity of thought and + language which pervades the Old Testament, in which, regarded + merely as a national literature ..." 'pervades' amended from + 'prevades'. + + ARTICLE JOHN XVI.: "The arrival of Otto at Rome in the spring of + 998 put a sudden end to the treacherous compact. John sought safety + in flight, but was discovered in his place of hiding and brought + back to Rome, where after enduring cruel and ignominious tortures + he was immured in a dungeon." 'treacherous' amended from + 'teacherous'. + + ARTICLE JOHN XXIII.: "But on the 3rd of March 1413 John adjourned + the council of Rome till December, without even fixing the place + where the next session should be held." 'March' amended from + 'Mrach'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XV, SLICE IV + + Jevons, Stanley to Joint + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY JOHN XIX. + JEW, THE WANDERING JOHN XXI. + JEWEL, JOHN JOHN XXII. + JEWELRY JOHN XXIII. + JEWETT, SARAH ORNE JOHN I. (Roman emperor) + JEWS JOHN II. + JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR JOHN III. + JEW'S EARS JOHN IV. + JEW'S HARP JOHN V. or VI. + JEZEBEL JOHN VI. or V. + JEZREEL JOHN VI. or VII. + JHABUA JOHN (king of England) + JHALAWAR JOHN I. (king of Aragon) + JHANG JOHN II. + JHANSI JOHN (king of Bohemia) + JHELUM (Indian river) JOHN I. (king of Castile) + JHELUM (Indian town) JOHN II. + JHERING, RUDOLF VON JOHN I. (king of France) + JIBITOS JOHN II. + JIBUTI JOHN (king of Hungary) + JICARILLA JOHN OF BRIENNE + JIDDA JOHN III. (king of Poland) + JIG JOHN I. (king of Portugal) + JIHAD JOHN II. + JIMENES DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO JOHN III. + JIND JOHN IV. + JINGO JOHN V. + JINN JOHN VI. + JIRECEK, JOSEF JOHN (king of Saxony) + JIZAKH JOHN I. (duke of Brabant) + JOAB JOHN (margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin) + JOACHIM OF FLORIS JOHN (duke of Burgundy) + JOACHIM I. JOHN (elector of Saxony) + JOACHIM II. JOHN, DON (of Austria) + JOACHIM, JOSEPH JOHN, DON (the younger) + JOAN JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST + JOAN OF ARC JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST + JOANES, VICENTE JOHN OF ASIA + JOANNA JOHN OF DAMASCUS + JOANNA I. JOHN OF HEXHAM + JOANNA II. JOHN OF IRELAND + JOASH JOHN OF RAVENNA + JOB JOHN OF SALISBURY + JOBST JOHN (of Swabia) + JOB'S TEARS JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF + JOCASTA JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST + JOCKEY JOHN ALBERT + JODELLE, ÉTIENNE JOHN ANGELUS + JODHPUR JOHN FREDERICK I. + JOEL JOHN FREDERICK (duke of Saxony) + JOEL, MANUEL JOHN GEORGE I. + JOFFRIN, JULES ALEXANDRE JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU + JOGUES, ISAAC JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE + JO[H.]ANAN BEN ZACCAI JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY + JOHANNESBURG (city of Transvaal) JOHNSON, ANDREW + JOHANNISBERG (German village) JOHNSON, BENJAMIN + JOHN (proper name) JOHNSON, EASTMAN + JOHN (the Apostle) JOHNSON, REVERDY + JOHN THE BAPTIST JOHNSON, RICHARD + JOHN I. (pope) JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR + JOHN II. JOHNSON, SAMUEL + JOHN III. JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS + JOHN IV. JOHNSON, THOMAS + JOHN V. JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM + JOHN VI. JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY + JOHN VII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER + JOHN VIII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH + JOHN IX. JOHNSTON, ARTHUR + JOHN X. JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON + JOHN XI. JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON + JOHN XII. JOHNSTONE + JOHN XIII. JOHNSTOWN (New York, U.S.A.) + JOHN XIV. JOHNSTOWN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + JOHN XV. JOHOR + JOHN XVI. JOIGNY + JOHN XVII. JOINDER + JOHN XVIII. JOINERY + JOINT + + + + +JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882), English economist and logician, was +born at Liverpool on the 1st of September 1835. His father, Thomas +Jevons, a man of strong scientific tastes and a writer on legal and +economic subjects, was an iron merchant. His mother was the daughter of +William Roscoe. At the age of fifteen he was sent to London to attend +University College school. He appears at this time to have already +formed the belief that important achievements as a thinker were possible +to him, and at more than one critical period in his career this belief +was the decisive factor in determining his conduct. Towards the end of +1853, after having spent two years at University College, where his +favourite subjects were chemistry and botany, he unexpectedly received +the offer of the assayership to the new mint in Australia. The idea of +leaving England was distasteful, but pecuniary considerations had, in +consequence of the failure of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital +importance, and he accepted the post. He left England for Sydney in June +1854, and remained there for five years. At the end of that period he +resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 entered again as a +student at University College, London, proceeding in due course to the +B.A. and M.A. degrees of the university of London. He now gave his +principal attention to the moral sciences, but his interest in natural +science was by no means exhausted: throughout his life he continued to +write occasional papers on scientific subjects, and his intimate +knowledge of the physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of +his chief logical work, _The Principles of Science_. Not long after +taking his M.A. degree Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College, +Manchester. In 1866 he was elected professor of logic and mental and +moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy in Owens +college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor, whose father had been +the founder and proprietor of the _Manchester Guardian_. Jevons suffered +a good deal from ill health and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of +lectures covering so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876 +he was glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship of +political economy in University College, London. Travelling and music +were the principal recreations of his life; but his health continued +bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his professorial duties +increasingly irksome, and feeling that the pressure of literary work +left him no spare energy, he decided in 1880 to resign the post. On the +13th of August 1882 he was drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. +Throughout his life he had pursued with devotion and industry the ideals +with which he had set out, and his journal and letters display a noble +simplicity of disposition and an unswerving honesty of purpose. He was a +prolific writer, and at the time of his death he occupied the foremost +position in England both as a logician and as an economist. Professor +Marshall has said of his work in economics that it "will probably be +found to have more constructive force than any, save that of Ricardo, +that has been done during the last hundred years." At the time of his +death he was engaged upon an economic work that promised to be at least +as important as any that he had previously undertaken. It would be +difficult to exaggerate the loss which logic and political economy +sustained through the accident by which his life was prematurely cut +short. + +Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that +constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to +economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the keynote of +his general theory of political economy, was practically formulated in a +letter written in 1860; and the germ of his logical principles of the +substitution of similars may be found in the view which he propounded in +another letter written in 1861, that "philosophy would be found to +consist solely in pointing out the likeness of things." The theory of +utility above referred to, namely, that the degree of utility of a +commodity is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of +the commodity available, together with the implied doctrine that +economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more definite form +in a paper on "A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy," +written for the British Association in 1862. This paper does not appear +to have attracted much attention either in 1862 or on its publication +four years later in the _Journal of the Statistical Society_; and it was +not till 1871, when the _Theory of Political Economy_ appeared, that +Jevons set forth his doctrines in a fully developed form. It was not +till after the publication of this work that Jevons became acquainted +with the applications of mathematics to political economy made by +earlier writers, notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The +theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed on +somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M.E.L. Walras in +Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the connexion between value in +exchange and final (or marginal) utility, the priority belongs to +Gossen, but this in no way detracts from the great importance of the +service which Jevons rendered to English economics by his fresh +discovery of the principle, and by the way in which he ultimately forced +it into notice. In his reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes +expressed himself without due qualification: the declaration, for +instance, made at the commencement of the _Theory of Political Economy_, +that "value depends entirely upon utility," lent itself to +misinterpretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be +pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an indifferent +public. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with the fundamental +data of economic science, but as a brilliant writer on practical +economic questions, that Jevons first received general recognition. _A +Serious Fall in the Value of Gold_ (1863) and _The Coal Question_ (1865) +placed him in the front rank as a writer on applied economics and +statistics; and he would be remembered as one of the leading economists +of the 19th century even had his _Theory of Political Economy_ never +been written. Amongst his economic works may be mentioned _Money and the +Mechanism of Exchange_ (1875), written in a popular style, and +descriptive rather than theoretical, but wonderfully fresh and original +in treatment and full of suggestiveness, a _Primer on Political Economy_ +(1878), _The State in Relation to Labour_ (1882), and two works +published after his death, namely, _Methods of Social Reform_ and +_Investigations in Currency and Finance_, containing papers that had +appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named volume contains +Jevons's interesting speculations on the connexion between commercial +crises and sun-spots. He was engaged at the time of his death upon the +preparation of a large treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of +contents and completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This +fragment was published in 1905 under the title of _The Principles of +Economics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of +Society, and other Papers_. + +Jevons's work in logic went on _pari passu_ with his work in political +economy. In 1864 he published a small volume, entitled _Pure Logic; or, +the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity_, which was based on Boole's +system of logic, but freed from what he considered the false +mathematical dress of that system. In the years immediately following he +devoted considerable attention to the construction of a logical machine, +exhibited before the Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the +conclusion derivable from any given set of premisses could be +mechanically obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and +universal principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he +published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title of _The +Substitution of Similars_. He expressed the principle in its simplest +form as follows: "Whatever is true of a thing is true of its like," and +he worked out in detail its various applications. In the following year +appeared the _Elementary Lessons on Logic_, which soon became the most +widely read elementary textbook on logic in the English language. In the +meantime he was engaged upon a much more important logical treatise, +which appeared in 1874 under the title of _The Principles of Science_. +In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works on pure +logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated and +developed the view that induction is simply an inverse employment of +deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the general theory of +probability, and the relation between probability and induction; and his +knowledge of the various natural sciences enabled him throughout to +relieve the abstract character of logical doctrine by concrete +scientific illustrations, often worked out in great detail. Jevons's +general theory of induction was a revival of the theory laid down by +Whewell and criticized by Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was +free from some of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's +exposition open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most +notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great Britain +in the 19th century. His _Studies in Deductive Logic_, consisting mainly +of exercises and problems for the use of students, was published in +1880. In 1877 and the following years Jevons contributed to the +_Contemporary Review_ some articles on J. S. Mill, which he had intended +to supplement by further articles, and eventually publish in a volume as +a criticism of Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were +republished after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical +treatises, in a volume, entitled _Pure Logic, and other Minor Works_. +The criticisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is +forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as taking rank with +Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an original +thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered by his +constructive work as logician, economist and statistician. + + See _Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons_, edited by his wife + (1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings. See + also LOGIC: _History_. (J. N. K.) + + + + +JEW, THE WANDERING, a legendary Jew (see JEWS) doomed to wander till the +second coming of Christ because he had taunted Jesus as he passed +bearing the cross, saying, "Go on quicker." Jesus is said to have +replied, "I go, but thou shalt wait till I return." The legend in this +form first appeared in a pamphlet of four leaves alleged to have been +printed at Leiden in 1602. This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen +(d. 1598), bishop of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named +Ahasuerus (Ahasverus), who declared he was "eternal" and was the same +who had been punished in the above-mentioned manner by Jesus at the time +of the crucifixion. The pamphlet is supposed to have been written by +Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia and printed by one Christoff +Crutzer, but as no such author or printer is known at this time--the +latter name indeed refers directly to the legend--it has been +conjectured that the whole story is a myth invented to support the +Protestant contention of a continuous witness to the truth of Holy Writ +in the person of this "eternal" Jew; he was to form, in his way, a +counterpart to the apostolic tradition of the Catholic Church. + +The story met with ready acceptance and popularity. Eight editions of +the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the fortieth edition before the end +of the following century. It was translated into Dutch and Flemish with +almost equal success. The first French edition appeared in 1609, and the +story was known in England before 1625, when a parody was produced. +Denmark and Sweden followed suit with translations, and the expression +"eternal Jew" passed as a current term into Czech. In other words, the +story in its usual form spread wherever there was a tincture of +Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard of it in this version, +though Rudolph Botoreus, parliamentary advocate of Paris (_Comm. +histor._, 1604), writing in Paris two years after its first appearance, +speaks contemptuously of the popular belief in the Wandering Jew in +Germany, Spain and Italy. + +The popularity of the pamphlet and its translations soon led to reports +of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost all parts of the +civilized world. Besides the original meeting of the bishop and +Ahasuerus in 1542 and others referred back to 1575 in Spain and 1599 at +Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated to have appeared at Prague (1602), +at Lübeck (1603), in Bavaria (1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640), +Leipzig (1642), Paris (1644, by the "Turkish Spy"), Stamford (1658), +Astrakhan (1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the +Wandering Jew was seen at Munich (1721), Altbach (1766), Brussels +(1774), Newcastle (1790, see Brand, _Pop. Antiquities, s.v._), and on +the streets of London between 1818 and 1830 (see _Athenaeum_, 1866, ii. +561). So far as can be ascertained, the latest report of his appearance +was in the neighbourhood of Salt Lake City in 1868, when he is said to +have made himself known to a Mormon named O'Grady. It is difficult to +tell in any one of these cases how far the story is an entire fiction +and how far some ingenious impostor took advantage of the existence of +the myth. + +The reiterated reports of the actual existence of a wandering being, who +retained in his memory the details of the crucifixion, show how the idea +had fixed itself in popular imagination and found its way into the +19th-century collections of German legends. The two ideas combined in +the story of the restless fugitive akin to Cain and wandering for ever +are separately represented in the current names given to this figure in +different countries. In most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on +the perpetual character of his punishment and he is known as the +"everlasting," or "eternal" Jew (Ger. "Ewige Jude"). In the lands +speaking a Romance tongue, the usual form has reference to the +wanderings (Fr. "le Juif errant"). The English form follows the Romance +analogy, possibly because derived directly from France. The actual name +given to the mysterious Jew varies in the different versions: the +original pamphlet calls him Ahasver, and this has been followed in most +of the literary versions, though it is difficult to imagine any Jew +being called by the name of the typical anti-Semitic king of the Book of +Esther. In one of his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac +Laquedem, implying an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew in an attempt to +represent Isaac "from of old." Alexandre Dumas also made use of this +title. In the _Turkish Spy_ the Wandering Jew is called Paul Marrane and +is supposed to have suffered persecution at the hands of the +Inquisition, which was mainly occupied in dealing with the Marranos, +i.e. the secret Jews of the Iberian peninsula. In the few references to +the legend in Spanish writings the Wandering Jew is called Juan Espera +en Dios, which gives a more hopeful turn to the legend. + +Under other names, a story very similar to that given in the pamphlet of +1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil. According to Roger +of Wendover in his _Flores historiarum_ under the year 1228, an Armenian +archbishop, then visiting England, was asked by the monks of St Albans +about the well-known Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken to Jesus and +was said to be still alive. The archbishop claimed to have seen him in +Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus or Cartaphilus, who had confessed +that he had taunted Jesus in the manner above related. This Carthaphilus +had afterwards been baptized by the name of Joseph. Matthew Paris, in +repeating the passage from Roger of Wendover, reported that other +Armenians had confirmed the story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and +regarded it as a great proof of the Christian religion. A similar +account is given in the chronicles of Philippe Mouskès (d. 1243). A +variant of the same story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer +quoted by Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he +struck Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello in +1413 and at Bologna in 1415 (in the garb of a Franciscan of the third +order). + +The source of all these reports of an ever-living witness of the +crucifixion is probably Matthew xvi. 28: "There be some of them that +stand here which shall in no wise taste of death till they see the Son +of Man coming in his kingdom." As the kingdom had not come, it was +assumed that there must be persons living who had been present at the +crucifixion; the same reasoning is at the root of the Anglo-Israel +belief. These words are indeed quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, a +legend was based on John xxi. 20 that the beloved disciple would not die +before the second coming; while another legend (current in the 16th +century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut off in the garden of +Gethsemane (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually till the second +coming. The legend alleges that he had been so condemned for having +scoffed at Jesus. These legends and the utterance of Matt. xvi. 28 +became "contaminated" by the legend of St Joseph of Arimathaea and the +Holy Grail, and took the form given in Roger of Wendover and Matthew +Paris. But there is nothing to show the spread of this story among the +people before the pamphlet of 1602, and it is difficult to see how this +Carthaphilus could have given rise to the legend of the Wandering Jew, +since he is not a Jew nor does he wander. The author of 1602 was +probably acquainted either directly or indirectly with the story as +given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost the same account. But he +gives a new name to his hero and directly connects his fate with Matt. +xvi. 28. + +Moncure D. Conway (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., xiii. 673) attempted to +connect the legend of the Wandering Jew with a whole series of myths +relating to never-dying heroes like King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa, +the Seven Sleepers, and Thomas the Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van +Winkle. He goes even farther and connects our legend with mortals +visiting earth, as the Yima in Parsism, and the "Ancient of Days" in the +Books of Daniel and Enoch, and further connects the legend with the +whole medieval tendency to regard the Jew as something uncanny and +mysterious. But all these mythological explanations are supererogatory, +since the actual legend in question can be definitely traced to the +pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to the identification with the +Mahommedan legend of the "eternal" Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski +(_Zeit. f. Assyr._ vii. 116) and I. Friedländer (_Arch. f. +Religionswiss._ xiii. 110). + +This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering has +attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost all European +tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded as a symbolic figure +representing the wanderings and sufferings of his race. The Germans have +been especially attracted by the legend, which has been made the subject +of poems by Schubart, Schreiber, W. Müller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, +Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that it was a +particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school. They were +perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who in his _Autobiography_ +describes, at considerable length, the plan of a poem he had designed on +the Wandering Jew. More recently poems have been composed on the subject +in German by Adolf Wilbrandt, Fritz Lienhard and others; in English by +Robert Buchanan, and in Dutch by H. Heijermans. German novels also exist +on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schucking, tragedies by +Klinemann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund Heller wrote three cantos on +the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Hans Andersen made of him an "Angel +of Doubt." Robert Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. +In France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833, and +Eugène Sue, in his best-known work, _Le Juif errant_ (1844), introduces +the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different sections and +associates him with the legend of Herodias. In modern times the subject +has been made still more popular by Gustave Doré's elaborate designs +(1856), containing some of his most striking and imaginative work. Thus, +probably, he suggested Grenier's poem on the subject (1857). + +In England, besides the ballads in Percy's _Reliques_, William Godwin +introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course of civilization +in his _St Leon_ (1799), and his son-in-law Shelley introduces Ahasuerus +in his _Queen Mab_. It is doubtful how far Swift derived his idea of the +immortal Struldbrugs from the notion of the Wandering Jew. George +Croly's _Salathiel_, which appeared anonymously in 1828, gave a highly +elaborate turn to the legend; this has been republished under the title +_Tarry Thou Till I Come_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. G. Th. Graesse, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1844); + F. Helbig, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1874); G. Paris, _Le Juif + errant_ (1881); M. D. Conway, _The Wandering Jew_ (1881); S. Morpugo, + _L' Ebreo errante in Italia_ (1891); L. Neubaur, _Die Sage vom ewigen + Juden_ (2nd ed., 1893). The recent literary handling of the subject + has been dealt with by J. Prost, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden in der + neueren deutschen Literatur_ (1905); T. Kappstein, _Ahasver in der + Weltpoesie_ (1905). (J. Ja.) + + + + +JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571), bishop of Salisbury, son of John Jewel of +Buden, Devonshire, was born on the 24th of May 1522, and educated under +his uncle John Bellamy, rector of Hampton, and other private tutors +until his matriculation at Merton college, Oxford, in July 1535. There +he was taught by John Parkhurst, afterwards bishop of Norwich; but on +the 19th of August 1539 he was elected scholar of Corpus Christi +college. He graduated B.A. in 1540, and M.A. in 1545, having been +elected fellow of his college in 1542. He made some mark as a teacher at +Oxford, and became after 1547 one of the chief disciples of Peter +Martyr. He graduated B.D. in 1552, and was made vicar of Sunningwell, +and public orator of the university, in which capacity he had to compose +a congratulatory epistle to Mary on her accession. In April 1554 he +acted as notary to Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the +autumn he signed a series of Catholic articles. He was, nevertheless, +suspected, fled to London, and thence to Frankfort, which he reached in +March 1555. There he sided with Coxe against Knox, but soon joined +Martyr at Strassburg, accompanied him to Zurich, and then paid a visit +to Padua. + +Under Elizabeth's succession he returned to England, and made earnest +efforts to secure what would now be called a low-church settlement of +religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly distinguishable from that of +the Elizabethan Puritans, but he gradually modified it under the stress +of office and responsibility. He was one of the disputants selected to +confute the Romanists at the conference of Westminster after Easter +1559; he was select preacher at St Paul's cross on the 15th of June; and +in the autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western +counties. His _congé d'élire_ as bishop of Salisbury had been made out +on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the 21st of +January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary apologist of the +Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of November 1559, in a sermon +at St Paul's Cross, challenged all comers to prove the Roman case out of +the Scriptures, or the councils or Fathers for the first six hundred +years after Christ. He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr Henry Cole +took it up. The chief result was Jewel's _Apologia ecclesiae +Anglicanae_, published in 1562, which in Bishop Creighton's words is +"the first methodical statement of the position of the Church of England +against the Church of Rome, and forms the groundwork of all subsequent +controversy." A more formidable antagonist than Cole now entered the +lists in the person of Thomas Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel +had deprived of his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy. He +published an elaborate and bitter _Answer_ in 1564, to which Jewel +issued a _Reply_ in 1565. Harding followed with a _Confutation_, and +Jewel with a _Defence_, of the _Apology_ in 1566 and 1567; the +combatants ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy, +and Jewel's theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by +Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. Latterly Jewel had been +confronted with criticism from a different quarter. The arguments that +had weaned him from his Zwinglian simplicity did not satisfy his +unpromoted brethren, and Jewel had to refuse admission to a benefice to +his friend Laurence Humphrey (q.v.), who would not wear a surplice. He +was consulted a good deal by the government on such questions as +England's attitude towards the council of Trent, and political +considerations made him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with +which he had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cartwright, +which was published after his death by Whitgift. He died on the 23rd of +September 1571, and was buried in Salisbury Cathedral, where he had +built a library. Hooker, who speaks of Jewel as "the worthiest divine +that Christendom hath bred for some hundreds of years," was one of the +boys whom Jewel prepared in his house for the university; and his +_Ecclesiastical Polity_ owes much to Jewel's training. + + Jewel's works were published in a folio in 1609 under the direction of + Bancroft, who ordered the _Apology_ to be placed in churches, in some + of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other editions + appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker Soc., 4 + vols.). See also Gough's _Index to Parker Soc. Publ._; Strype's + _Works_ (General Index); _Acts of the Privy Council_; _Calendars of + Domestic and Spanish State Papers_; Dixon's and Frere's _Church + Histories_; and _Dictionary of National Biography_ (art. by Bishop + Creighton). (A. F. P.) + + + + +JEWELRY (O. Fr. _jouel_, Fr. _joyau_, perhaps from _joie_, joy; Lat. +_gaudium_; retranslated into Low Lat. _jocale_, a toy, from _jocus_, by +misapprehension of the origin of the word), a collective term for +jewels, or the art connected with them--jewels being personal ornaments, +usually made of gems, precious stones, &c., with a setting of precious +metal; in a restricted sense it is also common to speak of a gem-stone +itself as a jewel, when utilized in this way. Personal ornaments appear +to have been among the very first objects on which the invention and +ingenuity of man were exercised; and there is no record of any people so +rude as not to employ some kind of personal decoration. Natural objects, +such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated stones, feathers +of variegated colours, were combined by stringing or tying together to +ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the fingers, and even the toes, +whilst the cartilages of the nose and ears were frequently perforated +for the more ready suspension of suitable ornaments. + +Amongst modern Oriental nations we find almost every kind of personal +decoration, from the simple caste mark on the forehead of the Hindu to +the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and silver work of the various +cities and provinces of India. Nor are such decorations mere ornaments +without use or meaning. The hook with its corresponding perforation or +eye, the clasp, the buckle, the button, grew step by step into a special +ornament, according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer, +or became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel deemed +to have served its purpose with the death of its owner, for it is to the +tombs of ancient peoples that we must look for evidence of the early +existence of the jeweller's art. + +The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for us in their +tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarcophagi which contained +the embalmed bodies of the wearers. An amazing series of finds of the +intact jewels of five princesses of the XIIth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was +the result of the excavations of J. de Morgan at Dahshur in 1894-1895. +The treasure of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of +Senwosri (Usertesen) II. and III., one of whom was probably her father. +The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of the same two +monarchs, and also that of Amenemhe III., to whose family Princess +Nebhotp may have belonged. The two remaining princesses were Ita and +Khnumit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + The art of the nameless Memphite jewellers of the XIIth Dynasty is + marked by perfect accuracy of execution, by sureness of intention, by + decorative instinct and sobriety in design, and by the serviceable + nature of the jewels for actual wear. All forms of work are + represented--including chiselling, soldering, inlaying with coloured + stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree. Here + also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small + grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. 1). The principal + items in this dazzling group are the following: Three gold pectorals + (fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked _à jour_ (with the + interstices left open); on the front side they are inlaid with + coloured stones, the fine _cloisons_ being the only portion of the + gold that is visible; on the back, the gold surfaces are most + delicately carved, in low relief. Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32, + 34), found together, are curiously contrasted in character. The one + (fig. 32) is of a formal design, of gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate I. + fig 33, was attached to it); the other (fig. 34) has a multitude of + star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree of daintily twisted wires. A + dagger with inlaid patterns on the handle shows extraordinary + perfection of finish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable collection of +Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of Queen Aah-hotp, +discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance to the valley of the +tombs of the kings and now preserved in the Cairo museum. Compared with +the Dahshur treasure the jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and +coarse, but none the less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of +the materials that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered +work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the +combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured stones, +are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every respect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + A diadem of gold and enamel, found at the back of the head of the + mummy of the queen (fig. 3), was fixed in the back hair, showing the + cartouche in front. The box holding this cartouche has on the upper + surface the titles of the king, "the son of the sun, Aahmes, living + for ever and ever," in gold on a ground of lapis lazuli, with a + chequered ornament in blue and red pastes, and a sphinx couchant on + each side. A necklace with three pendant flies (fig. 4) is entirely of + gold, having a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig. 5 is a + gold drop, inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig. + A gold chain (fig. 6) is formed of wires closely plaited and very + flexible, the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having + small rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by + a small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We + have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. + 7), and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined + by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé on a ground + inlaid with lapis lazuli. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--From _Archaeologia_, vol. 59, p. 447, by +permission of the Society of Antiquaries of London.] + +That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very distinct +character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is proved by the +bas-reliefs from which a considerable collection of jewels could be +gathered, such as bracelets, ear-rings and necklaces. Thus, for example, +in the British Museum we have representations of Assur-nazir-pal, king +of Assyria (c. 885-860 B.C.), wearing a cross (fig. 8) very similar to +the Maltese cross of modern times. It happens, however, that the +excavations have not hitherto been fertile in actual remains of gold +work from Assyria. Chance also has so far ordained that the excavations +in Crete should not be particularly rich in ornaments of gold. A few +isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and other pendants, and +also several necklaces with beads of the Argonaut shell-fish pattern. +More striking than these is a short bronze sword. The handle has an +agate pommel, and is covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited +scenes of lions and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in _Archaeologia_, +59, 447). In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Minoan +periods is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the +mainland of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former the gold +ornaments found by Heinrich Schliemann in the graves of Mycenae are +pre-eminent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments still in + use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies (fig. 10), + cuttlefish (fig. 11), single and concentric circles, rosettes and + leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses and + stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre forming + spikes--all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral forms an + incessant decoration from its facile production and repetition by + means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets in gold + repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the decoration of + the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part of the body + of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with + spirals, are among the more remarkable examples of perforated + ornaments for attachment to the clothing. There are also perforated + ornaments belonging to necklaces, with intaglio engravings of such + subjects as a contest of a man and lion, and a duel of two warriors, + one of whom stabs his antagonist in the throat. There are also + pinheads and brooches formed of two stags lying down (fig. 13), the + bodies and necks crossing each other, and the horns meeting + symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial. The heads of these + ornaments were of gold, with silver blades or pointed pins inserted + for use. The bodies of the two stags rest on fronds of the date-palm + growing out of the stem which receives the pin. Another remarkable + series is composed of figures of women with doves. Some have one dove + resting on the head; others have three doves, one on the head and the + others resting on arms. The arms in both instances are extended to the + elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts. These ornaments are also + perforated, and were evidently sewed on the dresses, although there is + some evidence that an example with three doves has been fastened with + a pin. + + An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the bodies + discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to those noticed + above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like or rosette + ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but perfectly + distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of + repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection + of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be noted + (fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no "piping" at + the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have a + piping of copper wire. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are unique + in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion chasing a + herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild duck, of + inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are inlaid in + gold of various tints, and silver, in bronze plates which are inserted + in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the subjects + are rendered in relief and gilded. The whole is executed with + marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a certain + limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and hatchet + found in the treasure of Queen Aah-hotp mentioned above, but in their + most characteristic features there is little resemblance. The gold + ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik, the supposed site of Troy, + divide themselves, generally speaking, into two groups, one being the + "great treasure" of diadems, ear-rings, beads, bracelets, &c., which + seem the product of a local and uncultured art. The other group, which + were found in smaller "treasures," have spirals and rosettes similar + to those of Mycenae. The discovery, however, of the gold treasures of + the Artemision at Ephesus has brought out points of affinity between + the Hissarlik treasures and those of Ephesus, and has made any + reasoning difficult, in view of the uncertainties surrounding the + Hissarlik finds. The group with Mycenaean affinities (fig. 15) + includes necklaces, brooches, bracelets (g), hair-pins (a), ear-rings + (c, d, e, f), with and without pendants, beads and twisted wire drops. + The majority of these are ornamented with spirals of twisted wire, or + small rosettes, with fragments of stones in the centres. The twisted + wire ornaments were evidently portions of necklaces. A circular plaque + decorated with a rosette (h) is very similar to those found at + Mycenae, and a conventionalized eagle (k) is characteristic of much of + the detail found at that place as well as at Hissarlik. They were all + of pure gold, and the wire must have been drawn through a plate of + harder metal--probably bronze. The principal ornaments differing from + those found at Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered + gold (b) cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, + and fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these + pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the + length of those forming the central portions) are attached small + figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were worn + across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on each side + of the face. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +The jewelry of the close of the Mycenaean period is best represented by +the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near Salamis, in Cyprus. This +field was excavated by the British Museum in 1896, and a considerable +portion of the finds is now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of +jewelry, but especially in pins, rings and diadems with patterns in +relief. In its geometric patterns the art of Enkomi is entirely +Mycenaean, but special stress is laid on the mythical forms that were +inherited by Greek art, such as the sphinx and the gryphon. + + Figs. 37-48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean treasures + from Enkomi. + " 37, 38 " Ear-rings. + " 39 " Diadem, to be tied on the forehead. The impressed + figure of a sphinx is repeated twelve times. + " 40, 41, 46 " Ear-rings, originally in bull's head form (fig. + 40). Later, the same general form is retained, + but decorative patterns (figs. 41, 46) take + the place of the bull's head. + " 42 " Pin, probably connected by a chain with a fellow, + to be used as a cloak fastening. + " 43 " Pomegranate pendant, with fine granulated work. + " 44, 45 " Pins as No. 42. The heads are of vitreous paste. + " 46 (See above.) + " 47 " Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a pectoral, + inlaid with coloured pastes. + " 48 " Small slate cylinder, set in filigree. + +Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold ornaments +from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina) which also found its +way to the British Museum. Here we find the themes of archaic Greek art, +such as a figure holding up two water-birds, in immediate connexion with +Mycenaean gold patterns. + + Figs. 49-53 (Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure. + " 49 " Plate with repoussé ornament for sewing on a + dress. + " 50 " Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on a lotus + his base, and having serpents issuing from + near middle, modified from Egyptian forms. + Fig. 51 (Plate I.) Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the + grooves. + " 52 " Pendant ornament, repoussé, and originally + inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste. + " 53 " Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes, modified + from Egyptian forms. + +For the beginnings of Greek art proper, the most striking series of +personal jewels is the great deposit of ornaments which was found in +1905 by D. G. Hogarth in the soil beneath the central basis of the +archaic temple of Artemis of Ephesus. The gold ornaments in question +(amounting in all to about 1000 pieces) were mingled with the closely +packed earth, and must necessarily, it would seem, have been in the +nature of votive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning +of the 6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and +stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at +Constantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum, which +had undertaken the excavations. + + Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard. + " 54 " Electrum pin, with pomegranate head. + " 55 " Hawk ornament. + " 56 " Electrum pin. + " 57, 58 " Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery. + +The cemeteries of Cyprus have yielded a rich harvest of jewelry of +Graeco-Phoenician style of the 7th and following centuries B.C. Figs. 16 +and 17 are typical examples of a ring and ear-ring from Cyprus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very similar +characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and sometimes in +treatment, but it does not rise to any special individuality. Fretwork +is a distinguishing feature of all, together with the wave ornament, the +guilloche, and the occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship +is often of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with +their best skill, and can never surpass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + EARLY EGYPTIAN. + + LATE MYCENAEAN. + + (FROM ENKOMI.) + + (FROM THE GREEK ISLANDS.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + GREEK. + + ETRUSCAN. + + ROMAN.] + +The Greek jewelry of the best period is of extraordinary delicacy and +beauty. Fine examples are shown in the British Museum from Melos and +elsewhere. Undoubtedly, however, the most brilliant collection of such +ornaments is that of the Hermitage, which was derived from the tombs of +Kerch and the Crimea. It contains examples of the purest Greek work, +together with objects which must have been of local origin, as is shown +by the themes which the artist has chosen for his reliefs. Fig. 18 +illustrates the jewelry of the Hermitage (see also Ear-Ring). + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +As further examples of Greek jewelry see the pendant oblong ornament for +containing a scroll (fig. 19). + +The ear-rings (figs. 20, 21) are also characteristic. + + Figs. 59-70 (Plate II.) Examples of fine Greek jewelry, in the + British Museum. + " 59-60 " Pair of ear-rings, from a grave at Cyme in + Aeolis, with filigree work and pendant + Erotes. + " 61 " Small bracelet. + " 62-63 " Small gold reel with repoussé figures of Nereid + with helmet of Achilles, and Eros. From + Cameiros (Rhodes). + " 64 " Filigree ornament (ear-ring?) with Eros in + centre. From Syria. + " 65 " Medallion ornament with repoussé head of + Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas coll.) + " 66 " Stud, with filigree work. + " 67-68 " Pair of ear-rings, of gold, with filigree and + enamel, from Eretria. + " 69 " Diadem, with filigree, and enamel scales, from + Tarquinii. + " 70 " Necklace pendants. + +Etruscan jewelry at its best is not easily distinguished from the Greek, +but it tends in its later forms to become florid and diffuse, without +precision of design. The granulation of surfaces practised with the +highest degree of refinement by the Etruscans was long a puzzle and a +problem to the modern jeweller, until Castellani of Rome discovered +gold-workers in the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through +many generations. He induced some of these men to go to Naples, and so +revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the London +Exhibition of 1872 (see FILIGREE). + + Figs. 71-77 (Plate II.) are well-marked examples of Etruscan work, in + the British Museum. + " 71 " Pair of sirens, repoussé, forming a hook and + eye fastening. From Chiusi (?). + " 72 " Early fibula. Horse and chimaera. (Blacas + coll.) + " 74 " Medallion-shaped fibula, of fine granulated + work, with figures of sirens in relief, and + set with dark blue pastes. (Bale coll.) + " 73, 75 " Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings. + " 76, 77 " Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings, in the florid + style. + +The jewels of the Roman empire are marked by a greater use of large cut +stones in combination with the gold, and by larger surfaces of plain and +undecorated metal. The adaptation of imperial gold coins to the purposes +of the jeweller is also not uncommon. + + Figs. 78-82 (Plate II.) Late Roman imperial jewelry, in the British + Museum. + " 78 " Large pendant ear-ring, set with stones and + pearls. From Tunis, 4th century. + " 79 " Pierced-work pendant, set with a coin of the + emperor Philip. + " 80 " Ear-ring, roughly set with garnets. + " 81 " Bracelet, with a winged cornucopia as central + ornament, set with plasmas, and with + filigree and leaf work. + " 82 " Bracelet, roughly set with pearls and stones. + From Tunis, 4th century. + +With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the barbarian +tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An important example of this +style is the remarkable gold treasure, discovered at Pétrossa in +Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and now preserved, as far as it survives, in +the museum of Bucharest. A runic inscription shows that it belonged to +the Goths. Its style is in part the classical tradition, debased and +modified; in part it is a singularly rude and vigorous form of barbaric +art. Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly +conventionalized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an +ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with a free use +of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either cloisonné-fashion or +in a perforated gold plate. This part of the hoard has its affinities in +objects found over a wide field from Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and +most naturalistic forms occur in the East in uncouth objects from +Siberian tombs, whose lineage however has been traced to Persepolis, +Assyria and Egypt. In its later and more refined forms the style is +known by the name, now somewhat out of favour (except as applied to a +limited number of finds), of Merovingian. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.] + +The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the 5th century, and the +Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature thin +plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in walls of +gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonné enamel, with the +addition of very decorative details of filigree work, beading and +twisted gold. The typical group are the contents of the tomb of King +Childeric (A.D. 481) now in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. In +Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being +decorated with a species of cloisonné, in which garnets are inserted, +while the other is in hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is +also set with garnets. The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably +characteristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament +in gold, set with garnets (fig. 28), is an example of Carolingian design +of a high class. Another remarkable group of barbaric jewelry, dated by +coins as of the beginning of the 7th century, was excavated at Castel +Trosino near the Picenian Ascoli, and is attributed to the Lombards. See +_Monumenti antichi_ (_Accademia dei Lincei_), xii. 145. + +We turn now to the Celtic group of jewelled ornaments, which has an +equally long and independent line of descent. The characteristic Celtic +ornaments are of hammered work with details in repoussé, having +fillings-in of vitreous paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in the later +examples rock crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut _en cabochon_. +The whole group is a special development within the British Isles of +the art of the mid-European Early Iron age, which in its turn had been +considerably influenced by early Mediterranean culture. In its early +stages its special marks are combinations of curves, with peculiar +central thickenings which give a quasi-naturalistic effect; a skilful +use of inlaid enamels, and the chased line. After the introduction of +Christianity, a continuous tradition combined the old system with the +interlaced winding scrolls and other new forms of decoration, and so led +up to the extreme complexity of early Irish illumination and metal work. + +A remarkable group of gold ornaments of the pre-Christian time (probably +of the 1st century) was discovered about 1896, in the north-west of +Ireland, and acquired by the British Museum. It was subsequently claimed +by the Crown as treasure trove, and after litigation was transferred to +Dublin (see _Archaeologia_, lv., pl. 22). + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.] + +Figs. 29 and 30 are illustrations of two brooches of the latest period +in this class of work. The first is 13th century; the latter is probably +12th century, and is set with paste, amber and blue. + +Rings are the chief specimens now seen of medieval jewelry from the 10th +to the 13th century. They are generally massive and simple. Through the +16th century a variety of changes arose; in the traditions and designs +of the _cinquecento_ we have plenty of evidence that the workmen used +their own designs, and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert +Dürer, Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the Italian +republics must have produced works of surpassing excellence in +workmanship, and reaching the highest point in design as applied to +handicrafts of any kind. The use of enamels, precious stones, niello +work and engraving, in combination with skilful execution of the human +figure and animal life, produced effects which modern art in this +direction is not likely to approach, still less to rival. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.] + + In fig. 31 illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens + of the Renaissance and later forms of jewelry. A crystal cross set in + enamelled gold (a) is German work of the 16th century. The pendant + reliquary (b), enamelled and jewelled, is of 16th century Italian + work, and so probably is the jewel (c) of gold set with diamonds and + rubies. The Darnley or Lennox jewel (d), now in the possession of the + king, was made about 1576-1577 for Lady Margaret Douglas, countess of + Lennox, the mother of Henry Darnley. It is a pendant golden heart set + with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly jewelled and enamelled with + emblematic figures and devices. It also has Scottish mottoes around + and within it. The ear-ring (e) of gold, enamelled, hung with small + pearls, is an example of 17th century Russian work, and another (f) is + Italian of the same period, being of gold and filigree with enamel, + also with pendant pearls. A Spanish ear-ring, of 18th century work + (g), is a combination of ribbon, cord and filigree in gold; and + another (h) is Flemish, of probably the same period; it is of gold + open work set with diamonds in projecting collets. The old + French-Normandy pendant cross and locket (l) presents a characteristic + example of peasant jewelry; it is of branched open work set with + bosses and ridged ornaments of crystal. The ear-ring (j) is French of + 17th century, also of gold open work set with crystals. A small + pendant locket (k) is of rock crystal, with the cross of Santiago in + gold and translucent crimson enamel; it is 16th or 17th century + Spanish work. A pretty ear-ring of gold open scroll work (m), set with + minute diamonds and three pendant pearls, is Portuguese of 17th + century, and another ear-ring (n) of gold circular open work, set also + with minute diamonds, is Portuguese work of 18th century. These + examples fairly illustrate the general features of the most + characteristic jewelry of the dates quoted. + +During the 17th and 18th centuries we see only a mechanical kind of +excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the workshop--the +lingering of the power which when wisely directed had done so much and +so well, but now simply living on traditional forms, often combined in a +most incongruous fashion. Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the +gold, and introducing stones elaborately cut in themselves or clustered +in groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bouquets; +rubies, pearls, emeralds and other coloured special stones were brought +together for little other purpose than to get them into a given space in +conjunction with a certain quantity of gold. The question was not of +design in its relation to use as personal decoration, but of the value +which could be got into a given space to produce the most striking +effect. + +The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down through the +various periods quoted, were comparatively lost in the wretched results +of the _rococo_ of Louis XIV. and the inanities of what modern +revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call "Queen Anne." In the London +exhibition of 1851, the extravagances of modern jewelry had to stand +comparison with the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then +we have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled to +acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority of +workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller understood his work, +and with what singular simplicity of method he carried it out. The +combinations are always harmonious, the result aimed at is always +achieved; and if in attempting to work to European ideas the jeweller +failed, this was rather the fault of the forms he had to follow, than +due to any want of skill in making the most of a subject in which half +the thought and the intended use were foreign to his experience. + +A collection of peasant jewelry got together by Castellani for the Paris +exhibition of 1867, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, +illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional jewelry and personal +ornaments of a wide range of peoples in Europe. This collection, and the +additions made to it since its acquisition by the nation, show the forms +in which these objects existed over several generations among the +peasantry of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, +Denmark, Germany and Switzerland, and also show how the forms popular in +one country are followed and adopted in another, almost invariably +because of their perfect adaptation to the purpose for which they were +designed. + +Apart from these humbler branches of the subject, in the middle of the +19th century the production of jewelry, regarded as a personal art, and +not as a commercial and anonymous industry, was almost extinct. Its +revival must be associated with the artistic movement which marked the +close of that century, and which found emphatic expression in the Paris +international exhibition of 1900. For many years before 1895 this +industry, though prosperous from the commercial point of view, and +always remarkable from that of technical finish, remained stationary as +an art. French jewelry rested on its reputation. The traditions were +maintained of either the 17th and 18th centuries or the style affected +at the close of the second empire--light pierced work and design +borrowed from natural flowers. The last type, introduced by Massin, had +exercised, indeed, a revolutionary influence on the treatment of +jewelry. This clever artist, not less skilful as a craftsman, produced a +new _genre_ by copying the grace and lightness of living blossoms, thus +introducing a perfectly fresh element into the limited variety of +traditional style, and by the use of filigree gold work altering its +character and giving it greater elegance. Massin still held the first +rank in the exhibition of 1878; he had a marked influence on his +contemporaries, and his name will be remembered in the history of the +goldsmith's art to designate a style and a period. Throughout these +years the craft was exclusively devoted to perfection of workmanship. +The utmost finish was aimed at in the mounting and setting of gems; +jewelry was, in fact, not so much an art as a high-class industry; +individual effort and purpose were absent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.] + +Up to that time precious stones had been of such intrinsic value that +the jeweller's chief skill lay in displaying these costly stones to the +best advantage; the mounting was a secondary consideration. The settings +were seldom long preserved in their original condition, but in the case +of family jewels were renewed with each generation and each change of +fashion, a state of things which could not be favourable to any truly +artistic development of taste, since the work was doomed, sooner or +later, to destruction. However, the evil led to its own remedy. As soon +as diamonds fell in value they lost at the same time their overwhelming +prestige, and refined taste could give a preference to trinkets which +derived their value and character from artistic design. This +revolutionized the jeweller's craft, and revived the simple ornament of +gold or silver, which came forward but timidly at first, till, in the +Salon of 1895, it burst upon the world in the exhibits of René Lalique, +an artist who was further confirmed in his remarkable position by the +exhibition of 1900. What specially stamps the works of Lalique is their +striking originality. His work may be considered from the point of view +of design and from that of execution. As an artist he has completely +reconstructed from the foundation the scheme of design which had fed the +poverty-stricken imagination of the last generation of goldsmiths. He +had recourse to the art of the past, but to the spirit rather than the +letter, and to nature for many new elements of design--free double +curves, suave or soft; opalescent harmonies of colouring; reminiscences, +with quite a new feeling, of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece and the East, or of +the art of the Renaissance; and infinite variety of floral forms even of +the humblest. He introduces also the female nude in the form of sirens +and sphinxes. As a craftsman he has effected a radical change, breaking +through old routine, combining all the processes of the goldsmith, the +chaser, the enameller and the gem-setter, and freeing himself from the +narrow lines in which the art had been confined. He ignores the +hierarchy of gems, caring no more on occasion for a diamond than for a +flint, since, in his view, no stone, whatever its original estimation, +has any value beyond the characteristic expression he lends it as a +means to his end. Thus, while he sometimes uses diamonds, rubies, +sapphires or emeralds as a background, he will, on the other hand, give +a conspicuous position to common stones--carnelian, agate, malachite, +jasper, coral, and even materials of no intrinsic value, such as horn. +One of his favourite stones is the opal, which lends itself to his +arrangements of colour, and which has in consequence become a +fashionable stone in French jewelry. + +In criticism of the art of Lalique and his school it should be observed +that the works of the school are apt to be unsuited to the wear and tear +of actual use, and inconveniently eccentric in their details. Moreover, +the preciousness of the material is an almost inevitable consideration +in the jeweller's craft, and cannot be set at naught by the artist +without violating the canons of his art. + +The movement which took its rise in France spread in due course to other +countries. In England the movement conveniently described as the "arts +and crafts movement" affected the design of jewelry. A group of +designers has aimed at purging the jeweller's craft of its character of +mere gem-mounting in conventional forms (of which the more +unimaginative, representing stars, bows, flowers and the like, are +varied by such absurdities as insects, birds, animals, figures of men +and objects made up simply of stones clustered together). Their work is +often excellently and fancifully designed, but it lacks that exquisite +perfection of execution achieved by the incomparable craftsmen of +France. At the same time English sculptor-decorators--such as Alfred +Gilbert, R.A., and George J. Frampton, A.R.A.--have produced objects of +a still higher class, but it is usually the work of the goldsmith rather +than of the jeweller. Examples may be seen in the badge executed by +Gilbert for the president of the Institute of Painters in Water Colours +and in the mayoral chain for Preston. Symbolism here enters into the +design, which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose. + +The movement was represented in other countries also. In the United +States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by Philippe Wolfers, who +occupies in Belgium the position which in France is held by René +Lalique. If his design is a little heavier, it is not less beautiful in +imagination or less masterly in execution. Graceful, ingenious, +fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns, his objects of jewelry and +goldsmithery have a solid claim to be considered _créations d'art_. It +has also been felt in Germany, Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must +be admitted that many of the best artists who have devoted themselves to +jewelry have been more successful in design than in securing the +lightness and strength which are required by the wearer, and which were +a characteristic in the works of the Italian craftsmen of the +Renaissance. For this reason many of their masterpieces are more +beautiful in the case than upon the person. + +_Modern Jewelry._--So far we have gone over the progress and results of +the jeweller's art. We have now to speak of the production of jewelry as +a modern art industry, in which large numbers of men and women are +employed in the larger cities of Europe. Paris, Vienna, London and +Birmingham are the most important centres. An illustration of the +manufacture as carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient to +give an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this +branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be interesting +to give in the first place a description of the native working jeweller +of Hindustan. + + He travels very much after the fashion of a tinker in England; his + budget contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites of + his handicraft. The gold to be used is generally supplied by the + patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the + travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required. + He squats down in the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a + veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him, + hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files, + scrapes and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect. If he + has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never seems to + make a mistake; his instinct for harmony of colour, like that of his + brother craftsman the weaver, is as unerring as that of the bird in + the construction of its nest. Whether the materials are common or rich + and rare, he invariably does the very best possible with them, + according to native ideas of beauty in design and combination. It is + only when he is interfered with by European dictation that he ever + vulgarizes his art or makes a mistake. The result may appear rude in + its finish, but the design and the thought are invariably right. We + thus see how a trade in the working of which the "plant" is so simple + and wants are so readily met could spread itself, as in years past it + did at Clerkenwell and at Birmingham before gigantic factories were + invented for producing everything under the sun. + +It is impossible to find any date at which the systematic production of +jewelry was introduced into England. Probably the Clerkenwell trade +dates its origin from the revocation of the edict of Nantes, as the +skilled artisans in the jewelry, clock and watch, and trinket trades +appear to have been descendants of the emigrant Huguenots. The +Birmingham trade would appear to have had its origin in the skill to +which the workers in fine steel had attained towards the middle and end +of the 18th century, a branch of industry which collapsed after the +French Revolution. + + Modern jewelry may be classified under three heads: (1) objects in + which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in which the + work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means for carrying + out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the position arranged + by the designer, the metal employed being visible only as a setting; + (2) when gold work plays an important part in the development of the + design, being itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely used) or + enamelling or both, the stones and gems being arranged in + subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a + decorative effect to the whole; (3) when gold or other metal is alone + used, the design being wrought out by hammering in repoussé, casting, + engraving, chasing or by the addition of filigree work (see FILIGREE), + or when the surfaces are left absolutely plain but polished and highly + finished. + + Of course the most ancient and primitive methods are those wholly + dependent upon the craft of the workman; but gradually various + ingenious processes were invented, by which greater accuracy in the + portions to be repeated in a design could be produced with certainty + and economy: hence the various methods of stamping used in the + production of hand-made jewelry, which are in themselves as much + mechanical in relation to the end in view as if the whole object were + stamped out at a blow, twisted into its proper position as regards the + detail, or the various stamped portions fitted into each other for the + mechanical completion of the work. It is therefore rather difficult to + draw an absolute line between hand-made and machine-made jewelry, + except in extreme cases of hand-made, when everything is worked, so to + speak, from the solid, or of machine-made, when the hand has only to + give the ornament a few touches of a tool, or fit the parts together + if of more than one piece. + + The best and most costly hand-made jewelry produced in England, + whether as regards gold work, gems, enamelling or engraving, is made + in London, and chiefly at Clerkenwell. A design is first made with + pencil, sepia or water colour, and when needful with separate + enlargement of details, everything in short to make the drawing + thoroughly intelligible to the working jeweller. According to the + nature and purpose of the design, he cuts out, hammers, files and + brings into shape the constructive portions of the work as a basis. + Upon this, as each detail is wrought out, he solders, or (more rarely) + fixes by rivets, &c., the ornamentation necessary to the effect. The + human figure, representations of animal life, leaves, fruit, &c., are + modelled in wax, moulded and cast in gold, to be chased up and + finished. As the hammering goes on the metal becomes brittle and hard, + and then it is passed though the fire to anneal or soften it. In the + case of elaborate examples of repoussé, after the general forms are + beaten up, the interior is filled with a resinous compound, pitch + mixed with fire-brick dust; and this, forming a solid but pliable body + underneath the metal, allows of the finished details being wrought out + on the front of the design, and being finally completed by chasing. + When stones are to be set, or when they form the principal portions of + the design, the gold or other metal has to be wrought by hand so as to + receive them in little cup-like orifices, these walls of gold + enclosing the stone and allowing the edges to be bent over to secure + it. Setting is never effected by cement in well-made jewelry. + Machine-made settings have in recent years been made, but these are + simply cheap imitations of the true hand-made setting. Even strips of + gold have been used, serrated at the edges to allow of being easily + bent over, for the retention of the stones, true or false. + + Great skill and experience are necessary in the proper setting of + stones and gems of high value, in order to bring out the greatest + amount of brilliancy and colour, and the angle at which a diamond + (say) shall be set, in order that the light shall penetrate at the + proper point to bring out the "spark" or "flash," is a subject of + grave consideration to the setter. Stones set in a haphazard, slovenly + manner, however brilliant in themselves, will look commonplace by the + side of skilfully set gems of much less fine quality and water. + Enamelling (see ENAMEL) has of late years largely taken the place of + "paste" or false stones. + + Engraving is a simple process in itself, and diversity of effect can + be produced by skilful manipulation. An interesting variety in the + effect of a single ornament may be produced by the combination of + coloured gold of various tints. This colouring is a process requiring + skill and experience in the manipulation of the materials according to + the quality of the gold and the amount of silver alloy in it. The + objects to be coloured are dipped in a boiling mixture of salt, alum + and saltpetre. Of general colouring it may be said that the object + aimed at is to enhance the appearance of the gold by removing the + particles of alloy on the surface, and thus allowing the pure gold + only to remain visible to the eye. The process has, however, gone much + out of fashion. It is apt to rot the solder, and repairs to gold work + can be better finished by electro-gilding. + + The application of machinery to the economical production of certain + classes of jewelry, not necessarily imitations, but as much "real + gold" work, to use a trade phrase, as the best hand-made, has been on + the increase for many years. Nearly every kind of gold chain now made + is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like the beauty of design + or perfection of workmanship could be obtained by hand at, probably, + any cost. The question therefore in relation to chains is not the mode + of manufacture, but the quality of the metal. Eighteen carat gold is + of course preferred by those who wear chains, but this is only gold in + the proportion of 18 to 24, pure gold being represented by 24. The + gold coin of the realm is 22 carat; that is, it contains one-twelfth + of alloy to harden it to stand wear and tear. Thus 18 carat gold has + one-fourth of alloy, and so on with lower qualities down to 12, which + is in reality only gold by courtesy. It must be remembered that the + alloys are made by weight, and as gold is nearly twice as heavy as the + metal it is mixed with, it only forms a third of the bulk of a 12 + carat mixture. + + The application of machinery to the production of personal ornaments + in gold and silver can only be economically and successfully carried + on when there is a large demand for similar objects, that is to say, + objects of precisely the same design and decoration throughout. In + machine-made jewelry everything is stereotyped, so to speak, and the + only work required for the hand is to fit the parts together--in some + instances scarcely that. A design is made, and from it steel dies are + sunk for stamping out as rapidly as possible from a plate of rolled + metal the portion represented by each die. It is in these steel dies + that the skill of the artist die-sinker is manifested. Brooches, + ear-rings, pinheads, bracelets, lockets, pendants, &c., are struck out + by the gross. This is more especially the case in silver and in plated + work--that is, imitation jewelry--the base of which is an alloy, + afterwards gilt by electro-plating. With these ornaments imitation + stones in paste and glass, pearls, &c., are used, and it is remarkable + that of late years some of the best designs, the most simple, + appropriate and artistic, have appeared in imitation jewelry. It is + only just to those engaged in this manufacture to state distinctly + that their work is never sold wholesale for anything else than what it + is. The worker in gold only makes gold or real jewelry, and he only + makes of a quality well known to his customers. The producer of silver + work only manufactures silver ornaments, and so on throughout the + whole class of plated goods. + + It is the retailer who, if he is unprincipled, takes advantage of the + ignorance of the buyer and sells for gold that which is in reality an + imitation, and which he bought as such. The imitations of old styles + of jewelry which are largely sold in curiosity shops at foreign places + of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially at + Munich. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Dahshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and others; + _Fouilles à Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894_ (Vienna, 1895) and _Fouilles à + Dahchour en 1894-1895_ (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-hotep jewels, see + Mariette, _Album de Musée de Boulaq_, pls. 29-31; Birch, _Facsimiles + of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-hotep_ + (1863). For Cretan excavations, see A. J. Evans, in _Annual of the + British School at Athens_, Nos. 7 to 11; _Archaeologia_, vol. lix. For + excavations at Enkomi, see _Excavations in Cyprus_, by A. S. Murray + and others (1900). For _Schliemann's excavations_, see Schliemann's + works; also Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations; Perrot & Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art_, vi. For the Greek Island treasure, see A. J. + Evans, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiii. For Ephesus gold treasure, + see D. G. Hogarth, _British Museum Excavations at Ephesus_; _The + Archaic Artemisia_. For the Hermitage Collection from South Russia, + see Gillé, _Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien_ (reissued by S. + Reinach), and the _Comptes rendus_ of the Russian Archaeological + Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, + _Goldschmiedearbeit_. For Treasure of Pétrossa, A. Odobesco, _Le + Trésor de Pétrossa_. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric + jewelry, see O. M. Dalton, in _Archaeologia_, lviii. 237, and the + _Treasure of the Oxus_ (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, + G. Fontenay, _Les Bijoux anciens et modernes_ (Paris [Quantin], 1887). + For the recent movement, Léonce Bénédite, "La Bijouterie et la + joaillerie, à l'exposition universelle; René Lalique," in the _Revue + des arts décoratifs_, 1900 (July, August). (A. H. Sm.) + + + + +JEWETT, SARAH ORNE (1840-1909), American novelist, was born in South +Berwick, Maine, on the 3rd of September 1849. She was a daughter of the +physician Theodore H. Jewett (1815-1878), by whom she was greatly +influenced, and whom she has drawn in _A Country Doctor_ (1884). She +studied at the Berwick Academy, and began her literary career in 1869, +when she contributed her first story to the _Atlantic Monthly_. Her best +work consists of short stories and sketches, such as those in _The +Country of the Pointed Firs_ (1896). The People of Maine, with their +characteristic speech, manners and traditions, she describes with +peculiar charm and realism, often recalling the work of Hawthorne. She +died at South Berwick, Maine, on the 24th of June 1909. + + Among her publications are: _Deephaven_ (1877), a series of sketches; + _Old Friends and New_ (1879); _Country By-ways_ (1881); _A Country + Doctor_ (1884), a novel; _A Marsh Island_ (1885), a novel; _A White + Heron and other Stories_ (1886); _The King of Folly Island and other + People_ (1888); _Strangers and Wayfarers_ (1890); _A Native of Winby + and other Tales_ (1893); _The Queen's Twin and other Stories_ (1899), + and _The Tory Lover_ (1901), an historical novel. + + + + + +JEWS (Heb. _Yehudi_, man of Judah; Gr. [Greek: Ioudaioi]; Lat. +_Judaei_), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited +Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions as "the +Hebrews," "the Jews," and "Israel" (see § 5 below). Their history may be +divided into three great periods: (1) That covered by the Old Testament +to the foundation of Judaism in the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek +and Roman domination to the destruction of Jerusalem, and (3) that of +the Diaspora or Dispersion to the present day. + + +I.--OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY + +I. _The Land and the People._--For the first two periods the history of +the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among those peoples +which occupied the area lying between the Nile on the one side and the +Tigris and the Euphrates on the other. Surrounded by ancient seats of +culture in Egypt and Babylonia, by the mysterious deserts of Arabia, and +by the highlands of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was +the high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and the +meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were entirely +dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or acquiescence alone +enabled them to rise above dependence or vassalage. The land was +traversed by old-established trade routes and possessed important +harbours on the Gulf of 'Akaba and on the Mediterranean coast, the +latter exposing it to the influence of the Levantine culture. It was +"the physical centre of those movements of history from which the world +has grown." The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediterranean +may be divided into two main parts:--Syria (from the Taurus to Hermon) +and Palestine (southward to the desert bordering upon Egypt). The latter +is about 150 m. from north to south (the proverbial "Dan to Beersheba"), +with a breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., i.e. about 6040 sq. m. This +excludes the land east of the Jordan, on which see PALESTINE. + +From time to time streams of migration swept into Palestine and Syria. +Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their home in Arabia to seek +sustenance in its more fertile fields, to plunder, or to escape the +pressure of tribes in the rear. The course leads naturally into either +Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the Euphrates, northern Syria is +eventually reached. Tribes also moved down from the north: nomads, or +offshoots from the powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor. Such +frequently recurring movements introduced new blood. Tribes, chiefly of +pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly of their +own type that a complete amalgamation could be effected, and this +without any marked modification of the general characteristics of the +earlier inhabitants. It is from such a fusion as this that the ancestors +of the Jews were descended, and both the history and the genius of this +people can be properly understood only by taking into account the +physical features of their land and the characteristics of the Semitic +races in general (see PALESTINE, SEMITIC LANGUAGES). + +2. _Society and Religion._--The similarity uniting the peoples of the +East in respect of racial and social characteristics is accompanied by a +striking similarity of mental outlook which has survived to modern +times. Palestine, in spite of the numerous vicissitudes to which it has +been subjected, has not lost its fundamental characteristics. The +political changes involved in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or +Persian conquests surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves +of Greek, Roman and other European invasions. Even during the temporary +Hellenization in the second great period the character of the people as +a whole was untouched by the various external influences which produced +so great an effect on the upper classes. When the foreign civilization +perished, the old culture once more came to the surface. Hence it is +possible, by a comprehensive comparative study of Eastern peoples, in +both ancient and modern times, to supplement and illustrate within +certain limits our direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and thus +to understand more clearly those characteristics which were peculiar to +them, in relation to those which they shared with other Oriental +peoples. + +Even before authentic history begins, the elements of religion and +society had already crystallized into a solid coherent structure which +was to persist without essential modification. Religion was inseparable +from ordinary life, and, like that of all peoples who are dependent on +the fruits of the earth, was a nature-worship. The tie between deities +and worshippers was regarded as physical and entailed mutual +obligations. The study of the clan-group as an organization is as +instructive here as in other fields. The members of each group lived on +terms of equality, the families forming a society of worship the rites +of which were conducted by the head. Such groups (each with its local +deity) would combine for definite purposes under the impulse of external +needs, but owing to inevitable internal jealousies and the incessant +feuds among a people averse from discipline and authority, the unions +were not necessarily lasting. The elders of these groups possessed some +influence, and tended to form an aristocracy, which took the lead in +social life, although their authority generally depended merely upon +custom. Individual leaders in times of stress acquired a recognized +supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped the rest, the opportunities for +continued advance gave further scope to their authority. "The ... +interminable feuds of tribes, conducted on the theory of blood-revenge, +can seldom be durably healed without the intervention of a third +party who is called in as arbiter, and in this way an impartial and wise +power acquires of necessity a great and beneficent influence over all +around it" (W. R. Smith). In time, notwithstanding a certain inherent +individualism and impatience of control, veritable despotisms arose in +the Semitic world, although such organizations were invariably liable to +sudden collapse as the old forms of life broke down with changing +conditions.[1] + +3. _Early History._[2]--Already in the 15th century B.C. Palestine was +inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and religion were +not radically different several hundred years later. Small native +princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after expelling the Hyksos from +its borders, had entered upon a series of conquests as far as the +Euphrates. Some centuries previously, however, Babylonia had laid claim +to the western states, and the Babylonian (i.e. Assyrian) script and +language were now used, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence +between Egypt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday +life among the Palestinian princes themselves. To what extent specific +Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions is not completely +known. Canaan (Palestine and the south Phoenician coast land) and Amor +(Lebanon district and beyond) were under the constant supervision of +Egypt, and Egyptian officials journeyed round to collect tribute, to +attend to complaints, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the +vassals. The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek +(bibl. Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological evidence +(from Lachish, Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.), represent advanced +conditions of life and culture, the precise chronological limits of +which cannot be determined with certainty. This age, with its regular +maritime intercourse between the Aegean settlements, Phoenicia and the +Delta, and with lines of caravans connecting Babylonia, North Syria, +Arabia and Egypt, presents a remarkable picture of life and activity, in +the centre of which lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian +colonies and some traces of Egyptian cults. The history of this, the +"Amarna" age, reveals a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the +weakness of Egypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian peoples +were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little local +principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal intrigues and +from the designs of this northern power. It is now that we find the +restless Habiru, a name which is commonly identified with that of the +"Hebrews" (_'ibrim_). They offer themselves where necessary to either +party, and some at least perhaps belonged to the settled population. The +growing prominence of the new northern group of "Hittite" states +continued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have more +external light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (q.v.) are found +strongly entrenched in the land. But by the end of the first quarter of +the 13th century B.C. Egypt had recovered its province (precise boundary +uncertain), leaving its rivals in possession of Syria. Towards the close +of the 13th century the Egyptian king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a +successful campaign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, +Ascalon, Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or tribe) Israel.[3] +Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously threatened +Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the 12th century they formed a +coalition on land and sea which taxed all the resources of Rameses III. +In the Purasati, apparently the most influential of these peoples, may +be recognized the origin of the name "Philistine." The Hittite power +became weaker, and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have +succeeded in maintaining themselves on the sea coast. External history, +however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence would be +most welcome. For a time the fate of Syria and Palestine seems to have +been no longer controlled by the great powers. When the curtain rises +again we enter upon the historical traditions of the Old Testament. + +4. _Biblical History._--For the rest of the first period the Old Testament +forms the main source. It contains in fact the history itself in two +forms: (a) from the creation of man to the fall of Judah (Genesis-2 +Kings), which is supplemented and continued further--(b) to the foundation +of Judaism in the 5th century B.C. (Chronicles--Ezra-Nehemiah). In the +light of contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress of +scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern historical +criticism, the representation of the origin of mankind and of the history +of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer be implicitly accepted. +Written by an Oriental people and clothed in an Oriental dress, the Old +Testament does not contain objective records, but subjective history +written and incorporated for specific purposes. Like many Oriental works +it is a compilation, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles +with Samuel-Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of the +present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recurring +phenomenon. The critical examination of the nature and growth of this +compilation has removed much that had formerly caused insuperable +difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been made an integral or a +relevant part of practical religion. On the other hand, criticism has +given a deeper meaning to the Old Testament history, and has brought into +relief the central truths which really are vital; it may be said to have +replaced a divine account of man by man's account of the divine. Scholars +are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal features are best +explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis. This involves the view that +the historical traditions are mainly due to two characteristic though very +complicated recensions, one under the influence of the teaching of +Deuteronomy (Joshua to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly +character (akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, +with traces in Judges to Kings, see § 23). There are, of course, numerous +problems relating to the nature, limits and dates of the two recensions, +of the incorporated sources, and of other sources (whether early or late) +of independent origin; and here there is naturally room for much +divergence of opinion. Older material (often of composite origin) has been +used, not so much for the purpose of providing historical information, as +with the object of showing the religious significance of past history; +and the series Joshua-Kings is actually included among the "prophets" in +Jewish reckoning (see MIDRASH). In general, one may often observe that +freedom which is characteristic of early and unscientific historians. Thus +one may note the reshaping of older material to agree with later thought, +the building up of past periods from the records of other periods, and a +frequent loss of perspective. The historical traditions are to be +supplemented by the great body of prophetic, legal and poetic literature +which reveal contemporary conditions in various internal literary, +theological or sociological features. The investigation of their true +historical background and of the trustworthiness of their external setting +(e.g. titles of psalms, dates and headings of prophecies) involves a +criticism of the historical traditions themselves, and thus the two major +classes of material must be constantly examined both separately and in +their bearing on one another. In a word, the study of biblical history, +which is dependent in the first instance upon the written sources, demands +constant attention to the text (which has had an interesting history) and +to the literary features; and it requires a sympathetic acquaintance with +Oriental life and thought, both ancient and modern, an appreciation of the +necessity of employing the methods of scientific research, and (from the +theological side) a reasoned estimate of the dependence of individual +religious convictions upon the letter of the Old Testament.[4] + + In view of the numerous articles in this work dealing with biblical + subjects,[5] the present sketch is limited to the outlines of the + traditional history; the religious aspect in its bearing upon biblical + theology (which is closely bound up with the traditions) is handled + separately under HEBREW RELIGION. The related literature is enormous + (see the bibliographies to the special articles); it is indexed + annually in _Orientalische Bibliographie_ (Berlin), and is usefully + summarized in the _Theologische Jahresbericht_ (Berlin). On the + development of the study of biblical history see C. A. Briggs, _Study + of Holy Scripture_ (1899), especially ch. xx. The first scientific + historical work was by H. Ewald, _Gesch. d. Volkes Israel_ (1843; 3rd + ed., 1864-1868; Eng. trans., 1869-1883), popularized by Arthur Penrhyn + Stanley in his _Hist. of the Jewish Church_ (1863-1879). The works of + J. Wellhausen (especially _Prolegomena to the Hist. of Israel_, Eng. + trans., 1885, also the brilliant article "Israel" in the 9th ed. of + the _Ency. Brit._, 1879) were epoch-making; his position was + interpreted to English readers by W. Robertson Smith (_Old Test. in + Jewish Church_, 1881, 2nd ed., 1892; _Prophets of Israel_, 1882, 2nd + ed. by T. K. Cheyne, 1902). The historical (and related) works of T. + K. Cheyne, H. Graetz, H. Guthe, F. C. Kent, A. Kittel, W. H. Kosters, + A. Kuenen, C. Piepenbring, and especially B. Stade, although varying + greatly in standpoint, are among the most valuable by recent scholars; + H. P. Smith's _Old Test. Hist._ ("International Theological Library," + Edinburgh, 1903) is in many respects the most serviceable and complete + study; a modern and more critical "Ewald" is a desideratum. For the + works of numerous other scholars who have furthered Old Testament + research in the past it must suffice to refer to the annotated list by + J. M. P. Smith, _Books for O.T. Study_ (Chicago, 1908). + + For the external history, E. Schrader, _Cuneiform Inscr. and the Old + Testament_ (Eng. trans. by O. C. Whitehouse, 1885-1888) is still + helpful; among the less technical works are J. F. McCurdy, _History, + Prophecy and the Monuments_; B. Paton, _Syria and Palestine_ (1902); + G. Maspero, _Hist. ancienne_ (6th ed., 1904); A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. + im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (2nd ed., 1906); and especially + _Altoriental. Texte u. Bilder zum Alten Test._, ed. by H. Gressman, + with A. Ungnad and H. Ranke (1909). The most complete is that of Ed. + Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alterthums_ (2nd ed., 1907 sqq.). That of Jeremias + follows upon the lines of H. Winckler, whose works depart from the + somewhat narrow limits of purely "Israelite" histories, emphasize the + necessity of observing the characteristics of Oriental thought and + policy, and are invaluable for discriminating students. Winckler's own + views are condensed in the 3rd edition--a re-writing--of Schrader's + work (_Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Testament_, 1903), and, with an + instructive account of the history of "ancient nearer Asia," in H. F. + Helmolt's _World's History_, iii. 1-252 (1903). All modern histories + of any value are necessarily compromises between the biblical + traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those studies + which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or canonical + representation often do greater justice to the evidence as a whole + than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic + reconstructions.[6] Scientific biblical historical study, + nevertheless, is still in a relatively backward condition; and + although the labours of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct + epoch, the trend of research points to the recognition of the fact + that the purely subjective literary material requires a more + historical treatment in the light of our increasing knowledge of + external and internal conditions in the old Oriental world. But an + inductive and deductive treatment, both, comprehensive and in due + proportion, does not as yet (1910) exist, and awaits fuller external + evidence.[7] + +5. _Traditions of Origin._--The Old Testament preserves the remains of +an extensive literature, representing different standpoints, which +passed through several hands before it reached its present form. +Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing had long been known, +and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a considerable amount of +material culture, Palestine could look back upon a lengthy and stirring +history which, however, has rarely left its mark upon our records. +Whatever ancient sources may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy +traditions were in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient +Oriental world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in +the first instance to those undated records which have survived in the +form which the last editors gave to them. The critical investigation of +these records is the indispensable prelude to all serious biblical +study, and hasty or sweeping deductions from monumental or +archaeological evidence, or versions compiled promiscuously from +materials of distinct origin, are alike hazardous. A glimpse at +Palestine in the latter half of the second millennium B.C. (§ 3) +prepares us for busy scenes and active intercourse, but it is not a +history of this kind which the biblical historians themselves transmit. +At an age when--on literary-critical grounds--the Old Testament writings +were assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the +immediately preceding centuries into three distinct period. (a) The +first, that of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria) in +the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then (b) the +former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th century B.C., +when a number of its inhabitants were carried away; and the latter +shared the fate of exile at the beginning of the 6th, but succeeded in +making a fresh reconstruction some fifty or sixty years later. Finally +(c), in the so-called "post-exilic" period, religion and life were +reorganized under the influence of a new spirit; relations with Samaria +were broken off, and Judaism took its definite character, perhaps about +the middle or close of the 5th century. Throughout these vicissitudes +there were important political and religious changes which render the +study of the composite sources a work of unique difficulty. In addition +to this it should be noticed that the term "Jew" (originally _Yehudi_), +in spite of its wider application, means properly "man of Judah," i.e. +of that small district which, with Jerusalem as its capital, became the +centre of Judaism. The favourite name "Israel" with all its religious +and national associations is somewhat ambiguous in an historical sketch, +since, although it is used as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came +to designate the true nucleus of the worshippers of the national god +Yahweh as opposed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite +territory (c). A more general term is "Hebrew" (see HEBREW LANGUAGE), +which, whether originally identical with the Habiru or not (§ 3), is +used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic deserves +preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or impossible. + +The traditions which prevailed among the Hebrews concerning their origin +belong to a time when Judah and Israel were regarded as a unit. Twelve +divisions or tribes, of which Judah was one, held together by a +traditional sentiment, were traced back to the sons of Jacob (otherwise +known as Israel), the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham. Their names +vary in origin and probably also in point of age, and where they +represent fixed territorial limits, the districts so described were in +some cases certainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry. But as +tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many characteristic +traditions which were doubtless current a number have been preserved, +though not in any very early dress. Close relationship was recognized +with the Aramaeans, with Edom, Moab and Ammon. This is characteristically +expressed when Esau, the ancestor of Edom, is represented as the brother +of Jacob, or when Moab and Ammon are the children of Lot, Abraham's +nephew (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). Abraham, it was believed, came from +Harran (Carrhae), primarily from Babylonia, and Jacob re-enters from +Gilead in the north-east with his Aramaean wives and concubines and their +families (Benjamin excepted). It is on this occasion that Jacob's name is +changed to Israel. These traditions of migration and kinship are in +themselves entirely credible, but the detailed accounts of the ancestors +Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently doubtful as +regards both the internal conditions, which the (late) chronological +scheme ascribes to the first half of the second millennium B.C., and the +general circumstances of the life of these strangers in a foreign land. +From a variety of independent reasons one is forced to conclude that, +whatever historical elements they may contain, the stories of this remote +past represent the form which tradition had taken in a very much later +age. + + Opinion is at variance regarding the patriarchal narratives as a + whole. To deny their historical character is to reject them as + trustworthy accounts of the age to which they are ascribed, and even + those scholars who claim that they are essentially historical already + go so far as to concede idealization and the possibility or + probability of later revision. The failure to apprehend historical + method has often led to the fallacious argument that the + trustworthiness of individual features justifies our accepting the + whole, or that the elimination of unhistorical elements will leave an + historical residuum. Here and frequently elsewhere in biblical history + it is necessary to allow that a genuine historical tradition may be + clothed in an unhistorical dress, but since many diverse motives are + often concentrated upon one narrative (e.g. Gen. xxxii. 22-32, xxxiv., + xxxviii.), the work of internal historical criticism (in view of the + scantiness of the evidence) can rarely claim finality. The patriarchal + narratives themselves belong to the popular stock of tradition of + which only a portion has been preserved. Many of the elements lie + outside questions of time and place and are almost immemorial. Some + appear written for the first time in the book of Jubilees, in "the + Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs" (both perhaps 2nd century B.C.) + and in later sources; and although in Genesis the stories are now in a + post-exilic setting (a stage earlier than Jubilees), the older + portions may well belong to the 7th or 6th cent. This question, + however, will rest upon those criteria alone which are of true + chronological validity (see further GENESIS). + +The story of the settlement of the national and tribal ancestors in +Palestine is interrupted by an account of the southward movement of +Jacob (or Israel) and his sons into a district under the immediate +influence of the kings of Egypt. After an interval of uncertain duration +we find in Exodus a numerous people subjected to rigorous oppression. No +longer individual sons of Jacob or Israel, united tribes were led out by +Moses and Aaron; and, after a series of incidents extending over forty +years, the "children of Israel" invaded the land in which their +ancestors had lived. The traditions embodied in the books Exodus-Joshua +are considerably later than the apparent date of the events themselves, +and amid the diverse and often conflicting data it is possible to +recognize distinct groups due to some extent to distinct historical +conditions. The story of the "exodus" is that of the religious birth of +"Israel," joined by covenant with the national god Yahweh[8] whose aid +in times of peril and need proved his supremacy. In Moses (q.v.) was +seen the founder of Israel's religion and laws; in Aaron (q.v.) the +prototype of the Israelite priesthood. Although it is difficult to +determine the true historical kernel, two features are most prominent in +the narratives which the post-exilic compiler has incorporated: the +revelation of Yahweh, and the movement into Palestine. Yahweh had +admittedly been the God of Israel's ancestors, but his name was only now +made known (Exod. iii. 13 sqq., vi. 2 seq.), and this conception of a +new era in Yahweh's relations with the people is associated with the +family of Moses and with small groups from the south of Palestine which +reappear in religious movements in later history (see KENITES). Amid a +great variety of motives the prominence of Kadesh in south Palestine is +to be recognized, but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were at +Kadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to those +with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected, were subsequently +adopted by others who came to regard themselves as the worshippers of +the only true Yahweh. At all events, two quite distinct views seem to +underlie the opening books of the Old Testament. The one associates +itself with the ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. +The other, part of the religious history of "Israel," is essentially +bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly +connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence appears +in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of the present +narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and EXODUS, THE).[9] + +6. _The Monarchy of Israel._--The book of Joshua continues the fortunes +of the "children of Israel" and describes a successful occupation of +Palestine by the united tribes. This stands in striking contrast to +other records of the partial successes of individual groups (Judg. i.). +The former, however, is based upon the account of victories by the +Ephraimite Joshua over confederations of petty kings to the south and +north of central Palestine, apparently the specific traditions of the +people of Ephraim describing from their standpoint the entire conquest +of Palestine.[10] The book of Judges represents a period of unrest after +the settlement of the people. External oppression and internal rivalries +rent the Israelites, and in the religious philosophy of a later +(Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as one of alternate +apostasy from and of penitent return to the Yahweh of the "exodus." Some +vague recollection of known historical events (§ 3 end) might be claimed +among the traditions ascribed to the closing centuries of the second +millennium, but the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era +when individual leaders "judged" all Israel finds no support in the +older narratives, where the heroes of the age (whose correct sequence is +uncertain) enjoy only a local fame. The best historical narratives +belong to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely appears, and in a relatively +old poetical account of a great fight of the united tribes against a +northern adversary lies outside the writer's horizon or interest (Judg. +v., see DEBORAH). Stories of successful warfare and of temporary leaders +(see ABIMELECH; EHUD; GIDEON; JEPHTHAH) form an introduction to the +institution of the Israelite monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance in +biblical history. The heroic figure who stands at the head is Saul +("asked"), and two accounts of his rise are recorded. (1) The +Philistines, a foreign people whose presence in Palestine has already +been noticed, had oppressed Israel (cf. SAMSON) until a brilliant +victory was gained by the prophet Samuel, some account of whose early +history is recorded. He himself held supreme sway over all Israel as the +last of the "judges" until compelled to accede to the popular demand for +a king. The young Saul was chosen by lot and gained unanimous +recognition by delivering Jabesh in Gilead from the Ammonites. (2) But +other traditions represent the people scattered and in hiding; Israel is +groaning under the Philistine yoke, and the unknown Saul is raised up by +Yahweh to save his people. This he accomplishes with the help of his son +Jonathan. The first account, although now essential to the canonical +history, clearly gives a less authentic account of the change from the +"judges" to the monarchy, while the second is fragmentary and can hardly +be fitted into the present historical thread (see SAUL). At all events +the first of a series of annalistic notices of the kings of Israel +ascribes to Saul conquests over the surrounding peoples to an extent +which implies that the district of Judah formed part of his kingdom (1 +Sam. xiv. 47 seq). His might is attested also by the fine elegy (2 Sam. +i. 19 sqq.) over the death of two great Israelite heroes, Saul and +Jonathan, knit together by mutual love, inseparable in life and death, +whose unhappy end after a career of success was a national misfortune. +Disaster had come upon the north, and the plain of Jezreel saw the total +defeat of the king and the rout of his army. The court was hastily +removed across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul's son Ishbaal +(Ish-bosheth), thanks to his general Abner, recovered some of the lost +prestige. In circumstances which are not detailed, the kingdom seems to +have regained its strength, and Ishbaal is credited with a reign of two +years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam. ii. 8-10; contrast v. 11). But at +this point the scanty annals are suspended and the history of the age is +given in more popular sources. Both Israel and Judah had their own +annals, brief excerpts from which appear in the books of Samuel, Kings +and Chronicles, and they are supplemented by fuller narratives of +distinct and more popular origin. The writings are the result of a +continued literary process, and the Israelite national history has come +down to us through Judaean hands, with the result that much of it has +been coloured by late Judaean feeling. It is precisely in Saul's time +that the account of the Judaean monarchy, or perhaps of the monarchy +from the Judaean standpoint, now begins. + +7. _The Monarchy of Judah._--Certain traditions of Judah and Jerusalem +appear to have looked back upon a movement from the south, traces of +which underlie the present account of the "exodus." The land was full of +"sons of Anak," giants who had terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. +Caleb (q.v.) alone had distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and +the clan Caleb drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 +sqq.; cf. also xi. 21 seq.). David and his followers are found in the +south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards they encountered +wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. 15 sqq.; xxiii. +8 sqq.). After strenuous fighting the district was cleared, and +Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the capital. History saw in David +the head of a lengthy line of kings, the founder of the Judaean +monarchy, the psalmist and the priest-king who inaugurated religious +institutions now recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a +result of this backward projection of later conceptions, the recovery of +the true historical nucleus is difficult. The prominence of Jerusalem, +the centre of post-exilic Judaism, necessarily invited reflection. +Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of Jerusalem, Hebron and +other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite Joshua; Judaean tradition, on +the other hand, relates the capture of the sacred city from a strange +and hostile people (2 Sam. v.). The famous city, within easy reach of +the southern desert and central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the +distances are about 18 and 35 miles respectively), had already entered +into Palestinian history in the "Amarna" age (§ 3). Anathoth, a few +miles to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the +near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo, and the +neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the Amarna tablets may +indicate the worship of a Babylonian war and astral god (cf. the solar +name Beth-Shemesh). Such was the religious environment of the ancient +city which was destined to become the centre of Judaism. Judaean +tradition dated the sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the +ark, a sacred movable object which symbolized the presence of Yahweh. It +is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine, or +with the wanderings of David and his own priest Abiathar; it is +ultimately placed within the newly captured city. Quite another body of +tradition associates it with the invasion of all the tribes of Israel +from beyond the Jordan (see ARK). To combine the heterogeneous +narratives and isolated statements into a consecutive account is +impossible; to ignore those which conflict with the now predominating +views would be unmethodical. When the narratives describe the life of +the young David at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom, +when the scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and +when the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light, one must +allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for the +Judaean origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed the sovereignty +over a united people. But the stages in his progress are not clear. +After being the popular favourite of Israel in the little district of +Benjamin, he was driven away by the jealousy and animosity of Saul. +Gradually strengthening his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he +became king at Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the +north. His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel at +Jerusalem is represented as due to the weak condition of Israel, +facilitated by the compliance of Abner; partly, also, to the +long-expressed wish of the Israelites that their old hero should reign +over them. Yet again, Saul had been chosen by Yahweh to free his people +from the Philistines; he had been rejected for his sins, and had +suffered continuously from this enemy; Israel at his death was left in +the unhappy state in which he had found it; it was the Judaean David, +the faithful servant of Yahweh, who was now chosen to deliver Israel, +and to the last the people gratefully remembered their debt. David +accomplished the conquests of Saul but on a grander scale; "Saul hath +slain his thousands and David his tens of thousands" is the popular +couplet comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A series of +campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the Aramaean states, friendly +relations with Hiram of Tyre, and the recognition of his sovereignty by +the king of Hamath on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which +was the ideal. + +But in passing from the books of Samuel, with their many rich and vivid +narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon another phase of +literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to the character of the +material and the aims of other compilers (see § 9 beginning). David, the +conqueror, was followed by his son Solomon, famous for his wealth, +wisdom and piety, above all for the magnificent Temple which he built at +Jerusalem. Phoenician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with +Phoenician sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly +undertaken. Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish +(probably in Spain) and Ophir (q.v.) filled his coffers, and his realm +extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt. Tradition depicts +him as a worthy successor to his father, and represents a state of +luxury and riches impressive to all who were familiar with the great +Oriental courts. The commercial activity of the king and the picture of +intercourse and wealth are quite in accordance with what is known of the +ancient monarchies, and could already be illustrated from the Amarna +age. Judah and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of +military officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put +to forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the domestic +intrigues which darkened the last days of David. The accession of +Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and Judah, together with David's +old general Joab and his faithful priest Abiathar, were opposed to the +son of a woman who had been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of +the Temple of Jerusalem starts with a new régime, another captain of the +army and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed +over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative purposes into +twelve districts, which ignore the tribal divisions, the centre of +David's early power is exempt from the duty of providing supplies (1 +Kings iv.). Yet again, the approach of the divided monarchy is +foreshadowed. The employment of Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon's +palatial buildings, and the heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court +which was the wonder of the world, caused grave internal discontent. +External relations, too, were unsatisfactory. The Edomites, who had been +almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, +were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful kingdom of +Damascus, whose foundation is ascribed to this period, began to threaten +Israel on the north and north-east. These troubles, we learn, had +affected all Solomon's reign, and even Hiram appears to have acquired a +portion of Galilee. In the approaching disruption writers saw the +punishment for the king's apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in +Jerusalem which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. +Nevertheless, these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost +the close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to +Josiah (§ 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity was at once +seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more generous treatment. The +reply is memorable: "My little finger is thicker than my father's loins; +my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with +scorpions." These words were calculated to inflame a people whom history +proves to have been haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel +renounced its union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (q.v.), +once one of Solomon's officers, became king over the north, and thus the +history of the divided monarchy begins (about 930 B.C.) with the +Israelite power on both sides of the Jordan and with Judah extending +southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem. + + 8. _Problems of the Earliest History._--Biblical history previous to + the separation of Judah and Israel holds a prominent place in current + ideas, since over two-fifths of the entire Old Testament deals with + these early ages. The historical sources for the crucial period, from + the separation to the fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), occupy only about + one-twelfth, and even of this about one-third is spread over some + fifteen years (see below, § 11). From the flourishing days of the + later monarchy and onwards, different writers handled the early + history of their land from different standpoints. The feeling of + national unity between north and south would require historical + treatment, the existence of rival monarchies would demand an + explanation. But the surviving material is extremely uneven; vital + events in these centuries are treated with a slightness in striking + contrast to the relatively detailed evidence for the preceding + period--evidence, however, which is far from being contemporary. Where + the material is fuller, serious discrepancies are found; and where + external evidence is fortunately available, the independent character + of the biblical history is vividly illustrated. The varied traditions + up to this stage cannot be regarded as objective history. It is + naturally impossible to treat them from any modern standpoint as + fiction; they are honest even where they are most untrustworthy. But + the recovery of successive historical nuclei does not furnish a + continuous thread, and if one is to be guided by the historical + context of events the true background to each nucleus must be sought. + The northern kingdom cherished the institution of a monarchy, and in + this, as in all great political events, the prophets took part. The + precise part these figures play is often idealized and expresses the + later views of their prominence. It was only after a bitter experience + that the kingship was no longer regarded as a divine gift, and + traditions have been revised in order to illustrate the opposition to + secular authority. In this and in many other respects the records of + the first monarchy have been elaborated and now reveal traces of + differing conceptions of the events (see DAN; DAVID; ELI; SAMUEL; + SAUL; SOLOMON). The oldest narratives are not in their original + contexts, and they contain features which render it questionable + whether a very trustworthy recollection of the period was retained. + Although the rise of the Hebrew state, at an age when the great powers + were quiescent and when such a people as the Philistines is known to + have appeared upon the scene, is entirely intelligible, it is not + improbable that legends of Saul and David, the heroic founders of the + two kingdoms, have been put in a historical setting with the help of + later historical tradition. It is at least necessary to distinguish + provisionally between a possibly historical framework and narratives + which may be of later growth--between the general outlines which only + external evidence can test and details which cannot be tested and + appear isolated without any cause or devoid of any effect. + + Many attempts have been made to present a satisfactory sketch of the + early history and to do justice to (a) the patriarchal narratives, + (b) the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite invasion, and (c) the + rise of the monarchy. As regards (b), external evidence has already + suggested to scholars that there were Israelites in Palestine before + the invasion; internal historical criticism is against the view that + all the tribes entered under Joshua; and in (a) there are traces of an + actual settlement in the land, entirely distinct from the cycle of + narratives which prepare the way for (b). The various reconstructions + and compromises by modern apologetic and critical writers alike + involve without exception an extremely free treatment of the biblical + sources and the rejection of many important and circumstantial + data.[11] On the one hand, a sweeping invasion of all the tribes of + Israel moved by a common zeal may, like the conquests of Islam, have + produced permanent results. According to this view the enervating + luxury of Palestinian culture almost destroyed the lofty ideal + monotheism inculcated in the desert, and after the fall of the + northern tribes (latter part of the 8th cent.) Judah is naturally + regarded as the sole heir. But such a conquest, and all that it + signifies, conflict both with external evidence (e.g. the results of + excavation), and with any careful inspection of the narratives + themselves. On the other hand, the reconstructions which allow a + gradual settlement (perhaps of distinct groups), and an intermingling + with the earlier inhabitants, certainly find support in biblical + evidence, and they have been ingeniously built up with the help of + tribal and other data (e.g. Gen. xxxiv., xxxviii.; Judg. i. ix.). But + they imply political, sociological and religious developments which do + not do justice either to the biblical evidence as a whole or to a + comprehensive survey of contemporary conditions.[12] Thus, one of the + important questions is the relation between those who had taken part + in the exodus and the invasion and those who had not. This inquiry is + further complicated by (c), where the history of Israel and Judah, as + related in Judges and 1 Samuel, has caused endless perplexity. The + traditions of the Ephraimite Joshua and of Saul the first king of + (north) Israel virtually treat Judah as part of Israel and are related + to the underlying representations in (a). But the specific independent + Judaean standpoint treats the unification of the two divisions as the + work of David who leaves the heritage to Solomon. The varied + narratives, now due to Judaean editors, preserve distinct points of + view, and it is extremely difficult to unravel the threads and to + determine their relative position in the history. Finally, the + consciousness that the people as a religious body owed everything to + the desert clans (b) (see § 5) subsequently leaves its mark upon + (north) Israelite history (§ 14), but has not the profound + significance which it has in the records of Judah and Jerusalem. + Without sufficient external and independent evidence wherewith to + interpret in the light of history the internal features of the + intricate narratives, any reconstruction would naturally be hazardous, + and all attempts must invariably be considered in the light of the + biblical evidence itself, the date of the Israelite exodus, and the + external conditions. Biblical criticism is concerned with a composite + (Judaean) history based upon other histories (partly of non-Judaean + origin), and the relation between native written sources and external + contemporary evidence (monumental and archaeological) distinctly + forbids any haphazard selection from accessible sources. The true + nature of this relation can be readily observed in other fields + (ancient Britain, Greece, Egypt, &c.), where, however, the native + documents and sources have not that complexity which characterizes the + composite biblical history. (For the period under review, as it + appears in the light of existing external evidence, see PALESTINE: + _History_.) + +9. _The Rival Kingdoms._--The Palestine of the Hebrews was but part of a +great area breathing the same atmosphere, and there was little to +distinguish Judah from Israel except when they were distinct political +entities. The history of the two kingdoms is contained in Kings and the +later and relatively less trustworthy Chronicles, which deals with Judah +alone. In the former a separate history of the northern kingdom has been +combined with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance +with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the temple +of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1) corresponds +to the period forward to the return from the exile (§ 20). This falls +into three equal divisions, of which the first ends with Jehoash's +temple-reforms and the second with Hezekiah's death. The kingdom of +Israel lasts exactly half the time. Of the 240 years from Jeroboam I., +80 elapse before the Syrian wars in Ahab's reign, these cover another +80; the famous king Jeroboam II. reigns 40 years, and 40 years of +decline bring the kingdom to an end. These figures speak for themselves, +and the present chronology can be accepted only where it is +independently proved to be trustworthy (see further W. R. Smith, +_Prophets of Israel_, pp. 144-149). Next, the Judaean compiler regularly +finds in Israel's troubles the punishment for its schismatic idolatry; +nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by a standard which agrees +with the standpoint of Deuteronomy and is scarcely earlier than the end +of the 7th century B.C. (§§ 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel +had naturally its own independent political backgrounds and the literary +sources contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic +narratives which are already met with in 1 Samuel. Similarly the thread +of the Judaean annals in Kings is also found in 2 Samuel, although the +supplementary narratives in Kings are not so rich or varied as the more +popular records in the preceding books. The striking differences between +Samuel and Kings are due to differences in the writing of the history; +independent Israelite records having been incorporated with those of +Judah and supplemented (with revision) from the Judaean standpoint (see +CHRONICLES; KINGS; SAMUEL). + +The Judaean compiler, with his history of the two kingdoms, looks back +upon the time when each laid the foundation of its subsequent fortunes. +His small kingdom of Judah enjoyed an unbroken dynasty which survived +the most serious crises, a temple which grew in splendour and wealth +under royal patronage, and a legitimate priesthood which owed its origin +to Zadok, the successful rival of David's priest Abiathar. Israel, on +the other hand, had signed its death-warrant by the institution of +calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized as contrary to +the worship of Yahweh before the denunciations of Hosea. The scantiness +of political information and the distinctive arrangement of material +preclude the attempt to trace the relative position of the two rivals. +Judah had natural connexions with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel +was more closely associated with Gilead and the Aramaeans of the north. +That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquiescence of +Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused by Shishak's +invasion, but of this reappearance of Egypt after nearly three centuries +of inactivity little is preserved in biblical history. Only the Temple +records recall the spoliation of the sanctuary of Jerusalem, and +traditions of Jeroboam I. show that Shishak's prominence was well +known.[13] Although both kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not +throw them together. On the contrary, the statement that there was +continual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a +victory over Israel by Abijah the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam's son Nadab +perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine city of +Gibbethon, and Baasha of (north) Israel seized the throne. His reign is +noteworthy for the entrance of Damascus into Palestinian politics. Its +natural fertility and its commanding position at the meeting-place of +trade-routes from every quarter made it a dominant factor until its +overthrow. In the absence of its native records its relations with +Palestine are not always clear, but it may be supposed that amid varying +political changes it was able to play a double game. According to the +annals, incessant war prevailed between Baasha and Abijah's successor, +Asa. It is understood that the former was in league with Damascus, which +had once been hostile to Solomon (1 Kings xi. 24 seq.)--it is not stated +upon whom Asa could rely. However, Baasha at length seized Ramah about +five miles north of Jerusalem, and the very existence of Judah was +threatened. Asa utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce +the Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent troops +to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retire. Asa, it is +evident, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory ascribed to him +in 2 Chron. xiv. (see ASA). As for Baasha, his short-lived dynasty +resembles that of his predecessors. His son Elah had reigned only two +years (like Ishbaal and Nadab) when he was slain in the midst of a +drunken carousal by his captain Zimri. Meanwhile the Israelite army was +again besieging the Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of +these conflicts points to a critical situation in a Danite locality in +which Judah itself (although ignored by the writers), must have been +vitally concerned. The army preferred their general Omri, and marching +upon Zimri at Tirzah burnt the palace over his head. A fresh rival +immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni, son of Ginath. Israel +was divided into two camps, until, on the death of Tibni and his brother +Joram, Omri became sole king (c. 887 B.C.). The scanty details of these +important events must naturally be contrasted with the comparatively +full accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in +narratives which date from this or even a later age. + +10. _The Dynasty of Omri._--Omri (q.v.), the founder of one of the +greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the revival of Tyre +under Ithobaal, and the relationship between the states is seen in the +marriage of Omri's son Ahab to Jezebel, the priest-king's daughter. His +most notable recorded achievement was the subjugation of Moab and the +seizure of part of its territory. The discovery of the inscription of a +later king of Moab (q.v.) has proved that the east-Jordanic tribes were +no uncivilized or barbaric folk; material wealth, a considerable +religious and political organization, and the cultivation of letters (as +exemplified in the style of the inscription) portray conditions which +allow us to form some conception of life in Israel itself. Moreover, +Judah (now under Jehoshaphat) enjoyed intimate relations with Israel +during Omri's dynasty, and the traditions of intermarriage, and of +co-operation in commerce and war, imply what was practically a united +Palestine. Alliance with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended +intercourse; trading expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of Akaba, +and Ahab built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the +Baal of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city Samaria and even found +its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial and +political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives the usual +denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal and the defeat of the +latter are the characteristic notes of the religious history of the +period, and they leave their impression upon the records, which are now +more abundant. Although little is preserved of Omri's history, the fact +that the northern kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians +after his name is a significant indication of his great reputation. +Assyria[14] was now making itself felt in the west for the first time +since the days of Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.), and external +sources come to our aid. Assur-nazir-pal III. had exacted tribute from +north Syria (c. 870 B.C.), and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the +course of a series of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater part +of that land. A defensive coalition was formed in which the kings of +Cilicia, Hamath, the Phoenician coast, Damascus and Ammon, the Arabs of +the Syrian desert, and "Ahabbu Sirlai" were concerned. In the last, we +must recognize the Israelite Ahab. His own contribution of 10,000 men +and 12,000 chariots perhaps included levies from Judah and Moab (cf. for +the number 1 Kings x. 26). In 854 the allies at least maintained +themselves at the battle of Karkar (perhaps Apamea to the north of +Hamath). In 849 and 846 other indecisive battles were fought, but the +precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In 842 +Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael of Damascus; no coalition +is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir (Hermon, Deut. iii. +9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of Damascus were spoiled. +Tribute was received from Tyre and Sidon; and Jehu, who was now king of +Israel, sent his gifts of gold, silver, &c., to the conqueror. The +Assyrian inscription (the so-called "Black Obelisk" now in the British +Museum), which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an +interesting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with their +long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see COSTUME, fig. +9). Yet another expedition in 839 would seem to show that Damascus was +neither crushed nor helpless, but thenceforth for a number of years +Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere and the west was left to itself. +The value of this external evidence for the history of Israel is +enhanced by the fact that biblical tradition associates the changes in +the thrones of Israel and Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah +and Elisha, but handles the period without a single reference to the +Assyrian Empire. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by +encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed possessions; +had it not been for Jezebel (q.v.) the tragedy of Naboth would not have +occurred. The worship of Baal of Tyre roused a small circle of zealots, +and again the Phoenician marriage was the cause of the evil. We read the +history from the point of view of prophets. Elijah of Gilead led the +revolt. To one who favoured simplicity of cult the new worship was a +desecration of Yahweh, and, braving the anger of the king and queen, he +foreshadowed their fate. Hostility towards the dynasty culminated a few +years later in a conspiracy which placed on the throne the general Jehu, +the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of Nimshi). The work which +Elijah began was completed by Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new +dynasty. A massacre ensued in which the royal families of Israel and +Judah perished. While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered +in Israel by Jonadab the Rechabite, it was the "people of the land" who +undertook a similar reform in Judah. Jehu (q.v.) became king as the +champion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descendants of the detested +Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and unless the close intercourse +between Israel and Judah had been suddenly broken, it would be supposed +that the new king at least laid claim to the south. The events form one +of the fundamental problems of biblical history. + +11. _Damascus, Israel and Judah._--The appearance of Assyria in the +Mediterranean coast-lands had produced the results which inevitably +follow when a great empire comes into contact with minor states. It +awakened fresh possibilities--successful combination against a common +foe, the sinking of petty rivalries, the chance of gaining favour by a +neutrality which was scarcely benevolent. The alliances, +counter-alliances and far-reaching political combinations which spring +up at every advance of the greater powers are often perplexing in the +absence of records of the states concerned. Even the biblical traditions +alone do not always represent the same attitude, and our present sources +preserve the work of several hands. Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of Israel +and Elisha the prophet are the three men of the new age linked together +in the words of one writer as though commissioned for like ends (1 Kings +xix. 15-17). Hostility to Phoenicia (i.e. the Baal of Tyre) is as +intelligible as a tendency to look to Aramaean neighbours. Though Elisha +sent to anoint Jehu as king, he was none the less on most intimate terms +with Bar-hadad (Old. Test. Ben-hadad) of Damascus and recognized Hazael +as its future ruler. It is a natural assumption that Damascus could +still count upon Israel as an ally in 842; not until the withdrawal of +Assyria and the accession of Jehu did the situation change. "In those +days Yahweh began to cut short" (or, altering the text, "to be angry +with") "Israel." This brief notice heralds the commencement of Hazael's +attack upon Israelite territory east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32). The +origin of the outbreak is uncertain. It has been assumed that Israel had +withdrawn from the great coalition, that Jehu sent tribute to +Shalmaneser to obtain that monarch's recognition, and that Hazael +consequently seized the first opportunity to retaliate. Certain +traditions, it is true, indicate that Israel had been at war with the +Aramaeans from before 854 to 842, and that Hazael was attacking Gilead +at the time when Jehu revolted; but in the midst of these are other +traditions of the close and friendly relations between Israel and +Damascus! With these perplexing data the position of Judah is +inextricably involved. + + The special points which have to be noticed in the records for this + brief period (1 Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi.) concern both literary and + historical criticism.[15] A number of narratives illustrate the work + of the prophets, and sometimes purely political records appear to have + been used for the purpose (see ELIJAH; ELISHA). If Elijah is the + prophet of the fall of Omri's dynasty, Elisha is no less the prophet + of Jehu and his successors; and it is extremely probable that his + lifework was confined to the dynasty which he inaugurated.[16] In the + present narratives, however, the stories in which he possesses + influence with king and court are placed before the rise of Jehu, and + some of them point to a state of hostility with Damascus before he + foresees the atrocities which Hazael will perpetrate. But Ahab's wars + with Syria can with difficulty be reconciled with the Assyrian + evidence (see AHAB), and the narratives, largely anonymous, agree in a + singular manner with what is known of the serious conflicts which, it + is said, began in Jehu's time. Moreover, the account of the joint + undertaking by Judah (under Jehoshaphat) and Israel against Syria at + Ramoth-Gilead at the time of Ahab's death, and again (under Ahaziah) + when Jehoram was wounded, shortly before the accession of Jehu, are + historical doublets, and they can hardly be harmonized either with the + known events of 854 and 842 or with the course of the intervening + years. Further, all the traditions point clearly to the very close + union of Israel and Judah at this period, a union which is apt to be + obscured by the fact that the annalistic summaries of each kingdom are + mainly independent. Thus we may contrast the favourable Judaean view + of Jehoshaphat with the condemnation passed upon Ahab and Jezebel, + whose daughter Athaliah married Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. It is + noteworthy, also, that an Ahaziah and a Jehoram appear as kings of + Israel, and (in the reverse order) of Judah, and somewhat similar + incidents recur in the now separate histories of the two kingdoms. The + most striking is a great revolt in south Palestine. The alliance + between Jehoshaphat and Ahab doubtless continued when the latter was + succeeded by his son Ahaziah, and some disaster befell their trading + fleet in the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings xxii. 48 seq.; 2 Chron. xx. + 35-37). Next came the revolt of Moab (2 Kings i. 1), and Ahaziah, + after the briefest of reigns, was followed by Jehoram, whose Judaean + contemporary was Jehoshaphat (ch. iii.), or perhaps rather his own + namesake (i. 17). The popular story of Jehoram's campaign against + Moab, with which Edom was probably allied (see MOAB), hints at a + disastrous ending, and the Judaean annals, in their turn, record the + revolt of Edom and the Philistine Libnah (see PHILISTINES), and allude + obscurely to a defeat of the Judaean Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20-22). + Further details in 2 Chron. xxi.-xxii. 1 even record an invasion of + Philistines and Arabians (? Edomites), an attack upon Jerusalem, the + removal of the palace treasures and of all the royal sons with the + sole exception of Jehoahaz, i.e. Ahaziah (see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT). + Had the two kingdoms been under a single head, these features might + find an explanation, but it must be allowed that it is extremely + difficult to fit the general situation into our present history, and + to determine where the line is to be drawn between trustworthy and + untrustworthy details. Moreover, of the various accounts of the + massacre of the princes of Judah, the Judaean ascribes it not to Jehu + and the reforming party (2 Kings x. 13 seq.) but to Athaliah (q.v.). + Only the babe Jehoash was saved, and he remained hidden in the Temple + adjoining the palace itself. The queen, Athaliah, despite the weak + state of Judah after the revolt in Philistia and Edom, actually + appears to have maintained herself for six years, until the priests + slew her in a conspiracy, overthrew the cult of Baal, and crowned the + young child. It is a new source which is here suddenly introduced, + belonging apparently to a history of the Temple; it throws no light + upon the relations between Judah with its priests and Israel with its + prophets, the circumstances of the regency under the priest Jehoiada + are ignored, and the Temple reforms occupy the first place in the + compiler's interest. The Judaean annals then relate Hazael's advance + to Gath; the city was captured and Jerusalem was saved only by using + the Temple and palace treasure as a bribe. On the other hand, + Chronicles has a different story with a novel prelude. Jehoash, it is + said, turned away from Yahweh after the death of Jehoiada and gave + heed to the Judaean nobles, "wrath came upon Judah and Jerusalem for + their guilt," prophets were sent to bring them back but they turned a + deaf ear. The climax of iniquity was the murder of Jehoiada's son + Zechariah. Soon after, a small band of Syrians entered Judah, + destroyed its princes, and sent the spoil to the king of Damascus; the + disaster is regarded as a prompt retribution (2 Chron. xxiv.). The + inferiority of Chronicles as a historical source and its varied + examples of "tendency-writing" must be set against its possible access + to traditions as trustworthy as those in Kings.[17] In the present + instance the novel details cannot be lightly brushed aside. The + position of Judah at this period must be estimated (a) from the + preceding years of intimate relationship with Israel to the accession + of Jehu, and (b) from the calamity about half a century later when + Jerusalem was sacked by Israel. The Judaean narratives do not allow us + to fill the gap or to determine whether Judaean policy under the + regent Jehoiada would be friendly or hostile to Israel, or whether + Judaean nobles may have severed the earlier bond of union. If the + latter actually occurred, the hostility of the Israelite prophets is + only to be expected. But it is to be presumed that the punishment came + from Israel--the use of Syrian mercenaries not excluded--and if, + instead of using his treasure to ward off the invasion of Syria, + Jehoash bribed Damascus to break off relations with Israel, an + alternative explanation of the origin of the Aramaean wars may be + found.[18] + +12. _The Aramaean Wars._--If the records leave it uncertain (a) whether +Jehu (like Tyre and Sidon) sent tribute to Shalmaneser as a sign of +submission or, while severing relations with Hazael, sought the favour +of Assyria, and (b) whether Judah only escaped Hazael's vengeance by a +timely bribe or, in freeing itself from Israel, had bribed Hazael to +create a diversion, it appears that the southern kingdom suffered little +in the disastrous wars between Damascus and Israel. There were, indeed, +internal troubles, and Jehoash perished in a conspiracy. His son Amaziah +had some difficulty in gaining the kingdom and showed unwonted leniency +in sparing the children of his father's murderers. This was a departure +from the customs of the age, and was perhaps influenced less by +generosity than by expediency. Israel, on the other hand, was almost +annihilated. The Syrians seized Gilead, crossed over into Palestine, and +occupied the land. Jehu's son Jehoahaz saw his army made "like the dust +in threshing," and the desperate condition of the country recalls the +straits in the time of Saul (1 Sam. xiii. 6, 7, 19-22), and the days +before the great overthrow of the northern power as described in Judges +v. 6-8. The impression left by the horrors of the age is clear from the +allusions to the barbarities committed by Damascus and its Ammonite +allies upon Gilead (Amos i. 3, 13), and in the account of the interview +between Elisha and Hazael (2 Kings viii. 12). Several of the situations +can be more vividly realized from the narratives of Syrian wars ascribed +to the time of Omri's dynasty, even if these did not originally refer to +the later period. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned. Elisha +was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his exploits when +Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice Joash smote the Syrians--in +accordance with the last words of the dying prophet--and Aphek in the +Sharon plain, famous in history for Israel's disasters, now witnessed +three victories. The enemy under Hazael's son Ben-hadad (properly +Bar-hadad) was driven out and Joash regained the territory which his +father had lost (2 Kings xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a +treaty was concluded (cf. 1 Kings xx. 34). But the peace does not seem +to have been popular. The story of the last scene in Elisha's life +implies in Joash an easily contented disposition which hindered him from +completing his successes. Syria had not been crushed, and the failure to +utilize the opportunity was an act of impolitic leniency for which +Israel was bound to suffer (2 Kings xiii. 19). Elisha's indignation can +be illustrated by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the +prophetic party on a similar occasion (1 Kings xx. 35-43). + +At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria by +Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Mari, king of Damascus, and exacted a +heavy tribute (c. 800 B.C.). A diversion of this kind may explain the +Israelite victories; the subsequent withdrawal of Assyria may have +afforded the occasion for retaliation. Those in Israel who remembered +the previous war between Assyria and Damascus would realize the +recuperative power of the latter, and would perceive the danger of the +short-sighted policy of Joash. It is interesting to find that +Hadad-nirari claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Beth-Omri (Israel), +also from Edom and Palastu (Philistia). There are no signs of an +extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; Ammon is probably +included under Damascus; the position of Moab--which had freed itself +from Jehoram of Israel--can hardly be calculated. But the absence of +Judah is surprising. Both Jehoash (of Judah) and his son Amaziah left +behind them a great name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 +Kings xiv. 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and hence it is +conceivable that Amaziah's kingdom extended over both Edom and +Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave rise to one of +the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testament (Judg. ix. 8 +sqq.; see ABIMELECH). It was followed by a battle at Beth-shemesh; the +scene would suggest that Philistia also was involved. The result was the +route of Judah, the capture of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern +wall of Jerusalem, the sacking of the temple and palace, and the removal +of hostages to Samaria (2 Kings xiv. 12 sqq.). Only a few words are +preserved, but the details, when carefully weighed, are extremely +significant. This momentous event for the southern kingdom was scarcely +the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it was rather the +sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and hostility. + + The Judaean records have obscured the history since the days of Omri's + dynasty, when Israel and Judah were as one, when they were moved by + common aims and by a single reforming zeal, and only Israel's + vengeance gives the measure of the injuries she had received. That the + Judaean compiler has not given fuller information is not surprising; + the wonder is that he should have given so much. It is one of those + epoch-making facts in the light of which the course of the history of + the preceding and following years must be estimated. It is taken, + strangely enough, from an Israelite source, but the tone of the whole + is quite dispassionate and objective. It needs little reflection to + perceive that the position of Jerusalem and Judah was now hardly one + of independence, and the conflicting chronological notices betray the + attempt to maintain intact the thread of Judaean history. So, on the + one hand, the year of the disaster sees the death of the Israelite + king, and Amaziah survives for fifteen years, while, on the other, + twenty-seven years elapse between the battle and the accession of + Uzziah, the next king of Judah.[19] + + The importance of the historical questions regarding relations between + Damascus, Israel and Judah is clear. The defeat of Syria by Joash (of + Israel) was not final. The decisive victories were gained by Jeroboam + II. He saved Israel from being blotted out, and through his successes + "the children of Israel dwelt in their tents as of old" (2 Kings xiii. + 5, xiv. 26 seq.). Syria must have resumed warfare with redoubled + energy, and a state of affairs is presupposed which can be pictured + with the help of narratives that deal with similar historical + situations. In particular, the overthrow of Israel as foreshadowed in + 1 Kings xxii. implies an Aramaean invasion (cf. vv. 17, 25), after a + treaty (xx. 35 sqq.), although this can scarcely be justified by the + events which followed the death of Ahab, in whose time they are now + placed. + + For the understanding of these great wars between Syria and Israel + (which the traditional chronology spreads over eighty years), for the + significance of the crushing defeats and inspiring victories, and for + the alternations of despair and hope, a careful study of all the + records of relations between Israel and the north is at least + instructive, and it is important to remember that, although the + present historical outlines are scanty and incomplete, some--if not + all--of the analogous descriptions in their present form are certainly + later than the second half of the 9th century B.C., the period in + which these great events fall.[20] + +13. _Political Development._--Under Jeroboam II. the borders of Israel +were restored, and in this political revival the prophets again took +part.[21] The defeat of Ben-hadad by the king of Hamath and the +quiescence of Assyria may have encouraged Israelite ambitions, but until +more is known of the campaigns of Hadad-nirari and of Shalmaneser III. +(against Damascus, 773 B.C.) the situation cannot be safely gauged. Moab +was probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is involved with +the chronological problems. According to the Judaean annals, the "people +of Judah" set Azariah (Uzziah) upon his father's throne; and to his long +reign of fifty-two years are ascribed conquests over Philistia and Edom, +the fortification of Jerusalem and the reorganization of the army. As +the relations with Israel are not specified, the sequel to Amaziah's +defeat is a matter for conjecture; although, when at the death of +Jeroboam Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, it is +hardly likely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All that can be +recognized from the biblical records, however, is the period of internal +prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed under Jeroboam and Uzziah +(qq.v.) respectively. + +It is difficult to trace the biblical history century by century as it +reaches these last years of bitter conflict and of renewed prosperity. +The northern kingdom at the height of its power included Judah, it +extended its territory east of the Jordan towards the north and the +south, and maintained close relations with Phoenicia and the Aramaean +states. It had a national history which left its impress upon the +popular imagination, and sundry fragments of tradition reveal the pride +which the patriot felt in the past. An original close connexion is felt +with the east of the Jordan and with Gilead; stories of invasion and +conquest express themselves in varied forms. In so far as internal +wealth and luxury presuppose the control of the trade-routes, periodical +alliances are implied in which Judah, willingly or unwillingly, was +included. But the Judaean records do not allow us to trace its +independent history with confidence, and our estimate can scarcely base +itself solely upon the accidental fulness or scantiness of political +details. In the subsequent disasters of Israel (§ 15) we may perceive +the growing supremacy of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly +indicate the dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom +and Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west. +Whatever had been the effect of the movement of the Purasati some +centuries previously, the Philistines (i.e. the people of Philistia) are +now found in possession of a mature organization, and the Assyrian +evidence is of considerable value for an estimate of the stories of +conflict and covenant, of hostility and friendship, which were current +in south Palestine. The extension of the term "Judah" (cf. that of +"Israel" and "Samaria") is involved with the incorporation of +non-Judaean elements. The country for ten miles north of Jerusalem was +the exposed and highly debatable district ascribed to the young tribe of +Benjamin (the favourite "brother" of both Judah and Joseph; Gen. +xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.); the border-line between the rival kingdoms +oscillated, and consequently the political position of the smaller and +half-desert Judaean state depended upon the attitude of its neighbours. +It is possible that tradition is right in supposing that "Judah went +down from his brethren" (Gen. xxxviii. 1; cf. Judg. i. 3). Its monarchy +traced its origin to Hebron in the south, and its growth is contemporary +with a decline in Israel (§ 7). It is at least probable that when Israel +was supreme an independent Judah would centre around a more southerly +site than Jerusalem. It is naturally uncertain how far the traditions of +David can be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean situations when they +depict intrigues with Israelite officials, vassalage under Philistia, +and friendly relations with Moab, or when they suggest how enmity +between Israel and Ammon could be turned to useful account. Tradition, +in fact, is concentrated upon the rise of the Judaean dynasty under +David, but there are significant periods before the rise of both Jehoash +and Uzziah upon which the historical records maintain a perplexing +silence. + +The Hebrews of Israel and Judah were, political history apart, men of +the same general stamp, with the same cult and custom; for the study of +religion and social usages, therefore, they can be treated as a single +people. The institution of the monarchy was opposed to the simpler +local forms of government, and a military régime had distinct +disadvantages (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 11-18). The king stood at the head, as +the court of final appeal, and upon him and his officers depended the +people's welfare. A more intricate social organization caused internal +weakness, and Eastern history shows with what rapidity peoples who have +become strong by discipline and moderation pass from the height of their +glory into extreme corruption and disintegration.[22] This was Israel's +fate. Opposition to social abuses and enmity towards religious +innovations are regarded as the factors which led to the overthrow of +Omri's dynasty by Jehu, and when Israel seemed to be at the height of +its glory under Jeroboam II. warning voices again made themselves heard. +The two factors are inseparable, for in ancient times no sharp +dividing-line was drawn between religious and civic duties: +righteousness and equity, religious duty and national custom were one. + + Elaborate legal enactments codified in Babylonia by the 20th century + B.C. find striking parallels in Hebrew, late Jewish (Talmudic), Syrian + and Mahommedan law, or in the unwritten usages of all ages; for even + where there were neither written laws nor duly instituted lawgivers, + there was no lawlessness, since custom and belief were, and still are, + almost inflexible. Various collections are preserved in the Old + Testament; they are attributed to the time of Moses the lawgiver, who + stands at the beginning of Israelite national and religious history. + But many of the laws were quite unsuitable for the circumstances of + his age, and the belief that a body of intricate and even + contradictory legislation was imposed suddenly upon a people newly + emerged from bondage in Egypt raises insurmountable objections, and + underestimates the fact that legal usage existed in the earliest + stages of society, and therefore in pre-Mosaic times. The more + important question is the date of the laws in their present form and + content. Collections of laws are found in Deuteronomy and in exilic + and post-exilic writings; groups of a relatively earlier type are + preserved in Exod. xxxiv. 14-26, xx. 23-xxiii., and (of another stamp) + in Lev. xvii.-xxvi. (now in post-exilic form). For a useful conspectus + of details, see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby. _The + Hexateuch_ (vol. i., appendix); C. F. Kent, _Israel's Laws and Legal + Enactments_ (1907); and in general I. Benzinger, articles + "Government," "Family" and "Law and Justice," _Ency. Bib._, and G. B. + Gray, "Law Literature," ib. (the literary growth of legislation). + Reference may also be made, for illustrative material, to W. R. Smith, + _Kinship and Marriage_, _Religion of the Semites_; to E. Day, _Social + Life of the Hebrews_; and, for some comparison of customary usage in + the Semitic field, to S. A. Cook, _Laws of Moses and Code of + Hammurabi_. + +14. _Religion and the Prophets._--The elements of the thought and +religion of the Hebrews do not sever them from their neighbours; similar +features of cult are met with elsewhere under different names. Hebrew +religious institutions can be understood from the biblical evidence +studied in the light of comparative religion; and without going afield +to Babylonia, Assyria or Egypt, valuable data are furnished by the cults +of Phoenicia, Syria and Arabia, and these in turn can be illustrated +from excavation and from modern custom. Every religion has its customary +cult and ritual, its recognized times, places and persons for the +observance. Worship is simpler at the smaller shrines than at the more +famous temples; and, as the rulers are the patrons of the religion and +are brought into contact with the religious personnel, the character of +the social organization leaves its mark upon those who hold religious +and judicial functions alike. The Hebrews shared the paradoxes of +Orientals, and religious enthusiasm and ecstasy were prominent features. +Seers and prophets of all kinds ranged from those who were consulted for +daily mundane affairs to those who revealed the oracles in times of +stress, from those who haunted local holy sites to those high in royal +favour, from the quiet domestic communities to the austere mountain +recluse. Among these were to be found the most sordid opportunism and +the most heroic self-effacement, the crassest supernaturalism and--the +loftiest conceptions of practical morality. A development of ideals and +a growth of spirituality can be traced which render the biblical +writings with their series of prophecies a unique phenomenon.[23] The +prophets taught that the national existence of the people was bound up +with religious and social conditions; they were in a sense the +politicians of the age, and to regard them simply as foretellers of the +future is to limit their sphere unduly. They took a keen interest in all +the political vicissitudes of the Oriental world. Men of all standards +of integrity, they were exposed to external influences, but whether +divided among themselves in their adherence to conflicting parties, or +isolated in their fierce denunciation of contemporary abuses, they +shared alike in the worship of Yahweh whose inspiration they claimed. A +recollection of the manifold forms which religious life and thought have +taken in Christendom or in Islam, and the passions which are so easily +engendered among opposing sects, will prevent a one-sided estimate of +the religious standpoints which the writings betray; and to the +recognition that they represent lofty ideals it must be added that the +great prophets, like all great thinkers, were in advance of their age. + +The prophets are thoroughly Oriental figures, and the interpretation of +their profound religious experiences requires a particular sympathy +which is not inherent in Western minds. Their writings are to be +understood in the light of their age and of the conditions which gave +birth to them. With few exceptions they are preserved in fragmentary +form, with additions and adjustments which were necessary in order to +make them applicable to later conditions. When, as often, the great +figures have been made the spokesmen of the thought of subsequent +generations, the historical criticism of the prophecies becomes one of +peculiar difficulty.[24] According to the historical traditions it is +precisely in the age of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah that the first of the +extant prophecies begin (see AMOS and HOSEA). Here it is enough to +observe that the highly advanced doctrines of the distinctive character +of Yahweh, as ascribed to the 8th century B.C., presuppose a foundation +and development. But the evidence does not allow us to trace the earlier +progress of the ideas. Yahwism presents itself under a variety of +aspects, and the history of Israel's relations to the God Yahweh (whose +name is not necessarily of Israelite origin) can hardly be disentangled +amid the complicated threads of the earlier history. The view that the +seeds of Yahwism were planted in the young Israelite nation in the days +of the "exodus" conflicts with the belief that the worship of Yahweh +began in the pre-Mosaic age. Nevertheless, it implies that religion +passed into a new stage through the influence of Moses, and to this we +find a relatively less complete analogy in the specific north Israelite +traditions of the age of Jehu. The change from the dynasty of Omri to +that of Jehu has been treated by several hands, and the writers, in +their recognition of the introduction of a new tendency, have obscured +the fact that the cult of Yahweh had flourished even under such a king +as Ahab. While the influence of the great prophets Elijah and Elisha is +clearly visible, it is instructive to find that the south, too, has its +share in the inauguration of the new era. At Horeb, the mount of God, +was located the dramatic theophany which heralded to Elijah the advent +of the sword, and Jehu's supporter in his sanguinary measures belongs to +the Rechabites, a sect which felt itself to be the true worshipping +community of Yahweh and is closely associated with the Kenites, the kin +of Moses. It was at the holy well of Kadesh, in the sacred mounts of +Sinai and Horeb, and in the field of Edom that the Yahweh of Moses was +found, and scattered traces survive of a definite belief in the entrance +into Palestine of a movement uncompromisingly devoted to the purer +worship of Yahweh. The course of the dynasty of Jehu--the reforms, the +disastrous Aramaean wars, and, at length, Yahweh's "arrow of +victory"--constituted an epoch in the Israelite history, and it is +regarded as such.[25] + + The problem of the history of Yahwism depends essentially upon the + view adopted as to the date and origin of the biblical details and + their validity for the various historical and religious conditions + they presuppose. Yahwism is a religion which appears upon a soil + saturated with ideas and usages which find their parallel in + extra-biblical sources and in neighbouring lands. The problem cannot + be approached from modern preconceptions because there was much + associated with the worship of Yahweh which only gradually came to be + recognized as repugnant, and there was much in earlier ages and in + other lands which reflects an elevated and even complex religious + philosophy. In the south of the Sinaitic peninsula, remains have been + found of an elaborate half-Egyptian, half-Semitic cultus (Petrie, + _Researches in Sinai_, xiii.), and not only does Edom possess some + reputation for "wisdom," but, where this district is concerned, the + old Arabian religion (whose historical connexion with Palestine is + still imperfectly known) claims some attention. The characteristic + denunciations of corruption and lifeless ritual in the writings of the + prophets and the emphasis which is laid upon purity and simplicity of + religious life are suggestive of the influence of the nomadic spirit + rather than of an internal evolution on Palestinian soil. Desert + pastoral life does not necessarily imply any intellectual inferiority, + and its religious conceptions, though susceptible of modification, are + not artificially moulded through the influence of other civilizations. + Nomadic life is recognized by Arabian writers themselves as possessing + a relative superiority, and its characteristic purity of manner and + its reaction against corruption and luxury are not incompatible with a + warlike spirit. If nomadism may be recognized as one of the factors in + the growth of Yahwism, there is something to be said for the + hypothesis which associates it with the clans connected with the + Levites (see E. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 82 sqq.; B. Luther, ib. 138). + It is, however, obvious that the influence due to immigrants could be, + and doubtless was, exerted at more than one period (see §§ 18, 20; + also HEBREW RELIGION; PRIEST). + +15. _The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy._--The prosperity of Israel was +its undoing. The disorders that hastened its end find an analogy in the +events of the more obscure period after the death of the earlier +Jeroboam. Only the briefest details are given. Zechariah was slain after +six months by Shallum ben Jabesh in Ibleam; but the usurper fell a month +later to Menahem (q.v.), who only after much bloodshed established his +position. Assyria again appeared upon the scene under Tiglath-pileser +IV. (745-728 B.C.).[26] His approach was the signal for the formation of +a coalition, which was overthrown in 738. Among those who paid tribute +were Rasun (the biblical Rezin) of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, the +kings of Tyre, Byblos and Hamath and the queen of Aribi (Arabia, the +Syrian desert). Israel was once more in league with Damascus and +Phoenicia, and the biblical records must be read in the light of +political history. Judah was probably holding aloof. Its king, Uzziah, +was a leper in his latter days, and his son and regent, Jotham, claims +notice for the circumstantial reference (2 Chron. xxvii.; cf. xxvi. 8) +to his subjugation of Ammon--the natural allies of Damascus--for three +years. Scarcely had Assyria withdrawn before Menahem lost his life in a +conspiracy, and Pekah with the help of Gilead made himself king. The new +movement was evidently anti-Assyrian, and strenuous endeavours were made +to present a united front. It is suggestive to find Judah the centre of +attack.[27] Rasun and Pekah directed their blows from the north, +Philistia threatened the west flank, and the Edomites who drove out the +Judaeans from Elath (on the Gulf of 'Akaba) were no doubt only taking +their part in the concerted action. A more critical situation could +scarcely be imagined. The throne of David was then occupied by the young +Ahaz, Jotham's son. In this crisis we meet with Isaiah (q.v.), one of +the finest of Hebrew prophets. The disorganized state of Egypt and the +uncertain allegiance of the desert tribes left Judah without direct aid; +on the other hand, opposition to Assyria among the conflicting interests +of Palestine and Syria was rarely unanimous. Either in the natural +course of events--to preserve the unity of his empire--or influenced by +the rich presents of gold and silver with which Ahaz accompanied his +appeal for help, Tiglath-pileser intervened with campaigns against +Philistia (734 B.C.) and Damascus (733-732). Israel was punished by the +ravaging of the northern districts, and the king claims to have carried +away the people of "the house of Omri." Pekah was slain and one Hoshea +(q.v.) was recognized as his successor. Assyrian officers were placed in +the land and Judah thus gained its deliverance at the expense of Israel. +But the proud Israelites did not remain submissive for long; Damascus +had indeed fallen, but neither Philistia nor Edom had yet been crushed. + +At this stage a new problem becomes urgent. A number of petty peoples, +of whom little definite is known, fringed Palestine from the south of +Judah and the Delta to the Syrian desert. They belong to an area which +merges itself in the west into Egypt, and Egypt in fact had a hereditary +claim upon it. Continued intercourse between Egypt, Gaza and north +Arabia is natural in view of the trade-routes which connected them, and +on several occasions joint action on the part of Edomites (with allied +tribes) and the Philistines is recorded, or may be inferred. The part +played by Egypt proper in the ensuing anti-Assyrian combinations is not +clearly known; with a number of petty dynasts fomenting discontent and +revolt, there was an absence of cohesion in that ancient empire previous +to the rise of the Ethiopian dynasty. Consequently the references to +"Egypt" (Heb. _Misrayim_, Ass. _Musri_) sometimes suggest that the +geographical term was really extended beyond the bounds of Egypt proper +towards those districts where Egyptian influence or domination was or +had been recognized (see further MIZRAIM). + +When Israel began to recover its prosperity and regained confidence, its +policy halted between obedience to Assyria and reliance upon this +ambiguous "Egypt." The situation is illustrated in the writings of Hosea +(q.v.). When at length Tiglath-pileser died, in 727, the slumbering +revolt became general; Israel refused the usual tribute to its overlord, +and definitely threw in its lot with "Egypt." In due course Samaria was +besieged for three years by Shalmaneser IV. The alliance with So (Seveh, +Sibi) of "Egypt," upon whom hopes had been placed, proved futile, and +the forebodings of keen-sighted prophets were justified. Although no +evidence is at hand, it is probable that Ahaz of Judah rendered service +to Assyria by keeping the allies in check; possible, also, that the +former enemies of Jerusalem had now been induced to turn against +Samaria. The actual capture of the Israelite capital is claimed by +Sargon (722), who removed 27,290 of its inhabitants and fifty chariots. +Other peoples were introduced, officers were placed in charge, and the +usual tribute re-imposed. Another revolt was planned in 720 in which the +province of Samaria joined with Hamath and Damascus, with the Phoenician +Arpad and Simura, and with Gaza and "Egypt." Two battles, one at Karkar +in the north, another at Rapih (Raphia) on the border of Egypt, sufficed +to quell the disturbance. The desert peoples who paid tribute on this +occasion still continued restless, and in 715 Sargon removed men of +Tamud, Ibadid, Marsiman, Hayapa, "the remote Arabs of the desert," and +placed them in the land of Beth-Omri. Sargon's statement is significant +for the internal history; but unfortunately the biblical historians take +no further interest in the fortunes of the northern kingdom after the +fall of Samaria, and see in Judah the sole survivor of the Israelite +tribes (see 2 Kings xvii. 7-23). Yet the situation in this neglected +district must continue to provoke inquiry. + +16. _Judah and Assyria._--Amid these changes Judah was intimately +connected with the south Palestinian peoples (see further PHILISTINES). +Ahaz had recognized the sovereignty of Assyria and visited +Tiglath-pileser at Damascus. The Temple records describe the innovations +he introduced on his return. Under his son Hezekiah there were fresh +disturbances in the southern states, and anti-Assyrian intrigues began +to take a more definite shape among the Philistine cities. Ashdod openly +revolted and found support in Moab, Edom, Judah, and the still ambiguous +"Egypt." This step may possibly be connected with the attempt of Marduk +(Merodach)-baladan in south Babylonia to form a league against Assyria +(cf. 2 Kings xx. 12); at all events Ashdod fell after a three years' +siege (711) and for a time there was peace. But with the death of Sargon +in 705 there was another great outburst; practically the whole of +Palestine and Syria was in arms, and the integrity of Sennacherib's +empire was threatened. In both Judah and Philistia the anti-Assyrian +party was not without opposition, and those who adhered or favoured +adherence to the great power were justified by the result. The +inevitable lack of cohesion among the petty states weakened the national +cause. At Sennacherib's approach, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom +submitted; Ekron, Ascalon, Lachish and Jerusalem held out strenuously. +The southern allies (with "Egypt") were defeated at Eltekeh (Josh. xix. +44). Hezekiah was besieged and compelled to submit (701). The small +kings who had remained faithful were rewarded by an extension of their +territories, and Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Judah's +expense. These events are related in Sennacherib's inscription; the +biblical records preserve their own traditions (see HEZEKIAH). If the +impression left upon current thought can be estimated from certain of +the utterances of the court-prophet Isaiah and the Judaean countryman +Micah (q.v.), the light which these throw upon internal conditions must +also be used to gauge the real extent of the religious changes ascribed +to Hezekiah. A brazen serpent, whose institution was attributed to +Moses, had not hitherto been considered out of place in the cult; its +destruction was perhaps the king's most notable reform. + +In the long reign of his son Manasseh later writers saw the deathblow to +the Judaean kingdom. Much is related of his wickedness and enmity to the +followers of Yahweh, but few political details have come down. It is +uncertain whether Sennacherib invaded Judah again shortly before his +death, nevertheless the land was practically under the control of +Assyria. Both Esar-haddon (681-668) and Assur-bani-pal (668-c. 626) +number among their tributaries Tyre, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Ascalon, Gaza +and Manasseh himself,[28] and cuneiform dockets unearthed at Gezer +suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons there (and no doubt also +elsewhere) to ensure allegiance. The situation was conducive to the +spread of foreign customs, and the condemnation passed upon Manasseh +thus perhaps becomes more significant. Precisely what form his worship +took is a matter of conjecture; but it is possible that the religion +must not be judged too strictly from the standpoint of the late +compiler, and that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh-worship +to new Assyrian forms.[29] Politics and religion, however, were +inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria meant the supremacy of the +Assyrian pantheon. + +If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns against +Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would only be in +accordance with a vassal's duty. But when tradition preserves some +recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was taken to Babylon to +explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxiii.), also of the settling of foreign +colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon (Ezra iv. 2), there is just a +possibility that Judah made some attempt to gain independence. According +to Assur-bani-pal all the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of +his brother Samas-sum-ukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic +disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on behalf of +Assyria, is unknown (see MOAB). Manasseh's son Amon fell in a court +intrigue and "the people of the land," after avenging the murder, set up +in his place the infant Josiah (637). The circumstances imply a regency, +but the records are silent upon the outlook. The assumption that the +decay of Assyria awoke the national feeling of independence is perhaps +justified by those events which made the greatest impression upon the +compiler, and an account is given of Josiah's religious reforms, based +upon a source apparently identical with that which described the work of +Jehoash. In an age when the oppression and corruption of the ruling +classes had been such that those who cherished the old worship of Yahweh +dared not confide in their most intimate companions (Mic. vii. 5, 6), no +social reform was possible; but now the young Josiah, the popular +choice, was upon the throne. A roll, it is said, was found in the +Temple, its contents struck terror into the hearts of the priests and +king, and it led to a solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the +provisions of the law-book which had been so opportunely recovered. + + That the writer (2 Kings xxii. seq.) meant to describe the discovery + of Deuteronomy is evident from the events which followed; and this + identification of the roll, already made by Jerome, Chrysostom and + others, has been substantiated by modern literary criticism since De + Wette (1805). (See DEUTERONOMY; JOSIAH.) Some very interesting + parallels have been cited from Egyptian and Assyrian records where + religious texts, said to have been found in temples, or oracles from + the distant past, have come to light at the very time when "the days + were full."[30] There is, however, no real proof for the traditional + antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very distinctive landmark + in the religious history by reason of its attitude to cult and ritual + (see HEBREW RELIGION, § 7). In particular it is aimed against the + worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries and inculcates the sole + pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary--the Temple of Jerusalem. This + centralization involved the removal of the local priests and a + modification of ritual and legal observance. The fall of Samaria, + Sennacherib's devastation of Judah, and the growth of Jerusalem as the + capital, had tended to raise the position of the Temple, although + Israel itself, as also Judah, had famous sanctuaries of its own. From + the standpoint of the popular religion, the removal of the local + altars, like Hezekiah's destruction of the brazen serpent, would be an + act of desecration, an iconoclasm which can be partly appreciated from + the sentiments of 2 Kings xviii. 22, and partly also from the modern + Wahhabite reformation (of the 19th century). But the details and + success of the reforms, when viewed in the light of the testimony of + contemporary prophets, are uncertain. The book of Deuteronomy + crystallizes a doctrine; it is the codification of teaching which + presupposes a carefully prepared soil. The account of Josiah's work, + like that of Hezekiah, is written by one of the Deuteronomic school: + that is to say, the writer describes the promulgation of the teaching + under which he lives. It is part of the scheme which runs through the + book of Kings, and its apparent object is to show that the Temple + planned by David and founded by Solomon ultimately gained its true + position as the only sanctuary of Yahweh to which his worshippers + should repair. Accordingly, in handling Josiah's successors the writer + no longer refers to the high places. But if Josiah carried out the + reforms ascribed to him they were of no lasting effect. This is + conclusively shown by the writings of Jeremiah (xxv. 3-7, xxxvi. 2 + seq.) and Ezekiel. Josiah himself is praised for his justice, but + faithless Judah is insincere (Jer. iii. 10), and those who claim to + possess Yahweh's law are denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear + to be better than Judah (iii. 11; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious + revival was a practical failure, and it was not until a century later + that the opportunity again came to put any new teaching into effect (§ + 20). On the other hand, the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic + social-religious side; its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the + distinctive features of its laws, and Josiah's reputation (Jer. xxii. + 15 seq.) and the circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest + that he, like Jehoash (2 Kings xi. 17; cf. xxiii. 3), had entered into + a reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah's writings would + indicate, had suffered grievous oppression and misery.[31] + +17. _The Fall of the Judaean Monarchy._--In Josiah's reign a new era was +beginning in the history of the world. Assyria was rapidly decaying and +Egypt had recovered from the blows of Assur-bani-pal (to which the +Hebrew prophet Nahum alludes, iii. 8-10). Psammetichus (Psamtek) I., one +of the ablest of Egyptian rulers for many centuries, threw off the +Assyrian yoke with the help of troops from Asia Minor and employed +these to guard his eastern frontiers at Defneh. He also revived the old +trading-connexions between Egypt and Phoenicia. A Chaldean prince, +Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia, and Assyria was compelled to +invoke the aid of the Askuza. It was perhaps after this that an inroad +of Scythians (q.v.) occurred (c. 626 B.C.); if it did not actually touch +Judah, the advent of the people of the north appears to have caused +great alarm (Jer. iv.-vi.: Zephaniah). Bethshean in Samaria has perhaps +preserved in its later (though temporary) name Scythopolis an echo of +the invasion.[32] Later, Necho, son of Psammetichus, proposed to add to +Egypt some of the Assyrian provinces, and marched through Palestine. +Josiah at once interposed; it is uncertain whether, in spite of the +power of Egypt, he had hopes of extending his kingdom, or whether the +famous reformer was, like Manasseh, a vassal of Assyria. The book of +Kings gives the standpoint of a later Judaean writer, but Josiah's +authority over a much larger area than Judah alone is suggested by +xxiii. 19 (part of an addition), and by the references to the border at +Riblah in Ezek. vi. 14, xi. 10 seq. He was slain at Megiddo in 608, and +Egypt, as in the long-distant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The +Judaeans made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished +him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother Jehoiakim. +Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the empire which had +dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over two centuries (see § 10). +Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Babylonia (556 B.C.) saw in the disaster +the vengeance of the gods for the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew +prophets, for their part, exulted over Yahweh's far-reaching judgment. +The newly formed Chaldean power at once recognized in Necho a dangerous +rival and Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who overthrew the +Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was the turning-point of +the age, and with it the succession of the new Chaldean or Babylonian +kingdom was assured. But the relations between Egypt and Judah were not +broken off. The course of events is not clear, but Jehoiakim (q.v.) at +all events was inclined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as +Nebuchadrezzar, seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay +siege to Jerusalem. His young son Jehoiachin surrendered after a three +months' reign, with his mother and the court; they were taken away to +Babylonia, together with a number of the artisan class (596). +Jehoiakim's brother, Mattaniah or Zedekiah, was set in his place under +an oath of allegiance, which he broke, preferring Hophra the new king of +Egypt. A few years later the second siege took place. It began on the +tenth day of the tenth month, January 587. The looked-for intervention +of Egypt was unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege +inspired wild hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual +horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth month +586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah fled towards the Jordan +valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah (45 m. south +of Hamath). His sons were slain before his eyes, and he himself was +blinded and carried off to Babylon after a reign of eleven years. The +Babylonian Nebuzaradan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious +city, and on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 B.C. Jerusalem was +destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned, the walls +broken down, the chief priest Seraiah, the second priest Zephaniah, and +other leaders were put to death, and a large body of people was again +carried away. The disaster became the great epoch-making event for +Jewish history and literature. + +Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.v.) had realized +that Judah's only hope lay in submission to Babylonia. Stigmatized as a +traitor, scorned and even imprisoned, he had not ceased to utter his +warnings to deaf ears, although Zedekiah himself was perhaps open to +persuasion. Now the penalty had been paid, and the Babylonians, whose +policy was less destructive than that of Assyria, contented themselves +with appointing as governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was +Mizpah, a commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of +Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to be loyal +to Babylonia and to resume their former peaceful occupations. The land +had not been devastated, and many gladly returned from their +hiding-places in Moab, Edom and Ammon. But discontented survivors of the +royal family under Ishmael intrigued with Baalis, king of Ammon. The +plot resulted in the murder of Gedaliah and an unsuccessful attempt to +carry off various princesses and officials who had been left in the +governor's care. This new confusion and a natural fear of Babylonia's +vengeance led many to feel that their only safety lay in flight to +Egypt, and, although warned by Jeremiah that even there the sword would +find them, they fled south and took refuge in Tahpanhes (Daphnae, q.v.), +afterwards forming small settlements in other parts of Egypt. But the +thread of the history is broken, and apart from an allusion to the +favour shown to the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah +and Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent +events are viewed from a new standpoint (§ 20). + + The last few years of the Judaean kingdom present several difficult + problems. + + (a) That there was some fluctuation of tradition is evident in the + case of Jehoiakim, with whose quiet end (2 Kings xxiv. 6 [see also + Lucian]; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 8 [Septuagint]) contrast the fate + foreshadowed in Jer. xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30 (cf. Jos. _Ant._ x. 6, 2 + seq.). The tradition of his captivity (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6; Dan. i. 2) + has apparently confused him with Jehoiachin, and the latter's reign is + so brief that some overlapping is conceivable. Moreover, the prophecy + in Jer. xxxiv. 5 that Zedekiah would die in peace is not borne out by + the history, nor does Josiah's fate agree with the promise in 2 Kings + xxii. 20. There is also an evident relation between the pairs: + Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah (e.g. length of + reigns), and the difficulty felt in regard to the second and third is + obvious in the attempts of the Jewish historian Josephus to provide a + compromise. The contemporary prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah and + Ezekiel require careful examination in this connexion, partly as + regards their traditional background (especially the headings and + setting), and partly for their contents, the details of which + sometimes do not admit of a literal interpretation in accordance with + our present historical material (cf. Ezek. xix. 3-9, where the two + brothers carried off to Egypt and Babylon respectively would seem to + be Jehoahaz and his nephew Jehoiachin). + + (b) Some fluctuation is obvious in the number, dates and extent of the + deportations. Jer. lii. 28-30 gives a total of 4600 persons, in + contrast to 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 16 (the numbers are not inclusive), and + reckons three deportations in the 7th (? 17th), 18th and 23rd years of + Nebuchadrezzar. Only the second is specifically said to be from + Jerusalem (the remaining are of Judaeans), and the last has been + plausibly connected with the murder of Gedaliah, an interval of five + years being assumed. For this twenty-third year Josephus (_Ant._ x. 9, + 7) gives an invasion of Egypt and an attack upon Ammon, Moab and + Palestine (see NEBUCHADREZZAR). + + (c) That the exile lasted seventy years (? from 586 B.C. to the + completion of the second temple) is the view of the canonical history + (2 Chron. xxxvi. 21; Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10; Zech. i. 12; cf. Tyre, + Isa. xxiii. 15), but it is usually reckoned from the first + deportation, which was looked upon as of greater significance than the + second (Jer. xxiv. xxix.), and it may be a round number. Another + difficulty is the interpretation of the 40 years in Ezek. iv. 6 (cf. + Egypt, xxix. 11), and the 390 in _v._ 5 (Septuagint 150 or 190; 130 in + Jos. x. 9, 7 end). A period of fifty years is allowed by the + chronological scheme (1 Kings vi. 1; cf. Jos. c. _Ap._ i. 21), and the + late book of Baruch (vi. 3) even speaks of seven generations. Varying + chronological schemes may have been current and some weight must be + laid upon the remarkable vagueness of the historical information in + later writings (see DANIEL). + + (d) The attitude of the neighbouring peoples constitutes another + serious problem (cf. 2 Kings xxiv. 2 and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5, where + Lucian's recension and the Septuagint respectively add the + Samaritans!), in view of the circumstances of Gedaliah's appointment + (Jer. xl. 11, see above) as contrasted with the frequent prophecies + against Ammon, Moab and Edom which seem to be contemporary (see EDOM; + MOAB). + + (e) Finally, the recurrence of similar historical situations in + Judaean history must be considered. The period under review, with its + relations between Judah and Egypt, can be illustrated by prophecies + ascribed to a similar situation in the time of Hezekiah. But the + destruction of Jerusalem is not quite unique, and somewhat later we + meet with indirect evidence for at least one similar disaster upon + which the records are silent. There are a number of apparently related + passages which, however, on internal grounds, are unsuitable to the + present period, and when they show independent signs of a later date + (in their present form), there is a very strong probability that they + refer to such subsequent disasters. The scantiness of historical + tradition makes a final solution impossible, but the study of these + years has an important bearing on the history of the later Judaean + state, which has been characteristically treated from the standpoint + of exiles who returned from Babylonia and regard themselves as the + kernel of "Israel." From this point of view, the desire to intensify + the denudation of Palestine and the fate of its remnant, and to look + to the Babylonian exiles for the future, can probably be recognized in + the writings attributed to contemporary prophets.[33] + +18. _Internal Conditions and the Exile._--Many of the exiles accepted +their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xxix. 4-7); Jewish +colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The agriculturists and +herdsmen who had been left in Palestine formed, as always, the staple +population, and it is impossible to imagine either Judah or Israel as +denuded of its inhabitants. The down-trodden peasants were left in peace +to divide the land among them, and new conditions arose as they took +over the ownerless estates. But the old continuity was not entirely +broken; there was a return to earlier conditions, and life moved more +freely in its wonted channels. The fall of the monarchy involved a +reversion to a pre-monarchical state. It had scarcely been otherwise in +Israel. The Israelites who had been carried off by the Assyrians were +also removed from the cult of the land (cf. 1 Sam. xxvi. 19; Ruth i. 15 +seq.). It is possible that some had escaped by taking timely refuge +among their brethren in Judah; indeed, if national tradition availed, +there were doubtless times when Judah cast its eye upon the land with +which it had been so intimately connected. It would certainly be unwise +to draw a sharp boundary line between the two districts; kings of Judah +could be tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional founder, or +Assyria might be complaisant towards a faithful Judaean vassal. The +character of the Assyrian domination over Israel must not be +misunderstood; the regular payment of tribute and the provision of +troops were the main requirements, and the position of the masses +underwent little change if an Assyrian governor took the place of an +unpopular native ruler. The two sections of the Hebrews who had had so +much in common were scarcely severed by a border-line only a few miles +to the north of Jerusalem. But Israel after the fall of Samaria is +artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a foreign +land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intrusion of +foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil, and strangers +had settled in her midst, had formed part of the royal guard, or had +even served as janissaries (§ 15, end). + +Samaria had experienced several changes in its original population,[34] +and an instructive story tells how the colonists, in their ignorance of +the religion of their new home, incurred the divine wrath. _Cujus regio +ejus religio_--settlement upon a new soil involved dependence upon its +god, and accordingly priests were sent to instruct the Samaritans in the +fear of Yahweh. Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite +Yahweh along with their own native cults (2 Kings xvii. 24-28, 33). +Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of the +Judaeans (cf. Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves with the +old stock (Ezra iv. 2). Whatever recollection they preserved of their +origin and of the circumstances of their entry would be retold from a +new standpoint; the ethnological traditions would gain a new meaning; +the assimilation would in time become complete. In view of subsequent +events it would be difficult to find a more interesting subject of +inquiry than the internal religious and sociological conditions in +Samaria at this age. + +To the prophets the religious position was lower in Judah than in +Samaria, whose iniquities were less grievous (Jer. iii. 11 seq., xxiii. +11 sqq.; Ezek. xvi. 51). The greater prevalence of heathen elements in +Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of Josiah or in the writings of +the prophets (cf. Ezek. viii.), would at least suggest that the +destruction of the state was not entirely a disaster. To this +catastrophe may be due the fragmentary character of old Judaean +historical traditions. Moreover, the land was purified when it became +divorced from the practices of a luxurious court and lost many of its +worst inhabitants. In Israel as in Judah the political disasters not +only meant a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence +the old popular and non-official religion, the character of which is not +to be condemned because of the attitude of lofty prophets in advance of +their age. When there were sects like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when +the Judaean fields could produce a Micah or a Zephaniah, and when Israel +no doubt had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the +underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The writings of +the prophets were cherished, not only in the unfavourable atmosphere of +courts (see Jer. xxxvi., 21 sqq.), but also in the circles of their +followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the quiet smaller sanctuaries the old-time +beliefs were maintained, and the priests, often perhaps of the older +native stock (cf. 2 Kings xvii. 28 and above), were the recognized +guardians of the religious cults. The old stories of earlier days +encircle places which, though denounced for their corruption, were not +regarded as illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traditions of +the past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular +belief and thought. In the domestic circles of prophetic communities the +part played by their great heads in history did not suffer in the +telling, and it is probable that some part at least of the extant +history of the Israelite kingdom passed through the hands of men whose +interest lay in the pre-eminence of their seers and their beneficent +deeds on behalf of these small communities. This interest and the +popular tone of the history may be combined with the fact that the +literature does not take us into the midst of that world of activity in +which the events unfolded themselves. + + Although the records preserve complete silence upon the period now + under review, it is necessary to free oneself from the narrow outlook + of the later Judaean compilers. It is a gratuitous assumption that the + history of (north) Israel ceased with the fall of Samaria or that + Judah then took over Israelite literature and inherited the old + Israelite spirit: the question of the preservation of earlier writings + is of historical importance. It is true that the situation in Israel + or Samaria continues obscure, but a careful study of literary + productions, evidently not earlier than the 7th century B.C., reveals + a particular loftiness of conception and a tendency which finds its + parallels in Hosea and approximates the peculiar characteristics of + the Deuteronomic school of thought. But the history which the Judaean + writers have handed down is influenced by the later hostility between + Judah and Samaria. The traditional bond between the north and south + which nothing could efface (cf. Jos. _Ant._, xi. 8, 6) has been + carried back to the earliest ages; yet the present period, after the + age of rival kingdoms, Judah and Israel, and before the foundation of + Judaism, is that in which the historical background for the inclusion + of Judah among the "sons" of Israel is equally suitable (§§ 5, 20, + end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance between the people + of Palestine, and a greater prominence of the old holy places (Hebron, + Bethel, Shechem, &c.), of which the ruined Jerusalem would not be one, + and the existing condition of Judah and Israel from internal and + non-political points of view--not their condition in the + pre-monarchical ages--is the more crucial problem in biblical + history.[35] + +19. _Persian Period._[36]--The course of events from the middle of the +6th century B.C. to the close of the Persian period is lamentably +obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates that this age holds +the key to the growth of written biblical history. It was an age of +literary activity which manifested itself, not in contemporary +historical records--only a few of which have survived--but rather in the +special treatment of previously existing sources. The problems are of +unusual intricacy and additional light is needed from external +evidence. It will be convenient to turn to this first. Scarcely 40 years +after the destruction of Jerusalem, a new power appeared in the east in +the person of Cyrus the Great. Babylon speedily fell (539 B.C.) and a +fresh era opened. To the petty states this meant only a change of +masters; they now became part of one of the largest empires of +antiquity. The prophets who had marked in the past the advent of +Assyrians and Chaldeans now fixed their eyes upon the advance of Cyrus, +confident that the fall of Babylon would bring the restoration of their +fortunes. Cyrus was hailed as the divinely appointed saviour, the +anointed one of Yahweh. The poetic imagery in which the prophets clothed +the doom of Babylon, like the romantic account of Herodotus (i. 191), +falls short of the simple contemporary account of Cyrus himself. He did +not fulfil the detailed predictions, and the events did not reach the +ideals of Hebrew writers; but these anticipations may have influenced +the form which the Jewish traditions subsequently took. Nevertheless, if +Cyrus was not originally a Persian and was not a worshipper of Yahweh +(Isa. xli. 25), he was at least tolerant towards subject races and their +religions, and the persistent traditions unmistakably point to the +honour in which his memory was held. Throughout the Persian supremacy +Palestine was necessarily influenced by the course of events in +Phoenicia and Egypt (with which intercourse was continual), and some +light may thus be indirectly thrown on its otherwise obscure political +history. Thus, when Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, made his great +expedition against Egypt, with the fleets of Phoenicia and Cyprus and +with the camels of the Arabians, it is highly probable that Palestine +itself was concerned. Also, the revolt which broke out in the Persian +provinces at this juncture may have extended to Palestine; although the +usurper Darius encountered his most serious opposition in the north and +north-east of his empire. An outburst of Jewish religious feeling is +dated in the second year of Darius (520), but whether Judah was making a +bold bid for independence or had received special favour for abstaining +from the above revolts, external evidence alone can decide. Towards the +close of the reign of Darius there was a fresh revolt in Egypt; it was +quelled by Xerxes (485-465), who did not imitate the religious tolerance +of his predecessors. Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (465-425), attracts +attention because the famous Jewish reformers Ezra and Nehemiah +flourished under a king of this name. Other revolts occurred in Egypt, +and for these and also for the rebellion of the Persian satrap Megabyzos +(c. 448-447), independent evidence for the position of Judah is needed, +since a catastrophe apparently befell the unfortunate state before +Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Little is known of the mild and +indolent Artaxerxes II. Mnemon (404-359). With the growing weakness of +the Persian empire Egypt reasserted its independence for a time. In the +reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus (359-338), Egypt, Phoenicia and Cyprus +were in revolt; the rising was quelled without mercy, and the details of +the vengeance are valuable for the possible fate of Palestine itself. +The Jewish historian Josephus (_Ant._ xi. 7) records the enslavement of +the Jews, the pollution of the Temple by a certain Bagoses (see BAGOAS), +and a seven years' punishment. Other late sources narrate the +destruction of Jericho and a deportation of the Jews to Babylonia and to +Hyrcania (on the Caspian Sea). The evidence for the catastrophes under +Artaxerxes I. and III. (see ARTAXERXES), exclusively contained in +biblical and in external tradition respectively, is of particular +importance, since several biblical passages refer to disasters similar +to those of 586 but presuppose different conditions and are apparently +of later origin.[37] The murder of Artaxerxes III. by Bagoses gave a +set-back to the revival of the Persian Empire. Under Darius Codomannus +(336-330) the advancing Greek power brought matters to a head, and at +the battle of Issus in 333 Alexander settled its fate. The overthrow of +Tyre and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish state +entered upon the Greek period. (See § 25.) + + During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been only one of + an aggregate of subject peoples enjoying internal freedom provided in + return for a regular tribute. They lived in comparative quietude; + although Herodotus knows the Palestinian coast he does not mention the + Jews. The earlier Persian kings acknowledged the various religions of + the petty peoples; they were also patrons of their temples and would + take care to preserve an ancient right of asylum or the privileges of + long-established cults.[38] Cyrus on entering Babylon had even + restored the gods to the cities to which they belonged.[39] + Consequently much interest attaches to the evidence which illustrates + the environment of the Jews during this period. Those who had been + scattered from Palestine lived in small colonies, sometimes mingling + and intermarrying with the natives, sometimes strictly preserving + their own individuality. Some took root in the strange lands, and, as + later popular stories indicate, evidently reached high positions; + others, retaining a more vivid tradition of the land of their fathers, + cherished the ideal of a restored Jerusalem. Excavation at Nippur + (q.v.) in Babylonia has brought to light numerous contract tablets of + the 5th century B.C. with Hebrew proper names (Haggai, Hanani, + Gedaliah, &c.). Papyri from Elephantine in Upper Egypt, of the same + age, proceed from Jewish families who carry on a flourishing business, + live among Egyptians and Persians, and take their oaths in courts of + law in the name of the god "Yahu," the "God of Heaven," whose temple + dated from the last Egyptian kings. Indeed, it was claimed that + Cambyses had left the sanctuary unharmed but had destroyed the temples + of the Egyptians. In Elephantine, as in Nippur, the legal usages show + that similar elements of Babylonio-Assyrian culture prevailed, and the + evidence from two such widely separated fields is instructive for + conditions in Palestine itself.[40] + +20. _The Restoration of Judah._--The biblical history for the Persian +period is contained in a new source--the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, +whose standpoint and period are that of Chronicles, with which they are +closely joined. After a brief description of the fall of Jerusalem the +"seventy years" of the exile are passed over, and we are plunged into a +history of the return (2 Chron. xxxvi.; Ezra i.). Although Palestine had +not been depopulated, and many of the exiled Jews remained in Persia, +the standpoint is that of those who returned from Babylon. Settled in +and around Jerusalem, they look upon themselves as the sole community, +the true Israel, even as it was believed that once before Israel entered +and developed independently in the land of its ancestors. They look back +from the age when half-suppressed hostility with Samaria had broken out, +and when an exclusive Judaism had been formed. The interest of the +writers is as usual in the religious history; they were indifferent to, +or perhaps rather ignorant of, the strict order of events. Their +narratives can be partially supplemented from other sources (Haggai; +Zechariah i.-viii.; Isa. xl.-lxvi.; Malachi), but a consecutive sketch +is impossible.[41] + +In 561 B.C. the captive Judaean king, Jehoiachin, had received special +marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar's son Amil-marduk. So little is +known of this act of recognition that its significance can only be +conjectured. A little later Tyre received as its king Merbaal (555-552) +who had been fetched from Babylonia. Babylonia was politically +unsettled, the representative of the Davidic dynasty had descendants; if +Babylon was assured of the allegiance of Judah further acts of clemency +may well have followed. But the later recension of Judaean history--our +sole source--entirely ignores the elevation of Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxv. +27 sqq.; Jer. lii. 31-34), and proceeds at once to the first year of +Cyrus, who proclaims as his divine mission the rebuilding of the Temple +(538). The Judaean Sheshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) +brought back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried away +and prepared to undertake the work at the expense of the royal purse. An +immense body of exiles is said to have returned at this time to +Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was of Davidic descent, and the priest +Jeshua or Joshua, the grandson of the murdered Seraiah (Ezra i.-iii.; v. +13-vi. 5). When these refused the proffered help of the people of +Samaria, men of the same faith as themselves (iv. 2), their troubles +began, and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The +next historical notice is dated in the second year of Darius (520) when +two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, came forward to kindle the Judaeans +to new efforts, and in spite of opposition the work went steadily +onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius, until the Temple was completed +four years later (Ezra v. 2, vi. 13 sqq.). On the other hand, from the +independent writings ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no +considerable body of exiles could have returned--it is still an event of +the future (Zech. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to +the Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel is the one to take in hand and +complete the great undertaking (Zech. iv. 9). The prophets address +themselves to men living in comfortable abodes with olive-fields and +vineyards, suffering from bad seasons and agricultural depression, and +though the country is unsettled there is no reference to any active +opposition on the part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson +from the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply that +Yahweh's wrath is still upon the unfortunate city and that Persia is +still the oppressor. Consequently, although small bodies of individuals +no doubt came back to Judah from time to time, and some special mark of +favour may have been shown by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since +the early arguments of E. Schrader (_Stud. u. Krit._, 1867, pp. +460-504), that the compiler's representation of the history is +untrustworthy. His main object is to make the new Israel, the +post-exilic community at Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the +old Israel.[42] Greater weight must be laid upon the independent +evidence of the prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine +could not have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah +without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question. +Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century B.C. can be +only indirectly estimated (§ 18), and the political position must remain +for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel the people beheld once +more a ruler of the Davidic race. The new temple heralded a new future; +the mournful fasts commemorative of Jerusalem's disasters would become +feasts; Yahweh had left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now +returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged its +iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanctuary. So +Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the ideal kingdom, the +trusted and highly favoured minister who was the signet-ring upon +Yahweh's hand (contrast Hag. ii. 24 with Jer. xxii. 23). Zechariah, in +his turn, proclaims the overthrow of all difficulties in the path of the +new king, who shall rule in glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). +What political aspirations were revived, what other writers were +inspired by these momentous events are questions of inference. + + A work which inculcates the dependence of the state upon the purity of + its ruler is the unfinished book of Kings with its history of the + Davidic dynasty and the Temple. Its ideals culminate in Josiah (§ 16, + end), and there is a strong presumption that it is intended to impress + upon the new era the lessons drawn from the past. Its treatment of the + monarchy is only part of a great and now highly complicated literary + undertaking (traceable in the books Joshua to Kings), inspired with + the thought and coloured by language characteristic of Deuteronomy + (especially the secondary portions), which forms the necessary + introduction. Whatever reforms Josiah actually accomplished, the + restoration afforded the opportunity of bringing the Deuteronomic + teaching into action; though it is more probable that Deuteronomy + itself in the main is not much earlier than the second half of the 6th + century B.C.[43] It shows a strong nationalist feeling which is not + restricted to Judah alone, but comprises a greater Israel from Kadesh + in Naphtali in the north to Hebron in the south, and even extends + beyond the Jordan. Distinctive non-Judaean features are included, as + in the Samaritan liturgical office (Deut. xxvii. 14-26), and the + evidence for the conclusion that traditions originally of (north) + Israelite interest were taken over and adapted to the later standpoint + of Judah and Jerusalem (viz. in the Deuteronomic book of Kings) + independently confirms the inferences drawn from Deuteronomy itself. + The absence of direct testimony can be partially supplied by later + events which presuppose the break-up of no inconsiderable state, and + imply relations with Samaria which had been by no means so unfriendly + as the historians represent. A common ground for Judaism and + Samaritanism is obvious, and it is in this obscure age that it is to + be sought. But the curtain is raised for too brief an interval to + allow of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean + fortunes; not until the time of Nehemiah, about 140 years after the + fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect. + + Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (§§ 21, 23) + much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has long + been recognized that 1 Chron. ii. and iv. represent a Judah composed + mainly of groups which had moved up from the south (Hebron) to the + vicinity of Jerusalem. It includes Caleb and Jerahmeel, Kenite or + Rechabite families, scribes, &c., and these, as "sons" of Hezron, + claim some relationship with Gilead. The names point generally to an + affinity with south Palestine and north Arabia (Edom, Midian, &c.; see + especially the lists in Gen. xxxvi.), and suggest that certain members + of a closely related collection of groups had separated from the main + body and were ultimately enrolled as Israelites. It is also recognized + by many scholars that in the present account of the exodus there are + indications of the original prominence of traditions of Kadesh, and + also of a journey northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took + part (§ 5). On these and on other grounds besides, it has long been + felt that south Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of + real importance in biblical research, and for many years efforts have + been made to determine the true significance of the evidence. The + usual tendency has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of + early Israelite history, which demands some reconstruction (§ 8), and + to discern distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah + and Israel under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of T. + K. Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south + actually underlies our sources and can be recovered by emendation of + the text. Against the former is the fact that although certain groups + are ultimately found in Judah (Judg. i.), the evidence for the + movement--a conquest north of Kadesh, almost at the gate of the + promised land--explicitly mentions Israel; and against the latter the + evidence again shows that this representation has been deliberately + subordinated to the entrance of Israel from beyond the Jordan.[44] In + either case the history of separate sections of people may have been + extended to Israel as a whole, but there is no evidence for any + adequate reconstruction. Yet the presence of distinct representations + of the history may be recognized, and since the Judaean compilers of + the Old Testament have incorporated non-Judaean sources (e.g. the + history of the northern monarchy), it is obvious that, apart from + indigenous Judaean tradition, the southern groups which were + ultimately enrolled in Judah would possess their own stock of oral and + written lore. Hence it is noteworthy that the late editor of Judges + has given the first place to Othniel, a Kenizzite, and therefore of + Edomite affinity, though subsequently reckoned as a Judaean (Judg i. + 13, iii. 9; cf. Gen. xxxvi. 11; 1 Chron. iv. 13). Of Kenite interest + is the position of Cain, ancestor of heroes of culture and of the + worship of Yahweh (Gen. iv. 17 sqq.). One fragmentary source alludes + to a journey to the Midianite or Kenite father-in-law of Moses with + the Ark (q.v.); another knows of its movements with David and the + priest Abiathar (a name closely related to Jether or Jethro; cf. also + 1 Chron. iv. 17). Distinctively Calebite are the stories of the eponym + who, fearless of the "giants" of Palestine, gained striking divine + promises (Num. xiv. 11-24); Caleb's overthrow of the Hebronite giants + finds a parallel in David's conflicts before the capture of Jerusalem, + and may be associated with the belief that these primitive giants once + filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see § 7, and DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS + OF). Calebite, too, are Hebron and its patron Abraham, and both + increase in prominence in the patriarchal narratives, where, moreover, + an important body of tradition can have emanated only from outside + Israel and Judah (see GENESIS). Although Judah was always closely + connected with the south, these "southern" features (once clearly more + extensive and complete) are found in the Deuteronomic and priestly + compilations, and their presence in the historical records can hardly + be severed from the prominence of "southern" families in the vicinity + of Jerusalem, some time after the fall of Jerusalem. The background in + 1 Chron. ii. presupposes the desolation after that disaster, and some + traces of these families are found in Nehemiah's time; and while the + traditions know of a separation from Edom (viz. stories of Jacob and + his "brother" Esau), elsewhere Edom is frequently denounced for + unbrotherly conduct in connexion with some disaster which befell + Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 B.C. (see § 22).[45] The true + inwardness of this movement, its extent and its history, can hardly be + recovered at present, but it is noteworthy that the evidence generally + involves the Levites, an ecclesiastical body which underwent an + extremely intricate development. To a certain extent it would seem + that even as Chronicles (q.v.) has passed through the hands of one who + was keenly interested in the Temple service, so the other historical + books have been shaped not only by the late priestly writers + (symbolized in literary criticism by P), but also by rather earlier + writers, also of priestly sympathies, but of "southern" or + half-Edomite affinity. This is independently suggested by the contents + and vicissitudes of the purely ecclesiastical traditions.[46] + + Recent criticism goes to show that there is a very considerable body + of biblical material, more important for its attitude to the history + than for its historical accuracy, the true meaning of which cannot as + yet be clearly perceived. It raises many serious problems which + concentrate upon that age which is of the greatest importance for the + biblical and theological student. The perplexing relation between the + admittedly late compilations and the actual course of the early + history becomes still more intricate when one observes such a feature + as the late interest in the Israelite tribes. No doubt there is much + that is purely artificial and untrustworthy in the late (post-exilic) + representations of these divisions, but it is almost incredible that + the historical foundation for their early career is severed from the + written sources by centuries of warfare, immigration and other + disturbing factors. On the one hand, conservative scholars insist upon + the close material relation between the constituent sources; critical + scholars, on the other hand, while recognizing much that is relatively + untrustworthy, refrain from departing from the general outlines of the + canonical history more than is absolutely necessary. Hence the various + reconstructions of the earlier history, with all their inherent + weaknesses. But historical criticism is faced with the established + literary conclusions which, it should be noticed, place the + Deuteronomic and priestly compilations posterior to the great changes + at and after the fall of the northern monarchy, and, to some extent, + contemporary with the equally serious changes in Judah. There were + catastrophes detrimental to the preservation of older literary + records, and vicissitudes which, if they have not left their mark on + contemporary history--which is singularly blank--may be traced on the + representations of the past. There are external historical + circumstances and internal literary features which unite to show that + the application of the literary hypotheses of the Old Testament to the + course of Israelite history is still incomplete, and they warn us that + the intrinsic value of religious and didactic writings should not + depend upon the accuracy of their history.[47] Future research may not + be able to solve the problems which arise in the study of the period + now under discussion; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all + efforts should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see + further § 24; and PALESTINE: _History_). + +21. _Nehemiah and Ezra._--There is another remarkable gap in the +historical traditions between the time of Zerubbabel and the reign of +Artaxerxes I. In obscure circumstances the enthusiastic hopes have +melted away, the Davidic scion has disappeared, and Jerusalem has been +the victim of another disaster. The country is under Persian officials, +the nobles and priests form the local government, and the ground is +being prepared for the erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of +rebuilding and reorganization, of social and of religious reforms, which +we encounter in the last pages of biblical history, and in the records +of Ezra and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of +epoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of Artaxerxes at Susa, +plunged in grief at the news of the desolation of Jerusalem, obtained +permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided with an escort +and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for the buildings, he +returned to the city of his fathers' sepulchres (the allusion may +suggest his royal ancestry). His zeal is represented in a twofold +aspect. Having satisfied himself of the extent of the ruins, he aroused +the people to the necessity of fortifying and repopulating the city, and +a vivid account is given in his name of the many dangers which beset the +rebuilding of the walls. Sanballat of Horon, Tobiah the Ammonite, and +Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him. Tobiah and his +son Johanan were related by marriage to Judaean secular and priestly +families, and active intrigues resulted, in which nobles and prophets +took their part. It was insinuated that Nehemiah had his prophets to +proclaim that Judah had again its own king; it was even suggested that +he was intending to rebel against Persia! Nehemiah naturally gives us +only his version, and the attitude of Haggai and Zechariah to Zerubbabel +may illustrate the feeling of his partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan +themselves were worshippers of Yahweh (as their names also show), and +consequently, with prophets taking different sides and with the +Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3), all +the facts cannot be gathered from the narratives. Nevertheless the +undaunted Judaean pressed on unmoved by the threatening letters which +were sent around, and succeeded in completing the walls within fifty-two +days.[48] + +In the next place, Nehemiah appears as governor of the small district of +Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich, and the necessity +of providing tribute had brought the humbler classes to the lowest +straits. Some had mortgaged their houses, fields and vineyards to buy +corn; others had borrowed to pay the taxes, and had sold their children +to their richer brethren to repay the debt. Nehemiah was faced with old +abuses, and vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the +generosity of the exiles who would redeem their poor countrymen from +slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting the usual +provision which other governors had claimed; indeed, he had readily +entertained over 150 officials and dependants at his table, apart from +casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear something of a twelve-years' +governorship and of a second visit, but the evidence does not enable us +to determine the sequence (xiii. 6). Neh. v. is placed in the middle of +the building of the walls in fifty-two days; the other reforms during +the second visit are closely connected with the dedication of the walls +and with the events which immediately follow his first arrival when he +had come to rebuild the city. Nehemiah also turns his attention to +religious abuses. The sabbath, once a festival, had become more strictly +observed, and when he found the busy agriculturists and traders (some of +them from Tyre) pursuing their usual labours on that day, he pointed to +the disasters which had resulted in the past from such profanation, and +immediately took measures to put down the evil (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. +xvii. 20 sqq.; Ezek. xx. 13-24; Isa. lvi. 2, 6; lviii. 13). Moreover, +the maintenance of the Temple servants called for supervision; the +customary allowances had not been paid to the Levites who had come to +Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they had now +forsaken the city. His last acts were the most conspicuous of all. Some +of the Jews had married women of Ashdod, Ammon and Moab, and the +impetuous governor indignantly adjured them to desist from a practice +which was the historic cause of national sin. Even members of the +priestly families had intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat; the former +had his own chamber in the precincts of the Temple, the daughter of the +latter was the wife of a son of Joiada the son of the high priest +Eliashib. Again Nehemiah's wrath was kindled. Tobiah was cast out, the +offending priest expelled, and a general purging followed, in which all +the foreign element was removed. With this Nehemiah brings the account +of his reforms to a conclusion, and the words "Remember me, O my God, +for good" (xiii. 31) are not meaningless. The incidents can be +supplemented from Josephus. According to this writer (_Ant._ xi. 7, 2), +a certain Manasseh, the brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, +refused to divorce his wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was +driven out, and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival +temple and priesthood upon Mt Gerizim, to which repaired other priests +and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages. There is little +doubt that Josephus refers to the same events; but there is considerable +confusion in his history of the Persian age, and when he places the +schism and the foundation of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the +Great (after the obscure disasters of the reign of Artaxerxes III.), it +is usually supposed that he is a century too late.[49] At all events, +there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the +concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old +Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel and +rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title[50] (see § 5). + +In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social intercourse +with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (q.v.) requires notice. The +story of this scribe (now combined with the memoirs of Nehemiah) +crystallizes the new movement inaugurated after a return of exiles from +Babylonia. The age can also be illustrated from Isa. lvi.-lxvi. and +Malachi (q.v.). There was a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in +need of renovation, its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of +their office. On the one side was the grinding poverty of the poor; on +the other the abuses of the governors. There were two leading religious +parties: one of oppressive formalists, exclusive, strict and +ritualistic; the other, more cosmopolitan, extended a freer welcome to +strangers, and tolerated the popular elements and the superstitious +cults which are vividly depicted (Isa. lxv. seq.). But the former gained +the day, and, realizing that the only hope of maintaining a pure worship +of Yahweh lay in a forcible isolation from foreign influence, its +adherents were prepared to take measures to ensure the religious +independence of their assembly. It is related that Ezra, the scribe and +priest, returned to Jerusalem with priests and Levites, lay exiles, and +a store of vessels for the Temple. He was commissioned to inquire into +the religious condition of the land and to disseminate the teaching of +the Law to which he had devoted himself (Ezra vii.). On his arrival the +people were gathered together, and in due course he read the "book of +the Law of Moses" dally for seven days (Neh. viii.). They entered into +an agreement to obey its teaching, undertaking in particular to avoid +marriages with foreigners (x. 28 sqq.). A special account is given of +this reform (Ezra ix. seq.) and the description of Ezra's horror at the +prevalence of intermarriage, which threatened to destroy the distinctive +character of the community, sufficiently indicates the attitude of the +stricter party. The true seed of Israel separated themselves from all +foreigners (not, however, without some opposition) and formed an +exclusively religious body or "congregation." Dreams of political +freedom gave place to hopes of religious independence, and "Israel" +became a church, the foundation of which it sought in the desert of +Sinai a thousand years before. + + 22. _Post-exilic History._--The biblical history for the period in the + books of Ezra and Nehemiah is exceptionally obscure, and it is + doubtful how far the traditions can be trusted before we reach the + reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. sqq., Neh.). The records belonging to + this reign represent four different stages: (a) The Samaritans + reported that the Jews who had returned from the king to Jerusalem + were rebuilding the city and completing its walls, an act calculated + to endanger the integrity of the province. Artaxerxes accordingly + instructed them to stop the work until he should give the necessary + decree, and this was done by force (Ezra iv. 7-23, undated; 1 Esdras + ii. 16 sqq. mentions a building of the Temple!). (b) It was in the 7th + year (i.e. 458 B.C.) that Ezra returned with a small body of exiles to + promulgate the new laws he had brought and to set the Temple service + in order.[51] Fortified with remarkable powers, some of which far + exceed the known tolerance of Persian kings, he began wide-sweeping + marriage reforms; but the record ceases abruptly (vii.-x.). (c) In the + 20th year (445 B.C.) Nehemiah returned with permission to rebuild the + walls, the citadel and the governor's house (Neh. ii. 5, 8; see § 21 + above). But (d), whilst as governor he accomplishes various needed + reforms, there is much confusion in the present narratives, due partly + to the resumption of Ezra's labours after an interval of twelve years, + and partly to the closely related events of Nehemiah's activity in + which room must be found for his twelve-years' governorship and a + second visit. The internal literary and historical questions are + extremely intricate, and the necessity for some reconstruction is very + generally felt (for preliminary details, see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH). The + disaster which aroused Nehemiah's grief was scarcely the fall of + Jerusalem in 586 B.C., but a more recent one, and it has been + conjectured that it followed the work of Ezra (in _b_ above). On the + other hand, a place can hardly be found for the history of Ezra before + the appearance of Nehemiah; he moves in a settled and peaceful + community such as Nehemiah had helped to form, his reforms appear to + be more mature and schematic than those of Nehemiah; and, whilst + Josephus handles the two separately, giving Ezra the priority, many + recent scholars incline to place Nehemiah's first visit before the + arrival of Ezra.[52] That later tradition should give the pre-eminence + to the priestly reforms of Ezra is in every way natural, but it has + been found extremely difficult to combine the two in any + reconstruction of the period. Next, since there are three distinct + sources, for (a) above, and for the work of Nehemiah and of Ezra, + implicit reliance cannot be placed upon the present sequence of + narratives. Thus (a), with its allusion to a further decree, forms a + plausible prelude to the return of either Ezra (vii. 13) or Nehemiah + (i. 3, ii. 3); and if it is surprising that the Samaritans and other + opponents, who had previously waited to address Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. + 14 sqq., v. 5, 17), should now interfere when Nehemiah was armed with + a royal mandate (Neh. ii. 7-9), it is very difficult not to conclude + that the royal permits, as now detailed, have been coloured by Jewish + patriotism and the history by enmity to Samaria. Finally, the + situation in the independent and undated record (a) points to a + return, a rebuilding (apparently after some previous destruction), and + some interference. This agrees substantially with the independent + records of Nehemiah, and unless we assume two disasters not widely + separated in date--viz. those presupposed in (a) and (c)--the record + in (a), may refer to that stage in the history where the other source + describes the intrigues of the Samaritans and the letters sent by + Tobiah (cf. Tabeel in Ezra iv. 7) to frighten Nehemiah (Neh. vi. + 19).[53] Their insinuations that Nehemiah was seeking to be ruler and + their representations to Artaxerxes would be enough to alarm the king + (cf. Neh. vi. 5-9, 19, and Ezra iv. 15 seq., 20 seq.), and it may + possibly be gathered that Nehemiah at once departed to justify himself + (Neh. vii. 2, xiii. 4, 6). Nevertheless, since the narratives are no + longer in their original form or sequence, it is impossible to trace + the successive steps of the sequel; although if the royal favour was + endorsed (cf. the account ascribed to the time of Darius, Ezra v. + seq.), Nehemiah's position as a reformer would be more secure. + + Although there was a stock of tradition for the post-exilic age (cf. + Daniel, Esther, 1 Esdras, Josephus), the historical narratives are of + the scantiest and vaguest until the time of Artaxerxes, when the + account of a return (Ezra iv. 12), which otherwise is quite ignored, + appears to have been used for the times of Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.) + and subsequently of Cyrus (Ezra i.-iii.). Moreover, although general + opinion identifies our Artaxerxes with the first of that name, certain + features suggest that there has been some confusion with the + traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. (§ 19). But the + problems are admittedly complicated, and since one is necessarily + dependent upon scanty narratives arranged and rearranged by later + hands in accordance with their own historical theories, it is + difficult to lay stress upon internal evidence which appears to be + conclusive for this or that reconstruction.[54] The main facts, + however, are clear. Jerusalem had suffered some serious catastrophe + before Nehemiah's return; a body of exiles returned, and in spite of + interference the work of rebuilding was completed; through their + influence the Judaean community underwent reorganization, and + separated itself from its so-called heathen neighbours. How many years + elapsed from beginning to end can hardly be said. Tradition + concentrated upon Ezra and his age many events and changes of + fundamental importance. The canonical history has allowed only one + great destruction of Jerusalem, and the disaster of 586 B.C. became + the type for similar disasters, but how many there were criticism can + scarcely decide.[55] Allusions to Judah's sufferings at the hands of + Edom, Moab and Ammon often imply conditions which are not applicable + to 586. A definite series knows of an invasion and occupation by Edom + (q.v. end), a people with whom Judah, as the genealogies show, had + once been intimately connected. The unfriendliness of the "brother" + people, which added so much to the bitterness of Judah, although + associated with the events of 586 (so especially 1 Esdras iv. 45), + probably belongs to a much later date.[56] The tradition that Edomites + burned the Temple and occupied part of Judah (ib. _vv._ 45, 50) is + partially confirmed by Ezek. xxxv. 5, 10, xxxvi. 5; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; + but the assumption that Darius, as in 1 Esdras, helped the Jews + against them can with difficulty be maintained. The interesting + conjecture that the second Temple suffered another disaster in the + obscure gap which follows the time of Zerubbabel has been urged, after + Isa. lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12, by Kuenen (afterwards withdrawn) and by + Sellin, and can be independently confirmed. In the records of Nehemiah + the ruins of the city are extensive (ii. 8, 17, iii.; cf. Ecclus. + xlix. 13), and the tradition that Nehemiah rebuilt this Temple (Jos. + _Ant._ xi. 5, 6; 2 Macc. i. 18) is supported (a) by the explicit + references to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Artaxerxes + (1 Esdras ii. 18, not in Ezra iv. 12; but both in a context relating + to the history of the Temple), and (b) by the otherwise inaccurate + statement that the Temple was finished according to the decree of + "Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes king of Persia" (Ezra vi. 14). + + The untrustworthy account of the return in the time of Cyrus (Ezra i. + sqq.) or Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.; probably the older form) is + curiously indebted to material which seems to have belonged to the + history of the work of Nehemiah (cf. Ezra ii. with Neh. vii.), and the + important return in the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 12) seems to be + connected with other references to some new settlement (Neh. xi. 20, + 23, 25, especially xii. 29). The independent testimony of the names in + Neh. iii. is against any previous large return from Babylon, and + clearly illustrates the strength of the groups of "southern" origin + whose presence is only to be expected (p. 285). Moreover, the late + compiler of 1 Chronicles distinguishes a Judah composed almost wholly + of "southern" groups (1 Chron. ii. and iv.) from a subsequent stage + when the first inhabitants of Jerusalem correspond in the main to the + new population after Nehemiah had repaired the ruins (1 Chron. ix. and + Neh. xi.). Consequently, underlying the canonical form of post-exilic + history, one may perhaps recognize some fresh disaster, after the + completion of Zerubbabel's temple, when Judah suffered grievously at + the hands of its Edomite brethren (in Malachi, date uncertain, + vengeance has at last been taken); Nehemiah restored the city, and the + traditions of the exiles who returned at this period have been thrown + back and focussed upon the work of Zerubbabel. The criticism of the + history of Nehemiah, which leads to this conjecture, suggests also + that if Nehemiah repulsed the Samaritan claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. + 3, where the building of the Temple is concerned) and refused a + compromise (vi. 2), it is extremely unlikely that Samaria had hitherto + been seriously hostile; see also C. C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_, pp. + 321-333. + + Biblical history ends with the triumph of the Judaean community, the + true "Israel," the right to which title is found in the distant past. + The Judaean view pervades the present sources, and whilst its David + and Solomon ruled over a united land, the separation under Jeroboam is + viewed as one of calf-worshipping northern tribes from Jerusalem with + its one central temple and the legitimate priesthood of the Zadokites. + It is from this narrower standpoint of an exclusive and confined Judah + (and Benjamin) that the traditions as incorporated in the late + recensions gain fresh force, and in Israel's renunciation of the + Judaean yoke the later hostility between the two may be read between + the lines. The history in Kings was not finally settled until a very + late date, as is evident from the important variations in the + Septuagint, and it is especially in the description of the time of + Solomon and the disruption that there continued to be considerable + fluctuations.[57] The book has no finale and the sudden break may not + be accidental. It is replaced by Chronicles, which, confining itself + to Judaean history from a later standpoint (after the Persian age), + includes new characteristic traditions wherein some recollection of + more recent events may be recognized. Thus, the south Judaean or south + Palestinian element shows itself in Judaean genealogies and lists; + there are circumstantial stories of the rehabilitation of the Temple + and the reorganization of cultus; there are fuller traditions of + inroads upon Judah by southern peoples and their allies. There is also + a more definite subordination of the royal authority to the priesthood + (so too in the writings of Ezekiel, q.v.); and the stories of + punishment inflicted upon kings who dared to contend against the + priests (Jehoash, Uzziah) point to a conflict of authority, a hint of + which is already found in the reconciliation of Zerubbabel and the + priest Joshua in a passage ascribed to Zechariah (ch. vi.). + +23. _Post-exilic Judaism._--With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter upon the era +in which a new impulse gave to Jewish life and thought that form which +became the characteristic orthodox Judaism. It was not a new religion +that took root; older tendencies were diverted into new paths, the +existing material was shaped to new ends. Judah was now a religious +community whose representative was the high priest of Jerusalem. Instead +of sacerdotal kings, there were royal priests, anointed with oil, +arrayed with kingly insignia, claiming the usual royal dues in addition +to the customary rights of the priests. With his priests and Levites, +and with the chiefs and nobles of the Jewish families, the high priest +directs this small state, and his death marks an epoch as truly as did +that of the monarchs in the past. This hierarchical government, which +can find no foundation in the Hebrew monarchy, is the forerunner of the +Sanhedrin (q.v.); it is an institution which, however inaugurated, set +its stamp upon the narratives which have survived. Laws were recast in +accordance with the requirements of the time, with the result that, by +the side of usages evidently of very great antiquity, details now appear +which were previously unknown or wholly unsuitable. The age, which the +scanty historical traditions themselves represent as one of supreme +importance for the history of the Jews, once seemed devoid of interest, +and it is entirely through the laborious scholarship of the 19th century +that it now begins to reveal its profound significance. The +Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, that the hierarchical law in its complete +form in the Pentateuch stands at the close and not at the beginning of +biblical history, that this mature Judaism was the fruit of the 5th +century B.C. and not a divinely appointed institution at the exodus +(nearly ten centuries previously), has won the recognition of almost all +Old Testament scholars. It has been substantiated by numerous subsidiary +investigations in diverse departments, from different standpoints, and +under various aspects, and can be replaced only by one which shall more +adequately explain the literary and historical evidence (see further, p. +289). + +The post-exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is absent +from the Judaean Deuteronomic book of Kings but is fully mature in the +later, and to some extent parallel, book of Chronicles (q.v.). The +"priestly" traditions of the creation and of the patriarchs mark a very +distinct advance upon the earlier narratives, and appear in a further +developed form in the still later book of Jubilees, or "Little Genesis," +where they are used to demonstrate the pre-Mosaic antiquity of the +priestly or Levitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable +development in the laws; and the priestly legislation, though ahead of +both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier usage, not +only continues to undergo continual internal modification, but finds a +further distinct development, in the way of definition and +interpretation, outside the Old Testament--in the Talmud (q.v.). Upon +the characteristics of the post-exilic priestly writings we need not +dwell.[58] Though one may often be repelled by their lifelessness, their +lack of spontaneity and the externalization of the ritual, it must be +recognized that they placed a strict monotheism upon a legal basis. "It +was a necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner; +without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its essential +elements would have proved impossible. At a time when all nationalities, +and at the same time all bonds of religion and national customs, were +beginning to be broken up in the seeming cosmos and real chaos of the +Graeco-Roman Empire, the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the +ocean. When the natural conditions of independent nationality all failed +them, they nevertheless artificially maintained it with an energy truly +marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves, and at the same time +for the whole world, an eternal good."[59] + +If one is apt to acquire too narrow a view of Jewish legalism, the whole +experience of subsequent history, through the heroic age of the +Maccabees (q.v.) and onwards, only proves that the minuteness of ritual +procedure could not cramp the heart. Besides, this was only one of the +aspects of Jewish literary activity. The work represented in Nehemiah +and Ezra, and put into action by the supporters of an exclusive Judaism, +certainly won the day, and their hands have left their impress upon the +historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects and +tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always had +followers. Whatever the predominant party might think of foreign +marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin of David serves, in +the beautiful idyll of Ruth (q.v.), to suggest the debt which Judah and +Jerusalem owed to one at least of its neighbours. Again, although some +may have desired a self-contained community opposed to the heathen +neighbours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah implicitly contends against +the attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflicting tendencies +were incompatible, but Judaism retained the incompatibilities within +its limits, and the two tendencies, prophetical and priestly, continue, +the former finding its further development in Christianity.[60] + + The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (§ 4) does not pretend to be complete + in all its details and it is independent of its application to the + historical criticism of the Old Testament. No alternative hypothesis + prevails, mere desultory criticism of the internal intricacies being + quite inadequate. Maintaining that the position of the Pentateuch + alone explains the books which follow, conservative writers concede + that it is composite, has had some literary history, and has suffered + some revision in the post-exilic age. Their concessions continue to + become ever more significant, and all that follows from them should be + carefully noticed by those who are impressed by their arguments. They + identify with Deuteronomy the law-roll which explains the noteworthy + reforms of Josiah (§ 16); but since it is naturally admitted that + religious conditions had become quite inconsistent with Mosaism, the + conservative view implies that the "long-lost" Deuteronomy must have + differed profoundly from any known Mosaic writings to which earlier + pious kings and prophets had presumably adhered. Similarly, the "book + of the Law of Moses," brought from Babylon by Ezra (Ezra vii.; Neh. + viii.), clearly contained much of which the people were ignorant, and + conservative writers, who oppose the theory that a new Law was then + introduced, emphasize (a) the previous existence of legislation (to + prove that Ezra's book was not entirely a novelty), and (b) the gross + wickedness in Judah (as illustrated by the prophets) from the time of + Josiah to the strenuous efforts of the reformers on behalf of the most + fundamental principles of the national religion. This again simply + means that the Mosaism of Ezra or Nehemiah must have differed + essentially from the priestly teaching prior to their arrival. The + arguments of conservative writers involve concessions which, though + often overlooked by their readers, are very detrimental to the + position they endeavour to support, and the objections they bring + against the theory of the introduction of new law-books (under a + Josiah or an Ezra) apply with equal force to the promulgation of + Mosaic teaching which had been admittedly ignored or forgotten. Their + arguments have most weight, however, when they show the hazardous + character of reconstructions which rely upon the trustworthiness of + the historical narratives. What book Ezra really brought from Babylon + is uncertain; the writer, it seems, is merely narrating the + introduction of the Law ascribed to Moses, even as a predecessor has + recounted the discovery of the Book of the Law, the Deuteronomic code + subsequently included in the Pentateuch. + + The importance which the biblical writers attach to the return from + Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes forms a starting-point for several + interesting inquiries. Thus, in any estimate of the influence of + Babylonia upon the Old Testament, it is obviously necessary to ask + whether certain features (a) are of true Babylonian origin, or (b) + merely find parallels or analogies in its stores of literature; + whether the indebtedness goes back to very early times or to the age + of the Assyrian domination or to the exiles who now returned. Again, + there were priestly and other families--some originally of "southern" + origin--already settled around Jerusalem, and questions inevitably + arise concerning their relation to the new-comers and the literary + vicissitudes which gave us the Old Testament in its present form. To + this age we may ascribe the literature of the Priestly writers + (symbolized by P), which differs markedly from the other sources. Yet + it is clear from the book of Genesis alone that in the age of Priestly + writers and compilers there were other phases of thought. Popular + stories with many features of popular religion were current. They + could be, and indeed had been made more edifying; but the very + noteworthy conservatism of even the last compiler or editor, in + contrast to the re-shaping and re-writing of the material in the book + of Jubilees, indicates that the Priestly spirit was not that of the + whole community. But through the Priestly hands the Old Testament + history passed, and their standpoint colours its records. This is + especially true of the history of the exilic and post-exilic periods, + where the effort is made to preserve the continuity of Israel and the + Israelite community (Chronicles--Ezra--Nehemiah). The bitterness + aroused by the ardent and to some extent unjust zeal of the reforming + element can only be conjectured. The traditions reveal a tendency to + legitimate new circumstances. Priesthoods, whose traditions connect + them with the south, are subordinated; the ecclesiastical records are + re-shaped or re-adjusted; and a picture is presented of hierarchical + jealousies and rivalries which (it was thought) were settled once and + for all in the days of the exodus from Egypt. Many features gain in + significance as the account of the Exodus, the foundation of Israel, + is read in the light of the age when, after the advent of a new + element from Babylonia, the Pentateuch assumed its present shape; it + must suffice to mention the supremacy of the Aaronite priests and the + glorification of uncompromising hostility to foreign marriages.[61] + The most "unhistorical" tradition has some significance for the + development of thought or of history-writing, and thus its internal + features are ultimately of historical value. Only from an exhaustive + comparison of controlling data can the scattered hints be collected + and classified. There is much that is suggestive, for example, in the + relation between the "post-exilic" additions to the prophecies and + their immediately earlier form; or in the singular prominence of the + Judaean family of Perez (its elevation over Zerah, a half-Edomite + family, Gen. xxxviii.; its connexion with the Davidic dynasty, Ruth + iv.; its position as head of all the Judaean sub-divisions, 1 Chron. + ii. 5 sqq.); or in the late insertion of local tradition encircling + Jerusalem; or in the perplexing attitude of the histories towards the + district of Benjamin and its famous sanctuary of Bethel (only about 10 + m. north of Jerusalem). Although these and other phenomena cannot yet + be safely placed in a historical frame, the methodical labours of past + scholars have shed much light upon the obscurities of the exilic and + post-exilic ages, and one must await the more comprehensive study of + the two or three centuries which are of the first importance for + biblical history and theology. + + 24. _Old Testament History and External Evidence._--Thus the Old + Testament, the history of the Jews during the first great period, + describes the relation of the Hebrews to surrounding peoples, the + superiority of Judah over the faithless (north) Israelite tribes, and + the reorganization of the Jewish community in and around Jerusalem at + the arrival of Ezra with the Book of the Law. The whole gives an + impression of unity, which is designed, and is to be expected in a + compilation. But closer examination reveals remarkable gaps and + irreconcilable historical standpoints. For all serious biblical study, + the stages in the growth of the written traditions and the historical + circumstances which they imply, must inevitably be carefully + considered, and upon the result depends, directly or indirectly, + almost every subject of Old Testament investigation. Yet it is + impossible to recover with confidence or completeness the development + of Hebrew history from the pages of the Old Testament alone. The keen + interest taken by the great prophets in the world around them is not + prominent in the national records; political history has been + subordinated, and the Palestine which modern discovery is revealing is + not conspicuous in the didactic narratives. To external evidence one + must look, therefore, for that which did not fall within the scope or + the horizon of the religious historians. They do not give us the + records of the age of the Babylonian monarch Khammurabi (perhaps + Amraphel, Gen. xiv.), of the Egyptian conquests in the XVIIIth and + following dynasties, or of the period illustrated by the Amarna + tablets (§ 3). They treat with almost unique fullness a few years in + the middle of the 9th century B.C., but ignore Assyria; yet only the + Assyrian inscriptions explain the political situation (§ 10 seq.), and + were it not for them the true significance of the 8th-7th centuries + could scarcely be realized (§ 15 seq.). It would be erroneous to + confuse the extant sources with the historical material which might or + must have been accessible, or to assume that the antiquity of the + elements of history proves or presupposes the antiquity of the records + themselves, or even to deny the presence of some historical kernel + merely on account of unhistorical elements or the late dress in which + the events are now clothed. External research constantly justifies the + cautious attitude which has its logical basis in the internal + conflicting character of the written traditions or in their divergence + from ascertained facts; at the same time it has clearly shown that the + internal study of the Old Testament has its limits. Hence, in the + absence of more complete external evidence one is obliged to recognize + the limitations of Old Testament historical criticism, even though + this recognition means that positive reconstructions are more + precarious than negative conclusions. + + The naïve impression that each period of history was handled by some + more or less contemporary authority is not confirmed by a criticism + which confines itself strictly to the literary evidence. An interest + in the past is not necessarily confined to any one age, and the + critical view that the biblical history has been compiled from + relatively late standpoints finds support in the still later treatment + of the events--in Chronicles as contrasted with Samuel--Kings or in + Jubilees as contrasted with Genesis.[62] It is instructive to observe + in Egypt the form which old traditions have taken in Manetho (Maspero, + _Rec. de travaux_, xxvii., 1905, l. 22 seq.); cf. also the late story + of Rameses II. and the Hittites (J. H. Breasted, _Anc. Rec. of Egypt_, + iii. 189 seq.); while in Babylonia one may note the didactic + treatment, after the age of Cyrus, of the events of the time of + Khammurabi (A. H. Sayce, _Proc. Soc. Biblical Archaeol._, 1907, pp. 13 + sqq.). + + The links which unite the traditional heroes with Babylonia (e.g. + Abraham, Ezra), Mesopotamia (e.g. Jacob), Egypt (e.g. Joseph, + Jeroboam), Midian (e.g. Moses, Jethro), &c., like the intimate + relationship between Israel and surrounding lands, have a significance + in the light of recent research. Israel can no longer be isolated from + the politics, culture, folk-lore, thought and religion of western Asia + and Egypt. Biblical, or rather Palestinian, thought has been brought + into the world of ancient Oriental life, and this life, in spite of + the various forms in which it has from time to time been shaped, still + rules in the East. This has far-reaching consequences for the + traditional attitude to Israelite history and religion. Research is + seriously complicated by the growing stores of material, which + unfortunately are often utilized without attention to the principles + of the various departments of knowledge or aspects of study. The + complexity of modern knowledge and the interrelation of its different + branches are often insufficiently realized, and that by writers who + differ widely in the application of such material as they use to their + particular views of the manifold problems of the Old Testament. It has + been easy to confuse the study of the Old Testament in its relation to + modern religious needs with the technical scientific study of the much + edited remains of the literature of a small part of the ancient East. + If there was once a tendency to isolate the Old Testament and ignore + comparative research, it is now sometimes found possible to exaggerate + its general agreement with Oriental history, life and thought. + Difficulties have been found in the supernatural or marvellous stories + which would be taken as a matter of course by contemporary readers, + and efforts are often made to recover historical facts or to adapt the + records to modern theology without sufficient attention to the + historical data as a whole or to their religious environment. The + preliminary preparation for research of any value becomes yearly more + exacting. + + Many traces of myth, legend and "primitive" thought survive in the Old + Testament, and on the most cautious estimate they presuppose a + vitality which is not a little astonishing. But they are now softened + and often bereft of their earlier significance, and it is this and + their divergence from common Oriental thought which make Old Testament + thought so profound and unique. The process finds its normal + development in later and non-biblical literature; but one can + recognize earlier, cruder and less distinctive stages, and, as surely + as writings reflect the mentality of an author or of his age, the + peculiar characteristics of the extant sources, viewed in the light of + a comprehensive survey of Palestinian and surrounding culture, demand + a reasonable explanation. The differences between the form of the + written history and the conditions which prevailed have impressed + themselves variously upon modern writers, and efforts have been made + to recover from the Old Testament earlier forms more in accordance + with the external evidence. It may be doubted, however, whether the + material is sufficient for such restoration or reconstruction.[63] In + the Old Testament we have the outcome of specific developments, and + the stage at which we see each element of tradition or belief is not + always isolated or final (cf. Kings and Chronicles). The early myths, + legends and traditions which can be traced differ profoundly from the + canonical history, and the gap is wider than that between the latter + and the subsequent apocalyptical and pseudepigraphical literature. + + Where it is possible to make legitimate and unambiguous comparisons, + the ethical and spiritual superiority of Old Testament thought has + been convincingly demonstrated, and to the re-shaping and re-writing + of the older history and the older traditions the Old Testament owes + its permanent value. While the history of the great area between the + Nile and the Tigris irresistibly emphasizes the insignificance of + Palestine, this land's achievements for humanity grow the more + remarkable as research tells more of its environment. Although the + light thrown upon ancient conditions of life and thought has destroyed + much that sometimes seems vital for the Old Testament, it has brought + into relief a more permanent and indisputable appreciation of its + significance, and it is gradually dispelling that pseudo-scientific + literalism which would fetter the greatest of ancient Oriental + writings with an insistence upon the verity of historical facts. Not + internal criticism, but the incontestable results of objective + observation have shown once and for all that the relationship between + the biblical account of the earliest history (Gen. i.-xi.) and its + value either as an authentic record (which requires unprejudiced + examination) _or_ as a religious document (which remains untouched) is + typical. If, as seems probable, the continued methodical + investigation, which is demanded by the advance of modern knowledge, + becomes more drastic in its results, it will recognize ever more + clearly that there were certain unique influences in the history of + Palestine which cannot be explained by purely historical research. The + change from Palestinian polytheism to the pre-eminence of Yahweh and + the gradual development of ethical monotheism are _facts_ which + external evidence continues to emphasize, which biblical criticism + must investigate as completely as possible. And if the work of + criticism has brought a fuller appreciation of the value of these + facts, the debt which is owed to the Jews is enhanced when one + proceeds to realize the immense difficulties against which those who + transmitted the Old Testament had to contend in the period of Greek + domination. The growth of the Old Testament into its present form, + and its preservation despite hostile forces, are the two remarkable + phenomena which most arrest the attention of the historian; it is for + the theologian to interpret their bearing upon the history of + religious thought. (S. A. C.) + + +II.--GREEK DOMINATION + +25. _Alexander the Great._--The second great period of the history of +the Jews begins with the conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great, +disciple of Aristotle, king of Macedon and captain-general of the +Greeks. It ends with the destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of the +Roman Empire, which was, like Alexander, at once the masterful pupil and +the docile patron of Hellenism. The destruction of Jerusalem might be +regarded as an event of merely domestic importance; for the Roman +cosmopolitan it was only the removal of the titular metropolis of a +national and an Oriental religion. But, since a derivative of that +religion has come to be a power in the world at large, this event has to +be regarded in a different light. The destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. +70 concludes the period of four centuries, during which the Jews as a +nation were in contact with the Greeks and exposed to the influence of +Hellenism, not wholly of their own will nor yet against it. Whether the +master of the provinces, in which there were Jews, be an Alexander, a +Ptolemy, a Seleucid or a Roman, the force by which he rules is the force +of Greek culture. These four centuries are the Greek period of Jewish +history. + +The ancient historians, who together cover this period, are strangely +indifferent to the importance of the Jews, upon which Josephus is at +pains to insist. When Alexander invaded the interior of the Eastern +world, which had hitherto remained inviolable, he came as the champion +of Hellenism. His death prevented the achievement of his designs; but he +had broken down the barrier, he had planted the seed of the Greek's +influence in the four quarters of the Persian Empire. His successors, +the Diadochi, carried on his work, but Antiochus Epiphanes was the first +who deliberately took in hand to deal with the Jews. Daniel (viii. 8) +describes the interval between Alexander and Antiochus thus: "The +he-goat (the king of Greece) did very greatly: and when he was strong +the great horn (Alexander) was broken; and instead of it came up four +other ones--four kingdoms shall stand up out of his nation but not with +his power. And out of one of them came forth a little horn (Antiochus +Epiphanes) which waxed exceeding great towards the south (Egypt) and +towards the East (Babylon) and towards the beauteous land (the land of +Israel)." The insignificance of the Jewish community in Palestine was +their salvation. The reforms of Nehemiah were directed towards the +establishment of a religious community at Jerusalem, in which the rigour +of the law should be observed. As a part of the Persian Empire the +community was obscure and unimportant. But the race whose chief +sanctuary it guarded and maintained was the heir of great traditions and +ideals. In Egypt, moreover, in Babylon and in Persia individual Jews had +responded to the influences of their environment and won the respect of +the aliens whom they despised. The law which they cherished as their +standard and guide kept them united and conscious of their unity. And +the individuals, who acquired power or wisdom among those outside +Palestine shed a reflected glory upon the nation and its Temple. + + In connexion with Alexander's march through Palestine Josephus gives a + tradition of his visit to Jerusalem. In Arrian's narrative of + Alexander's exploits, whose fame had already faded before the greater + glory of Rome, there is no mention of the visit or the city or the + Jews. Only Tyre and Gaza barred the way to Egypt. He took, presumably, + the coast-road in order to establish and retain his command of the + sea. The rest of Palestine, which is called Coele-Syria, made its + submission and furnished supplies. Seven days after the capture of + Gaza Alexander was at Pelusium. According to the tradition which + Josephus has preserved the high priest refused to transfer his + allegiance and Alexander marched against Jerusalem after the capture + of Gaza. The high priest dressed in his robes went out to meet him, + and at the sight Alexander remembered a dream, in which such a man had + appeared to him as the appointed leader of his expedition. So the + danger was averted: Alexander offered sacrifice and was shown the + prophecy of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that + at this time certain Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage + with the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the + Samaritan schism (§ 21 above). The combination is certainly artificial + and not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it + illustrates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the + Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited + shrines in order to assure himself or his followers of victory. But it + is not clear that he had such need of the Jews or such regard for the + Temple of Jerusalem that he should turn aside on his way to Egypt for + such a purpose. + + However this may be, Alexander's tutor had been in Asia and had met a + Jew there, if his disciple Clearchus of Soli is to be trusted. "The + man," Aristotle says, "was by race a Jew out of Coele-Syria. His + people are descendants of the Indian philosophers. It is reported that + philosophers are called Calani among the Indians and Jews among the + Syrians. The Jews take their name from their place of abode, which is + called Judaea. The name of their city is very difficult; they call it + Hierusaleme. This man, then, having been a guest in many homes and + having come down gradually from the highlands to the sea-coast, was + Hellenic not only in speech but also in soul. And as we were staying + in Asia at the time, the man cast up at the same place and interviewed + us and other scholars, making trial of their wisdom. But inasmuch as + he had come to be at home with many cultured persons he imparted more + than he got." The date of this interview is probably determined by the + fact that Aristotle visited his friend Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus, in + 347-345 B.C. There is no reason to doubt the probability or even the + accuracy of the narrative. Megasthenes also describes the Jews as the + philosophers of Syria and couples them with the Brahmins of India. + This hellenized Jew who descended from the hills to the coast is a + figure typical of the period. + +26. _The Ptolemies._--After the death of Alexander Palestine fell in the +end to Ptolemy (301 B.C.) and remained an Egyptian province until 198 +B.C. For a century the Jews in Palestine and in Alexandria had no +history--or none that Josephus knew. But two individuals exemplify the +different attitudes which the nation adopted towards its new environment +and its wider opportunities, Joseph the tax-farmer and Jesus the sage. + + The wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach) is contained in the book + commonly called _Ecclesiasticus_ (q.v.). At a time when men were + attracted by the wisdom and science of the Greeks, he taught that all + wisdom came from Yahweh who had chosen Israel to receive it in trust. + He discouraged inquiries into the nature and purpose of things: it was + enough for him that Yahweh had created and ruled the universe. If a + man had leisure to be wise--and this is not for many--he should study + the Scriptures which had come down, and so become a scribe. For the + scribe, as for the man at the plough-tail, the Law was the rule of + life. All, however much or little preoccupied with worldly business, + must fear God, from whom come good things and evil, life, death, + poverty and riches. It was not for men to meddle with secrets which + are beyond human intelligence. Enough that the individual did his duty + in the state of life in which he was set and left behind him a good + name at his death. The race survives--"the days of Israel are + unnumbered." Every member of the congregation of Israel must labour, + as God has appointed, at some handicraft or profession to provide for + his home. It is his sacred duty and his private interest to beget + children and to train them to take his place. The scholar is apt to + pity the smith, the potter, the carpenter and the farmer: with better + reason he is apt to condemn the trader who becomes absorbed in greed + of gain and so deserts the way of righteousness and fair dealing. As a + teacher Jesus gave his own services freely. For the soldier he had no + commendation. There were physicians who understood the use of herbs, + and must be rewarded when their help was invited. But, whatever means + each head of a family adopted to get a livelihood, he must pay the + priest's dues. The centre of the life of Israel was the Temple, over + which the high priest presided and which was inhabited by Yahweh, the + God of Israel. The scribe could train the individual in morals and in + manners; but the high priest was the ruler of the nation. + + As ruler of the nation the high priest paid its tribute to Egypt, its + overlord. But Josephus reports of one Onias that for avarice he + withheld it. The sequel shows how a Jew might rise to power in the + civil service of the Egyptian Empire and yet remain a hero to some of + the Jews--provided that he did not intermarry with a Gentile. For + Joseph, the son of Tobiah and nephew of Onias, went to court and + secured the taxes of Palestine, when they were put up to auction. As + tax-farmer he oppressed the non-Jewish cities and so won the + admiration of Josephus. + +But while such men went out into the world and brought back wealth of +one kind or another to Palestine, other Jews were content to make their +homes in foreign parts. At Alexandria in particular Alexander provided +for a Jewish colony which soon became Hellenic enough in speech to +require a translation of the Law. It is probable that, as in Palestine +an Aramaic paraphrase of the Hebrew text was found to be necessary, so +in Alexandria the Septuagint grew up gradually, as need arose. The +legendary tradition which even Philo accepts gives it a formal nativity, +a royal patron and inspired authors. From the text which Philo uses, it +is probable that the translation had been transmitted in writing; and +his legend probably fixes the date of the commencement of the +undertaking for the reign of Ptolemy Lagus. + + The apology for the necessary defects of a translation put forward by + the translator of _Ecclesiasticus_ in his Prologue shows that the work + was carried on beyond the limits of the Law. Apparently it was in + progress at the time of his coming to Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy + Euergetes I. or II. He seems to regard this body of literature as the + answer to the charge that the Jews had contributed nothing useful for + human life. Once translated into Greek, the Scriptures became a bond + of union for the Jews of the dispersion and were at least capable of + being used as an instrument for the conversion of the world to + Judaism. So far as the latter function is concerned Philo confesses + that the Law in his day shared the obscurity of the people, and seems + to imply that the proselytes adopted little more than the monotheistic + principle and the observance of the Sabbath. According to Juvenal the + sons of such proselytes were apt to go farther and to substitute the + Jewish Law for the Roman-- + + Romanas autem soliti contemnere leges; + Judaicum ediscunt et servant ac metuunt ius + Tradidit arcano quodcunque volumine Moyses. + +27. _The Seleucids._--Toward the end of the 3rd century the Palestinian +Jews became involved in the struggle between Egypt and Syria. In +Jerusalem there were partisans of both the combatants. The more orthodox +or conservative Jews preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: the +rest, who chafed at the isolation of the nation, looked to the +Seleucids, who inherited Alexander's ideal of a united empire based on a +universal adoption of Hellenism. At this point Josephus cites the +testimony of Polybius:--"Scopas, the general of Ptolemy, advanced into +the highlands and subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. After +the defeat of Scopas, Antiochus gained Batanaea and Samaria and Abila +and Gadara, and a little later those of the Jews who live round the +Temple called Jerusalem adhered to him." From this it appears that the +pro-Syrian faction of the Jews had been strong and active enough to +bring an Egyptian army upon them (199-198 B.C.). Josephus adds that an +Egyptian garrison was left in Jerusalem. This act of oppression +presumably strengthened the Syrian faction of the Jews and led to the +transference of the nation's allegiance. The language of Polybius +suggests that he was acquainted with other Jewish communities and with +the fame of the Temple: in his view they are not an organized state. +They were not even a pawn in the game which Antiochus proposed to play +with Rome for the possession of Greece and Asia Minor. His defeat left +the resources of his kingdom exhausted and its extent diminished; and so +the Jews became important to his successors for the sake of their wealth +and their position on the frontier. To pay his debt to Rome he was +compelled to resort to extraordinary methods of raising money; he +actually met his death (187 B.C.) in an attempt to loot the temple of +Elymais. + +The pro-Syrian faction of the Palestinian Jews found their opportunity +in this emergency and informed the governor of Coele-Syria that the +treasury in Jerusalem contained untold sums of money. Heliodorus, prime +minister of Seleucus Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus, arrived at +Jerusalem in his progress through Coele-Syria and Phoenicia and declared +the treasure confiscate to the royal exchequer. According to the Jewish +legend Heliodorus was attacked when he entered the Temple by a horse +with a terrible rider and by two young men. He was scourged and only +escaped with his life at the intercession of Onias the high priest, who +had pleaded with him vainly that the treasure included the deposits of +widows and orphans and also some belonging to Hyrcanus, "a man in very +high position." Onias was accused by his enemies of having given the +information which led to this outrage and when, relying upon the support +of the provincial governor, they proceeded to attempt assassination, he +fled to Antioch and appealed to the king. + +When Seleucus was assassinated by Heliodorus, Antiochus IV., his +brother, who had been chief magistrate at Athens, came back secretly +"to seize the kingdom by guile" (Dan. xi. 21 seq.). On his accession he +appointed Jesus, the brother of Onias, to the high-priesthood, and +sanctioned his proposals for the conversion of Jerusalem into a Greek +city. The high priest changed his name to Jason and made a gymnasium +near the citadel. The principle of separation was abandoned. The priests +deserted the Temple for the palaestra and the young nobles wore the +Greek cap. The Jews of Jerusalem were enrolled as citizens of Antioch. +Jason sent money for a sacrifice to Heracles at Tyre; and the only +recorded opposition to his policy came from his envoys, who pleaded that +the money might be applied to naval expenditure. Thus Jason stripped the +high-priesthood of its sacred character and did what he could to stamp +out Judaism. + +Menelaus supplanted Jason, obtaining his appointment from the king by +the promise of a larger contribution. In order to secure his position, +he contrived the murder of Onias, who had taken sanctuary at Daphne. +This outrage, coupled with his appropriation of temple vessels, which he +used as bribes, raised against Menelaus the senate and the people of +Jerusalem. His brother and deputy was killed in a serious riot, and an +accusation was laid against Menelaus before Antiochus. At the inquiry he +bought his acquittal from a courtier and his accusers were executed. +Antiochus required peace in Jerusalem and probably regarded Onias as the +representative of the pro-Egyptian faction, the allies of his enemy. + +During his second Egyptian campaign a rumour came that Antiochus was +dead, and Jason made a raid upon Jerusalem. Menelaus held the citadel +and Jason was unable to establish himself in the city. The people were +presumably out of sympathy with Hellenizers, whether they belonged to +the house of Onias or that of Tobiah. When Antiochus finally evacuated +Egypt in obedience to the decree of Rome, he thought that Judaea was in +revolt. Though Jason had fled, it was necessary to storm the city; the +drastic measures which Menelaus advised seem to indicate that the poorer +classes had been roused to defend the Temple from further sacrilege. A +massacre took place, and Antiochus braved the anger of Yahweh by +entering and pillaging the Temple with impunity. The author of 2 +Maccabees infers from his success that the nation had forfeited all +right to divine protection for the time (2 Macc. v. 18-20). + +The policy which Antiochus thus inaugurated he carried on rigorously and +systematically. His whole kingdom was to be unified; Judaism was an +eccentricity and as such doomed to extinction. The Temple of Jerusalem +was made over to Zeus Olympius: the temple of Gerizim to Zeus Xenius. +All the religious rites of Judaism were proscribed and the neighbouring +Greek cities were requested to enforce the prohibition upon their Jewish +citizens. Jerusalem was occupied by an army which took advantage of the +Sabbath and proceeded to suppress its observance. An Athenian came to be +the missionary of Hellenism and to direct its ceremonies, which were +established by force up and down the country. + +28. _The Maccabees._--Jerusalem and Gerizim were purged and converted to +the state religion with some ease. Elsewhere, as there, some conformed +and some became martyrs for the faith. And the passive resistance of +those who refused to conform at length gave rise to active opposition. +"The king's officers who were enforcing the apostasy came into the city +of Modein to sacrifice, and many of Israel went over to them, but +Mattathias ... slew a Jew who came to sacrifice and the king's officer +and pulled down the altar" (1 Macc. ii. 15 sqq.). Whether led by this +Mattathias or not, certain Jews fled into the wilderness and found a +leader in Judas Maccabaeus his reputed son, the first of the five +Asmonean (Hasmonean) brethren. The warfare which followed was like that +which Saul and David waged against the Philistines. Antiochus was +occupied with his Parthian campaign and trusted that the Hellenized Jews +would maintain their ascendancy with the aid of the provincial troops. +In his last illness he wrote to express his confidence in their loyalty. +But the rebels collected adherents from the villages; and, when they +resolved to violate the sabbath to the extent of resisting attack, they +were joined by the company of the Assideans (Hasidim). Such a breach of +the sabbath was necessary if the whole Law was to survive at all in +Palestine. But the transgression is enough to explain the disfavour into +which the Maccabees seem to fall in the judgment of later Judaism, as, +in that judgment, it is enough to account for the instability of their +dynasty. Unstable as it was, their dynasty was soon established. In the +country-side of Judaea, Judaism--and no longer Hellenism--was propagated +by force. Apollonius, the commander of the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, +and Seron the commander of the army in Syria, came in turn against Judas +and his bands and were defeated. The revolt thus became important enough +to engage the attention of the governor of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, if +not of Lysias the regent himself. Nicanor was despatched with a large +army to put down the rebels and to pay the tribute due to Rome by +selling them as slaves. Judas was at Emmaus; "the men of the citadel" +guided a detachment of the Syrian troops to his encampment by night. The +rebels escaped in time, but not into the hills, as their enemies +surmised. At dawn they made an unexpected attack upon the main body and +routed it. Next year (165 B.C.) Lysias himself entered the Idumaean +country and laid siege to the fortress of Bethsura. Judas gathered what +men he could and joined battle. The siege was raised, more probably in +consequence of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes than because Judas had +gained any real victory. The proscription of the Jewish religion was +withdrawn and the Temple restored to them. But it was Menelaus who was +sent by the king "to encourage" (2 Macc. xi. 32) the Jews, and in the +official letters no reference is made to Judas. Such hints as these +indicate the impossibility of recovering a complete picture of the Jews +during the sovereignty of the Greeks, which the Talmudists regard as the +dark age, best left in oblivion. + +Judas entered Jerusalem, the citadel of which was still occupied by a +Syrian garrison, and the Temple was re-dedicated on the 25th of Kislev +(164 B.C.). So "the Pious" achieved the object for which presumably they +took up arms. The re-establishment of Judaism, which alone of current +religions was intolerant of a rival, seems to have excited the jealousy +of their neighbours who had embraced the Greek way of life. The +hellenizers had not lost all hope of converting the nation and were +indisposed to acquiesce in the concordat. Judas and his zealots were +thus able to maintain their prominence and gradually to increase their +power. At Joppa, for example, the Jewish settlers--two hundred in +all--"were invited to go into boats provided in accordance with the +common decree of the city." They accepted the invitation and were +drowned. Judas avenged them by burning the harbour and the shipping, and +set to work to bring into Judaea all such communities of Jews who had +kept themselves separate from their heathen neighbours. In this way he +became strong enough to deal with the apostates of Judaea. + +In 163 Lysias led another expedition against these disturbers of the +king's peace and defeated Judas at Bethzachariah. But while the forces +were besieging Bethzur and the fortress on Mount Zion, a pretender arose +in Antioch, and Lysias was compelled to come to terms--and now with +Judas. The Jewish refugees had turned the balance, and so Judas became +strategus of Judaea, whilst Menelaus was put to death. + +In 162 Demetrius escaped from Rome and got possession of the kingdom of +Syria. Jakim, whose name outside religion was Alcimus, waited upon the +new king on behalf of the loyal Jews who had hellenized. He himself was +qualified to be the legitimate head of a united state, for he was of the +tribe of Aaron. Judas and the Asmoneans were usurpers, who owed their +title to Lysias. So Alcimus-Jakim was made high priest and Bacchides +brought an army to instal him in his office. The Assideans made their +submission at once. Judas had won for them religious freedom: but the +Temple required a descendant of Aaron for priest and he was come. But +his first act was to seize and slay sixty of them: so it was clear to +Judas at any rate, if not also to the Assideans who survived, that +political independence was necessary if the religion was to be secure. +In face of his active opposition Alcimus could not maintain himself +without the support of Bacchides and was forced to retire to Antioch. +In response to his complaints Nicanor was appointed governor of Judaea +with power to treat with Judas. It appears that the two became friends +at first, but fresh orders from Antioch made Nicanor guilty of treachery +in the eyes of Judas's partisans. Warned by the change of his friend's +manner Judas fled. Nicanor threatened to destroy the Temple if the +priests would not deliver Judas into his hands. Soon it came to his +knowledge that Judas was in Samaria, whither he followed him on a +sabbath with Jews pressed into his service. The day was known afterwards +as Nicanor's day, for he was found dead on the field (Capharsalama) by +the victorious followers of Judas (13th of Adar, March 161 B.C.). After +this victory Judas made an alliance with the people of Rome, who had no +love for Demetrius his enemy, nor any intention of putting their +professions of friendship into practice. Bacchides and Alcimus returned +meanwhile into the land of Judah; at Elasa "Judas fell and the rest +fled" (1 Macc. ix. 18). Bacchides occupied Judaea and made a chain of +forts. Jonathan, who succeeded his brother Judas, was captain of a band +of fugitive outlaws. But on the death of Alcimus Bacchides retired and +Jonathan with his followers settled down beyond the range of the Syrian +garrisons. The Hellenizers still enjoyed the royal favour and Jonathan +made no attempt to dispossess them. After an interval of two years they +tried to capture him and failed. This failure seems to have convinced +Bacchides that it would be well to recognize Jonathan and to secure a +balance of parties. In 158 Jonathan began to rule as a judge in Michmash +and he destroyed the godless out of Israel--so far, that is, as his +power extended. In 153 Alexander Balas withdrew Jonathan from his +allegiance to Demetrius by the offer of the high-priesthood. He had +already made Jerusalem his capital and fortified the Temple mount: the +Syrian garrisons had already been withdrawn with the exception of those +of the Akra and Bethzur. In 147 Jonathan repaid his benefactor by +destroying the army of the governor of Coele-Syria, who had espoused the +cause of Demetrius. The fugitives took sanctuary in the temple of Dagon +at Azotus. "But Jonathan burned the temple of Dagon and those who fled +into it." After the death of Balas he laid siege to the Akra; and "the +apostates, who hated their own nation," appealed to Demetrius. Jonathan +was summoned to Antioch, made his peace and apparently relinquished his +attempt in return for the addition of three Samaritan districts to his +territory. Later, when the people of Antioch rose against the king, +Jonathan despatched a force of 3000 men who played a notable part in the +merciless suppression of the insurrection. 1 Maccabees credits them with +100,000 victims. Trypho, the regent of Antiochus VI., put even greater +political power into the hands of Jonathan and his brother Simon, but +finally seized Jonathan on the pretext of a conference. Simon was thus +left to consolidate what had been won in Palestine for the Jews and the +family whose head he had become. The weakness of the king enabled him to +demand and to secure immunity from taxation. The Jewish aristocracy +became peers of the Seleucid kingdom. Simon was declared high priest: +Rome and Sparta rejoiced in the elevation of their friend and ally. In +the hundred and seventieth year (142 B.C.) the yoke of the heathen was +taken away from Israel and the people began to date their legal +documents "in the first year of Simon the great high priest and +commander and leader of the Jews." The popular verdict received official +and formal sanction. Simon was declared by the Jews and the priests +their governor and high priest for ever, until there should arise a +faithful prophet. The garrison of the Akra had been starved by a close +blockade into submission, and beyond the boundaries of Judaea "he took +Joppa for a haven and made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura." + +29. _John Hyrcanus and the Sadducees._--But in 138 B.C. Antiochus +Sidetes entered Seleucia and required the submission of all the petty +states, which had taken advantage of the weakness of preceding kings. +From Simon he demanded an indemnity of 1000 talents for his oppression +and invasion of non-Jewish territory: Simon offered 100 talents. At +length Antiochus appeared to enforce his demand in 134. Simon was dead +(135 B.C.) and John Hyrcanus had succeeded his father. The Jewish forces +were driven back upon Jerusalem and the city was closely invested. At +the feast of tabernacles of 132 Hyrcanus requested and Antiochus granted +a week's truce. The only hope of the Jews lay in the clemency of their +victorious suzerain, and it did not fail them. Some of his advisers +urged the demolition of the nation on the ground of their exclusiveness, +but he sent a sacrifice and won thereby the name of "Pious." In +subsequent negotiations he accepted the disarmament of the besieged and +a tribute as conditions of peace, and in response to their entreaty left +Jerusalem without a garrison. When he went on his last disastrous +campaign, Hyrcanus led a Jewish contingent to join his army, partly +perhaps a troop of mercenaries (for Hyrcanus was the first of the Jewish +kings to hire mercenaries, with the treasure found in David's tomb). +After his death Hyrcanus took advantage of the general confusion to +extend Jewish territory with the countenance of Rome. He destroyed the +temple of Gerizim and compelled the Idumaeans to submit to circumcision +and embrace the laws of the Jews on pain of deportation. + +In Jerusalem and in the country, in Alexandria, Egypt and Cyprus, the +Jews were prosperous (Jos. _Ant._ xiii. 284). This prosperity and the +apparent security of Judaism led to a breach between Hyrcanus and his +spiritual directors, the Pharisees. His lineage was (in the opinion of +one of them at least) of doubtful purity; and so it was his duty to lay +down the high-priesthood and be content to rule the nation. That one man +should hold both offices was indeed against the example of Moses, and +could only be admitted as a temporary concession to necessity. Hyrcanus +could not entertain the proposal that he should resign the sacred office +to which he owed much of his authority. The allegation about his mother +was false: the Pharisee who retailed it was guilty of no small offence. +A Sadducean friend advised Hyrcanus to ask the whole body of the +Pharisees to prescribe the penalty. Their leniency, which was notorious, +alienated the king or probably furnished him with a pretext for breaking +with them. The Pharisees were troublesome counsellors and doubtful +allies for an ambitious prince. They were all-powerful with the people, +but Hyrcanus with his mercenaries was independent of the people, and the +wealthy belonged to the sect of the Sadducees. The suppression of the +Pharisaic ordinances and the punishment of those who observed them led +to some disturbance. But Hyrcanus "was judged worthy of the three great +privileges, the rule of the nation, the high-priestly dignity, and +prophecy." This verdict suggests that the Sadducees, with whom he allied +himself, had learned to affect some show of Judaism in Judaea. If the +poor were ardent nationalists who would not intermingle with the Greeks, +the rich had long outgrown and now could humour such prejudices; and the +title of their party was capable of recalling at any rate the sound of +the national ideal of righteousness, i.e. _Sadaqah_. + +The successor of Hyrcanus (d. 105) was Judas Aristobulus, "the friend of +the Greeks," who first assumed the title of king. According to Strabo he +was a courteous man and in many ways useful to the Jews. His great +achievement was the conquest of a part of Ituraea, which he added to +Judaea and whose inhabitants he compelled to accept Judaism. + +The Sadducean nobility continued in power under his brother and +successor Alexander Jannaeus (103-78); and the breach between the king +and the mass of the people widened. But Salome Alexandra, his brother's +widow, who released him from prison on the death of her husband and +married him, was connected with the Pharisees through her brother Simon +ben Shetach. If his influence or theirs dictated her policy, there is no +evidence of any objection to the union of the secular power with the +high-priesthood. The party may have thought that Jannaeus was likely to +bring the dynasty to an end. His first action was to besiege Ptolemais. +Its citizens appealed to Ptolemy Lathyrus, who had been driven from the +throne of Egypt by his mother Cleopatra and was reigning in Cyprus. +Alexander raised the siege, made peace with Ptolemy and secretly sent to +Cleopatra for help against her son. The result of this double-dealing +was that his army was destroyed by Ptolemy, who advanced into Egypt +leaving Palestine at the mercy of Cleopatra. But Cleopatra's generals +were Jews and by their protests prevented her from annexing it. Being +thus freed from fear on the side of Ptolemy, Alexander continued his +desultory campaigns across the Jordan and on the coast without any +apparent policy and with indifferent success. Finally, when he +officiated as high priest at the feast of tabernacles he roused the fury +of the people by a derisive breach of the Pharisaic ritual. They cried +out that he was unworthy of his office, and pelted him with the citrons +which they were carrying as the Law prescribed. Alexander summoned his +mercenaries, and 6000 Jews were killed before he set out on his +disastrous campaign against an Arabian king. He returned a fugitive to +find the nation in armed rebellion. After six years of civil war he +appealed to them to state the conditions under which they would lay +aside their hostility. They replied by demanding his death and called in +the Syrians. But when the Syrians chased him into the mountains, 6000 +Jews went over to him and, with their aid, he put down the rebellion. +Eight hundred Jews who had held a fortress against him were crucified; +8000 Pharisees fled to Egypt and remained there. Offering an ineffectual +resistance to the passage of the Syrian troops, Alexander was driven +back by Aretas, king of Arabia, against whom they had marched. His later +years brought him small victories over isolated cities. + +On his deathbed it is said that Alexander advised his wife to reverse +this policy and rely upon the Pharisees. According to the Talmud, he +warned her "to fear neither the Pharisees nor their opponents but the +hypocrites who do the deed of Zimri and claim the reward of Phinehas:" +the warning indicates his justification of his policy in the matter of +the crucifixions. In any case the Pharisees were predominant under +Alexandra, who became queen (78-69) under her husband's will. Hyrcanus +her elder son was only high priest, as the stricter Pharisees required. +All the Pharisaic ordinances which Hyrcanus had abolished were +reaffirmed as binding. Simon ben Shatach stood beside the queen: the +exiles were restored and among them his great colleague Jehudah ben +Tabai. The great saying of each of these rabbis is concerned with the +duties of a judge; the selection does justice to the importance of the +Sanhedrin, which was filled with Pharisees. The legal reforms which they +introduced tended for the most part to mercy, but the Talmud refers to +one case which is an exception: false witnesses were condemned to suffer +the penalty due to their victim, even if he escaped. This ruling may be +interpreted as part of a campaign directed against the counsellors of +Alexander or as an instance of their general principle that intention is +equivalent to commission in the eye of the Law. The queen interposed to +prevent the execution of those who had counselled the crucifixion of the +rebels and permitted them to withdraw with her younger son Aristobulus +to the fortresses outside Jerusalem. Against their natural desire for +revenge may be set the fact that the Pharisees did much to improve the +status of women among the Jews. + +On the death of Alexandra (69 B.C.) Aristobulus disputed the succession +of Hyrcanus. When their forces met at Jericho, Hyrcanus, finding that +the bulk of his following deserted to Aristobulus, fled with those who +remained to the tower Antonia and seized Aristobulus's wife and children +as hostages for his own safety. Having this advantage, he was able to +abdicate in favour of Aristobulus and to retire into private life. But +he was not able to save his friends, who were also the enemies of the +reigning king. In fear of reprisals Antipas (or Antipater), the +Idumaean, his counsellor, played on the fears of Hyrcanus and persuaded +him to buy the aid of the Nabataean Arabs with promises. Aristobulus +could not withstand the army of Aretas: he was driven back upon +Jerusalem and there besieged. The Jews deserted to the victorious +Hyrcanus: only the priests remained loyal to their accepted king; many +fled to Egypt. + +30. _The Romans and the Idumaeans._--At this point the power of Rome +appeared upon the scene in the person of M. Aemilius Scaurus (stepson of +Sulla) who had been sent into Syria by Pompey (65 B.C.). Both brothers +appealed to this new tribunal and Aristobulus bought a verdict in his +favour. The siege was raised. Aretas retired from Judaea; and +Aristobulus pursued the retreating army. But, when Pompey himself +arrived at Damascus, Antipater, who pulled the strings and exploited the +claims of Hyrcanus, realized that Rome and not the Arabs, who were cowed +by the threats of Scaurus, was the ruler of the East. To Rome, +therefore, he must pay his court. Others shared this conviction: Strabo +speaks of embassies from Egypt and Judaea bearing presents--one +deposited in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus bore the inscription of +Alexander, the king of the Jews. From Judaea there were three embassies +pleading, for Aristobulus, for Hyrcanus, and for the nation, who would +have no king at all but their God. + +Pompey deferred his decision until he should have inquired into the +state of the Nabataeans, who had shown themselves to be capable of +dominating the Jews in the absence of the Roman army. In the interval +Aristobulus provoked him by his display of a certain impatience. The +people had no responsible head, of whom Rome could take cognisance: so +Pompey decided in favour of Hyrcanus and humoured the people by +recognizing him, not as king, but as high priest. Antipater remained +secure, in power if not in place. The Roman supremacy was established: +the Jews were once more one of the subject states of Syria, now a Roman +province. Their national aspirations had received a contemptuous +acknowledgment, when their Temple had been desecrated by the entry of a +foreign conqueror. + +Aristobulus himself had less resolution than his partisans. When he +repented of his attempted resistance and treated with Pompey for peace, +his followers threw themselves into Jerusalem, and, when the faction of +Hyrcanus resolved to open the gates, into the Temple. There they held +out for three months, succumbing finally because in obedience to the Law +(as interpreted since the time of Antiochus Epiphanes) they would only +defend themselves from actual assault upon the sabbath day. The Romans +profited by this inaction to push on the siege-works, without provoking +resistance by actual assaults until the very end. Pompey finally took +the stronghold by choosing the day of the fast, when the Jews abstain +from all work, that is the sabbath (Strabo). Dio Cassius calls it the +day of Cronos. On this bloody sabbath the priests showed a devotion to +their worship which matched the inaction of the fighting men. Though +they saw the enemy advancing upon them sword in hand they remained at +worship untroubled and were slaughtered as they poured libation and +burned incense, for they put their own safety second to the service of +God. And there were Jews among the murderers of the 12,000 Jews who +fell. + +The Jews of Palestine thus became once more a subject state, stripped of +their conquests and confined to their own borders. Aristobulus and his +children were conveyed to Rome to grace their conqueror's triumphal +procession. But his son Alexander escaped during the journey, gathered +some force, and overran Judaea. The Pharisees decided that they could +not take action on either side, since the elder son of Alexandra was +directed by the Idumaean Antipater; and the people had an affection for +such Asmonean princes as dared to challenge the Roman domination of +their ancestral kingdom. The civil war was renewed; but Aulus Gabinius, +the proconsul, soon crushed the pretender and set up an aristocracy in +Judaea with Hyrcanus as guardian of the Temple. The country was divided +into five districts with five synods; and Josephus asserts that the +people welcomed the change from the monarchy. In spite of this, +Aristobulus (56 B.C.) and Alexander (55 B.C.) found loyalists to follow +them in their successive raids. But Antipater found supplies for the +army of Gabinius, who, despite Egyptian and Parthian distractions, +restored order according to the will of Antipater. M. Crassus, who +succeeded him, plundered the Temple of its gold and the treasure (54 +B.C.) which the Jews of the dispersion had contributed for its +maintenance. It is said that Eleazar, the priest who guarded the +treasure, offered Crassus the golden beam as ransom for the whole, +knowing, what no one else knew, that it was mainly composed of wood. So +Crassus departed to Parthia and died. When the Parthians, elated by +their victory over Crassus (53 B.C.) advanced upon Syria, Cassius +opposed them. Some of the Jews, presumably the partisans of Aristobulus, +were ready to co-operate with the Parthians. At any rate Antipater was +ready to aid Cassius with advice; Taricheae was taken and 30,000 Jews +were sold into slavery (51 B.C.). In spite of this vigorous coercion +Cassius came to terms with Alexander, before he returned to the +Euphrates to hold it against the Parthians. + +Two years later Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome and despatched +the captive Aristobulus with two legions to win Judaea (49 B.C.). But +Pompey's partisans were beforehand with him: he was taken off by poison +and got not so much as a burial in his fatherland. At the same time his +son Alexander was beheaded at Antioch by Pompey's order as an enemy of +Rome. After the defeat and death of Pompey (48 B.C.) Antipater +transferred his allegiance to Caesar and demonstrated its value during +Caesar's Egyptian campaign. He carried with him the Arabs and the +princes of Syria, and through Hyrcanus he was able to transform the +hostility of the Egyptian Jews into active friendliness. These services, +which incidentally illustrate the solidarity and unity of the Jewish +nation and the respect of the communities of the dispersion for the +metropolis, were recognized and rewarded. Before his assassination in 44 +B.C. Julius Caesar had confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood and +added the title of ethnarch. Antipater had been made a Roman citizen and +procurator of the reunited Judaea. Further, as confederates of the +senate and people of Rome, the Jews had received accession of territory, +including the port of Joppa and, with other material privileges, the +right of observing their religious customs not only in Palestine but +also in Alexandria and elsewhere. Idumaean or Philistine of Ascalon, +Antipater had displayed the capacity of his adoptive or adopted nation +for his own profit and theirs. And when Caesar died Suetonius notes that +he was mourned by foreign nations, especially by the Jews (_Caes._ 84). + +In the midst of all this civil strife the Pharisees and all who were +preoccupied with religion found it almost impossible to discern what +they should do to please God. The people whom they directed were called +out to fight, at the bidding of an alien, for this and that foreigner +who seemed most powerful and most likely to succeed. In Palestine few +could command leisure for meditation; as for opportunities of effective +intervention in affairs, they had none, it would seem, once Alexander +was dead. + + There is a story of a priest named Onias preserved both by Josephus + and in the Talmud, which throws some light upon the indecision of the + religious in the period just reviewed. When Aretas intervened in the + interest of Hyrcanus and defeated Aristobulus, the usurper of his + brother's inheritance, the people accepted the verdict of battle, + sided with the victor's client, and joined in the siege of Jerusalem. + The most reputable of the Jews fled to Egypt; but Onias, a righteous + man and dear to God, who had hidden himself, was discovered by the + besiegers. He had a name for power in prayer; for once in a drought he + prayed for rain and God had heard his prayer. His captors now required + of him that he should put a curse upon Aristobulus and his faction. On + compulsion he stood in their midst and said: "O God, king of the + universe, since these who stand with me are thy people and the + besieged are thy priests, I pray thee that thou hearken not to those + against these, nor accomplish what these entreat against those." So he + prayed--and the wicked Jews stoned him. + + Unrighteous Jews were in the ascendant. There were only Asmonean + princes, degenerate and barely titular sons of Levi, to serve as + judges of Israel--and they were at feud and both relied upon foreign + aid. The righteous could only flee or hide, and so wait dreaming of + the mercy of God past and to come. As yet our authorities do not + permit us to follow them to Egypt with any certainty, but the _Psalms + of Solomon_ express the mind of one who survived to see Pompey the + Great brought low. Although Pompey had spared the temple treasure, he + was the embodiment of the power of Rome, which was not always so + considerately exercised. And so the psalmist exults in his death and + dishonour (Ps. ii.): he prayed that the pride of the dragon might be + humbled and God shewed him the dead body lying upon the waves--and + there was none to bury it. As one of those who fear the Lord in truth + and in patience, he looks forward to the punishment of all sinners who + oppress the righteous and profane the sanctuary. For the sins of the + rulers God had rejected his people; but the remnant could not but + inherit the promises, which belong to the chosen people. For the Lord + is faithful unto those who walk in the righteousness of his + commandments (xiv. 1): in the exercise of their freewill and with + God's help they will attain salvation. As God's servant, Pompey + destroyed their rulers and every wise councillor: soon the righteous + and sinless king of David's house shall reign over them and over all + the nations (xvii.). + +31. _Herod the Great._--After the departure of Caesar, Antipater warned +the adherents of Hyrcanus against taking part in any revolutionary +attempts, and his son Herod, who, in spite of his youth, had been +appointed governor of Galilee, dealt summarily with Hezekiah, the robber +captain who was overrunning the adjacent part of Syria. The gratitude of +the Syrians brought him to the knowledge of Sextus Caesar the governor +of Syria; but his action inspired the chief men of the Jews with +apprehension. Complaint was made to Hyrcanus that Herod had violated the +law which prohibited the execution of even an evil man, unless he had +been first condemned to death by the Sanhedrin. At the same time the +mothers of the murdered men came to the Temple to demand vengeance. So +Herod was summoned to stand his trial. He came in answer to the +summons--but attended by a bodyguard and protected by the word of +Sextus. Of all the Sanhedrin only Sameas "a righteous man and therefore +superior to fear" dared to speak. Being a Pharisee he faced the facts of +Herod's power and warned the tribunal of the event, just as later he +counselled the people to receive him, saying that for their sins they +could not escape him. Herod put his own profit above the Law, acting +after his kind, and he also was God's instrument. The effect of the +speech was to goad the Sanhedrin into condemning Herod: Hyrcanus +postponed their decision and persuaded him to flee. Sextus Caesar made +him lieutenant-governor of Coele Syria, and only his father restrained +him from returning to wreak his revenge upon Hyrcanus. + + It is to be remembered that, in this and all narratives of the life of + Herod, Josephus was dependent upon the history of Herod's client, + Nicolaus of Damascus, and was himself a supporter of law and order. + The action of the Sanhedrin and the presence of the women suppliants + in the Temple suggest, if they do not prove, that this Hezekiah who + harassed the Syrians was a Jewish patriot, who could not acquiesce and + wait with Sameas. + +Malichus also, the murderer or reputed murderer of Antipater, appears to +have been a partisan of Hyrcanus, who had a zeal for Judaism. When +Cassius demanded a tribute of 700 talents from Palestine, Antipater set +Herod, Phasael and this Malichus, his enemy, to collect it. Herod +thought it imprudent to secure the favour of Rome by the sufferings of +others. But some cities defaulted, and they were apparently among those +assigned to Malichus. If he had been lenient for their sakes or in the +hope of damaging Antipater, he was disappointed; for Cassius sold four +cities into slavery and Hyrcanus made up the deficit. Soon after this +(43 B.C.) Malichus succeeded, it is said, in poisoning Antipater as he +dined with Hyrcanus, and was assassinated by Herod's bravoes. + +After the departure of Cassius, Antipater being dead, there was +confusion in Judaea. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, made a raid and +was with difficulty repulsed by Herod. The prince of Tyre occupied part +of Galilee. When Antony assumed the dominion of the East after the +defeat of Cassius at Philippi, an embassy of the Jews, amongst other +embassies, approached him in Bithynia and accused the sons of Antipater +as usurpers of the power which rightly belonged to Hyrcanus. Another +approached him at Antioch. But Hyrcanus was well content to forgo the +title to political power, which he could not exercise in practice, and +Antony had been a friend of Antipater. So Herod and Phasael continued to +be virtually kings of the Jews: Antony's court required large +remittances and Palestine was not exempt. + +In 40 B.C. Antony was absent in Egypt or Italy; and the Parthians swept +down upon Syria with Antigonus in their train. Hyrcanus and Phasael were +trapped: Herod fled by way of Egypt to Rome. Hyrcanus, who was +Antigonus' only rival, was mutilated and carried to Parthia. So he could +no more be high priest, and his life was spared only at the +intercession of the Parthian Jews, who had a regard for the Asmonean +prince. Thus Antigonus succeeded his uncle as "King Antigonus" in the +Greek and "Mattathiah the high priest" in the Hebrew by grace of the +Parthians. + +The senate of Rome under the influence of Antony and Octavian ratified +the claims of Herod, and after some delay lent him the armed force +necessary to make them good. In the hope of healing the breach, which +his success could only aggravate, and for love, he took to wife +Mariamne, grandniece of Hyrcanus. Galilee was pacified, Jerusalem taken +and Antigonus beheaded by the Romans. From this point to the end of the +period the Jews were dependents of Rome, free to attend to their own +affairs, so long as they paid taxes to the subordinate rulers, Herodian +or Roman, whom they detested equally. If some from time to time dared to +hope for political independence their futility was demonstrated. One by +one the descendants of the Asmoneans were removed. The national hope was +relegated to an indefinite future and to another sphere. At any rate the +Jews were free to worship their God and to study his law: their religion +was recognized by the state and indeed established. + +This development of Judaism was eminently to the mind of the rulers; and +Herod did much to encourage it. More and more it became identified with +the synagogue, in which the Law was expounded: more and more it became a +matter for the individual and his private life. This was so even in +Palestine--the land which the Jews hoped to possess--and in Jerusalem +itself, the holy city, in which the Temple stood. Herod had put down +Jewish rebels and Herod appointed the high priests. In his appointments +he was careful to avoid or to suppress any person who, being popular, +might legitimize a rebellion by heading it. The Pharisees, who regarded +his rule as an inevitable penalty for the sins of the people, he +encouraged. Pollio the Pharisee and Sameas his disciple were in special +honour with him, Josephus says, when he re-entered Jerusalem and put to +death the leaders of the faction of Antigonus. How well their teaching +served his purpose is shown by the sayings of two rabbis who, if not +identical with these Pharisees, belong to their period and their party. +Shemaiah said, "Love work and hate lordship and make not thyself known +to the government." Abtalion said, "Ye wise, be guarded in your words: +perchance ye may incur the debt of exile." Precepts such as these could +hardly fall to effect some modification of the reckless zeal of the +Galileans in the pupils of the synagogue. Many if not all of the +professed rabbis had travelled outside Palestine: some were even members +of the dispersion, like Hillel the Babylonian, who with Shammai forms +the second of the pairs. Through them the experience of the dispersion +was brought to bear upon the Palestinian Jews. Herod's nominees were not +the men to extend the prestige of the high-priesthood at the expense of +these rabbis: even in Jerusalem the synagogue became of more importance +than the Temple. Hillel also inculcated the duty of making converts to +Judaism. He said, "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace, and +pursuing peace, loving mankind and bringing them nigh to the Law." But +even he reckoned the books of Daniel and Esther as canonical, and these +were dangerous food for men who did not realize the full power of Rome. + +So long as Herod lived there was no insurrection. Formally he was an +orthodox Jew and set his face against intermarriage with the +uncircumcised. He was also ready and able to protect the Jews of the +dispersion. But that ability was largely due to his whole-hearted +Hellenism, which was shown by the Greek cities which he founded in +Palestine and the buildings he erected in Jerusalem. In its material +embodiments Greek civilization became as much a part of Jewish life in +Palestine as it was in Alexandria or Antioch; and herein the rabbis +could not follow him. + +When all the Jewish people swore to be loyal to Caesar and the king's +policy, the Pharisees--above 6000--refused to swear. The king imposed a +fine upon them, and the wife of Pheroras--Herod's brother--paid it on +their behalf. In return for her kindness, being entrusted with +foreknowledge by the visitation of God, they prophesied that God had +decreed an end of rule for Herod and his line and that the sovereignty +devolved upon her and Pheroras and their children. + +From the sequel it appears that the prophecy was uttered by one Pharisee +only, and that it was in no way endorsed by the party. When it came to +the ears of the king he slew the most responsible of the Pharisees and +every member of his household who accepted what the Pharisee said. An +explanation of this unwarrantable generalization may be found in the +fact that the incident is derived from a source which was unfavourable +to the Pharisees: they are described as a Jewish section of men who +pretend to set great store by the exactitude of the ancestral tradition +and the laws in which the deity delights--as dominant over +women-folk--and as sudden and quick in quarrel. + +Towards the end of Herod's life two rabbis attempted to uphold by +physical force the cardinal dogma of Judaism, which prohibited the use +of images. Their action is intelligible enough. Herod was stricken with +an incurable disease. He had sinned against the Law; and at last God had +punished him. At last the law-abiding Jews might and must assert the +majesty of the outraged Law. The most conspicuous of the many symbols +and signs of his transgression was the golden eagle which he had placed +over the great gate of the Temple; its destruction was the obvious means +to adopt for the quickening and assertion of Jewish principles. + +By their labours in the education of the youth of the nation, these +rabbis, Judas and Matthias, had endeared themselves to the populace and +had gained influence over their disciples. A report that Herod was dead +co-operated with their exhortations to send the iconoclasts to their +appointed work. And so they went to earn the rewards of their practical +piety from the Law. If they died, death was inevitable, the rabbis said, +and no better death would they ever find. Moreover, their children and +kindred would benefit by the good name and fame belonging to those who +died for the Law. Such is the account which Josephus gives in the +_Antiquities_; in the _Jewish War_ he represents the rabbis and their +disciples as looking forward to greater happiness for themselves after +such a death. But Herod was not dead yet, and the instigators and the +agents of this sacrilege were burned alive. + +32. _The Settlement of Augustus._--On the death of Herod in 4 B.C. +Archelaus kept open house for mourners as the Jewish custom, which +reduced many Jews to beggary, prescribed. The people petitioned for the +punishment of those who were responsible for the execution of Matthias +and his associates and for the removal of the high priest. Archelaus +temporized; the loyalty of the people no longer constituted a valid +title to the throne; his succession must first be sanctioned by +Augustus. Before he departed to Rome on this errand, which was itself an +insult to the nation, there were riots in Jerusalem at the Passover +which he needed all his soldiery to put down. When he presented himself +before the emperor--apart from rival claimants of his own family--there +was an embassy from the Jewish people who prayed to be rid of a monarchy +and rulers such as Herod. As part of the Roman province of Syria and +under its governors they would prove that they were not really +disaffected and rebellious. During the absence of Archelaus, who +would--the Jews feared--prove his legitimacy by emulating his father's +ferocity, and to whom their ambassadors preferred Antipas, the Jews of +Palestine gave the lie to their protestations of loyalty and +peaceableness. At the Passover the pilgrims attacked the Roman troops. +After hard fighting the procurator, whose cruelty provoked the attack, +captured the Temple and robbed the treasury. On this the insurgents were +joined by some of Herod's army and besieged the Romans in Herod's +palace. Elsewhere the occasion tempted many to play at being +king--Judas, son of Hezekiah, in Galilee; Simon, one of the king's +slaves, in Peraea. Most notable of all perhaps was the shepherd +Athronges, who assumed the pomp of royalty and employed his four +brothers as captains and satraps in the war which he waged upon Romans +and king's men alike--not even Jews escaped him unless they brought him +contributions. Order was restored by Varus the governor of Syria in a +campaign which Josephus describes as the most important war between that +of Pompey and that of Vespasian. + +At length Augustus summoned the representatives of the nation and +Nicholaus of Damascus, who spoke for Archelaus, to plead before him in +the temple of Apollo. Augustus apportioned Herod's dominions among his +sons in accordance with the provisions of his latest will. Archelaus +received the lion's share: for ten years he was ethnarch of Idumaea, +Judaea and Samaria, with a yearly revenue of 600 talents. Antipas became +tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, with a revenue of 200 talents. Philip, +who had been left in charge of Palestine pending the decision and had +won the respect of Varus, became tetrarch of Batanaea, Trachonitis and +Auranitis, with 100 talents. His subjects included only a sprinkling of +Jews. Up to his death (A.D. 34) he did nothing to forfeit the favour of +Rome. His coins bore the heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and his +government was worthy of the best Roman traditions--he succeeded where +proconsuls had failed. His capital was Caesarea Philippi, where Pan had +been worshipped from ancient times, and where Augustus had a temple +built by Herod the Great. + +33. _Archelaus._--Augustus had counselled Archelaus to deal gently with +his subjects. But there was an outstanding feud between him and them; +and his first act as ethnarch was to remove the high priest on the +ground of his sympathy with the rebels. In violation of the Law he +married a brother's widow, who had already borne children, and in +general he showed himself so fierce and tyrannical that the Jews joined +with the Samaritans to accuse him before the emperor. Archelaus was +summoned to Rome and banished to Gaul; his territory was entrusted to a +series of procurators (A.D. 6-41), among whom was an apostate Jew, but +none with any pretension even to a semi-legitimate authority. Each +procurator represented not David but Caesar. The Sanhedrin had its +police and powers to safeguard the Jewish religion; but the procurator +had the appointment of the high priests, and no capital sentence could +be executed without his sanction. + +34. _The Procurators._--So the Jews of Judaea obtained the settlement +for which they had pleaded at the death of Herod; and some of them began +to regret it at once. The first procurator Coponius was accompanied by +P. Sulpicius Quirinius, legate of Syria, who came to organize the new +Roman province. As a necessary preliminary a census (A.D. 6-7) was taken +after the Roman method, which did not conform to the Jewish Law. The +people were affronted, but for the most part acquiesced, under the +influence of Joazar the high priest. But Judas the Galilean, with a +Pharisee named Sadduc (Sadduk), endeavoured to incite them to rebellion +in the name of religion. The result of this alliance between a +revolutionary and a Pharisee was the formation of the party of Zealots, +whose influence--according to Josephus--brought about the great revolt +and so led to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70. So far as this +influence extended, the Jewish community was threatened with the danger +of suicide, and the distinction drawn by Josephus between the Pharisees +and the Zealots is a valid one. Not all Pharisees were prepared to take +such action, in order that Israel might "tread on the neck of the eagle" +(as is said in _The Assumption of Moses_). So long as the Law was not +deliberately outraged and so long as the worship was established, most +of the religious leaders of the Jews were content to wait. + +It seems that the Zealots made more headway in Galilee than in +Judaea--so much so that the terms Galilean and Zealot are practically +interchangeable. In Galilee the Jews predominated over the heathen and +their ruler Herod Antipas had some sort of claim upon their allegiance. +His marriage with the daughter of the Arabian king Aretas (which was at +any rate in accordance with the general policy of Augustus) seems to +have preserved his territory from the incursions of her people, so long +as he remained faithful to her. He conciliated his subjects by his +deference to the observances of Judaism, and--the case is probably +typical of his policy--he joined in protesting, when Pilate set up a +votive shield in the palace of Herod within the sacred city. He seems +to have served Tiberius as an official scrutineer of the imperial +officials and he commemorated his devotion by the foundation of the city +of Tiberias. But he repudiated the daughter of Aretas in order to marry +Herodias and so set the Arabians against him. Disaster overtook his +forces (A.D. 36) and Tiberius, his patron, died before the Roman power +was brought in full strength to his aid. Caligula was not predisposed to +favour the favourites of Tiberius; and Antipas, having petitioned him +for the title of king at the instigation of Herodias, was banished from +his tetrarchy and (apparently) was put to death in 39. + +Antipas is chiefly known to history in connexion with John the Baptist, +who reproached him publicly for his marriage with Herodias. According to +the earliest authority, he seems to have imprisoned John to save him +from the vengeance of Herodias. But--whatever his motive--Antipas +certainly consented to John's death. If the Fourth Gospel is to be +trusted, John had already recognized and acclaimed Jesus of Nazareth as +the Messiah for whom the Jews were looking. By common consent of +Christendom, John was the forerunner of the founder of the Christian +Church. It was, therefore, during the reign of Antipas, and partly if +not wholly within his territory, that the Gospel was first preached by +the rabbi or prophet whom Christendom came to regard as the one true +Christ, the Messiah of the Jews. Josephus' history of the Jews contains +accounts of John the Baptist and Jesus, the authenticity of which has +been called in question for plausible but not entirely convincing +reasons. However this may be, the Jews who believed Jesus to be the +Christ play no great part in the history of the Jews before 70, as we +know it. Many religious teachers and many revolutionaries were crucified +within this period; and the early Christians were outwardly +distinguished from other Jews only by their scrupulous observance of +religious duties. + +The crucifixion of Jesus was sanctioned by Pontius Pilate, who was +procurator of Judaea A.D. 26-36. Of the Jews under his predecessors +little enough is known. Speaking generally, they seem to have avoided +giving offence to their subjects. But Pilate so conducted affairs as to +attract the attention not only of Josephus but also of Philo, who +represents for us the Jewish community of Alexandria. Pilate inaugurated +his term of office by ordering his troops to enter Jerusalem at night +and to take their standards with them. There were standards and +standards in the Roman armies: those which bore the image of the +emperor, and therefore constituted a breach of the Jewish Law, had +hitherto been kept aloof from the holy city. On learning of this, the +Jews repaired to Caesarea and besought Pilate to remove these offensive +images. Pilate refused; and, when they persisted in their petition for +six days, he surrounded them with soldiers and threatened them with +instant death. They protested that they would rather die than dare to +transgress the wisdom of the laws; and Pilate yielded. But he proceeded +to expend the temple treasure upon an aqueduct for Jerusalem; and some +of the Jews regarded the devotion of sacred money to the service of man +as a desecration. Pilate came up to Jerusalem and dispersed the +petitioners by means of disguised soldiers armed with clubs. So the +revolt was put down, but the excessive zeal of the soldiers and Pilate's +obstinate adherence to his policy widened the breach between Rome and +the stricter Jews. But the death of Sejanus in 31 set Tiberius free from +prejudice against the Jews; and, when Pilate put up the votive shields +in Herod's palace at Jerusalem, the four sons of Herod came forward in +defence of Jewish principles and he was ordered to remove them. In 35 he +dispersed a number of Samaritans, who had assembled near Mt Gerizim at +the bidding of an impostor, in order to see the temple vessels buried +there by Moses. Complaint was made to Vitellius, then legate of Syria, +and Pilate was sent to Rome to answer for his shedding of innocent +blood. At the passover of 36 Vitellius came to Jerusalem and pacified +the Jews by two concessions: he remitted the taxes on fruit sold in the +city, and he restored to their custody the high priest's vestments, +which Herod Archelaus and the Romans had kept in the tower Antonia. The +vestments had been stored there since the time of the first high priest +named Hyrcanus, and Herod had taken them over along with the tower, +thinking that his possession of them would deter the Jews from rebellion +against his rule. At the same time Vitellius vindicated the Roman +supremacy by degrading Caiaphas from the high-priesthood, and appointing +a son of Annas in his place. The motive for this change does not appear, +and we are equally ignorant of the cause which prompted his transference +of the priesthood from his nominee to another son of Annas in 37. But it +is quite clear that Vitellius was concerned to reconcile the Jews to the +authority of Rome. When he marched against Aretas, his army with their +standards did not enter Judaea at all; but he himself went up to +Jerusalem for the feast and, on receipt of the news that Tiberius was +dead, administered to the Jews the oath of allegiance to Caligula. + +35. _Caligula and Agrippa I._--The accession of Caligula (A.D. 37-41) +was hailed by his subjects generally as the beginning of the Golden Age. +The Jews in particular had a friend at court. Agrippa, the grandson of +Herod the Great, was an avowed partisan of the new emperor and had paid +penalty for a premature avowal of his preference. But Caligula's favour, +though lavished upon Agrippa, was not available for pious Jews. His +foible was omnipotence, and he aped the gods of Greece in turn. In the +provinces and even in Italy his subjects were ready to acknowledge his +divinity--with the sole exception of the Jews. So we learn something of +the Palestinian Jews and more of the Jewish community in Alexandria. The +great world (as we know it) took small note of Judaism even when Jews +converted its women to their faith; but now the Jews as a nation refused +to bow before the present god of the civilized world. The new +Catholicism was promulgated by authority and accepted with deference. +Only the Jews protested: they had a notion of the deity which Caligula +at all events did not fulfil. + +The people of Alexandria seized the opportunity for an attack upon the +Jews. Images of Caligula were set up in the synagogues, an edict +deprived the Jews of their rights as citizens, and finally the governor +authorized the mob to sack the Jewish quarter, as if it had been a +conquered city (38). Jewesses were forced to eat pork and the elders +were scourged in the theatre. But Agrippa had influence with the emperor +and secured the degradation of the governor. The people and the Jews +remained in a state of civil war, until each side sent an embassy (40) +to wait upon the emperor. The Jewish embassy was headed by Philo, who +has described its fortunes in a tract dealing with the divine punishment +of the persecutors. Their opponents also had secured a friend at court +and seem to have prevented any effective measure of redress. While the +matter was still pending, news arrived that the emperor had commanded +Publius Petronius, the governor of Syria, to set up his statue in the +temple of Jerusalem. On the intervention of Agrippa the order was +countermanded, and the assassination of the emperor (41) effectually +stopped the desecration. + +36. _Claudius and the Procurators._--Claudius, the new emperor, restored +the civic rights of the Alexandrian Jews and made Agrippa I. king over +all the territories of Herod the Great. So there was once more a king of +Judaea, and a king who observed the tradition of the Pharisees and +protected the Jewish religion. There is a tradition in the Talmud which +illustrates his popularity. As he was reading the Law at the feast of +tabernacles he burst into tears at the words "Thou mayest not set a +stranger over thee which is not thy brother"; and the people cried out, +"Fear not, Agrippa; thou art our brother." The fact that he began to +build a wall round Jerusalem may be taken as further proof of his +patriotism. But the fact that he summoned five vassal-kings of the +empire to a conference at Tiberias suggests rather a policy of +self-aggrandisement. Both projects were prohibited by the emperor on the +intervention of the legate. In 44 he died. The Christian records treat +his death as an act of divine vengeance upon the persecutor of the +Christian Church. The Jews prayed for his recovery and lamented him. The +Gentile soldiers exulted in the downfall of his dynasty, which they +signalized after their own fashion. Claudius intended that Agrippa's +young son should succeed to the kingdom; but he was overruled by his +advisers, and Judaea was taken over once more by Roman procurators. The +success of Agrippa's brief reign had revived the hopes of the Jewish +nationalists, and concessions only retarded the inevitable insurrection. + +Cuspius Fadus, the first of these procurators, purged the land of +bandits. He also attempted to regain for the Romans the custody of the +high priest's vestments; but the Jews appealed to the emperor against +the revival of this advertisement of their servitude. The emperor +granted the petition, which indeed the procurator had permitted them to +make, and further transferred the nomination of the high priest and the +supervision of the temple from the procurator to Agrippa's brother, +Herod of Chalcis. But these concessions did not satisfy the hopes of the +people. During the government of Fadus, Theudas, who claimed to be a +prophet and whom Josephus describes as a wizard, persuaded a large +number to take up their possessions and follow him to the Jordan, saying +that he would cleave the river asunder with a word of command and so +provide them with an easy crossing. A squadron of cavalry despatched by +Fadus took them alive, cut off the head of Theudas and brought it to +Jerusalem. + +Under the second procurator Tiberius Alexander, an apostate Jew of +Alexandria, nephew of Philo, the Jews suffered from a great famine and +were relieved by the queen of Adiabene, a proselyte to Judaism, who +purchased corn from Egypt. The famine was perhaps interpreted by the +Zealots as a punishment for their acquiescence in the rule of an +apostate. At any rate Alexander crucified two sons of Simon the +Galilean, who had headed a revolt in the time of the census. They had +presumably followed the example of their father. + +Under Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) the mutual hatred of Jews and Romans, +Samaritans and Jews, found vent in insults and bloodshed. At the +passover, on the fourth day of the feast, a soldier mounting guard at +the porches of the Temple provoked an uproar, which ended in a massacre, +by indecent exposure of his person. Some of the rebels intercepted a +slave of the emperor on the high-road near the city and robbed him of +his possessions. Troops were sent to pacify the country, and in one +village a soldier found a copy of Moses' laws and tore it up in public +with jeers and blasphemies. At this the Jews flocked to Caesarea, and +were only restrained from a second outbreak by the execution of the +soldier. Finally, the Samaritans attacked certain Galileans who were (as +the custom was) travelling through Samaria to Jerusalem for the +passover. Cumanus was bribed and refused to avenge the death of the Jews +who were killed. So the Galileans with some of the lower classes of "the +Jews" allied themselves with a "robber" and burned some of the Samaritan +villages. Cumanus armed the Samaritans, and, with them and his own +troops, defeated these Jewish marauders. The leading men of Jerusalem +prevailed upon the rebels who survived the defeat to disperse. But the +quarrel was referred first to the legate of Syria and then to the +emperor. The emperor was still disposed to conciliate the Jews; and, at +the instance of Agrippa, son of Agrippa I., Cumanus was banished. + +37. _Felix and the Revolutionaries._--Under Antonius Felix (52-60) the +revolutionary movement grew and spread. The country, Josephus says, was +full of "robbers" and "wizards." The high priest was murdered in the +Temple by pilgrims who carried daggers under their cloaks. Wizards and +impostors persuaded the multitude to follow them into the desert, and an +Egyptian, claiming to be a prophet, led his followers to the Mount of +Olives to see the walls of Jerusalem fall at his command. Such +deceivers, according to Josephus, did no less than the murderers to +destroy the happiness of the city. Their hands were cleaner but their +thoughts were more impious, for they pretended to divine inspiration. + +Felix the procurator--a king, as Tacitus says, in power and in mind a +slave--tried in vain to put down the revolutionaries. The "chief-robber" +Eleazar, who had plundered the country for twenty years, was caught and +sent to Rome; countless robbers of less note were crucified. But this +severity cemented the alliance of religious fanatics with the +physical-force party and induced the ordinary citizens to join them, in +spite of the punishments which they received when captured. Agrippa II. +received a kingdom--first Chalcis, and then the tetrarchies of Philip +and Lysanias--but, though he had the oversight of the Temple and the +nomination of the high priest, and enjoyed a reputation for knowledge of +Jewish customs and questions, he was unable to check the growing power +of the Zealots. His sister Drusilla had broken the Law by her marriage +with Felix; and his own notorious relations with his sister Berenice, +and his coins which bore the images of the emperors, were an open +affront to the conscience of Judaism. When Felix was recalled by Nero in +60 the nation was divided against itself, the Gentiles within its gates +were watching for their opportunity, and the chief priests robbed the +lower priests with a high hand. + +In Caesarea there had been for some time trouble between the Jewish and +the Syrian inhabitants. The Jews claimed that the city was theirs, +because King Herod had founded it. The Syrians admitted the fact, but +insisted that it was a city for Greeks, as its temples and statues +proved. Their rivalry led to street-fighting: the Jews had the advantage +in respect of wealth and bodily strength, but the Greek party had the +assistance of the soldiers who were stationed there. On one occasion +Felix sent troops against the victorious Jews; but neither this nor the +scourge and the prison, to which the leaders of both factions had been +consigned, deterred them. The quarrel was therefore referred to the +emperor Nero, who finally gave his decision in favour of the Syrians or +Greeks. The result of this decision was that the synagogue at Caesarea +was insulted on a Sabbath and the Jews left the city taking their books +of the Law with them. So--Josephus says--the war began in the twelfth +year of the reign of Nero (A.D. 66). + +38. _Festus, Albinus and Florus._--Meanwhile the procurators who +succeeded Felix--Porcius Festus (60-62), Albinus (62-64) and Gessius +Florus (64-66)--had in their several ways brought the bulk of the nation +into line with the more violent of the Jews of Caesarea. Festus found +Judaea infested with robbers and the Sicarii, who mingled with the +crowds at the feasts and stabbed their enemies with the daggers +(_sicae_) from which their name was derived. He also, had to deal with a +wizard, who deceived many by promising them salvation and release from +evils, if they would follow him into the desert. His attempts to crush +all such disturbers of the peace were cut short by his death in his +second year of office. + +In the interval which elapsed before the arrival of Albinus, Ananus son +of Annas was made high priest by Agrippa. With the apparent intention of +restoring order in Jerusalem, he assembled the Sanhedrin, and being, as +a Sadducee, cruel in the matter of penalties, secured the condemnation +of certain lawbreakers to death by stoning. For this he was deposed by +Agrippa. Albinus fostered and turned to his profit the struggles of +priests with priests and of Zealots with their enemies. The general +release of prisoners, with which he celebrated his impending recall, is +typical of his policy. Meanwhile Agrippa gave the Levites the right to +wear the linen robe of the priests and sanctioned the use of the temple +treasure to provide work--the paving of the city with white stones--for +the workmen who had finished the Temple (64) and now stood idle. But +everything pointed to the destruction of the city, which one Jesus had +prophesied at the feast of tabernacles in 62. The Zealots' zeal for the +Law and the Temple was flouted by their pro-Roman king. + +By comparison with Florus, Albinus was, in the opinion of Josephus, a +benefactor. When the news of the troubles at Caesarea reached Jerusalem, +it became known also that Florus had seized seventeen talents of the +temple treasure (66). At this the patience of the Jews was exhausted. +The sacrilege, as they considered it, may have been an attempt to +recover arrears of tribute; but they were convinced that Florus was +providing for himself and not for Caesar. The revolutionaries went about +among the excited people with baskets, begging coppers for their +destitute and miserable governor. Stung by this insult, he neglected the +fire of war which had been lighted at Caesarea, and hastened to +Jerusalem. His soldiers sacked the upper city and killed 630 +persons--men, women and children. Berenice, who was fulfilling a +Nazarite vow, interposed in vain. Florus actually dared to scourge and +crucify Jews who belonged to the Roman order of knights. For the moment +the Jews were cowed, and next day they went submissively to greet the +troops coming from Caesarea. Their greetings were unanswered, and they +cried out against Florus. On this the soldiers drew their swords and +drove the people into the city; but, once inside the city, the people +stood at bay and succeeded in establishing themselves upon the +temple-hill. Florus withdrew with all his troops, except one cohort, to +Caesarea. The Jews laid complaint against him, and he complained against +the Jews before the governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who sent an +officer to inquire into the matter. Agrippa, who had hurried from +Alexandria, entered Jerusalem with the governor's emissary. So long as +he counselled submission to the overwhelming power of Rome the people +complied, but when he spoke of obedience to Florus he was compelled to +fly. The rulers, who desired peace, and upon whom Florus had laid the +duty of restoring peace, asked him for troops; but the civil war ended +in their complete discomfiture. The rebels abode by their decision to +stop the daily sacrifice for the emperor; Agrippa's troops capitulated +and marched out unhurt; and the Romans, who surrendered on the same +condition and laid down their arms, were massacred. As if to emphasize +the spirit and purpose of the rebellion, one and only one of the Roman +soldiers was spared, because he promised to become a Jew even to the +extent of circumcision. + +39. _Josephus and the Zealots._--Simultaneously with this massacre the +citizens of Caesarea slaughtered the Jews who still remained there; and +throughout Syria Jews effected--and suffered--reprisals. At length the +governor of Syria approached the centre of the disturbance in Jerusalem, +but retreated after burning down a suburb. In the course of his retreat +he was attacked by the Jews and fled to Antioch, leaving them his +engines of war. Some prominent Jews fled from Jerusalem--as from a +sinking ship--to join him and carried the news to the emperor. The rest +of the pro-Roman party were forced or persuaded to join the rebels and +prepared for war on a grander scale. Generals were selected by the +Sanhedrin from the aristocracy, who had tried to keep the peace and +still hoped to make terms with Rome. Ananus the high priest, their +leader, remained in command at Jerusalem; Galilee, where the first +attack was to be expected, was entrusted to Josephus, the historian of +the war. The revolutionary leaders, who had already taken the field, +were superseded. + +Josephus set himself to make an army of the inhabitants of Galilee, many +of whom had no wish to fight, and to strengthen the strongholds. His +organization of local government and his efforts to maintain law and +order brought him into collision with the Zealots and especially with +John of Giscala, one of their leaders. The people, whom he had tried to +conciliate, were roused against him; John sent assassins and finally +procured an order from Jerusalem for his recall. In spite of all this +Josephus held his ground and by force or craft put down those who +resisted his authority. + +In the spring of 67 Vespasian, who had been appointed by Nero to crush +the rebellion, advanced from his winter quarters at Antioch. The +inhabitants of Sepphoris--whom Josephus had judged to be so eager for +the war that he left them to build their wall for themselves--received a +Roman garrison at their own request. Joined by Titus, Vespasian advanced +into Galilee with three legions and the auxiliary troops supplied by +Agrippa and other petty kings. Before his advance the army of Josephus +fled. Josephus with a few stalwarts took refuge in Tiberias, and sent a +letter to Jerusalem asking that he should be relieved of his command or +supplied with an adequate force to continue the war. Hearing that +Vespasian was preparing to besiege Jotapata, a strong fortress in the +hills, which was held by other fugitives, Josephus entered it just +before the road approaching it was made passable for the Roman horse and +foot. A deserter announced his arrival to Vespasian, who rejoiced +(Josephus says) that the cleverest of his enemies had thus voluntarily +imprisoned himself. After some six weeks' siege the place was stormed, +and its exhausted garrison were killed or enslaved. Josephus, whose +pretences had postponed the final assault, hid in a cave with forty men. +His companions refused to permit him to surrender and were resolved to +die. At his suggestion they cast lots, and the first man was killed by +the second and so on, until all were dead except Josephus and (perhaps) +one other. So Josephus saved them from the sin of suicide and gave +himself up to the Romans. He had prophesied that the place would be +taken--as it was--on the forty-seventh day, and now he prophesied that +both Vespasian and his son Titus would reign over all mankind. The +prophecy saved his life, though many desired his death, and the rumour +of it produced general mourning in Jerusalem. By the end of the year +(67) Galilee was in the hands of Vespasian, and John of Giscala had +fled. Agrippa celebrated the conquest at Caesarea Philippi with +festivities which lasted twenty days. + +In accordance with ancient custom Jerusalem welcomed the fugitive +Zealots. The result was civil war and famine. Ananus incited the people +against these robbers, who arrested, imprisoned and murdered prominent +friends of Rome, and arrogated to themselves the right of selecting the +high priest by lot. The Zealots took refuge in the Temple and summoned +the Idumaeans to their aid. Under cover of a storm, they opened the +city-gates to their allies and proceeded to murder Ananus the high +priest, and, against the verdict of a formal tribunal, Zacharias the son +of Baruch in the midst of the Temple. The Idumaeans left, but John of +Giscala remained master of Jerusalem. + +40. _The Fall of Jerusalem._--Vespasian left the rivals to consume one +another and occupied his army with the subjugation of the country. When +he had isolated the capital and was preparing to besiege it, the news of +Nero's death reached him at Caesarea. For a year (June 68-June 69) he +held his hand and watched events, until the robber-bands of Simon +Bar-Giora (son of the proselyte) required his attention. But, before +Vespasian took action to stop his raids, Simon had been invited to +Jerusalem in the hope that he would act as a counterpoise to the tyrant +John. And so, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in fulfilment of +Josephus' prophecy, and deputed the command to Titus, there were three +rivals at war in Jerusalem--Eleazar, Simon and John. The temple +sacrifices were still offered and worshippers were admitted; but John's +catapults were busy, and priest and worshippers at the altar were +killed, because Eleazar's party occupied the inner courts of the Temple. +A few days before the passover of 70 Titus advanced upon Jerusalem, but +the civil war went on. When Eleazar opened the temple-gates to admit +those who wished to worship God, John of Giscala introduced some of his +own men, fully armed under their garments, and so got possession of the +Temple. Titus pressed the attack, and the two factions joined hands at +last to repel it. In spite of their desperate sallies, Jerusalem was +surrounded by a wall, and its people, whose numbers were increased by +those who had come up for the passover, were hemmed in to starve. The +famine affected all alike--the populace, who desired peace, and the +Zealots, who were determined to fight to the end. At last John of +Giscala portioned out the sacred wine and oil, saying that they who +fought for the Temple might fearlessly use its stores for their +sustenance. Steadily the Romans forced their way through wall after +wall, until the Jews were driven back to the Temple and the daily +sacrifices came to an end on the 17th of July for lack of men. Once more +Josephus appealed in vain to John and his followers to cease from +desecrating and endangering the Temple. The siege proceeded and the +temple-gates were burned. According to Josephus, Titus decided to spare +the Temple, but--whether this was so or not--on the 10th of August it +was fired by a soldier after a sortie of the Jews had been repelled. The +legions set up their standards in the temple-court and hailed Titus as +imperator. + +Some of the Zealots escaped with John and Simon to the upper city and +held it for another month. But Titus had already earned the triumph +which he celebrated at Rome in 71. The Jews, wherever they might be, +continued to pay the temple-tax; but now it was devoted to Jupiter +Capitolinus. The Romans had taken their holy place, and the Law was all +that was left to them. + + 41. _From_ A.D. 70 _to_ A.D. 135.--The destruction of the Temple + carried with it the destruction of the priesthood and all its power. + The priests existed to offer sacrifices, and by the Law no sacrifice + could be offered except at the Temple of Jerusalem. Thenceforward the + remnant of the Jews who survived the fiery ordeal formed a church + rather than a nation or a state, and the Pharisees exercised an + unchallenged supremacy. With the Temple and its Sadducean high priests + perished the Sanhedrin in which the Sadducees had competed with the + Pharisees for predominance. The Sicarii or Zealots who had appealed to + the arm of flesh were exterminated. Only the teachers of the Law + survived to direct the nation and to teach those who remained loyal + Jews, how they should render to Caesar what belonged to Caesar, and to + God what belonged to God. Here and there hot-headed Zealots rose up to + repeat the errors and the disasters of their predecessors. But their + fate only served to deepen the impression already stamped upon the + general mind of the nation. The Temple was gone, but they had the Law. + Already the Jews of the Dispersion had learned to supplement the + Temple by the synagogue, and even the Jews of Jerusalem had not been + free to spend their lives in the worship of the Temple. There were + still, as always, rites which were independent of the place and of the + priest; there had been a time when the Temple did not exist. So + Judaism survived once more the destruction of its central sanctuary. + + When Jerusalem was taken, the Sicarii still continued to hold three + strongholds: one--Masada--for three years. But the commander of Masada + realized at length that there was no hope of escaping captivity except + by death, and urged his comrades to anticipate their fate. Each man + slew his wife and children; ten men were selected by lot to slay the + rest; one man slew the nine executioners, fired the palace and fell + upon his sword. When the place was stormed the garrison consisted of + two old women and five children who had concealed themselves in caves. + So Vespasian obtained possession of Palestine--the country which Nero + had given him--and for a time it was purged of revolutionaries. Early + Christian writers assert that he proceeded to search out and to + execute all descendants of David who might conceivably come forward as + claimants of the vacant throne. + + In Egypt and in Cyrene fugitive Zealots endeavoured to continue their + rebellion against the emperor, but there also with disastrous results. + The doors of the Temple in Egypt were closed, and its sacrifices which + had been offered for 243 years were prohibited. Soon afterwards this + temple also was destroyed. Apart from these local outbreaks, the Jews + throughout the empire remained loyal citizens and were not molested. + The general hope of the nation was not necessarily bound up with the + house of David, and its realization was not incompatible with the yoke + of Rome. They still looked for a true prophet, and meanwhile they had + their rabbis. + + Under Johanan ben Zaccai (q.v.) the Pharisees established themselves + at Jamnia. A new Sanhedrin was formed there under the presidency of a + ruler, who received yearly dues from all Jewish communities. The + scribes through the synagogues preserved the national spirit and + directed it towards the religious life which was prescribed by + Scripture. The traditions of the elders were tested and gradually + harmonized in their essentials. The canon of Scripture was decided in + accordance with the touchstone of the Pentateuch. Israel had retired + to their tents to study their Bible. + + Under Vespasian and Titus the Jews enjoyed freedom of conscience and + equal political rights with non-Jewish subjects of Rome. But Domitian, + according to pagan historians, bore hardly on them. The temple-tax was + strictly exacted; Jews who lived the Jewish life without openly + confessing their religion and Jews who concealed their nationality + were brought before the magistrates. Proselytes to Judaism were + condemned either to death or to forfeiture of their property. Indeed + it would seem that Domitian instituted a persecution of the Jews, to + which Nerva his successor put an end. Towards the end of Trajan's + reign (114-117) the Jews of Egypt and Cyrene rose against their Greek + neighbours and set up a king. The rebellion spread to Cyprus; and when + Trajan advanced from Mesopotamia into Parthia the Jews of Mesopotamia + revolted. The massacres they perpetrated were avenged in kind and all + the insurrections were quelled when Hadrian succeeded Trajan. + + In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had forbidden + circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced Jerusalem by + a city of his own, Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of Yahweh by a + temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provocations--the + prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration of the + sacred place--the Jews had a leader who was recognized as Messiah by + the rabbi Aqiba. Though the majority of the rabbis looked for no such + deliverer and refused to admit his claims, Barcochebas (q.v.) drew the + people after him to struggle for their national independence. For + three years and a half he held his own and issued coins in the name of + Simon, which commemorate the liberation of Jerusalem. Some attempt was + apparently made to rebuild the Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, + who had perhaps been won over by Aqiba, supported the rebellion. + Indeed even Gentiles helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius + says) was stirred. Hadrian sent his best generals against the rebels, + and at length they were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The + Jews were forbidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of + death. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive of modern books dealing with the + period is Emil Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter + Jesu Christi_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foll.). Exception has been taken + to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, especially the rabbis, + which has been detected in the author. But at least the book remains + an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient and modern + authorities. An earlier edition was translated into English under the + title _History of the Jewish People_ (Edinburgh, 1890, 1891). Of + shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's _Geschichte Israel's von + Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian_ (2nd ed., 1906) is perhaps the + least dependent upon Schürer and attempts more than others to + interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr R. H. Charles has + done much by his editions to restore to their proper prominence in + connexion with Jewish history the _Testaments of the Twelve + Patriarchs_, _The Book of Jubilees_, _Enoch_, &c. But Schürer gives a + complete bibliography to which it must suffice to refer. For the + Sanhedrin see SYNEDRIUM. (J. H. A. H.) + + +III.--FROM THE DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES + +42. _The Later Empire._--With the failure in 135 of the attempt led by +Barcochebas to free Judaea from Roman domination a new era begins in the +history of the Jews. The direct consequence of the failure was the +annihilation of political nationality. Large numbers fell in the actual +fighting. Dio Cassius puts the total at the incredible figure of +580,000, besides the incalculable number who succumbed to famine, +disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin lxix. 11-15). Jerusalem was rebuilt by +Hadrian, orders to this effect being given during the emperor's first +journey through Syria in 130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, +Tiberias and Petra (Reinach, _Textes relatifs au Judaïsme_, p. 198). The +new city was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of +Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To Eusebius the +erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre of Christ was an act of +mockery against the Christian religion. Rome had been roused to unwonted +fury, and the truculence of the rebels was matched by the cruelty of +their masters. The holy city was barred against the Jews; they were +excluded, under pain of death, from approaching within view of the +walls. Hadrian's policy in this respect was matched later on by the +edict of the caliph Omar (c. 638), who, like his Roman prototype, +prevented the Jews from settling in the capital of their ancient +country. The death of Hadrian and the accession of Antoninus Pius (138), +however, gave the dispersed people of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman +law was by no means intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of +Caracalla (198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the +civil rights of the _Cives Romani_ (Scherer, _Die Rechtsverhältnisse der +Juden_, p. 10). + +Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of material +ruin. The synagogue had become a firmly established institution, and the +personal and social life of the masses had come under the control of +communal law. The dialectic of the school proved stronger to preserve +than the edge of the sword to destroy. Pharisaic Judaism, put to the +severest test to which a religious system has ever been subject, showed +itself able to control and idealize life in all its phases. Whatever +question may be possible as to the force or character of Pharisaism in +the time of Christ, there can be no doubt that it became both +all-pervading and ennobling among the successors of Aqiba (q.v.), +himself one of the martyrs to Hadrian's severity. Little more than half +a century after the overthrow of the Jewish nationality, the Mishnah was +practically completed, and by this code of rabbinic law--and law is here +a term which includes the social, moral and religious as well as the +ritual and legal phases of human activity--the Jewish people were +organized into a community, living more or less autonomously under the +Sanhedrin or Synedrium (q.v.) and its officials. + +Judah the prince, the patriarch or _nasi_ who edited the Mishnah, died +early in the 3rd century. With him the importance of the Palestinian +patriarchate attained its zenith. Gamaliel II. of Jamnia (Jabne Yebneh) +had been raised to this dignity a century before, and, as members of the +house of Hillel and thus descendants of David, the patriarchs enjoyed +almost royal authority. Their functions were political rather than +religious, though their influence was by no means purely secular. They +were often on terms of intimate friendship with the emperors, who +scarcely interfered with their jurisdiction. As late as Theodosius I. +(379-395) the internal affairs of the Jews were formally committed to +the patriarchs, and Honorius (404) authorized the collection of the +patriarch's tax (_aurum coronarium_), by which a revenue was raised from +the Jews of the diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the +patriarchate was finally abolished after a régime of three centuries and +a half (Graetz, _History of the Jews_, Eng. trans. vol. ii. ch. xxii.), +though ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a +time elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The real +turning-point had been reached earlier, when Christianity became the +state religion under Constantine I. in 312. + + Religion under the Christian emperors became a significant source of + discrimination in legal status, and non-conformity might reach so far + as to produce complete loss of rights. The laws concerning the Jews + had a repressive and preventive object: the repression of Judaism and + the prevention of inroads of Jewish influences into the state + religion. The Jews were thrust into a position of isolation, and the + Code of Theodosius and other authorities characterize the Jews as a + lower order of depraved beings (_inferiores_ and _perversi_), their + community as a godless, dangerous sect (_secta nefaria, feralis_), + their religion a superstition, their assemblies for religious worship + a blasphemy (_sacrilegi coetus_) and a contagion (Scherer, _op. cit._ + pp. 11-12). Yet Judaism under Roman Christian law was a lawful + religion (_religio licita_), Valentinian I. (364-375) forbade the + quartering of soldiers in the synagogues, Theodosius I. prohibited + interference with the synagogue worship ("Judaeorum sectam nulla lege + prohibitam satis constat"), and in 412 a special edict of protection + was issued. But the admission of Christians into the Jewish fold was + punished by confiscation of goods (357), the erection of new + synagogues was arrested by Theodosius II. (439) under penalty of a + heavy fine, Jews were forbidden to hold Christian slaves under pain of + death (423). A similar penalty attached to intermarriage between Jews + and Christians, and an attempt was made to nullify all Jewish + marriages which were not celebrated in accordance with Roman law. But + Justinian (527-565) was the first to interfere directly in the + religious institutions of the Jewish people. In 553 he interdicted the + use of the Talmud (which had then not long been completed), and the + Byzantine emperors of the 8th and 9th centuries passed even more + intolerant regulations. As regards civil law, Jews were at first + allowed to settle disputes between Jew and Jew before their own + courts, but Justinian denied to them and to heretics the right to + appear as witnesses in the public courts against orthodox Christians. + To Constantine V. (911-959) goes back the Jewish form of oath which in + its later development required the Jew to gird himself with thorns; + stand in water; and, holding the scroll of the Torah in his hand, + invoke upon his person the leprosy of Naaman, the curse of Eli and the + fate of Korah's sons should he perjure himself. This was the original + of all the medieval forms of oath _more judaico_, which still + prevailed in many European lands till the 19th century, and are even + now maintained by some of the Rumanian courts. Jews were by the law of + Honorius excluded from the army, from public offices and dignities + (418), from acting as advocates (425); only the curial offices were + open to them. Justinian gave the finishing touch by proclaiming in 537 + the Jews absolutely ineligible for any honour whatsoever ("honore + fruantur nullo"). + +43. _Judaism in Babylonia._--The Jews themselves were during this period +engaged in building up a system of isolation on their own side, but they +treated Roman law with greater hospitality than it meted out to them. +The Talmud shows the influence of that law in many points, and may +justly be compared to it as a monument of codification based on great +principles. The Palestinian Talmud was completed in the 4th century, but +the better known and more influential version was compiled in Babylonia +about 500. The land which, a millennium before, had been a prison for +the Jewish exiles was now their asylum of refuge. For a long time it +formed their second fatherland. Here, far more than on Palestinian soil, +was built the enduring edifice of rabbinism. The population of the +southern part of Mesopotamia--the strip of land enclosed between the +Tigris and the Euphrates--was, according to Graetz, mainly Jewish; while +the district extending for about 70 m. on the east of the Euphrates, +from Nehardea in the north to Sura in the south, became a new Palestine +with Nehardea for its Jerusalem. The Babylonian Jews were practically +independent, and the exilarch (_resh-galutha_) or prince of the +captivity was an official who ruled the community as a vassal of the +Persian throne. The exilarch claimed, like the Palestinian patriarch, +descent from the royal house of David, and exercised most of the +functions of government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance +for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was completed. The +great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea, the former of which +retained something of its dominant rôle till the 11th century, had been +founded, Sura by Abba Arika (q.v.) (c. 219), but Nehardea, the more +ancient seat of the two, famous in the 3rd century for its association +with Abba Arika's renowned contemporary Samuel, lost its Jewish +importance in the age of Mahomet. + +To Samuel of Nehardea (q.v.) belongs the honour of formulating the +principle which made it possible for Jews to live under alien laws. +Jeremiah had admonished his exiled brothers: "Seek ye the peace of the +city whither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray +unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace" +(Jer. xxix. 7). It was now necessary to go farther, and the rabbis +proclaimed a principle which was as influential with the synagogue as +"Give unto Caesar that which is Caesar's" became with the Church. "The +law of the government is law" (_Baba Qama_ 113 b.), said Samuel, and +ever since it has been a religious duty for the Jews to obey and +accommodate themselves as far as possible to the laws of the country in +which they are settled or reside. In 259 Odenathus, the Palmyrene +adventurer whose memory has been eclipsed by that of his wife Zenobia, +laid Nehardea waste for the time being, and in its neighbourhood arose +the academy of Pumbedita (Pombeditha) which became a new focus for the +intellectual life of Israel in Babylonia. These academies were organized +on both scholastic and popular lines; their constitution was democratic. +An outstanding feature was the _Kallah_ assemblage twice a year (in Elul +at the close of the summer, and in Adar at the end of the winter), when +there were gathered together vast numbers of outside students of the +most heterogeneous character as regards both age and attainments. +Questions received from various quarters were discussed and the final +decision of the _Kallah_ was signed by the _Resh-Kallah_ or president of +the general assembly, who was only second in rank to the _Resh-Metibta_, +or president of the scholastic sessions. Thus the Babylonian academies +combined the functions of specialist law-schools, universities and +popular parliaments. They were a unique product of rabbinism; and the +authors of the system were also the compilers of its literary +expression, the Talmud. + +44. _Judaism in Islam._--Another force now appears on the scene. The new +religion inaugurated by Mahomet differed in its theory from the Roman +Catholic Church. The Church, it is true, in council after council, +passed decisions unfriendly to the Jews. From the synod at Elvira in the +4th century this process began, and it was continued in the West-Gothic +Church legislation, in the Lateran councils (especially the fourth in +1215), and in the council of Trent (1563). The anti-social tendency of +these councils expressed itself in the infliction of the badge, in the +compulsory domicile of Jews within ghettos, and in the erection of +formidable barriers against all intercourse between church and +synagogue. The protective instinct was responsible for much of this +interference with the natural impulse of men of various creeds towards +mutual esteem and forbearance. The church, it was conceived, needed +defence against the synagogue at all hazards, and the fear that the +latter would influence and dominate the former was never absent from the +minds of medieval ecclesiastics. But though this defensive zeal led to +active persecution, still in theory Judaism was a tolerated religion +wherever the Church had sway, and many papal bulls of a friendly +character were issued throughout the middle ages (Scherer, p. 32 seq.). + +Islam, on the other hand, had no theoretic place in its scheme for +tolerated religions; its principle was fundamentally intolerant. Where +the mosque was erected, there was no room for church or synagogue. The +caliph Omar initiated in the 7th century a code which required +Christians and Jews to wear peculiar dress, denied them the right to +hold state offices or to possess land, inflicted a poll-tax on them, and +while forbidding them to enter mosques, refused them the permission to +build new places of worship for themselves. Again and again these +ordinances were repeated in subsequent ages, and intolerance for +infidels is still a distinct feature of Mahommedan law. But Islam has +often shown itself milder in fact than in theory, for its laws were made +to be broken. The medieval Jews on the whole lived, under the crescent, +a fuller and freer life than was possible to them under the cross. +Mahommedan Babylonia (Persia) was the home of the gaonate (see GAON), +the central authority of religious Judaism, whose power transcended that +of the secular exilarchate, for it influenced the synagogue far and +wide, while the exilarchate was local. The gaonate enjoyed a practical +tolerance remarkable when contrasted with the letter of Islamic law. And +as the Bagdad caliphate tended to become more and more supreme in Islam, +so the gaonate too shared in this increased influence. Not even the +Qaraite schism was able to break the power of the geonim. But the +dispersion of the Jews was proceeding in directions which carried masses +from the Asiatic inland to the Mediterranean coasts and to Europe. + +45. _In Medieval Europe: Spain._--This dispersion of the Jews had begun +in the Hellenistic period, but it was after the Barcochebas war that it +assumed great dimensions in Europe. There were Jews in the Byzantine +empire, in Rome, in France and Spain at very early periods, but it is +with the Arab conquest of Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival +in culture and importance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before +this date the Jews had been learning the rôle they afterwards filled, +that of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already under +Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his generous treatment of +the Jews this Christian emperor stood in marked contrast to his +contemporary the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who persecuted Jews and +Christians with equal vigour. But by the 10th century Judaism had +received from Islam something more than persecution. It caught the +contagion of poetry, philosophy and science.[64] The schismatic Qaraites +initiated or rather necessitated a new Hebrew philology, which later on +produced Qimhi, the gaon Saadiah founded a Jewish philosophy, the +statesman Hasdai introduced a new Jewish culture--and all this under +Mahommedan rule. It is in Spain that above all the new spirit manifested +itself. The distinctive feature of the Spanish-Jewish culture was its +comprehensiveness. Literature and affairs, science and statecraft, +poetry and medicine, these various expressions of human nature and +activity were so harmoniously balanced that they might be found in the +possession of one and the same individual. The Jews of Spain attained to +high places in the service of the state from the time of the Moorish +conquest in 711. From Hasdai ibn Shaprut in the 10th century and Samuel +the nagid in the 11th the line of Jewish scholar-statesmen continued +till we reach Isaac Abrabanel in 1492, the date of the expulsion of the +Jews from Spain. This last-named event synchronized with the discovery +of America; Columbus being accompanied by at least one Jewish navigator. +While the Spanish period of Jewish history was thus brilliant from the +point of view of public service, it was equally notable on the literary +side. Hebrew religious poetry was revived for synagogue hymnology, and, +partly in imitation of Arabian models, a secular Hebrew poetry was +developed in metre and rhyme. The new Hebrew _Piyut_ found its first +important exponent in Kalir, who was not a Spaniard. But it is to Spain +that we must look for the best of the medieval poets of the synagogue, +greatest among them being Ibn Gabirol and Halevi. So, too, the greatest +Jew of the middle ages, Maimonides, was a Spaniard. In him culminates +the Jewish expression of the Spanish-Moorish culture; his writings had +an influence on European scholasticism and contributed significant +elements to the philosophy of Spinoza. But the reconquest of Andalusia +by the Christians associated towards the end of the 15th century with +the establishment of the Inquisition, introduced a spirit of intolerance +which led to the expulsion of the Jews and Moors. The consequences of +this blow were momentous; it may be said to inaugurate the ghetto +period. In Spain Jewish life had participated in the general life, but +the expulsion--while it dispersed the Spanish Jews in Poland, Turkey, +Italy and France, and thus in the end contributed to the Jewish +emancipation at the French Revolution--for the time drove the Jews +within their own confines and barred them from the outside world.[65] + +46. _In France, Germany, England, Italy._--In the meantime Jewish life +had been elsewhere subjected to other influences which produced a result +at once narrower and deeper. Under Charlemagne, the Jews, who had begun +to settle in Gaul in the time of Caesar, were more than tolerated. They +were allowed to hold land and were encouraged to become--what their +ubiquity qualified them to be--the merchant princes of Europe. The reign +of Louis the Pious (814-840) was, as Graetz puts it, "a golden era for +the Jews of his kingdom, such as they had never enjoyed, and were +destined never again to enjoy in Europe"--prior, that is, to the age of +Mendelssohn. In Germany at the same period the feudal system debarred +the Jews from holding land, and though there was as yet no material +persecution they suffered moral injury by being driven exclusively into +finance and trade. Nor was there any widening of the general horizon +such as was witnessed in Spain. The Jewries of France and Germany were +thus thrown upon their own cultural resources. They rose to the +occasion. In Mainz there settled in the 10th century Gershom, the "light +of the exile," who, about 1000, published his ordinance forbidding +polygamy in Jewish law as it had long been forbidden in Jewish practice. +This ordinance may be regarded as the beginning of the Synodal +government of Judaism, which was a marked feature of medieval life in +the synagogues of northern and central Europe from the 12th century. +Soon after Gershom's death, Rashi (1040-1106) founded at Troyes a new +school of learning. If Maimonides represented Judaism on its rational +side, Rashi was the expression of its traditions. + +French Judaism was thus in a sense more human if less humane than the +Spanish variety; the latter produced thinkers, statesmen, poets and +scientists; the former, men with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of +robuster because of more naïve and concentrated piety. In Spain and North +Africa persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon +Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or Christianity +combined with a private fidelity to the rites of Judaism. But in England, +France and Germany persecution altogether failed to shake the courage of +the Jews, and martyrdom was borne in preference to ostensible apostasy. +The crusades subjected the Jews to this ordeal. The evil was wrought, not +by the regular armies of the cross who were inspired by noble ideals, but +by the undisciplined mobs which, for the sake of plunder, associated +themselves with the genuine enthusiasts. In 1096 massacres of Jews +occurred in many cities of the Rhineland. During the second crusade +(1145-1147) Bernard of Clairvaux heroically protested against similar +inhumanities. The third crusade, famous for the participation of Richard +I., was the occasion for bloody riots in England, especially in York, +where 150 Jews immolated themselves to escape baptism. Economically and +socially the crusades had disastrous effects upon the Jews (see J. +Jacobs, _Jewish Encyclopedia_, iv. 379). Socially they suffered by the +outburst of religious animosity. One of the worst forms taken by this +ill-will was the oft-revived myth of ritual murder (q.v.), and later on +when the Black Death devastated Europe (1348-1349) the Jews were the +victims of an odious charge of well-poisoning. Economically the results +were also injurious. "Before the crusades the Jews had practically a +monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connexion between +Europe and the East brought about by the crusades raised up a class of +merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onwards +restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent" (_op. cit._). +After the second crusade the German Jews fell into the class of _servi +camerae_, which at first only implied that they enjoyed the immunity of +imperial servants, but afterwards made of them slaves and pariahs. At the +personal whim of rulers, whether royal or of lower rank, the Jews were +expelled from states and principalities and were reduced to a condition +of precarious uncertainty as to what the morrow might bring forth. Pope +Innocent III. gave strong impetus to the repression of the Jews, +especially by ordaining the wearing of a badge. Popular animosity was +kindled by the enforced participation of the Jews in public disputations. +In 1306 Philip IV. expelled the Jews from France, nine years later Louis +X. recalled them for a period of twelve years. Such vicissitudes were the +ordinary lot of the Jews for several centuries, and it was their own +inner life--the pure life of the home, the idealism of the synagogue, and +the belief in ultimate Messianic redemption--that saved them from utter +demoralization and despair. Curiously enough in Italy--and particularly +in Rome--the external conditions were better. The popes themselves, +within their own immediate jurisdiction, were often far more tolerant +than their bulls issued for foreign communities, and Torquemada was less +an expression than a distortion of the papal policy. In the early 14th +century, the age of Dante, the new spirit of the Renaissance made Italian +rulers the patrons of art and literature, and the Jews to some extent +shared in this gracious change. Robert of Aragon--vicar-general of the +papal states--in particular encouraged the Jews and supported them in +their literary and scientific ambitions. Small coteries of Jewish minor +poets and philosophers were formed, and men like Kalonymos and +Immanuel--Dante's friend--shared the versatility and culture of Italy. +But in Germany there was no echo of this brighter note. Persecution was +elevated into a system, a poll-tax was exacted, and the rabble was +allowed (notably in 1336-1337) to give full vent to its fury. Following +on this came the Black Death with its terrible consequences in Germany; +even in Poland, where the Jews had previously enjoyed considerable +rights, extensive massacres took place. + +In effect the Jews became outlaws, but their presence being often +financially necessary, certain officials were permitted to "hold Jews," +who were liable to all forms of arbitrary treatment, on the side of +their "owners." The Jews had been among the first to appreciate the +commercial advantages of permitting the loan of money on interest, but +it was the policy of the Church that drove the Jews into money-lending +as a characteristic trade. Restrictions on their occupations were +everywhere common, and as the Church forbade Christians to engage in +usury, this was the only trade open to the Jews. The excessive demands +made upon the Jews forbade a fair rate of interest. "The Jews were +unwilling sponges by means of which a large part of the subjects' wealth +found its way into the royal exchequer" (Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the +Middle Ages_, ch. xii.). Hence, though this procedure made the Jews +intensely obnoxious to the peoples, they became all the more necessary +to the rulers. A favourite form of tolerance was to grant a permit to +the Jews to remain in the state for a limited term of years; their +continuance beyond the specified time was illegal and they were +therefore subject to sudden banishment. Thus a second expulsion of the +Jews of France occurred in 1394. Early in the 15th century John +Hus--under the inspiration of Wycliffe--initiated at Prague the revolt +against the Roman Catholic Church. The Jews suffered in the persecution +that followed, and in 1420 all the Austrian Jews were thrown into +prison. Martin V. published a favourable bull, but it was ineffectual. +The darkest days were nigh. Pope Eugenius (1442) issued a fiercely +intolerant missive; the Franciscan John of Capistrano moved the masses +to activity by his eloquent denunciations; even Casimir IV. revoked the +privileges of the Jews in Poland, when the Turkish capture of +Constantinople (1453) offered a new asylum for the hunted Jews of +Europe. But in Europe itself the catastrophe was not arrested. The +Inquisition in Spain led to the expulsion of the Jews (1492), and this +event involved not only the latter but the whole of the Jewish people. +"The Jews everywhere felt as if the temple had again been destroyed" +(Graetz). Nevertheless, the result was not all evil. If fugitives are +for the next half-century to be met with in all parts of Europe, yet, +especially in the Levant, there grew up thriving Jewish communities +often founded by Spanish refugees. Such incidents as the rise of Joseph +Nasi (q.v.) to high position under the Turkish government as duke of +Naxos mark the coming change. The reformation as such had no favourable +influence on Jewish fortunes in Christian Europe, though the +championship of the cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable +value. But the age of the ghetto (q.v.) had set in too firmly for +immediate amelioration to be possible. It is to Holland and to the 17th +century that we must turn for the first real steps towards Jewish +emancipation. + +47. _Period of Emancipation._--The ghetto, which had prevailed more or +less rigorously for a long period, was not formally prescribed by the +papacy until the beginning of the 16th century. The same century was not +ended before the prospect of liberty dawned on the Jews. Holland from +the moment that it joined the union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set +its face against religious persecution (_Jewish Encyclopedia_, i. 537). +Maranos, fleeing to the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were +wealthy, enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled to +conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle of the 17th +century the Jews of Holland had become of such importance that Charles +II. of England (then in exile) entered into negotiations with the +Amsterdam Jews (1656). In that same year the Amsterdam community was +faced by a serious problem in connexion with Spinoza. They brought +themselves into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher--an act of +weak self-defence on the part of men who had themselves but recently +been admitted to the country, and were timorous of the suspicion that +they shared Spinoza's then execrated views. It is more than a mere +coincidence that this step was taken during the absence in England of +one of the ablest and most notable of the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, +Menasseh ben Israel (q.v.) was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The +Jews had been expelled from England by Edward I., after a sojourn in the +country of rather more than two centuries, during which they had been +the licensed and oppressed money-lenders of the realm, and had--through +the special exchequer of the Jews--been used by the sovereign as a means +of extorting a revenue from his subjects. In the 17th century a +considerable number of Jews had made a home in the English colonies, +where from the first they enjoyed practically equal rights with the +Christian settlers. Cromwell, upon the inconclusive termination of the +conference summoned in 1655 at Whitehall to consider the Jewish +question, tacitly assented to the return of the Jews to this country, +and at the restoration his action was confirmed. The English Jews +"gradually substituted for the personal protection of the crown, the +sympathy and confidence of the nation" (L. Wolf, _Menasseh ben Israel's +Mission to Cromwell_, p. lxxv.). The city of London was the first to be +converted to the new attitude. "The wealth they brought into the +country, and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the +colonial trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the +prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the +millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for their +naturalization on the score of their commercial utility. For the same +reason the city found itself compelled at first to connive at their +illegal representation on 'Change, and then to violate its own rules by +permitting them to act as brokers without previously taking up the +freedom. At this period they controlled more of the foreign and colonial +trade than all the other alien merchants in London put together. The +momentum of their commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved +irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber, thence to +the aldermanic court, and eventually to the mayoralty itself, were +inevitable stages of an emancipation to which their large interests in +the city and their high character entitled them. Finally the city of +London--not only as the converted champion of religious liberty but as +the convinced apologist of the Jews--sent Baron Lionel de Rothschild to +knock at the door of the unconverted House of Commons as parliamentary +representative of the first city in the world" (Wolf, loc. cit.). + +The pioneers of this emancipation in Holland and England were Sephardic +(or Spanish) Jews--descendants of the Spanish exiles. In the meantime +the Ashkenazic (or German) Jews had been working out their own +salvation. The chief effects of the change were not felt till the 18th +century. In England emancipation was of democratic origin and concerned +itself with practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more +aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual +renaissance which found its most striking expression in the principles +of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the 18th century was less an +era of stagnation than of transition. The condition of the European Jews +seems, on a superficial examination, abject enough. But, excluded though +they were from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters +of the city, disabled from sharing most of the amenities of life, the +Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from the ghetto and +from the moral degeneration which it had caused. Some ghettos (as in +Moravia) were actually not founded till the 18th century, but the +careful observer can perceive clearly that at that period the ghetto was +a doomed institution. In the "dark ages" Jews enjoyed neither rights nor +privileges; in the 18th century they were still without rights but they +had privileges. A grotesque feature of the time in Germany and Austria +was the class of court Jews, such as the Oppenheims, the personal +favourites of rulers and mostly their victims when their usefulness had +ended. These men often rendered great services to their fellow-Jews, and +one of the results was the growth in Jewish society of an aristocracy of +wealth, where previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even +more important was another privileged class--that of the _Schutz-Jude_ +(protected Jew). Where there were no rights, privileges had to be +bought. While the court Jews were the favourites of kings, the protected +Jews were the protégés of town councils. Corruption is the frequent +concomitant of privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for +a price at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was +illegal. Many Jews found it possible to evade laws of domicile by +residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could they be +effectually excluded from the fairs, the great markets of the 18th +century. The Sephardic Jews in all these respects occupied a superior +position, and they merited the partiality shown to them. Their personal +dignity and the vast range of their colonial enterprises were in +striking contrast to the retail traffic of the Ashkenazim and their +degenerate bearing and speech. Peddling had been forced on the latter by +the action of the gilds which were still powerful in the 18th century on +the Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack assaults on +the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers were to be met on +every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were full of Jews who, pack on +shoulder, were seeking a precarious livelihood at a time when peddling +was neither lucrative nor safe. + +But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The 18th century +has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal-work, makers of pottery, +and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans and wholesale +manufacturers of many important commodities. The last attempts at +exclusion were irritating enough; but they differed from the earlier +persecution. Such strange enactments as the _Familianten-Gesetz_, which +prohibited more than one member of a family from marrying, broke up +families by forcing the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the +fact that a Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of +living with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II. +initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. This Austrian reformation +was so typical of other changes elsewhere, and so expressive of the +previous disabilities of the Jews, that, even in this rapid summary, +space must be spared for some of the details supplied by Graetz. "By +this new departure (19th of October 1781) the Jews were permitted to +learn handicrafts, arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to +devote themselves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and +academies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open.... An ordinance of +November 2 enjoined that the Jews were everywhere considered fellow-men, +and all excesses against them were to be avoided. The Leibzoll +(body-tax) was also abolished, in addition to the special law-taxes, the +passport duty, the night-duty and all similar imposts which had stamped +the Jews as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal rights +with the Christian inhabitants." The Jews were not, indeed, granted +complete citizenship, and their residence and public worship in Vienna +and other Austrian cities were circumscribed and even penalized. "But +Joseph II. annulled a number of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such +as the compulsory wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out +in the forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure +resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale merchants, notables +and their sons, to wear swords (January 2, 1782), and especially +insisted that Christians should behave in a friendly manner towards +Jews." + +48. _The Mendelssohn Movement._--This notable beginning to the removal +of "the ignominy of a thousand years" was causally connected with the +career of Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786; q.v.). He found on both sides an +unreadiness for approximation: the Jews had sunk into apathy and +degeneration, the Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. +The failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (q.v.) had plunged +the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan pretender not only +proclaimed himself Messiah (c. 1650) but he was accepted in that rôle by +vast numbers of his brethren. At the moment when Spinoza was publishing +a system which is still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this +other son of Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles +were reported and eagerly believed everywhere; "from Poland, Hamburg and +Amsterdam treasures poured into his court; in the Levant young men and +maidens prophesied before him; the Persian Jews refused to till the +fields. 'We shall pay no more taxes,' they said, 'our Messiah is come.'" +The expectation that he would lead Israel in triumph to the Holy Land +was doomed to end in disappointment. Sabbatai lacked one quality without +which enthusiasm is ineffective; he failed to believe in himself. At the +critical moment he embraced Islam to escape death, and though he was +still believed in by many--it was not Sabbatai himself but a phantom +resemblance that had assumed the turban!--his meteoric career did but +colour the sky of the Jews with deeper blackness. Despite all this, one +must not fall into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into +which the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 17th till the +middle of the 18th century. For Judaism had organized itself; the +_Shulhan aruch_ of Joseph Qaro (q.v.), printed in 1564 within a decade +of its completion, though not accepted without demur, was nevertheless +widely admitted as the code of Jewish life. If in more recent times +progress in Judaism has implied more or less of revolt against the +rigors and fetters of Qaro's code, yet for 250 years it was a powerful +safeguard against demoralization and stagnation. No community living in +full accordance with that code could fail to reach a high moral and +intellectual level. + +It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period to +abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves in the +general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased to desire it. +Their children were taught without any regard to outside conditions, +they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their whole training, both by what it +included and by what it excluded, tended to produce isolation from their +neighbours. Moses Mendelssohn, both by his career and by his propaganda, +for ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man. +Born in the ghetto of Dessau, he was not of the ghetto. At the age of +fourteen he found his way to Berlin, where Frederick the Great, inspired +by the spirit of Voltaire, held the maxim that "to oppress the Jews +never brought prosperity to any government." Mendelssohn became a warm +friend of Lessing, the hero of whose drama _Nathan the Wise_ was drawn +from the Dessau Jew. Mendelssohn's _Phaedo_, on the immortality of the +soul, brought the author into immediate fame, and the simple home of the +"Jewish Plato" was sought by many of the leaders of Gentile society in +Berlin. Mendelssohn's translation of the Pentateuch into German with a +new commentary by himself and others introduced the Jews to more modern +ways of thinking. Two results emanated from Mendelssohn's work. A new +school of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the +names of Leopold Zunz (q.v.), H. Graetz (q.v.) and many others. On the +other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic conception of religion +(specially in his _Jerusalem_) weakened the belief of certain minds in +the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus his own grandchildren (including +the famous musician Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, +Börne, Gans and Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself +two parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as time +went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves. Holdheim +(q.v.) and Geiger (q.v.) led the reform movement in Germany and at the +present day the effects of the movement are widely felt in America on +the Liberal side and on the opposite side in the work of the +neo-orthodox school founded by S. R. Hirsch (q.v.). Modern seminaries +were established first in Breslau by Zacharias Fränkel (q.v.) and later +in other cities. Brilliant results accrued from all this participation +in the general life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and +pursuits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public life, +claiming such names as Riesser (d. 1863) and Lasker in politics, +Auerbach in literature, Rubinstein and Joachim in music, Traube in +medicine, and Lazarus in psychology. Especially famous have been the +Jewish linguists, pre-eminent among them Theodor Benfey (1809-1881), the +pioneer of modern comparative philology; and the Greek scholar and +critic Jakob Bernays (1824-1881). + +49. _Effect of the French Revolution._--In close relation to the German +progress in Mendelssohn's age, events had been progressing in France, +where the Revolution did much to improve the Jewish condition, thanks +largely to the influence of Mirabeau. In 1807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish +assembly in Paris. Though the decisions of this body had no binding +force on the Jews generally, yet in some important particulars its +decrees represent principles widely adopted by the Jewish community. +They proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of Mendelssohn's +reconciliation of the Jews to modern life. They assert the citizenship +and patriotism of Jews, their determination to accommodate themselves to +the present as far as they could while retaining loyalty to the past. +They declare their readiness to adapt the law of the synagogue to the +law of the land, as for instance in the question of marriage and +divorce. No Jew, they decided, may perform the ceremony of marriage +unless civil formalities have been fulfilled; and divorce is allowed to +the Jews only if and so far as it is confirmatory of a legal divorce +pronounced by the civil law of the land. The French assembly did not +succeed in obtaining formal assent to these decisions (except from +Frankfort and Holland), but they gained the practical adhesion of the +majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the report of the +assembly, established the consistorial system which remained in force, +with its central consistory in the capital, until the recent separation +of church and state. Many French Jews acquired fame, among them the +ministers Crémieux (1796-1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the +archaeologists and philologians Oppert, Halévy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, +Darmesteters and Reinachs; the musicians Halévy, Waldteufel and +Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendès and A. d'Ennery, +and many others, among them several distinguished occupants of civil and +military offices. + +50. _Modern Italy._--Similar developments occurred in other countries, +though it becomes impossible to treat the history of the Jews, from this +time onwards, in general outline. We must direct our attention to the +most important countries in such detail as space permits. And first as +to Italy, where the Jews in a special degree have identified themselves +with the national life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected +the position of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought +considerable gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria +in the year named, Isaac Pesaro Marogonato was finance minister in +Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined to the +ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor Emanuel II., the +Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege which was extended also to +Rome itself in 1870. The Italian Jews devoted themselves with ardour to +the service of the state. Isaac Artom was Cavour's secretary, L' Olper a +counsellor of Mazzini. "The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the +cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their Christian +fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their honour" (_Jewish +Encyclopedia_, vii. 10). More recently men like Wollemberg, Ottolenghi +and Luzzatti rose to high positions as ministers of state. Most noted of +recent Jewish scholars in Italy was S. D. Luzzatto (q.v.). + +51. _Austria._--From Italy we may turn to the country which so much +influenced Italian politics, Austria, which had founded the system of +"Court Jews" in 1518, had expelled the Jews from Vienna as late as 1670, +when the synagogue of that city was converted into a church. But +economic laws are often too strong for civil vagaries or sectarian +fanaticism, and as the commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of +the Jews, it was impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs in the +provinces or from the markets of the capital. As has been pointed out +above, certain protected Jews were permitted to reside in places where +the expulsion of the Jews had been decreed. But Maria Theresa +(1740-1780) was distinguished for her enmity to the Jews, and in 1744 +made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion from Bohemia. "In 1760 +she issued an order that all unbearded Jews should wear a yellow badge +on their left arm" (_Jewish Encyclopedia_, ii. 330). The most petty +limitations of Jewish commercial activity continued; thus at about this +period the community of Prague, in a petition, "complain that they are +not permitted to buy victuals in the market before a certain hour, +vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before 11 o'clock; to buy fish is +sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish druggists are not permitted to +buy victuals at the same time with Christians" (_op. cit._). So, too, +with taxation. It was exorbitant and vexatious. To pay for rendering +inoperative the banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 +florins annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that the +Jews should pay "a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right to import +their citrons for the feast of booths." Nevertheless, Joseph II. +(1780-1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of his empire. Soon after +his accession he abolished the distinctive Jewish dress, abrogated the +poll-tax, admitted the Jews to military service and their children to +the public schools, and in general opened the era of emancipation by the +_Toleranzpatent_ of 1782. This enlightened policy was not continued by +the successors of Joseph II. Under Francis II. (1792-1835) economic and +social restrictions were numerous. Agriculture was again barred; indeed +the Vienna congress of 1815 practically restored the old discriminations +against the Jews. As time went on, a more progressive policy intervened, +the special form of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, as a +result of the revolutionary movement in which Jews played an active +part, legislation took a more liberal turn. Francis Joseph I. ascended +the throne in that year, and though the constitution of 1849 recognized +the principle of religious liberty, an era of reaction supervened, +especially when "the concordat of 1855 delivered Austria altogether into +the hands of the clericals." But the day of medieval intolerance had +passed, and in 1867 the new constitution "abolished all disabilities on +the ground of religious differences," though anti-Semitic manipulation +of the law by administrative authority has led to many instances of +intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath, some have +risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian Jews have +contributed their quota to learning, the arts and literature. Löw, +Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish field; as poets and +novelists, Kompert, Franzos, L. A. Frankl; the pianist Moscheles, the +dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer +and the chess-player Steinitz are some of the most prominent names. The +law of 1890 makes it "compulsory for every Jew to be a member of the +congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives to every +congregation the right to tax the individual members" (_op. cit._). A +similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany. A Jew can avoid the +communal tax only by formally declaring himself as outside the Jewish +community. The Jews of Hungary shared with their brethren in Austria the +same alternations of expulsion and recall. By the law "De Judaeis" +passed by the Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection, but half a +century passed before their tolerated condition was regularized. The +"toleration-tax" was abolished in 1846. During the revolutionary +outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary, but as many as +20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army. Kossuth succeeded in +granting them temporary emancipation, but the suppression of the War of +Independence led to an era of royal autocracy which, while it advanced +Jewish culture by enforcing the establishment of modern schools, +retarded the obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so +in Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867. But +one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider themselves fully +emancipated until the Synagogue was "duly recognized as one of the +legally acknowledged religions of the country." This recognition was +granted by the law of 1895-1896. In the words of Büchler (_Jewish +Encyclopedia_, vi. 503): "Since their emancipation the Jews have taken +an active part in the political, industrial, scientific and artistic +life of Hungary. In all these fields they have achieved prominence. They +have also founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not +been arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first developed in 1883 at +the time of the Tisza-Eslar accusation of ritual murder." + +52. _Other European Countries._--According to M. Caimi the present +Jewish communities of Greece are divisible into five groups: (1) Arta +(Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens (Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa +and Trikala (Thessaly); and (5) Corfu and Zante (Ionian Islands). The +Greek constitution admits no religious disabilities, but anti-Semitic +riots in Corfu and Zante in 1891 caused much distress and emigration. In +Spain there has been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, +and there is a small congregation (without a public synagogue) in +Madrid. In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the +other hand, having abolished the Inquisition in 1821, has since 1826 +allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues in Lisbon and +Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to political liberty in 1796. At +present more than half of the Dutch Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, +being largely engaged in the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous +names of recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. +In 1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still the +most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full freedom to the +Jews in 1815, and the community has since 1808 been organized on the +state consistorial system, which till recently also prevailed in France. +It was not till 1874 that full religious equality was granted to the +Jews of Switzerland. But there has been considerable interference +(ostensibly on humanitarian grounds) with the Jewish method of +slaughtering animals for food (_Shehitah_) and the method was prohibited +by a referendum in 1893. In the same year a similar enactment was passed +in Saxony, and the subject is a favourite one with anti-Semites, who +have enlisted on their side some scientific authorities, though the bulk +of expert opinion is in favor of _Shehitah_ (see Dembo, _Das +Schlachten_, 1894). In Sweden the Jews have all the rights which are +open to non-Lutherans; they cannot become members of the council of +state. In Norway there is a small Jewish settlement (especially in +Christiania) who are engaged in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete +liberty. Denmark has for long been distinguished for its liberal policy +towards the Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible as +magistrates, and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many +Copenhagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants and +bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be specially named +Georg Brandes. + +The story of the Jews in Russia and Rumania remains a black spot on the +European record. In Russia the Jews are more numerous and more harshly +treated than in any other part of the world. In the remotest past Jews +were settled in much of the territory now included in Russia, but they +are still treated as aliens. They are restricted to the pale of +settlement which was first established in 1791. The pale now includes +fifteen governments, and under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of +the Jewish population, the denial of free movement, and the exclusion +from the general rights of citizens were rendered more oppressive than +ever before. The right to leave the pale is indeed granted to merchants +of the first gild, to those possessed of certain educational diplomas, +to veteran soldiers and to certain classes of skilled artisans. But +these concessions are unfavourably interpreted and much extortion +results. Despite a huge emigration of Jews from Russia, the congestion +within the pale is the cause of terrible destitution and misery. Fierce +massacres occurred in Nizhniy-Novgorod in 1882, and in Kishinev in 1903. +Many other pogroms have occurred, and the condition of the Jews has been +reduced to one of abject poverty and despair. Much was hoped from the +duma, but this body has proved bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for +liberty. Yet in spite of these disabilities there are amongst the +Russian Jews many enterprising contractors, skilful doctors, and +successful lawyers and scientists. In Rumania, despite the Berlin +Treaty, the Jews are treated as aliens, and but a small number have been +naturalized. They are excluded from most of the professions and are +hampered in every direction. + +53. _Oriental Countries._--In the Orient the condition of the Jews has +been much improved by the activity of Western organizations, of which +something is said in a later paragraph. Modern schools have been set up +in many places, and Palestine has been the scene of a notable +educational and agricultural revival, while technical schools--such as +the agricultural college near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and +the more recent Bezalel in Jerusalem--have been established. Turkey has +always on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the new +régime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th century were +often persecuted, are still confined to a _mellah_ (separate quarter), +but at the coast-towns there are prosperous Jewish communities mostly +engaged in commerce. In other parts of the same continent, in Egypt and +in South Africa, many Jews have settled, participating in all industrial +and financial pursuits. Recently a mission has been sent to the Falashas +of Abyssinia, and much interest has been felt in such outlying branches +of the Jewish people as the Black Jews of Cochin and the Bene Israel +community of Bombay. In Persia Jews are often the victims of popular +outbursts as well as of official extortion, but there are fairly +prosperous communities at Bushire, Isfahan, Teheran and Kashan (in +Shiraz they are in low estate). The recent advent of constitutional +government may improve the condition of the Jews. + +54. _The United Kingdom._--The general course of Jewish history in +England has been indicated above. The Jews came to England at least as +early as the Norman Conquest; they were expelled from Bury St Edmunds in +1190, after the massacres at the coronation of Richard I.; they were +required to wear badges in 1218. At the end of the 12th century was +established the "exchequer of the Jews," which chiefly dealt with suits +concerning money-lending, and arranged a "continual flow of money from +the Jews to the royal treasury," and a so-called "parliament of the +Jews" was summoned in 1241; in 1275 was enacted the statute _de +Judaismo_ which, among other things, permitted the Jews to hold land. +But this concession was illusory, and as the statute prevented Jews from +engaging in finance--the only occupation which had been open to them--it +was a prelude to their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England +from that date till the Commonwealth, but Jews settled in the American +colonies earlier in the 17th century, and rendered considerable services +in the advancement of English commerce. The Whitehall conference of 1655 +marks a change in the status of the Jews in England itself, for though +no definite results emerged it was clearly defined by the judges that +there was no legal obstacle to the return of the Jews. Charles II. in +1664 continued Cromwell's tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards +the emancipation of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of +1753, which was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached +to the Synagogue, such as the Herschels and Disraelis, attained to fame. +In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought in by Robert +Grant, but it was not till the legislation of 1858-1860 that Jews +obtained full parliamentary rights. In other directions progress was +more rapid. The office of sheriff was thrown open to Jews in 1835 (Moses +Montefiore, sheriff of London was knighted in 1837); Sir I. L. Goldsmid +was made a baronet in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to +Parliament in 1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman +(Sir David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and Francis +Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George Jessel was made a +judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the House of Lords as the +first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair proportion of Jews have been elected +to the House of Commons, and Mr Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in +1909. Sir Matthew Nathan has been governor of Hong-Kong and Natal, and +among Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L. +Solomon have been prime ministers (HYAMSON: _A History of the Jews in +England_, p. 342). It is unnecessary to remark that in the British +colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship. In fact, the +colonies emancipated the Jews earlier than did the mother country. Jews +were settled in Canada from the time of Wolfe, and a congregation was +founded at Montreal in 1768, and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to +sit in the Canadian parliament. There are some thriving Jewish +agricultural colonies in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from +the first were welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest +congregation is that of Sydney (1817); the Melbourne community dates +from 1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in 1870 the +abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at Oxford +and Cambridge, and both universities have since elected Jews to +professorships and other posts of honour. The communal organization of +English Jewry is somewhat inchoate. In 1841 an independent reform +congregation was founded, and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews have +always maintained their separate existence with a Haham as the +ecclesiastical head. In 1870 was founded the United Synagogue, which is +a metropolitan organization, and the same remark applies to the more +recent Federation of Synagogues. The chief rabbi, who is the +ecclesiastical head of the United Synagogue, has also a certain amount +of authority over the provincial and colonial Jewries, but this is +nominal rather than real. The provincial Jewries, however, participate +in the election of the chief rabbi. At the end of 1909 was held the +first conference of Jewish ministers in London, and from this is +expected some more systematic organization of scattered communities. +Anglo-Jewry is rich, however, in charitable, educational and literary +institutions; chief among these respectively may be named the Jewish +board of guardians (1859), the Jews' college (1855), and the Jewish +historical society (1893). Besides the distinctions already noted, +English Jews have risen to note in theology (C. G. Montefiore), in +literature (Israel Zangwill and Alfred Sutro), in art (S. Hart, R.A., +and S. J. Solomon, R.A.) in music (Julius Benedict and Frederick Hymen +Cowen). More than 1000 English and colonial Jews participated as active +combatants in the South African War. The immigration of Jews from Russia +was mainly responsible for the ineffective yet oppressive Aliens Act of +1905. (Full accounts of Anglo-Jewish institutions are given in the +_Jewish Year-Book_ published annually since 1895.) + +55. _The American Continent._--Closely parallel with the progress of the +Jews in England has been their steady advancement in America. Jews made +their way to America early in the 16th century, settling in Brazil prior +to the Dutch occupation. Under Dutch rule they enjoyed full civil +rights. In Mexico and Peru they fell under the ban of the Inquisition. +In Surinam the Jews were treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, +Jamaica and New York they are found as early as the first half of the +17th century. During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a +prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many had risen +to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration of +Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they have long +enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously increased in numbers, +owing particularly to immigration from Russia. The American Jews bore +their share in the Civil War (7038 Jews were in the two armies), and +have always identified themselves closely with national movements such +as the emancipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all +branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid instances +of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. Within the Synagogue the +reform movement began in 1825, and soon won many successes, the central +conference of American rabbis and Union College (1875) at Cincinnati +being the instruments of this progress. At the present time orthodox +Judaism is also again acquiring its due position and the Jewish +theological seminary of America was founded for this purpose. In 1908 an +organization, inclusive of various religious sections, was founded under +the description "the Jewish community of New York." There have been four +Jewish members of the United States senate, and about 30 of the national +House of Representatives. Besides filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew +(O. S. Straus) has been a member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled +professorial chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in +art, literature (there is a notable Jewish publication society), +industry and commerce have rendered considerable services to national +culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much to Jewish +generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many other American +institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institutions as the Gratz and +Dropsie colleges are further indications of the splendid activity of +American Jews in the educational field. The Jews of America have also +taken a foremost place in the succour of their oppressed brethren in +Russia and other parts of the world. (Full accounts of American Jewish +institutions are given in the _American Jewish Year-Book_, published +annually since 1899.) + +56. _Anti-Semitism._--It is saddening to be compelled to close this +record with the statement that the progress of the European Jews +received a serious check by the rise of modern anti-Semitism in the last +quarter of the 19th century. While in Russia this took the form of +actual massacre, in Germany and Austria it assumed the shape of social +and civic ostracism. In Germany Jews are still rarely admitted to the +rank of officers in the army, university posts are very difficult of +access, Judaism and its doctrines are denounced in medieval language, +and a tone of hostility prevails in many public utterances. In Austria, +as in Germany, anti-Semitism is a factor in the parliamentary elections. +The legend of ritual murder (q.v.) has been revived, and every obstacle +is placed in the way of the free intercourse of Jews with their +Christian fellow-citizens. In France Edouard Adolphe Drumont led the way +to a similar animosity, and the popular fury was fanned by the Dreyfus +case. It is generally felt, however, that this recrudescence of +anti-Semitism is a passing phase in the history of culture (see +ANTI-SEMITISM). + +57. _The Zionist Movement._--The Zionist movement (see ZIONISM), founded +in 1895 by Theodor Herzl (q.v.) was in a sense the outcome of +anti-Semitism. Its object was the foundation of a Jewish state in +Palestine, but though it aroused much interest it failed to attract the +majority of the emancipated Jews, and the movement has of late been +transforming itself into a mere effort at colonization. Most Jews not +only confidently believe that their own future lies in progressive +development _within_ the various nationalities of the world, but they +also hope that a similar consummation is in store for the as yet +unemancipated branches of Israel. Hence the Jews are in no sense +internationally organized. The influence of the happier communities has +been exercised on behalf of those in a worse position by individuals +such as Sir Moses Montefiore (q.v.) rather than by societies or leagues. +From time to time incidents arise which appeal to the Jewish sympathies +everywhere and joint action ensues. Such incidents were the Damascus +charge of ritual murder (1840), the forcible baptism of the Italian +child Mortara (1858), and the Russian pogroms at various dates. But all +attempts at an international union of Jews, even in view of such +emergencies as these, have failed. Each country has its own local +organization for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance +Israélite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Association +(founded in 1871), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, and +in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded 1872), in America +the American Jewish Committee (founded 1906), and similar organizations +in other countries deal only incidentally with political affairs. They +are concerned mainly with the education of Jews in the Orient, and the +establishment of colonies and technical institutions. Baron Hirsch +(q.v.) founded the Jewish colonial association, which has undertaken +vast colonizing and educational enterprises, especially in Argentina, +and more recently the Jewish territorial organization has been started +to found a home for the oppressed Jews of Russia. All these institutions +are performing a great regenerative work, and the tribulations and +disappointments of the last decades of the 19th century were not all +loss. The gain consisted in the rousing of the Jewish consciousness to +more virile efforts towards a double end, to succour the persecuted and +ennoble the ideals of the emancipated. + + 58. _Statistics._--Owing to the absence of a religious census in + several important countries, the Jewish population of the world can + only be given by inferential estimate. The following approximate + figures are taken from the _American Jewish Year-Book_ for 1909-1910 + and are based on similar estimates in the English _Jewish Year-Book_, + the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, Nossig's _Jüdische Statistik_ and the + _Reports_ of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. According to these + estimates the total Jewish population of the world in the year named + was approximately 11,500,000. Of this total there were in the British + Empire about 380,000 Jews (British Isles 240,000, London accounts for + 150,000 of these; Canada and British Columbia 60,000; India 18,000; + South Africa 40,000). The largest Jewish populations were those of + Russia (5,215,000), Austria-Hungary (2,084,000), United States of + America (1,777,000), Germany (607,000, of whom 409,000 were in + Prussia), Turkey (463,000, of whom some 78,000 resided in Palestine), + Rumania (250,000), Morocco (109,000) and Holland (106,000). Others of + the more important totals are: France 95,000 (besides Algeria 63,000 + and Tunis 62,000); Italy 52,000; Persia 49,000; Egypt 39,000; Bulgaria + 36,000; Argentine Republic 30,000; Tripoli 19,000; Turkestan and + Afghanistan 14,000; Switzerland and Belgium each 12,000; Mexico 9000; + Greece 8000; Servia 6000; Sweden and Cuba each 4000; Denmark 3500; + Brazil and Abyssinia (Falashas) each 3000; Spain and Portugal 2500; + China and Japan 2000. There are also Jews in Curaçoa, Surinam, + Luxemburg, Norway, Peru, Crete and Venezuela; but in none of these + does the Jewish population much exceed 1000. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. GRAETZ, _Geschichte der Juden_ (11 vols., 1853-1875; + several subsequent editions of separate volumes; Eng. trans. 5 vols., + 1891-1892); the works of L. Zunz; _Jewish Encyclopedia passim_; + publications of Jewish societies, such as _Études Juives_, Jewish + historical societies of England and America, German historical + commission, Julius Barasch society (Rumania), Societas Litteraria + Hungarico-Judaica, the Viennese communal publications, and many others + to which may be added the 20 vols. of the _Jewish Quarterly Review_; + Scherer, _Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden_ (1901); M. Güdemann + _Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden_ (1880, + &c.); A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_ (1895); I. + Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_ (1896); G. F. Abbott, + _Israel in Europe_ (1905); G. Caro, _Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden_ + (1908); M. Philippson, _Neueste Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes_ + (1907, &c.); Nossig, _Jüdische Statistik_ (1903); and such special + works as H. Gross, _Gallia Judaica_ (1897), &c. (I. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] On the homogeneity of the population, see further, W. R. Smith, + _Religion of the Semites_ (2nd ed., chaps, i.-iii.); T. Nöldeke, + _Sketches from Eastern History_, pp. 1-20 (on "Some Characteristics + of the Semitic Race"); and especially E. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Altertums_ + (2nd ed., i. §§ 330, sqq.). For the relation between the geographical + characteristics and the political history, see G. A. Smith, + _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_. + + [2] For fuller information on this section see PALESTINE: _History_, + and the related portions of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, EGYPT, HITTITES, + SYRIA. + + [3] Or _land_ Israel, W. Spiegelberg, _Orient. Lit. Zeit._ xi. + (1908), cols. 403-405. + + [4] It is useful to compare the critical study of the Koran (q.v.), + where, however, the investigation of its various "revelations" is + simpler than that of the biblical "prophecies" on account of the + greater wealth of independent historical tradition. See also G. B. + Gray, _Contemporary Review_ (July 1907); A. A. Bevan, _Cambridge + Biblical Essays_ (ed. Swete, 1909), pp. 1-19. + + [5] See primarily BIBLE: _Old Testament_; the articles on the + contents and literary structure of the several books; the various + biographical, topographical and ethnical articles, and the separate + treatment of the more important subjects (e.g. LEVITES, PROPHET, + SACRIFICE). + + [6] On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical + records, see especially S. R. Driver's essay in Hogarth's _Authority + and Archaeology_; cf. also A. A. Bevan, _Critical Review_ (1897, p. + 406 sqq., 1898, pp. 131 sqq.); G. B. Gray, _Expositor_, May 1898; W. + G. Jordan, _Bib. Crit. and Modern Thought_ (1909), pp. 42 sqq. + + [7] For the sections which follow the present writer may be permitted + to refer to his introductory contributions in the _Expositor_ (June, + 1906; "The Criticism of the O.T."); the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ + (July 1905-January 1907 = _Critical Notes on O.T. History_, + especially sections vii.-ix.); July and October 1907, April 1908; + _Amer. Journ. Theol._ (July 1909, "Simeon and Levi: the Problem of + the Old Testament"); and Swete's _Cambridge Bib. Essays_, pp. 54-89 + ("The Present Stage of O.T. Research"). + + [8] On the name see JEHOVAH, TETRAGRAMMATON. + + [9] The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its own, + and appears to be from an independent cycle, which has been used to + form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus; see + also Ed. Meyer, _Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme_ (1906), pp. + 228, 433; B. Luther, ibid. pp. 108 seq., 142 sqq. Neither of the + poems in Deut. xxxii. seq. alludes to an escape from Egypt; Israel is + merely a desert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently + even the older accounts of the exodus are not of very great + antiquity; according to Jeremiah ii. 2, 7 (cf. Hos. ii. 15) some + traditions of the wilderness must have represented Israel in a very + favourable light; for the "canonical" view, see Ezekiel xvi., xx., + xxiii. + + [10] The capture of central Palestine itself is not recorded; + according to its own traditions the district had been seized by Jacob + (Gen. xlviii. 22; cf. the late form of the tradition in Jubilees + xxxiv.). This conception of a conquering hero is entirely distinct + from the narratives of the descent of Jacob into Egypt, &c. (see + Meyer and Luther, _op. cit._ pp. 110, 227 seq., 415, 433). + + [11] This is especially true of the various ingenious attempts to + combine the invasion of the Israelites with the movements of the + Habiru in the Amarna period (§ 3). + + [12] Cf. Winckler, _Keil. u. das Alte Test._ p. 212 seq.; also his + "Der alte Orient und die Geschichtsforschung" in _Mitteilungen der + Vorderasiat. Gesellschaft_ (Berlin, 1906) and + _Religionsgeschichtlicher u. gesch. Orient_ (Leipzig, 1906); A. + Jeremias, _Alte Test._ (p. 464 seq.); B. Baentsch, _Altorient. u. + Israel. Monotheismus_ (pp. 53, 79, 105, &c.); also _Theolog. Lit. + Blatt_ (1907) No. 19. On the reconstructions of the tribal history, + see especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ art. "Tribes." The most + suggestive study of the pre-monarchical narratives is that of E. + Meyer and B. Luther (above; see the former's criticisms on the + reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. 1 and _passim_). + + [13] 2 Chron. xii. 8, which is independent of the chronicler's + artificial treatment of his material, apparently points to some + tradition of Egyptian suzerainty. + + [14] See for chronology, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, §§ v. and viii. + + [15] See _Jew. Quart. Rev._ (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent + Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points of + contact with those of Saul in 1 Samuel, and the relation is highly + suggestive for the study of their growth, as also for the perspective + of the various writers. + + [16] See W. R. Smith (after Kuenen), _Ency. Bib._, col. 2670; also W. + E. Addis, ib., 1276, the commentaries of Benzinger (p. 130) and + Kittel (pp. 153 seq.) on Kings; J. S. Strachan, Hastings's _Dict. + Bible_, i. 694; G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog. of Holy Land_, p. 582; + König and Hirsch, _Jew. Ency._ v. 137 seq. ("legend ... as + indifferent to accuracy in dates as it is to definiteness of places + and names"); W. R. Harper, _Amos and Hosea_, p. xli. seq. ("the lack + of chronological order ... the result is to create a wrong impression + of Elisha's career"). The bearing of this displacement upon the + literary and historical criticism of the narratives has never been + worked out. + + [17] Careful examination shows that no a priori distinction can be + drawn between "trustworthy" books of Kings and "untrustworthy books" + of Chronicles. Although the latter have special late and unreliable + features, they agree with the former in presenting the same general + trend of past history. The "canonical" history in Kings is further + embellished in Chronicles, but the gulf between them is not so + profound as that between the former and the underlying and + half-suppressed historical traditions which can still be recognized. + (See also PALESTINE: _History_.) + + [18] For the former (2 Kings xii. 17 seq.) cf. Hezekiah and + Sennacherib (xviii. 13-15), and for the latter, cf. Asa and Baasha (1 + Kings xv. 18-20; above). + + [19] It is possible that Hadad-nirari's inscription refers to + conditions in the latter part of his reign (812-783 B.C.), when Judah + apparently was no longer independent and when Jeroboam II. was king + of Israel. The accession of the latter has been placed between 785 + and 782. It is now known, also, that Ben-hadad and a small coalition + were defeated by the king of Hamath; but the bearing of this upon + Israelite history is uncertain. + + [20] Cf. generally, 1 Sam. iv., xxxi.; 2 Sam. ii. 8; 1 Kings xx., + xxii.; 2 Kings vi. 8-vii. 20; also Judges v. (see DEBORAH). + + [21] Special mention is made of Jonah, a prophet of Zebulun in + (north) Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). Nothing is known of him, unless the + very late prophetical writing with the account of his visit to + Nineveh rests upon some old tradition, which, however, can scarcely + be recovered (see JONAH). + + [22] This is philosophically handled by the Arabian historian Ibn + Khaldun, whose Prolegomena is well worthy of attention; see De Slane, + _Not. et extraits_, vols. xix.-xxi., with Von Kremer's criticisms in + the _Sitz. d. Kais. Akad._ of Vienna (vol. xciii., 1879); cf. also R. + Flint, _History of the Philosophy of History_, i. 157 sqq. + + [23] Cf. J. G. Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_ (1907), p. 67: + "Prophecy of the Hebrew type has not been limited to Israel; it is + indeed a phenomenon of almost world-wide occurrence; in many lands + and in many ages the wild, whirling words of frenzied men and women + have been accepted as the utterances of an in-dwelling deity. What + does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius + of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful + instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the interest of a + high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity. + That is indeed the glory of Israel...." + + [24] The use which was made in Apocalyptic literature of the + traditions of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the + Old Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late + prophecies of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam + II. (see § 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this + nature from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely + the Oriental mind and Oriental usage. + + [25] The condemnation passed upon the impetuous and fiery zeal of the + adherents of the new movement (cf. Hos. i. 4), like the remarkable + vicissitudes in the traditions of Moses, Aaron and the Levites + (qq.v.), represents changing situations of real significance, whose + true place in the history can with difficulty be recovered. + + [26] Formerly thought to be the third of the name. + + [27] Perhaps Judah had come to an understanding with Tiglath-pileser + (H. M. Haydn, _Journ. Bib. Lit._, xxviii. 1909, pp. 182-199); see + UZZIAH. + + [28] The fact that these lists are of the kings of the "land Hatti" + would suggest that the term "Hittite" had been extended to Palestine. + + [29] So K. Budde, _Rel. of Israel to Exile_, pp. 165-167. For an + attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, _Hebräer_ + (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 150 sqq. + + [30] See G. Maspero, _Gesch. d. morgenländ. Völker_ (1877), p. 446; + E. Naville, _Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol._ (1907), pp. 232 sqq., and T. + K. Cheyne, _Decline and Fall of Judah_ (1908), p. 13, with + references. [The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a + matter for historical criticism to decide. Thus the discovery of + Numa's laws in Rome (Livy xl. 29), upon which undue weight has + sometimes been laid (see Klostermann, _Der Pentateuch_ (1906), pp. + 155 sqq., was not accepted as genuine by the senate (who had the laws + destroyed), and probably not by Pliny himself. Only the later + antiquaries clung to the belief in their + trustworthiness.--(_Communicated._)] + + [31] Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at + existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see KINGS). + + [32] But see N. Schmidt, _Ency. Bib._, "Scythians," § 1. + + [33] So also one can now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in + Egypt in Jer. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are + known to have prevailed later at Elephantine, where a small Jewish + colony worshipped Yahu (Yahweh) at their own temple (see E. Sachau, + "Drei aram. Papyrusurkunde," in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Prussian + Academy, Berlin, 1907). + + [34] Sargon had removed Babylonians into the land of Hatti (Syria and + Palestine), and in 715 B.C. among the colonists were tribes + apparently of desert origin (Tamud, Hayapa, &c.); other settlements + are ascribed to Esar-haddon and perhaps Assur-bani-pal (Ezra iv. 2, + 10). See for the evidence, A. E. Cowley, _Ency. Bib._, col. 4257; J. + A. Montgomery, _The Samaritans_, pp. 46-57 (Philadelphia, 1907). + + [35] The growing recognition that the land was not depopulated after + 586 is of fundamental significance for the criticism of "exilic" and + "post-exilic" history. G. A. Smith thus sums up a discussion of the + extent of the deportations: "... A large majority of the Jewish + people remained on the land. This conclusion may startle us with our + generally received notions of the whole nation as exiled. But there + are facts which support it" (_Jerusalem_, ii. 268). + + [36] On the place of Palestine in Persian history see PERSIA: + _History, ancient_, especially § 5 ii.; also ARTAXERXES; CAMBYSES; + CYRUS; DARIUS, &c. + + [37] The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others + (see W. R. Smith, _Old Testament in Jewish Church_, p. 438 seq.; W. + Judeich, _Kleinasiat. Stud._, p. 170; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, + col. 2202; F. C. Kent, _Hist._ [1899], pp. 230 sqq.) has however been + questioned by Willrich, _Judaica_, 35-39 (see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, + col. 3941). The account of Josephus (above) raises several + difficulties, especially the identity of Bagoses. It has been + supposed that he has placed the record too late, and that this + Bagoses is the Judaean governor who flourished about 408 B.C. (See p. + 286, n. 3.) + + [38] Thus a decree of Darius I. takes the part of his subjects + against the excessive zeal of the official Gadatas, and grants + freedom of taxation and exemption from forced labour to those + connected with a temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (_Bulletin de + correspondance hellénique_, xiii. 529; E. Meyer, _Entstehung des + Judenthums_, p. 19 seq.; cf. id. _Forschungen_, ii. 497). + + [39] In addition to this, the Egyptian story of the priest Uza-hor at + the court of Cambyses and Darius reflects a policy of religious + tolerance which illustrates the biblical account of Ezra and Nehemiah + (Brugsch, _Gesch. Aeg._ pp. 784 sqq.; see Cheyne, _Jew. Relig. Life + after the Exile_, pp. 40-43). + + [40] From Têma in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence of + the 5th century B.C. for Babylonian and Assyrian influence upon the + language, cult and art. For Nippur, see _Bab. Exped. of Univ. of + Pennsylvania_, series A., vol. ix. (1898), by H. V. Hilprecht; for + Elephantine, the Mond papyri, A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley, _Aramaic + Papyri Discovered at Assuan_ (1906), and those cited above (p. 282, + n. 1). For the Jewish colonies in general, see H. Guthe, _Ency. + Bib._, art. "Dispersion" (with references); also below, § 25 sqq. + + [41] See EZRA AND NEHEMIAH with bibliographical references, also T. + K. Cheyne, _Introd. to Isaiah_ (1895); _Jew. Religious Life after the + Exile_ (1898); E. Sellin, _Stud. z. Entstehungsgesch. d. jüd. + Gemeinde_ (1901); R. H. Kennett in Swete's _Cambridge Biblical + Essays_ (pp. 92 sqq.); G. Jahn, _Die Bücher Esra u. Nehemja_ (1909); + and C. C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_ (1910). + + [42] There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of + tradition (a) in Ezra ii. which gives a list of families who returned + from exile each to its own city, and (b) in the return of the holy + vessels in the time of Cyrus (contrast 1 Esdras iv. 43 seq.), a view + which, in spite of Dan. i. 2, v. 2 seq., conflicts with 2 Kings xxiv. + 13 and xxv. 13 (see, however, v. 14). That attempts have been made to + adjust contradictory representations is suggested by the prophecy + ascribed to Jeremiah (xxvii. 16 sqq.) where the restoration of the + holy vessels finds no place in the shorter text of the Septuagint + (see W. R. Smith, _Old Test. and Jew. Church_, pp. 104 sqq.). + + [43] The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has been + suggested by M. Vernes, _Nouvelle hypothèse sur la comp. et l'origine + du Deut._ (1887); Havet, _Christian. et ses origines_ (1878); Horst, + in _Rev. de l'hist. des relig._, 1888; and more recently by E. Day, + _Journ. Bib. Lit._ (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, _Journ. + Theol. Stud._ (1906), pp. 486 sqq. The strongest counter-arguments + (see W. E. Addis, _Doc. of Hexat._ ii. 2-9) rely upon the historical + trustworthiness of 2 Kings xxii. seq. Weighty reasons are brought + also by conservative writers against the theory that Deuteronomy + dates from or about the age of Josiah, and their objections to the + "discovery" of a new law-roll apply equally to the "re-discovery" and + promulgation of an old and authentic code. + + [44] See, for Cheyne's view, his _Decline and Fall of Judah. + Introduction_ (1908). The former tendency has many supporters; see, + among recent writers, N. Schmidt, _Hibbert Journal_ (1908), pp. 322 + sqq.; C. F. Burney, _Journ. Theol. Stud._ (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; O. A. + Toffteen, _The Historic Exodus_ (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially + Meyer and Luther, _Die Israeliten_, pp. 442-440, &c. For the early + recognition of the evidence in question, see J. Wellhausen, _De + gentibus et familiis Judaeis_ (Göttingen, 1870); _Prolegomena_ (Eng. + trans.), pp. 216 sqq., 342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. "Israel," § + 2, _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.); also A. Kuenen, _Relig. of Israel_ (i. 135 + seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith, _Prophets of Israel_, pp. 28 seq., 379. + + [45] For the prominence of the "southern" element in Judah see E. + Meyer, _Entstehung d. Judenthums_ (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177, 183 + n. 1; _Israeliten_, pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 seq. + + [46] See § 23 end, and LEVITES. When Edom is renowned for wisdom and + a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have south + Palestinian affinity (1 Chron. ii. 6), and when such names as Korah, + Heman, Ethan and Obed-edom, are associated with psalmody, there is no + inherent improbability in the conjecture that the "southern" families + settled around Jerusalem may have left their mark in other parts of + the Old Testament. It is another question whether such literature can + be identified (for Cheyne's views, see _Ency. Bib._ "Prophetic + Literature," "Psalms," and his recent studies). + + [47] One may recall, in this connexion, Caxton's very interesting + prologue to Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ and his remarks on the + permanent value of the "histories" of this British hero. [Cf. also + Horace, _Ep._ 1. ii. and R. Browning, "Development."] + + [48] It is noteworthy that Josephus, who has his own representation + of the post-exilic age, allows two years and four months for the work + (_Ant._ xi. 5, 8). + + [49] The papyri from Elephantine (p. 282, n. 1, above) mention as + contemporaries the Jerusalem priest Johanan (cf. the son of Joiada + and father of Jaddua, Neh. xii. 22), Bagohi (Bagoas), governor of + Judah, and Delaiah and Shelemiah sons of Sanballat (408-407 B.C.) + They ignore any strained relations between Samaria and Judah, and + Delaiah and Bagohi unite in granting permission to the Jewish colony + to rebuild their place of worship. If this fixes the date of + Sanballat and Nehemiah in the time of the first Artaxerxes, the + probability of confusion in the later written sources is enhanced by + the recurrence of identical names of kings, priests, &c., in the + history. + + [50] The Samaritans, for their part, claimed the traditions of their + land and called themselves the posterity of Joseph, Ephraim and + Manasseh. But they were ready to deny their kinship with the Jews + when the latter were in adversity, and could have replied to the + tradition that they were foreigners with a _tu quoque_ (Josephus, + _Ant._ ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6; xii. 5, 5) (see SAMARITANS). + + [51] The statement that the king desired to avoid the divine wrath + may possibly have some deeper meaning (e.g. some recent revolt, Ezra + vii. 23). + + [52] It must suffice to refer to the opinions of Bertholet, Buhl, + Cheyne, Guthe, Van Hoonacker, Jahn, Kennett, Kent, Kosters, Marquart, + Torrey, and Wildeboer. + + [53] C. F. Kent, _Israel's Hist. and Biog. Narratives_ (1905), p. 358 + seq. The objections against this very probable view undervalue Ezra + iv. 7-23 and overlook the serious intricacies in the book of + Nehemiah. + + [54] There are three inquiries: (a) the critical value of 1 Esdras, + (b) the character of the different representations of post-exilic + internal and external history, and (c) the recovery of the historical + facts. To start with the last before considering (a) and (b) would be + futile. + + [55] For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (§ 19) have + been ascribed such passages as Isa. lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12; Ps. xliv., + lxxiv., lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii. (see also LAMENTATIONS). In their + present form they are not of the beginning of the 6th century and, if + the evidence for Artaxerxes III. proves too doubtful, they may belong + to the history preceding Nehemiah's return, provided the internal + features do not stand in the way (e.g. prior or posterior to the + formation of the exclusive Judaean community, &c.). Since the book of + Baruch (named after Jeremiah's scribe) is now recognized to be + considerably later (probably after the destruction of Jerusalem A.D. + 70), it will be seen that the recurrence of similar causes leads to a + similarity in the contemporary literary productions (with a reshaping + of earlier tradition), the precise date of which depends upon + delicate points of detail and not upon the apparently obvious + historical elements. + + [56] See H. Winckler, _Keil. u. Alte Test._, 295, and Kennett, + _Journ. Theol. Stud._ (1906), p. 487; _Camb. Bib. Essays_, p. 117. + The Chaldeans alone destroyed Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv.); Edom was + friendly or at least neutral (Jer. xxvii. 3, xl. 11 seq.). The + proposal to read "Edomites" for "Syrians" in the list of bands which + troubled Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2) is not supported by the + contemporary reference, Jer. xxxv. 11. + + [57] It is at least a coincidence that the prophet who took the part + of Tobiah and Sanballat against Nehemiah (vi. 10 seq.) bears the same + name as the one who advised Rehoboam to acquiesce in the disruption + (1 Kings xii. 21-24), or announced the divine selection of Jeroboam + (ib. v. 24, Septuagint only). + + [58] See HEBREW RELIGION, § 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the + histories of Israel. + + [59] J. Wellhausen, art. "Israel," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed., vol. xiii. + p. 419; or his _Prolegomena_, pp. 497 seq. + + [60] An instructive account of Judaism in the early post-exilic age + on critical lines (from the Jewish standpoint) is given by C. G. + Montefiore, _Hibbert Lectures_ (1892), pp. 355 sqq.; cf. also the + sketch by I. Abrahams, _Judaism_ (1907). + + [61] Cf. the story of Phinehas, Num. xxv. 6 sqq.; on Gen. xxxiv., see + SIMEON. Apropos of hostility towards Samaria, it is singular that the + term of reproach, "Cutheans," applied to the Samaritans is derived + from Cutha, the famous seat of the god Nergal, only some 25 m. N.E. + of Babylon itself (see above, p. 286, n. 4). + + [62] The various tendencies which can be observed in the later + pseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings are of considerable + value in any consideration of the development of thought illustrated + in the Old Testament itself. + + [63] Reference may be made to H. Winckler, _Gesch. Israels_, ii. + (1900); W. Erbt, _Die Hebräer_ (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, _Traditions + and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (1907). + + [64] On the writers mentioned below see articles s.v. + + [65] For the importance of the Portuguese Jews, see PORTUGAL: + _History_. + + + + +JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR (1812-1880), English writer, daughter of +Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant, was born in 1812 at Measham, +Derbyshire. Her first novel, _Zoe: the History of Two Lives_, was +published in 1845, and was followed by _The Half Sisters_ (1848), +_Marian Withers_ (1851), _Constance Herbert_ (1855), _The Sorrows of +Gentility_ (1856), _Right or Wrong_ (1859). In 1850 she was invited by +Charles Dickens to write for _Household Words_; for many years she was a +frequent contributor to the _Athenaeum_ and other journals and +magazines. It is, however, mainly on account of her friendship with +Thomas Carlyle and his wife that her name is remembered. Carlyle +described her, after their first meeting in 1841, as "one of the most +interesting young women I have seen for years; clear delicate sense and +courage looking out of her small sylph-like figure." From this time till +Mrs Carlyle's death in 1866, Geraldine Jewsbury was the most intimate of +her friends. The selections from Geraldine Jewsbury's letters to Jane +Welsh Carlyle (1892, ed. Mrs Alexander Ireland) prove how confidential +were the relations between the two women for a quarter of a century. In +1854 Miss Jewsbury removed from Manchester to London to be near her +friend. To her Carlyle turned for sympathy when his wife died; and at +his request she wrote down some "biographical anecdotes" of Mrs +Carlyle's childhood and early married life. Carlyle's comment was that +"few or none of these narratives are correct in details, but there is a +certain mythical truth in all or most of them;" and he added, "the +Geraldine accounts of her (Mrs Carlyle's) childhood are substantially +correct." He accepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on "Jane +Welsh Carlyle," with which they were therefore incorporated by Froude +when editing Carlyle's _Reminiscences_. Miss Jewsbury was consulted by +Froude when he was preparing Carlyle's biography, and her recollection +of her friend's confidences confirmed the suspicion that Carlyle had on +one occasion used physical violence towards his wife. Miss Jewsbury +further informed Froude that the secret of the domestic troubles of the +Carlyles lay in the fact that Carlyle had been "one of those persons who +ought never to have married," and that Mrs Carlyle had at one time +contemplated having her marriage legally annulled (see _My Relations +with Carlyle_, by James Anthony Froude, 1903). The endeavour has been +made to discredit Miss Jewsbury in relation to this matter, but there +seems to be no sufficient ground for doubting that she accurately +repeated what she had learnt from Mrs Carlyle's own lips. Miss Jewsbury +died in London on the 23rd of September 1880. + + + + +JEW'S EARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botanically as _Hirneola +auricula-judae_, so called from its shape, which somewhat resembles a +human ear. It is very thin, flexible, flesh-coloured to dark brown, and +one to three inches broad. It is common on branches of elder, which it +often kills, and is also found on elm, willow, oak and other trees. It +was formerly prescribed as a remedy for dropsy. + + + + +JEW'S HARP, or JEW'S TRUMP (Fr. _guimbarde_, O. Fr. _trompe_, _gronde_; +Ger. _Mundharmonica_, _Maultrommel_, _Brummeisen_; Ital. +_scaccia-pensieri_ or _spassa-pensiero_), a small musical instrument of +percussion, known for centuries all over Europe. "Jew's trump" is the +older name, and "trump" is still used in parts of Great Britain. +Attempts have been made to derive "Jew's" from "jaws" or Fr. _jeu_, but, +though there is no apparent reason for associating the instrument with +the Jews, it is certain that "Jew's" is the original form (see the _New +English Dictionary_ and C. B. Mount in _Notes and Queries_ (Oct. 23, +1897, p. 322). The instrument consists of a slender tongue of steel +riveted at one end to the base of a pear-shaped steel loop; the other +end of the tongue, left free and passing out between the two branches of +the frame, terminates in a sharp bend at right angles, to enable the +player to depress it by an elastic blow and thus set it vibrating while +firmly pressing the branches of the frame against his teeth. The +vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound composed of a +fundamental and its harmonics. By using the cavity of the mouth as a +resonator, each harmonic in succession can be isolated and reinforced, +giving the instrument the compass shown. The lower harmonics of the +series cannot be obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the +resonating cavity. The black notes on the stave show the scale which may +be produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the other. The +player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the harmonics, frames his +mouth as though intending to pronounce the various vowels. At the +beginning of the 19th century, when much energy and ingenuity were being +expended in all countries upon the invention of new musical instruments, +the _Maultrommel_, re-christened _Mundharmonica_ (the most rational of +all its names), attracted attention in Germany. Heinrich Scheibler +devised an ingenious holder with a handle, to contain five Jew's harps, +all tuned to different notes; by holding one in each hand, a large +compass, with duplicate notes, became available; he called this complex +Jew's harp _Aura_[1] and with it played themes with variations, marches, +Scotch reels, &c. Other virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of +Würtemberg, achieved the same result by placing the variously tuned +Jew's harps upon the table in front of him, taking them up and setting +them down as required. Eulenstein created a sensation in London in 1827 +by playing on no fewer than sixteen Jew's harps. In 1828 Sir Charles +Wheatstone published an essay on the technique of the instrument in the +_Quarterly Journal of Science_. (K. S.) + +[Illustration] + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1816), p. 506, and Beilage 5, + where the construction of the instruments is described and + illustrated and the system of notation shown in various pieces of + music. + + + + +JEZEBEL (Heb. _i-zebel_, perhaps an artificial form to suggest +"un-exalted," a divine name or its equivalent would naturally be +expected instead of the first syllable), wife of Ahab, king of Israel (1 +Kings xvi. 31), and mother of Athaliah, in the Bible. Her father +Eth-baal (Ithobal, Jos., _contra Ap._ i. 18) was king of Tyre and priest +of the goddess Astarte. He had usurped the throne and was the first +important Phoenician king after Hiram (see PHOENICIA). Jezebel, a true +daughter of a priest of Astarte, showed herself hostile to the worship +of Yahweh, and to his prophets, whom she relentlessly pursued (1 Kings +xviii. 4-13; see ELIJAH). She is represented as a woman of virile +character, and became notorious for the part she took in the matter of +Naboth's vineyard. When the Jezreelite[1] sheikh refused to sell the +family inheritance to the king, Jezebel treacherously caused him to be +arrested on a charge of treason, and with the help of false witnesses he +was found guilty and condemned to death. For this the prophet Elijah +pronounced a solemn curse upon Ahab and Jezebel, which was fulfilled +when Jehu, who was anointed king at Elisha's instigation, killed the son +Jehoram, massacred all the family, and had Jezebel destroyed (1 Kings +xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 11-28). What is told of her comes from sources written +under the influence of strong religious bias; among the exaggerations +must be reckoned 1 Kings xviii. 13, which is inconsistent with xix. 18 +and xxii. 6. A literal interpretation of the reference to Jezebel's +idolatry (2 Kings ix. 22) has made her name a byword for a false +prophetess in Rev. ii. 20. Her name is often used in modern English as a +synonym for an abandoned woman or one who paints her face. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi. 1 + [LXX.], 18 seq.; cf. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the + king's home appears in 2 Kings x. 11 compared with vv. 1, 17. + + + + +JEZREEL (Heb. "God sows"), the capital of the Israelite monarchy under +Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events (1 Sam. xxix. 1; 1 Kings +xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was also applied to the great plain +(Esdraelon) dominated by the city ("valley of Jezreel," Josh. xvii. 16, +&c.). The site has never been lost, and the present village _Zercin_ +retains the name radically unchanged. In Greek (e.g. Judith) the name +appears under the form [Greek: Esdraêla]; it is _Stradela_ in the +_Bordeaux Pilgrim_, and to the Crusaders the place was known as _Parvum +Gerinum_. The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500 ft. +above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a long ledge, +terminating in steep cliffs, forming part of the chain of Mt Gilboa. The +buildings are modern, but some scanty remains of rock-hewn wine presses +and a few scattered sarcophagi mark the antiquity of the site. The view +over the plains is fine and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's +palace or Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in 1 Sam. xxix. 1 is +perhaps the fine spring _'Ain el Meiyyita_, north of the village, a +shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between black +basalt boulders: or more probably the copious _'Ain Jalud_. + +A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah, somewhere +near Hebron (Josh. xv. 56). This was the native place of David's wife +Abinoam (1 Sam. xxv. 43). + + See, for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the + Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog._ xix. + + + + +JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar agency. Area, +with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 80,889. More +than half the inhabitants belong to the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated +revenue, £7000; tribute, £1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The +chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended +from a branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested in +1898 with the powers of administration. + +The town of JHABUA (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake, and is +surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guesthouse were constructed +to commemorate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897. + + + + +JHALAWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, pop. (1901), +90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000. Area, 810 sq. m. The +ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and +their ancestors were petty chiefs of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, +in Kathiawar. About 1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan +left his country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah he +left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with the maharaja, +and received from him an important post, which became hereditary. On the +death of one of the Kotah rajas (1771), the country was left to the +charge of Zalim Singh, a descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim +Singh was the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderful state of +prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over forty-five +years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties. In 1838 it was +resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the +state, and to create the new principality of Jhalawar as a separate +provision for the descendants of Zalim Singh. The districts then severed +from Kotah were considered to represent one-third (£120,000) of the +income of Kotah; by treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the +British, and agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh +received the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing +as the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son of his +successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becoming chief of +Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested with governing powers till +1884. Owing to his maladministration, his relations with the British +government became strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, "on +account of persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers +of a ruling chief." He went to live at Benares, on a pension of £2000; +and the administration was placed in the hands of the British resident. +After much consideration, the government resolved in 1897 to break up +the state, restoring the greater part to Kotah, but forming the two +districts of Shahabad and the Chaumahla into a new state, which came +into existence in 1899, and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant +of the original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief. + +The chief town is PATAN, or JHALRAPATAN (pop. 7955), founded close to an +old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of an artificial lake. It +is the centre of trade, the chief exports of the state being opium, +oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m. +north. The ancient site near the town was occupied by the city of +Chandrawati, said to have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The +finest feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva (c. +600). + + + + +JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Multan division of +the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality with the newer and +now more important quarter of Maghiana, is about 3 m. from the right +bank of the river Chenab. Founded by Mal Khan, a Sial chieftain, in +1462, it long formed the capital of a Mahommedan state. Pop. (1901), +24,382. Maghiana has manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware. + +The DISTRICT OF JHANG extends along both sides of the Chenab, including +its confluences with the Jhelum and the Ravi. Area, 3726 sq. m. Pop. +(1901), 378,695, showing an apparent decrease of 13% in the decade, due +to the creation of the district of Lyallpur in 1904. But actually the +population increased by 132% on the old area, owing to the opening of +the Chenab canal and the colonization of the tract irrigated by it. +Within Jhang many thousands of acres of government waste have been +allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing. A branch of +the North-Western railway enters the district in this quarter, extending +throughout its entire length. The Southern Jech Doab railway serves the +south. The principal industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of +cotton. + +Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identified with one of the towns +taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of Jhang centres in the +famous clan of Sials, who exercised an extensive sway over a large tract +between Shahpur and Multan, with little dependence on the imperial court +at Delhi, until they finally fell before the all-absorbing power of +Ranjit Singh. The Sials of Jhang are Mahommedans of Rajput descent, +whose ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the 13th +century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the 19th century +Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and captured the Sial chieftain's +territory. The latter recovered a small portion afterwards, which he was +allowed to retain on payment of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the +establishment of the British agency at Lahore, the district came under +the charge of the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial +leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for which +he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Sial leader again +proved his loyalty by serving in person on the British side. His pension +was afterwards increased, and he obtained the title of khan bahadur, +with a small _jagir_ for life. + + + + +JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad division +o£ the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the Indian Midland +railway system, whence four lines diverge to Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad +and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724. A stone fort crowns a neighbouring +rock. Formerly the capital of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to +the British in 1853, it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection +and massacre. It was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back +in exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within Gwalior, +the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at Jhansi Naoabad, under +its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre for the agricultural trade of +the district, but its manufactures are small. + +The DISTRICT OF JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incorporation of the +former district of Lalitpur, which extends farther into the hill +country, almost entirely surrounded by native states. Combined area, +3628 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 616,759 showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, +due to the results of famine. The main line and branches of the Indian +Midland railway serve the district, which forms a portion of the hill +country of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan +range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north. The +extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and narrow-ridged +hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers flow down impetuously +over ledges of granite or quartz. North of the hilly region, the rocky +granite chains gradually lose themselves in clusters of smaller hills. +The northern portion consists of the level plain of Bundelkhand, +distinguished for its deep black soil, known as _mar_, and admirably +adapted for the cultivation of cotton. The district is intersected or +bounded by three principal rivers--the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The +district is much cut up, and portions of it are insulated by the +surrounding native states. The principal crops are millets, cotton, +oil-seeds, pulses, wheat, gram and barley. The destructive _kans_ grass +has proved as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is +especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epidemics, +and their natural consequence--famine. + +Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this district +before the period of Chandel rule, about the 11th century of our era. To +this epoch must be referred the artificial reservoirs and architectural +remains of the hilly region. The Chandels were succeeded by their +servants the Khangars, who built the fort of Karar, lying just outside +the British border. About the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon +the plains, and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which +now bears their name. The Mahommedan governors were constantly making +irruptions into the Bundela country; and in 1732 Chhatar Sal, the +Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the Mahrattas. They came to his +assistance with their accustomed promptitude, and were rewarded on the +raja's death in 1734, by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. +Their general founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with +inhabitants from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised +to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the East India +Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853 the raja died +childless, and his territories lapsed to the British. The Jhansi state +and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were then formed into a +superintendency. The widow of the raja considered herself aggrieved +because she was not allowed to adopt an heir, and because the slaughter +of cattle was permitted in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread +which excited the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857 +accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men of the 12th +native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and magazine, +and massacred the European officers of the garrison. Everywhere the +usual anarchic quarrels rose among the rebels, and the country was +plundered mercilessly. The rani put herself at the head of the rebels, +and died bravely in battle. It was not till November 1858, after a +series of sharp contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of +reorganization was fairly set on foot. + + + + +JHELUM, or JEHLAM (_Hydaspes_ of the Greeks), a river of northern India. +It is the most westerly of the "five rivers" of the Punjab. It rises in +the north-east of the Kashmir state, flows through the city of Srinagar +and the Wular lake, issues through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow +pass of Baramula, and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. +Thence it flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary +between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally joins the +Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The Jhelum colony, in the +Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on the example of the Chenab +colony in 1901, is designed to contain a total irrigable area of +1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a smaller work than the Chenab +canal, but its silt is noted for its fertilizing qualities. Both +projects have brought great prosperity to the cultivators. + + + + +JHELUM, or JEHLAM, a town and district of British India, in the +Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the right +bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge of the North-Western +railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 14,951. It is a modern town +with river and railway trade (principally in timber from Kashmir), +boat-building and cantonments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments. + +The DISTRICT OF JEHLUM stretches from the river Jhelum almost to the +Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 501,424, showing a decrease of 2% +in the decade. Salt is quarried at the Mayo mine in the Salt Range. +There are two coal-mines, the only ones worked in the province, from +which the North-Western railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The +chief centre of the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770). The +district is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway, and +also traversed along the south by a branch line. The river Jhelum is +navigable throughout the district, which forms the south-eastern portion +of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending between the Indus and Jhelum to +the borders of the Sind Sagar Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque, +although not of so wild a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi +to the north, and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of +cultivated valley. The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt +Range, a treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from +east to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold +precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and traversed by +streams which are at first pure, but soon become impregnated with the +saline matter over which they pass. Between the line of hills lies a +picturesque table-land, in which the beautiful little lake of Kallar +Kahar nestles amongst the minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the +country extends upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless +ravines and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of +Rawalpindi mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and +difficult, the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the +Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil lies along the banks of +the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous villages. The drainage +of the district is determined by a low central watershed running north +and south at right angles to the Salt Range. The waters of the western +portion find their way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those +of the opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty +themselves into the Jhelum. + +The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical period of +the _Mahabharata_. Hindu tradition represents the Salt Range as the +refuge of the five Pandava brethren during the period of their exile, +and every salient point in its scenery is connected with some legend of +the national heroes. Modern research has fixed the site of the conflict +between Alexander and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the +exact point at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or +Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little information with +regard to the condition of the district until the Mahommedan conquest +brought back literature and history to Upper India. The Janjuahs and +Jats, who now hold the Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, +appear to have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to +represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still +inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the Awans, who +now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later invaders from the +opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the dominant race at the period of +the first Mahommedan incursions, and long continued to retain their +independence. During the flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the +Ghakkar chieftains were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of +Baber; but after the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its +neighbours, under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated +the last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild mountaineers +to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions, until 1810, when he +fell before the irresistible power of Ranjit Singh. In 1849 the district +passed, with the rest of the Sikh territories, into the hands of the +British. + + + + +JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1892), German jurist, was born on the 22nd of +August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland, where his father practised as a +lawyer. Young Jhering entered the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, +after the fashion of German students, visited successively Göttingen and +Berlin. G. F. Puchta, the author of _Geschichte des Rechts bei dem +römischen Volke_, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his +admiration and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating _doctor +juris_, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as _privatdocent_ +for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on the _Geist des römischen +Rechts_, the theme which may be said to have constituted his life's +work. In 1845 he became an ordinary professor at Basel, in 1846 at +Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in 1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats +of learning he left his mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he +animated the dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still +under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older school +looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who essayed to +adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a system of natural +jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his famous work, _Geist des +römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung_ +(1852-1865), which for originality of conception and lucidity of +scientific reasoning placed its author in the forefront of modern Roman +jurists. It is no exaggeration to say that in the second half of the +19th century the reputation of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in +the first. Their methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and +his school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In Jhering +the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a science to be +utilized for the further advancement of the moral and social interests +of mankind, was predominant. In 1868 Jhering accepted the chair of Roman +Law at Vienna, where his lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular +students but with men of all professions and even of the highest ranks +in the official world. He became one of the lions of society, the +Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1872 a title of hereditary +nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions of +the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly exchanged its +brilliant circles for the repose of Göttingen, where he became professor +in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna before an admiring audience +a lecture, published under the title of _Der Kampf um's Recht_ (1872; +Eng. trans., _Battle for Right_, 1884). Its success was extraordinary. +Within two years it attained twelve editions, and it has been translated +into twenty-six languages. This was followed a few years later by _Der +Zweck im Recht_ (2 vols., 1877-1883). In these two works is clearly seen +Jhering's individuality. The _Kampf um's Recht_ shows the firmness of +his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and his juristic +method and logic: "to assert his rights is the duty that every +responsible person owes to himself." In the _Zweck im Recht_ is +perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But perhaps the happiest +combination of all his distinctive characteristics is to be found in his +_Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens_ (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great +feature of his lectures was his so-called _Praktika_, problems in Roman +law, and a collection of these with hints for solution was published as +early as 1847 under the title _Civilrechtsfälle ohne Entscheidungen_. In +Göttingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of September +1892. A short time previously he had been the centre of a devoted crowd +of friends and former pupils, assembled at Wilhelmshöhe near Cassel to +celebrate the jubilee of his doctorate. Almost all countries were +worthily represented, and this pilgrimage affords an excellent +illustration of the extraordinary fascination and enduring influence +that Jhering commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face +clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and beaming +with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best when dispensing +hospitality in his own house. With him died the best beloved and the +most talented of Roman-law professors of modern times. It was said of +him by Professor Adolf Merkel in a memorial address, _R. v. Jhering_ +(1893), that he belonged to the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's +lines are applicable: "Was ich in der Jugend gewünscht, das habe ich im +Alter die Fülle," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not +live to complete his _Geist des römischen Rechts_ and his +_Rechtsgeschichte_. For this work the span of a single life would have +been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument of +vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original thinker +and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation) of the spirit +of Roman law. + + Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author + and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: _Beiträge zur + Lehre von Besitz_, first published in the _Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik + des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privat-rechts_, and then + separately; _Der Besitzwille_, and an article entitled "Besitz" in the + _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_ (1891), which aroused at the + time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition + manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also _Scherz + und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz_ (1885); _Das Schuldmoment im römischen + Privat-recht_ (1867); _Das Trinkgeld_ (1882); and among the papers he + left behind him his _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, a fragment, has + been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his life + also M. de Jonge, _Rudolf v. Jhering_ (1888); and A. Merkel, _Rudolf + von Jhering_ (1893). (P. A. A.) + + + + +JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with by the +Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga river, in the +Peruvian province of Loreto. After their conversion they settled in +villages on the western bank of the river. + + + + +JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French Somaliland, in +11° 35´ N., 43° 10´ E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and on the +southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town +is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, +which are spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's +palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station of the +railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European quarter are built of +stone, are flat-roofed and provided with verandas. There is a good water +supply, drawn from a reservoir about 2½ m. distant. The harbour is +land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all +states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town, +consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well thatched +roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the disposal of live +stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular calling-place and also +a coaling station for the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, and +there is a local service to Aden. Trade is confined to coaling passing +ships and to importing goods for and exporting goods from southern +Abyssinia via Harrar, there being no local industries. (For statistics +see SOMALILAND, FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races--Somali, +Danakil, Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, +Italians, French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900 when +the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in 1907 to some +5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans. + +Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its +superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation and in +nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor of the colony +since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely native police force. The +port is not fortified. + + + + +JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. Their +former range was in New Mexico, about the headwaters of the Rio Grande +and the Pecos, and they are now settled in a reservation on the northern +border of New Mexico. Originally a scourge of the district, they are now +subdued, but remain uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily +decreasing. The name is said to be from the Spanish _jicara_, a basket +tray, in reference to their excellent basket-work. + + + + +JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in Arabia on the +Red Sea coast in 21° 28´ N. and 39° 10´ E. It is of importance mainly as +the principal landing place of pilgrims to Mecca, from which it is about +46 m. distant. It is situated in a low sandy plain backed by a range of +hills 10 m. to the east, with higher mountains behind. The town extends +along the beach for about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers +at intervals, the seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the +northern of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are +three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate on the east, +and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south; there are also three +small posterns on the west side, the centre one leading to the quay. In +front of the Mecca gate is a rambling suburb with shops, coffee houses, +and an open market place; before the Medina gate are the Turkish +barracks, and beyond them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of "our +mother Eve," surrounded by the principal cemetery. + + The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the + body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is a small + erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than half-way down + a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel within which is the + black stone known as _El Surrah_, the navel. The grave of Eve is + mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black stone nothing bears any + aspect of antiquity (see Burton's _Pilgrimage_, vol. ii.). + +The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are lofty +and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along the shore. +The streets are narrow and winding. There are two mosques of +considerable size and a number of smaller ones. The outer suburbs are +merely collections of brushwood huts. The bazaars are well supplied with +food-stuffs imported by sea, and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi +Fatima. The water supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, +two sweet wells and a spring 7½ m. from the town, and most of the houses +have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and damp, but +fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour though inconvenient +of access is well protected by coral reefs; there are, however, no +wharves or other dock facilities and cargo is landed in small Arab +boats, _sambuks_. + +The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz, and there is +a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca, however, through his +agent at Jidda exercises an authority practically superior to that of +the sultan's officials. Consulates are maintained by Great Britain, +France, Austria, Russia, Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent +population is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, +and of these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut, the +remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and Greek traders. + +Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the caliphate +of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates from the beginning +of the 15th century when it became the centre of trade between Egypt and +India. Down to the time of Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no +farther than Jidda, where they were met by Indian vessels. The +introduction of steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not +only for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which +formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported direct by +steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden. At the same time it gave a +great impulse to the pilgrim traffic which is now regarded as the annual +harvest of Jidda. The average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds +50,000, and in 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of +the port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased +from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the latter year +amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance of trade is paid by a +very large export of specie, collected from the pilgrims during their +stay in the country. + + + + +JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of which have +varied at different times and in the various countries in which it has +been danced (see DANCE). The music of the "jig," or such as is written +in its rhythm, is in various times and has been used frequently to +finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and Handel. The word has usually been +derived from or connected with Fr. _gigue_, Ital. _giga_, Ger. _Geige_, +a fiddle. The French and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance +or dance rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as +adapted from the English "jig," which may have been originally an +onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking movement has given rise +to many applications of "jig" and its derivative "jigger" to mechanical +and other devices, such as the machine used for separating the heavier +metal-bearing portions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a +tackle consisting of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word +"jigger," a corruption of the West Indian _chigoe_, is also used as the +name of a species of flea, the _Sarcopsylla penetrans_, which burrows +and lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, and +causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA). + + + + +JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word of which the +literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used to designate the +religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the followers of Mahomet to +wage war upon those who do not accept the doctrines of Islam. This duty +is laid down in five suras--all of these suras belonging to the period +after Mahomet had established his power. Conquered peoples who will +neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (_jizya_) are to be put to the +sword. (See further MOHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By Mahommedan commentators +the commands in the Koran are not interpreted as a general injunction on +all Moslems constantly to make war on the infidels. It is generally +supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the +caliph (an office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans who +do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman sultan, such +as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers for the proclamation +of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Moslems on +unbelievers since the early days of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally +proclaimed by all persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Ahmad +(the Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of +Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken straight to +paradise. + + + + +JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436-1517), Spanish +cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at Torrelaguna in Castile, of +good but poor family. He studied at Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at +Salamanca; and in 1459, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. +Returning to Spain in 1465, he brought with him an "expective" letter +from the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the +archpriestship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, +archbishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to give +way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held out, and at length +in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice. This Jimenes exchanged +almost at once for a chaplaincy at Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza, +bishop of Siguenza, who shortly appointed him vicar-general of his +diocese. In that position Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic +and layman; and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among +the secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk. Throwing +up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name Gonzales for that +of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de los +Reyes, recently founded by Ferdinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content +with the ordinary severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary +austerities. He slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his +fasts, and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his +whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life was +most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought crowds to +confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely monastery of Our +Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his own hands a rude hut in the +neighbouring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite. He was +afterwards guardian of a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now +archbishop of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended +him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes, was +pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the office upon +him. The post was politically important, for Isabella submitted to the +judgment of her father-confessor not only her private affairs but also +matters of state. Jimenes's severe sanctity soon won him considerable +influence over Isabella; and thus it was that he first emerged into +political life. In 1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial +of the order of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of +the conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans. +Intense opposition was continued even after Jimenes became archbishop of +Toledo. The general of the order himself came from Rome to interfere +with the archbishop's measures of reform, but the stern inflexibility of +Jimenes, backed by the influence of the queen, subdued every obstacle. +Cardinal Mendoza had died in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a +papal bull nominating her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the +richest and most powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity +of the Roman Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove +to evade the honour; but his _nolo episcopari_ was after six months +overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration. With the +primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity of high chancellor of +Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his lowly life; and, although a +message from Rome required him to live in a style befitting his rank, +the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes +accompanied the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and +pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. Talavera +had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred to proceed by +haranguing the _fakihs_, or doctors of religion, and loading them with +gifts. Outwardly the latter method was successful; in two months the +converts were so numerous that they had to be baptized by aspersion. The +indignation of the unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes +was besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in +quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors as a +punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism; and Isabella, +who had been momentarily annoyed at her archbishop's imprudence, was +satisfied that he had done good service to Christianity. + +On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at once resigned +the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter Joan and her +husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead that of regent. Philip +was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pretensions to the regency; and it +required all the tact of Jimenes to bring about a friendly interview +between the princes. Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though +Jimenes remained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden +death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already tottering +intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a child; and +Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile, mutually jealous, agreed +to entrust affairs to the archbishop of Toledo, who, moved more by +patriotic regard for his country's welfare than by special friendship +for Ferdinand, strove to establish the final influence of that king in +Castile. Ferdinand did not return till August 1507; and he brought a +cardinal's hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of Spain +was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Leon. + +The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition against +the Moorish city of Oran in the north of Africa, in which his religious +zeal was supported by the prospect of the political and material gain +that would accrue to Spain from the possession of such a station. A +preliminary expedition, equipped, like that which followed, at the +expense of Jimenes, captured the port of Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in +1509 a strong force, accompanied by the cardinal in person, set sail for +Africa, and in one day the wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the +army remained to make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and +occupied himself with the administration of his diocese, and in +endeavouring to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran +expedition. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving Jimenes +as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.), then a youth +of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at once took firm hold of +the reins of government, and ruled in a determined and even autocratic +manner, the haughty and turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous +intriguing Flemish councillors of Charles combined to render his +position peculiarly difficult; while the evils consequent upon the +unlimited demands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium upon +the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to Charles's +desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person of Charles's younger +brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat of the cortes at Madrid; and he +established a standing army by drilling the citizens of the great towns. +Immediately on Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards +pope, produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent. Jimenes +admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that neither he nor +the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever had any real share of +power. In September 1517 Charles landed in the province of Asturias, and +Jimenes hastened to meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not +without a suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter +from Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him leave +to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual dismissal, +which some, however, say the cardinal never saw, Francisco Jimenes died +at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517. + +Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly and inflexibly, +with a confidence that became at times overbearing, he carried through +what he had decided to be right, with as little regard for the +convenience of others as for his own. In the midst of a corrupt clergy +his morals were irreproachable. He was liberal to all, and founded and +maintained very many benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole +time was devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation +was in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most +noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of life at +which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such leading parts. +Whether his abrupt change from the secular to the regular clergy was the +fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm or the far-seeing move of a wily +schemer has been disputed; but the constant austerity of his life, his +unvarying superiority to small personal aims, are arguments for the +former alternative that are not to be met by merely pointing to the +actual honours and power he at last attained. + + In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of Alcalá + de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose sole expense + it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magnificence and + internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within its walls. In + 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the costly buildings + were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the romances generally + found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused to be published + religious treatises by himself and others. He revived also the + Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to + be used. But his most famous literary service was the printing at + Alcalá (in Latin _Complutum_) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the + first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original text. In + this work, on which he is said to have expended half a million of + ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica (D. Lopez de + Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pincianus), the Hebraist + Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas, + and by three Jewish converts, of whom Zamora edited the Targum to the + Pentateuch. The other Targums are not included. In the Old Testament + Jerome's version stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue + and the Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the + thieves on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman + Church) in the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth + contains a Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New + Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April 1517. + It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by the Antwerp + firm of Plantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano at the expense + of Philip II. The second edition is known as the _Biblia Regia_ or + _Filipina_. + + The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, _De Rebus Gestis Francisci + Ximenii_ (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the + materials for biographies of Jimenes--in Spanish by Robles (1604) and + Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier (1684), + Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele (1844, + translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Havemann (1848); + and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's _Ferdinand and + Isabella_; _Revue des Deux Mondes_ (May 1841) and _Mém. de l'Acad. + d'hist. de Madrid_, vol. iv. + + + + +JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the +Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The +territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts. +Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, showing a decrease of 1% +in the decade. Estimated gross revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. +Grain and cotton are exported, and there are manufactures of gold and +silver ornaments, leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose +title is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian +family. The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was +recognized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has always been +famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the Mutiny, +which has been rewarded with accessions of territory. In 1857 the raja +of Jind was actually the first man, European or native, who took the +field against the mutineers; and his contingent collected supplies in +advance for the British troops marching upon Delhi, besides rendering +excellent service during the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a +minor in 1887, and was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah +expedition of 1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially +distinguished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has a +station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. +(1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the raja since 1827 +is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852. + + + + +JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chuai, the 14th mikado +(191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the government, and fitted +out an army for the invasion of Korea (see JAPAN, § 9). She returned to +Japan completely victorious after three years' absence. Subsequently her +son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was +canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan +till 270. She is still worshipped. + +As regards the English oath, usually "By Jingo," or "By the living +Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification with the name of +Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint who was martyred on the 11th +of May 760, was a joke on the part of R. H. Barham, author of the +_Ingoldsby Legends_. Some explain the word as a corruption of Jainko, +the Basque name for God. It has also been derived from the Persia _jang_ +(war), St Jingo being the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and +is even explained as a corruption of "Jesus, Son of God," Je-n-go. In +support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was first +common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I. imported a +number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not, however, appear in +literature before the 17th century, first as conjurer's jargon. Motteux, +in his "Rabelais," is the first to use "by jingo," translating _par +dieu_. The political use of the word as indicating an aggressive +patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism) originated in 1877 during the weeks of +national excitement preluding the despatch of the British Mediterranean +squadron to Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on +Constantinople. While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to +what policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song +with the refrain "We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do," &c., +was produced in London by a singer known as "the great MacDermott," and +instantly became very popular. Thus the war-party came to be called +Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since been the term applied to those who +advocate a national policy of arrogance and pugnacity. + + For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see _Notes and Queries_, + (August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149. + + + + +JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (_genii_) in Arabian +mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and the +propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. They are ruled by +a race of kings named "Suleyman," one of whom is considered to have +built the pyramids. Their central home is the mountain Kaf, and they +manifest themselves to men under both animal and mortal form and become +invisible at will. There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case +reach the extremes of beauty and ugliness. + + + + +JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at Vysoké Mýto in +Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of +education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the +Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational +privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought +him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the +Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His +merits as a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president +of the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on the 25th +of November 1888. + + With Hermenegild Jirecek he defended in 1862 the genuineness of the + Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He published in the + Czech language an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-1861), + a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-1876), a + Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw's Czech grammar and of some + Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law Pavel Josef + Safarik (1795-1861). + +His brother HERMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow (1827- ), Bohemian +jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was +also an official in the education department. + + Among his important works on Slavonic law were _Codex juris bohemici_ + (11 parts, 1867-1892), and a _Collection of Slav Folk-Law_ (Czech, + 1880), _Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th Century_ + (Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873). + +JIRECEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854- ), son of Josef, taught history at +Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in 1879, and in 1881 became +minister of education at Sofia. In 1884 he became professor of universal +history in Czech at Prague, and in 1893 professor of Slavonic +antiquities at Vienna. + + The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the + southern Slavs and their literature. They include a _History of the + Bulgars_ (Czech and German, 1876), _The Principality of Bulgaria_ + (1891), _Travels in Bulgaria_ (Czech, 1888), &c. + + + + +JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Samarkand, on +the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city of Samarkand. Pop. +(1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of Bokhara it was captured by the +Russians in 1866. + + + + +JOAB (Heb. "Yah[weh] is a father"), in the Bible, the son of Zeruiah, +David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were Asahel and Abishai. +All three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in David's +history. Abishai on one occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine +giant (2 Sam. xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly +responsible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according +to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron. xi. 4-9); with Abishai +and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israelites who had +rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the +campaign against Ammon and Edom (2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 Kings xi. 15). +He showed his sturdy character by urging the king after the death of +Absalom to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of +his favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's +proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been +regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.; 1 Chron. +xxi. 6). + + The hostility of the "sons of Zeruiah" towards the tribe of Benjamin + is characteristically contrasted with David's own generosity towards + Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul when David + surprised him asleep (1 Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious to slay Shimei + when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David was resigned to the + will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the suggestions. After Asahel + met his death at the hands of Abner, Joab expostulated with David for + not taking revenge upon the guilty one, and indeed the king might be + considered bound in honour to take up his nephew's cause. But when + Joab himself killed Abner, David's imprecation against him and his + brother Abishai showed that he dissociated himself from the act of + vengeance, although it brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel + (2 Sam. iii.). Fear of a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and + this at all events led him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13). + The two deeds are similar, and the impression left by them is + expressed in David's last charges to Solomon (1 Kings ii.). But here + Joab had taken the side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to + death by Benaiah at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the + charges are the fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible + blame from Solomon (q.v.). It is singular that Joab is not blamed for + killing Absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped + to reconcile father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so + cruel an act in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5, + 10-16). A certain animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie + some of the popular narratives of the life of David (q.v.). + (S. A. C.) + + + + +JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the monastery of San +Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot, Italian mystic theologian, was +born at Celico, near Cosenza, in Calabria. He was of noble birth and was +brought up at the court of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went +to visit the holy places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the +plague at Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on +his return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic +retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In August +1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of Corazzo, near +Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope Lucius III. at Veroli, +and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona. There is extant a letter of +Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of June 1188, in which Clement alludes +to two of Joachim's works, the _Concordia_ and the _Expositio in +Apocalypsin_, and urges him to continue them. Joachim, however, was +unable to continue his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in +prophetic exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself +but ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly +retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded with +some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of San +Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the _massif_ of La Sila. The pope +and the emperor befriended this foundation; Frederick II. and his wife +Constance made important donations to it, and promoted the spread of +offshoots of the parent house; while Innocent III., on the 21st of +January 1204, approved the "ordo Florensis" and the "institutio" which +its founder had bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the +20th of March. + + Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed to + Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enumerated in + his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These are the + _Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti_ (first printed at Venice in + 1519), the _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ (Venice, 1527), the _Psalterium + decem chordarum_ (Venice, 1527), together with some "libelli" against + the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is very + probable that these "libelli" are the writings entitled _Concordia + Evangeliorum_, _Contra Judaeos_, _De articulis fidei_, _Confessio + fidei_ and _De unitate Trinitatis_. The last is perhaps the work which + was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an + erroneous criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This + council, though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the + author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks + continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until + they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing + Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples. + + It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to + Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, being + powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the + revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. Among + the most widely circulated were the commentaries on Jeremiah, Isaiah + and Ezekiel, the _Vaticinia pontificum_ and the _De oneribus + ecclesiae_. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very + simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and + future, into three periods, which, in his _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ + (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the Father; + the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, which + will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there is a + period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with + Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam. The + initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while the + actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the + Church--_mulier amicta sole_ (Rev. xii. 1)--remaining hidden in the + wilderness 1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details + of the other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of + perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments, which, + according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. Far more + interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and social + importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second and third + ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second was + intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third was to + be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period of study + and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic knowledge. In the + age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience; in the age of + the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit was to be + devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the _plena + spiritus libertas_, the age of contemplation, the monastic age _par + excellence_, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy, + more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not conceal his + sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In his opinion--which + is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox--the church of Peter will be, + not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in + the third age before the order of the monks, the _viri spirituales_. + The entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will + be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. In various passages in + Joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and + the contemplative order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to + efface herself before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and + the Apostles on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and + explicitly, as transitory, as representing that passage from the + _significantia_ to the _significata_ which Joachim signalizes at every + stage of his demonstration. Joachim was not disturbed during his + lifetime. In 1200 he submitted all his writings to the judgment of the + Holy See, and unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran + council, which condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no + allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull of 1220 was a + formal certificate of his orthodoxy. + + The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and especially + after a division had been produced in the Franciscan order. The + rigorists, who soon became known as "Spirituals," represented St + Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age. Certain convents + became centres of Joachimism. Around the hermit of Hyères, Hugh of + Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans who expected from the advent + of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. The Joachimites + even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected + John of Parma, one of their number, general of the order. Pope + Alexander IV., however, compelled John of Parma to renounce his + dignity, and the Joachimite opposition became more and more vehement. + Pseudo-Joachimite treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in + 1254, there appeared in Paris the _Liber introductorius ad Evangelium + aeternum_, the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San + Donnino. This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the + three principal works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made + some interpolations.[1] Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been + supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely that + the Calabrian abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and that with + the help of that _intelligentia mystica_ it would be possible to + extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning, the + gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be written; + as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order set + apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in this order + the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations provoked + very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The secular masters of + the university of Paris denounced the work to Pope Innocent IV., and + the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It was Innocent's successor, + Alexander IV., who appointed a commission to examine it; and as a + result of this commission, which sat at Anagni, the destruction of the + _Liber introductorius_ was ordered by a papal breve dated the 23rd of + October 1255. In 1260 a council held at Arles condemned Joachim's + writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region. + The Joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the Spirituals, and + acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the + Apocalypse. This book, probably published after the death of its + author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides + Joachimite principles, an affirmation even clearer than that of + Gherardo da Borgo of the elect character of the Franciscan order, as + well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite + literature is extremely vast. From the 14th century to the middle of + the 16th, Ubertin of Casale (in his _Arbor Vitae crucifixae_), + Bartholomew of Pisa (author of the _Liber Conformitatum_), the + Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of + Fermo, Johannes Annius of Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of + other writers, repeated or complicated _ad infinitum_ the exegesis of + Abbot Joachim. A treatise entitled _De ultima aetate ecclesiae_, which + appeared in 1356, has been attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly + from the pen of an anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox + movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of + the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, + were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as + Roger Bacon, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often + comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace + promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has + placed him in Paradise (_Par._, xii. 140-141). + + See _Acta Sanctorum, Boll._ (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in _Abhandl. + der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3 + (Munich, 1874); idem, _Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter_, + vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, "Joachim de Flore et l'Évangile + éternel" in _Nouvelles études d'histoire religieuse_ (Paris, 1884); F. + Tocco, _L'Eresia nel medio evo_ (Florence, 1884); H. Denifle, "Das + Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni" in _Archiv für + Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, vol. i.; Paul + Fournier, "Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence" in _Revue + des questions historiques_, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, _History of the + Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); F. + Ehrle's article "Joachim" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_. On + Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, "Recherches nouvelles sur l'histoire du + Joachimisme" in _Revue historique_, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, "Zur + Gesch. des Joachimismus" in _Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengesch._, + vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three books + in their primitive form date from 1254. + + + + +JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Brandenburg, elder +son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 21st of +February 1484. He received an excellent education, became elector of +Brandenburg on his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards +married Elizabeth, daughter of John, king of Denmark. He took some part +in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the +early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his +electorate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring +some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the +administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a +friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial election of 1519, +Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Francis I., +king of France, and by those of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles +V. Having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties, +he appears to have hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the +election came he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In +spite of this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the +elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was +frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles. Joachim is best +known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic orthodoxy. He was one of the +princes who urged upon the emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict +of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the +Reformers. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was a +member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But his wife +adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony; and +he had the mortification of seeing these doctrines also favoured by +other members of his family. Joachim, who was a patron of learning, +established the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at +Stendal on the 11th of July 1535. + + See T. von Buttlar, _Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen den + Adel_ (1889); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen Politik + (1855-1886)._ + + + + +JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Brandenburg, the +elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 13th of +January 1505. Having passed some time at the court of the emperor +Maximilian I., he married in 1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. +In 1532 he led a contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against +the Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married +Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became elector of +Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and undertook the +government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his +brother John. Joachim took a prominent part in imperial politics as an +advocate of peace, though with a due regard for the interests of the +house of Habsburg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants +and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subsequently at +other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on an unsuccessful +campaign against the Turks. When the war broke out between Charles and +the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained +neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor. +With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of +Hesse, to surrender to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in +April 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. +But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by +this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack on Charles. He +supported the _Interim_, which was issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and +took part in the negotiations that resulted in the treaty of Passau +(1552), and the religious peace of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics +he sought to consolidate and strengthen the power of his house by +treaties with neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the +bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up as a +strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of wavering soon +after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free entrance to the reformed +teaching in the electorate. He took the communion himself in both kinds, +and established a new ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but +retained much of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was +not unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly explained +by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of +the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace of Augsburg the elector +mainly confined his attention to Brandenburg, where he showed a keener +desire to further the principles of the Reformation. By his luxurious +habits and his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a +great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates +of the land in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes +upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt, +both of which he secured for his son Frederick in 1551. When Frederick +died in the following year, the elector's son Sigismund obtained the two +sees; and on Sigismund's death in 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his +nephew, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, +who was a prince of generous and cultured tastes, died at Köpenick on +the 3rd of January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In +1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau. + + See Steinmüller, _Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark + Brandenburg durch Joachim II._ (1903); S. Isaacsohn, "Die Finanzen + Joachims II." in the _Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und + Landeskunde_ (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen + Politik_ (1855-1886). + + + + +JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and composer, was born at +Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June 1831, the son of Jewish +parents. His family moved to Budapest when he was two years old, and he +studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when +he was only eight years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder +Hellmesberger and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in +the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly +founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers, +pronounced that the regular training of a music school was not needed, +but recommended that he should receive a thorough general education in +music from Ferdinand David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited +England, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his +playing of Ernst's fantasia on _Otello_ made a great sensation; he also +played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert conducted by +Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited England, and after the +foundation of the popular concerts in 1859, up to 1899, he played there +regularly in the latter part of the season. On Liszt's invitation he +accepted the post of _Konzertmeister_ at Weimar, and was there from 1850 +to 1853. This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced +school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was strongly tempted +to give his allegiance to what was beginning to be called the "music of +the future"; but his artistic convictions forced him to separate himself +from the movement, and the tact and good taste he displayed in the +difficult moment of explaining his position to Liszt afford one of the +finest illustrations of his character. + +His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into a different +atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival of 1853 procured +him the intimate friendship of Robert Schumann. His introduction of the +young Brahms to Schumann is a famous incident of this time. Schumann and +Brahms collaborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin +and piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover he was +_königlicher Konzertdirektor_ from 1853 to 1868, when he made Berlin his +home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano singer, Amalie Weiss, who +died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was appointed head of the newly founded +_königliche Hochschule für Musik_ in Berlin. The famous "Joachim +quartet" was started in the _Sing-Akademie_ in the following year. Of +his later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is +little to say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the +rise of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged +master of all. He died on the 15th of August 1907. + +Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make him famous in +his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of interpreting the +greatest music in absolute perfection: while Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and +Brahms were masters, whose works he played with a degree of insight that +has never been approached, he was no less supreme in the music of +Mendelssohn and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory +has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's artistic +career would be complete which omitted mention of his absolute freedom +from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing, and his unselfish +character. His devotion to the highest ideals, combined with a certain +austerity and massivity of style, brought against him an accusation of +coldness from admirers of a more effusive temperament. But the answer to +this is given by the depth and variety of expression which his mastery +of the resources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer +(1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in the +words, "He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the service of +an ideal." + +As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the works +of his earlier life never attained the public success which, in the +opinion of many, they deserve (see MUSIC). They undoubtedly have a +certain austerity of character which does not appeal to every hearer, +but they are full of beauty of a grave and dignified kind; and in such +things as his "Hungarian concerto" for his own instrument the utmost +degree of difficulty is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. +The "romance" in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and +orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in memory +of Kleist, as well as the scena for mezzo soprano from Schiller's +_Demetrius_, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestration as well +as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical history as a +composer can only be properly appreciated in the light of his intimate +relations with Brahms, with whom he studiously refrained from putting +himself into independent rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he +gave the co-operation of one who might himself have ranked as a master. + + There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866) and by + J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the 16th of May + 1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his first + appearance in England. + + + + +JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between Leo IV. +(847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account has it that she was +born in England, another in Germany of English parents. After an +education at Cologne, she fell in love with a Benedictine monk and fled +with him to Athens disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome +under the alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the +priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. She was elected pope +under the title of John VIII., and died in childbirth during a papal +procession. + + A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the legend in + his _Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit_. He is believed to have derived + it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors between the + 13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. Its explosion + was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a French Calvinist, + in his _Éclaircissement de la question si une femme a été assise au + siège papal de Rome_ (1647); and _De Joanna Papissa_ (1657). The + refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his _Papstfabeln des + Mittelalters_ (1863; Eng. trans. 1872). + + + + +JOAN OF ARC, more properly JEANNETON DARC, afterwards known in France as +JEANNE D'ARC[1] (1411-1431), the "Maid of Orleans," was born between +1410 and 1412, the daughter of Jacques Darc, peasant proprietor, of +Domremy, a small village in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly +in Lorraine, and of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who +from having made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of +Romée. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan never +learned to read or write, and received her sole religious instruction +from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, +and Credo. She sometimes guarded her father's flocks, but at her trial +in 1431 she strongly resented being referred to as a shepherd girl. In +all household work she was specially proficient, her skill in the use of +the needle not being excelled (she said) by that of any matron even of +Rouen. In her childhood she was noted for her abounding physical energy; +but her vivacity, so far from being tainted by any coarse or unfeminine +trait, was the direct outcome of an abnormally sensitive nervous +temperament. Towards her parents her conduct was uniformly exemplary, +and the charm of her unselfish kindness made her a favourite in the +village. As she grew to womanhood she became inclined to silence, and +spent much of her time in solitude and prayer. She repelled all attempts +of the young men of her acquaintance to win her favour; and while active +in the performance of her duties, and apparently finding her life quite +congenial, inwardly she was engrossed with thoughts reaching far beyond +the circle of her daily concerns. + +At this time, through the alliance and support of Philip of Burgundy, +the English had extended their conquest over the whole of France north +of the Loire in addition to their possession of Guienne; and while the +infant Henry VI. of England had in 1422 been proclaimed king of France +at his father's grave at St Denis, Charles the dauphin (still uncrowned) +was forced to watch the slow dismemberment of his kingdom. Isabella, the +dauphin's mother, had favoured Henry V. of England, the husband of her +daughter Catherine; and under Charles VI. a visionary named Marie +d'Avignon declared that France was being ruined by a woman and would be +restored by an armed virgin from the marches of Lorraine. To what extent +this idea worked in Joan's mind is doubtful. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's +tract, _De prophetiis Merlini_, there is a reference to an ancient +prophecy of the enchanter Merlin concerning a virgin _ex nemore canuto_, +and it appears that this _nemus canutum_ had been identified in +folk-lore with the oak wood of Domremy. Joan's knowledge of the prophecy +does not, however, appear till 1429; and already before that, from 1424, +according to her account at her trial, she had become imbued with a +sense of having a mission to free France from the English. She heard the +voices of St Michael, St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. In May +1428 she tried to obtain from Robert de Baudricourt, governor of +Vaucouleurs, an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would send +him aid, but she was rebuffed. When, however, in September the English +(under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key to the south of +France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt, her mission being to +relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at Reims. By persistent +importunity, the effect of which was increased by the simplicity of her +demeanour and her calm assurance of success, she at last prevailed on +the governor to grant her request; and in February 1429, accompanied by +six men-at-arms, she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the +dauphin at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular +feeling in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three +days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded him of the +divine character of her commission by discovering him though disguised +in the crowd of his courtiers, and by reassuring him regarding his +secret doubts as to his legitimacy. And Charles was impressed by her +knowledge of a secret prayer, which (he told Dunois) could only be known +to God and himself. Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had +reported that they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the +Catholic faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity, +she was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men designed +for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she rode clothed in a +coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said to be that with which +Charles Martel had vanquished the Saracens, the hiding-place of which, +under the altar of the parish church of the village of Ste Catherine de +Fierbois, the "voices" had revealed to her; she carried a white standard +of her own design embroidered with lilies, and having on the one side +the image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His hand, +and on the other a representation of the Annunciation. Joan succeeded in +entering Orleans on the 29th of April 1429, and through the vigorous and +unremitting sallies of the French the English gradually became so +discouraged that on the 8th of May they raised the siege. It is admitted +that her extraordinary pluck and sense of leadership were responsible +for this result. In a single week (June 12 to 19), by the capture of +Jargeau and Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where +Talbot was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire. +With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out towards +Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men on the 16th of July, +Troyes having yielded on the way. On the following day, holding the +sacred banner, Joan stood beside Charles at his coronation in the +cathedral. + +The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detaching +Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity, remained with +the army, but the king played her false when she attempted the capture +of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of September, when Joan was +wounded,[2] his troops were disbanded. Joan went into Normandy to assist +the duke of Alençon, but in December returned to the court, and on the +29th she and her family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. +Unconsoled by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to +assist in the defence of Compiègne against the duke of Burgundy; and on +the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the besiegers, +when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles, partly perhaps on +account of his natural indolence, partly on account of the intrigues at +the court, made no effort to effect her ransom, and never showed any +sign of interest in her fate. By means of negotiations instigated and +prosecuted with great perseverance by the university of Paris and the +Inquisition, and through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the +bishop of Beauvais--a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own see, +hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen--she was sold in November by +John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the English, who on the 3rd of January +1431, at the instance of the university of Paris, delivered her over to +the Inquisition for trial. After a public examination, begun on the 9th +of January and lasting six days, and another conducted in the prison, +she was, on the 20th of March, publicly accused as a heretic and witch, +and, being in the end found guilty, she made her submission at the +scaffold on the 24th of May, and received pardon. She was still, +however, the prisoner of the English, and, having been induced by those +who had her in charge to resume her male clothes, she was on this +account judged to have relapsed, was sentenced to death, and burned at +the stake on the streets of Rouen on the 30th of May 1431. In 1436 an +impostor appeared, professing to be Joan of Arc escaped from the flames, +who succeeded in inducing many people to believe in her statement, but +afterwards confessed her imposture. The sentence passed on Joan of Arc +was revoked by the pope on the 7th of July 1456, and since then it has +been the custom of Catholic writers to uphold the reality of her divine +inspiration. + +During the latter part of the 19th century a popular cult of the Maid of +Orleans sprang up in France, being greatly stimulated by the clerical +party, which desired to advertise, in the person of this national +heroine, the intimate union between patriotism and the Catholic faith, +and for this purpose ardently desired her enrolment among the Saints. On +the 27th of January 1894 solemn approval was given by Pope Leo XIII., +and in February 1903 a formal proposal was entered for her canonization. +The Feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 6), 1904 was made the occasion for a +public declaration by Pope Pius X. that she was entitled to the +designation Venerable. On the 13th of December 1908 the decree of +beatification was published in the Consistory Hall of the Vatican. + +As an historical figure, it is impossible to dogmatize concerning the +personality of Joan of Arc. The modern clerical view has to some extent +provoked what appears, in Anatole France's learned account, ably +presented as it is, to be a retaliation, in regarding her as a clerical +tool in her own day. But her character was in any case exceptional. She +undoubtedly nerved the French at a critical time, and inspired an army +of laggards and pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with +that of Cromwell's Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military +qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d'Alençon; and Captain +Marin, in his _Jeanne d'Arc, tacticien et stratégiste_ (1891), takes a +high view of her achievements. The nobility of her purpose and the +genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined with her purity of +character and simple patriotism, stand clear. As to her "supranormal" +faculties, a matter concerning which belief largely depends on the point +of view, it is to be remarked that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly +devoid of clerical influences, admits them (_Aperçus nouveaux_, 1850), +saying that the evidence is as good as for any facts in her history. See +also A. Lang on "the voices" in _Proc. Soc. Psychical Research_, vol. +xi. + + AUTHORITIES.--For bibliography see _Le Livre d'or de Jeanne d'Arc_ + (1894), and A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (1904). + Until the 19th century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely + neglected; Voltaire's scurrilous satire _La Pucelle_, while indicative + of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair + praises in the _Encyclopédie_. The first attempt at a study of the + sources was that of L'Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume of + _Mémoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the base + for all lives until J. Quicherat's great work, _Le Procès de Jeanne + d'Arc_ (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid + that they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great + distinctness. Michelet's sketch of her work in his _Histoire de + France_, one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid + than these sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that + of H. A. Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, _L'Histoire de + Jeanne d'Arc d'après des documents originaux_, with introduction by M. + Sepet (1907); P. H. Dunand, _Jeanne d'Arc et l'église_ (1908); and + especially Andrew Lang, _The Maid of France_ (1908). The _Vie de + Jeanne d'Arc_, by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and + erudite, but in some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and + prejudice in its handling of the sources (see the criticism by Andrew + Lang in _The Times_, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1908). The attempt to + establish the reality of the "revelations" and consequently to obtain + the canonization of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to + publish lives (such as Sepet's, 1869) in support of their claims. + Excellent works worth special mention are: Siméon Luce, _Jeanne d'Arc + à Domremy_; L. Jarry, _L'Armée anglaise au siège d'Orleans_ (1892); + J. J. Bourassé, _Miracles de Madame Sainte Kathérine de Fierbois_ + (1858, trans. by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beaucorps, + _L'Armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d'Arc_ (1892); R. P. Agroles, + S.J., _La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc_. For the "false Pucelle" see A. Lang's + article in his _Valet's Tragedy_ (1903). Of the numerous dramas and + poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject, mention can only be + made of _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_ of Schiller, and of the _Joan of + Arc_ of Southey. A drama in verse by Jules Barbier was set to music by + C. Gounod (1873). (J. T. S.*; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the act of ennoblement the name is spelt Day, due probably to + the peculiar pronunciation. It has been disputed whether the name was + written originally d'Arc or Darc. It is beyond doubt that the father + of Joan was not of noble origin, but Bouteiller suggests that at that + period the apostrophe did not indicate nobility. Her mother, it may + be noted, is called "de Vouthon." + + [2] The Porte St Honoré where Joan was wounded stood where the + Comédie Française now stands. + + + + +JOANES (or JUANES), VICENTE (1506-1579), head of the Valencian school of +painters, and often called "the Spanish Raphael," was born at Fuente de +la Higuera in the province of Valencia in 1506. He is said to have +studied his art for some time in Rome, with which school his affinities +are closest, but the greater part of his professional life was spent in +the city of Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are +now to be found. All relate to religious subjects, and are characterized +by dignity of conception, accuracy of drawing, truth and beauty of +colour, and minuteness of finish. He died at Bocairente (near Jativa) +while engaged upon an altarpiece in the church there, on the 21st of +December 1579. + + + + +JOANNA (1479-1555), called the Mad (_la Loca_), queen of Castile and +mother of the emperor Charles V., was the second daughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, and was born at Toledo on the 6th +of November 1479. Her youngest sister was Catherine of Aragon, the first +wife of Henry VIII. In 1496 at Lille she was married to the archduke +Philip the Handsome, son of the German King Maximilian I., and at Ghent, +in February 1500, she gave birth to the future emperor. The death of her +only brother John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of Portugal, and +then of the latter's infant son Miguel, made Joanna heiress of the +Spanish kingdoms, and in 1502 the cortes of Castile and of Aragon +recognized her and her husband as their future sovereigns. Soon after +this Joanna's reason began to give way. She mourned in an extravagant +fashion for her absent husband, whom at length she joined in Flanders; +in this country her passionate jealousy, although justified by Philip's +conduct, led to deplorable scenes. In November 1504 her mother's death +left Joanna queen of Castile, but as she was obviously incapable of +ruling, the duties of government were undertaken by her father, and then +for a short time by her husband. The queen was with Philip when he was +wrecked on the English coast and became the guest of Henry VII. at +Windsor; soon after this event, in September 1506, he died and Joanna's +mind became completely deranged, it being almost impossible to get her +away from the dead body of her husband. The remaining years of her +miserable existence were spent at Tordesillas, where she died on the +11th of April 1555. In spite of her afflictions the queen was sought in +marriage by Henry VII. just before his death. Nominally Joanna remained +queen of Castile until her death, her name being joined with that of +Charles in all public documents, but of necessity she took no part in +the business of state. In addition to Charles she had a son Ferdinand, +afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., and four daughters, among them +being Maria (1505-1558), wife of Louis II., king of Hungary, afterwards +governor-general of the Netherlands. + + See R. Villa, _La Reina doña Juana la Loca_ (Madrid, 1892); Rösler, + _Johanna die Wahnsinnige_ (Vienna, 1890); W. H. Prescott, _Hist. of + Ferdinand and Isabella_ (1854); and H. Tighe, _A Queen of Unrest_ + (1907). + + + + +JOANNA I. (c. 1327-1382), queen of Naples, was the daughter of Charles +duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of Naples in succession +to her grandfather King Robert in 1343. Her first husband was Andrew, +son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, who like the queen herself was a +member of the house of Anjou. In 1345 Andrew was assassinated at Aversa, +possibly with his wife's connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis, +son of Philip prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then came to +Naples to avenge his brother's death, and the queen took refuge in +Provence--which came under her rule at the same time as +Naples--purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling to him the +town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having returned to Naples +in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna lost her second husband in +1362, and married James, king of Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of +Brunswick, prince of Taranto. The queen had no sons, and as both her +daughters were dead she made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles +V. of France, her heir. This proceeding so angered Charles, duke of +Durazzo, who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, that he +seized the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at Aversa on +the 22nd of May 1382. The queen was a woman of intellectual tastes, and +was acquainted with some of the poets and scholars of her time, +including Petrarch and Boccaccio. + + See Crivelli, _Della prima e della seconda Giovanna, regine di Napoli_ + (1832); G. Battaglia, _Giovanna I., regina di Napoli_ (1835); W. St C. + Baddeley, _Queen Joanna I. of Naples_ (1893); Scarpetta, _Giovanna I. + di Napoli_ (1903); and Francesca M. Steele, _The Beautiful Queen + Joanna I. of Naples_ (1910). + + + + +JOANNA II. (1371-1435), queen of Naples, was descended from Charles II. +of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had been married to +William, son of Leopold III. of Austria, and at the death of her brother +King Ladislaus in 1414 she succeeded to the Neapolitan crown. Her life +had always been very dissolute, and although now a widow of forty-five, +she chose as her lover Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she +made seneschal of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo +Sforza completely dominated her, and the turbulent barons wished to +provide her with a husband who would be strong enough to break her +favourites yet not make himself king. The choice fell on James of +Bourbon, a relative of the king of France, and the marriage took place +in 1415. But James at once declared himself king, had Alopo killed and +Sforza imprisoned, and kept his wife in a state of semi-confinement; +this led to a counter-agitation on the part of the barons, who forced +James to liberate Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit +the country. The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in +Rome, whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of +Ladislaus; Sforza entered the city and obliged the _condottiere_ Braccio +da Montone, who was defending it in the pope's name, to depart (1416). +But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as Martin V., he allied himself +with Joanna, who promised to give up Rome, while Sforza returned to +Naples. The latter found, however, that he had lost all influence with +the queen, who was completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni +(Sergianni) Caracciolo. Hoping to re-establish his position and crush +Caracciolo, Sforza favoured the pretensions of Louis III. of Anjou, who +wished to obtain the succession of Naples at Joanna's death, a course +which met with the approval of the pope. Joanna refused to adopt Louis +owing to the influence of Caracciolo, who hated Sforza; she appealed for +help instead to Alphonso of Aragon, promising to make him her heir. War +broke out between Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and +Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fighting by land +and sea, Alphonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace was made. But +dissensions broke out between the Aragonese and Catalans and the +Neapolitans, and Alphonso had Caracciolo arrested; whereupon Joanna, +fearing for her own safety, invoked the aid of Sforza, who with +difficulty carried her off to Aversa. There she was joined by Louis whom +she adopted as her successor instead of the ungrateful Alphonso. Sforza +was accidentally drowned, but when Alphonso returned to Spain, leaving +only a small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese +fleet recaptured the city. For a few years there was peace in the +kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the queen, was +seized and murdered by his enemies. Internal disorders broke out, and +Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto, led a revolt against Joanna in +Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while conducting a campaign against the +rebels (1434), and Joanna herself died on the 11th of February 1435, +after having appointed his son René her successor. Weak, foolish and +dissolute, she made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the +kingdom to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues and +her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy and foreign +invasions, destroying all sense of patriotism and loyalty both in the +barons and the people. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. von Platen, _Storia del reame di Napoli dal 1414 al + 1423_ (1864). C. Cipolla, _Storia, della signoria Italiana_ (1881), + where the original authorities are quoted. (See also NAPLES; SFORZA.) + + + + +JOASH, or JEHOASH (Heb. "Yahweh is strong, _or_ hath given"), the name +of two kings of Palestine in the Bible. + +1. Son of Ahaziah (see JEHORAM, 2) and king of Judah. He obtained the +throne by means of a revolt in which Athaliah (q.v.) perished, and his +accession was marked by a solemn covenant, and by the overthrow of the +temple of Baal and of its priest Mattan(-Baal). In this the priest +Jehoiada (who must have continued to act as regent) took the leading +part. The account of Joash's reign is not from a contemporary source (2 +Kings xi. 4-xii. 16), and 2 Chronicles adds several new details, +including a tradition of a conflict between the king and priests after +the death of Jehoiada (xxii. 11; xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.).[1] At an unstated +period, the Aramaeans under Hazael captured Gath, and Jerusalem only +escaped by buying off the enemy (2 Kings xii. 17 sqq.). This may perhaps +be associated with the Aramaean attacks upon Israel (2 below), but the +tradition recorded in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 seq. differs widely and cannot +be wholly rejected. The king perished in a conspiracy, the origin of +which is not clear; it may have been for his attack upon the priests, it +was scarcely for the course he took to save Jerusalem. He was succeeded +by his son Amaziah, whose moderation in avenging his father's death +receives special mention. After defeating the Edomites, Amaziah turned +his attention to Israel. + +2. Son of Jehoahaz and king of Israel. Like his grandfather Jehu, he +enjoyed the favour of the prophet Elisha, who promised him a triple +defeat of the Aramaeans at Aphek (2 Kings xiii. 14 sqq. 22-25). The +cities which had been taken from his father by Hazael the father of +Ben-hadad were recovered (cf. 1 Kings xx. 34, time of Ahab) and the +relief gained by Israel from the previous blows of Syria prepared the +way for its speedy extension of power. When challenged by Amaziah of +Judah, Joash uttered the famous fable of the thistle and cedar (for +another example see Judg. ix. 8-15; see also ABIMELECH), and a battle +was fought at Beth-shemesh, in which Israel was completely successful. +An obscure statement in 2 Chron. xxv. 13 would show that this was not +the only conflict; at all events, Amaziah was captured, the +fortifications of Jerusalem were partially destroyed, the treasures of +the Temple and palace were looted, and hostages were carried away to +Samaria. According to one statement, Amaziah survived the disaster +fifteen years, and lost his life in a conspiracy; but there is a gap in +the history of Judah which the narratives do not enable us to fill (1 +Kings xv. 1; see xiv. 17, 23). See further UZZIAH; JEROBOAM (2); and +JEWS. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] That the murder of Zechariah the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron. + _l.c._) is referred to in Matt. xxiii. 35, Luke xi. 51 is commonly + held; but see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 5373. + + + + +JOB. The book of Job (Heb. [Hebrew: Iyyob] _'Iyyob_, Gr. [Greek: Iôb]), +in the Bible, the most splendid creation of Hebrew poetry, is so called +from the name of the man whose history and afflictions and sayings form +the theme of it. + + _Contents._--As it now lies before us it consists of five parts. 1. + The prologue, in prose, chr. i.-ii., describes in rapid and dramatic + steps the history of this man, his prosperity and greatness + corresponding to his godliness; then how his life is drawn in under + the operation of the sifting providence of God, through the suspicion + suggested by the Satan, the minister of this aspect of God's + providence, that his godliness is selfish and only the natural return + for unexampled prosperity, and the insinuation that if stripped of his + prosperity he will curse God to His face. These suspicions bring down + two severe calamities on Job, one depriving him of children and + possessions alike, and the other throwing the man himself under a + painful malady. In spite of these afflictions Job retains his + integrity and ascribes no wrong to God. Then is described the advent + of Job's three friends--Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and + Zophar the Naamathite--who, having heard of Job's calamities, come to + condole with him. 2. The body of the book, in poetry, ch. iii.-xxxi., + contains a series of speeches in which the problem of Job's + afflictions and the relation of external evil to the righteousness of + God and the conduct of men are brilliantly discussed. This part, after + Job's passionate outburst in ch. iii., is divided into three cycles, + each containing six speeches, one by each of the friends, and three by + Job, one in reply to each of theirs (ch. iv.-xiv.; xv.-xxi.; + xxii.-xxxi.), although in the last cycle the third speaker Zophar + fails to answer (unless his answer is to be found in ch. xxvii.). Job, + having driven his opponents from the field, carries his reply through + a series of discourses in which he dwells in pathetic words upon his + early prosperity, contrasting with it his present humiliation, and + ends with a solemn repudiation of all the offences that might be + suggested against him, and a challenge to God to appear and put His + hand to the charge which He had against him and for which He afflicted + him. 3. Elihu, the representative of a younger generation, who has + been a silent observer of the debate, intervenes to express his + dissatisfaction with the manner in which both Job and his friends + conducted the cause, and offers what is in some respects a new + solution of the question (xxxii.-xxxvii.). 4. In answer to Job's + repeated demands that God would appear and solve the riddle of his + life, the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind. The divine speaker + does not condescend to refer to Job's individual problem, but in a + series of ironical interrogations asks him, as he thinks himself + capable of fathoming all things, to expound the mysteries of the + origin and subsistence of the world, the phenomena of the atmosphere, + the instincts of the creatures that inhabit the desert, and, as he + judges God's conduct of the world amiss, invites him to seize the + reins, gird himself with the thunder and quell the rebellious forces + of evil in the universe (xxxviii.-xlii. 6). Job is humbled and + abashed, lays his hand upon his mouth, and repents his hasty words in + dust and ashes. No solution of his problem is vouchsafed; but God + Himself effects that which neither the man's own thoughts of God nor + the representations of the friends could accomplish: he had heard of + him with the hearing of the ear without effect, but now his eye sees + Him. This is the profoundest religious deep in the book. 5. The + epilogue, in prose, xlii. 7-17, describes Job's restoration to a + prosperity double that of his former estate, his family felicity and + long life. + +_Design._--With the exception of the episode of Elihu, the connexion of +which with the original form of the poem may be doubtful, all five parts +of the book are essential elements of the work as it came from the hand +of the first author, although some parts of the second and fourth +divisions may have been expanded by later writers. The idea of the +composition is to be derived not from any single element of the book, +but from the teaching and movement of the whole piece. Job is +unquestionably the hero of the work, and in his ideas and his history +combined we may assume that we find the author himself speaking and +teaching. The discussion between Job and his friends of the problem of +suffering occupies two-thirds of the book, or, if the space occupied by +Elihu be not considered, nearly three-fourths, and in the direction +which the author causes this discussion to take we may see revealed the +main didactic purpose of the book. When the three friends, the +representatives of former theories of providence, are reduced to +silence, we may be certain that it was the author's purpose to discredit +the ideas which they represent. Job himself offers no positive +contribution to the doctrine of evil; his position is negative, merely +antagonistic to that of the friends. But this negative position +victoriously maintained by him has the effect of clearing the ground, +and the author himself supplies in the prologue the positive truth, when +he communicates the real explanation of his hero's calamities, and +teaches that they were a trial of his righteousness. It was therefore +the author's main purpose in his work to widen men's views of the +providence of God and set before them a new view of suffering. This +purpose, however, was in all probability subordinate to some wider +practical design. No Hebrew writer is merely a poet or a thinker. He is +always a teacher. He has men before him in their relations to God,[1] +and usually not men in their individual relations, but members of the +family of Israel, the people of God. It is consequently scarcely to be +doubted that the book has a national scope. The author considered his +new truth regarding the meaning of affliction as of national interest, +and as the truth then needful for the heart of his people. But the +teaching of the book is only half its contents. It contains also a +history--deep and inexplicable affliction, a great moral struggle, and a +victory. The author meant his new truth to inspire new conduct, new +faith, and new hopes. In Job's sufferings, undeserved and inexplicable +to him, yet capable of an explanation most consistent with the goodness +and faithfulness of God, and casting honour upon his faithful servants; +in his despair bordering on unbelief, at last overcome; and in the happy +issue of his afflictions--in all this Israel may see itself, and from +the sight take courage, and forecast its own history. Job, however, is +not to be considered Israel, the righteous servant of the Lord, under a +feigned name; he is no mere parable (though such a view is found as +early as the Talmud); he and his history have both elements of reality +in them. It is these elements of reality common to him with Israel in +affliction, common even to him with humanity as a whole, confined within +the straitened limits set by its own ignorance, wounded to death by the +mysterious sorrows of life, tortured by the uncertainty whether its cry +finds an entrance into God's ear, alarmed and paralysed by the +irreconcilable discrepancies which it seems to discover between its +necessary thoughts of Him and its experience of Him in His providence, +and faint with longing that it might come into His place, and behold +him, not girt with His majesty, but in human form, as one looketh upon +his fellow--it is these elements of truth that make the history of Job +instructive to Israel in the times of affliction when it was set before +them, and to men of all races in all ages. It would probably be a +mistake, however, to imagine that the author consciously stepped outside +the limits of his nation and assumed a human position antagonistic to +it. The chords he touches vibrate through all humanity--but this is +because Israel is the religious kernel of humanity, and because from +Israel's heart the deepest religious music of mankind is heard, whether +of pathos or of joy. + + Two threads requiring to be followed, therefore, run through the + book--one the discussion of the problem of evil between Job and his + friends, and the other the varying attitude of Job's mind towards God, + the first being subordinate to the second. Both Job and his friends + advance to the discussion of his sufferings and of the problem of + evil, ignorant of the true cause of his calamities--Job strong in his + sense of innocence, and the friends armed with their theory of the + righteousness of God, who giveth to every man according to his works. + With fine psychological instinct the poet lets Job altogether lose his + self-control first when his three friends came to visit him. His + bereavements and his malady he bore with a steady courage, and his + wife's direct instigations to godlessness he repelled with severity + and resignation. But when his equals and the old associates of his + happiness came to see him, and when he read in their looks and in + their seven days' silence the depth of his own misery, his + self-command deserted him, and he broke out into a cry of despair, + cursing his day and crying for death (iii.). Job had somewhat + misinterpreted the demeanour of his friends. It was not all pity that + it expressed. Along with their pity they had also brought their + theology, and they trusted to heal Job's malady with this. Till a few + days before, Job would have agreed with them on the sovereign virtues + of this remedy. But he had learned through a higher teaching, the + events of God's providence, that it was no longer a specific in his + case. His violent impatience, however, under his afflictions and his + covert attacks upon the divine rectitude only served to confirm the + view of his sufferings which their theory of evil had already + suggested to his friends. And thus commences the high debate which + continues through twenty-nine chapters. + + The three friends of Job came to the consideration of his history with + the principle that calamity is the result of evil-doing, as prosperity + is the reward of righteousness. Suffering is not an accident or a + spontaneous growth of the soil; man is born unto trouble as the sparks + fly upwards; there is in human life a tendency to do evil which draws + down upon men the chastisement of God (v. 6). The principle is thus + enunciated by Eliphaz, from whom the other speakers take their cue: + where there is suffering there has been sin in the sufferer. Not + suffering in itself, but the effect of it on the sufferer is what + gives insight into his true character. Suffering is not always + punitive; it is sometimes disciplinary, designed to wean the good man + from his sin. If he sees in his suffering the monition of God and + turns from his evil, his future shall be rich in peace and happiness, + and his latter estate more prosperous than his first. If he murmurs or + resists, he can only perish under the multiplying chastisements which + his impenitence will provoke. Now this principle is far from being a + peculiar crotchet of the friends; its truth is undeniable, though they + erred in supposing that it would cover the wide providence of God. The + principle is the fundamental idea of moral government, the expression + of the natural conscience, a principle common more or less to all + peoples, though perhaps more prominent in the Semitic mind, because + all religious ideas are more prominent and simple there--not suggested + to Israel first by the law, but found and adopted by the law, though + it may be sharpened by it. It is the fundamental principle of prophecy + no less than of the law, and, if possible, of the wisdom of philosophy + of the Hebrews more than of either. Speculation among the Hebrews had + a simpler task before it than it had in the West or in the farther + East. The Greek philosopher began his operations upon the sum of + things; he threw the universe into his crucible at once. His object + was to effect some analysis of it, so that he could call one element + cause and another effect. Or, to vary the figure, his endeavour was to + pursue the streams of tendency which he could observe till he reached + at last the central spring which sent them all forth. God, a single + cause and explanation, was the object of his search. But to the Hebrew + of the later time this was already found. The analysis resulting in + the distinction of God and the world had been effected for him so long + ago that the history and circumstances of the process had been + forgotten, and only the unchallengeable result remained. His + philosophy was not a quest of God whom he did not know, but a + recognition on all hands of God whom he knew. The great primary idea + to his mind was that of God, a Being wholly just, doing all. And the + world was little more than the phenomena that revealed the mind and + the presence and the operations of God. Consequently the nature of God + as known to him and the course of events formed a perfect equation. + The idea of what God was in Himself was in complete harmony with His + manifestation of Himself in providence, in the events of individual + human lives, and in the history of nations. The philosophy of the wise + did not go behind the origin of sin, or referred it to the freedom of + man; but, sin existing, and God being in immediate personal contact + with the world, every event was a direct expression of His moral will + and energy; calamity fell on wickedness, and success attended + right-doing. This view of the moral harmony between the nature of God + and the events of providence in the fortunes of men and nations is the + view of the Hebrew wisdom in its oldest form, during what might be + called the period of principles, to which belong Prov. x. seq.; and + this is the position maintained by Job's three friends. And the + significance of the book of Job in the history of Hebrew thought + arises in that it marks the point when such a view was definitely + overcome, closing the long period when this principle was merely + subjected to questionings, and makes a new positive addition to the + doctrine of evil. + + Job agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God, and + also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins. But his + conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinuated by his + friends or implied in God's chastisement of him. Hence he was driven + to conclude that God was unjust. The position of Job appeared to his + friends nothing else but impiety; while theirs was to him mere + falsehood and the special pleading of sycophants on behalf of God + because He was the stronger. Within these two iron walls the debate + moves, making little progress, but with much brilliancy, if not of + argument, of illustration. A certain advance indeed is perceptible. In + the first series of speeches (iv.-xiv.), the key-note of which is + struck by Eliphaz, the oldest and most considerate of the three, the + position is that affliction is caused by sin, and is chastisement + designed for the sinner's good; and the moral is that Job should + recognize it and use it for the purpose for which it was sent. In the + second (xv.-xxi.) the terrible fate of the sinner is emphasized, and + those brilliant pictures of a restored future, thrown in by all the + speakers in the first series, are absent. Job's demeanour under the + consolations offered him afforded little hope of his repentance. In + the third series (xxii. seq.) the friends cast off all disguise, and + openly charge Job with a course of evil life. That their armoury was + now exhausted is shown by the brevity of the second speaker, and the + failure of the third (at least in the present text) to answer in any + form. In reply Job disdains for a time to touch what he well knew lay + under all their exhortations; he laments with touching pathos the + defection of his friends, who were like the winter torrents looked for + in vain by the perishing caravan in the summer heat; he meets with + bitter scorn their constant cry that God will not cast off the + righteous man, by asking: How can one be righteous with God? what can + human weakness, however innocent, do against infinite might and + subtlety? they are righteous whom an omnipotent and perverse will + thinks fit to consider so; he falls into a hopeless wail over the + universal misery of man, who has a weary campaign of life appointed + him; then, rising up in the strength of his conscience, he upbraids + the Almighty with His misuse of His power and His indiscriminate + tyranny--righteous and innocent He destroys alike--and challenges Him + to lay aside His majesty and meet His creature as a man, and then he + would not fear Him. Even in the second series Job can hardly bring + himself to face the personal issue raised by the friends. His + relations to God absorb him almost wholly--his pitiable isolation, the + indignities showered on his once honoured head, the loathsome + spectacle of his body; abandoned by all, he turns for pity from God to + men and from men to God. Only in the third series of debates does he + put out his hand and grasp firmly the theory of his friends, and their + "defences of mud" fall to dust in his hands. Instead of that roseate + moral order on which they are never weary of insisting, he finds only + disorder and moral confusion. When he thinks of it, trembling takes + hold of him. It is not the righteous but the wicked that live, grow + old, yea, wax mighty in strength, that send forth their children like + a flock and establish them in their sight. Before the logic of facts + the theory of the friends goes down; and with this negative result, + which the author skilfully reaches through the debate, has to be + combined his own positive doctrine of the uses of adversity advanced + in the prologue. + + To a modern reader it appears strange that both parties were so + entangled in the meshes of their preconceptions regarding God as to be + unable to break through the broader views. The friends, while + maintaining that injustice on the part of God is inconceivable, might + have given due weight to the persistent testimony of Job's conscience + as that behind which it is impossible to go, and found refuge in the + reflection that there might be something inexplicable in the ways of + God, and that affliction might have some other meaning than to punish + the sinner or even to wean him from his sin. And Job, while + maintaining his innocence from overt sins, might have confessed that + there was such sinfulness in every human life as was sufficient to + account for the severest chastisement from heaven, or at least he + might have stopped short of charging God foolishly. Such a position + would certainly be taken up by an afflicted saint now, and such an + explanation of his sufferings would suggest itself to the sufferer, + even though it might be in truth a false explanation. Perhaps here, + where an artistic fault might seem to be committed, the art of the + writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary freedom with + which he moves among his materials, as well as the power and + individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remarkable. The rôle + which the author reserved for himself was to teach the truth on the + question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by allowing his + performers to push their false principles to their proper extreme. + There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as the character + of God. They are ever ready to take Him in their own hand, to + interpret His providence in their own sense, to say what things are + consistent or not with His character and word, and beat down the + opposing consciences of other men by His so-called authority, which is + nothing but their own. The friends of Job were religious Orientals, + men to whom God was a being in immediate contact with the world and + life, to whom the idea of second causes was unknown, on whom science + had not yet begun to dawn, nor the conception of a divine scheme + pursuing a distant end by complicated means, in which the individual's + interest may suffer for the larger good. The broad sympathies of the + author and his sense of the truth lying in the theory of the friends + are seen in the scope which he allows them, in the richness of the + thought and the splendid luxuriance of the imagery--drawn from the + immemorial moral consent of mankind, the testimony of the living + conscience, and the observation of life--with which he makes them + clothe their views. He remembered the elements of truth in the theory + from which he was departing, that it was a national heritage, which he + himself perhaps had been constrained not without a struggle to + abandon; and, while showing its insufficiency, he sets it forth in its + most brilliant form. + + The extravagance of Job's assertions was occasioned greatly by the + extreme position of his friends, which left no room for his conscious + innocence along with the rectitude of God. Again, the poet's purpose, + as the prologue shows, was to teach that afflictions may fall on a man + out of all connexion with any offence of his own, and merely as the + trial of his righteousness; and hence he allows Job, as by a true + instinct of the nature of his sufferings, to repudiate all connexion + between them and sin in himself. And further, the terrible conflict + into which the suspicions of the Satan brought Job could not be + exhibited without pushing him to the verge of ungodliness. These are + all elements of the poet's art; but art and nature are one. In ancient + Hebrew life the sense of sin was less deep than it is now. In the + desert, too, men speak boldly of God. Nothing is more false than to + judge the poet's creation from our later point of view, and construct + a theory of the book according to a more developed sense of sin and a + deeper reverence for God than belonged to antiquity. In complete + contradiction to the testimony of the book itself, some critics, as + Hengstenberg and Budde, have assumed that Job's spiritual pride was + the cause of his afflictions, that this was the root of bitterness in + him which must be killed down ere he could become a true saint. The + fundamental position of the book is that Job was already a true saint; + this is testified by God Himself, is the radical idea of the author in + the prologue, and the very hypothesis of the drama. We might be ready + to think that Job's afflictions did not befall him out of all + connexion with his own condition of mind, and we might be disposed to + find a vindication of God's ways in this. There is no evidence that + such an idea was shared by the author of the book. It is remarkable + that the attitude which we imagine it would have been so easy for Job + to assume, namely, while holding fast his integrity, to fall back upon + the inexplicableness of providence, of which there are such imposing + descriptions in his speeches, is just the attitude which is taken up + in ch. xxviii. It is far from certain, however, that this chapter is + an integral part of the original book. + + The other line running through the book, the varying attitude of Job's + mind towards God, exhibits dramatic action and tragic interest of the + highest kind, though the movement is internal. That the exhibition of + this struggle in Job's mind was a main point in the author's purpose + is seen from the fact that at the end of each of his great trials he + notes that Job sinned not, nor ascribed wrong to God (i. 22; ii. 10), + and from the effect which the divine voice from the whirlwind is made + to produce upon him (xl. 3). In the first cycle of debate (iv.-xiv.) + Job's mind reaches the deepest limit of estrangement. There he not + merely charges God with injustice, but, unable to reconcile His former + goodness with His present enmity, he regards the latter as the true + expression of God's attitude towards His creatures, and the former, + comprising all his infinite creative skill in weaving the delicate + organism of human nature and the rich endowments of His providence, + only as the means of exercising His mad and immoral cruelty in the + time to come. When the Semitic skin of Job is scratched, we find a + modern pessimist beneath. Others in later days have brought the keen + sensibility of the human frame and the torture which it endures + together, and asked with Job to whom at last all this has to be + referred. Towards the end of the cycle a star of heavenly light seems + to rise on the horizon; the thought seizes the sufferer's mind that + man might have another life, that God's anger pursuing him to the + grave might be sated, and that He might call him out of it to Himself + again (xiv. 13). This idea of a resurrection, unfamiliar to Job at + first, is one which he is allowed to reach out of the necessities of + the moral complications around him, but from the author's manner of + using the idea we may judge that it was familiar to himself. In the + second cycle the thought of a future reconciliation with God is more + firmly grasped. That satisfaction or at least composure which, when we + observe calamities that we cannot morally account for, we reach by + considering that providence is a great scheme moving according to + general laws, and that it does not always truly reflect the relation + of God to the individual, Job reached in the only way possible to a + Semitic mind. He drew a distinction between an outer God whom events + obey, pursuing him in His anger, and an inner God whose heart was with + him, who was aware of his innocence; and he appeals from God to God, + and beseeches God to pledge Himself that he shall receive justice from + God (xvi. 19; xvii. 3). And so high at last does this consciousness + that God is at one with him rise that he avows his assurance that He + will yet appear to do him justice before men, and that he shall see + Him with his own eyes, no more estranged but on his side, and for this + moment he faints with longing (xix. 25 seq.).[2] + + After this expression of faith Job's mind remains calm, though he ends + by firmly charging God with perverting his right, and demanding to + know the cause of his afflictions (xxvii. 2 seq.; xxxi. 35, where + render: "Oh, that I had the indictment which mine adversary has + written!"). In answer to this demand the Divine voice answers Job out + of the tempest: "Who is this that darkeneth counsel by words without + knowledge?" The word "counsel" intimates to Job that God does not act + without a design, large and beyond the comprehension of man; and to + impress this is the purpose of the Divine speeches. The speaker does + not enter into Job's particular cause; there is not a word tending to + unravel his riddle; his mind is drawn away to the wisdom and majesty + of God Himself. His own words and those of his friends are but + re-echoed, but it is God Himself who now utters them. Job is in + immediate nearness to the majesty of heaven, wise, unfathomable, + ironical over the littleness of man, and he is abased; God Himself + effects what neither the man's own thoughts of God nor the + representations of his friends could accomplish, though by the same + means. The religious insight of the writer sounds here the profoundest + deeps of truth. + +_Integrity._--Doubts whether particular portions of the present book +belonged to the original form of it have been raised by many. M. L. De +Wette expressed himself as follows: "It appears to us that the present +book of Job has not all flowed from one pen. As many books of the Old +Testament have been several times written over, so has this also" (Ersch +and Gruber, _Ency._, sect. ii. vol. viii.). The judgment formed by De +Wette has been adhered to more or less by most of those who have studied +the book. Questions regarding the unity of such books as this are +difficult to settle; there is not unanimity among scholars regarding the +idea of the book, and consequently they differ as to what parts are in +harmony or conflict with unity; and it is dangerous to apply modern +ideas of literary composition and artistic unity to the works of +antiquity and of the East. The problem raised in the book of Job has +certainly received frequent treatment in the Old Testament; and there is +no likelihood that all efforts in this direction have been preserved to +us. It is probable that the book of Job was but a great effort amidst or +after many smaller. It is scarcely to be supposed that one with such +poetic and literary power as the author of chap. iii-xxxi., +xxxviii.-xli. would embody the work of any other writer in his own. If +there be elements in the book which must be pronounced foreign, they +have been inserted in the work of the author by a later hand. It is not +unlikely that our present book may, in addition to the great work of the +original author, contain some fragments of the thoughts of other +religious minds upon the same question, and that these, instead of being +loosely appended, have been fitted into the mechanism of the first work. +Some of these fragments may have originated at first quite independently +of our book, while others may be expansions and insertions that never +existed separately. At the same time it is scarcely safe to throw out +any portion of the book merely because it seems to us out of harmony +with the unity of the main part of the poem, or unless several distinct +lines of consideration conspire to point it out as an extraneous +element. + + The arguments against the originality of the prologue--as, that it is + written in prose, that the name Yahweh appears in it, that sacrifice + is referred to, and that there are inconsistencies between it and the + body of the book--are of little weight. There must have been some + introduction to the poem explaining the circumstances of Job, + otherwise the poetical dispute would have been unintelligible, for it + is improbable that the story of Job was so familiar that a poem in + which he and his friends figured as they do here would have been + understood. And there is no trace of any other prologue or + introduction having ever existed. The prologue, too, is an essential + element of the work, containing the author's positive contribution to + the doctrine of suffering, for which the discussion in the poem + prepares the way. The intermixture of prose and poetry is common in + Oriental works containing similar discussions; the reference to + sacrifice is to primitive not to Mosaic sacrifice; and the author, + while using the name Yahweh freely himself, puts the patriarchal + Divine names into the mouth of Job and his friends because he regards + them as belonging to the patriarchal age and to a country outside of + Israel. That the observance of this rule had a certain awkwardness for + the writer appears perhaps from his allowing the name Yahweh to slip + in once or twice (xii. 9, cf. xxviii. 28) in familiar phrases in the + body of the poem. The discrepancies, such as Job's references to his + children as still alive (xix. 17, the interpretation is doubtful), and + to his servants, are trivial, and even if real imply nothing in a book + admittedly poetical and not historical. The objections to the epilogue + are equally unimportant--as that the Satan is not mentioned in it, and + that Job's restoration is in conflict with the main idea of the + poem--that earthly felicity does not follow righteousness. The + epilogue confirms the teaching of the poem when it gives the divine + sanction to Job's doctrine regarding God in opposition to that of the + friends (xlii. 7). And it is certainly not the intention of the poem + to teach that earthly felicity does not follow righteousness; its + purpose is to correct the exclusiveness with which the friends of Job + maintained that principle. The Satan is introduced in the prologue, + exercising his function as minister of God in heaven; but it is to + misinterpret wholly the doctrine of evil in the Old Testament to + assign to the Satan any such personal importance or independence of + power as that he should be called before the curtain to receive the + hisses that accompany his own discomfiture. The Satan, though he here + appears with the beginnings of a malevolent will of his own, is but + the instrument of the sifting providence of God. His work was to try; + that done he disappears, his personality being too slight to have any + place in the result. + + Much graver are the suspicions that attach to the speeches of Elihu. + Most of those who have studied the book carefully hold that this part + does not belong to the original cast, but has been introduced at a + considerably later time. The piece is one of the most interesting + parts of the book; both the person and the thoughts of Elihu are + marked by a strong individuality. This individuality has indeed been + very diversely estimated. The ancients for the most part passed a very + severe judgment on Elihu: he is a buffoon, a boastful youth whose + shallow intermeddling is only to be explained by the fewness of his + years, the incarnation of folly, or even the Satan himself gone + a-mumming. Some moderns on the other hand have regarded him as the + incarnation of the voice of God or even of God himself. The main + objections to the connexion of the episode of Elihu with the original + book are: that the prologue and epilogue know nothing of him; that on + the cause of Job's afflictions he occupies virtually the same position + as the friends; that his speeches destroy the dramatic effect of the + divine manifestation by introducing a lengthened break between Job's + challenge and the answer of God; that the language and style of the + piece are marked by an excessive mannerism, too great to have been + created by the author of the rest of the poem; that the allusions to + the rest of the book are so minute as to betray a reader rather than a + hearer; and that the views regarding sin, and especially the scandal + given to the author by the irreverence of Job, indicate a religious + advance which marks a later age. The position taken by Elihu is almost + that of a critic of the book. Regarding the origin of afflictions he + is at one with the friends, although he dwells more on the general + sinfulness of man than on actual sins, and his reprobation of Job's + position is even greater than theirs. His anger was kindled against + Job because he made himself righteous before God, and against his + friends because they found no answer to Job. His whole object is to + refute Job's charge of injustice against God. What is novel in Elihu, + therefore, is not his position but his arguments. These do not lack + cogency, but betray a kind of thought different from that of the + friends. Injustice in God, he argues, can only arise from selfishness + in Him; but the very existence of creation implies unselfish love on + God's part, for if He thought only of Himself, He would cease actively + to uphold creation, and it would fall into death. Again, without + justice mere earthly rule is impossible; how then is injustice + conceivable in Him who rules over all? It is probable that the + original author found his three interlocutors a sufficient medium for + expression, and that this new speaker is the creation of another. To a + devout and thoughtful reader of the original book, belonging perhaps + to a more reverential age, it appeared that the language and bearing + of Job had scarcely been sufficiently reprobated by the original + speakers, and that the religious reason, apart from any theophany, + could suggest arguments sufficient to condemn such demeanour on the + part of any man. (For an able though hardly convincing argument for + the originality of the discourses of Elihu see Budde's _Commentary_.) + + It is more difficult to come to a decision in regard to some other + portions of the book, particularly ch. xxvii. 7-xxviii. In the latter + part of ch. xxvii. Job seems to go over to the camp of his opponents, + and expresses sentiments in complete contradiction to his former + views. Hence some have thought the passage to be the missing speech of + Zophar. Others, as Hitzig, believe that Job is parodying the ideas of + the friends; while others, like Ewald, consider that he is recanting + his former excesses, and making such a modification as to express + correctly his views on evil. None of these opinions is quite + satisfactory, though the last probably expresses the view with which + the passage was introduced, whether it be original or not. The meaning + of ch. xxviii. can only be that "Wisdom," that is, a theoretical + comprehension of providence, is unattainable by man, whose only wisdom + is the fear of the Lord or practical piety. But to bring Job to the + feeling of this truth was just the purpose of the theophany and the + divine speeches; and, if Job had reached it already through his own + reflection, the theophany becomes an irrelevancy. It is difficult, + therefore, to find a place for these two chapters in the original + work. The hymn on Wisdom is a most exquisite poem, which probably + originated separately, and was brought into our book with a purpose + similar to that which suggested the speeches of Elihu. Objections have + also been raised to the descriptions of leviathan and behemoth (ch. + xl. 15-xli.). Regarding these it may be enough to say that in meaning + these passages are in perfect harmony with other parts of the Divine + words, although there is a breadth and detail in the style unlike the + sharp, short, ironical touches otherwise characteristic of this part + of the poem. (Other longer passages, the originality of which has been + called into question, are: xvii. 8 seq.; xxi. 16-18; xxii. 17 seq.; + xxiii. 8 seq.; xxiv. 9, 18-24; xxvi. 5-14. On these see the + commentaries.) + +_Date._--The age of such a book as Job, dealing only with principles +and having no direct references to historical events can be fixed only +approximately. Any conclusion can be reached only by an induction +founded on matters which do not afford perfect certainty, such as the +comparative development of certain moral ideas in different ages, the +pressing claims of certain problems for solution at particular epochs +of the history of Israel, and points of contact with other writings of +which the age may with some certainty be determined. The Jewish +tradition that the book is Mosaic, and the idea that it is a production +of the desert, written in another tongue and translated into Hebrew, +want even a shadow of probability. The book is a genuine outcome of the +religious life and thought of Israel, the product of a religious +knowledge and experience that were possible among no other people. That +the author lays the scene of the poem outside his own nation and in the +patriarchal age is a proceeding common to him with other dramatic +writers, who find freer play for their principles in a region removed +from the present, where they are not hampered by the obtrusive forms of +actual life, but are free to mould occurrences into the moral form that +their ideas require. + +It is the opinion of some scholars, e.g. Delitzsch, that the book +belongs to the age of Solomon. It cannot be earlier than this age, for +Job (vii. 17) travesties the ideas of Ps. viii. in a manner which shows +that this hymn was well known. To infer the date from a comparison of +literary coincidences and allusions is however a very delicate +operation. For, first, owing to the unity of thought and language which +pervades the Old Testament, in which, regarded merely as a national +literature, it differs from all other national literatures, we are apt +to be deceived, and to take mere similarities for literary allusions and +quotations; and, secondly, even when we are sure that there is +dependence, it is often uncommonly difficult to decide which is the +original source. The reference to Job in Ezek. xiv. 14 is not to our +book, but to the man (a legendary figure) who was afterwards made the +hero of it. The affinities on the other hand between Job and Isa. +xl.-lv. are very close. The date, however, of this part of Isaiah is +uncertain, though it cannot have received its final form, if it be +composite, long before the return. Between Job iii. and Jer. xx. 14 seq. +there is, again, certainly literary connexion. But the judgment of +different minds differs on the question which passage is dependent on +the other. The language of Jeremiah, however, has a natural pathos and +genuineness of feeling in it, somewhat in contrast with the elaborate +poetical finish of Job's words, which might suggest the originality of +the former. + +The tendency among recent scholars is to put the book of Job not earlier +than the 5th century B.C. There are good reasons for putting it in the +4th century. It stands at the beginning of the era of Jewish +philosophical inquiry--its affinities are with Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, +Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of Solomon, a body of writings that belongs +to the latest period of pre-Christian Jewish literary development (see +WISDOM LITERATURE). Its points of connexion with Isa. xl.-lv. relate +only to the problem of the suffering of the righteous, and that it is +later than the Isaiah passage appears from the fact that this latter is +national and ritual in scope, while Job is universal and ethical. + +The book of Job is not literal history, though it reposes on historical +tradition. To this tradition belong probably the name of Job and his +country, and the names of his three friends, and perhaps also many other +details impossible to specify particularly. The view that the book is +entirely a literary creation with no basis in historical tradition is as +old as the Talmud (_Baba Bathra_, xv. 1), in which a rabbi is cited who +says: Job was not, and was not created, but is an allegory. This view is +supported by Hengstenberg and others. But pure poetical creations on so +extensive a scale are not probable in the East and at so early an age. + +_Author._--The author of the book is wholly unknown. The religious life +of Israel was at certain periods very intense, and at those times the +spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself almost impersonally, +through men who forgot themselves and were speedily forgotten in name by +others. Hitzig conjectures that the author was a native of the north on +account of the free criticism of providence which he allows himself. +Others, on account of some affinities with the prophet Amos, infer that +he belonged to the south of Judah, and this is supposed to account for +his intimate acquaintance with the desert. Ewald considers that he +belonged to the exile in Egypt, on account of his minute acquaintance +with that country. But all these conjectures localize an author whose +knowledge was not confined to any locality, who was a true child of the +East and familiar with life and nature in every country there, who was +at the same time a true Israelite and felt that the earth was the Lord's +and the fullness thereof, and whose sympathies and thought took in all +God's works. + + LITERATURE.--Commentaries by Ewald (1854); Renan (1859); Delitzsch + (1864); Zöckler in Lange's _Bibelwerk_ (1872); F. C. Cook in + _Speaker's Comm._ (1880); A. B. Davidson in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); + Dillmann (1891); K. Budde (1896); Duhm (1897). See also Hoekstra, "Job + de Knecht van Jehovah" in _Theol. Tijdschr._ (1871), and, in reply, A. + Kuenen, "Job en de leidende Knecht van Jahveh," ibid. (1873); C. H. H. + Wright in _Bib. Essays_ (1886); G. G. Bradley, _Lects. on Job_ (2nd + ed., 1888); Cheyne, _Job and Solomon_ (1887); Dawson, _Wisd. Lit._ + (1893); D. B. Macdonald, "The Original Form of the Legend of Job" in + _Journ. Bib. Lit._ (1895); E. Hatch, _Essays in Bib. Gk._ (1889); A. + Dillmann, in _Trans. of Roy. Pruss. Acad._ (1890). + (A. B. D., C. H. T.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Exceptions must be made in the cases of Esther and the Song of + Songs, which do not mention God, and the original writer in + Ecclesiastes who is a philosopher. + + [2] This remarkable passage reads thus: "_But I know that my redeemer + liveth, and afterwards he shall arise upon the dust, and after my + skin, even this body, is destroyed, without my flesh shall I see God; + whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not as a + stranger; my reins within me are consumed_ with longing." The + redeemer who liveth and shall arise or stand upon the earth is God + whom he shall see with his own eyes, on his side. The course of + exegesis was greatly influenced by the translation of Jerome, who, + departing from the Itala, rendered: "In novissimo die de terra + surrecturus sum ... et rursum circumdabor pelle mea et in carne mea + videbo deum meum." The only point now in question is whether: (a) Job + looks for this manifestation of God to him while he is still alive, + or (b) after death, and therefore in the sense of a spiritual vision + and union with God in another life; that is, whether the words + "destroyed" and "without my flesh" are to be taken relatively only, + of the extremest effects of his disease upon him, or literally, of + the separation of the body in death. A third view which assumes that + the words rendered "without my flesh," which run literally, "out of + my flesh," mean _looking_ out from my flesh, that is, clothed with a + new body, and finds the idea of resurrection repeated, perhaps + imports more into the language than it will fairly bear. In favour of + (b) may be adduced the persistent refusal of Job throughout to + entertain the idea of a restoration in this life: the word + "afterwards"; and perhaps the analogy of other passages where the + same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and lxxiii., although the actual + dénouement of the tragedy supports (a). The difference between the + two senses is not important, when the Old Testament view of + immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the life beyond was not what + it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and admission to an + immediate divine fellowship not attainable here. To him the life + beyond was at best a prolongation of the life here; all he desired + was that his fellowship with God here should not be interrupted in + death, and that Sheol, the place into which deceased persons + descended and where they remained, cut off from all life with God, + might be overleapt. On this account the theory of Ewald, which throws + the centre of gravity of the book into this passage in ch. xix., + considering its purpose to be to teach that the riddles of this life + shall be solved and its inequalities corrected in a future life, + appears one-sided. The point of the passage does not lie in any + distinction which it draws between this life and a future life; it + lies in the assurance which Job expresses that God, who even now + knows his innocence, will vindicate it in the future, and that, + though estranged now, He will at last take him to His heart. + + + + +JOBST, or JODOCUS (c. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia, was a son of John +Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, and grandson of John, the blind +king of Bohemia. He became margrave of Moravia on his father's death in +1375, and his clever and unscrupulous character enabled him to amass a +considerable amount of wealth, while his ambition led him into constant +quarrels with his brother Procop, his cousins, the German king +Wenceslaus and Sigismund, margrave of Brandenburg, and others. By taking +advantage of their difficulties he won considerable power, and the +record of his life is one of warfare and treachery, followed by broken +promises and transitory reconciliations. In 1385 and 1388 he purchased +Brandenburg from Sigismund, and the duchy of Luxemburg from Wenceslaus; +and in 1397 he also became possessed of upper and lower Lusatia. For +some time he had entertained hopes of the German throne and had +negotiated with Wenceslaus and others to this end. When, however, King +Rupert died in 1410 he maintained at first that there was no vacancy, as +Wenceslaus, who had been deposed in 1400, was still king; but changing +his attitude, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 1st of +October 1410 in opposition to Sigismund, who had been elected a few days +previously. Jobst however was never crowned, and his death on the 17th +of January 1411 prevented hostilities between the rival kings. + + See F. M. Pelzel, _Lebensgeschichte des römischen und böhmischen + Königs Wenceslaus_ (1788-1790); J. Heidemann, _Die Mark Brandenburg + unter Jobst von Mähren_ (1881); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte Kaiser + Sigmunds_ (1838-1845); F. Palacky, _Geschichte von Böhmen_, iii. + (1864-1874); and T. Lindner, _Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom + Ende des 14 Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation_, i. (1875-1880). + + + + +JOB'S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for _Coix Lachryma-Jobi_, a +species of grass, of the tribe _maydeae_, which also includes the maize +(see GRASSES). The seeds, or properly fruits, are contained singly in a +stony involucre or bract, which does not open until the enclosed seed +germinates. The young involucre surrounds the female flower and the +stalk supporting the spike of male flowers, and when ripe has the +appearance of bluish-white porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large +drop of fluid, the form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent, +but the involucres are the part chiefly used, for making necklaces and +other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now widely +spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in marshy places; and is +cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed value as a diuretic and +anti-phthisic. It was cultivated by John Gerard, author of the famous +_Herball_, at the end of the 16th century as a tender annual. + + + + +JOCASTA, or IOCASTA ([Greek: Iokastê]; in Homer, [Greek: Epikastê]), in +Greek legend, wife of Laïus, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus (q.v.), +daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon. According to Homer +(_Od._ xi. 271) and Sophocles (_Oed. Tyr._ 1241), on learning that +Oedipus was her son she immediately hanged herself; but in Euripides +(_Phoenissae_, 1455) she stabs herself over the bodies of her sons +Eteocles and Polynices, who had slain each other in single combat before +the walls of Thebes. + + + + +JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the current usage (see +HORSE-RACING). The word is by origin a diminutive of "Jock," the +Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the name "John" (cf. JACK). A +familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in "Jockey of +Norfolk" in Shakespeare's _Richard III._ v. 3, 304. In the 16th and 17th +centuries the word was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant +minstrels and vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a +cunning trickster, a "sharp," whence "to jockey," to outwit, or "do" a +person out of something. The current usage is found in John Evelyn's +_Diary_, 1670, when it was clearly well known. George Borrow's attempt +to derive the word from the gipsy _chukni_, a heavy whip used by +horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation. + + + + +JODELLE, ÉTIENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573), French dramatist and +poet, was born in Paris of a noble family. He attached himself to the +poetic circle of the Pléiade (see DAURAT) and proceeded to apply the +principles of the reformers to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at +creating a classical drama that should be in every respect different +from the moralities and _soties_ that then occupied the French stage. +His first play, _Cléopâtre captive_, was represented before the court at +Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title rôle, and the cast +included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Péruse. In honour of +the play's success the friends organized a little fête at Arcueil when a +goat garlanded with flowers was led in procession and presented to the +author--a ceremony exaggerated by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a +renewal of the pagan rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two +other plays. _Eugène_, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less +success than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle's +predecessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so very +different from theirs. _Didon se sacrifiant_, a tragedy which follows +Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented. Jodelle died +in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected the year after his +death by Charles de la Mothe. They include a quantity of miscellaneous +verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's youth. The intrinsic value of his +tragedies is small. _Cléopâtre_ is lyric rather than dramatic. +Throughout the five acts of the piece nothing actually happens. The +death of Antony is announced by his ghost in the first act; the story of +Cleopatra's suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each +act is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as the +inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on human pride. But +the play was the starting-point of French classical tragedy, and was +soon followed by the _Médée_ (1553) of Jean de la Péruse and the _Aman_ +(1561) of André de Rivaudeau. Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and +fond of dissipation. His friend Ronsard said that his published poems +gave no adequate idea of his powers. + + Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the _Pléiade française_ of + Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full information of + the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism is + reprinted in its entirety. + + + + +JODHPUR, or MARWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. +Area, 34,963 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935,565, showing a decrease of 23% in +the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; +tribute, £14,000. The general aspect of the country is that of a sandy +plain, divided into two unequal parts by the river Luni, and dotted with +picturesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 ft. +The river Luni is the principal feature in the physical aspects of +Jodhpur. One of its head-streams rises in the sacred lake of Pushkar in +Ajmere, and the main river flows through Jodhpur in a south-westerly +direction till it is finally lost in the marshy ground at the head of +the Runn of Cutch. It is fed by numerous tributaries and occasionally +overflows its banks, fine crops of wheat and barley being grown on the +saturated soil. Its water is, as a rule, saline or brackish, but +comparatively sweet water is obtained from wells sunk at a distance of +20 or 30 yds. from the river bank. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is +situated on the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller lakes of +the same description lie within the limits of the state, from which +large quantities of salt are extracted. Marble is mined in the north of +the state and along the south-east border. + +The population consists of Rathor Rajputs (who form the ruling class), +Brahmans, Charans, Bhats, Mahajans or traders, and Jats. The Charans, a +sacred race, hold large religious grants of land, and enjoy peculiar +immunities as traders in local produce. The Bhats are by profession +genealogists, but also engage in trade. Marwari traders are an +enterprising class to be found throughout the length and breadth of +India. + +The principal crops are millets and pulses, but wheat and barley are +largely produced in the fertile tract watered by the Luni river. The +manufactures comprise leather boxes and brass utensils; and turbans and +scarfs and a description of embroidered silk knotted thread are +specialities of the country. + +The Maharaja belongs to the Rathor clan of Rajputs. The family +chronicles relate that after the downfall of the Rathor dynasty of +Kanauj in 1194, Sivaji, the grandson of Jai Chand, the last king of +Kanauj, entered Marwar on a pilgrimage to Dwarka, and on halting at the +town of Pali he and his followers settled there to protect the Brahman +community from the constant raids of marauding bands. The Rathor chief +thus laid the foundation of the state, but it was not till the time of +Rao Chanda, the tenth in succession from Sivaji, that Marwar was +actually conquered. His grandson Jodha founded the city of Jodhpur, +which he made his capital. In 1561 the country was invaded by Akbar, and +the chief was forced to submit, and to send his son as a mark of homage +to take service under the Mogul emperor. When this son Udai Singh +succeeded to the chiefship, he gave his sister Jodhbai in marriage to +Akbar, and was rewarded by the restoration of most of his former +possessions. Udai Singh's son, Gaj Singh, held high service under Akbar, +and conducted successful expeditions in Gujarat and the Deccan. The +bigoted and intolerant Aurangzeb invaded Marwar in 1679, plundered +Jodhpur, sacked all the large towns, and commanded the conversion of the +Rathors to Mahommedanism. This cemented all the Rajput clans into a bond +of union, and a triple alliance was formed by the three states of +Jodhpur, Udaipur and Jaipur, to throw off the Mahommedan yoke. One of +the conditions of this alliance was that the chiefs of Jodhpur and +Jaipur should regain the privilege of marriage with the Udaipur family, +which they had forfeited by contracting alliances with the Mogul +emperors, on the understanding that the offspring of Udaipur princesses +should succeed to the state in preference to all other children. The +quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted through many generations, +and led to the invitation of Mahratta help from the rival aspirants to +power, and finally to the subjection of all the Rajput states to the +Mahrattas. Jodhpur was conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of +£60,000, and took from it the fort and town of Ajmere. Internecine +disputes and succession wars disturbed the peace of the early years of +the century, until in January 1818 Jodhpur was taken under British +protection. In 1839 the misgovernment of the raja led to an insurrection +which compelled the interference of the British. In 1843, the chief +having died without a son, and without having adopted an heir, the +nobles and state officials were left to select a successor from the +nearest of kin. Their choice fell upon Raja Takht Sinh, chief of +Ahmednagar. This chief, who did good service during the Mutiny, died in +1873. Maharaja Jaswant Singh, who died in 1896, was a very enlightened +ruler. His brother, Sir Pertab Singh (q.v.), conducted the +administration until his nephew, Sardar Singh, came of age in 1898. The +imperial service cavalry formed part of the reserve brigade during the +Tirah campaign. + +The state maintains a railway running to Bikanir, and there is also a +branch railway into Sind. Gold, silver and copper money is coined. The +state emblems are a _jhar_ or sprig of seven branches and a _khanda_ or +sword. Jodhpur practically escaped the plague, but it suffered more +severely than any other part of Rajputana from the famine of 1899-1900. +In February 1900 more than 110,000 persons were in receipt of famine +relief. + +The city of JODHPUR is 64 m. by rail N.W. of Marwar junction, on the +Rajputana railway. Pop. (1901), 60,437. It was built by Rao Jodha in +1459, and from that time has been the seat of government. It is +surrounded by a strong wall nearly 6 m. in extent, with seventy gates. +The fort, which stands on an isolated rock, contains the maharaja's +palace, a large and handsome building, completely covering the crest of +the hill on which it stands, and overlooking the city, which lies +several hundred feet below. The city contains palaces of the maharaja, +and town residences of the _thakurs_ or nobles, besides numerous fine +temples and tanks. Building stone is plentiful and close at hand, and +the architecture is solid and handsome. Three miles north of Jodhpur are +the ruins of Mandor, the site of the ancient capital of the Parihar +princes of Marwar, before its conquest by the Rathors. Mills for +grinding flour and crushing grain have been constructed for the imperial +service troops. The Jaswant college is affiliated to the B.A. standard +of the Allahabad university. To the Hewson hospital a wing for eye +diseases was added in 1898, and the Jaswant hospital for women is under +an English lady doctor. + + + + +JOEL. The second book among the minor prophets in the Bible is entitled +_The word of Yahweh that came to Joel the son of Pethuel_, or, as the +Septuagint, Latin, Syriac and other versions read, _Bethuel_. Nothing is +recorded as to the date or occasion of the prophecy. Most Hebrew +prophecies contain pointed references to the foreign politics and social +relations of the nation at the time. In the book of Joel there are only +scanty allusions to Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt and Edom, couched in +terms applicable to very different ages, while the prophet's own people +are exhorted to repentance without specific reference to any of those +national sins of which other prophets speak. The occasion of the +prophecy, described with great force of rhetoric, is no known historical +event, but a plague of locusts, perhaps repeated in successive seasons; +and even here there are features in the description which have led many +expositors to seek an allegorical interpretation. The most remarkable +part of the book is the eschatological picture with which it closes; and +the way in which the plague of locusts appears to be taken as +foreshadowing the final judgment--the great day or assize of Yahweh, in +which Israel's enemies are destroyed--is so unique as greatly to +complicate the exegetical problem. It is not therefore surprising that +the most various views are still held as to the date and meaning of the +book. Allegorists and literalists still contend over the first and still +more over the second chapter, and, while the largest number of recent +interpreters accept Credner's view that the prophecy was written in the +reign of Joash of Judah (835-796 B.C.?), a powerful school of critics +(including A. B. Davidson) follow the view suggested by Vatke (_Bib. +Theol._ p. 462 seq.), and reckon Joel among the post-exile prophets. +Other scholars give yet other dates: see the particulars in the +elaborate work of Merx. The followers of Credner are literalists; the +opposite school of moderns includes some literalists (as Duhm), while +others (like Hilgenfeld, and in a modified sense Merx) adopt the old +allegorical interpretation which treats the locusts as a figure for the +enemies of Jerusalem. + + There are cogent reasons for placing Joel either earlier or later than + the great series of prophets extending from the time when Amos first + proclaimed the approach of the Assyrian down to the Babylonian exile. + In Joel the enemies of Israel are the nations collectively, and among + those specified by name neither Assyria nor Chaldaea finds a place. + This circumstance might, if it stood alone, be explained by placing + Joel with Zephaniah in the brief interval between the decline of the + empire of Nineveh and the advance of the Babylonians. But it is + further obvious that Joel has no part in the internal struggle between + spiritual Yahweh-worship and idolatry which occupied all the prophets + from Amos to the captivity. He presupposes a nation of + Yahweh-worshippers, whose religion has its centre in the temple and + priesthood of Zion, which is indeed conscious of sin, and needs + forgiveness and an outpouring of the Spirit, but is not visibly + divided, as the kingdom of Judah was between the adherents of + spiritual prophecy and a party whose national worship of Yahweh + involved for them no fundamental separation from the surrounding + nations. The book, therefore, must have been written before the + ethico-spiritual and the popular conceptions of Yahweh came into + conscious antagonism, or else after the fall of the state and the + restoration of the community of Jerusalem to religious rather than + political existence had decided the contest in favour of the + prophets, and of the Law in which their teaching was ultimately + crystallized. + + The considerations which have given currency to an early date for Joel + are of various kinds. The absence of all mention of one great + oppressing world-power seems most natural before the westward march of + Assyria involved Israel in the general politics of Asia. The purity of + the style is also urged, and a comparison of Amos i. 2, Joel iii. 16 + (Heb. iv. 16), and Amos ix. 13, Joel iii. 18 (iv. 18), has been taken + as proving that Amos knew our book. The last argument might be + inverted with much greater probability, and numerous points of contact + between Joel and other parts of the Old Testament (e.g. Joel ii. 2, + Exod. x. 14; Joel ii. 3, Ezek. xxxvi. 35; Joel iii. 10, Mic. iv. 3) + make it not incredible that the purity of his style--which is rather + elegant than original and strongly marked--is in large measure the + fruit of literary culture. The absence of allusion to a hostile or + oppressing empire may be fairly taken in connexion with the fact that + the prophecy gives no indication of political life at Jerusalem. When + the whole people is mustered in ch. i., the elders or sheikhs of the + municipality and the priests of the temple are the most prominent + figures. The king is not mentioned--which on Credner's view is + explained by assuming that the plague fell in the minority of Joash, + when the priest Jehoiada held the reins of power--and the princes, + councillors and warriors necessary to an independent state, and so + often referred to by the prophets before the exile, are altogether + lacking. The nation has only a municipal organization with a priestly + aristocracy, precisely the state of things that prevailed under the + Persian empire. That the Persians do not appear as enemies of Yahweh + and his people is perfectly natural. They were hard masters but not + invaders, and under them the enemies of the Jews were their + neighbours, just as appears in Joel.[1] Those, however, who place our + prophet in the minority of King Joash draw a special argument from the + mention of Phoenicians, Philistines and Edomites (iii. 4 seq., 19), + pointing to the revolt of Edom under Joram (2 Kings viii. 20) and the + incursion of the Philistines in the same reign (2 Chron. xxi. 16, + xxii. 1). These were recent events in the time of Joash, and in like + manner the Phoenician slave trade in Jewish children is carried back + to an early date by the reference in Amos i. 9. This argument is + rather specious than sound. Edom's hostility to Judah was incessant, + but the feud reached its full intensity only after the time of + Deuteronomy (xxiii. 7), when the Edomites joined the Chaldaeans, drew + profit from the overthrow of the Jews, whose land they partly + occupied, and exercised barbarous cruelty towards the fugitives of + Jerusalem (Obad. _passim_; Mal. i. 2 seq.; Isa. lxiii.). The offence + of shedding innocent blood charged on them by Joel is natural after + these events, but hardly so in connexion with the revolt against + Joram. + + As regards the Philistines, it is impossible to lay much weight on the + statement of Chronicles, unsupported as it is by the older history, + and in Joel the Philistines plainly stand in one category with the + Phoenicians, as slave dealers, not as armed foes. Gaza in fact was a + slave emporium as early as the time of Amos (i. 6), and continued so + till Roman times. + + Thus, if any inference as to date can be drawn from ch. iii., it must + rest on special features of the trade in slaves, which was always an + important part of the commerce of the Levant. In the time of Amos the + slaves collected by Philistines and Tyrians were sold _en masse_ to + Edom, and presumably went to Egypt or Arabia. Joel complains that they + were sold to the Grecians (Javan, Ionians).[2] It is probable that + some Hebrew and Syrian slaves were exported to the Mediterranean + coasts from a very early date, and Isa. xi. 11 already speaks of + Israelites captive in these districts as well as in Egypt, Ethiopia + and the East. But the traffic in this direction hardly became + extensive till a later date. In Deut. xxviii. 68, Egypt is still the + chief goal of the maritime slave trade, and in Ezek. xxvii. 13 Javan + exports slaves to Tyre, not conversely. Thus the allusion to Javan in + Joel better suits a later date, when Syrian slaves were in special + request in Greece.[3] And the name of Javan is not found in any part + of the Old Testament certainly older than Ezekiel. In Joel it seems to + stand as a general representative of the distant countries reached by + the Mediterranean (in contrast with the southern Arabians, _Sabaeans_, + ch. iii. 8), the farthest nation reached by the fleets of the Red Sea. + This is precisely the geographical standpoint of the post-exile author + of Gen. x. 4, where (assuming that Elishah = Carthage and Tarshish = + Tartessus) Javan includes Carthage and Tartessus. + + Finally, the allusion to Egypt in Joel iii. 19 must on Credner's + theory be explained of the invasion of Shishak a century before + Joash. From this time down to the last period of the Hebrew monarchy + Egypt was not the enemy of Judah. + + If the arguments chiefly relied on for an early date are so precarious + or can even be turned against their inventors, there are others of an + unambiguous kind which make for a date in the Persian period. It + appears from ch. iii. 1, 2, that Joel wrote after the exile. The + phrase "to bring again the captivity" would not alone suffice to prove + this, for it is used in a wide sense, and perhaps means rather to + "reverse the calamity,"[4] but the dispersion of Israel among the + nations, and the allotment of the Holy Land to new occupants, cannot + fairly be referred to any calamity less than that of the captivity. + With this the whole standpoint of the prophecy agrees. To Joel Judah + and the people of Yahweh are synonyms; northern Israel has + disappeared. Now it is true that those who take their view of the + history from Chronicles, where the kingdom of Ephraim is always + treated as a sect outside the true religion, can reconcile this fact + with an early date. But in ancient times it was not so; and under + Joash, the contemporary of Elisha, such a limitation of the people of + Yahweh is wholly inconceivable. The earliest prophetic books have a + quite different standpoint; otherwise indeed the books of northern + prophets and historians could never have been admitted into the Jewish + canon. Again, the significant fact that there is no mention of a king + and princes, but only of sheikhs and priests, has a force not to be + invalidated by the ingenious reference of the book to the time of + Joash's minority and the supposed regency of Jehoiada.[5] And the + assumption that there was a period before the prophetic conflicts of + the 8th century B.C. when spiritual prophecy had unchallenged sway, + when there was no gross idolatry or superstition, when the priests of + Jerusalem, acting in accord with prophets like Joel, held the same + place as heads of a pure worship which they occupied after the exile + (cf. Ewald, _Propheten_, i. 89), is not consistent with history. It + rests on the old theory of the antiquity of the Levitical legislation, + so that in fact all who place that legislation later than Ezekiel are + agreed that the book of Joel is also late. In this connexion one point + deserves special notice. The religious significance of the plague of + drought and locusts is expressed in ch. i. 9 in the observation that + the daily meat and drink offering are cut off, and the token of new + blessing is the restoration of this service, ch. ii. 14. In other + words, the daily offering is the continual symbol of gracious + intercourse between Yahweh and his people and the main office of + religion. This conception, which finds its parallel in Dan. viii. 11, + xi. 31, xii. 11, is quite in accordance with the later law. But under + the monarchy the daily oblation was the king's private offering, and + not till Ezra's reformation did it become the affair of the community + and the central act of national worship (Neh. x. 33 seq.).[6] That + Joel wrote not only after the exile but after the work of Ezra and + Nehemiah may be viewed as confirmed by the allusions to the walls of + Jerusalem in ch. ii. 7, 9. Such is the historical basis which we seem + to be able to lay for the study of the exegetical problems of the + book. + +The style of Joel is clear (which hardly favours an early date), and his +language presents peculiarities which are evidences of a late origin. +But the structure of the book, the symbolism and the connexion of the +prophet's thoughts have given rise to much controversy. It seems safest +to start from the fact that the prophecy is divided into two well-marked +sections by ch. ii. 18, 19a. According to the Massoretic vocalization, +which is in harmony with the most ancient exegetical tradition as +contained in the LXX, these words are historical: "Then the Lord was +jealous,... and answered and said unto his people, Behold," &c. Such is +the natural meaning of the words as pointed. + +Thus the book falls into two parts. In the first the prophet speaks in +his own name, addressing himself to the people in a lively description +of a present calamity caused by a terrible plague of locusts which +threatens the entire destruction of the country, and appears to be the +vehicle of a final consuming judgment (the day of Yahweh). There is no +hope save in repentance and prayer; and in ch. ii. 12 the prophet, +speaking now for the first time in Yahweh's name, calls the people to a +solemn fast at the sanctuary, and invites the intercession of the +priests. The calamity is described in the strongest colours of Hebrew +hyperbole, and it seems arbitrary to seek too literal an interpretation +of details, e.g. to lay weight on the four names of locusts, or to take +ch. i. 20 of a conflagration produced by drought, when it appears from +ii. 3 that the ravages of the locusts themselves are compared to those +of fire. But when due allowance is made for Eastern rhetoric, there is +no occasion to seek in this section anything else than literal locusts. +Nay, the allegorical interpretation, which takes the locusts to be +hostile invaders, breaks through the laws of all reasonable writing; for +the poetical hyperbole which compares the invading swarms to an army +(ii. 4 seq.) would be inconceivably lame if a literal army was already +concealed under the figure of the locusts. Nor could the prophet so far +forget himself in his allegory as to speak of a victorious host as +entering the conquered city like a thief (ii. 9). The second part of the +book is Yahweh's answer to the people's prayer. The answer begins with a +promise of deliverance from famine, and of fruitful seasons compensating +for the ravages of the locusts. In the new prosperity of the land the +union of Yahweh and his people shall be sealed anew, and so the Lord +will proceed to pour down further and higher blessings. The aspiration +of Moses (Num. xi. 29) and the hope of earlier prophets (Isa. xxxii. 15, +lix. 21; Jer. xxxi. 33) shall be fully realized in the outpouring of the +Spirit on all the Jews and even upon their servants (Isa. lxi. 5 with +lvi. 6, 7); and then the great day of judgment, which had seemed to +overshadow Jerusalem in the now averted plague, shall draw near with +awful tokens of blood and fire and darkness. But the terrors of that day +are not for the Jews but for their enemies. The worshippers of Yahweh on +Zion shall be delivered (cf. Obad. v. 17, whose words Joel expressly +quotes in ch. ii. 32), and it is their heathen enemies, assembled before +Jerusalem to war against Yahweh, who shall be mowed down in the valley +of Jehoshaphat ("Yahweh judgeth") by no human arm, but by heavenly +warriors. Thus definitively freed from the profane foot of the stranger +(Isa. lii. 1), Jerusalem shall abide a holy city for ever. The fertility +of the land shall be such as was long ago predicted in Amos ix. 13, and +streams issuing from the Temple, as Ezekiel had described in his picture +of the restored Jerusalem (Ezek. xlvii.), shall fertilize the barren +Wadi of Acacias. Egypt and Edom, on the other hand, shall be desolate, +because they have shed the blood of Yahweh's innocents. Compare the +similar predictions against Edom, Isa. xxxiv. 9 seq. (Mal. i. 3), and +against Egypt, Isa. xix. 5 seq., Ezek. xxix. Joel's eschatological +picture appears indeed to be largely a combination of elements from +older unfulfilled prophecies. Its central feature, the assembling of the +nations to judgment, is already found in Zeph. iii. 8, and in Ezekiel's +prophecy concerning Gog and Magog, where the wonders of fire and blood +named in Joel ii. 30 are also mentioned (Ezek. xxxviii. 22). The other +physical features of the great day, the darkening of the lights of +heaven, are a standing figure of the prophets from Amos v. 6, viii. 9, +downwards. It is characteristic of the prophetic eschatology that images +suggested by one prophet are adopted by his successors, and gradually +become part of the permanent scenery of the last times; and it is a +proof of the late date of Joel that almost his whole picture is made up +of such features. In this respect there is a close parallelism, +extending to minor details, between Joel and the last chapters of +Zechariah. + +That Joel's delineation of the final deliverance and glory attaches +itself directly to the deliverance of the nation from a present calamity +is quite in the manner of the so-called prophetic perspective. But the +fact that the calamity which bulks so largely is natural and not +political is characteristic of the post-exile period. Other prophets of +the same age speak much of dearth and failure of crops, which in +Palestine then as now were aggravated by bad government, and were far +more serious to a small and isolated community than they could ever have +been to the old kingdom. It was indeed by no means impossible that +Jerusalem might have been altogether undone by the famine caused by the +locusts; and so the conception of these visitants as the destroying +army, executing Yahweh's final judgment, is really much more natural +than appears to us at first sight, and does not need to be explained +away by allegory. The chief argument relied upon by those who still find +allegory at least in ch. ii. is the expression _hassephoni_, "the +northerner"[7] [if this rendering is correct], in ii. 20. In view of the +other points of affinity between Joel and Ezekiel, this word inevitably +suggests Gog and Magog, and it is difficult to see how a swarm of +locusts could receive such a name, or if they came from the north could +perish, as the verse puts it, in the desert between the Mediterranean +and the Dead Sea. The verse remains a _crux interpretum_, and no +exegesis hitherto given can be deemed thoroughly satisfactory; but the +interpretation of the whole book must not be made to hinge on a single +word in a verse which might be altogether removed without affecting the +general course of the prophet's argument. + +The whole verse is perhaps the addition of an allegorizing glossator. +The prediction in _v._ 19, that the seasons shall henceforth be +fruitful, is given after Yahweh has shown his zeal and pity for Israel, +not of course by mere words, but by acts, as appears in verses 20, 21, +where the verbs are properly perfects recording that Yahweh hath already +done great things, and that vegetation has already revived. In other +words, the mercy already experienced in the removal of the plague is +taken as a pledge of future grace not to stop short till all God's old +promises are fulfilled. In this context v. 20 is out of place. Observe +also that in v. 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language of +chap. i. + + See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wünsche + (1872), Merx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history of + interpretation from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends the + Ethiopic text edited by Dillmann. Nowack and Marti should also be + consulted (see their respective series of commentaries); also G. A. + Smith, in _The Book of the Twelve Prophets_, vol. i. (1896), and S. R. + Driver, _Joel and Amos_ (1897). On the language of Joel, see + Holzinger, _Z. A. T. W._ (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the + most valuable is Pocock's (Oxford, 1691). Bochart's _Hierozoïcon_ may + also be consulted. (W. R. S.; T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the A.V. of ii. 17 it appears that subjection to a foreign + power is not a present fact but a thing feared. But the parallelism + and v. 19 justify the rendering in margin of R.V. "use a byword + against them." + + [2] The hypothesis of an Arabian Javan, applied to Joel iii. 6 by + Credner, Hitzig, and others, may be viewed as exploded (see Stade, + "Das Volk Javan," 1880, reprinted in his _Akad. Reden u. + Abhandlungen_, 1899, pp. 123-142). The question, however, has to be + re-examined; later interpreters, e.g. the LXX translators, may have + misunderstood. The text of the passages has to be critically treated + anew. See Cheyne, _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (on Gen. + x. 2). + + [3] Compare Movers, _Phönizisches Alterthum_, iii. i. 70 seq. + + [4] See Ewald on Jer. xlviii. 47, Kuenen, _Theol. Tijdschrift_ + (1873), p. 519; Schwally, _Z. A. T. W._, viii. 200, and Briggs on Ps. + xiv. 7. + + [5] Stade not unreasonably questions whether 2 Kings xii. 1-3 implies + the paramount political influence of Jehoiada. + + [6] See Wellhausen, _Geschichte Israels_, p. 78 seq.; _Prolegomena + zur Gesch. Israels_ (1883), p. 82 seq. + + [7] It has been suggested that _Saphon_, which is often rather + troublesome if rendered "the north," may be a weakened form of + _sib'on_, a current popular corruption of _shimo'n_ = Ishmael. In + Ezek. xxxviii. 15 it is distinctly said that Gog is to come from the + recesses of Saphon. "Meshech" and "Tubal" are no hindrance to this + view, if the names of the so-called "sons of Japheth" are critically + examined. For they, too, as well as Saphon, can be plausibly shown to + represent regions of North Arabia. See Cheyne, _Traditions and + Beliefs of Anc. Israel_, on Gen. x. 2-4. + + + + +JOEL, MANUEL (1826-1890), Jewish philosopher and preacher. After +teaching for several years at the Breslau rabbinical seminary, founded +by Z. Frankel, he became the successor of Abraham Geiger in the +rabbinate of Breslau. He made important contributions to the history of +the school of Aqiba (q.v.) as well as to the history of Jewish +philosophy, his essays on Ibn Gabirol and Maimonides being of permanent +worth. But his most influential work was connected with the relations +between Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed how +Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonides and how +Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to Hasdai Crescas. +These essays were collected in two volumes of _Beiträge zur Geschichte +der Philosophie_ (1876), while another two volumes of _Blicke in die +Religionsgeschichte_ (1880-1883) threw much light on the development of +religious thought in the early centuries of the Christian era. Equally +renowned were Joel's pulpit addresses. Though he was no orator, his +appeal to the reason was effective, and in their published form his +three volumes of _Predigten_ (issued posthumously) have found many +readers. (I. A.) + + + + +JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE (1846-1890), French politician, was +born at Troyes on the 16th of March 1846. He served in the Franco-German +War, was involved in the Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a +political exile. He attached himself to the "possibilist" group of the +socialist party, the section opposed to the root-and-branch measures of +Jules Guesde. He became a member of the municipal council of Paris in +1882, and vice-president in 1888-1889. Violently attacked by the +Boulangist organs, _L'Intransigeant_ and _La France_, he won a suit +against them for libel, and in 1889 he contested the 18th arrondissement +of Paris with General Boulanger, who obtained a majority of over 2000 +votes, but was declared ineligible. Joffrin was only admitted to the +Chamber after a heated discussion, and continued to be attacked by the +nationalists. He died in Paris on the 17th of September 1890. + + + + +JOGUES, ISAAC (1607-1646), French missionary in North America, was born +at Orleans on the 10th of January 1607. He entered the Society of Jesus +at Rouen in 1624, and in 1636 was ordained and sent, by his own wish, to +the Huron mission. In 1639 he went among the Tobacco Nation, and in 1641 +journeyed to Sault Sainte Marie, where he preached to the Algonquins. +Returning from an expedition to Three Rivers he was captured by Mohawks, +who tortured him and kept him as a slave until the summer of 1643, when, +aided by some Dutchmen, he escaped to the manor of Rensselaerwyck and +thence to New Amsterdam. After a brief visit to France, where he was +treated with high honour, he returned to the Mohawk country in May 1646 +and ratified a treaty between that tribe and the Canadian government. +Working among them as the founder of the Mission of the Martyrs, he +incurred their enmity, was tortured as a sorcerer, and finally killed at +Ossernenon, near Auriesville, N.Y. + + See Parkman, _The Jesuits in North America_ (1898). + + + + +JOHANAN BEN ZACCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary of the Apostles. He +was a disciple of Hillel (q.v.), and after the destruction of the Temple +of Jerusalem by Titus was the main instrument in the preservation of the +Jewish religion. During the last decades of the Temple Johanan was a +member of the Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the +Sadducees. He is also reported to have been head of a great school in +the capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace party, and +finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their revolt to its +inevitable sequel, Johanan had himself conveyed out of Jerusalem in a +coffin. In the Roman camp the rabbi was courteously received, and +Vespasian (whose future elevation to the imperial dignity Johanan, like +Josephus, is said to have foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he +desired. Johanan obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia +(Jabneh), which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically +exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see JEWS, § 40 ad +fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the Mishnah, was +the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia. Johanan solaced his disciples +on the fall of the Temple by the double thought that charity could +replace sacrifice, and that a life devoted to the religious law could +form a fitting continuation of the old theocratic state. "Johanan felt +the fall of his people more deeply than anyone else, but--and in this +lies his historical importance--he did more than any one else to prepare +the way for Israel to rise again" (Bacher). + + See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. xiii.; + Weiss, _Dor dor ve-doreshav_, ii. 36; Bacher, _Die Agada der + Tannaiten_, vol. i. ch. iii. (I. A.) + + + + +JOHANNESBURG, a city of the Transvaal and the centre of the Rand +gold-mining industry. It is the most populous city and the commercial +capital of South Africa. It is built on the southern slopes of the +Witwatersrand in 26° 11´ S. 28° 2´ E., at an elevation of 5764 ft. above +the sea. The distances by rail from Johannesburg to the following +seaports are: Lourenço Marques, 364 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East London, 659 +m.; Port Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, by rail, 46 +m. N. by E. + +The town lies immediately north of the central part of the main gold +reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west or north and +south. The chief open spaces are Market Square in the west and +Government Square in the south of the town. Park railway station lies +north of the business quarter, and farther north are the Wanderers' +athletic sports ground and Joubert's Park. The chief business streets, +such as Commissioner Street, Market Street, President Street and +Pritchard Street, run east and west. In these thoroughfares and in +several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the +mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels and shops, +the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings, while the survival +of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron buildings recalls the early +character of the town. + +_Chief Buildings, &c._--In the centre of Market Square are the market +buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph offices, a +handsome block of buildings with a façade 200 ft. long and a tower 106 +ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile long, is the largest in +South Africa. The offices of the Witwatersrand chamber of mines face the +market buildings. The stock exchange is in Marshall Square. The +telephone exchange is in the centre of the city, in Von Brandis Square. +The law courts are in the centre of Government Square. The Transvaal +university college is in Plein Square, a little south of Park station. +In the vicinity is St Mary's (Anglican) parish hall (1905-1907), the +first portion of a large building planned to take the place of "Old" St +Mary's Church, the "mother" church of the Rand, built in 1887. The chief +Jewish synagogue is in the same neighbourhood. In Kerk Street, on the +outskirts of central Johannesburg, is the Roman Catholic Church of the +Immaculate Conception, the headquarters of the vicar apostolic of the +Transvaal. North of Joubert's Park is the general hospital, and beyond, +near the crest of the hills, commanding the town and the road to +Pretoria, is a fort built by the Boer government and now used as a gaol. +On the hills, some 3 m. E.N.E. of the town, is the observatory, built in +1903. Johannesburg has several theatres and buildings adapted for public +meetings. There is a race-course 2 m. south of the town under the +control of the Johannesburg Turf Club. + +_The Suburbs._--North, east and west of the city proper are suburbs, +laid out on the same rectangular plan. The most fashionable are to the +east and north--Jeppestown, Belgravia, Doornfontein, the Berea, +Hillbrow, Parktown, Yeoville and Bellevue. Braamfontein (with a large +cemetery) lies north-west and Fordsburg due west of the city. At +Fordsburg are the gas and electric light and power works, and north of +Doornfontein there is a large reservoir. There are also on the Rand, and +dependent on the gold-mining, three towns possessing separate +municipalities--Germiston and Boksburg (q.v.), respectively 9 m. and 15 +m. E. of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (q.v.), 21 m. W. + +_The Mines and other Industries._--South, east and west of the city are +the gold mines, indicated by tall chimneys, battery houses and the +compounds of the labourers. The bare veld is dotted with these unsightly +buildings for a distance of over fifty miles. The mines are worked on +the most scientific lines. Characteristic of the Rand is the fine white +dust arising from the crushing of the ore, and, close to the batteries, +the incessant din caused by the stamps employed in that operation. The +compounds in general, especially those originally made for Chinese +labourers, are well built, comfortable, and fulfil every hygienic +requirement. Besides the buildings, the compounds include wide stretches +of veld. To enter and remain in the district, Kaffirs require a monthly +pass for which the employer pays 2s. (For details of gold-mining, see +GOLD.) A railway traverses the Rand, going westward past Krugersdorp to +Klerksdorp and thence to Kimberley, and eastward past Springs to Delagoa +Bay. From Springs, 25 m. E. of Johannesburg, is obtained much of the +coal used in the Rand mines. + +The mines within the municipal area produce nearly half the total gold +output of the Transvaal. The other industries of Johannesburg include +brewing; printing and bookbinding, timber sawing, flour milling, iron +and brass founding, brick making and the manufacture of tobacco. + +_Health, Education and Social Conditions._--The elevation of +Johannesburg makes it, despite its nearness to the tropics, a healthy +place for European habitation. Built on open undulating ground, the town +is, however, subject to frequent dust storms and to considerable +variations in the temperature. The nights in winter are frosty and snow +falls occasionally. The average day temperature in winter is 53° F., in +summer 75°; the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate among +white inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal causes +of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants, are diseases of +the lungs--including miners' phthisis and pneumonia--diarrhoea, +dysentery and enteric. The death-rate among young children is very high. + +Education is provided in primary and secondary schools maintained by the +state. In the primary schools education is free but not compulsory. The +Transvaal university college, founded in 1904 as the technical institute +(the change of title being made in 1906), provides full courses in +science, mining, engineering and law. In 1906 Alfred Beit (q.v.) +bequeathed £200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping +university buildings. + +In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town and +Durban. The white population is not only far larger but more +cosmopolitan, less stationary and more dependent on a single industry; +it has few links with the past, and both city and citizens bear the +marks of youth. The cost of living is much higher than in London or New +York. House rent, provisions, clothing, are all very dear, and more than +counter-balance the lowness of rates. The customary unit of expenditure +is the threepenny-bit or "tickey." + +_Sanitary and other Services._--There is an ample supply of water to the +town and mines, under a water board representing all the Rand +municipalities and the mining companies. A water-borne sewerage system +began to be introduced in 1906. The general illuminant is electricity, +and both electrical and gas services are owned by the municipality. The +tramway service, opened in 1891, was taken over by the municipality in +1904. Up to 1906 the trams were horse-drawn; in that year electric cars +began running. Rickshaws are also a favourite means of conveyance. The +police force is controlled by the government. + +_Area, Government and Rateable Value._--The city proper covers about 6 +sq. m. The municipal boundary extends in every direction some 5 m. from +Market Square, encloses about 82 sq. m. and includes several of the +largest mines. The local government is carried on by an elected +municipal council, the franchise being restricted to white British +subjects (men and women) who rent or own property of a certain value. In +1908 the rateable value of the municipality was £36,466,644, the rate +2¼d. in the £, and the town debt £5,500,000. + +_Population._--In 1887 the population was about 3000. By the beginning +of 1890 it had increased to over 25,000. A census taken in July 1896 +showed a population within a radius of 3 m. from Market Square of +102,078, of whom 50,907 were whites. At the census of April 1904 the +inhabitants of the city proper numbered 99,022, the population within +the municipal area being 155,642, of whom 83,363 were whites. Of the +white inhabitants, 35% were of British origin, 51,629 were males, and +31,734 females. Of persons aged sixteen or over, the number of males was +almost double the number of females. The coloured population included +about 7000 British Indians--chiefly small traders. A municipal census +taken in August 1908 gave the following result: whites 95,162; natives +and coloured 78,781; Asiatics 6780--total 180,687. + +_History._--Johannesburg owes its existence to the discovery of gold in +the Witwatersrand reefs. The town, named after Johannes Rissik, then +surveyor-general of the Transvaal, was founded in September 1886, the +first buildings being erected on the part of the reef where are now the +Ferreira and Wemmer mines. These buildings were found to cover valuable +ore, and in December following the Boer government marked out the site +of the city proper, and possession of the plots was given to purchasers +on the 1st of January 1887. The exploitation of the mines led to a rapid +development of the town during the next three years. The year 1890 was +one of great depression following the exhaustion of the surface ore, but +the provision of better machinery and cheaper coal led to a revival in +1891. By 1892 the leading mines had proved their dividend-earning +capacity, and in 1895 there was a great "boom" in the shares of the +mining companies. The linking of the town to the seaports by railways +during 1892-1895 gave considerable impetus to the gold-mining industry. +Material prosperity was accompanied, however, by political, educational +and other disadvantages, and the desire of the Johannesburgers--most of +whom were foreigners or "Uitlanders"--to remedy the grievances under +which they suffered led, in January 1896, to an abortive rising against +the Boer government (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). One result of this +movement was a slight advance in municipal self-government. Since 1887 +the management of the town had been entrusted to a nominated sanitary +board, under the chairmanship of the mining commissioner appointed by +the South African Republic. In 1890 elected members had been admitted to +this board, but at the end of 1897 an elective _stadsraad_ (town +council) was constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. +There was a great development in the mining industry during 1897-1898 +and 1899, the value of the gold extracted in 1898 exceeding £15,000,000, +but the political situation grew worse, and in September 1899, owing to +the imminence of war between the Transvaal and Great Britain, the +majority of the Uitlanders fled from the city. Between October 1899, +when war broke out, and the 31st of May 1900, when the city was taken by +the British, the Boer government worked certain mines for their own +benefit. After a period of military administration and of government by +a nominated town council, an ordinance was passed in June 1903 providing +for elective municipal councils, and in December following the first +election to the new council took place. In 1905 the town was divided +into wards. In that year the number of municipal voters was 23,338. In +1909 the proportional representation system was adopted in the election +of town councillors. + +During 1901-1903, while the war was still in progress or but recently +concluded, the gold output was comparatively slight. The difficulty in +obtaining sufficient labour for the mines led to a successful agitation +for the importation of coolies from China (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). +During 1904-1906 over 50,000 coolies were brought to the mines, a +greatly increased output being the result, the value of the gold +extracted in 1905 exceeding £20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased +production of gold, Johannesburg during 1905-1907 passed through a +period of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the +unsettled political situation. In June 1907 the repatriation of the +Chinese coolies began; it was completed in February 1910. + + An excellent compilation, entitled _Johannesburg Statistics_, dealing + with almost every phase of the city's life, is issued monthly (since + January 1905) by the town council. See also the _Post Office + Directory, Transvaal_ (Johannesburg, annually), which contains + specially prepared maps, and the annual reports of the Johannesburg + chamber of commerce. For the political history of Johannesburg, see + the bibliography under TRANSVAAL. + + + + +JOHANNISBERG, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 6 m. S. +of Rüdesheim by railway. The place is mainly celebrated for the +beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill overlooking the Rhine valley, and +is surrounded by vineyards yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The +Schloss, built in 1757-1759 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a +Benedictine monastery founded in 1090, was bestowed, in 1807, by +Napoleon upon Marshal Kellermann. In 1814 it was given by Francis, +emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich, in whose family it still +remains. + + + + +JOHN (Heb. [Hebrew: Yohanan]), _Yohanan_, "Yahweh has been gracious," +Gr. [Greek: Iôannês], Lat. _Joannes_, Ital. _Giovanni_, Span. _Juan_, +Port. _João_, Fr. _Jean_, Ger. _Johannes_, _Johann_ [abbr. _Hans_], +Gael. _Ian_, Pol. and Czech _Jan_, Hung. _János_), a masculine proper +name common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to its +having been borne by the "Beloved Disciple" of Christ, St John the +Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the Baptist. It has +been the name of twenty-two popes--the style of Popes John XXII. and +XXIII. being due to an error in the number assumed by John XXI. +(q.v.)--and of many sovereigns, princes, &c. The order followed in the +biographical notices below is as follows: (1) the Apostle, (2) the +Baptist, (3) popes, (4) Roman emperors, (5) kings; John of England +first, the rest in the alphabetical order of their countries, (6) other +sovereign princes, (7) non-sovereign princes, (8) saints, (9) +theologians, chroniclers, &c. These princes who are known by a name in +addition to John (John Albert, &c.) will be found after the article +JOHN, GOSPEL OF. + + + + +JOHN, THE APOSTLE, in the Bible, was the son of Zebedee, a Galilean +fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born at Bethsaida, +where along with his brother James he followed his father's occupation. +The family appears to have been in easy circumstances; at least we find +that Zebedee employed hired servants, and that Salome was among those +women who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Mark i. 20, xv. 40, +41, xvi. 1). John's "call" to follow our Lord occurred simultaneously +with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after that addressed to +the brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i. 19, 20). John speedily took +his place among the twelve apostles, sharing with James the title of +Boanerges ("sons of thunder," perhaps strictly "sons of anger," i.e. men +readily angered), and became a member of that inner circle to which, in +addition to his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. +33). John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery +Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus, "We saw one +casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth not us," and tells Him, +"We forbade him" for that reason (Mark ix. 38); and who with his +brother, when a Samaritan village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, +"Wilt thou that we command fire to come down from heaven and consume +them?" (Luke ix. 54). The book of Acts confirms this tradition. After +the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem with Peter +and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the most prominent +among those who bear testimony to the fact of the resurrection (iii. +12-26, iv. 13, 19-22); and is sent with Peter to Samaria, to confirm the +newly converted Christians there (viii. 14, 25). St Paul tells us +similarly that when, on his second visit to Jerusalem, "James," the +Lord's brother, "and Cephas and John, who were considered pillars, +perceived the grace that was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas +the right hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and +they unto the circumcision" (Gal. ii. 9). John thus belonged in 46-47 to +the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know whether to the stricter +group of James or to the milder group of Peter (ibid. ii. 11-14). + +The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates, bishop of +Ephesus (in Euseb., _H. E._ iii. 31; v. 24), attests in 196 that John +"who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus"; but previously in +this very sentence he has declared that "Philip one of the twelve +apostles rests in Hierapolis," although Eusebius (doubtless rightly) +identifies this Philip not with the apostle but with the +deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also declares that John was +a priest wearing the [Greek: petalon] (gold plate) that distinguished +the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in various passages of his works, +181-191, holds a similar tradition. He says that John lived up to the +time of Trajan and published his gospel in Ephesus, and identifies the +apostle with John the disciple of the Lord, who wrote the Apocalypse +under Domitian, whom Irenaeus's teacher Polycarp had known personally +and of whom Polycarp had much to tell. These traditions are accepted and +enlarged by later authors, Tertullian adding that John was banished to +Patmos after he had miraculously survived the punishment of immersion in +burning oil. As it is evident that legend was busy with John as early as +the time of Polycrates, the real worth of these traditions requires to +be tested by examination of their ultimate source. This inquiry has been +pressed upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse +or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been disputed. (See +JOHN, GOSPEL OF, and REVELATION, BOOK OF.) The question has not been +strictly one between advanced and conservative criticism, for the +Tübingen school recognized the Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it +a confirmation of John's residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, +Lützelberger (1840), Th. Keim (_Jesus v. Naz._, vol. i., 1867), J. H. +Scholten (1872), H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in _Einl. in d. N. T._, 3rd ed., +1902), and other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had +able defenders in Steitz (_Stud. u. Krit._, 1868), Hilgenfeld (_Einl._, +1875) and Lightfoot (_Essays on Supernatural Religion_, collected 1889). +W. Sanday (_Criticism of Fourth Gospel_, 1905) makes passing admissions +eloquent as to the strength of the negative position; whilst amongst +Roman Catholic scholars, A. Loisy (_Le 4me. Ev._, 1903) stands with +Holtzmann, and Th. Calmes (_Ev. selon S. Jean_, 1904, 1906) and L. +Duchesne (_Hist. anc. de l'Egl._, 1906) exhibit, with papal +approbation, the inconclusiveness of the conservative arguments. + +The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of positive +evidence before the latter part of the 2nd century, especially in Papias +and in the epistles of Ignatius and of Irenaeus's authority, Polycarp. +They find it necessary to assume that Irenaeus mistook Polycarp; but +this is not a difficult task, since already Eusebius (c. 310-313) is +compelled to point out that Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle +and a presbyter, and that Irenaeus is mistaken in identifying those two +Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John the Apostle (_H. E._ +iii. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless correctly, that Papias was +"the companion of Polycarp": this fact alone would suffice, given his +two mistakes concerning Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp +had seen John the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) +in the 9th century, and an epitome dating from the 7th or 8th century +but probably based on the _Chronicle_ of Philip of Side (c. 430), +declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias, that John the +Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in 60-70). Adolf Harnack, +_Chron. d. altchr. Litt._ (1897), pp. 656-680), rejects the assertion; +but the number of scholars who accept it as correct is distinctly on the +increase. (F. v. H.) + + + + +JOHN THE BAPTIST, in the Bible, the "forerunner" of Jesus Christ in the +Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he evidently made a great +impression upon his contemporaries (cf. Josephus, _Ant._ xviii., § 5). +According to the birth-narrative embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was +born in "a city of Judah" in "the hill country" (possibly Hebron[1]) of +priestly parentage. His father Zacharias was a priest "of the course of +Abijah," and his mother Elizabeth, who was also of priestly descent, was +related to Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was by six +months. This narrative of the Baptist's birth seems to embody some very +primitive features, Hebraic and Palestinian in character, and possibly +at one time independent of the Christian tradition. In the apocryphal +gospels John is sometimes made the subject of special miraculous +experiences (e.g. in the _Protevangelium Jacobi_, ch. xxii., where +Elizabeth fleeing from Herod's assassins cried: "Mount of God, receive a +mother with her child," and suddenly the mountain was divided and +received her). + +In his 30th year (15th year of the emperor Tiberius, ? A.D. 25-26) John +began his public life in the "wilderness of Judaea," the wild district +that lies between the Kedron and the Dead Sea, and particularly in the +neighbourhood of the Jordan, where multitudes were attracted by his +eloquence. The central theme of his preaching was, according to the +Synoptic Gospels, the nearness of the coming of the Messianic kingdom, +and the consequent urgency for preparation by repentance. John was +evidently convinced that he himself had received the divine commission +to bring to a close and complete the prophetic period, by inaugurating +the Messianic age. He identified himself with the "voice" of Isa. xl. 3. +Noteworthy features of his preaching were its original and prophetic +character, and its high ethical tone, as shown e.g. in its +anti-Pharisaic denunciation of trust in mere racial privilege (Matt. +iii. 9). Herein also lay, probably, the true import of the baptism which +he administered to those who accepted his message and confessed their +sins. It was an act symbolizing moral purification (cf. Ezek. xxxvi. 25; +Zech. xiii. 1) by way of preparation for the coming "kingdom of heaven," +and implied that the Jew so baptized no longer rested in his privileged +position as a child of Abraham. John's appearance, costume and habits of +life, together with the tone of his preaching, all suggest the prophetic +character. He was popularly regarded as a prophet, more especially as a +second Elijah. His preaching awoke a great popular response, +particularly among the masses of the people, "the people of the land." +He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii. 18, &c.), who visited him +regularly in prison (Matt. xi. 2, xiv. 12), and to whom he taught +special forms of prayer (Luke v. 33, xi. 1). Some of these afterwards +became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John's activity indeed had +far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced the Messianic movement +depicted in the Gospels. The preaching of Jesus shows traces of this, +and the Fourth Gospel (as well as the Synoptists) displays a marked +interest in connecting the Johannine movement with the beginnings of +Christianity. The fact that after the lapse of a quarter of a century +there were Christians in Ephesus who accepted John's baptism (Acts +xviii. 25, xix. 3) is highly significant. This influence also persisted +in later times. Christ's estimate of John (Matt. xi. 7 seq.) was a very +high one. He also pointedly alludes to John's work and the people's +relation to it, in many sayings and parables (sometimes in a tone of +irony). The duration of John's ministry cannot be determined with +certainty: it terminated in his imprisonment in the fortress of +Machaerus, to which he had been committed by Herod Antipas, whose +incestuous marriage with Herodias, the Baptist had sternly rebuked. His +execution cannot with safety be placed later than A.D. 28. + +In the church calendar this event is commemorated on the 29th of August. +According to tradition he was buried at Samaria (Theodoret, _H. E._ iii. +3). (G. H. Bo.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There is no reason to suppose that Jutta is intended by the + [Greek: polis Iouda] of Luke i. 39: the tradition which makes 'Ain + Karim, near Jerusalem, the birthplace of the Baptist only dates from + the crusading period. + + + + +JOHN I., pope from 523 to 526, was a Tuscan by birth, and was +consecrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. In 525 he was sent by +Theodoric at the head of an embassy to Constantinople to obtain from the +emperor Justin toleration for the Arians; but he succeeded so +imperfectly in his mission that Theodoric on his return, suspecting that +he had acted only half-heartedly, threw him into prison, where he +shortly afterwards died, Felix IV. succeeding him. He was enrolled among +the martyrs, his day being May 27. + + + + +JOHN II., pope from 533 to 535, also named Mercurius, was elevated to +the papal chair on the death of Boniface II. During his pontificate a +decree against simony was engraven on marble and placed before the altar +of St Peter's. At the instance of the emperor Justinian he adopted the +proposition _unus de Trinitate passus est in carne_ as a test of the +orthodoxy of certain Scythian monks accused of Nestorian tendencies. He +was succeeded by Agapetus I. + + + + +JOHN III., pope from 561 to 574, successor to Pelagius, was descended +from a noble Roman family. He is said to have been successful in +preventing an invasion of Italy by the recall of the deposed exarch +Narses, but the Lombards still continued their incursions, and, +especially during the pontificate of his successor Benedict I., +inflicted great miseries on the province. + + + + +JOHN IV., pope from 640 to 642, was a Dalmatian by birth, and succeeded +Severinus after the papal chair had been vacant four months. While he +adhered to the repudiation of the Monothelitic doctrine by Severinus, he +endeavoured to explain away the connexion of Honorius I. with the +heresy. His successor was Theodorus I. + + + + +JOHN V., pope from 685 to 686, was a Syrian by birth, and on account of +his knowledge of Greek had in 680 been named papal legate to the sixth +ecumenical council at Constantinople. He was the successor of Benedict +II., and after a pontificate of little more than a year, passed chiefly +in bed, was followed by Conon. + + + + +JOHN VI., pope from 701 to 705, was a native of Greece, and succeeded to +the papal chair two months after the death of Sergius I. He assisted the +exarch Theophylact, who had been sent into Italy by the emperor +Justinian II., and prevented him from using violence against the Romans. +Partly by persuasion and partly by means of a bribe, John succeeded in +inducing Gisulf, duke of Benevento, to withdraw from the territories of +the empire. + + + + +JOHN VII., pope from 705 to 707, successor of John VI., was also of +Greek nationality. He seems to have acceded to the request of the +emperor Justinian II. that he should give his sanction to the decrees of +the Quinisext or Trullan council of 692. There are several monuments of +John in the church of St Maria Antiqua at the foot of the Palatine hill; +others were formerly in the chapel of the Virgin, built by him in the +basilica of St Peter. He was succeeded by Sisinnius. + + + + +JOHN VIII., pope from 872 to 882, successor of Adrian II., was a Roman +by birth. His chief aim during his pontificate was to defend the Roman +state and the authority of the Holy See at Rome from the Saracens, and +from the nascent feudalism which was represented outside by the dukes of +Spoleto and the marquises of Tuscany and within by a party of Roman +nobles. Events, however, were so fatally opposed to his designs that no +sooner did one of his schemes begin to realize itself in fact than it +was shattered by an unlooked-for chance. To obtain an influential +alliance against his enemies, he agreed in 875, after death had deprived +him of his natural protector, the emperor Louis II., to bestow the +imperial crown on Charles the Bald; but that monarch was too much +occupied in France to grant him much effectual aid, and about the time +of the death of Charles he found it necessary to come to terms with the +Saracens, who were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of +an annual tribute. Carloman, the opponent of Charles's son Louis, soon +after invaded northern Italy, and, securing the support of the bishops +and counts, demanded from the pope the imperial crown. John attempted to +temporize, but Lambert, duke of Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom +sickness had recalled to Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an +overwhelming force, and for thirty days virtually held John a prisoner +in St Peter's. Lambert was, however, unsuccessful in winning any +concession from the pope, who after his withdrawal carried out a +previous purpose of going to France. There he presided at the council of +Troyes, which promulgated a ban of excommunication against the +supporters of Carloman--amongst others Adalbert of Tuscany, Lambert of +Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porto, who was afterwards elevated to +the papal chair. In 879 John returned to Italy accompanied by Boso, duke +of Provence, whom he adopted as his son, and made an unsuccessful +attempt to get recognized as king of Italy. In the same year he was +compelled to give a promise of his sanction to the claims of Charles the +Fat, who received from him the imperial crown in 881. Before this, in +order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor against the Saracens, he +had agreed to sanction the restoration of Photius to the see of +Constantinople, and had withdrawn his consent on finding that he reaped +from the concession no substantial benefit. Charles the Fat, partly from +unwillingness, partly from natural inability, gave him also no effectual +aid, and the last years of John VIII. were spent chiefly in hurling vain +anathemas against his various political enemies. According to the +annalist of Fulda, he was murdered by members of his household. His +successor was Marinus. + + + + +JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 900, not only confirmed the judgment of his +predecessor Theodore II. in granting Christian burial to Formosus, but +at a council held at Ravenna decreed that the records of the synod which +had condemned him should be burned. Finding, however, that it was +advisable to cement the ties between the empire and the papacy, John +gave unhesitating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also +induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecration of the +popes should take place only in the presence of the imperial legates. +The sudden death of Lambert shattered the hopes which this alliance +seemed to promise. John was succeeded by Benedict IV. + + + + +JOHN X., pope from 914 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted +the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, the most powerful +noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see +of Bologna and then to the archbishopric of Ravenna. In direct +opposition to a decree of council, he was also at the instigation of +Theodora promoted to the papal chair as the successor of Lando. Like +John IX. he endeavoured to secure himself against his temporal enemies +through a close alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of +Camerino, then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 he +granted the imperial crown to Berengar, and with the assistance of the +forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula he took the field in +person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a great victory on the +banks of the Garigliano. The defeat and death of Berengar through the +combination of the Italian princes, again frustrated the hopes of a +united Italy, and after witnessing several years of anarchy and +confusion John perished through the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of +Theodora. His successor was Leo VI. + + + + +JOHN XI., pope from 931 to 935, was the son of Marozia and the reputed +son of Sergius III. Through the influence of his mother he was chosen to +succeed Stephen VII. at the early age of twenty-one. He was the mere +exponent of the purposes of his mother, until her son Alberic succeeded +in 933 in overthrowing their authority. The pope was kept a virtual +prisoner in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935, in which +year Leo VII. was consecrated his successor. + + + + +JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964, was the son of Alberic, whom he +succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only sixteen years of +age. His original name was Octavian, but when he assumed the papal tiara +as successor to Agapetus II., he adopted the apostolic name of John, the +first example, it is said, of the custom of altering the surname in +connexion with elevation to the papal chair. As a temporal ruler John +was devoid of the vigour and firmness of his father, and his union of +the papal office--which through his scandalous private life he made a +byword of reproach--with his civil dignities proved a source of weakness +rather than of strength. In order to protect himself against the +intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of Italy, he called to +his aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom he granted the imperial crown +in 962. Even before Otto left Rome the pope had, however, repented of +his recognition of a power which threatened altogether to overshadow his +authority, and had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His +intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated and taken +prisoner Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned a council which deposed +John, who was in hiding in the mountains of Campania, and elected Leo +VIII. in his stead. An attempt at an insurrection was made by the +inhabitants of Rome even before Otto left the city, and on his departure +John returned at the head of a formidable company of friends and +retainers, and caused Leo to seek safety in immediate flight. Otto +determined to make an effort in support of Leo, but before he reached +the city John had died, in what manner is uncertain, and Benedict V. had +mounted the papal chair. + + + + +JOHN XIII., pope from 965 to 972, was descended from a noble Roman +family, and at the time of his election as successor to Leo VIII. was +bishop of Narni. He had been somewhat inconsistent in his relations with +his predecessor Leo, but his election was confirmed by the emperor Otto, +and his submissive attitude towards the imperial power was so +distasteful to the Romans that they expelled him from the city. On +account of the threatening procedure of Otto, they permitted him shortly +afterwards to return, upon which, with the sanction of Otto, he took +savage vengeance on those who had formerly opposed him. Shortly after +holding a council along with the emperor at Ravenna in 967, he gave the +imperial crown to Otto II. at Rome in assurance of his succession to his +father; and in 972 he also crowned Theophano as empress immediately +before her marriage. On his death in the same year he was followed by +Benedict VI. + + + + +JOHN XIV., pope from 983 to 984, successor to Benedict VII., was born at +Pavia, and before his elevation to the papal chair was imperial +chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his election, when +Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular feeling against the new +pope, returned from Constantinople and placed John in prison, where he +died either by starvation or poison. + + + + +JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 996, generally recognized as the successor of +Boniface VII., the pope John who was said to have ruled for four months +after John XIV., being now omitted by the best authorities. John XV. was +the son of Leo, a Roman presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal +chair Crescentius was patrician of Rome, but, although his influence was +on this account very much hampered, the presence of the empress +Theophano in Rome from 989 to 991 restrained also the ambition of +Crescentius. On her departure the pope, whose venality and nepotism had +made him very unpopular with the citizens, died of fever before the +arrival of Otto III., who elevated his own kinsman Bruno to the papal +dignity under the name of Gregory V. + + + + +JOHN XVI.,, pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian Greek by +birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from whom he had +received the bishopric of Placentia. His original name was Philagathus. +In 995 he was sent by Otto III. on an embassy to Constantinople to +negotiate a marriage with a Greek princess. On his way back he either +accidentally or at the special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A +little before this Gregory V., at the end of 996, had been compelled to +flee from the city; and the wily and ambitious Greek had now no scruple +in accepting the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius. The arrival +of Otto at Rome in the spring of 998 put a sudden end to the treacherous +compact. John sought safety in flight, but was discovered in his place +of hiding and brought back to Rome, where after enduring cruel and +ignominious tortures he was immured in a dungeon. + + + + +JOHN XVII., whose original name was Sicco, succeeded Silvester II. as +pope in June 1003, but died less than five months afterwards. + + + + +JOHN XVIII., pope from 1003 to 1009, was, during his whole pontificate, +the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius, and ultimately he +abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he died shortly afterwards. +His successor was Sergius IV. + + + + +JOHN XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033, succeeded his brother Benedict VIII., +both being members of the powerful house of Tusculum. He merely took +orders to enable him to ascend the papal chair, having previously been a +consul and senator. He displayed his freedom from ecclesiastical +prejudices, if also his utter ignorance of ecclesiastical history, by +agreeing, on the payment of a large bribe, to grant to the patriarch of +Constantinople the title of an ecumenical bishop, but the general +indignation which the proposal excited throughout the church compelled +him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On the death of +the emperor Henry II. in 1024 he gave his support to Conrad II., who +along with his consort was crowned with great pomp at St Peter's in +Easter of 1027. John died in 1033, in the full possession of his +dignities. A successor was found for him in his nephew Benedict IX., a +boy of only twelve years of age. (L. D.*) + + + + +JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo), pope from the 8th of September 1276 +to the 20th of May 1277 (should be named John XX., but there is an error +in the reckoning through the insertion of an antipope), a native of +Portugal, educated for the church, became archdeacon and then archbishop +of Braga, and so ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of +Lyons (1274) that he was taken to Rome as cardinal-bishop of Frascati, +and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days. As pope he +excommunicated Alphonso III. of Portugal for interfering with episcopal +elections and sent legates to the Great Khan. He was devoted to secular +science, and his small affection for the monks awakened the distrust of +a large portion of the clergy. His life was brought to a premature close +through the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Viterbo. His +successor was Nicholas III. + +JOHN XXI. has been identified since the 14th century, most probably +correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portuguese physician and +philosopher, author of several medical works--notably the curious _Liber +de oculo_, trans. into German and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, +1899), and of a popular textbook in logic, the _Summulae logicales_. +John XXI. is constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant +chroniclers. + + See _Les Registres de Grégoire X. et Jean XXI._, published by J. + Guiraud and E. Cadier in _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes + et de Rome_ (Paris, 1898); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._, vol. + 2 (Berlin, 1875); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. v., + trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); R. Stapper, _Papst + Johann XXI._ (Münster, 1898); J. T. Köhler, _Vollständige Nachricht + von Papst Johann XXI._ (Göttingen, 1760). (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +JOHN XXII., pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors, France, in 1249. +His original name was Jacques Duèse, and he came either of a family of +petty nobility or else of well-to-do middle-class parents, and was not, +as has been popularly supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his +education with the Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at +Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught at Cahors +and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with the bishop Louis, son +of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he was elevated to the episcopal +see of Fréjus by Pope Boniface VIII. at the instance of the king of +Naples, and in 1308 was made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining +this office under Charles's successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1310 Pope +Clement V. summoned Jacques to Avignon and instructed him to advise upon +the affair of the Templars and also upon the question of condemning the +memory of Boniface VIII. Jacques decided on the legality of suppressing +the order of the Templars, holding that the pope would be serving the +best interests of the church by pronouncing its suppression; but he +rejected the condemnation of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the +church and a monstrous abuse of the lay power. On the 23rd of December +1312 Clement appointed him cardinal-bishop of Porto, and it was while +cardinal of Porto that he was elected pope, on the 7th of August 1316. +Clement had died in April 1314, but the cardinals assembled at +Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor. As the two-thirds +majority requisite for an election could not be obtained, the cardinals +separated, and it was not until the 28th of June 1316 that they +reassembled in the cloister of the Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in +deference to the pressure exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. +After deliberating for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou's +candidate, Jacques Duèse, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and +on the 2nd of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained for the rest +of his life. + +More jurist than theologian, John defended the rights of the papacy with +rigorous zeal and as rigorous logic. For the restoration of the papacy +to its old independence, which had been so gravely compromised under his +immediate predecessors, and for the execution of the vast enterprises +which the papacy deemed useful for its prestige and for Christendom, +considerable sums were required; and to raise the necessary money John +burdened Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated fiscal +system, which was fraught with serious consequences. For his personal +use, however, he retained but a very small fraction of the sums thus +acquired, and at his death his private fortune amounted to scarce a +million florins. The essentially practical character of his +administration has led many historians to tax him with avarice, but +later research on the fiscal system of the papacy of the period, +particularly the joint work of Samaran and Mollat, enables us very +sensibly to modify the severe judgment passed on John by Gregorovius and +others. + +John's pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict with Louis +of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the Spiritual Franciscans. +In October 1314 Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had each been +elected German king by the divided electors. Louis was gradually +recognized by the whole of Germany, especially after his victory at +Mühldorf (1322), and gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he +supported the Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope. +John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th of +October 1323 forbade his recognition as king of the Romans. After +demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nuremberg from the +future sentence of the pope to a general council (December 8, 1323). The +conflict then assumed a grave doctrinal character. The doctrine of the +rights of the lay monarchy sustained by Occam and John of Paris, by +Marsilius of Padua, John of Jandun and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed +by the jurists and theologians, penetrated into the parlements and the +universities, and was combated by the upholders of papal absolutism, +such as Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo. Excommunicated on the 21st of +March 1324, Louis retorted by appealing for a second time to a general +council, which was held on the 22nd of May 1324, and accused John of +being an enemy to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic +on the ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty as +professed by the strict Franciscans. From this moment Louis appeared in +the character of the natural ally and even the protector of the +Spirituals against the persecution of the pope. On the 11th of July 1324 +the pope laid under an interdict the places where Louis or his adherents +resided, but this bull had no effect in Germany. Equally futile was +John's declaration (April 3, 1327) that Louis had forfeited his crown +and abetted heresy by granting protection to Marsilius of Padua. Having +reconciled himself with Frederick of Austria, Louis penetrated into +Italy and seized Rome on the 7th of January 1328, with the help of the +Roman Ghibellines led by Sciarra Colonna. After installing himself in +the Vatican, Louis got himself crowned by the deputies of the Roman +people; instituted proceedings for the deposition of John, whom the +Roman people, displeased by the spectacle of the papacy abandoning Rome, +declared to have forfeited the pontificate (April 18, 1328); and finally +caused a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucci da Corvara, to be elected +pope under the name of Nicholas V. John preached a platonic crusade +against Louis, who burned the pope's effigy at Pisa and in Amelia. Soon, +however, Louis felt his power waning, and quitted Rome and Italy (1329). +Incapable of independent action, the antipope was abandoned by the +Romans and handed over to John, who forced him to make a solemn +submission with a halter round his neck (August 15, 1330). Nicholas was +condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity at Avignon; +while the Roman people submitted to King Robert, who governed the church +through his vicars. In 1317, in execution of a bull of Clement V., the +royal vicariate in Italy had been conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, +and this appointment was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of +excommunication against any one who should seize the vicariate of Italy +without the authorization of the pope. One of John's last acts was his +decision to separate Italy from the Empire, but this bull was of no +avail and fell into oblivion. After his death, however, the interdict +was not removed from Germany, and the resistance of Louis and his +theologians continued. + +A violent manifestation of this resistance took place in connexion with +the accusation of heresy brought against the pope. On the third Sunday +in Advent 1329, and afterwards in public consistory, John had preached +that the souls of those who have died in a state of grace go into +Abraham's bosom, _sub altari Dei_, and do not enjoy the beatific vision +(_visio facie ad faciem_) of the Lord until after the Last Judgment and +the Resurrection; and he had even instructed a Minorite friar, Gauthier +of Dijon, to collect the passages in the Fathers which were in favour of +this doctrine. On the 27th of December 1331 a Dominican, Thomas of +England, preached against this doctrine at Avignon itself and was thrown +into prison. When news of this affair had reached Paris, the pope sent +the general of the Minorites, Gerard Odonis, accompanied by a Dominican, +to sustain his doctrine in that city, but King Philip VI., perhaps at +the instigation of the refugee Spirituals in Paris, referred the +question to the faculty of theology, which, on the 2nd of January 1333, +declared that the souls of the blessed were elevated to the beatific +vision immediately after death; the faculty, nevertheless, were of +opinion that the pope should have propounded his erroneous doctrine only +"_recitando_," and not "_determinando, asserendo, seu etiam opinando_." +The king notified this decision to the pope, who assembled his +consistory in November 1333, and gave a haughty reply. The theologians +in Louis's following who were opposed to papal absolutism already spoke +of "the new heretic, Jacques de Cahors," and reiterated with increasing +insistency their demands for the convocation of a general council to try +the pope. John appears to have retracted shortly before his death, which +occurred on the 4th of December 1334.[1] + +John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the upholders of +the independence of the lay power, but also among the upholders of +absolute religious poverty, the exalted Franciscans. Clement V., at the +council of Vienne, had attempted to bring back the Spirituals to the +common rule by concessions; John, on the other hand, in the bull +_Quorundam exigit_ (April 13, 1317), adopted an uncompromising and +absolute attitude, and by the bull _Gloriosam ecclesiam_ (January 23, +1318) condemned the protests which had been raised against the bull +_Quorundam_ by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed to +Avignon by the monk Bernard Délicieux. Shortly afterwards four +Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were immediately hailed as +martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted Franciscans at Naples and in +Sicily and the south of France the pope was regarded as antichrist. In +the bull _Sancta Romana et universa ecclesia_ (December 28, 1318) John +definitively excommunicated them and condemned their principal book, the +_Postil_ (commentary) on the Apocalypse (February 8, 1326). The bull +_Quia nonnunquam_ (March 26, 1322) defined the derogations from the rule +punished by the pope, and the bull _Cum inter nonnullos_ (November 12, +1323) condemned the proposition which had been admitted at the general +chapter of the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which +Christ and the Apostles were represented as possessing no property, +either personal or common. The minister general, Michael of Cesena, +though opposed to the exaggerations of the Spirituals, joined with them +in protesting against the condemnation of the fundamental principle of +evangelical poverty, and the agitation gradually gained ground. The +pope, by the bull _Quia quorundam_ (November 10, 1324), cited Michael to +appear at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia. All three +fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328), while the majority +of the Franciscans made submission and elected a general entirely +devoted to the pope. But the resistance, aided by Louis and merged as it +now was in the cause sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, +became daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the +party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the +condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals, +confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with Fraticelli of +every description, maintained themselves in the south of France in spite +of the reign of terror instituted in that region by the Inquisition. + + See M. Souchon, _Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII. bis Urban VI._ + (Brunswick, 1888); Abbé Albe, _Autour de Jean XXII._ (Rome, 1904); K. + Müller, _Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie_ (Tübingen, 1879 + seq.); W. Preger, "Mémoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et Louis de + Bavière" in _Abhandl. der bayr. Akad._, hist. sec., xv., xvi., xvii.; + S. Riezler, _Die litterar. Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs des + Baiers_ (Leipzig, 1874); F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen" in _Archiv für + Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (vols. i. and ii.); + C. Samaran and G. Mollat, _La Fiscalité pontificale en France au xiv^e + siècle_ (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, _Lettres secrètes et + curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant à la France_ (Paris, 1899, seq.). + (P. A.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the 29th of January 1336 Pope Benedict XII. pronounced a long + judgment on this point of doctrine, a judgment which he declared had + been included by John in a bull which death had prevented him from + sealing. + + + + +JOHN XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather antipope from 1410 to +1415, was born of a good Neapolitan family, and began by leading the +life of a corsair before entering the service of the Church under the +pontificate of Boniface IX. His abilities, which were mainly of an +administrative and military order, were soon rewarded by the cardinal's +hat and the legation of Bologna. On the 29th of June 1408 he and seven +of his colleagues broke away from Gregory XII., and together with six +cardinals of the obedience of Avignon, who had in like manner separated +from Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assembling of a general +council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs, an expedient which they +considered would put an end to the great schism of the Western Church, +but which resulted in the election of yet a third pope. This act was +none the less decisive for Baldassare Cossa's future. Alexander V., the +first pope elected at Pisa, was not perhaps, as has been maintained, +merely a man of straw put forward by the ambitious cardinal of Bologna; +but he reigned only ten months, and on his death, which happened rather +suddenly on the 4th of May 1410, Baldassare Cossa succeeded him. +Whether the latter had bought his electors by money and promises, or +owed his success to his dominant position in Bologna, and to the support +of Florence and of Louis II. of Anjou, he seems to have received the +unanimous vote of all the seventeen cardinals gathered together at +Bologna (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII., and France, England, +and part of Italy and Germany recognized him as head of the Catholic +church. + +The struggle in which he and Louis II. of Anjou engaged with Ladislaus +of Durazzo, king of Sicily, and Gregory XII.'s chief protector in Italy, +at first went in John's favour. After the brilliant victory of +Roccasecca (May 19, 1411) he had the satisfaction of dragging the +standards of Pope Gregory and King Ladislaus through the streets of +Rome. But the dispersion of Louis of Anjou's troops and his +carelessness, together with the lack of success which attended the +preaching of a crusade in Germany, France and England, finally decided +John XXIII. to abandon the French claimant to the throne of Sicily; he +recognized Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples, and Ladislaus +did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory XII. +(June 15, 1412). This was a fatal step: John XXIII. was trusting in a +dishonest and insatiable prince; he would have acted more wisely in +remaining the ally of the weak but loyal Louis of Anjou. However, it +seemed desirable that the reforms announced by the council of Pisa, +which the popes set up by this synod seemed in no hurry to carry into +effect, should be further discussed in the new council which it had been +agreed should be summoned about the spring of 1412. But John was anxious +that this council should be held in Rome, a city where he alone was +master; the few prelates and ambassadors who very slowly gathered there +held only a small number of sessions, in which John again condemned the +writings of Wycliffe. John was attacked by the representatives of the +various nations and reprimanded even for his private conduct, but +endeavoured to extricate himself from this uncomfortable position by +gratifying their desires, if not by reforming abuses. It is, however, +only fair to add that he took various half-measures and gave many +promises which, if they had been put into execution, would have +confirmed or completed the reforms inaugurated at Pisa. But on the 3rd +of March 1413 John adjourned the council of Rome till December, without +even fixing the place where the next session should be held. It was held +at Constance in Germany, and John could only have resigned himself to +accepting such an uncertain meeting-place because he was forced by +distress, isolation and fear to turn towards the head of the empire. +Less than a year after the treaty concluded with Ladislaus of Durazzo, +the latter forced his way into Rome (June 8, 1413), which he sacked, +expelling John, to whom even the Florentines did not dare to throw open +their gates for fear of the king of Sicily. Sigismund, king of the +Romans, not only extorted, it is said, a sum of 50,000 florins from the +pontiff in his extremity, but insisted upon his summoning the council at +Constance (December 9). It was in vain that, on the death of Ladislaus, +which took place unexpectedly (August 6, 1414), John was inspired with +the idea of breaking his compact with Sigismund and returning to Rome, +at the same time appealing to Louis of Anjou. It was too late. The +cardinals forced him towards Germany by the most direct road, without +allowing him to go by way of Avignon as he had projected, in order to +make plans with the princes of France. + +On the 5th of November 1414 John opened the council of Constance, where, +on Christmas Day, he received the homage of the head of the empire, but +where his lack of prestige, the defection of his allies, the fury of his +adversaries, and the general sense of the necessity for union soon +showed only too clearly how small was the chance of his retaining the +tiara. He had to take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals would +do the same, and this concession, which was not very sincere, gained him +for the last time the honour of seeing Sigismund prostrate at his feet +(March 2, 1415). But on the night of the 20th-21st of March, having +donned the garments of a layman, with a cross-bow slung at his side, he +succeeded in making his escape from Constance, accompanied only by a +single servant, and took refuge first in the castle of Schaffhausen, +then in that of Laufenburg, then at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and finally at +Brisach, whence he hoped to reach Alsace, and doubtless ultimately +Avignon, under the protection of an escort sent by the duke of Burgundy. +The news of the pope's escape was received at Constance with an +extraordinary outburst of rage, and led to the subversive decrees of the +4th and 5th sessions, which proclaimed the superiority of the council +over the pope. Duke Frederick of Austria had hitherto sheltered John's +flight; but, laid under the ban of the empire, attacked by powerful +armies, and feeling that he was courting ruin, he preferred to give up +the pontiff who had trusted to him. John was brought back to Freiburg +(April 27), and there in vain attempted to appease the wrath which he +had aroused by more or less vague promises of resignation. His trial, +however, was already beginning. The three cardinals whom he charged with +his defence hastily declined this compromising task. Seventy-four +charges were drawn up, only twenty of which were set aside after the +witnesses had been heard. The accusation of having poisoned Alexander V. +and his doctor at Bologna was not maintained. But enough deeds of +immorality, tyranny, ambition and simony were found proved to justify +the severest judgment. He was suspended from his functions as pope on +the 14th of May 1415, and deposed on the following 29th of May. + +However irregular this sentence may have been from the canonical point +of view (for the accusers do not seem to have actually proved the crime +of heresy, which was necessary, according to most scholars of the +period, to justify the deposition of a sovereign pontiff), the condemned +pope was not long in confirming it. Baldassare Cossa, now as humble and +resigned as he had before been energetic and tenacious, on his +transference to the castle of Rudolfzell admitted the wrong which he had +done by his flight, refused to bring forward anything in his defence, +acquiesced entirely in the judgment of the council which he declared to +be infallible, and finally, as an extreme precaution, ratified _motu +proprio_ the sentence of deposition, declaring that he freely and +willingly renounced any rights which he might still have in the papacy. +This fact has subsequently been often quoted against those who have +appealed to the events of 1415 to maintain that a council can depose a +pope who is _scandalizator ecclesiae_. + +Cossa kept his word never to appeal against the sentence which stripped +him of the pontificate. He was held prisoner for three years in Germany, +but in the end bought his liberty from the count palatine. He used this +liberty only to go to Florence, in 1419, and throw himself on the mercy +of the legitimate pope. Martin V. appointed him cardinal-bishop of +Tusculum, a dignity which Cossa only enjoyed for a few months. He died +on the 22nd of December 1419, and all visitors to the Baptistery at +Florence may admire, under its high baldacchino, the sombre figure +sculptured by Donatello of the dethroned pontiff, who had at least the +merit of bowing his head under his chastisement, and of contributing by +his passive resignation to the extinction of the series of popes which +sprang from the council of Pisa. (N. V.) + + + + +JOHN I. (925-976), surnamed Tzimisces, East Roman emperor, was born of a +distinguished Cappadocian family. After helping his uncle Nicephorus +Phocas (q.v.) to obtain the throne and to restore the empire's eastern +provinces he was deprived of his command by an intrigue, upon which he +retaliated by conspiring with Nicephorus' wife Theophania to assassinate +him. Elected ruler in his stead, John proceeded to justify his +usurpation by the energy with which he repelled the foreign invaders of +the empire. In a series of campaigns against the newly established +Russian power (970-973) he drove the enemy out of Thrace, crossed Mt +Haemus and besieged the fortress of Dorystolon on the Danube. In several +hard-fought battles he broke the strength of the Russians so completely +that they left him master of eastern Bulgaria. He further secured his +northern frontier by transplanting to Thrace some colonies of Paulicians +whom he suspected of sympathising with their Saracen neighbours in the +east. In 974 he turned against the Abassid empire and easily recovered +the inland parts of Syria and the middle reaches of the Euphrates. He +died suddenly in 976 on his return from his second campaign against the +Saracens. John's surname was apparently derived from the Armenian +_tshemshkik_ (red boot). + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol. vi. + (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, ii. 334-360 (ed. + 1877); G. Schlumberger, _L'Épopée Byzantine_, i. 1-326 (1896). + + + + +JOHN II. (1088-1143), surnamed Comnenus and also Kalojoannes (John the +Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest son of the East Roman emperor +Alexius, whom he succeeded in 1118. On account of his mild and just +reign he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. By the personal +purity of his character he effected a notable improvement in the manners +of his age, but he displayed little vigour in internal administration or +in extirpating the long-standing corruptions of the government. Nor did +his various successes against the Hungarians, Servians and Seljuk Turks, +whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and proposed to expel from Jerusalem, +add much to the stability of his empire. He was accidentally killed +during a wild-boar hunt on Mt Taurus, on the 8th of April 1143. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, v. 228 seq. + (ed. Bury, 1896). + + + + +JOHN III. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas, East Roman +emperor, earned for himself such distinction as a soldier that in 1222 +he was chosen to succeed his father-in-law Theodore I. Lascaris. He +reorganized the remnant of the East Roman empire, and by his +administrative skill made it the strongest and richest principality in +the Levant. Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with the +Turks, he set himself to recover the European possessions of his +predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins in the Aegean Sea and +extended his realm to Rhodes, his army, reinforced by Frankish +mercenaries, defeated the Latin emperor's forces in the open field. +Though unsuccessful in a siege of Constantinople, which he undertook in +concert with the Bulgarians (1235), he obtained supremacy over the +despotats of Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of +Constantinople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 431-462 + (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, iii. 196-320 (ed. + 1877); A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Historia tou Basileiou tês Nikaias kai + tou Despotatou tês Êpeirou], pp. 155-421 (1898). + + + + +JOHN IV. (c. 1250-c. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman emperor, son +of Theodore II. His father dying in 1258, Michael Palaeologus conspired +shortly after to make himself regent, and in 1261 dethroned and blinded +the boy monarch, and imprisoned him in a remote castle, where he died a +long time after. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 459-466 + (ed. Bury, 1896); A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Historia tou Basileiou tês + Nikaias] (Athens, 1898), pp. 491-528. + + + + +JOHN V. or VI. (1332-1391), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, +was the son of Andronicus III., whom he succeeded in 1341. At first he +shared his sovereignty with his father's friend John Cantacuzene, and +after a quarrel with the latter was practically superseded by him for a +number of years (1347-1355). His reign was marked by the gradual +dissolution of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son +Andronicus and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381 +John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to secure the +help of the popes by submitting to the supremacy of the Roman Church. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vi. 495 + seq., vii. 38 seq. (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, _The Destruction of the + Greek Empire_, pp. 70-96 (1903). + + + + +JOHN VI. or V. (c. 1292-1383), surnamed Cantacuzene, East Roman emperor, +was born at Constantinople. Connected with the house of Palaeologus on +his mother's side, on the accession of Andronicus III. (1328) he was +entrusted with the supreme administration of affairs. On the death of +the emperor in 1341, Cantacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his +son John Palaeologus, who was but nine years of age. Being suspected by +the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, he rebelled, and +got himself crowned emperor at Didymoteichos in Thrace, while John +Palaeologus and his supporters maintained themselves at Constantinople. +The civil war which ensued lasted six years, during which the rival +parties called in the aid of the Servians and Turks, and engaged +mercenaries of every description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, +with whom he made a disgraceful bargain, that Cantacuzene brought the +war to a termination favourable to himself. In 1347 he entered +Constantinople in triumph, and forced his opponents to an arrangement by +which he became joint emperor with John Palaeologus and sole +administrator during the minority of his colleague. During this period, +the empire, already broken up and reduced to the narrowest limits, was +assailed on every side. There were wars with the Genoese, who had a +colony at Galata and had money transactions with the court; and with the +Servians, who were at that time establishing an extensive empire on the +north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous alliance with the +Turks, who made their first permanent settlement in Europe, at +Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the reign (1354). Cantacuzene +was far too ready to invoke the aid of foreigners in his European +quarrels; and as he had no money to pay them, this gave them a ready +pretext for seizing upon a European town. The financial burdens imposed +by him had long been displeasing to his subjects, and a strong party had +always favoured John Palaeologus. Hence, when the latter entered +Constantinople at the end of 1354, his success was easy. Cantacuzene +retired to a monastery (where he assumed the name of Joasaph +Christodulus) and occupied himself in literary labours. He died in the +Peloponnese and was buried by his sons at Mysithra in Laconia. His +_History_ in four books deals with the years 1320-1356. Really an +apologia for his own actions, it needs to be read with caution; +fortunately it can be supplemented and corrected by the work of a +contemporary, Nicephorus Gregoras. It possesses the merit of being well +arranged and homogeneous, the incidents being grouped round the chief +actor in the person of the author, but the information is defective on +matters with which he is not directly concerned. + + Cantacuzene was also the author of a commentary on the first five + books of Aristotle's _Ethics_, and of several controversial + theological treatises, one of which (_Against Mohammedanism_) is + printed in Migne (_Patrologia Graeca_, cliv.). _History_, ed. pr. by + J. Pontanus (1603); in Bonn, _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, by J. + Schopen (1828-1832) and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, + _Cantacuzène, homme d'état et historien_ (1845); E. Gibbon, _Decline + and Fall_, ch. lxiii.; and C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + + + +JOHN VI. or VII. (1390-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, +son of Manuel II., succeeded to the throne in 1425. To secure protection +against the Turks he visited the pope and consented to the union of the +Greek and Roman churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The +union failed of its purpose, but by his prudent conduct towards the +Ottomans he succeeded in holding possession of Constantinople, and in +1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I. + + See TURKEY: _History_; and also E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of + the Roman Empire_, vi. 97-107 (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, _The + Destruction of the Greek Empire_, pp. 115-130 (1903). + + + + +JOHN (1167-1216), king of England, the youngest son of Henry II. by +Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford on the 24th of December 1167. +He was given at an early age the nickname of Lackland because, unlike +his elder brothers, he received no apanage in the continental provinces. +But his future was a subject of anxious thought to Henry II. When only +five years old John was betrothed (1173) to the heiress of Maurienne and +Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the chief routes from France +and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a consequence out of all proportion to +its area. Later, when this plan had fallen through, he was endowed with +castles, revenues and lands on both sides of the channel; the vacant +earldom of Cornwall was reserved for him (1175); he was betrothed to +Isabella the heiress of the earldom of Gloucester (1176); and he was +granted the lordship of Ireland with the homage of the Anglo-Irish +baronage (1177). Henry II. even provoked a civil war by attempting to +transfer the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of Richard Coeur de Lion +to those of John (1183). In spite of the incapacity which he displayed +in this war, John was sent a little later to govern Ireland (1185); but +he returned in a few months covered with disgrace, having alienated the +loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and entirely failed to defend the +settlers from the hostile septs. Remaining henceforth at his father's +side he was treated with the utmost indulgence. But he joined with his +brother Richard and the French king Philip Augustus in the great +conspiracy of 1189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of +the old king (see HENRY II.). + +Richard on his accession confirmed John's existing possessions; married +him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides other grants, the +entire revenues of six English shires; but excluded him from any share +in the regency which was appointed to govern England during the third +crusade; and only allowed him to live in the kingdom because urged to +this concession by their mother. Soon after the king's departure for the +Holy Land it became known that he had designated his nephew, the young +Arthur of Brittany, as his successor. John at once began to intrigue +against the regents with the aim of securing England for himself. He +picked a quarrel with the unpopular chancellor William Longchamp (q.v.), +and succeeded, by the help of the barons and the Londoners, in expelling +this minister, whose chief fault was that of fidelity to the absent +Richard. Not being permitted to succeed Longchamp as the head of the +administration, John next turned to Philip Augustus for help. A bargain +was struck; and when Richard was captured by Leopold, duke of Austria +(December 1192), the allies endeavoured to prevent his release, and +planned a partition of his dominions. They were, however, unable to win +either English or Norman support and their schemes collapsed with +Richard's return (March 1194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother, +and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five years. On his +deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements, caused his barons +to swear fealty to John (1199), although the hereditary claim of Arthur +was by the law of primogeniture undoubtedly superior. + +England and Normandy, after some hesitation, recognized John's title; +the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the rights of Arthur ended +disastrously by the capture of the young prince at Mirebeau in Poitou +(1202). But there was no part of his dominions in which John inspired +personal devotion. Originally accepted as a political necessity, he soon +came to be detested by the people as a tyrant and despised by the nobles +for his cowardice and sloth. He inherited great difficulties--the feud +with France, the dissensions of the continental provinces, the growing +indifference of England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his +subjects with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he cannot be +acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes. Astute in +small matters, he had no breadth of view or foresight; his policy was +continually warped by his passions or caprices; he flaunted vices of the +most sordid kind with a cynical indifference to public opinion, and +shocked an age which was far from tender-hearted by his ferocity to +vanquished enemies. He treated his most respectable supporters with base +ingratitude, reserved his favour for unscrupulous adventurers, and gave +a free rein to the licence of his mercenaries. While possessing +considerable gifts of mind and a latent fund of energy, he seldom acted +or reflected until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great +humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders. By +his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the English baronage +(1200); by his marriage with Isabella of Angoulême, the betrothed of +Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an opportunity to the discontented Poitevins +for invoking French assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing +against him a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (1203) ruined +his cause in Normandy and Anjou; the story that the court of the peers +of France condemned him for the murder is a fable, but no legal process +was needed to convince men of his guilt. In the later quarrel with +Innocent III. (1207-1213; see LANGTON, STEPHEN) he prejudiced his case +by proposing a worthless favourite for the primacy and by plundering +those of the clergy who bowed to the pope's sentences. Threatened with +the desertion of his barons he drove all whom he suspected to +desperation by his terrible severity towards the Braose family (1210); +and by his continued misgovernment irrevocably estranged the lower +classes. When submission to Rome had somewhat improved his position he +squandered his last resources in a new and unsuccessful war with France +(1214), and enraged the feudal classes by new claims for military +service and scutages. The barons were consequently able to exact, in +Magna Carta (June 1215), much more than the redress of legitimate +grievances; and the people allowed the crown to be placed under the +control of an oligarchical committee. When once the sovereign power had +been thus divided, the natural consequence was civil war and the +intervention of the French king, who had long watched for some such +opportunity. John's struggle against the barons and Prince Louis (1216), +afterwards King Louis VIII., was the most creditable episode of his +career. But the calamitous situation of England at the moment of his +death, on the 19th of October 1216, was in the main his work; and while +he lived a national reaction in favour of the dynasty was out of the +question. + +John's second wife, Isabella of Angoulême (d. 1246), who married her +former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the English king's death, bore the +king two sons, Henry III. and Richard, earl of Cornwall; and three +daughters, Joan (1210-1238), wife of Alexander II., king of Scotland, +Isabella (d. 1241), wife of the emperor Frederick II., and Eleanor (d. +1274), wife of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and then of Simon de +Montfort, earl of Leicester. John had also two illegitimate sons, +Richard and Oliver, and a daughter, Joan or Joanna, who married Llewelyn +I. ab Iorwerth, prince of North Wales, and who died in 1236 or 1237. + + AUTHORITIES.--The chief chronicles for the reign are Gervase of + Canterbury's _Gesta regum_, Ralf of Coggeshall's _Chronicon_, Walter + of Coventry's _Memoriale_, Roger of Wendover's _Flores historiarum_, + the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan--all these in the Rolls + Series. The French chronicle of the so-called "Anonyme de Béthune" + (Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_, vol. + xxiv.), the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre_ + (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) and the metrical biography of William the + Marshal (_Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal_, ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., + Paris, 1891, &c.) throw valuable light on certain episodes. H. S. + Sweetman's _Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland_, vol. i. (Rolls + Series); W. H. Bliss's _Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers_, + vol. i. (Rolls Series); Potthast's _Regesta pontificum_, vol. i. + (Berlin, 1874); Sir T. D. Hardy's _Rotuli litterarum clausarum_ (Rec. + Commission, 1835) and _Rotuli litterarum patentium_ (Rec. Commission, + 1835) and L. Delisle's _Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste_ + (Paris, 1856) are the most important guides to the documents. Of + modern works W. Stubbs's _Constitutional history_, vol. i. (Oxford, + 1897); the same writer's preface to _Walter of Coventry_, vol. ii. + (Rolls Series); Miss K. Norgate's _John Lackland_ (London, 1902); C. + Petit-Dutaillis' _Étude sur la vie et le règne de Louis VIII._ (Paris, + 1894) and W. S. McKechnie's _Magna Carta_ (Glasgow, 1905) are among + the most useful. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +JOHN I. (1350-1395), king of Aragon, was the son of Peter IV. and his +third wife Eleanor of Sicily. He was born on the 27th of December 1350, +and died by a fall from his horse, like his namesake, cousin and +contemporary of Castile. He was a man of insignificant character, with a +taste for artificial verse. + + + + +JOHN II. (1397-1479), king of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. and of his +wife Eleanor of Albuquerque, born on the 29th of June 1397, was one of +the most stirring and most unscrupulous kings of the 15th century. In +his youth he was one of the _infantes_ (princes) of Aragon who took part +in the dissensions of Castile during the minority and reign of John II. +Till middle life he was also lieutenant-general in Aragon for his +brother and predecessor Alphonso V., whose reign was mainly spent in +Italy. In his old age he was engaged in incessant conflicts with his +Aragonese and Catalan subjects, with Louis XI. of France, and in +preparing the way for the marriage of his son Ferdinand with Isabella of +Castile, which brought about the union of the crowns. His troubles with +his subjects were closely connected with the tragic dissensions in his +own family. John was first married to Blanche of Navarre, of the house +of Evreux. By right of Blanche he became king of Navarre, and on her +death in 1441 he was left in possession of the kingdom for his life. But +a son Charles, called, as heir of Navarre, prince of Viana, had been +born of the marriage. John from the first regarded his son with +jealousy, which after his second marriage with Joan Henriquez, and under +her influence, grew into absolute hatred. He endeavoured to deprive his +son of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon +during his father's absence. The cause of the son was taken up by the +Aragonese, and the king's attempt to join his second wife in the +lieutenant-generalship was set aside. There followed a long conflict, +with alternations of success and defeat, which was not terminated till +the death of the prince of Viana, perhaps by poison given him by his +stepmother, in 1461. The Catalans, who had adopted the cause of Charles +and who had grievances of their own, called in a succession of foreign +pretenders. In conflict with these the last years of King John were +spent. He was forced to pawn Rousillon, his possession on the north-east +of the Pyrenees, to Louis XI., who refused to part with it. In his old +age he was blinded by cataract, but recovered his eyesight by the +operation of couching. The Catalan revolt was pacified in 1472, but John +had war, in which he was generally unfortunate, with his neighbour the +French king till his death on the 20th of January 1479. He was succeeded +by Ferdinand, his son by his second marriage, who was already associated +with his wife Isabella as joint sovereign of Castile. + + For the history, see Rivadeneyra, "Cronicás de los reyes de Castilla," + _Biblioteca de antares españoles_, vols. lxvi, lxviii (Madrid, 1845, + &c.); G. Zurita, _Anales de Aragon_ (Saragossa, 1610). The reign of + John II. of Aragon is largely dealt with in W. H. Prescott's _History + of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_ (1854). + + + + +JOHN (1296-1346), king of Bohemia, was a son of the emperor Henry VII. +by his wife Margaret, daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and was a +member of the family of Luxemburg. Born on the 10th of August 1296, he +became count of Luxemburg in 1309, and about the same time was offered +the crown of Bohemia, which, after the death of Wenceslas III., the last +king of the Premyslides dynasty in 1306, had passed to Henry, duke of +Carinthia, under whose weak rule the country was in a very disturbed +condition. The emperor accepted this offer on behalf of his son, who +married Elizabeth (d. 1330), a sister of Wenceslas, and after Henry's +departure for Italy, John was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague in +February 1311. Henry of Carinthia was driven from the land, where a +certain measure of order was restored, and Moravia was again united with +Bohemia. As imperial vicar John represented his father at the diet of +Nuremberg in January 1313, and was leading an army to his assistance in +Italy when he heard of the emperor's death, which took place in August +1313. John was now a candidate for the imperial throne; but, on account +of his youth, his claim was not regarded seriously, and he was persuaded +to give his support to Louis, duke of Upper Bavaria, afterwards the +emperor Louis the Bavarian. At Esslingen and elsewhere he aided Louis in +his struggle with Frederick the Fair, duke of Austria, who also claimed +the Empire; but his time was mainly passed in quelling disturbances in +Bohemia, where his German followers were greatly disliked and where he +himself soon became unpopular, especially among the nobles; or in +Luxemburg, the borders of which county he was constantly and +successfully striving to extend. Restless, adventurous and warlike, John +had soon tired of governing his kingdom, and even discussed exchanging +it with the emperor Louis for the Palatinate; and while Bohemia was +again relapsing into a state of anarchy, her king was winning fame as a +warrior in almost every part of Europe. He fought against the citizens +of Metz and against his kinsman, John III., duke of Brabant; he led the +knights of the Teutonic Order against the heathen in Lithuania and +Pomerania and promised Pope John XXII. to head a crusade; and claiming +to be king of Poland he attacked the Poles and brought Silesia under his +rule. He obtained Tirol by marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret +Maultasch, the heiress of the county, assisted the emperor to defeat and +capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322, and was +alternately at peace and at war with the dukes of Austria and with his +former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He was a frequent and welcome visitor to +France, in which country he had a personal and hereditary interest; and +on several occasions his prowess was serviceable to his brother-in-law +King Charles IV., and to Charles's successor Philip VI., whose son John, +afterwards King John II., married a daughter of the Bohemian king. Soon +after the battle of Mühldorf, the relations between John and the emperor +became somewhat strained, partly owing to the king's growing friendship +with the Papacy and with France, and partly owing to territorial +disputes. An agreement, however, was concluded, and John undertook his +invasion of Italy, which was perhaps the most dazzling of his exploits. +Invited by the citizens of Brescia, he crossed the Alps with a meagre +following in 1331, quickly received the homage of many of the cities of +northern Italy, and soon found himself the ruler of a great part of the +peninsula. But his soldiers were few and his enemies were many, and a +second invasion of Italy in 1333 was followed by the dissipation of his +dreams of making himself king of Lombardy and Tuscany, and even of +supplanting Louis on the imperial throne. The fresh trouble between king +and emperor, caused by this enterprise, was intensified by a quarrel +over the lands left by Henry of Carinthia, and still later by the +interference of Louis in Tirol; and with bewildering rapidity John was +allying himself with the kings of Hungary and Poland, fighting against +the emperor and his Austrian allies, defending Bohemia, governing +Luxemburg, visiting France and negotiating with the pope. About 1340 the +king was overtaken by blindness, but he continued to lead an active +life, successfully resisting the attacks of Louis and his allies, and +campaigning in Lithuania. In 1346 he made a decisive move against the +emperor. Acting in union with Pope Clement VI. he secured the formal +deposition of Louis and the election of his own son Charles, margrave of +Moravia, as German king, or king of the Romans, in July 1346. Then +journeying to help Philip of France against the English, he fought at +the battle of Crécy, where his heroic death on the 26th of August 1346 +was a fitting conclusion to his adventurous life. + +John was a chivalrous and romantic personage, who enjoyed a great +reputation for valour both before and after his death; but as a ruler he +was careless and extravagant, interested only in his kingdom when +seeking relief from his constant pecuniary embarrassments. After the +death of his first wife, who bore him two sons, Charles, afterwards the +emperor Charles IV., and John Henry (d. 1375), and who had been +separated from her husband for some years, the king married Beatrice (d. +1383), daughter of Louis I., duke of Bourbon, by whom he had a son, +Wenceslas (d. 1383). According to Camden the crest or badge of three +ostrich feathers, with the motto _Ich dien_, borne by the prince of +Wales was originally that of John of Bohemia and was first assumed by +Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crécy. There is no proof, +however, that this badge was ever worn by John--it certainly was not his +crest--and its origin must be sought elsewhere. + + See J. Schötter, _Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and König von Böhmen_ + (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer und König + Johann von Böhmen_ (Munich, 1860), and U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des + sources historiques_, tome v. (Paris, 1905). + + + + +JOHN I. (1358-1390), king of Castile, was the son of Henry II., and of +his wife Joan, daughter of John Manuel of Villena, head of a younger +branch of the royal house of Castile. In the beginning of his reign he +had to contend with the hostility of John of Gaunt, who claimed the +crown by right of his wife Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel. The +king of Castile finally bought off the claim of his English competitor +by arranging a marriage between his son Henry and Catherine, daughter of +John of Gaunt, in 1387. Before this date he had been engaged in +hostilities with Portugal which was in alliance with John of Gaunt. His +first quarrel with Portugal was settled by his marriage, in 1382, with +Beatrix, daughter of the Portuguese king Ferdinand. On the death of his +father-in-law in 1383, John endeavoured to enforce the claims of his +wife, Ferdinand's only child, to the crown of Portugal. He was resisted +by the national sentiment of the people, and was utterly defeated at +the battle of Aljubarrota, on the 14th of August 1385. King John was +killed at Alcalá on the 9th of October 1390 by the fall of his horse, +while he was riding in a _fantasia_ with some of the light horsemen +known as the _farfanes_, who were mounted and equipped in the Arab +style. + + + + +JOHN II. (1405-1454), king of Castile, was born on the 6th of March +1405, the son of Henry III. of Castile and of his wife Catherine, +daughter of John of Gaunt. He succeeded his father on the 25th of +December 1406 at the age of a year and ten months. It was one of the +many misfortunes of Castile that the long reign of John II.--forty-nine +years--should have been granted to one of the most incapable of her +kings. John was amiable, weak and dependent on those about him. He had +no taste except for ornament, and no serious interest except in +amusements, verse-making, hunting and tournaments. He was entirely under +the influence of his favourite, Alvaro de Luna, till his second wife, +Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her +instigation he threw over his faithful and able favourite, a meanness +which is said to have caused him well-deserved remorse. He died on the +20th of July 1454 at Valladolid. By his second marriage he was the +father of Isabella "the Catholic." + + + + +JOHN I. (b. and d. 1316), king of France, son of Louis X. and Clemence, +daughter of Charles Martel, who claimed to be king of Hungary, was born, +after his father's death, on the 15th of November 1316, and only lived +seven days. His uncle, afterwards Philip V. has been accused of having +caused his death, or of having substituted a dead child in his place; +but nothing was ever proved. An impostor calling himself John I., +appeared in Provence, in the reign of John II., but he was captured and +died in prison. + + + + +JOHN II. (1319-1364), surnamed the Good, king of France, son of Philip +VI. and Jeanne of Burgundy, succeeded his father in 1350. At the age of +13 he married Bona of Luxemburg, daughter of John, king of Bohemia. His +early exploits against the English were failures and revealed in the +young prince both avarice and stubborn persistence in projects obviously +ill-advised. It was especially the latter quality which brought about +his ruin. His first act upon becoming king was to order the execution of +the constable, Raoul de Brienne. The reasons for this are unknown, but +from the secrecy with which it was carried out and the readiness with +which the honour was transferred to the king's close friend Charles of +La Cesda, it has been attributed to the influence and ambition of the +latter. John surrounded himself with evil counsellors, Simon de Buci, +Robert de Lorris, Nicolas Braque, men of low origin who robbed the +treasury and oppressed the people, while the king gave himself up to +tournaments and festivities. In imitation of the English order of the +Garter, he established the knightly order of the Star, and celebrated +its festivals with great display. Raids of the Black Prince in Languedoc +led to the states-general of 1355, which readily voted money, but +sanctioned the right of resistance against all kinds of pillage--a +distinct commentary on the incompetence of the king. In September 1356 +John gathered the flower of his chivalry and attacked the Black Prince +at Poitiers. The utter defeat of the French was made the more +humiliating by the capture of their king, who had bravely led the third +line of battle. Taken to England to await ransom, John was at first +installed in the Savoy Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and +at last in the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive +companions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with luxuries +imported by him from France. The treaty of Brétigny (1360), which fixed +his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him to return to France, but +although he married his daughter Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of +Milan, for a gift of 600,000 golden crowns, imposed a heavy feudal "aid" +on merchandise, and various other taxes, John was unable to pay more +than 400,000 crowns to Edward III. His son Louis of Anjou, who had been +left as hostage, escaped from Calais in the summer of 1363, and John, +far in arrears in the payments of the ransom, surrendered himself again +"to maintain his royal honour which his son had sullied." He landed in +England in January 1364 and was received with great honour, lodged again +in the Savoy, and was a frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. He +died on the 8th of April, and the body was sent back to France with +royal honours. + + See Froissart's _Chronicles_; Duc d'Aumale, _Notes et documents + relatifs à Jean, roi de France, et à sa captivité_ (1856); A. Coville, + in Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, vol. iv., and authorities cited + there. + + + + +JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the son of the palatine +Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of Teschen, and was born at the +castle of Szepesvár. He began his public career at the famous Rákos diet +of 1505, when, on his motion, the assembly decided that after the death +of the reigning king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be +elected king of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for +the throne, which his family had long coveted. As far back as 1491 his +mother had proposed to the sick king that his daughter Anne should be +committed to her care in order, subsequently, to be married to her son; +but Wladislaus frustrated this project by contracting a matrimonial +alliance with the Habsburgs. In 1510 Zapolya sued in person for the hand +of the Princess Anne in vain, and his appointment to the voivody of +Transylvania (1511) was with the evident intention of removing him far +from court. In 1513, after a successful raid in Turkish territory, he +hastened to Buda at the head of 1000 horsemen and renewed his suit, +which was again rejected. In 1514 he stamped out the dangerous peasant +rising under Dozsa (q.v.) and the infernal torments by means of which +the rebel leader was slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. +With the gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to +revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of +Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rákos (1516) appointed him the +governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the dignity of +palatine also, but the council of state and the court party combined +against him and appointed István Báthory instead (1519). The strife of +factions now burnt more fiercely than ever at the very time when the +pressure of the Turk demanded the combination of all the national forces +against a common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and +dissensions of Zapolya and Báthory that the great fortress of Belgrade +was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the fate of Hungary. In +1522 the diet would have appointed both Zapolya and Báthory +captains-general of the realm, but the court set Zapolya aside and chose +Báthory only. At the diets of Hátvan and Rákos in 1522, Zapolya placed +himself at the head of a confederation to depose the palatine and the +other great officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following +year, however, the revolutionary Hátvan diet drove out all the members +of the council of state and made István Verböczy, the great jurist, and +a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this hopeless anarchy, +Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary with a countless army, and +the young king perished on the field of Mohács in a vain attempt to stay +his progress, the contradictory orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya +from arriving in time to turn the fortunes of the day. The court party +accused him of deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge +must be pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed at +Mohács, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya was elected king +of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj (Oct. 14), the election was +confirmed by the diet of Székesfehérvár (10th of November), and he was +crowned on the following day with the holy crown. + +A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdinand I., at +once ensued (see HUNGARY: _History_) and it was only with the aid of the +Turks that king John was able to exhaust his opponent and compel him to +come to terms. Finally, in 1538, by the compact of Nagyvárad, Ferdinand +recognized John as king of Hungary, but secured the right of succession +on his death. Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the +kingdom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection. John +was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a statesman, lies +in his stout vindication of the national independence, though without +the assistance of his great minister György Utiesenovich, better known +as "Frater George" (Cardinal Martinuzzi (q.v.)), this would have been +impossible. Indirectly he contributed to the subsequent conquest of +Hungary by admitting the Turk as a friend. + + See Vilmos Fraknoi, _Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohács_ (Budapest, + 1886); L. Kupelwieser, _Die Kämpfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen bis zur + Schlacht bei Mohács_ (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsády, _History of the + Hungarian Realm_, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902-1904). + + + + +JOHN OF BRIENNE (c. 1148-1237), king of Jerusalem and Latin emperor of +Constantinople, was a man of sixty years of age before he began to play +any considerable part in history. Destined originally for the Church, he +had preferred to become a knight, and in forty years of tournaments and +fights he had won himself a considerable reputation, when in 1208 envoys +came from the Holy Land to ask Philip Augustus, king of France, to +select one of his barons as husband to the heiress, and ruler of the +kingdom, of Jerusalem. Philip selected John of Brienne, and promised to +support him in his new dignity. In 1210 John married the heiress Mary +(daughter of Isabella and Conrad of Montferrat), assuming the title of +king in right of his wife. In 1211, after some desultory operations, he +concluded a six years' truce with Malik-el-Adil; in 1212 he lost his +wife, who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married an +Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) he was a prominent +figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the command; and insisting +on the advance from Damietta, in spite of the warnings of King John, he +refused to accept the favourable terms of the sultan, as the king +advised, until it was too late. After the failure of the crusade, King +John came to the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met +Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where, in +order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy Land, +Frederick was betrothed to John's daughter Isabella, now heiress of the +kingdom. After the meeting at Ferentino, John went to France and +England, finding little consolation; and thence he travelled to +Compostella, where he married a new wife, Berengaria of Castile. After a +visit to Germany he returned to Rome (1225). Here he received a demand +from Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella) that he should abandon +his title and dignity of king, which--so Frederick claimed--had passed +to himself along with the heiress of the kingdom. John was now a +septuagenarian "king in exile," but he was still vigorous enough to +revenge himself on Frederick, by commanding the papal troops which +attacked southern Italy during the emperor's absence on the sixth +crusade (1228-1229). In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited +by the barons of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, +on condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second daughter +and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constantinople, and in 1235, +with a few troops, he repelled a great siege of the city by Vataces of +Nicaea and Azen of Bulgaria. After this last feat of arms, which has +perhaps been exaggerated by the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to +Hector and the Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar. +An aged paladin, somewhat uxorious and always penniless, he was a +typical knight errant, whose wanderings led him all over Europe, and +planted him successively on the thrones of Jerusalem and Constantinople. + + The story of John's career must be sought partly in histories of the + kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East, partly in + monographs. Among these, of which R. Röhricht gives a list + (_Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem_, p. 699, n. 3), see especially + that of E. de Montcarmet, _Un chevalier du temps passé_ (Limoges, 1876 + and 1881). + + + + +JOHN III. (SOBIESKI) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the eldest son of +James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Theofila Danillowiczowna, +grand-daughter of the great Hetman Zolkiewski. After being educated at +Cracow, he made the grand tour with his brother Mark and returned to +Poland in 1648. He served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was +present at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but was +one of the first to desert his unhappy country when invaded by the +Swedes in 1654, and actually assisted them to conquer the Prussian +provinces in 1655. He returned to his lawful allegiance in the +following year and assisted Czarniecki in his difficult task of +expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish provinces. For +his subsequent services to King John Casimir, especially in the Ukraine +against the Tatars and Cossacks, he received the grand bâton of the +crown, or commandership-in-chief (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded +Czarniecki as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned these +distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but he was now to +exhibit a less pleasing side of his character. He was in fact a typical +representative of the unscrupulous self-seeking Polish magnates of the +17th century who were always ready to sacrifice everything, their +country included, to their own private ambition. At the election diet of +1669 he accepted large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the +French candidates; after the election of Michael Wisniowiecki (June 19, +1669) he openly conspired, again in the French interest, against his +lawful sovereign, and that too at the very time when the Turk was +ravaging the southern frontier of the republic. Michael was the feeblest +monarch the Poles could have placed upon the throne, and Sobieski +deliberately attempted to make government of any kind impossible. He +formed a league with the primate Prazmowski and other traitors to +dethrone the king; when (1670) the plot was discovered and participation +in it repudiated by Louis XIV., the traitors sought the help of the +elector of Brandenburg against their own justly indignant countrymen. +Two years later the same traitors again conspired against the king, at +the very time when the Turks had defeated Sobieski's unsupported +lieutenant, Luzecki, at Czertwertyworska and captured the fortress of +Kamieniec (Kamenetz-Podolskiy), the key of south-eastern Poland, while +Lemberg was only saved by the valour of Elias Lancki. The unhappy king +did the only thing possible in the circumstances. He summoned the +_tuszenia pospolite_, or national armed assembly; but it failed to +assemble in time, whereupon Michael was constrained to sign the +disgraceful peace of Buczacz (Oct. 17, 1672) whereby Poland ceded to the +Porte the whole of the Ukraine with Podolia and Kamieniec. Aroused to +duty by a series of disasters for which he himself was primarily +responsible, Sobieski now hastened to the frontier, and won four +victories in ten days. But he could not recover Kamieniec, and when the +_tuszenia pospolite_ met at Golenba and ordered an inquiry into the +conduct of Sobieski and his accomplices he frustrated all their efforts +by summoning a counter confederation to meet at Szczebrzeszyn. Powerless +to oppose a rebel who was at the same time commander-in-chief, both the +king and the diet had to give way, and a compromise was come to whereby +the peace of Buczacz was repudiated and Sobieski was given a chance of +rehabilitating himself, which he did by his brilliant victory over an +immense Turkish host at Khotin (Nov. 10, 1673). The same day King +Michael died and Sobieski, determined to secure the throne for himself, +hastened to the capital, though Tatar bands were swarming over the +frontier and the whole situation was acutely perilous. Appearing at the +elective diet of 1674 at the head of 6000 veterans he overawed every +other competitor, and despite the persistent opposition of the +Lithuanians was elected king on the 21st of May. By this time, however, +the state of things in the Ukraine was so alarming that the new king had +to hasten to the front. Assisted by French diplomacy at the Porte (Louis +XIV. desiring to employ Poland against Austria), and his own skilful +negotiations with the Tatar khan, John III. now tried to follow the +example of Wladislaus IV. by leaving the guardianship of the Ukraine +entirely in the hands of the Cossacks, while he assembled as many +regulars and militiamen as possible at Lemberg, whence he might hasten +with adequate forces to defend whichever of the provinces of the +Republic might be in most danger. But the appeal of the king was like +the voice of one crying in the wilderness, and not one gentleman in a +hundred hastened to the assistance of the fatherland. Even at the end of +August Sobieski had but 3000 men at his disposal to oppose to 60,000 +Turks. Only his superb strategy and the heroic devotion of his +lieutenants--notably the converted Jew, Jan Samuel Chrzanowski, who held +the Ottoman army at bay for eleven days behind the walls of +Trembowla--enabled the king to remove "the pagan yoke from our +shoulders"; and he returned to be crowned at Cracow on the 14th of +February 1676. In October 1676, in his entrenched camp at Zaravno, he +with 13,000 men withstood 80,000 Turks for three weeks, and recovered by +special treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty +of Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676). + +Having now secured peace abroad Sobieski was desirous of strengthening +Poland at home by establishing absolute monarchy; but Louis XIV. looked +coldly on the project, and from this time forth the old familiar +relations between the republic and the French monarchy were strained to +breaking point, though the final rupture did not come till 1682 on the +arrival of the Austrian minister, Zerowski, at Warsaw. After resisting +every attempt of the French court to draw him into the anti-Habsburg +league, Sobieski signed the famous treaty of alliance with the emperor +Leopold against the Turks (March 31, 1683), which was the prelude to the +most glorious episode of his life, the relief of Vienna and the +liberation of Hungary from the Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of +the 12th of September 1683 was ultimately decided by the charge of the +Polish cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Unfortunately Poland profited +little or nothing by this great triumph, and now that she had broken the +back of the enemy she was left to fight the common enemy in the Ukraine +with whatever assistance she could obtain from the unwilling and unready +Muscovites. The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a +period of unmitigated humiliation and disaster. He now reaped to the +full the harvest of treason and rebellion which he himself had sown so +abundantly during the first forty years of his life. A treasonable +senate secretly plotting his dethronement, a mutinous diet rejecting the +most necessary reforms for fear of "absolutism," ungrateful allies who +profited exclusively by his victories--these were his inseparable +companions during the remainder of his life. Nay, at last his evil +destiny pursued him to the battlefield and his own home. His last +campaign (in 1690) was an utter failure, and the last years of his life +were embittered by the violence and the intrigues of his dotingly +beloved wife, Marya Kazimiera d'Arquien, by whom he had three sons, +James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on the 17th of June 1696, a +disillusioned and broken-hearted old man. + + See Tadeusz Korzon, _Fortunes and Misfortunes of John Sobieski_ (Pol.) + (Cracow, 1898); E. H. R. Tatham, _John Sobieski_ (Oxford, 1881); + Kazimierz Waliszewski, _Archives of French Foreign Affairs_, + 1674-1696, v. (Cracow, 1881); Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, _John Sobieski and + His Times_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882-1885); Kazimierz Waliszewski, + _Marysienka Queen of Poland_ (London, 1898); Georg Rieder, _Johann + Sobieski_ in Wien (Vienna, 1882). (R. N. B.) + + + + +JOHN I. (1357-1433), king of Portugal, the natural son of Pedro I. (_el +Justicieiro_), was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of April 1357, and in 1364 +was created grand-master of Aviz. On the death of his lawful brother +Ferdinand I., without male issue, in October 1383, strenuous efforts +were made to secure the succession for Beatrice, the only child of +Ferdinand I., who as heiress-apparent had been married to John I. of +Castile (Spain), but the popular voice declared against an arrangement +by which Portugal would virtually have become a Spanish province, and +John was after violent tumults proclaimed protector and regent in the +following December. In April 1385 he was unanimously chosen king by the +estates of the realm at Coimbra. The king of Castile invaded Portugal, +but his army was compelled by pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently +by the decisive battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability of +John's throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued +intermittently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by +Beatrice, in 1390. Meanwhile the king of Portugal went on consolidating +the power of the crown at home and the influence of the nation abroad. +In 1415 Ceuta was taken from the Moors by his sons who had been born to +him by his wife Philippa, daughter of John, duke of Lancaster; specially +distinguished in the siege was Prince Henry (q.v.) afterwards generally +known as "the Navigator." John I., sometimes surnamed "the Great," and +sometimes "father of his country," died on the 11th of August 1433, in +the forty-eighth year of a reign which had been characterized by great +prudence, ability and success; he was succeeded by his son Edward or +Duarte, so named out of compliment to Edward III. of England. + + See J. P. Oliveira Martins, _Os filhos de D. João I._ and _A vida de + Nun' Alvares_ (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894). + + + + +JOHN II. (1455-1495), the Perfect, king of Portugal, succeeded his +father, Alphonso V., in August 1481. His first business was to curtail +the overgrown power of his aristocracy; noteworthy incidents in the +contest were the execution (1483) of the duke of Braganza for +correspondence with Castile, and the murder, by the king's own hand, of +the youthful duke of Viseu for conspiracy. This reign was signalized by +Bartholomeu Diaz's discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Maritime +rivalry led to disputes between Portugal and Castile until their claims +were adjusted by the famous treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). John +II. died, without leaving male issue, in October 1495, and was succeeded +by his brother-in-law Emmanuel (Manoel) I. + + See J. P. Oliveira Martins, _O principe perfeito_ (Lisbon, 1895). + + + + +JOHN III. (1502-1557), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon, on the 6th +of June 1502, and ascended the throne as successor of his father +Emmanuel I. in December 1521. In 1524 he married Catherine, sister to +the Emperor Charles V., who shortly afterwards married the infanta +Isabella, John's sister. Succeeding to the crown at a time when Portugal +was at the height of its political power, and Lisbon in a position of +commercial importance previously unknown, John III., unfortunately for +his dominions, became subservient to the clerical party among his +subjects, with disastrous consequences to the commercial and social +prosperity of his kingdom. He died of apoplexy on the 6th of June 1557, +and was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian, then a child of only three +years. + + + + +JOHN IV. (1603-1656), the Fortunate, king of Portugal, was born at +Villaviciosa in March 1603, succeeded to the dukedom of Braganza in +1630, and married Luisa de Guzman, eldest daughter of the duke of Medina +Sidonia, in 1633. By the unanimous voice of the people he was raised to +the throne of Portugal (of which he was held to be the legitimate heir) +at the revolution effected in December 1640 against the Spanish king, +Philip IV. His accession led to a protracted war with Spain, which only +ended with the recognition of Portuguese independence in a subsequent +reign (1668). He died on the 6th of November 1656, and was succeeded by +his son Alphonso VI. + + + + +JOHN V. (1689-1750), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of +October 1689, and succeeded his father Pedro II. in December 1706, being +proclaimed on the 1st of January 1707. One of his first acts was to +intimate his adherence to the Grand Alliance, which his father had +joined in 1703. Accordingly his general Das Minas, along with Lord +Galway, advanced into Castile, but sustained the defeat of Almanza +(April 14). In October 1708 he married Maria Anna, daughter of Leopold +I., thus strengthening the alliance with Austria; the series of +unsuccessful campaigns which ensued ultimately terminated in a +favourable peace with France in 1713 and with Spain in 1715. The rest of +his long reign was characterized by royal subservience to the clergy, +the kingdom being administered by ecclesiastical persons and for +ecclesiastical objects to an extent that gave him the best of rights to +the title "Most Faithful King," bestowed upon him and his successors by +a bull of Pope Benedict XIV. in 1748. John V. died on the 31st of July +1750, and was succeeded by his son Joseph. + + + + +JOHN VI. (1769-1826), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon on the 13th +of May 1769, and received the title of prince of Brazil in 1788. In 1792 +he assumed the reins of government in name of his mother Queen Mary I., +who had become insane. He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical +atmosphere, and, being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless +character, was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus +called on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which he +retained until his mother's death in 1816. (For the political history of +his regency, see PORTUGAL.) In 1816 he was recognized as king of +Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil; the consequent spread of +dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of 1820, and the +proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity +on his return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in 1823, +he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, whom he +ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. He died at Lisbon on the +26th of March 1826, and was succeeded by Pedro IV. + + + + +JOHN (1801-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and +his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was born at Dresden on the 12th of +December 1801. As a boy he took a keen interest in literature and art +(also in history, law, and political science), and studied with the +greatest ardour classical and German literature (Herder, Schiller, +Goethe). He soon began to compose poetry himself, and drew great +inspiration from a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure of which +was however darkened by the death of his brother Clemens. In Pavia the +prince met with Biagioli's edition of Dante, and this gave rise to his +lifelong and fruitful studies of Dante. The first part of his German +translation of Dante was published in 1828, and in 1833 appeared the +complete work, with a valuable commentary, which met with a great +success. Several new editions appeared under his constant supervision, +and he collected a complete library of works on Dante. + +On his return from Italy he was betrothed to Princess Amalia of Bavaria, +daughter of King Maximilian Joseph. He thus became the brother-in-law of +Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, with whom he had a deep and +lasting friendship. His wife Amalia died on the 8th of November 1877, +having borne him nine children, two of whom, Albert and George, later +became kings of Saxony. + +On his return to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy board of +finance (_Geheimes Finanzkollegium_) and in 1825 became its +vice-president. Under the leadership of the president, Freiherr von +Manteuffel, he acquired a thorough knowledge of administration and of +political economy, and laid the foundations of that conservatism which +he retained throughout life. These new activities did not, however, +interrupt his literary and artistic studies. He came into still closer +relations with politics and government after his entry into the privy +council in 1830. During the revolution in Saxony he helped in the +pacification of the country, became commandant of the new national +guard, the political tendencies of which he tried to check, and took an +exceptionally active part in the organization of the constitution of the +4th of September 1831 and especially in the deliberations of the upper +chamber, where he worked with unflagging energy and great ability. +Following the example of his father, he taught his children in person, +and had a great influence on their education. On the 12th of August +1845, during a stay at Leipzig, the prince was the object of hostile +public demonstrations, the people holding him to be the head of an +alleged ultramontane party at court, and the revolution of 1848 +compelled him to interrupt his activities in the upper chamber. +Immediately after the suppression of the revolution he resumed his place +and took part chiefly in the discussion of legal questions. He was also +interested in the amalgamation of the German historical and +archaeological societies. On the death of his brother Frederick Augustus +II., John became, on the 9th of August 1854, king of Saxony. As king he +soon won great popularity owing to his simplicity, graciousness and +increasingly evident knowledge of affairs. In his policy as regards the +German confederation he was entirely on the side of Austria. Though not +opposed to a reform of the federal constitution, he held that its +maintenance under the presidency of Austria was essential. This view he +supported at the assembly of princes at Frankfort in August and +September 1863. He was unable to uphold his views against Prussia, and +in the war of 1866 fought on the side of Austria. It was with difficulty +that, on the conclusion of peace, Austrian diplomacy succeeded in +enabling the king to retain his crown. After 1866 King John gradually +became reconciled to the new state of affairs. He entered the North +German confederation, and in the war of 1870-71 with France his troops +fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on the 29th of +October 1873. + + See J. Petzholdt, "Zur Litteratur des Königs Johann," _Neuer Anzeiger + für Bibliographie_ (1858, 1859, 1871, 1873, 1874); "Aphorismen über + unsern König J.," _Bote von Geising_ (1866-1869); _Das Büchlein vom + König Johann_ (Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, _Preussische + Jahrbücher_ 23 (1869); A. Reumont, "Elogio di Giovanni, Rè di + Sassonia," _Dagli Atti della Accademia della Crusca_ (Florence, 1874); + J. P. von Winterstein, _Johann, König von Sachsen_ (Dresden, 1878), + and in _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_ (1881); H. Ermisch, _Die + Wettiner und die Landesgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1902); O. Kaemmel, + _Sächsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Göschen). (J. Hn.) + + + + +JOHN I. (d. 1294), duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed the +Victorious, one of the most gifted and chivalrous princes of his time, +was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of Burgundy. In 1267 +his elder brother Henry, being infirm of mind and body, was deposed in +his favour. In 1271 John married Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of +France, and on her death in childbirth he took as his second wife (1273) +Margaret of Flanders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was +espoused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France, and during the +reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were close relations of +friendship and alliance between Brabant and France. In 1285 John +accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against Peter III., king of +Aragon, but the duchy of Limburg was the scene of his chief activity and +greatest successes. After the death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the +succession to this duchy was disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had +married Reinald I. count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her +husband continued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed +by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (see Limburg). Not being +strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his rights to John of +Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283. Harassed by desultory +warfare and endless negotiations, and seeing no prospect of holding his +own against the powerful duke of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights +to Henry III. count of Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran III. +of Limburg. Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and +other allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant +at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of Woeringen +near Bonn. Here he was attacked by the forces of the confederacy on the +5th of June 1288. After a bloody struggle John of Brabant, though at the +head of far inferior numbers, was completely victorious. Limburg was +henceforth attached to the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his +conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxemburg +(1291). John the Victorious was a perfect model of a feudal prince in +the days of chivalry, brave, adventurous, excelling in every form of +active exercise, fond of display, generous in temper. He delighted in +tournaments, and was always eager personally to take part in jousts. On +the 3rd of May 1294, on the occasion of some marriage festivities at +Bar, he was wounded in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner, and +died from the effects of the hurt. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Barlandus, _Rerum gestarum a Brabantiae ducibus + historia usque in annum 1526_ (Louvain, 1566); G. C. van der Berghe, + _Jean le Victorieux, duc de Brabant_ (1259-1294), (Louvain, 1857); K. + F. Stallaert, _Gesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en zijne tijdvak_ + (Brussels, 1861); A. Wauters, _Le Duc Jean I^er et le Brabant sous le + règne de ce prince_ (Brussels, 1859). + + + + +JOHN, or HANS (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, was the +younger son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, and was born at +Tangermünde on the 3rd of August 1513. In spite of the _dispositio +Achillea_ which decreed the indivisibility of the electorate, John +inherited the new mark of Brandenburg on his father's death in July +1535. He had been brought up as a strict Catholic, but soon wavered in +his allegiance, and in 1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the +Reformers. About the same time he joined the league of Schmalkalden; but +before the war broke out between the league and the emperor Charles V. +the promises of the emperor had won him over to the imperial side. After +the conclusion of the war, the relations between John and Charles became +somewhat strained. The margrave opposed the _Interim_, issued from +Augsburg in May 1548; and he was the leader of the princes who formed a +league for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in February 1550. The +alliance of these princes, however, with Henry II., king of France, does +not appear to have commended itself to him and after some differences of +opinion with Maurice, elector of Saxony, he returned to the emperor's +side. His remaining years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he +ruled carefully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase +of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Cüstrin and Peitz. He +died at Cüstrin on the 13th of January 1571. His wife Catherine was a +daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick, and as he left no sons the new +mark passed on his death to his nephew John George, elector of +Brandenburg. + + See Berg, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von Küstrin_ + (Landsberg, 1903). + + + + +JOHN (1371-1419), called the Fearless (_Sans Peur_), duke of Burgundy, +son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Flanders, was +born at Dijon on the 28th of May 1371. On the death of his maternal +grandfather in 1384 he received the title of count of Nevers, which he +bore until his father's death. Though originally destined to be the +husband of Catherine, sister of Charles VI. of France, he married in +1385 Margaret, daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria, an alliance which +consolidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of 1396 he +took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the 28th of September was +taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I. at the bloody battle of +Nicopolis, where he earned his surname of "the Fearless." He did not +recover his liberty until 1397, and then only by paying an enormous +ransom. He succeeded his father in 1404, and immediately found himself +in conflict with Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The +history of the following years is filled with the struggles between +these two princes and with their attempts to seize the authority in the +name of the demented king. John endeavoured to strengthen his position +by marrying his daughter Margaret to the dauphin Louis, and by +betrothing his son Philip to a daughter of Charles VI. Like his father, +he looked for support to the popular party, to the tradesmen, +particularly the powerful gild of the butchers, and also to the +university of Paris. In 1405 he opposed in the royal council a scheme of +taxation proposed by the duke of Orleans, which was nevertheless +adopted. Louis retaliated by refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy's +projected expedition against Calais, whereupon John quitted the court in +chagrin on the pretext of taking up his mother's heritage. He was, +however, called back to the council to find that the duke of Orleans and +the queen had carried off the dauphin. John succeeded in bringing back +the dauphin to Paris, and open war seemed imminent between the two +princes. But an arrangement was effected in October 1405, and in 1406 +John was made by royal decree guardian of the dauphin and the king's +children. + +The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force. Hostilities +had been resumed with England; the duke of Orleans had squandered the +money raised for John's expedition against Calais; and the two rivals +broke out into open threats. On the 20th of November 1407 their uncle, +the duke of Berry, brought about a solemn reconciliation, but three days +later Louis was assassinated by John's orders in the Rue Barbette, +Paris. John at first sought to conceal his share in the murder, but +ultimately decided to confess to his uncles, and abruptly left Paris. +His vassals, however, showed themselves determined to support him in his +struggle against the avengers of the duke of Orleans. The court decided +to negotiate, and called upon the duke to return. John entered Paris in +triumph, and instructed the Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) +to pronounce an apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to +his estates by a rising of the people of Liége against his +brother-in-law, the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party +took every advantage of his absence and had Petit's discourse solemnly +refuted. John's victory over the Liégeois at Hasbain on the 23rd of +September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he was reinstated +in his ancient privileges. By the peace of Chartres (March 9, 1409) the +king absolved him from the crime, and Valentina Visconti, the widow of +the murdered duke, and her children pledged themselves to a +reconciliation; while an edict of the 27th of December 1409 gave John +the guardianship of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed +against the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the +instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party opposed to +the Burgundians took its name. The peace of Bicêtre (Nov. 2, 1410) +prevented the outbreak of hostilities, inasmuch as the parties were +enjoined by its terms to return to their estates; but in 1411, in +consequence of ravages committed by the Armagnacs in the environs of +Paris, the duke of Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more +than ever on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the +reforming _Ordonnance Cabochienne_ (so called from Simon Caboche, a +prominent member of the gild of the butchers). But the bloodthirsty +excesses of the populace brought a change. John was forced to withdraw +to Burgundy (August 1413), and the university of Paris and John Gerson +once more censured Petit's propositions, which, but for the lavish +bribes of money and wines offered by John to the prelates, would have +been solemnly condemned at the council of Constance. John's attitude was +undecided; he negotiated with the court and also with the English, who +had just renewed hostilities with France. Although he talked of helping +his sovereign, his troops took no part in the battle of Agincourt +(1415), where, however, two of his brothers, Anthony, duke of Brabant, +and Philip, count of Nevers, fell fighting for France. + +In 1417 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through his loitering +at Lagny;[1] but on the 30th of May 1418 a traitor, one Perrinet +Leclerc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian captain, Villiers +de l'Isle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI., fled from the +town, and John betook himself to the king, who promised to forget the +past. John, however, did nothing to prevent the surrender of Rouen, +which had been besieged by the English, and on which the fate of the +kingdom seemed to depend; and the town was taken in 1419. The dauphin +then decided on a reconciliation, and on the 11th of July the two +princes swore peace on the bridge of Pouilly, near Melun. On the ground +that peace was not sufficiently assured by the Pouilly meeting, a fresh +interview was proposed by the dauphin and took place on the 10th of +September 1419 on the bridge of Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was +felled with an axe by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin's +companions, and done to death by the other members of the dauphin's +escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and afterwards removed to +the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in a magnificent tomb sculptured by +Juan de la Huerta; the tomb was afterwards transferred to the museum in +the _hôtel de ville_. + +By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son, Philip the Good, who +succeeded him; and seven daughters--Margaret, who married in 1404 Louis, +son of Charles VI., and in 1423 Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards +duke of Brittany; Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in +1410 to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Châtillon, +count of Penthièvre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who married John, +duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married Charles I., duke of +Bourbon, in 1425. + + See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_, + (Brussels, 1835-1836); B. Zeller, _Louis de France et Jean sans Peur_ + (Paris, 1886); and E. Petit, _Itinéraire de Philippe le Hardi et de + Jean sans Peur_ (Paris, 1888). (R. Po.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This incident earned for him among the Parisians the contemptuous + nickname of "John of Lagny, who does not hurry." + + + + +JOHN (1468-1532), called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony, fourth son of +the elector Ernest, was born on the 30th of June 1468. In 1486, when his +eldest brother became elector as Frederick III., John received a part of +the paternal inheritance and afterwards assisted his kinsman, the German +king Maximilian I., in several campaigns. He was an early adherent of +Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother's death in May +1525, was soon prominent among the Reformers. Having assisted to +suppress the rising led by Thomas Munzer in 1525, he helped Philip, +landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of Gotha, formed in 1526 for the +protection of the Reformers. He was active at the diet of Spires in +1526, and the "recess" of this diet gave him an opportunity to reform +the church in Saxony, where a plan for divine service was drawn up by +Luther. The assertions of Otto von Pack that a league had been formed +against the elector and his friends induced John to ally himself again +with Philip of Hesse in March 1528, but he restrained Philip from making +an immediate attack upon their opponents. He signed the protest against +the "recess" of the diet of Spires in 1529, being thus one of the +original Protestants, and was actively hostile to Charles V. at the diet +of Augsburg in 1530. Having signed the confession of Augsburg, he was +alone among the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, +afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was among +the first members of the league of Schmalkalden, assented to the +religious peace of Nuremberg in 1532, and died at Schweidnitz on the +16th of August 1532. John was twice married and left two sons and two +daughters. His elder son, John Frederick, succeeded him as elector, and +his younger son was John Ernest (d. 1553). He rendered great services to +the Protestant cause in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely +refused to come to any understanding with other opponents of the older +faith. + + See J. Becker, _Kurfürst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen zu + Luther_ (Leipzig, 1890); J. Janssen, _History of the German People_ + (English translation), vol. v. (London, 1903); L. von Ranke, _Deutsche + Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Leipzig, 1882). + + + + +JOHN, DON (1545-1578), of Austria, was the natural son of the emperor +Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of an opulent citizen of +Regensburg. He was born in that free imperial city on the 24th of +February 1545, the anniversary of his father's birth and coronation and +of the battle of Pavia, and was at first confided under the name of +Geronimo to foster parents of humble birth, living at a village near +Madrid; but in 1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalena da +Ulloa, the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance +of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from +Valladolid. Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Geronimo as +his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. In September +1559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the boy as a member of the +royal family, and he was known at court as Don Juan de Austria. For +three years he was educated at Alcalá, and had as school companions his +nephews, the infante Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. +With Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been +Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he showed a +strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king yielded. In 1568 +Don John was appointed to the command of a squadron of 33 galleys, and +his first operations were against the Algerian pirates. His next +services were (1560-70) against the rebel Moriscos in Granada. In 1571 a +nobler field of action was opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the +Turks had led the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the +safety of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was effected +by the efforts of Pope Pius V. to resist the Turkish advance to the +west, and Don John was named admiral in chief of the combined fleets. At +the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses and a number of smaller craft, Don +John encountered the Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October +1571, and gained a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected +their escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain or +captured while 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released. +Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the allies, the +fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in history were to a +great extent lost. + +This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled his +imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement. He thought of +erecting first a principality in Albania and the Morea, and then a +kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by Venice of a separate peace with +the sultan put an end to the league, and though Don John captured Tunis +in 1573, it was again speedily lost. The schemes of Don John found no +support in Philip II., who refused to entertain them, and even withheld +from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain. At last, however, +he was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Netherlands, in +succession to Luis de Requesens. The administration of the latter had +not been successful, the revolt headed by the prince of Orange had +spread, and at the time of Don John's nomination the Pacification of +Ghent appeared to have united the whole of the seventeen provinces of +the Netherlands in determined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy +of Philip II. The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of +which he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He was, +however, now brought into contact with an adversary of a very different +calibre from himself. This was William of Orange, whose influence was +now supreme throughout the Netherlands. The Pacification of Ghent, which +was really a treaty between Holland and Zeeland and the other provinces +for the defence of their common interests against Spanish oppression, +had been followed by an agreement between the southern provinces, known +as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintaining the Catholic +religion and the king's authority, aimed at the expulsion of the Spanish +soldiery and officials from the Netherlands. Confronted by the refusal +of the states general to accept him as governor unless he assented to +the conditions of the Pacification of Ghent, swore to maintain the +rights and privileges of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders +in his service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations, +saw himself compelled to give way. At Huey on the 12th of February 1577 +he signed a treaty, known as the "Perpetual Edict," in which he complied +with these terms. On the 1st of May he made his entry into Brussels, but +he found himself governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange +master of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur and +withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith took up his +residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the archduke Matthias, +afterwards emperor, whom the states-general accepted as their sovereign. +Meanwhile Philip had sent large reinforcements to Don John under the +leadership of his cousin Alexander Farnese. At the head of a powerful +force Don John now suddenly attacked the patriot army at Gemblours, +where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farnese, a complete victory +was gained on the 31st of January 1578. He could not, however, follow up +his success for lack of funds, and was compelled to remain inactive all +the summer, chafing with impatience at the cold indifference with which +his appeals for the sinews of war were treated by Philip. His health +gave way, he was attacked with fever, and on the 1st of October 1578, at +the early age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure of all +his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he had received +of the king his brother's jealousy and neglect. + + See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, _Don John of Austria 1547-1575_ (1883) + and the bibliography under PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. + + + + +JOHN, DON (1629-1679), of Austria, the younger, recognized as the +natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother, Maria Calderon, or +Calderona, being an actress. Scandal accused her of a prodigality of +favours which must have rendered the paternity of Don John very dubious. +He was, however, recognized by the king, received a princely education +at Ocaña, and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military +orders, and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647 to +Naples--then in the throes of the popular rising first led by +Masaniello--with a squadron and a military force, to support the +viceroy. The restoration of royal authority was due rather to the +exhaustion of the insurgents and the follies of their French leader, the +duke of Guise, than to the forces of Don John. He was next sent as +viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651 to complete the +pacification of Catalonia, which had been in revolt since 1640. The +excesses of the French, whom the Catalans had called in, had produced a +reaction, and Don John had not much more to do than to preside over the +final siege of Barcelona and the convention which terminated the revolt +in October 1652. On both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and +this sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners and +handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven-black hair--a +complete contrast to the fair complexions of the Habsburgs--made him a +popular favourite. In 1656 he was sent to command in Flanders, in +combination with the prince of Condé, then in revolt against his own +sovereign. At the storming of the French camp at Valenciennes in 1656, +Don John displayed brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry +charge. When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at +the Dunes in the battle fought against Turenne and the British forces +sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten, in spite of the +efforts of Condé, whose advice he neglected, and of the hard fighting of +English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and 1662 he commanded against the +Portuguese in Estremadura. The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, +irregularly paid and untrustworthy, but they were superior in numbers +and some successes were gained. If Don John had not suffered from the +indolence which Clarendon, who knew him, considered his chief defect, +the Portuguese would have been hard pressed. The greater part of the +south of Portugal was overrun, but in 1663 the Portuguese were +reinforced by a body of English troops, and were put under the command +of the Huguenot Schomberg. By him Don John was completely beaten at +Estremos. Even now he might not have lost the confidence of his father, +if Queen Mariana, mother of the sickly infante Carlos, the only +surviving legitimate son of the king, had not regarded the bastard with +distrust and dislike. Don John was removed from command and sent to his +commandery at Consuegra. After the death of Philip IV. in 1665 Don John +became the recognized leader of the opposition to the government of +Philip's widow, the queen regent. She and her favourite, the German +Jesuit Nithard, seized and put to death one of his most trusted +servants, Don José Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the +head of a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of +Nithard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however, forced to +content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In 1677, the queen +mother having aroused universal opposition by her shameless favour for +Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John was able to drive her from court, and +establish himself as prime minister. Great hopes were entertained of his +administration, but it proved disappointing and short. Don John died on +the 17th of September 1679. + + The career of Don John can be followed in J. C. Dunlop's _Memoirs of + Spain_ 1621-1700 (Edin. 1834). + + + + +JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST (d. 721), English bishop, is said to have been born +of noble parents at Harpham, in the east riding of Yorkshire. He +received his education at Canterbury under Archbishop Theodore, the +statement that he was educated at Oxford being of course untrue. He was +for a time a member of the Whitby community, under St Hilda, and in 687 +he was consecrated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was promoted to the +bishopric of York. He resigned the latter see in 718, and retired to a +monastery which he had founded at Beverley, where he died on the 7th of +May 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast is celebrated annually +in the Roman Church on the 7th of May. Many miracles of healing are +ascribed to John, whose pupils were numerous and devoted to him. He was +celebrated for his scholarship as well as for his virtues. + + The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: _Pro Luca + exponendo_ (an exposition of Luke); _Homiliae in Evangelia_; + _Epistolae ad Herebaldum_, _Audenam, et Bertinum_; and _Epistolae ad + Hyldam abbatissam_. See life by Folcard, based on Bede, in _Acta SS. + Bolland_.; and J. Raine's _Fasti eboracenses_ (1863). + + + + +JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST (1542-1591), Spanish mystic, was born at Ontiveros +(Old Castile) on the 24th of June 1542. He became a professed Carmelite +in 1564, and was ordained priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much +opposition in his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St +Theresa, and was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de +Yepez y Álvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San Matias till +1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz. Broken by +persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda, where he died in +1591; his _Obras espirituales_ were published posthumously in 1618. He +was beatified in 1674 and canonized on the 27th of December 1726. The +lofty symbolism of his prose is frequently obscure, but his lyrical +verses are distinguished for their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of +expression. + + Some of his poems have been translated with great success by Arthur + Symons in _Images of Good and Evil_; the most convenient edition of + his works, which have been frequently reprinted, is that contained in + vol. xvi. of the _Biblioteca de autores españoles_. + + + + +JOHN OF ASIA (or OF EPHESUS), a leader of the Monophysite +Syriac-speaking Church in the 6th century, and one of the earliest and +most important of Syriac historians. Born at Amid (Diarbekr) about 505, +he was there ordained as a deacon in 529, but in 534 we find him in +Palestine, and in 535 he passed to Constantinople. The cause of his +leaving Amid was probably either the great pestilence which broke out +there in 534 or the furious persecution directed against the +Monophysites by Ephraim (patriarch of Antioch 529-544) and Abraham +(bishop of Amid c. 520-541). In Constantinople he seems to have early +won the notice of Justinian, one of the main objects of whose policy was +the consolidation of Eastern Christianity as a bulwark against the +heathen power of Persia. John is said by Barhebraeus (_Chron. eccl._ i. +195) to have succeeded Anthimus as Monophysite bishop of Constantinople, +but this is probably a mistake.[1] Anyhow he enjoyed the emperor's +favour until the death of the latter in 565 and (as he himself tells us) +was entrusted with the administration of the entire revenues of the +Monophysite Church. He was also sent, with the rank of bishop, on a +mission for the conversion of such heathen as remained in Asia Minor, +and informs us that the number of those whom he baptized amounted to +70,000. He also built a large monastery at Tralles on the hills skirting +the valley of the Meander, and more than 90 other monasteries. Of the +mission to the Nubians which he promoted, though he did not himself +visit their country, an interesting account is given in the 4th book of +the 3rd part of his _History_.[2] In 546 the emperor entrusted him with +the task of rooting out the secret practice of idolatry in +Constantinople and its neighbourhood. But his fortunes changed soon +after the accession of Justin II. About 571 Paul of Asia, the orthodox +or Chalcedonian patriarch, began (with the sanction of the emperor) a +rigorous persecution of the Monophysite Church leaders, and John was +among those who suffered most. He gives us a detailed account of his +sufferings in prison, his loss of civil rights, &c., in the third part +of his _History_. The latest events recorded are of the date 585, and +the author cannot have lived much longer; but of the circumstances of +his death nothing is known. + + John's main work was his _Ecclesiastical History_, which covered more + than six centuries, from the time of Julius Caesar to 585. It was + composed in three parts, each containing six books. The first part + seems to have wholly perished. The second, which extended from + Theodosius II. to the 6th or 7th year of Justin II., was (as F. Nau + has recently proved)[3] reproduced in full or almost in full, in + John's own words, in the third part of the _Chronicle_ which was till + lately attributed to the patriarch Dionysius Telmaharensis, but is + really the work of an unknown compiler. Of this second division of + John's _History_, in which he had probably incorporated the so-called + _Chronicle_ of Joshua the Stylite, considerable portions are found in + the British Museum MSS. Add. 14647 and 14650, and these have been + published in the second volume of Land's _Anecdota Syriaca_. But the + whole is more completely presented in the Vatican MS. (clxii.), which + contains the third part of the _Chronicle_ of pseudo-Dionysius. The + third part of John's history, which is a detailed account of the + ecclesiastical events which happened in 571-585, as well as of some + earlier occurrences, survives in a fairly complete state in Add. + 14640, a British Museum MS. of the 7th century. It forms a + contemporary record of great value to the historian. Its somewhat + disordered state, the want of chronological arrangement, and the + occasional repetition of accounts of the same events are due, as the + author himself informs us (ii. 50), to the work being almost entirely + composed during the times of persecution. The same cause may account + for the somewhat slovenly Syriac style. The writer claims to have + treated his subject impartially, and though written from the narrow + point of view of one to whom Monophysite "orthodoxy" was + all-important, it is evidently a faithful reproduction of events as + they occurred. This third part was edited by Cureton (Oxford, 1853), + and was translated into English by R. Payne-Smith (Oxford, 1860) and + into German by J. M. Schönfelder (Munich, 1862). + + John's other known work was a series of _Biographies of Eastern + Saints_, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in + _Anecdota Syriaca_, ii. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen and + Land (Amsterdam, 1889). An interesting estimate of John as an + ecclesiastic and author was given by the Abbé Duchesne in a memoir + read before the five French Academies on the 25th of October 1892. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Land, _Joannes Bischof von Ephesos_, pp. 57 seq. + + [2] Cf. Land's Appendix (_op. cit._ 172-193). + + [3] See _Bulletin critique_, 15th June and 25th Aug. 1896, and 25th + Jan. 1897; _Journal asiatique_, 9th series, vol. viii. (1896) pp. 346 + sqq. and vol. ix. (1897) p. 529; also _Revue de l'Orient chrétien, + Suppl. trimestriel_ (1897), pp. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Nöldeke + in _Vienna Oriental Journal_ (1896), pp. 160 sqq. The facts are + briefly stated in Duval's _Littérature syriaque_, p. 192. A full + analysis of this second part of John's history has been given by M. + Nau. + + + + +JOHN OF DAMASCUS (JOHANNES DAMASCENUS) (d. before 754), an eminent +theologian of the Eastern Church, derives his surname from Damascus, +where he was born about the close of the 7th century. His Arabic name +was Mansur (the victor), and he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas +(gold-pouring) on account of his eloquence. The principal account of his +life is contained in a narrative of the 10th century, much of which is +obviously legendary. His father Sergius was a Christian, but +notwithstanding held a high office under the Saracen caliph, in which he +was succeeded by his son. John is said to have owed his education in +philosophy, mathematics and theology to an Italian monk named Cosmas, +whom Sergius had redeemed from a band of captive slaves. About the year +730 he wrote several treatises in defence of image-worship, which the +emperor, Leo the Isaurian, was making strenuous efforts to suppress. + +Various pieces of evidence go to show that it was shortly after this +date that he resolved to forsake the world, divided his fortune among +his friends and the poor, and betook himself to the monastery of St +Sabas, near Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his life. After the +customary probation he was ordained priest by the patriarch of +Jerusalem. In his last years he travelled through Syria contending +against the iconoclasts, and in the same cause he visited Constantinople +at the imminent risk of his life during the reign of Constantine +Copronymus. With him the "mysteries," the entire ritual, are an integral +part of the Orthodox system, and all dogma culminates in image-worship. +The date of his death is uncertain; it is probably about 752. John +Damascenus is a saint both in the Greek and in the Latin Churches, his +festival being observed in the former on the 29th of November and on the +4th of December, and in the latter on the 6th of May. + + The works of Damascenus give him a foremost place among the + theologians of the early Eastern Church, and, according to Dorner, he + "remains in later times the highest authority in the theological + literature of the Greeks." This is not because he is an original + thinker but because he compiled into systematic form the scattered + teaching of his theological predecessors. Several treatises attributed + to him are probably spurious, but his undoubted works are numerous and + embrace a wide range. The most important contains three parts under + the general title [Greek: Pêgê gnôseôs] ("The Fountain of Knowledge"). + The first part, entitled [Greek: Kephàlaia philosophika], is an + exposition and application of theology of Aristotle's Dialectic. The + second, entitled [Greek: Peri aireseôn] ("Of Heresies"), is a + reproduction of the earlier work of Epiphanius, with a continuation + giving an account of the heresies that arose after the time of that + writer. The third part, entitled [Greek: Hekdosis akribês tês + orthodoxou pisteos] ("An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith"), + is much the most important, containing as it does a complete system of + theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church councils, + from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the finished result + of the theological thought of the early Greek Church. Through a Latin + translation made by Burgundio of Pisa in the 12th century, it was well + known to Peter Lombard and Aquinas, and in this way it influenced the + scholastic theology of the West. Another well-known work is the _Sacra + parallela_, a collection of biblical passages followed by + illustrations drawn from other scriptural sources and from the + fathers. There is much merit in his hymns and "canons"; one of the + latter is very familiar as the hymn "The Day of Resurrection, Earth + tell it out abroad." John of Damascus has sometimes been called the + "Father of Scholasticism," and the "Lombard of the Greeks," but these + epithets are appropriate only in a limited sense. + + The Christological position of John may be summed up in the following + description:[1] "He tries to secure the unity of the two natures by + relegating to the divine Logos the formative and controlling agency. + It is not a human individual that the Logos assumes, nor is it + humanity, or human nature in general. It is rather a potential human + individual, a nature not yet developed into a person or hypostasis. + The hypostasis through which this takes place is the personal Logos + through whose union with this potential man, in the womb of Mary, the + potential man acquires a concrete reality, an individual existence. He + has, therefore, no hypostasis of himself but only in and through the + Logos. It is denied that he is _non-hypostatic_ ([Greek: + anypostatos]); it is affirmed that he is _en-hypostatic_ ([Greek: + enypostatos]). Two natures may form a unity, as the body and soul in + man. So man, both soul and body, is brought into unity with the Logos; + there being then one hypostasis for both natures." There is an + interchange of the divine and human attributes, a communication of the + former which deifies the receptive and passive human nature. In Christ + the human will has become the organ of the divine will. Thus while + John is an adherent of Chalcedon and a dyothelite, the drift of his + teaching is in the monophysite direction. "The Chalcedonian + _Definition_ is victorious, but Apollinaris is not overcome"; what + John gives with the one hand he takes away with the other. On the + question of the Atonement he regards the death of Christ as a + sacrifice offered to God and not a ransom paid to the devil. + + LITERATURE.--The _Life_ of John of Damascus was written by John, + patriarch of Jerusalem in the 10th century (Migne, _Patrol. Graec._, + xciv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols., fol., + Paris, 1712) and form vols. 94 to 96 in Migne's Greek series. A + monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879. A. Harnack's _History of + Dogma_ is very full (see especially vols. iii. and iv.; on the + image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so are the similar works + of F. Loofs-Seeberg and A. Dorner. See also O. Bardenhewer's + _Patrologie_, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch's excellent + article in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. ix. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] G. P. Fisher, _Hist. of Chr. Doctrine_, 159 seq. More fully in R. + L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_, ii. 138-146. + + + + +JOHN OF HEXHAM (c. 1160-1209), English chronicler, is known to us merely +as the author of a work called the _Historia XXV. annorum_, which +continues the _Historia regum_ of Simeon of Durham and contains an +account of English events 1130-1153. From the title, as given in the +only manuscript, we learn John's name and the fact that he was prior of +Hexham. It must have been between 1160 and 1209 that he held this +position; but the date at which he lived and wrote cannot be more +accurately determined. Up to the year 1139 he follows closely the +history written by his predecessor, Prior Richard; thenceforward he is +an independent though not a very valuable authority. He is best informed +as to the events of the north country; his want of care, when he +ventures farther afield, may be illustrated by the fact that he places +in 1145 King Stephen's siege of Oxford, which really occurred in 1142. +Even for northern affairs his chronology is faulty; from 1140 onwards +his dates are uniformly one year too late. Prior Richard is not the only +author to whom John is indebted; he incorporates in the annal of 1138 +two other narratives of the battle of the Standard, one in verse by the +monk Serlo, another in prose by Abbot Ailred of Rievaux; and also a +poem, by a Glasgow clerk, on the death of Sumerled of the Isles. + + The one manuscript of John's chronicle is a 13th century copy; MS. C. + C. C. Cambridge, cxxxix. 8. The best edition is that of T. Arnold in + _Symeonis monachi opera_, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, 1885). There is an + English translation in J. Stevenson's _Church Historians of England_, + vol. iv. (London, 1856). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +JOHN OF IRELAND (JOHANNIS DE IRLANDIA), (_fl._ 1480), Scottish writer, +perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for thirty years in Paris and +later a professor of theology. He was confessor to James IV. and also to +Louis XI. of France, and was rector of Yarrow (de Foresta) when he +completed, at Edinburgh, the work on which rests his sole claim as a +vernacular writer. This book, preserved in MS. in the Advocates' +Library, Edinburgh (MS. 18, 2, 8), and labelled "Johannis de Irlandia +opera theologica," is a treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline +necessary to a prince, especially intended for the use of the young +James IV. The book is the earliest extant example of original Scots +prose. It was still in MS. in 1910, but an edition was promised by the +Scottish Text Society. In this book John refers to two other vernacular +writings, one "of the commandementis and uthir thingis pretenand to the +salvacioune of man," the other, "of the tabill of confessioune." No +traces of these have been discovered. The author's name appears on the +registers of the university of Paris and on the rolls of the Scottish +parliaments, and he is referred to by the Scottish historians, Leslie +and Dempster. + + See the notices in John Lyden's Introduction to his edition of the + _Complaynt of Scotlande_ (1801), pp. 85 seq.; _The Scottish + Antiquary_, xiii. 111-115 and xv. 1-14. Annotated extracts are given + in Gregory Smith's _Specimens of Middle Scots_ (1902). + + + + +JOHN OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of this name, formerly confused +and identified with a third (anonymous) Ravennese in Petrarch's letters, +lived at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century. + +1. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went to live with +Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 he set out to see the world and make a +name for himself, returned in a state of destitution, but, growing +restless again, left his employer for good in 1368. He is not mentioned +again in Petrarch's correspondence, unless a letter "to a certain +wanderer" (_vago cuidam_), congratulating him on his arrival at Rome in +1373, is addressed to him. + +2. Son of Conversanus (Conversinus, Convertinus). He is first heard of +(Nov. 17, 1368) as appointed to the professorship of rhetoric at +Florence, where he had for some time held the post of notary at the +courts of justice. This differentiates him from (1). He entered (c. +1370) the service of the ducal house of Padua, the Carraras, in which he +continued at least until 1404, although the whole of that period was not +spent in Padua. From 1375 to 1379 he was a schoolmaster at Belluno, and +was dismissed as too good for his post and not adapted for teaching +boys. On the 22nd of March 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric +at Padua. During the struggle between the Carraras and Viscontis, he +spent five years at Udine (1387-1392). From 1395-1404 he was chancellor +of Francis of Carrara, and is heard of for the last time in 1406 as +living at Venice. His history of the Carraras, a tasteless production in +barbarous Latin, says little for his literary capacity; but as a teacher +he enjoyed a great reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da +Feltre and Guarino of Verona. + +3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinis), the most important. Born about 1356, he +was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to 1374. On the 19th of +September 1397 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and eloquence at +Florence. On the 9th of June 1412, on the re-opening of the studio, +which had been shut from 1405 to 1411 owing to the plague, his +appointment was renewed for five years, before the expiration of which +period he died (May 1417). Although Malpaghini left nothing behind him, +he did much to encourage the study of Latin; among his pupils was Poggio +Bracciolini. + + The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be found + in E. T. Klette, _Beiträge zur Geschichte und Litteratur der + italienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance_, vol. i. (1888); see also G. + Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_, who, however, + identifies (1) and (2). + + + + +JOHN OF SALISBURY (c. 1115-1180), English author, diplomatist and +bishop, was born at Salisbury between the years 1115 and 1120. Beyond +the fact that he was of Saxon, not of Norman race, and applies to +himself the cognomen of _Parvus_, "short," or "small," few details are +known regarding his early life; but from his own statements it is +gathered that he crossed to France about 1136, and began regular studies +in Paris under Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his +famous school on Mont St Geneviève. After Abelard's retirement, John +carried on his studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of Melun. From +1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the classics under William of +Conches and Richard l'Evêque, the disciples of Bernard of Chartres, +though it is still a matter of controversy whether it was in Chartres or +not (cf. A. Clerval, _Les Écoles de Chartres au moyen âge_, 1895). +Bernard's teaching was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic +tendency, partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater +Latin writers; and the influence of the latter feature is noticeable in +all John of Salisbury's works. About 1140 he was at Paris studying +theology under Gilbert de la Porrée, then under Robert Pullus and Simon +of Poissy. In 1148 he resided at Moûtiers la Celle in the diocese of +Troyes, with his friend Peter of Celle. He was present at the council of +Reims, presided over by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented +by Bernard of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose +court he settled, probably about 1150. Appointed secretary to Theobald, +he was frequently sent on missions to the papal see. During this time he +composed his greatest works, published almost certainly in 1159, the +_Policraticus, sive de nugis curialium et de vestigiis philosophorum_ +and the _Metalogicus_, writings invaluable as storehouses of information +regarding the matter and form of scholastic education, and remarkable +for their cultivated style and humanist tendency. After the death of +Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to Thomas Becket, and took +an active part in the long disputes between that primate and his +sovereign, Henry II. His letters throw light on the constitutional +struggle then agitating the English world. With Becket he withdrew to +France during the king's displeasure; he returned with him in 1170, and +was present at his assassination. In the following years, during which +he continued in an influential situation in Canterbury, but at what +precise date is unknown, he drew up the _Life of Thomas Becket_. In 1176 +he was made bishop of Chartres, where he passed the remainder of his +life. In 1179 he took an active part in the council of the Lateran. He +died at or near Chartres on the 25th of October 1180. + + John's writings enable us to understand with much completeness the + literary and scientific position of the 12th century. His views imply + a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs, opposing + to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical common + sense. His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a strong leaning + on the speculative side to the modified literary scepticism of Cicero, + for whom he had unbounded admiration. He was a humanist before the + Renaissance, surpassing all other representatives of the school of + Chartres in his knowledge of the Latin classics, as in the purity of + his style, which was evidently moulded on that of Cicero. Of Greek + writers he appears to have known nothing at first hand, and very + little in translations. The _Timaeus_ of Plato in the Latin version of + Chalcidius was known to him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, + and probably he had access to translations of the _Phaedo_ and _Meno_. + Of Aristotle he possessed the whole of the _Organon_ in Latin; he is, + indeed, the first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole + was known. Of other Aristotelian writings he appears to have known + nothing. + + The collected editions of the works are by J. A. Giles (5 vols., + Oxford, 1848), and by Migne, in the _Patrologiae cursus_, vol. 199: + neither accurate. The _Policraticus_ was edited with notes and + introductions by C. C. I. Webb, _Ioannis Saresberiensis episcopi + Carnotensis Policratici_ (Oxford, 1909), 2 vols. The most complete + study of John of Salisbury is the monograph by C. Schaarschmidt, + _Johannes Sarisberiensis nach Leben und Studien, Schriften und + Philosophie_, 1862, which is a model of accurate and complete + workmanship. See also the article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ + + + + +JOHN (1290-c. 1320), surnamed the Parricide, and called also John of +Swabia, was a son of Rudolph II. count of Habsburg and Agnes daughter of +Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, and consequently a grandson of the German +king Rudolph I. Having passed his early days at the Bohemian court, when +he came of age he demanded a portion of the family estates from his +uncle, the German king Albert I. His wishes were not gratified, and with +three companions he formed a plan to murder the king. On the 1st of May +1308 Albert in crossing the river Reuss at Windisch became separated +from his attendants, and was at once attacked and killed by the four +conspirators. John escaped the vengeance of Albert's sons, and was +afterwards found in a monastery at Pisa, where in 1313 he is said to +have been visited by the emperor Henry VII., who had placed him under +the ban. From this time he vanishes from history. The character of John +is used by Schiller in his play _Wilhelm Tell_. + + + + +JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF. The so-called epistles of John, in the Bible, are +not epistles in the strict sense of the term, for the first is a homily, +and encyclical or pastoral (as has been recognized since the days of +Bretschneider and Michaelis), while the other two are brief notes or +letters. Nor are they John's, if John means the son of Zebedee. The +latter conclusion depends upon the particular hypothesis adopted with +regard to the general Johannine problem, yet even when it is held that +John the apostle (q.v.) survived to old age in Ephesus, the second and +third epistles may be fairly ascribed (with Erasmus, Grotius, Credner, +Bretschneider, Reuss, &c.) to John the presbyter[1], as several circles +in the early church held ("Opinio a plerisque tradita," Jerome: _De vir. +ill._ 18). An apostle indeed might call himself a presbyter (cf. 1 Pet. +v. 1). But these notes imply no apostolic claim on the part of the +author, and, although their author is anonymous, the likelihood is that +their composition by the great Asiatic presbyter John led afterwards to +their incorporation in the "instrumentum" of John the apostle's +writings, when the prestige of the latter had obscured the former. All +hypotheses as to their pseudonymity or composition by different hands +may be dismissed. They would never have floated down the stream of +tradition except on the support of some primitive authority. If this was +not connected with John the apostle the only feasible alternative is to +think of John the presbyter, for Papias refers to the latter in +precisely this fashion (Euseb. _H. E._ iii. 39, 15; [Greek: kai touto ho +p. elege]). + +The period of all three lies somewhere within the last decade of the 1st +century and the first decade of the 2nd. No evidence is available to +determine in what precise order they were written, but it will be +convenient to take the two smaller notes before the larger. The +so-called Second Epistle of John is one of the excommunicating notes +occasionally despatched by early Christian leaders to a community (cf. 2 +Cor. v. 9). The presbyter or elder warns a Christian community, +figuratively addressed as "the elect lady" (cf. 13 with 1 Pet. i. 1; v, +13; also the plural of 6, 8, 10 and 13), against some itinerant (cf. +_Didache_ xi. 1-2) teachers who were promulgating advanced Docetic views +(7) upon the person of Christ. The note is merely designed to serve (12) +until the writer arrives in person. He sends greetings to his +correspondents from some community in which he is residing at present +(13), and with which they had evidently some connexion. + +The note was familiar to Irenaeus[2] who twice (i. 16, 3, iii. 16, 8) +cites 10-11, once quoting it from the first epistle by mistake, but no +tradition has preserved the name of the community in question, and all +opinions on the matter are guess-work. The reference to "all who know +the truth" (ver. 1) is, of course, to be taken relatively (cf. Rev. ii. +23); it does not necessarily imply a centre like Antioch or Rome +(Chapman). Whiston thought of Philadelphia, and probably it must have +been one of the Asiatic churches. + +The so-called Third Epistle of John belongs to the [Greek: epistolai +systatikai] (2 Cor. iii. 1) of the early church, like Rom. xvi. It is a +private note addressed by the presbyter to a certain Gaius, a member of +the same community or house-church (9) as that to which 2 John is +written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (9-10) had repudiated the +authority of the writer and his party, threatening even to excommunicate +Gaius and others from the church (cf. Abbott's _Diatessarica_, § 2258). +With this opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person +before very long. Meantime (14) he despatches the present note, in +hearty appreciation of his correspondent's attitude and character. + +The allusion in 9 ([Greek: egrapsa]) refers in all likelihood to the +"second" epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c.). In order to avoid the +suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, [Greek: an] was inserted at +an early stage in the textual history of the note. If [Greek: ekklêsias] +could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter; in any case, he is +not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is there any reason to +suppose (with Harnack)[3] that the note of 9 was written to, and +suppressed by, him. What the presbyter is afraid of is not so much that +his note would not be read (Ewald, Harnack), as that it would not be +acted upon. + +These notes, written originally on small sheets of papyrus, reveal the +anonymous presbyter travelling (so Clem. Alex. _Quis dives salv._ xlii.) +in his circuit or diocese of churches, and writing occasional pastoral +letters, in which he speaks not only in his own name but in that of a +coterie of like-minded Christians.[4] It is otherwise with the brochure +or manifesto known as the "first epistle." This was written neither at +the request of its readers nor to meet any definite local emergency, but +on the initiative of its author (i. 4) who was evidently concerned about +the effect produced upon the Church in general by certain contemporary +phases of semi-gnostic teaching. The polemic is directed against a +dualism which developed theoretically into docetic views of Christ's +person (ii. 22, iv. 2, &c.), and practically into libertinism (ii. 4, +&c.).[5] It is natural to think, primarily, of the churches in Asia +Minor as the circle addressed, but all indications of date or place are +absent, except those which may be inferred from its inner connexion with +the Fourth Gospel. + +The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated, resembling a +series of variations upon one or two favourite themes rather than a +carefully constructed melody. Fellowship ([Greek: koinonía]) with God +and man is its dominant note. After defining the essence of Christian +[Greek: koinonía] (i. 1-3),[6] the writer passes on to its conditions +(i. 5-ii. 17), under the antithesis of light and darkness. These +conditions are twofold: (a) a sense of sin, which leads Christians to a +sense of forgiveness[7] through Jesus Christ, (b) and obedience to the +supreme law of brotherly love (cf. Ignat. _Ad Smyrn._ 6). If these +conditions are unfulfilled, moral darkness is the issue, a darkness +which spells ruin to the soul. This prompts the writer to explain the +dangers of [Greek: koinonía] (ii. 18-29), under the antithesis of truth +and falsehood, the immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the +person of Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then +developed (iii. 1-12), as sinlessness and brotherly love, under the +antithesis of children of God (cf. ii. 29, "born of Him") and children +of the devil. This brotherly love bulks so largely in the writer's mind +that he proceeds to enlarge upon its main elements of confidence towards +God (iii. 13-24), moral discernment (iv. 1-6), and assurance of union +with God (iv. 7-21), all these being bound up with a true faith in Jesus +as the Christ (v. 1-12).[8] A brief epilogue gives what is for the most +part a summary (v. 13-21) of the leading ideas of the homily.[9] + +Disjointed as the cause of the argument may seem, a close scrutiny of +the context often reveals a subtle connexion between paragraphs which at +first sight appear unlinked. Thus the idea of the [Greek: kosmos] +passing away (ii. 17) suggests the following sentences upon the nearness +of the [Greek: parousia] (ii. 18 seq.), whose signs are carefully noted +in order to reassure believers, and whose moral demands are underlined +(ii. 28, iii. 3). Within this paragraph[10] even the abrupt mention of +the [Greek: chrysma] has its genetical place (ii. 20). The heretical +[Greek: antichristoi], it is implied, have no [Greek: chrisma] from God; +Christians have (note the emphasis on [Greek: hymeis]), owing to their +union with the true [Greek: Christos]. Again, the genetic relation of +iii. 4 seq. to what precedes becomes evident when we consider that the +norm of Christian purity (iii. 3) is the keeping of the divine +commandments, or conduct resembling Christ's on earth (iii. 3-ii. 4-6), +so that the Gnostic[11] breach of this law not only puts a man out of +touch with Christ (iii. 6 seq.), but defeats the very end of Christ's +work, i.e. the abolition of sin (iii. 8). Thus iii. 7-10 resumes and +completes the idea of ii. 29; the Gnostic is shown to be out of touch +with the righteous God, partly because he will not share the brotherly +love which is the expression of the righteousness, and partly because +his claims to sinlessness render God's righteous forgiveness (i. 9) +superfluous. Similarly the mention of the Spirit (iii. 24) opens +naturally into a discussion of the decisive test for the false claims of +the heretics or gnostic _illuminati_ to spiritual powers and gifts (iv. +1 seq.); and, as this test of the genuine Spirit of God is the +confession of Jesus Christ as really human and incarnate, the writer, on +returning (in iv. 17 seq.) to his cardinal idea of brotherly love, +expresses it in view of the incarnate Son (iv. 9), whose mission +furnishes the proof of God's love as well as the example and the energy +of man's (iv. 10 seq.). The same conception of the real humanity of +Jesus Christ as essential to faith's being and well-being is worked out +in the following paragraph (v. 1-12), while the allusion to eternal life +(v. 11-12) leads to the closing recapitulation (v. 13-21) of the +homily's leading ideas under this special category. + +The curious idea, mentioned by Augustine (_Quaest. evang._ ii. 39), that +the writing was addressed _ad Parthos_, has been literally taken by +several Latin fathers and later writers (e.g. Grotius, Paulus, Hammond), +but this title probably was a corruption of _ad sparsos_ (Wetstein, +Wegschneider) or of [Greek: pròs parthénous] (Whiston: the Christians +addressed as virgin, i.e. free from heresy), if not of [Greek: +parthénos], as applied in early tradition to John the apostle. The +circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the first +instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to determine +whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger treatise. The +division of opinion on this point (cf. J. Moffat, _Historical New +Testament_, 1901, p. 534) is serious, but the evidence for either +position is purely subjective. There are sufficient peculiarities of +style and conception[12] to justify provisionally some hesitation on the +matter of the authorship. The epistle may have been written by a +different author, or, from a more popular standpoint, by the author of +the gospel, possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxi. +But _res lubrica, opinio incerta_. + +It is unsafe to lay much stress upon the apparent reminiscence of iv. +2-3 (or of 2 John 7) in Polycarp, _ad Phil._ 7 reading [Greek: +élêluthóta] instead of [Greek: èlêluthénai]), though, if a literary +filiation is assumed, the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from +the epistle, not vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his _Ursprung d. +unseren Evglien_ 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (_H. E._ iii. +39) to have used [Greek: ê 'Ioânnou protéra] (= [Greek: ê 'Ioánnou +protê], v. 8?), i.e. the anonymous tract, which, by the time of +Eusebius, had come to be known as 1 John, and we have no reason to +suspect or reject this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another +Asiatic writer, furnishes clear echoes of the epistle (_Dial._ 123). The +tract must have been in circulation throughout Asia Minor at any rate +before the end of the first quarter of the 2nd century.[13] The +_terminus a quo_ is approximately the period of the Fourth Gospel's +composition, but there is no valid evidence to indicate the priority of +either, even upon the hypothesis that both came from the same pen. The +aim of each is too special to warrant the conclusion that the epistle +was intended to accompany or to introduce the gospel. + + LITERATURE.--The most adequate modern editions of the three epistles + are by Westcott (3rd ed., 1892), H. J. Holtzmann (_Hand-Commentar zum + N. T._, 3rd ed., 1908), B. Weiss (in Meyer, 6th ed., 1900), Baljon + (1904) and J. E. Belser (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906). Briefer English + notes are furnished by W. Alexander (_Speaker's Commentary_, 1881), W. + H. Bennett (_Century Bible_, 1901) and H. P. Forbes (_Internat. + Handbooks to New Testament_, vol. iv. 1907), while Plummer has a + concise edition of the Greek text (in _The Cambridge Greek Testament_, + 1886). Huther's edition (in Meyer, 1880) has been translated into + English (Edinburgh, 1882), like Rothe's (1878) invaluable commentary + on the first epistle (cf. _Expository Times_, vols. iii. v.). Otto + Baumgarten's popular edition in _Die Schriften des N. T._ (1907) is, + like that of Forbes, written from practically the same standpoint as + Holtzmann's. The earlier commentaries of Alford (2nd ed., 1862), C. + A. Wolf (2nd ed., 1885), Ewald (_Die Joh. Briefe übersetzt und + erklaert_, Göttingen, 1861-1862), and Lücke (3rd ed., revised by + Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions + those of W. Whiston (_Comm. on St John's Three Catholic Epistles_, + 1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegetical + interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by + John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (1851; Eng. trans. New York, + 1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C. Watson + (1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern (_De + epistolae Joh. consilio_, Tübingen, 1830), Erdmann (_Primae Joh. + epistolae argumentum, nexus et consilium_, Berlin, 1855), C. E. + Luthardt (_De primae Joannis epistolae compositione_, 1860), J. + Stockmeyer (_Die Structur des ersten Joh. Briefes_, Basel, 1873) and, + most elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (_Jahrb. für protest. Theologie_, + 1881, pp. 690 seq.; 1882, pp. 128 seq., 316 seq., 460 seq.). To the + monographs already noted in the course of this article may be added + the essays by Wiesinger (_Studien und Kritiken_, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) + and Wohlenberg ("Glossen zum ersten Johannisbrief," _Neue Kirchliche + Zeitschrift_, 1902, pp. 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are + special commentaries and studies by Ritmeier (_De electa domina_, + 1706), C. A. Kriegele (_De_ [Greek: kuria] _Johannis_, 1758), Carpzov + (_Theolog. exegetica_, pp. 105-208), H. G. B. Müller (_Comment. in + secundam epistolam Joannis_, 1783), C. Klug (_De authentia_, &c., + 1823), J. Rendel Harris (_Expositor_, 6th series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), + W. M. Ramsay (ibid., pp. 354 seq.) and Gibbins (ibid., 1902, pp. + 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann's _Comment, in Joan. ep. III._ + (1778), P. L. Gachon (_Authenticité de la deuxième et troisième + épîtres de Jean_, 1851), Poggel (_Der zweite und dritte Briefe d. + Apostel Johannis_, 1896), and Chapman (_Journal of Theological + Studies_, 1904, "The Historical Setting of the Second and the Third + Epistles of St John"), have discussed both of the minor epistles + together. General studies of all three are furnished by H. J. + Holtzmann in Schenkel's _Bibel-Lexicon_, iii. 342-352, Sabatier + (_Encyclop. des sciences religieuses_, vii. 177 seq.), S. Cox (_The + Private Letters of St Paul and St John_, 1867), Farrar (_Early Days of + Christianity_, chs. xxxi., xxxiv. seq.), Gloag (_Introduction to + Catholic Epistles_, 1887, pp. 256-350), S. D. F. Salmond in Hasting's + _Dict. Bible_ (vol. ii), G. H. Gilbert (_The First Interpreters of + Jesus_, 1901, pp. 301-332), and V. Bartlet (_The Apostolic Age_, 1900, + pp. 418 seq.; from a more advanced critical position by Cone (_The + Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations_, 1893, pp. 320-327), P. W. + Schmiedel (_Ency. Bib._, 2556-2562, also in a pamphlet, _Evangelium, + Briefe, und Offenbarung des Johannes_, 1906; Eng. trans. 1908), J. + Réville (_Le Quatrième Evangile_, 1901, pp. 49 seq.) and Pfleiderer + (_Das Urchristentum_, 2nd ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq.). The problem of the + epistles is discussed incidentally by many writers on the Fourth + Gospel, as well as by writers on New Testament introduction like Zahn, + Jacquier, Barth and Belser, on the Conservative side, and Hilgenfeld, + Jülicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On the older Syriac version of + 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn's article in _Hermathena_ (1890), pp. 281 seq. + On the general reception of the three epistles in the early Church, + Zahn's paragraphs (in his _Geschichte d. N. T. Kanons_, i. 209 seq., + 374 seq., 905 seq.; ii. 48 seq., 88 seq.) are the most adequate. + (J. Mt.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] So Selwyn, _Christian Prophets_ (pp. 133-145), Harnack, Heinrici + (_Das Urchristenthum_, 1902, pp. 129 seq.), and von Soden (_History + of Early Christian Literature_, pp. 445-446), after Renan (_L'Église + chrétienne_, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschütz (_Christian Life in the + Primitive Church_, pp. 218 seq.) and R. Knopf (_Das nachapost. + Zeitalter_, 1905, pp. 32 seq., &c.) are among the most recent critics + who ascribe all three epistles to the presbyter. + + [2] On the early allusions to these brief notes, cf. Gregory: _The + Canon and Text of the New Testament_ (1907), pp. 131, 190 seq., + Westcott's _Canon of the New Testament_, pp. 218 seq., 355, 357, 366, + &c., and Leipoldt's _Geschichte d. neut. Kanons_ (1907), i. pp. 66 + seq., 78 seq., 99 seq., 151 seq., 192 seq., 232 seq. + + [3] In his ingenious study (_Texte und Untersuchungen_, xv. 3), whose + main contention is adopted by von Dobschütz and Knopf. On this view + (for criticism see Belser in the _Tübing. Quartalschrift_, 1897, pp. + 150 seq., Krüger in _Zeitschrift für die wiss. Theologie_, 1898, pp. + 307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316-320), Diotrephes was voicing a + successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the older + itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedel, _Ency. Bib._, 3146-3147). As + Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (_Hermes_, 1898, pp. 529 seq.) points out, + there is a close connexion between ver. 11 and ver. 10. The same + writer argues that, as the substitution of [Greek: âgapêtos] for + [Greek: philtatos] (ver. 1) "ist Schönrednerei und nicht vom besten + Geschmacke," the writer adds [Greek: ón égô ágapô én álêtheía]. + + [4] This is the force of the [Greek: êmeîs] in 3 John 9-10 (cf. 1 + John iv. 6, 14) "The truth" (3 John 3-5) seems to mean a life + answering to the apostolic standard thus enforced and exemplified. + + [5] Several of these traits were reproduced in the teaching of + Cerinthus, others may have been directly Jewish or Jewish Christian. + The opposition to the Messianic rôle of Jesus had varied adherents. + The denial of the Virgin-birth, which also formed part of the system + of Cerinthus, was met by anticipation in the stories of Matthew and + Luke, which pushed back the reception of the spirit from the baptism + to the birth, but the Johannine school evidently preferred to answer + this heresy by developing the theory of the Logos, with its implicate + of pre-existence. + + [6] On the vexed question whether the language of this paragraph is + purely spiritual or includes a realistic reference, cf. G. E. Findlay + (_Expositor_, 1893, pp. 97 seq.), and Dr E. A. Abbott's recent study + in _Diatessarica_, §§ 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the + Docetic heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of + communications with the apostolic base. + + [7] The universal range (ii. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work of + Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic + narrowing of salvation to Israel; only [Greek: êmeîs] here denotes + Christians in general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the + Gnostic pride of perfectionism (i. 8), cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19. The + emphasis on "you all" (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic + system of degrees among believers, which naturally tended to break up + brotherly love (cf. 1 Cor. viii. 1 seq.). The Gnostics also held that + a spiritual seed (cf. iii. 9) was implanted in man, as the germ of + his higher development into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea + cf. Iren. _Adv. Haer._ i. 64, and Tertull. _De anima_, 11 [haeretici] + "nescio quod spiritale semen infulciunt animae". Cf. the general + discussions by Häring in _Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsäcker + gewidmet_ (1892), pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in _Wanderungen durch + Schrift u. Geschichte_ (1892), pp. 3-74. + + [8] Cf. Denney, _The Death of Christ_ (1902), pp. 269-281. The + polemical reference to Cerinthus is specially clear at this point. + The death of Jesus was not that of a phantom, nor was his ministry + from the baptism to the crucifixion that of a heavenly aeon which + suffered nothing: such is the writer's contention. "In every case the + historical is asserted, but care is taken that it shall not be + materialized: a primacy is given to the spiritual.... Except through + the historical, there is no Christianity at all, but neither is there + any Christianity till the historical has been spiritually + comprehended." The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly + witnesses (v. 7) has now been proved by Karl Künstle (_Das Comma + Johanneum_, 1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th + century Spaniard, Priscillian, who himself denied all distinctions of + person in the Godhead. + + [9] On the "sin to death" (v. 16) cf. Jubilees xxi. 22, xxvi. 34 with + Karl's _Johann. Studien_ (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel's _La + Notion johannique de l'esprit_ (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general + theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best + handled by Grill in his _Untersuchungen über die Entstehung des + vierten Evgliums_ (1902), pp. 301 seq., 312 seq. + + [10] In Preuschen's _Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft_ + (1907), pp. 1-8, von Dobschütz tries to show that the present text of + ii. 28-iii. 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier + text. Cludius (_Uransichten des Christentums_, Altona, 1808) had + already conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a + Jewish Christian document. + + [11] Dr Alois Wurm's attempt (_Die Irrlehrer im ersten + Johannesbriefe_, 1903) to read the references to errorists solely in + the light of Jewish Christianity ignores or underrates several of the + data. He is supported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen's + _Zeitschrift_ (1905), pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish + touch, e.g. in the claim of iii. 1 (note the emphatic [Greek: + hêmin]), when one recollects the saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and + Philo's remark, [Greek: kai gar ei mêpô ikanoi theou paides + nomizesthai gegonamen, alla toi tês aeidous eikonos autou, logou tou + hierôt atou theou gar eikôn logos ho presbytatos] (_De conf. ling._ + 28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, unlike that of Paul + and Cerinthus (Epiph. _Haer._ xxviii.), is too well based in the + tradition of the early Church to be dismissed as a later dogmatic + reflection, and the internal evidence of this manifesto corroborates + it clearly. + + [12] "The style is not flowing and articulated; the sentences come + like minute-guns, as they would drop from a natural Hebrew. The + writer moves, indeed, amidst that order of religious ideas which + meets us in the Fourth Gospel, and which was that of the Greek world + wherein he found himself. He moves amongst these new ideas, however, + not with the practised felicity of the evangelist, but with something + of helplessness, although the depth and serene beauty of his spirit + give to all he says an infinite impressiveness and charm" (M. Arnold; + _God and the Bible_, ch. vi.). + + [13] By the end of the 2nd century it appears to have been fairly + well-known, to judge from Origen, Irenaeus (iii. 16, 8), and Clement + of Alexandria (_Stran._ ii. 15, 66). In the Muratorian canon, which + mentions two epistles of John, it seems to be reckoned (cf. Kuhn, + _Das Murat. Fragment_, pp. 58 f.) as an appendix or sequel to the + Fourth Gospel. The apparent traces of its use in Ignatius (cf. + _Smyrn._ vi. 2 = 1 John iii. 17; _Smyrn._ vii = 1 John iii. 14, and + _Eph._ xviii. = 1 John v. 6) seem too insecure, of themselves, to + warrant any hypothesis of filiation. + + + + +JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST, the fourth and latest of the Gospels, in the Bible, +and, next to that of St Mark, the shortest. The present article will +first describe its general structure and more obvious contents; compare +it with the Synoptic Gospels; and draw out its leading characteristics +and final object. It will then apply the tests thus gained to the +narratives special to this Gospel; and point out the book's special +difficulties and limits, and its abiding appeal and greatness. And it +will finally consider the questions of its origin and authorship. + + _Analysis of Contents._--The book's chief break is at xiii. 1, the + solemn introduction to the feet-washing: all up to here reports Jesus' + signs and apologetic or polemical discourses to the outer world; hence + onwards it pictures the manifestation of His glory to the inner circle + of His disciples. These two parts contain three sections each. + + 1. (i.) Introduces the whole work (i. 1-ii. 11). (a) The prologue, i. + 1-18. The Logos existed before creation and time; was with the very + God and was God; and all things were made through Him. For in this + Logos is Life, and this Life is a Light which, though shining in + darkness, cannot be suppressed by it. This true Light became flesh and + tabernacled amongst us; and we beheld His glory, as of an + Only-Begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth. John the + Baptist testified concerning Him, the Logos-Light and Logos-Life + incarnate; but this Logos alone, who is in the bosom of the Father, + hath declared the very God. (b) The four days' work (i. 19-51). On the + first three days John declares that he is not the Christ, proclaims + Jesus to be the Christ, and sends his own disciples away to Jesus. On + the fourth day, Jesus Himself calls Philip and Nathanael. (c) The + seventh day's first manifestation of the Incarnate Light's glory (ii. + 1-11 ); Jesus at Cana turns water into wine. + + (ii.) Records the manifestations of the Light's and Life's glory and + power to friend and foe (ii. 22-vi. 71). (d) Solemn inauguration of + the Messianic ministry (ii. 12-iii. 21): cleansing of the Temple and + prophecy of His resurrection; discourse to Nicodemus on baptismal + regeneration. (e) Three scenes in Judea, Samaria, Galilee respectively + (iii. 32-iv. 54): the Baptist's second testimony; Jesus' discourse + with the woman at the well concerning the spiritual, universal + character of the new religion; and cure of the ruler's son, the reward + of faith in the simple word of Jesus. (f) Manifestation of Jesus as + the vivifying Life-Logos and its contradiction in Judea, v.: the + paralytic's cure. (g) Manifestation of Jesus as the heaven-descended + living Bread and its contradiction in Galilee, vi.: multiplication of + the loaves; walking on the waters; and His discourse on the holy + Eucharist. + + (iii.) Acute conflict between the New Light and the old darkness + (vii.-xii). (h) Self-manifestation of the Logos-Light in the Temple + (vii. 1-x. 39). Journey to the feast of tabernacles; invitation to the + soul athirst to come to Him (the fountain of Life) and drink, and + proclamation of Himself as the Light of the world; cure of the man + born blind; allegory of the good shepherd. The allegory continued at + the feast of the dedication. They strive to stone or to take Him. (i) + The Logos-Life brings Lazarus to life; effects of the act (x. 40-xii. + 50). Jesus withdraws beyond Jordan, and then comes to Bethany, His + friend Lazarus being buried three days; proclaims Himself the + Resurrection and the Life; and calls Lazarus back to life. Some who + saw it report the act to the Pharisees; the Sanhedrim meets, Caiaphas + declares that one man must die for the people, and henceforward they + ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus withdraws to the Judaean desert, but + soon returns, six days before Passover, to Bethany; Mary anoints Him, + a crowd comes to see Him and Lazarus, and the hierarchs then plan the + killing of Lazarus also. Next morning He rides into Jerusalem on an + ass's colt. Certain Greeks desire to see Him: He declares the hour of + His glorification to have come: "Now My soul is troubled.... Father, + save Me from this hour. But for this have I come unto this hour: + Father, glorify Thy Name." A voice answers, "I have glorified it and + will glorify it again": some think that an angel spoke; but Jesus + explains that this voice was not for His sake but for theirs. When + lifted up from earth, He will draw all men to Himself; they are to + believe in Him, the Light. The writer's concluding reflection: the + small success of Jesus' activity among the Jews. Once again He cries: + "I am come a Light into the world, that whoso believeth in Me should + not abide in darkness." + + 2. The Logos-Christ's manifestation of His life and love to His + disciples, during the last supper, the passion, the risen life + (xiii.-xx.). + + (iv.) The Last Supper (xiii.-xvii.) (j) Solemn washing of the + disciples' feet; the beloved disciple; designates the traitor; Judas + goes forth, it is night (xiii. 1-30). (k) Last discourses, first + series (xiii. 31-xiv. 31): the new commandment, the other helper; + "Arise, let us go hence." Second series (xv. 1-xvi. 33): allegory of + the true vine; "Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down + his life for his friend"; the world's hatred; the spirit of truth + shall lead them into all truth; "I came forth from the Father and am + come into the world, again I leave the world and go to the Father"; + "Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world." (l) The high-priestly + prayer (xvii). "Father, glorify Thy Son ... with the glory which I had + with Thee before the world was ... that to as many as Thou hast given + Him, He should give eternal life." "I pray for them, I pray not for + the world. I pray also for them that shall believe in Me through their + word, that they may be all one, as Thou Father art in Me, and I in + Thee." + + (v.) The Passion (xviii.-xix.). (m) In the garden: the Roman soldiers + come to apprehend Him, fall back upon the ground at His declaration "I + am He." Peter and Malchus. (n) Before Annas at night and Caiaphas at + dawn; Peter's denials (xviii. 12-27). (o) Before Pilate (xviii. + 28-40). Jesus declares, "My kingdom is not of this world. I have come + into the world that I may bear witness to the truth: everyone that is + of the truth, heareth My voice"; Pilate asks sceptically "What is + truth?" and the crowd prefers Barabbas. (p) The true king presented to + the people as a mock-king; His rejection by the Jews and abandonment + to them (xix. 1-16). (q) Jesus carries His cross to Golgotha, and is + crucified there between two others; the cross's title and Pilate's + refusal to alter it (xix. 17-22). (r) The soldiers cast lots upon His + garments and seamless tunic; His mother with two faithful women and + the beloved disciple at the cross's foot; His commendation of His + mother and the disciple to each other; His last two sayings in + deliberate accomplishment of scripture "I thirst," "It is + accomplished." He gives up the spirit; His bones remain unbroken; and + from His spear-lanced side blood and water issue (xix. 23-37). (s) The + two nobles, Joseph of Arimathaea and Nicodemus, bind the dead body in + a winding sheet with one hundred pounds of precious spices, and place + it in a new monument in a near garden, since the sabbath is at hand. + + (vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and God (xx.). (t) At early dawn on the + first day of the week, Mary Magdalen, finding the stone rolled away + from the monument, runs to tell Peter and the beloved disciple that + the Lord's body has been removed. Peter and the other disciple run to + the grave; the latter, arriving first, enters only after Peter has + gone in and noted the empty grave-clothes--enters and believes. After + their departure, Mary sees two angels where His body had lain and + turning away beholds Jesus standing, yet recognizes Him only when He + addresses her. He bids her "Do not touch Me, for I have not yet + ascended"; but to tell His brethren "I ascend to My Father and to your + Father, to My God and to your God." And she does so. (u) Second + apparition (xx. 19-23). Later on the same day, the doors being shut, + Jesus appears amongst His disciples, shows them His (pierced) hands + and side, and solemnly commissions and endows them for the apostolate + by the words, "As the Father hath sent Me, so I send you," and by + breathing upon them saying "Receive the Holy Spirit: whose sins ye + remit, they are remitted to them; whose sins ye retain, they are + retained." (v) Third apparition and culminating saying; conclusion of + entire book (xx. 24-31). Thomas, who had been absent, doubts the + resurrection; Jesus comes and submits to the doubter's tests. Thomas + exclaims, "My Lord and my God"; but Jesus declares "Blessed are they + that have not seen and yet have believed." "Now Jesus," concludes the + writer, "did many other signs, ... but these are written, that ye may + believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing + ye may have life in His name." + + The above analysis is rough, since even distantly placed sections, + indeed the two parts themselves, are interrelated by delicate complex + references on and back. And it omits the account of the adulteress + (vii. 53-viii. 11): (a valuable report of an actual occurrence which + probably belonged to some primitive document otherwise incorporated by + the Synoptists), because it is quite un-Johannine in vocabulary, style + and character, intercepts the Gospel's thread wherever placed, and is + absent from its best MSS. It also omits xxi. This chapter's first two + stages contain an important early historical document of Synoptic + type: Jesus' apparition to seven disciples by the Lake of Galilee and + the miraculous draught of fishes; and Peter's threefold confession and + Jesus' threefold commission to him. And its third stage, Jesus' + prophecies to Peter and to the beloved disciple concerning their + future, and the declaration "This is the disciple who testifies to + these things and who has written them, and we know that his testimony + is true," is doubtless written by the redactor of the previous two + stages. This writer imitates, but is different from, the great author + of the first twenty chapters. + + _Comparison with the Synoptists._--The following are the most obvious + differences between the original book and the Synoptists. John has a + metaphysical prologue; Matthew and Luke have historical prologues; and + Mark is without any prologue. The earthly scene is here Judea, indeed + Jerusalem, with but five breaks (vi. 1-vii. 10) is the only long one; + whilst over two-thirds of each Synoptist deal with Galilee or Samaria. + The ministry here lasts about three and a half years (it begins some + months before the first Passover, ii. 13; the feast of v. 1 is + probably a second; the third occurs vi. 4; and on the fourth, xi. 55, + He dies): whilst the Synoptists have but the one Passover of His + death, after barely a year of ministry. Here Jesus' teaching contains + no parables and but three allegories, the Synoptists present it as + parabolic through and through. Here not one exorcism occurs; in the + Synoptists the exorcisms are as prominent as the cures and the + preaching, John has, besides the passion, seven accounts in common + with the Synoptists: the Baptist and Jesus, (i. 19-34); cleansing of + the Temple (ii. 13-16); cure of the centurion's (ruler's) servant + (son) (iv. 46-54); multiplication of the loaves (vi. 1-13); walking + upon the water (vi. 16-21); anointing at Bethany, (xii. 1-8); entry + into Jerusalem (xii. 12-16): all unique occurrences. In the first, + John describes how the Baptist, on Jesus' approach, cries "Behold the + Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world"; and how he says + "I saw the spirit descending upon Him, and I bore witness that this is + the Son of God." But the Synoptists, especially Mark, give the slow + steps in even the apostles' realization of Jesus' Messianic character; + only at Caesarea Philippi Simon alone, for the first time, clearly + discerns it, Jesus declaring that His Father has revealed it to Him, + and yet Simon is still scandalized at the thought of a suffering + Messiah (Mark viii. 28-34). Only some two weeks before the end is He + proclaimed Messiah at Jericho (x. 46-48); then in Jerusalem, five days + before dying for this upon the cross (xi. 1-10, xv. 37). As to the + Baptist, in all three Synoptists, he baptizes Jesus, and in Mark i. + 10, 11 it is Jesus who sees the Spirit descending upon Himself on His + emerging from beneath the water, and it is to Himself that God's voice + is addressed; in John, Jesus' baptism is ignored, only the Spirit + remains hovering above Him, as a sign for the Baptist's instruction. + And in Matt. xi. 2-6, the Baptist, several months after the Jordan + scene, sends from his prison to ascertain if Jesus is indeed the + Messiah; in John, the Baptist remains at large so as again (iii. + 22-36) to proclaim Jesus' heavenly provenance. The cleansing of the + Temple occurs in the Synoptists four days before His death, and + instantly determines the hierarchs to seek His destruction (Mark xi. + 15-18); John puts it three years back, as an appropriate frontispiece + to His complete claims and work. + + The passion-narratives reveal the following main differences. John + omits, at the last supper, its central point, the great historic act + of the holy eucharist, carefully given by the Synoptists and St Paul, + having provided a highly doctrinal equivalent in the discourse on the + living bread, here spoken by Jesus in Capernaum over a year before the + passion (vi. 4), the day after the multiplication of the loaves. This + transference is doubtless connected with the change in the relations + between the time of the Passover meal and that of His death: in the + Synoptists, the Thursday evening's supper is a true Passover meal, the + lamb had been slain that afternoon and Jesus dies some twenty-four + hours later; in John, the supper is not a Passover-meal, the Passover + is celebrated on Friday, and Jesus, proclaimed here from the first, + the Lamb of God, dies whilst the paschal lambs, His prototypes, are + being slain. The scene in the garden is without the agony of + Gethsemane; a faint echo of this historic anguish appears in the scene + with the Greeks four days earlier, and even that peaceful appeal to, + and answer of, the Father occurs only for His followers' sakes. In the + garden Jesus here Himself goes forth to meet His captors, and these + fall back upon the ground, on His revealing Himself as Jesus of + Nazareth. The long scenes with Pilate culminate in the great sayings + concerning His kingdom not being of this world and the object of this + His coming being to bear witness to the truth, thus explaining how, + though affirming kingship (Mark xv. 2) He could be innocent. In John + He does not declare Himself Messiah before the Jewish Sanhedrin (Mark + xiv. 61) but declares Himself supermundane regal witness to the truth + before the Roman governor. The scene on Calvary differs as follows: In + the Synoptists the soldiers divide His garments among them, casting + lots (Mark xv. 24); in John they make four parts of them and cast lots + concerning His seamless tunic, thus fulfilling the text, "They divided + My garments among them and upon My vesture they cast lots": the + parallelism of Hebrew poetry, which twice describes one fact, being + taken as witnessing to two, and the tunic doubtless symbolizing the + unity of the Church, as in Philo the high priest's seamless robe + symbolizes the indivisible unity of the universe, expressive of the + Logos (_De ebrietate_, xxi.). In the Synoptists, of His followers only + women--the careful, seemingly exhaustive lists do not include His + mother--remain, looking on "from afar" (Mark xv. 40); in John, His + mother stands with the two other Marys and the beloved disciple + beneath the cross, and "from that hour the disciple took her unto his + own (house)," while in the older literature His mother does not appear + in Jerusalem till just before Pentecost, and with "His brethren" (Acts + i. 14). And John alone tells how the bones of the dead body remained + unbroken, fulfilling the ordinance as to the paschal lamb (Exod. xii. + 46) and how blood and water flow from His spear-pierced side: thus the + Lamb "taketh away the sins of the world" by shedding His blood which + "cleanseth us from every sin"; and "He cometh by water and blood," + historically at His baptism and crucifixion, and mystically to each + faithful soul in baptism and the eucharist. The story of the risen + Christ (xx.) shows dependence on and contrast to the Synoptic + accounts. Its two halves have each a negative and a positive scene. + The empty grave (1-10) and the apparition to the Magdalen (11-18) + together correspond to the message brought by the women (Matt. xxviii. + 1-10); and the apparition to the ten joyously believing apostles + (19-23) and then to the sadly doubting Thomas (24-29) together + correspond to Luke xxiv. 36-43, where the eleven apostles jointly + receive one visit from the risen One, and both doubt and believe, + mourn and rejoice. + + The Johannine discourses reveal differences from the Synoptists so + profound as to be admitted by all. Here Jesus, the Baptist and the + writer speak so much alike that it is sometimes impossible to say + where each speaker begins and ends: e.g. in iii. 27-30, 31-36. The + speeches dwell upon Jesus' person and work, as we shall find, with a + didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denunciatory + exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. "This is eternal + life, that they may know Thee the only true God and Jesus Christ whom + Thou hast sent" (xvii. 3), is part of the high-priestly prayer; yet + Père Calmes, with the papal censor's approbation, says, "It seems to + us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic developments + explicable rather by the evangelist's habits of mind than by the + actual words of Jesus." "I have told you of earthly things and you + believe not; how shall ye believe if I tell you of heavenly things?" + (iii. 12), and "Ye are from beneath, I am from above" (viii. 23), give + us a Plato-(Philo-) like upper, "true" world, and a lower, delusive + world. "Ye shall die in your sins" (viii. 21); "ye are from your + father the devil" (viii. 44); "I am the door of the sheep, all they + that came before Me are thieves and robbers," (x. 7, 8); "they have no + excuse for their sin" (xv. 22)--contrast strongly with the yearning + over Jerusalem: "The blood of Abel the just" and "the blood of + Zacharias son of Barachias" (Matt. xxiii. 35-37; and "Father, forgive + them; for they know not what they do" Luke xxiii. 34). And whilst the + Synoptist speeches and actions stand in loose and natural relation to + each other, the Johannine deeds so closely illustrate the sayings that + each set everywhere supplements the other: the history itself here + tends to become one long allegory. So with the woman at the well and + "the living water"; the multiplication of the loaves and "the living + Bread"; "I am the Light of the world" and the blind man's cure; "I am + the Resurrection and the Life" and the raising of Lazarus; indeed even + with the Temple-cleansing and the prophecy as to His resurrection, + Nicodemus's night visit and "men loved the darkness rather than the + light," the cure of the inoperative paralytic and "My Father and I + work hitherto," the walking phantom-like upon the waters (John vi. + 15-21; Mark vi. 49), and the declaration concerning the eucharist, + "the spirit it is that quickeneth" (John vi. 63). Only some sixteen + Synoptic sayings reappear here; but we are given some great new + sayings full of the Synoptic spirit. + +_Characteristics and Object._--The book's character results from the +continuous operation of four great tendencies. There is everywhere a +readiness to handle traditional, largely historical, materials with a +sovereign freedom, controlled and limited by doctrinal convictions and +devotional experiences alone. There is everywhere the mystic's deep love +for double, even treble meanings: e.g. the "again" in iii. 2, means, +literally, "from the beginning," to be physically born again; morally, +to become as a little child; mystically, "from heaven, God," to be +spiritually renewed. "Judgment" ([Greek: krisis]), in the popular sense, +condemnation, a future act; in the mystical sense, discrimination, a +present fact. There is everywhere the influence of certain central +ideas, partly identical with, but largely developments of, those less +reflectively operative in the Synoptists. Thus six great terms are +characteristic of, or even special to, this Gospel. "The Only-Begotten" +is most nearly reached by St Paul's term "His own Son." The "Word," or +"Logos," is a term derived from Heracleitus of Ephesus and the Stoics, +through the Alexandrian Jew Philo, but conceived here throughout as +definitely personal. "The Light of the World" the Jesus-Logos here +proclaims Himself to be; in the Synoptists He only declares His +disciples to be such. "The Paraclete," as in Philo, is a "helper," +"intercessor"; but in Philo he is the intelligible universe, whilst here +He is a self-conscious Spirit. "Truth," "the truth," "to know," have +here a prominence and significance far beyond their Synoptic or even +their Pauline use. And above all stand the uses of "Life," "Eternal +Life." The living ever-working Father (vi. 57; v. 17) has a Logos in +whom is Life (i. 4), an ever-working Son (v. 17), who declares Himself +"the living Bread," "the Resurrection and the Life," "the Way, the Truth +and the Life" (vi. 51; xi. 25; xiv. 16): so that Father and Son quicken +whom they will (v. 21); the Father's commandment is life everlasting, +and Jesus' words are spirit and life (xii. 50; vi. 63, 68). The term, +already Synoptic, takes over here most of the connotations of the +"Kingdom of God," the standing Synoptic expression, which appears here +only in iii. 3-5; xviii. 36. Note that the term "the Logos" is peculiar +to the Apocalypse (xix. 13), and the prologue here; but that, as Light +and Life, the Logos-conception is present throughout the book. And thus +there is everywhere a striving to contemplate history _sub specie +aeternitatis_ and to englobe the successiveness of man in the +simultaneity of God. + +_Narratives Peculiar to John._--Of his seven great symbolical, +doctrinally interpreted "signs," John shares three, the cure of the +ruler's son, the multiplication of the loaves, the walking on the +waters, with the Synoptists: yet here the first is transformed almost +beyond recognition; and the two others only typify and prepare the +eucharistic discourse. Of the four purely Johannine signs, two--the +cures of the paralytic (v. 1-16), and of the man born blind (ix. +1-34)--are, admittedly, profoundly symbolical. In the first case, the +man's physical and spiritual lethargy are closely interconnected and +strongly contrasted with the ever-active God and His Logos. In the +second case there is also the closest parallel between physical +blindness cured, and spiritual darkness dispelled, by the Logos-Light as +described in the accompanying discourse. Both narratives are doubtless +based upon actual occurrences--the cures narrated in Mark ii., iii., +viii., x. and scenes witnessed by the writer in later times; yet here +they do but picture our Lord's spiritual work in the human soul achieved +throughout Christian history. We cannot well claim more than these three +kinds of reality for the first and the last signs, the miracle at Cana +and the resurrection of Lazarus. + +For the marriage-feast sign yields throughout an allegorical meaning. +Water stands in this Gospel for what is still but symbol; thus the +water-pots serve here the external Jewish ablutions--old bottles which +the "new wine" of the Gospel is to burst (Mark ii. 22). Wine is the +blood of the new covenant, and He will drink the fruit of the vine new +in the Kingdom of God (Mark xiv. 23-25); the vineyard where He Himself +is the true Vine (Mark xii. 1; John xv. 1). And "the kingdom of heaven +is like to a marriage-feast" (Matt. xxii. 2); Jesus is the Bridegroom +(Mark ii. 19); "the marriage of the Lamb has come" (Rev. xix. 7). "They +have no wine": the hopelessness of the old conditions is announced here +by the true Israel, the Messiah's spiritual mother, the same "woman" who +in Rev. xii. 2, 5 "brought forth a man-child who was to rule all +nations." Cardinal Newman admits that the latter woman "represents the +church, this is the real or direct sense"; yet as her man-child is +certainly the Messiah, this church must be the faithful Jewish church. +Thus also the "woman" at the wedding and beneath the cross stands +primarily for the faithful Old Testament community, corresponding to the +beloved disciple, the typical New Testament follower of her Son, the +Messiah: in each case the devotional accommodation to His earthly mother +is equally ancient and legitimate. He answers her "My hour is not yet +come," i.e. in the symbolic story, the moment for working the miracle; +in the symbolized reality, the hour of His death, condition for the +spirit's advent; and "what is there between Me and thee?" i.e. "My +motives spring no more from the old religion," words devoid of +difficulty, if spoken thus by the Eternal Logos to the passing Jewish +church. The transformation is soon afterwards accomplished, but in +symbol only; the "hour" of the full sense is still over three years off. +Already Philo says "the Logos is the master of the spiritual +drinking-feast," and "let Melchisedeck"--the Logos--"in lieu of water +offer wine to souls and inebriate them" (_De somn._ ii. 37; _Legg. all._ +iii. 26). But in John this symbolism figures a great historic fact, the +joyous freshness of Jesus' ministerial beginnings, as indicated in the +sayings of the Bridegroom and of the new wine, a freshness typical of +Jesus' ceaseless renovation of souls. + +The raising of Lazarus, in appearance a massive, definitely localized +historical fact, requires a similar interpretation, unless we would, in +favour of the direct historicity of a story peculiar to a profoundly +allegorical treatise, ruin the historical trustworthiness of the largely +historical Synoptists in precisely their most complete and verisimilar +part. For especially in Mark, the passing through Jericho, the entry +into Jerusalem, the Temple-cleansing and its immediate effect upon the +hierarchs, their next day's interrogatory, "By what authority doest thou +these things?" i.e. the cleansing (x. 46-xi. 33), are all closely +interdependent and lead at once to His discussions with His Jerusalem +opponents (xii. xiii.), and to the anointing, last supper, and passion +(xiv. xv). John's last and greatest symbolic sign replaces those +historic motives, since here it is the raising of Lazarus which +determines the hierarchs to kill Jesus (xi. 46-52), and occasions the +crowds which accompany and meet Him on His entry (xii. 9-19). The +intrinsic improbabilities of the narrative, if taken as direct history, +are also great: Jesus' deliberate delay of two days to secure His +friend's dying, and His rejoicing at the death, since thus He can +revivify His friend and bring His disciples to believe in Himself as the +Life; His deliberate weeping over the death which He has thus let +happen, yet His anger at the similar tears of Lazarus's other friends; +and His praying, as He tells the Father in the prayer itself, simply to +edify the bystanders: all point to a doctrinal allegory. Indeed the +climax of the whole account is already reached in Jesus' great saying: +"I am the Resurrection and the Life; he that believeth in Me ... shall +not die for ever," and in Martha's answer: "I believe that Thou art the +Christ, the Son of God, who hast come into the world" (xi. 26, 27); the +sign which follows is but the pictorial representation of this abiding +truth. The materials for the allegory will have been certain Old +Testament narratives, but especially the Synoptic accounts of Jesus' +raisings of Jairus's daughter and of the widow's son (Mark v.; Luke +vii.). Mary and Martha are admittedly identical with the sisters in Luke +x. 38-42; and already some Greek fathers connect the Lazarus of this +allegory with the Lazarus of the parable (Luke xvi. 19-31). In the +parable Lazarus returns not to earth, since Abraham foresees that the +rich man's brethren would disbelieve even if one rose from the dead; in +the corresponding allegory, Lazarus does actually return to life, and +the Jews believe so little as to determine upon killing the very Life +Himself. + +_Special Difficulties and Special Greatness._--The difficulties, +limitations and temporary means special to the book are closely +connected with its ready appeal and abiding power; let us take both sets +of things together, in three couples of interrelated price and gift. + +The book's method and form are pervadingly allegorical; its instinct and +aim are profoundly mystical. Now from Philo to Origen we have a long +Hellenistic, Jewish and Christian application of that all-embracing +allegorism, where one thing stands for another and where no factual +details resist resolution into a symbol of religious ideas and forces. +Thus Philo had, in his life of Moses, allegorized the Pentateuchal +narratives so as to represent him as mediator, saviour, intercessor of +his people, the one great organ of revelation, and the soul's guide from +the false lower world into the upper true one. The Fourth Gospel is the +noblest instance of this kind of literature, of which the truth depends +not on the factual accuracy of the symbolizing appearances but on the +truth of the ideas and experiences thus symbolized. And Origen is still +full of spontaneous sympathy with its pervading allegorism. But this +method has lost its attraction; the Synoptists, with their rarer and +slighter pragmatic rearrangements and their greater closeness to our +Lord's actual words, deeds, experiences, environment, now come home to +us as indefinitely richer in content and stimulative appeal. Yet +mysticism persists, as the intuitive and emotional apprehension of the +most specifically religious of all truths, viz. the already full, +operative existence of eternal beauty, truth and goodness, of infinite +Personality and Spirit independently of our action, and not, as in +ethics, the simple possibility and obligation for ourselves to produce +such-like things. And of this elemental mode of apprehension and +root-truth, the Johannine Gospel is the greatest literary document and +incentive extant: its ultimate aim and deepest content retain all their +potency. + +The book contains an intellectualist, static, determinist, abstractive +trend. In Luke x. 25-28, eternal life depends upon loving God and man; +here it consists in knowing the one true God and Christ whom He has +sent. In the Synoptists, Jesus "grows in favour with God and man," +passes through true human experiences and trials, prays alone on the +mountain-side, and dies with a cry of desolation; here the Logos' +watchword is "I am," He has deliberately to stir up emotion in Himself, +never prays for Himself, and in the garden and on the cross shows but +power and self-possession. Here we find "ye cannot hear, cannot believe, +because ye are not from God, not of My sheep" (viii. 47, x. 26); "the +world cannot receive the spirit of truth" (xiv. 17). Yet the ethical +current appears here also strongly: "he who doeth the truth, cometh to +the light" (iii. 21), "if you love Me, keep My commandments" (xiv. 15). +Libertarianism is here: "the light came, but men loved the darkness +better than the light," "ye will not come to Me" (iii. 19, v. 40); hence +the appeal "abide in Me"--the branch can cease to be in Him the Vine +(xv. 4, 2). Indeed even those first currents stand here for the deepest +religious truths, the prevenience of God and man's affinity to Him. "Not +we loved God (first), but He (first) loved us"; "let us love Him, +because He first loved us" (1 John iv. 10, 19); "no man can come to Me, +unless the Father draw him" (vi. 44), a drawing which effects a hunger +and thirst for Christ and God (iv. 14, vi. 35). Thus man's spirit, ever +largely but potential, can respond actively to the historic Jesus, +because already touched and made hungry by the all-actual Spirit-God who +made that soul akin unto Himself. + +The book has an outer protective shell of acutely polemical and +exclusive moods and insistences, whilst certain splendid Synoptic +breadths and reconciliations are nowhere reached; but this is primarily +because it is fighting, more consciously than they, for that inalienable +ideal of all deepest religion, unity, even external and corporate, +amongst all believers. The "Pneumatic" Gospel comes thus specially to +emphasize certain central historical facts; and, the most explicitly +institutional and sacramental of the four, to proclaim the most +universalistic and developmental of all Biblical sayings. Here indeed +Jesus will not pray for the world (xvii. 9); "ye shall die in your +sins," He insists to His opponents (viii. 44, 24); it is the Jews +generally who appear throughout as such; nowhere is there a word as to +forgiving our enemies; and the commandment of love is designated by +Jesus as His, as new, and as binding the disciples to "love one another" +within the community to which He gives His "example" (xv. 12, xiii. 34, +15). In the Synoptists, the disciples' intolerance is rebuked (Mark ix. +38-41); Jesus' opposition is everywhere restricted to the Pharisees and +the worldly Sadducees; He ever longs for the conversion of Jerusalem; +the great double commandment of love is proclaimed as already formulated +in the Mosaic law (Mark xii. 28-34); the neighbour to be thus loved and +served is simply any and every suffering fellow-man; and the pattern for +such perfect love is found in a schismatical Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). +Yet the deepest strain here is more serenely universalist even than St +Paul, for here Jesus says: "God so loved the world, that He gave His +only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should ... have +everlasting life" (iii. 16). True, the great prologue passage (i. 9) +probably reads "He was the true Light coming into the world, that +enlighteneth every man," so that the writer would everywhere concentrate +his mind upon the grace attendant upon explicit knowledge of the +incarnate, historic Christ. Yet Christian orthodoxy, which itself has, +all but uniformly, understood this passage of the spiritual radiation +throughout the world of the Word before His incarnation, has been aided +towards such breadth as to the past by the Johannine outlook into the +future. For, in contrast to the earliest Synoptic tradition, where the +full Christian truth and its first form remain undistinguished, and +where its earthly future appears restricted to that generation, in John +the Eternal Life conception largely absorbs the attention away from all +successiveness; Jesus' earthly life does not limit the religion's +assimilation of further truth and experience: "I have many things to +tell you, but you cannot bear them now," "the Father will give you +another Helper, the spirit of truth, who will abide with you for ever" +(xvi. 12, xiv. 15). This universalism is not simply spiritual; the +external element, presupposed in the Synoptists as that of the Jewish +church within which Jesus' earthly life was spent, is here that of the +now separate Christian community: He has other sheep not of this +fold--them also He must bring, there will be one fold, one shepherd; and +His seamless tunic, and Peter's net which, holding every kind of fish, +is not rent, are symbols of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations +exist in this church; Jesus begins the feet-washing with Peter, who +alone speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns Peter to +Jesus' monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done so first; and in +the appendix the treble pastoral commission is to Peter alone: a Petrine +pre-eminence which but echoes the Synoptists. And sacramentalism informs +the great discourses concerning rebirth by water and the spirit, and +feeding on the Living Bread, Jesus' flesh and blood, and the narrative +of the issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus' side. Indeed so +severe a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its +specific means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by water +and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the blood to which +entrance into the Kingdom and possession of interior life are here +exclusively attached, as often represented by a simple sincere desire +and will for spiritual purification and a keen hunger and thirst for +God's aid, together with such cultual acts as such souls can know or +find, even without any knowledge of the Christian rites. Thus there is +many "a pedagogue to Christ," and the Christian visible means and +expressions are the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees +and forms, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all +human history. + +_Origin and Authorship._--The question as to the book's origin has lost +its poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition of the book's +intrinsic character. Thus the recent defenders of the apostolic +authorship, the Unitarian James Drummond (1903), the Anglican William +Sanday (1905), the Roman Catholic Theodore Calmes (1904), can tell us, +the first, that "the evangelist did not aim at an illustrative picture +of what was most characteristic of Jesus"; the second, that "the author +sank into his own consciousness and at last brought to light what he +found there"; the third, that "the Gospel contains an entire theological +system," "history is seen through the intervening dogmatic development," +"the Samaritan woman is ... a personification," "the behaviour of the +Greeks is entirely natural in such a book." We thus get at +cross-purposes with this powerful, profound work. Only some such +position as Abbé Loisy's critical summing up (1903) brings out its +specific greatness. "What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, +tells us to some extent: a Christian of Judeo-Alexandrine formation; a +believer without, apparently, any personal reminiscence of what had +actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a theologian far +removed from every historical preoccupation, though he retains certain +principal facts of tradition without which Christianity would evaporate +into pure ideas; and a seer who has lived the Gospel which he +propounds." "To find his book beautiful and true, we need but take it as +it is and understand it." "The church, which has never discussed the +literary problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth." + +Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately maintained +or reconquered against the critics. As to the Gospel's date, critics +have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150 (Zeller), 130 (Keim), to 110-115 +(Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack): since Irenaeus says its author lived into +the times of Trajan (90-117), a date somewhere about 105 would satisfy +tradition. As to the place, the critics accept proconsular Asia with +practical unanimity, thus endorsing Irenaeus's declaration that the +Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author's antecedents, critics +have ceased to hold that he could not have been a Jew-Christian (so +Bretschneider, 1820), and admit (so Schmiedel, (1901) that he must have +been by birth a Jew of the Dispersion, or the son of Christian parents +who had been such Jews. And as to the vivid accuracy of many of his +topographical and social details, the predominant critical verdict now +is that he betrays an eye-witness's knowledge of the country between +Sichem and Jordan and as to Jerusalem; he will have visited these +places, say in 90, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before its +fall. But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or any +other eyewitness of Jesus' earthly life have accumulated to a practical +demonstration. + +As to the external evidence for the book's early date, we must remember +that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation, though +admittedly earlier, are of the same school, and, with the great Pauline +Epistles, show many preformations of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other +slighter prolusions will have circulated in that Philonian centre +Ephesus, before the great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the +precariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels +to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr (163-167) +certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus' life is so +strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it as from an +apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in his _Exposition of the +Lord's Sayings_ (145-160) appears nowhere to have mentioned it, and +clearly distinguishes between "what Andrew, Peter, ... John or Matthew +or any other of the Lord's disciples spoke," and "what Aristion and the +presbyter John, the Lord's disciples, say." Thus Papias, as Eusebius +about 314 insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him a far-away +figure; indeed early medieval chroniclers recount that Papias "in the +second book of the Lord's sayings" asserted that both the sons of +Zebedee were "slain by Jews," so that the apostle John would have died +before 70. Irenaeus's testimony is the earliest and admittedly the +strongest we possess for the Zebedean authorship; yet, as Calmes admits, +"it cannot be considered decisive." In his work against the Heresies and +in his letter to Florinus, about 185-191, he tells how he had himself +known Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp "used to recount his +familiar intercourse with John and the others who had seen the Lord"; +and explicitly identifies this John with the Zebedean and the +evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most fifteen when thus frequenting +Polycarp; writes thirty-five to fifty years later in Lyons, admitting +that he noted down nothing at the time; and, since his mistaken +description of Papias as "a hearer of John" the Zebedean was certainly +reached by mistaking the presbyter for the apostle, his additional words +"and a companion of Polycarp" point to this same mistaken identification +having also operated in his mind with regard to Polycarp. In any case, +the very real and important presbyter is completely unknown to +Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the book's authorship resulted +apparently from a comparison of its contents with Polycarp's teaching. +If the presbyter wrote Revelation and was Polycarp's master, such a +mistake could easily arise. Certainly Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, +made a precisely similar mistake when about 190 he described the Philip +"who rests in Hierapolis" as "one of the twelve apostles," since +Eusebius rightly identifies this Philip with the deacon of Acts xxi. A +positive testimony for the critical conclusion is derived from the +existence of a group of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 rejected the +Gospel as not by John but by Cerinthus. The attribution is doubtless +mistaken. But could Christians sufficiently numerous to deserve a long +discussion by St Epiphanius in 374-377, who upheld the Synoptists, +stoutly opposed the Gnostics and Montanists, and had escaped every +special designation till the bishop nicknamed them the "Alogoi" +(irrational rejectors of the Logos-Gospel), dare, in such a time and +country, to hold such views, had the apostolic origin been +incontestable? Surely not. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, +Eusebius, Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is +traceable to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of Revelation +and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long-lived Asian +presbyter. + +As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various imperfect or +sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman and Thomas; if even +the mother appears to symbolize faithful Israel: then, profoundly +spiritual and forward-looking as it is, a type of the perfect disciple, +not all unlike Clement's perfect "Gnostic," could hardly be omitted by +it; and the precise details of this figure may well be only ideally, +mystically true. The original work nowhere identifies this disciple with +any particular historic figure. "He who saw" the lance-thrust "hath +borne witness, and his witness is true," is asserted (xix. 35) of the +disciple. Yet "to see" is said also of intuitive faith, "whoso hath seen +Me, hath seen the Father" (xiv. 9); and "true" appears also in "the true +Light," "the true Bread from heaven," as characterizing the realities of +the upper, alone fully true world, and equals "heavenly" (iii. 12); thus +a "true witness" testifies to some heavenly reality, and appeals to the +reader's "pneumatic," i.e. allegorical, understanding. + +Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification with a +particular historic person: "this is the disciple who witnessed to and +who wrote these things" (24) refers doubtless to the whole previous work +and to "the disciple whom Jesus loved," identified here with an unnamed +historic personage whose recent death had created a shock, evidently +because he was the last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly +expected the second coming (18-23). This man was so great that the +writer strives to win his authority for this Gospel; and yet this man +was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is dead and gone, not +proclaim the fact? If the dead man was John the presbyter--if this John +had in youth just seen Jesus and the Zebedean, and in extreme old age +had still seen and approved the Gospel--to attribute this Gospel to him, +as is done here, would not violate the literary ethics of those times. +Thus the heathen philosopher Iamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: "this was +admirable" amongst the Neo-Pythagoreans "that they ascribed everything +to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge their own works as their own" +(_de Pythag. vita_, 198). And as to Christians, Tertullian about 210 +tells how the presbyter who, in proconsular Asia, had "composed the +_Acts of Paul and Thecla_" was convicted and deposed, for how could it +be credible that Paul should confer upon women the power to "teach and +baptize" as these _Acts_ averred? The attribution as such, then, was not +condemned. + +The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the hypothesis that +John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead, wrote the book of +Revelation (its more ancient Christian portions) say in 69, and died at +Ephesus say in 100; that the author of the Gospel wrote the first draft, +here, say in 97; that this book, expanded by him, first circulated +within a select Ephesian Christian circle; and that the Ephesian church +officials added to it the appendix and published it in 110-120. But +however different or more complicated may have been the actual origins, +three points remain certain. The real situation that confronts us is not +an unbroken tradition of apostolic eye-witnesses, incapable of +re-statement with any hope of ecclesiastical acceptance, except by +another apostolic eye-witness. On one side indeed there was the record, +underlying the Synoptists, of at least two eye-witnesses, and the +necessity of its preservation and transmission; but on the other side a +profound double change had come over the Christian outlook and +requirements. St Paul's heroic labours (30-64) had gradually gained full +recognition and separate organization for the universalist strain in our +Lord's teaching; and he who had never seen the earthly Jesus, but only +the heavenly Christ, could even declare that Christ "though from the +Jewish fathers according to the flesh" had died, "so that henceforth, +even if we have known Christ according to the flesh, now we no further +know Him thus," "the Lord is the Spirit," and "where the Spirit of the +Lord is, there is liberty." And the Jewish church, within which +Christianity had first lived and moved, ceased to have a visible centre. +Thus a super-spatial and super-temporal interpretation of that first +markedly Jewish setting and apprehension of the Christian truth became +as necessary as the attachment to the original contingencies. The Fourth +Gospel, inexplicable without St Paul and the fall of Jerusalem, is fully +understandable with them. The attribution of the book to an eye-witness +nowhere resolves, it everywhere increases, the real difficulties; and by +insisting upon having history in the same degree and way in John as in +the Synoptists, we cease to get it sufficiently anywhere at all. And the +Fourth Gospel's true greatness lies well within the range of this its +special character. In character it is profoundly "pneumatic"; Paul's +super-earthly Spirit-Christ here breathes and speaks, and invites a +corresponding spiritual comprehension. And its greatness appears in its +inexhaustibly deep teachings concerning Christ's sheep and fold; the +Father's drawing of souls to Christ; the dependence of knowledge as to +Christ's doctrine upon the doing of God's will; the fulfilling of the +commandment of love, as the test of true discipleship; eternal life, +begun even here and now; and God a Spirit, to be served in spirit and in +truth. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See also the independent discussion, under REVELATION, + BOOK OF, of the authorship of that work. Among the immense literature + of the subject, the following books will be found especially + instructive by the classically trained reader: Origen's commentary, + finished (only to John xiii. 33) in 235-237 (best ed. by Preuschen, + 1903). St Augustine's _Tractatus in Joannis Ev. et Ep._, about 416. + The Spanish Jesuit Juan Maldonatus' Latin commentary, published 1596 + (critical reprint, edited by Raich, 1874), a pathfinder on many + obscure points, is still a model for tenacious penetration of + Johannine ideas. Bretschneider's short _Probabilia de Evangelii ... + Joannis Apostoli indole et origine_ (1820), the first systematic + assault on the traditional attribution, remains unrefuted in its main + contention. The best summing up and ripest fruit of the critical + labour since then are Professor H. J. Holtzmann's _Handkommentar_ (2nd + ed., 1893) and the respective sections in his _Einleitung in d. N. T._ + (3rd ed., 1892) and his _Lehrbuch der N. T. Theologie_ (1897), vol. 2. + Professor C. E. Luthardt's _St John, Author of the Fourth Gospel_ + (Eng. trans., with admirable bibliography by C. R. Gregory, 1875), + still remains the best conservative statement. Among the few + critically satisfactory French books, Abbé Loisy's _Le Quatrième + évangile_ (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological + analysis and continuous sense of the book's closely knit unity; whilst + Père Th. Calmes' _Évangile selon S. Jean_ (1904) indicates how + numerous are the admissions as to the book's character and the + evidences for its authorship, made by intelligent Roman Catholic + apologists with Rome's explicit approbation. In England a considerably + less docile conservatism has been predominant. Bp Lightfoot's _Essays + on ... Supernatural Religion_ (1874-1877; collected 1889) are often + masterly conservative interpretations of the external evidence; but + they leave this evidence still inconclusive, and the formidable + contrary internal evidence remains practically untouched. Much the + same applies to Bp Westcott's _Gospel according to St John_ (1882), + devotionally so attractive, and in textual criticism excellent. Dr + James Drummond's _Inquiry into the Character and Authorship of the + Fourth Gospel_ (1903) does not, by its valuable survey of the external + evidence, succeed in giving credibility to the eyewitness origin of + such a book as this is admitted to be. Professor W. Sanday's slighter + _Criticism of the Fourth Gospel_ (1905) is in a similar position. + Professor P. W. Schmiedel's article "John s. of Zebedee" in the _Ency. + Bib._ (1901) is the work of a German of the advanced left. Dr E. A. + Abbott's laborious _From Letter to Spirit_ (1903), _Joannine + Vocabulary_ (1904) and _Grammar_ (1906) overflow with statistical + details and ever acute, often fanciful, conjecture. Professor F. C. + Burkitt's _The Gospel History_ (1906) vigorously sketches the book's + dominant characteristics and true function. E. F. Scott's _The Fourth + Gospel_ (1906) gives a lucid, critical and religiously tempered + account of the Gospel's ideas, aims, affinities, difficulties and + abiding significance. (F. v. H.) + + + + +JOHN ALBERT (1459-1501), king of Poland, third son of Casimir IV. king +of Poland and Elizabeth of Austria. As crown prince he distinguished +himself by his brilliant victory over the Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. +He succeeded his father in 1492. The loss of revenue consequent upon the +secession of Lithuania placed John Albert at the mercy of the Polish +Sejmiki or local diets, where the _szlachta_, or country gentry, made +their subsidies dependent upon the king's subservience. Primarily a +warrior with a strong taste for heroic adventure, John Albert desired to +pose as the champion of Christendom against the Turks. Circumstances +seemed, moreover, to favour him. In his brother Wladislaus, who as king +of Hungary and Bohemia possessed a dominant influence in Central Europe, +he found a counterpoise to the machinations of the emperor Maximilian, +who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III. of +Muscovy, while, as suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was favourably +situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference of Leutschau in 1494 +the details of the expedition were arranged between the kings of Poland +and Hungary and the elector Frederick of Brandenburg, with the +co-operation of Stephen, hospodar of Moldavia, who had appealed to John +Albert for assistance. In the course of 1496 John Albert with great +difficulty collected an army of 80,000 men in Poland, but the crusade +was deflected from its proper course by the sudden invasion of Galicia +by the hospodar, who apparently--for the whole subject is still very +obscure--had been misled by reports from Hungary that John Albert was +bent upon placing his younger brother Sigismund on the throne of +Moldavia. Be that as it may, the Poles entered Moldavia not as friends, +but as foes, and, after the abortive siege of Suczawa, were compelled to +retreat through the Bukowina to Sniatyn, harassed all the way by the +forces of the hospodar. The insubordination of the _szlachta_ seems to +have been one cause of this disgraceful collapse, for John Albert +confiscated hundreds of their estates after his return; in spite of +which, to the end of his life he retained his extraordinary popularity. +When the new grand master of the Teutonic order, Frederic of Saxony, +refused to render homage to the Polish crown, John Albert compelled him +to do so. His intention of still further humiliating the Teutonic order +was frustrated by his sudden death in 1501. A valiant soldier and a man +of much enlightenment, John Albert was a poor politician, recklessly +sacrificing the future to the present. + + See V. Czerny, _The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jagiello_ + (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882). + + + + +JOHN ANGELUS (d. 1244), emperor of Thessalonica. In 1232 he received the +throne from his father Theodore, who, after a period of exile, had +re-established his authority, but owing to his loss of eyesight resolved +to make John the nominal sovereign. His reign is chiefly marked by the +aggressions of the rival emperor of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, who laid +siege to Thessalonica in 1243 and only withdrew upon John Angelus +consenting to exchange the title "emperor" for the subordinate one of +"despot." + + See G. Finlay, _History of Greece_, vol. iii. (1877). + + + + +JOHN FREDERICK I. (1503-1554), called the Magnanimous, elector of +Saxony, was the elder son of the elector, John the Steadfast, and +belonged to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin family. Born at Torgau on +the 30th of June 1503 and educated as a Lutheran, he took some part in +imperial politics and in the business of the league of Schmalkalden +before he became elector by his father's death in August 1532. His lands +comprised the western part of Saxony, and included Thuringia, but in +1542 Coburg was surrendered to form an apanage for his brother, John +Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an ardent Lutheran and had a +high regard for Luther, continued the religious policy of his father. In +1534 he assisted to make peace between the German king Ferdinand I. and +Ulrich, duke of Württemberg, but his general attitude was one of +vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous colleague in the +league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of Hesse. He was often at +variance with Philip, whose bigamy he disliked, and his belief in the +pacific intentions of Charles V. and his loyalty to the Empire prevented +him from pursuing any definite policy for the defence of Protestantism. +In 1541 his kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous +eyes upon the electoral dignity. A cause of quarrel soon arose. In 1541 +John Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of Naumburg in spite +of the chapter, who had elected a Roman Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and +about the same time he seized Wurzen, the property of the bishop of +Meissen, whose see was under the joint protection of electoral and ducal +Saxony. Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of +Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive Henry, +duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, from his duchy, but in spite of this his +relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in 1544 were very +amicable. This was, however, only a lull in the storm, and the emperor +soon began to make preparations for attacking the league of +Schmalkalden, and especially John Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The +support, or at least the neutrality, of Maurice was won by the hope of +the electoral dignity, and in July 1546 war broke out between Charles +and the league. In September John Frederick was placed under the +imperial ban, and in November Maurice invaded the electorate. Hastening +from southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from the land, took his +ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, prisoner at Rochlitz, and +overran ducal Saxony. His progress, however, was checked by the advance +of Charles V. Notwithstanding his valour he was wounded and taken +prisoner at Mühlberg on the 24th of April 1547, and was condemned to +death in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was not +carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May 1547) he +renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his lands in favour of +Maurice, steadfastly refusing however to make any concessions on +religious matters, and remained in captivity until May 1552, when he +returned to the Thuringian lands which his sons had been allowed to +retain, his return being hailed with wild enthusiasm. During his +imprisonment he had refused to accept the _Interim_, issued from +Augsburg in May 1548, and had urged his sons to make no peace with +Maurice. After his release the emperor had restored his dignities to +him, and his assumption of the electoral arms and title prevented any +arrangement with Maurice. However, after the death of this prince in +July 1553, a treaty was made at Naumburg in February 1554 with his +successor Augustus. John Frederick consented to the transfer of the +electoral dignity, but retained for himself the title of "born elector," +and received some lands and a sum of money. He was thus the last +Ernestine elector of Saxony. He died at Weimar on the 3rd of March 1554, +having had three sons by his wife, Sibylla (d. 1554), daughter of John +III., duke of Cleves, whom he had married in 1527, and was succeeded by +his eldest son, John Frederick. The elector was a great hunter and a +hard drinker, whose brave and dignified bearing in a time of misfortune +won for him his surname of Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger +Ascham and Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a +benefactor to that of Leipzig. + + See Mentz, _Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige_ (Jena, 1903); Rogge, + _Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige_ (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, + _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Leipzig, 1882). + + + + +JOHN FREDERICK (1529-1595), called _der Mittlere_, duke of Saxony, was +the eldest son of John Frederick, who had been deprived of the Saxon +electorate by the emperor Charles V. in 1547. Born at Torgau on the 8th +of January 1529, he received a good education, and when his father was +imprisoned in 1547 undertook the government of the remnant of electoral +Saxony which the emperor allowed the Ernestine branch of the Wettin +family to keep. Released in 1552 John Frederick the elder died two years +later, and his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony together until 1557, +when John Frederick was made sole ruler. This arrangement lasted until +1565, when John Frederick shared his lands with his surviving brother, +John William (1530-1573), retaining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The +duke was a strong, even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views +were gradually subordinated to the one idea of regaining the electoral +dignity then held by Augustus I. To attain this end he lent a willing +ear to the schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbach, who came to his court about +1557 and offered to regain the electoral dignity and even to acquire the +Empire for his patron. In spite of repeated warnings from the emperor +Ferdinand I., John Frederick continued to protect Grumbach, and in 1566 +his obstinacy caused him to be placed under the imperial ban. Its +execution was entrusted to Augustus who, aided by the duke's brother, +John William, marched against Gotha with a strong force. In consequence +of a mutiny the town surrendered in April 1567, and John Frederick was +delivered to the emperor Maximilian II. He was imprisoned in Vienna, his +lands were given to his brother, and he remained in captivity until his +death at Steyer on the 6th of May 1595. These years were mainly occupied +with studying theology and in correspondence. John Frederick married +firstly Agnes (d. 1555) daughter of Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and +widow of Maurice, elector of Saxony, and secondly Elizabeth (d. 1594) +daughter of Frederick III., elector palatine of the Rhine, by whom he +left two sons, John Casimir (1564-1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638). +Elizabeth shared her husband's imprisonment for twenty-two years. + + See A. Beck, _Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, Herzog zu Sachsen_ + (Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachischen Händel_ + (Jena, 1868-1870). + + + + +JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second son of the elector +Christian I., was born on the 5th of March 1585, succeeding to the +electorate in June 1611 on the death of his elder brother, Christian II. +The geographical position of electoral Saxony hardly less than her high +standing among the German Protestants gave her ruler much importance +during the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however, +the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His personal +allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but he liked neither the growing +strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing prestige of the Palatinate; +the adherence of the other branches of the Saxon ruling house to +Protestantism seemed to him to suggest that the head of electoral Saxony +should throw his weight into the other scale, and he was prepared to +favour the advances of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party. Thus +he was easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, archduke of +Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified the +anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new emperor +secured the help of John George for the impending campaign in Bohemia by +promising that he should be undisturbed in his possession of certain +ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out his share of the bargain by occupying +Silesia and Lusatia, where he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector +had thus some part in driving Frederick V., elector palatine of the +Rhine, from Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the +crown of which he himself had previously refused. Gradually, however, he +was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the imperial policy towards the +annihilation of Protestantism, and by a dread lest the ecclesiastical +lands should be taken from him; and the issue of the edict of +restitution in March 1629 put the coping-stone to his fears. Still, +although clamouring vainly for the exemption of the electorate from the +area covered by the edict, John George took no decided measures to break +his alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631 call a +meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite of the appeals of +the preacher Matthias Hoë von Hohenegg (1580-1645) he contented himself +with a formal protest. Meanwhile Gustavus Adolphus had landed in +Germany, and the elector had refused to allow him to cross the Elbe at +Wittenberg, thus hindering his attempt to relieve Magdeburg. But John +George's reluctance to join the Protestants disappeared when the +imperial troops under Tilly began to ravage Saxony, and in September +1631 he concluded an alliance with the Swedish king. The Saxon troops +were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were routed by the +imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in flight. Nevertheless +he soon took the offensive. Marching into Bohemia the Saxons occupied +Prague, but John George soon began to negotiate for peace and +consequently his soldiers offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who +drove them back into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of +Gustavus Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the +position was changed by the death of the king at Lützen in 1632, and the +refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under Swedish +leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory fashion +against the imperialists, John George again negotiated for peace, and in +May 1635 he concluded the important treaty of Prague with Ferdinand II. +His reward was Lusatia and certain other additions of territory; the +retention by his son Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and +some concessions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once +he declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten at +Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides, was soon in a +deplorable condition. At length in September 1645 the elector was +compelled to agree to a truce with the Swedes, who, however, retained +Leipzig; and as far as Saxony was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' +War. After the peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did +little more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died on the +8th of October 1656. Although not without political acumen, he was not a +great ruler; his character appears to have been harsh and unlovely, and +he was addicted to drink. He was twice married, and in addition to his +successor John George II. he left three sons, Augustus (1614-1680), +Christian (d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who were all endowed with +lands in Saxony, and who founded cadet branches of the Saxon house. + +JOHN GEORGE II. (1613-1680), elector of Saxony, was born on the 31st of +May 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he made an arrangement with +his three brothers with the object of preventing disputes over their +separate territories, and in 1664 he entered into friendly relations +with Louis XIV. He received money from the French king, but the +existence of a strong anti-French party in Saxony induced him +occasionally to respond to the overtures of the emperor Leopold I. The +elector's primary interests were not in politics, but in music and art. +He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre of +Germany; welcoming foreign musicians and others he gathered around him a +large and splendid court, and his capital was the constant scene of +musical and other festivals. His enormous expenditure compelled him in +1661 to grant greater control over monetary matters to the estates, a +step which laid the foundation of the later system of finance in Saxony. +John George died at Freiberg on the 22nd of August 1680. + +JOHN GEORGE III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the only son of John +George II., was born on the 20th of June 1647. He forsook the +vacillating foreign policy of his father and in June 1683 joined an +alliance against France. Having raised the first standing army in the +electorate he helped to drive the Turks from Vienna in September 1680, +leading his men with great gallantry; but disgusted with the attitude of +the emperor Leopold I. after the victory, he returned at once to Saxony. +However, he sent aid to Leopold in 1685. When Louis XIV.'s armies +invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one of the first to +take up arms against the French, and after sharing in the capture of +Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. He had +not, however, met with any notable success when he died at Tübingen on +the 12th of September 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, +but he appears to have been less extravagant than John George II. His +wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick III. king of Denmark, and +both his sons, John George and Frederick Augustus, became electors of +Saxony, the latter also becoming king of Poland as Augustus II. + +JOHN GEORGE IV. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on the 18th of +October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his chief adviser was Hans +Adam von Schöning (1641-1696), who counselled a union between Saxony and +Brandenburg and a more independent attitude towards the emperor. In +accordance with this advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I. +to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops withdrew +from the imperial army, a proceeding which led the chagrined emperor to +seize and imprison Schöning in July 1692. Although John George was +unable to procure his minister's release, Leopold managed to allay the +elector's anger, and early in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the +imperialists. This elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for +Magdalene Sibylle von Neidschütz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of +Rochlitz, whom on his accession he publicly established as his mistress. +John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27th of April +1694. + + + + +JOHN[1] MAURICE OF NASSAU (1604-1679), surnamed the Brazilian, was the +son of John the Younger, count of Nassau-Siegen-Dillenburg, and the +grandson of John, the elder brother of William the Silent and the chief +author of the Union of Utrecht. He distinguished himself in the +campaigns of his cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and +was by him recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India company +in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in Brazil recently +conquered by the company. He landed at the Recife, the port of +Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By a +series of successful expeditions he gradually extended the Dutch +possessions from Sergipe on the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the +north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of St George del +Mina and St Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of +the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, he transformed the Recife +by building a new town adorned with splendid public edifices and +gardens, which was called after his name Mauritstad. By his +statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most flourishing +condition and succeeded even in reconciling the Portuguese settlers to +submit quietly to Dutch rule. His large schemes and lavish expenditure +alarmed however the parsimonious directors of the West India company, +but John Maurice refused to retain his post unless he was given a free +hand, and he returned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards +appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the States +army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and 1646. When the war +was ended by the peace of Münster in January 1648, he accepted from the +elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and +Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was +as great as it had been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and +wise ruler. At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St +John and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; +when the war broke out with England supported by an invasion from the +bishop of Münster, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Dutch +forces on land. Though hampered in his command by the restrictions of +the states-general, he repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph +von Galen, was forced to conclude peace. His campaigning was not yet at +an end, for in 1673 he was appointed by the stadtholder William III. to +command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend the eastern +frontier of the Provinces. In 1675 his health compelled him to give up +active military service, and he spent his last years in his beloved +Cleves, where he died on the 20th of December 1679. The house which he +built at the Hague, named after him the Maurits-huis, now contains the +splendid collections of pictures so well known to all admirers of Dutch +art. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Caspar Barlaeus, _Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et + alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefectura illustrissimi comitis + J. Mauritii Nassoviae_ (Amsterdam, 1647); L. Driessen, _Leben des + Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau_ (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, _Leven + van Jaan Maurits_, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem, 1840). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This name is usually written Joan, the form used by the man + himself in his signature--see the facsimile in Netscher's _Les + Hollandais en Brésil_. + + + + +JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caithness, Scotland, +14 m. N. of Wick and 1¾ m. W. of Duncansby Head. It is the mythical site +of an octagonal house said to have been erected early in the 16th +century by one John Groot, a Dutchman who had migrated to the north of +Scotland by permission of James IV. According to the legend, other +members of the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around +Duncansby. When there were eight Groot families, disputes began to arise +as to precedence at annual feasts. These squabbles John Groot is said to +have settled by building an octagonal house which had eight entrances +and eight tables, so that the head of each family could enter by his own +door and sit at the head of his own table. Being but a few miles south +of Dunnet Head, John o' Groat's is a colloquial term for the most +northerly point of Scotland. The site of the traditional building is +marked by an outline traced in turf. Descendants of the Groot family, +now Groat, still live in the neighbourhood. The cowry-shell, _Cypraea +europaea_, is locally known as "John o' Groat's bucky." + + + + +JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educational institution at +Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Its trustees, chosen by Johns Hopkins +(1794-1873), a successful Baltimore merchant, were incorporated on the +24th of August 1867 under a general act "for the promotion of education +in the state of Maryland." But nothing was actually done until after the +death of Johns Hopkins (Dec. 24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,000 +was equally divided between the projected university and a hospital, +also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary to the medical +school of the university. The trustees of the university consulted with +many prominent educationists, notably Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, +Andrew D. White of Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of +Michigan; on the 30th of December 1874 they elected Daniel Coit Gilman +(q.v.) president. The university was formally opened on the 3rd of +October 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley. The first +year was largely given up to consultation among the newly chosen +professors, among whom were--in Greek, B. L. Gildersleeve; in +mathematics, J. J. Sylvester; in chemistry, Ira Remsen; in biology, +Henry Newell Martin (1848-1896); in zoology, William Keith Brooks +(1848-1908); and in physics, Henry Augustus Rowland (1848-1901). +Prominent among later teachers were Arthur Cayley in mathematics, the +Semitic scholar Paul Haupt (b. 1858), Granville Stanley Hall in +psychology, Maurice Bloomfield in Sanskrit and comparative philology, +James Rendel Harris in Biblical philology, James Wilson Bright in +English philology, Herbert B. Adams in history, and Richard T. Ely (b. +1854) in economics. The university at once became a pioneer in the +United States in teaching by means of seminary courses and laboratories, +and it has been eminently successful in encouraging research, in +scientific production, and in preparing its students to become +instructors in other colleges and universities. It includes a college in +which each of five parallel courses leads to the degree of Bachelor of +Arts, but its reputation has been established chiefly by its other two +departments, the graduate school and the medical school. The graduate +school offers courses in philosophy and psychology, physics, chemistry +and biology, historical and economic science, language and literature, +and confers the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after at least three +years' residence. From its foundation the university had novel features +and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellowships of $500 each +were opened to the graduates of any college. Petrography and laboratory +psychology were among the new sciences fostered by the new university. +Such eminent outsiders were secured for brief residence and lecture +courses as J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child, Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Holst, F. +A. Walker, William James, Sidney Lanier, James Bryce, E. A. Freeman, W. +W. Goodwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. President Gilman gave up his +presidential duties on the 1st of September 1901, Ira Remsen[1] +succeeding him in the office. The medical department, inaugurated in +1893, is closely affiliated with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins +Hospital (opened in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it +admits only students holding the bachelor's degree or its equivalent. +The degree of Doctor of Medicine is conferred after four years of +successful study, and advanced courses are offered. The department's +greatest teachers have been William Osler (b. 1849) and William Henry +Welch (b. 1850). + +The buildings of the university were in 1901 an unpretentious group on +crowded ground near the business centre of the city. In 1902 a new site +was secured, containing about 125 acres amid pleasant surroundings in +the northern suburbs, and new buildings were designed in accordance with +a plan formed with a view to secure harmony and symmetry. In 1907 the +library contained more than 133,000 bound volumes. Among the numerous +publications issued by the university press are: _American Journal of +Mathematics_, _Studies in Historical and Political Science_, _Reprint of +Economic Tracts, American Journal of Philology_, _Contributions to +Assyriology and Semitic Philology_, _Modern Language Notes_, _American +Chemical Journal_, _American Journal of Insanity_, _Terrestrial +Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity_, _Reports of the Maryland +Geological Survey_, and _Reports of the Maryland Weather Service_. The +institution is maintained chiefly with the proceeds of the endowment +fund. It also receives aid from the state, and charges tuition fees. Its +government is entrusted to a board of trustees, while the direction of +affairs of a strictly academic nature is delegated to an academic +council and to department boards. In 1907-1908 the regular faculty +numbered 175, and there was an enrolment of 683 students, of whom 518 +were in post-graduate courses. + +On the history of the university see Daniel C. Gilman, _The Launching of +a University_ (New York, 1906), and the annual reports of the president. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the 10th of February + 1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865, + studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at the + university of Göttingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams + College in 1872-1876, and in 1876 became professor cf chemistry at + Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of chemistry, + organic and inorganic, which were republished in England and were + translated abroad. In 1879 he founded the _American Chemical + Journal_. + + + + +JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808-1875), seventeenth president of the United States, +was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the 29th of December 1808. His +parents were poor, and his father died when Andrew was four years old. +At the age of ten he was apprenticed to a tailor, his spare hours being +spent in acquiring the rudiments of an education. He learned to read +from a book which contained selected orations of great British and +American statesmen. The young tailor went to Laurens Court House, South +Carolina, in 1824, to work at his trade, but returned to Raleigh in 1826 +and soon afterward removed to Greeneville in the eastern part of +Tennessee. He married during the same year Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), +much his superior by birth and education, who taught him the common +school branches of learning and was of great assistance in his later +career. In East Tennessee most of the people were small farmers, while +West Tennessee was a land of great slave plantations. Johnson began in +politics to oppose the aristocratic element and became the spokesman and +champion of the poorer and labouring classes. In 1828 he was elected an +alderman of Greeneville and in 1830-1834 was mayor. In 1834, in the +Tennessee constitutional convention he endeavoured to limit the +influence of the slaveholders by basing representation in the state +legislature on the white population alone. In 1835-1837 and 1839-1841 +Johnson was a Democratic member of the state House of Representatives, +and in 1841-1843 of the state Senate; in both houses he uniformly upheld +the cause of the "common people," and, in addition, opposed legislation +for "internal improvements." He soon was recognized as the political +champion of East Tennessee. Though his favourite leaders became Whigs, +Johnson remained a Democrat, and in 1840 canvassed the state for Van +Buren for president. + +In 1843 he was elected to the national House of Representatives and +there remained for ten years until his district was gerrymandered by the +Whigs and he lost his seat. But he at once offered himself as a +candidate for governor and was elected and re-elected, and was then sent +to the United States Senate, serving from 1857 to 1862. As governor +(1853-1857) he proved to be able and non-partisan. He championed popular +education and recommended the homestead policy to the national +government, and from his sympathy with the working classes and his +oft-avowed pride in his former calling he became known as the "mechanic +governor." In Congress he proved to be a tireless advocate of the claims +of the poorer whites and an opponent of the aristocracy. He favoured the +annexation of Texas, supported the Polk administration on the issues of +the Mexican War and the Oregon boundary controversy, and though voting +for the admission of free California demanded national protection for +slavery. He also advocated the homestead law and low tariffs, opposed +the policy of "internal improvements," and was a zealous worker for +budget economies. Though opposed to a monopoly of political power in the +South by the great slaveholders, he deprecated anti-slavery agitation +(even favouring denial of the right of petition on that subject) as +threatening abolition or the dissolution of the Union, and went with his +sectional leaders so far as to demand freedom of choice for the +Territories, and protection for slavery where it existed--this even so +late as 1860. He supported in 1860 the ultra-Democratic ticket of +Breckinridge and Lane, but he did not identify the election of Lincoln +with the ruin of the South, though he thought the North should give +renewed guarantees to slavery. But he followed Jackson rather than +Calhoun, and above everything else set his love of the Union, though +believing the South to be grievously wronged. He was the only Southern +member of Congress who opposed secession and refused to "go with his +state" when it withdrew from the Union in 1861. In the judgment of a +leading opponent (O. P. Morton) "perhaps no man in Congress exerted the +same influence on the public sentiment of the North at the beginning of +the war" as Johnson. During the war he suffered much for his loyalty to +the Union. In March 1862 Lincoln made him military governor of the part +of Tennessee captured from the Confederates, and after two years of +autocratic rule (with much danger to himself) he succeeded in organizing +a Union government for the state. In 1864, to secure the votes of the +war Democrats and to please the border states that had remained in the +Union, Johnson was nominated for vice-president on the ticket with +Lincoln. + +A month after the inauguration the murder of Lincoln left him president, +with the great problem to solve of reconstruction of the Union. All his +past career and utterances seemed to indicate that he would favour the +harshest measures toward ex-Confederates, hence his acceptability to the +most radical republicans. But, whether because he drew a distinction +between the treason of individuals and of states, or was influenced by +Seward, or simply, once in responsible position, separated Republican +party politics from the question of constitutional interpretation, at +least he speedily showed that he would be influenced by no acrimony, and +adopted the lenient reconstruction policy of Lincoln. In this he had for +some time the cordial support of his cabinet. During the summer of 1865 +he set up provisional civil governments in all the seceded states except +Texas, and within a few months all those states were reorganized and +applying for readmission to the Union. The radical congress (Republican +by a large majority) sharply opposed this plan of restoration, as they +had opposed Lincoln's plan: first, because the members of Congress from +the Southern States (when readmitted) would almost certainly vote with +the Democrats; secondly, because relatively few of the Confederates were +punished; and thirdly, because the newly organized Southern States did +not give political rights to the negroes. The question of the status of +the negro proved the crux of the issue. Johnson was opposed to general +or immediate negro suffrage. A bitter contest began in Feb. 1866, +between the president and the Congress, which refused to admit +representatives from the South and during 1866 passed over his veto a +number of important measures, such as the Freedmen's Bureau Act and the +Civil Rights Act, and submitted to the States the Fourteenth Amendment +to the Constitution. Johnson took a prominent and undignified part in +the congressional campaign of 1866, in which his policies were voted +down by the North. In 1867 Congress threw aside his work of restoration +and proceeded with its own plan, the main features of which were the +disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the enfranchisement of negroes. +On the 2nd of March 1867 Congress passed over the president's veto the +Tenure of Office Act, prohibiting the president from dismissing from +office without the consent of the Senate any officer appointed by and +with the advice and consent of that body, and in addition a section was +inserted in the army appropriation bill of this session designed to +subordinate the president to the Senate and the general-in-chief of the +army in military matters. The president was thus deprived of practically +all power. Stanton and other members of his cabinet and General Grant +became hostile to him, the president attempted to remove Stanton without +regard to the Tenure of Office Act, and, finally, to get rid of the +president, Congress in 1868(February-May) made an attempt to impeach and +remove him, his disregard of the Tenure of Office Act being the +principal charge against him. The charges[1] were in part quite trivial, +and the evidence was ridiculously inadequate for the graver charges. A +two-thirds majority was necessary for conviction; and the votes being 35 +to 19 (7 Republicans and 12 Democrats voting in his favour on the +crucial clauses) he was acquitted. The misguided animus of the +impeachment as a piece of partisan politics was soon very generally +admitted; and the importance of its failure, in securing the continued +power and independence of the presidential element in the constitutional +system, can hardly be over-estimated. The rest of his term as president +was comparatively quiet and uneventful. In 1869 he retired into private +life in Tennessee, and after several unsuccessful efforts was elected to +the United States Senate, free of party trammels, in 1875, but died at +Carter's Station, Tenn., on the 31st of July 1875. The only speech he +made was a skilful and temperate arraignment of President Grant's policy +towards the South. + +President Johnson's leading political principles were a reverence of +Andrew Jackson, unlimited confidence in the people, and an intense +veneration for the constitution. Throughout his life he remained in some +respects a "backwoodsman." He lacked the finish of systematic education. +But his whole career sufficiently proves him to have been a man of +extraordinary qualities. He did not rise above untoward circumstances by +favour, nor--until after his election as senator--by fortunate and +fortuitous connexion with great events, but by strength of native +talents, persistent purpose, and an iron will. He had strong, rugged +powers, was a close reasoner and a forcible speaker. Unfortunately his +extemporaneous speeches were commonplace, in very bad taste, fervently +intemperate and denunciatory; and though this was probably due largely +to temperament and habits of stump-speaking formed in early life, it was +attributed by his enemies to drink. Resorting to stimulants after +illness, his marked excess in this respect on the occasion of his +inauguration as vice-president undoubtedly did him harm with the public. +Faults of personality were his great handicap. Though approachable and +not without kindliness of manner, he seemed hard and inflexible; and +while president, physical pain and domestic anxieties, added to the +struggles of public life, combined to accentuate a naturally somewhat +severe temperament. A lifelong Southern Democrat, he was forced to lead +(nominally at least) a party of Northern Republicans, with whom he had +no bond of sympathy save a common opposition to secession; and his +ardent, aggressive convictions and character, above all his complete +lack of tact, unfitted him to deal successfully with the passionate +partisanship of Congress. The absolute integrity and unflinching courage +that marked his career were always ungrudgingly admitted by his greatest +enemies. + + See L. Foster, _The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson_ (1866); D. M. + De Witt, _The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson_ (1903); C. E. + Chadsey, _The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress over + Reconstruction_ (1896); and W. A. Dunning, _Essays on the Civil War + and Reconstruction_ (1898). Also see W. A. Dunning's paper "More Light + on Andrew Johnson" (in the _American Historical Review_, April 1906), + in which apparently conclusive evidence is presented to prove that + Johnson's first inaugural, a notable state paper, was written by the + historian George Bancroft. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The charges centred in the president's removal of Secretary + Stanton, his _ad interim_ appointment of Lorenzo Thomas, his campaign + speeches in 1866, and the relation of these three things to the + Tenure of Office Act. Of the eleven charges of impeachment the first + was that Stanton's removal was contrary to the Tenure of Office Act; + the second, that the appointment of Thomas was a violation of the + same law; the third, that the appointment violated the Constitution; + the fourth, that Johnson conspired with Thomas "to hinder and prevent + Edwin M. Stanton ... from holding ... office of secretary for the + department of war"; the fifth, that Johnson had conspired with Thomas + to "prevent and hinder the execution" of the Tenure of Office Act; + the sixth, that he had conspired with Thomas "to seize, take and + possess the property of the United States in the department of war," + in violation of the Tenure of Office Act; the seventh, that this + action was "a high misdemeanour"; the eighth, that the appointment of + Thomas was "with intent unlawfully to control the disbursements of + the moneys appropriated for the military service and for the + department of war"; the ninth, that he had instructed Major-General + Emory, in command of the department of Washington, that an act of + 1867 appropriating money for the army was unconstitutional; the + tenth, that his speeches in 1866 constituted "a high misdemeanour in + office"; and the eleventh, the "omnibus" article, that he had + committed high misdemeanours in saying that the 39th Congress was not + an authorized Congress, that its legislation was not binding upon + him, and that it was incapable of proposing amendments. The actual + trial began on the 30th of March (from the 5th of March it was + adjourned to the 23rd, and on the 24th of March to the 30th). On the + 16th of May, after sessions in which the Senate repeatedly reversed + the rulings of the chief justice as to the admission of evidence, in + which the president's counsel showed that their case was excellently + prepared and the prosecuting counsel appealed in general to political + passions rather than to judicial impartiality, the eleventh article + was voted on and impeachment failed by a single vote (35 to 19; 7 + republicans and 12 democrats voting "Not guilty") of the necessary + two-thirds. After ten days' interval, during which B. F. Butler of + the prosecuting counsel attempted to prove that corruption had been + practised on some of those voting "Not guilty," on the 26th of May a + vote was taken on the second and third articles with the same result + as on the eleventh article. There was no vote on the other articles. + + + + +JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742), English actor, was first a scene +painter, then acted in the provinces, and appeared in London in 1695 at +Drury Lane after Betterton's defection. He was the original Captain +Driver in _Oronooko_ (1696), Captain Fireball in Farquhar's _Sir Harry +Wildair_ (1701), Sable in Steele's _Funeral_ (1702), &c.; as the First +Gravedigger in _Hamlet_ and in several characters in the plays of Ben +Jonson he was particularly good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett's +rôles. + + + + +JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824-1906), American artist, was born at Lovell, +Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome +and The Hague, the last city being his home for four years. In 1860 he +was elected to the National Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished +portrait and genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his +own, depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual +interest. Such pictures as "Old Kentucky Home" (1867), "Husking Bee" +(1876), "Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket" (1880), and his portrait group +"The Funding Bill" (1881) achieved a national reputation. Among his +sitters were many prominent men, including Daniel Webster; Presidents +Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. +Folger; Emerson, Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and +Sir Edward Archbald. He died in New York City on the 5th of April 1906. + + + + +JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876), American political leader and jurist, was +born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 21st of May 1796. His father, John +Johnson (1770-1824), was a distinguished lawyer, who served in both +houses of the Maryland General Assembly, as attorney-general of the +state (1806-1811), as a judge of the court of appeals (1811-1821), and +as a chancellor of his state (1821-1824). Reverdy graduated from St +John's college in 1812. He then studied law in his father's office, was +admitted to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough, +Prince George's county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore, where he became +the professional associate of Luther Martin, William Pinkney and Roger +B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he reported the decisions of the court of +appeals in _Harris and Johnson's Reports_ (1820-1827); and in 1818 he +was appointed chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825 +he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to his +practice; from 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of the United +States Senate; and from March 1849 to July 1850 he was attorney-general +of the United States. In 1856 he became identified with the conservative +wing of the Democratic party, and four years later supported Stephen A. +Douglas for the presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to +the peace convention at Washington; in 1861-1862 he was a member of the +Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New Orleans he was +commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions of the military +commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard to foreign governments, and +reversed all those decisions to the entire satisfaction of the +administration. In 1863 he again took his seat in the United States +Senate. In 1868 he was appointed minister to Great Britain and soon +after his arrival in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for +the settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War; this, however, +the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the accession of +General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming his practice he +was engaged by the government in the prosecution of Ku-Klux cases. He +died on the 10th of February 1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the +doctrine of secession, and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. +Opposed to the Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground +that it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably +the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged during his +later years in most of the especially important cases in the Supreme +Court of the United States and in the courts of Maryland. + + + + +JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573-1659?), English romance writer, was baptized in +London on the 24th of May 1573. His most famous romance is The _Famous +Historie of the Seaven Champions of Christendom_ (1596?). The success of +this book was so great that the author added a second and a third part +in 1608 and 1616. His other stories include: _The Nine Worthies of +London_ (1592); _The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields_ (1607); _The +Pleasant Conceites of Old Hobson_ (1607), the hero being a well-known +haberdasher in the Poultry; _The Most Pleasant History of Tom a +Lincolne_ (1607); _A Remembrance of ... Robert Earle of Salisbury_ +(1612); _Looke on Me, London_ (1613); _The History of Tom Thumbe_ +(1621). _The Crown Garland of Golden Roses ... set forth in Many +Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets_ (1612) was reprinted for the Percy +Society (1842 and 1845). + + + + +JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781-1850), ninth vice-president of the +United States, was born at Bryant's Station, Kentucky, on the 17th of +October 1781. He was admitted to the bar in 1800, and became prominent +as a lawyer and Democratic politician, serving in the Federal House of +Representatives and in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to 1841 he +was vice-president of the United States, to which position he was +elected over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates +for the vice-presidency having received a majority of the electoral +votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly increased +during his term, and the Democratic national convention of 1840 adopted +the unprecedented course of refusing to nominate anyone for the +vice-presidency. In the ensuing election Johnson received most of the +Democratic electoral votes, but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John +Tyler. He died in Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1850. + + + + +JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784), English writer and lexicographer, was the +son of Michael Johnson (1656-1731), bookseller and magistrate of +Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford (1669-1759). Michael's +abilities and attainments seem to have been considerable. He was so well +acquainted with the contents of the volumes which he exposed for sale +that the country rectors of Staffordshire and Worcestershire thought him +an oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy, indeed, +there was a strong religious and political sympathy. He was a zealous +churchman, and, though he had qualified himself for municipal office by +taking the oaths to the sovereigns in possession, was to the last a +Jacobite in heart. The social position of Samuel's paternal grandfather, +William Johnson, remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of +Cornelius Ford, "a little Warwickshire Gent." + +At a house (now the Johnson Museum) in the Market Square, Lichfield, +Samuel Johnson was born on the 18th of September 1709 and baptized on +the same day at St Mary's, Lichfield. In the child the physical, +intellectual and moral peculiarities which afterwards distinguished the +man were plainly discernible: great muscular strength accompanied by +much awkwardness and many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a +morbid propensity to sloth and procrastination; a kind and generous +heart, with a gloomy and irritable temper. He had inherited from his +ancestors a scrofulous taint, and his parents were weak enough to +believe that the royal touch would cure him. In his third year he was +taken up to London, inspected by the court surgeon, prayed over by the +court chaplains and stroked and presented with a piece of gold by Queen +Anne. Her hand was applied in vain. The boy's features, which were +originally noble and not irregular, were distorted by his malady. His +cheeks were deeply scarred. He lost for a time the sight of one eye; and +he saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his mind +overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he acquired knowledge +with such ease and rapidity that at every school (such as those at +Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he was sent he was soon the best +scholar. From sixteen to eighteen he resided at home, and was left to +his own devices. He learned much at this time, though his studies were +without guidance and without plan. He ransacked his father's shelves, +dipped into a multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed +over what was dull. An ordinary lad would have acquired little or no +useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to ordinary lads +was interesting to Samuel. He read little Greek; for his proficiency in +that language was not such that he could take much pleasure in the +masters of Attic poetry and eloquence. But he had left school a good +Latinist, and he soon acquired an extensive knowledge of Latin +literature. He was peculiarly attracted by the works of the great +restorers of learning. Once, while searching for some apples, he found a +huge folio volume of Petrarch's works. The name excited his curiosity, +and he eagerly devoured hundreds of pages. Indeed, the diction and +versification of his own Latin compositions show that he had paid at +least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to the +original models. + +While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was sinking +into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much better qualified to +pore over books, and to talk about them, than to trade in them. His +business declined; his debts increased; it was with difficulty that the +daily expenses of his household were defrayed. It was out of his power +to support his son at either university; but a wealthy neighbour offered +assistance; and, in reliance on promises which proved to be of very +little value, Samuel was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When the +young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society, they were +amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric manners than by the +quantity of extensive and curious information which he had picked up +during many months of desultory but not unprofitable study. On the first +day of his residence he surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and +one of the most learned among them declared that he had never known a +freshman of equal attainments. + +At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly less. He was +poor, even to raggedness; and his appearance excited a mirth and a pity +which were equally intolerable to his haughty spirit. He was driven from +the quadrangle of Christ Church by the sneering looks which the members +of that aristocratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some +charitable person placed a new pair at his door; but he spurned them +away in a fury. Distress made him, not servile, but reckless and +ungovernable. No opulent gentleman commoner, panting for one-and-twenty, +could have treated the academical authorities with more gross +disrespect. The needy scholar was generally to be seen under the gate of +Pembroke, a gate now adorned with his effigy, haranguing a circle of +lads, over whom, in spite of his tattered gown and dirty linen, his wit +and audacity gave him an undisputed ascendancy. In every mutiny against +the discipline of the college he was the ringleader. Much was pardoned, +however, to a youth so highly distinguished by abilities and +acquirements. He had early made himself known by turning Pope's +"Messiah" into Latin verse. The style and rhythm, indeed, were not +exactly Virgilian; but the translation found many admirers, and was read +with pleasure by Pope himself. + +The time drew near at which Johnson would, in the ordinary course of +things, have become a Bachelor of Arts; but he was at the end of his +resources. Those promises of support on which he had relied had not been +kept. His family could do nothing for him. His debts to Oxford tradesmen +were small indeed, yet larger than he could pay. In the autumn of 1731 +he was under the necessity of quitting the university without a degree. +In the following winter his father died. The old man left but a +pittance; and of that pittance almost the whole was appropriated to the +support of his widow. The property to which Samuel succeeded amounted to +no more than twenty pounds. + +His life, during the thirty years which followed, was one hard struggle +with poverty. The misery of that struggle needed no aggravation, but was +aggravated by the sufferings of an unsound body and an unsound mind. +Before the young man left the university, his hereditary malady had +broken forth in a singularly cruel form. He had become an incurable +hypochondriac. He said long after that he had been mad all his life, or +at least not perfectly sane; and, in truth, eccentricities less strange +than his have often been thought ground sufficient for absolving felons +and for setting aside wills. His grimaces, his gestures, his mutterings, +sometimes diverted and sometimes terrified people who did not know him. +At a dinner table he would, in a fit of absence, stoop down and twitch +off a lady's shoe. He would amaze a drawing-room by suddenly ejaculating +a clause of the Lord's Prayer. He would conceive an unintelligible +aversion to a particular alley, and perform a great circuit rather than +see the hateful place. He would set his heart on touching every post in +the streets through which he walked. If by any chance he missed a post, +he would go back a hundred yards and repair the omission. Under the +influence of his disease, his senses became morbidly torpid, and his +imagination morbidly active. At one time he would stand poring on the +town clock without being able to tell the hour. At another he would +distinctly hear his mother, who was many miles off, calling him by his +name. But this was not the worst. A deep melancholy took possession of +him, and gave a dark tinge to all his views of human nature and of human +destiny. Such wretchedness as he endured has driven many men to shoot +themselves or drown themselves. But he was under no temptation to commit +suicide. He was sick of life; but he was afraid of death; and he +shuddered at every sight or sound which reminded him of the inevitable +hour. In religion he found but little comfort during his long and +frequent fits of dejection; for his religion partook of his own +character. The light from heaven shone on him indeed, but not in a +direct line, or with its own pure splendour. The rays had to struggle +through a disturbing medium; they reached him refracted, dulled and +discoloured by the thick gloom which had settled on his soul, and, +though they might be sufficiently clear to guide him, were too dim to +cheer him. + +With such infirmities of body and of mind, he was left, at +two-and-twenty, to fight his way through the world. He remained during +about five years in the midland counties. At Lichfield, his birthplace +and his early home, he had inherited some friends and acquired others. +He was kindly noticed by Henry Hervey, a gay officer of noble family, +who happened to be quartered there. Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the +ecclesiastical court of the diocese, a man of distinguished parts, +learning and knowledge of the world, did himself honour by patronizing +the young adventurer, whose repulsive person, unpolished manners and +squalid garb moved many of the petty aristocracy of the neighbourhood to +laughter or disgust. At Lichfield, however, Johnson could find no way of +earning a livelihood. He became usher of a grammar school in +Leicestershire; he resided as a humble companion in the house of a +country gentleman; but a life of dependence was insupportable to his +haughty spirit. He repaired to Birmingham, and there earned a few +guineas by literary drudgery. In that town he printed a translation, +little noticed at the time, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about +Abyssinia. He then put forth proposals for publishing by subscription +the poems of Politian, with notes containing a history of modern Latin +verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and the volume never appeared. + +While leading this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in love. The +object of his passion was Mrs Elizabeth Porter (1688-1752), widow of +Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy was born only six years +after Johnson himself. To ordinary spectators the lady appeared to be a +short, fat, coarse woman, painted half an inch thick, dressed in gaudy +colours, and fond of exhibiting provincial airs and graces which were +not exactly those of the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however, +whose passions were strong, whose eyesight was too weak to distinguish +rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or never been in the same +room with a woman of real fashion, his Tetty, as he called her, was the +most beautiful, graceful and accomplished of her sex. That his +admiration was unfeigned cannot be doubted; she had, however, a jointure +of £600 and perhaps a little more; she came of a good family, and her +son Jervis (d. 1763) commanded H.M.S. "Hercules." The marriage, in spite +of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been expected. +The lover continued to be under the illusions of the wedding-day (July +9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth year. On her monument at +Bromley he placed an inscription extolling the charms of her person and +of her manners; and when, long after her decease, he had occasion to +mention her, he exclaimed with a tenderness half ludicrous, half +pathetic, "Pretty creature!" + +His marriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more strenuously +than he had hitherto done. He took a house at Edial near Lichfield and +advertised for pupils. But eighteen months passed away, and only three +pupils came to his academy. The "faces" that Johnson habitually made +(probably nervous contortions due to his disorder) may well have alarmed +parents. Good scholar though he was, these twitchings had lost him +usherships in 1735 and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the pupils, +used, many years later, to throw the best company of London into +convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master and his lady. + +At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, determined to +seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer. He set out with a +few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of _Irene_ in manuscript, and two +or three letters of introduction from his friend Walmesley. Never since +literature became a calling in England had it been a less gainful +calling than at the time when Johnson took up his residence in London. +In the preceding generation a writer of eminent merit was sure to be +munificently rewarded by the Government. The least that he could expect +was a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any aptitude for +politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a lord of the +treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But literature had ceased +to flourish under the patronage of the great, and had not yet begun to +flourish under the patronage of the public. One man of letters, indeed, +Pope, had acquired by his pen what was then considered as a handsome +fortune, and lived on a footing of equality with nobles and ministers of +state. But this was a solitary exception. Even an author whose +reputation was established, and whose works were popular--such an author +as Thomson, whose _Seasons_ was in every library, such an author as +Fielding, whose _Pasquin_ had had a greater run than any drama since +_The Beggar's Opera_--was sometimes glad to obtain, by pawning his best +coat, the means of dining on tripe at a cookshop underground, where he +could wipe his hands, after his greasy meal, on the back of a +Newfoundland dog. It is easy, therefore, to imagine what humiliations +and privations must have awaited the novice who had still to earn a +name. One of the publishers to whom Johnson applied for employment +measured with a scornful eye that athletic though uncouth frame, and +exclaimed, "You had better get a porter's knot and carry trunks." Nor +was the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully fed, +and as comfortably lodged, as a poet. + +Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able to form any +literary connexion from which he could expect more than bread for the +day which was passing over him. He never forgot the generosity with +which Hervey, who was now residing in London, relieved his wants during +this time of trial. "Harry Hervey," said Johnson many years later, "was +a vicious man; but he was very kind to me. If you call a dog Hervey, I +shall love him." At Hervey's table Johnson sometimes enjoyed feasts +which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in general he dined, and +thought that he dined well, on sixpennyworth of meat and a pennyworth of +bread at an alehouse near Drury Lane. + +The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured at this +time was discernible to the last in his temper and his deportment. His +manners had never been courtly. They now became almost savage. Being +frequently under the necessity of wearing shabby coats and dirty shirts, +he became a confirmed sloven. Being often very hungry when he sat down +to his meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness. +Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great, the +sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds of prey. +His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries and _à la mode_ +beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he was so fortunate as to +have near him a hare that had been kept too long, or a meat pie made +with rancid butter, he gorged himself with such violence that his veins +swelled and the moisture broke out on his forehead. The affronts which +his poverty emboldened stupid and low-minded men to offer to him would +have broken a mean spirit into sycophancy, but made him rude even to +ferocity. Unhappily the insolence which, while it was defensive, was +pardonable, and in some sense respectable, accompanied him into +societies where he was treated with courtesy and kindness. He was +repeatedly provoked into striking those who had taken liberties with +him. All the sufferers, however, were wise enough to abstain from +talking about their beatings, except Osborne, the most rapacious and +brutal of booksellers, who proclaimed everywhere that he had been +knocked down by the huge fellow whom he had hired to puff the Harleian +Library. + +About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he was +fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward Cave (q.v.) on +the _Gentleman's Magazine_. That periodical, just entering on the ninth +year of its long existence, was the only one in the kingdom which then +had what would now be called a large circulation. Johnson was engaged to +write the speeches in the "Reports of the Debates of the Senate of +Lilliput" (see REPORTING), under which thin disguise the proceedings of +parliament were published. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre +indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he had to +find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and for the +opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational conviction--for his +serious opinion was that one form of government was just as good or as +bad as another--but from mere passion, such as inflamed the Capulets +against the Montagues, or the Blues of the Roman circus against the +Greens. In his infancy he had heard so much talk about the villainies of +the Whigs, and the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious +partisan when he could scarcely speak. Before he was three he had +insisted on being taken to hear Sacheverel preach at Lichfield +Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect and +probably with as much intelligence, as any Staffordshire squire in the +congregation. The work which had been begun in the nursery had been +completed by the university. Oxford, when Johnson resided there, was the +most Jacobitical place in England; and Pembroke was one of the most +Jacobitical colleges in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to +London were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest. +Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever reigned. +Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over whose tomb Art and Genius +still continued to weep. Hampden deserved no more honourable name than +that of the "zealot of rebellion." Even the ship-money Johnson would not +pronounce to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government +which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech and +action, he fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters and +stock-jobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parliaments, and +Continental connexions. He long had an aversion to the Scots, an +aversion of which he could not remember the commencement, but which, he +owned, had probably originated in his abhorrence of the conduct of the +nation during the Great Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner +debates on great party questions were likely to be reported by a man +whose judgment was so much disordered by party spirit. A show of +fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the _Magazine_. But +Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved appearances, he +had taken care that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it; and, +in fact, every passage which has lived, every passage which bears the +marks of his higher faculties, is put into the mouth of some member of +the opposition. + +A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure labours, he +published a work which at once placed him high among the writers of his +age. It is probable that what he had suffered during his first year in +London had often reminded him of some parts of the satire in which +Juvenal had described the misery and degradation of a needy man of +letters, lodged among the pigeons' nests in the tottering garrets which +overhung the streets of Rome. Pope's admirable imitations of Horace's +_Satires and Epistles_ had recently appeared, were in every hand, and +were by many readers thought superior to the originals. What Pope had +done for Horace, Johnson aspired to do for Juvenal. + +Johnson's _London_ appeared without his name in May 1738. He received +only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem; but the sale was +rapid and the success complete. A second edition was required within a +week. Those small critics who are always desirous to lower established +reputations ran about proclaiming that the anonymous satirist was +superior to Pope in Pope's own peculiar department of literature. It +ought to be remembered, to the honour of Pope, that he joined heartily +in the applause with which the appearance of a rival genius was +welcomed. He made inquiries about the author of _London_. Such a man, he +said, could not long be concealed. The name was soon discovered; and +Pope, with great kindness, exerted himself to obtain an academical +degree and the mastership of a grammar school for the poor young poet. +The attempt failed, and Johnson remained a bookseller's hack. + +It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent writer of the +generation which was going out, and the most eminent writer of the +generation which was coming in, ever saw each other. They lived in very +different circles, one surrounded by dukes and earls, the other by +starving pamphleteers and index-makers. Among Johnson's associates at +this time may be mentioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, +scrawled Latin verses sitting up in bed with his arms through two holes +in his blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he was +sober, and who was at last run over by a hackney coach when he was +drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who, instead of +attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical diagrams on the +board where he sat cross-legged; and the penitent impostor, George +Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a humble lodging, on the +folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian fathers, indulged himself at night +with literary and theological conversation at an alehouse in the City. +But the most remarkable of the persons with whom at this time Johnson +consorted was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice, +who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue ribands +in St James's Square, and had lain with fifty pounds weight of irons on +his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate. This man had, after many +vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last into abject and hopeless poverty. +His pen had failed him. His patrons had been taken away by death, or +estranged by the riotous profusion with which he squandered their +bounty, and the ungrateful insolence with which he rejected their +advice. He now lived by begging. He dined on venison and champagne +whenever he had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If his questing +had been unsuccessful, he appeased the rage of hunger with some scraps +of broken meat, and lay down to rest under the piazza of Covent Garden +in warm weather, and, in cold weather, as near as he could get to the +furnace of a glass house. Yet in his misery he was still an agreeable +companion. He had an inexhaustible store of anecdotes about that gay and +brilliant world from which he was now an outcast. He had observed the +great men of both parties in hours of careless relaxation, had seen the +leaders of opposition without the mask of patriotism, and had heard the +prime minister roar with laughter and tell stories not over-decent. +During some months Savage lived in the closest familiarity with Johnson; +and then the friends parted, not without tears. Johnson remained in +London to drudge for Cave. Savage went to the west of England, lived +there as he had lived everywhere, and in 1743 died, penniless and +heartbroken, in Bristol Gaol. + +Soon after his death, while the public curiosity was strongly excited +about his extraordinary character and his not less extraordinary +adventures, a life of him appeared widely different from the catchpenny +lives of eminent men which were then a staple article of manufacture in +Grub Street. The style was indeed deficient in ease and variety; and the +writer was evidently too partial to the Latin element of our language. +But the little work, with all its faults, was a masterpiece. No finer +specimen of literary biography existed in any language, living or dead; +and a discerning critic might have confidently predicted that the author +was destined to be the founder of a new school of English eloquence. + +The _Life of Savage_ was anonymous; but it was well known in literary +circles that Johnson was the writer. During the three years which +followed, he produced no important work; but he was not, and indeed +could not be, idle. The fame of his abilities and learning continued to +grow. Warburton pronounced him a man of parts and genius; and the praise +of Warburton was then no light thing. Such was Johnson's reputation +that, in 1747, several eminent booksellers combined to employ him in the +arduous work of preparing a _Dictionary of the English Language_, in two +folio volumes. The sum which they agreed to pay him was only fifteen +hundred guineas; and out of this sum he had to pay several poor men of +letters who assisted him in the humbler parts of his task. + +The prospectus of the _Dictionary_ he addressed to the earl of +Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the politeness +of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit, and the delicacy of his +taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the House of +Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momentous conjuncture, +with eminent firmness, wisdom and humanity; and he had since become +secretary of state. He received Johnson's homage with the most winning +affability, and requited it with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless in a +very graceful manner, but was by no means desirous to see all his +carpets blackened with the London mud, and his soups and wines thrown to +right and left over the gowns of fine ladies and the waistcoats of fine +gentlemen, by an absent, awkward scholar, who gave strange starts and +uttered strange growls, who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like a +cormorant. During some time Johnson continued to call on his patron, +but, after being repeatedly told by the porter that his lordship was not +at home, took the hint, and ceased to present himself at the +inhospitable door. + +Johnson had flattered himself that he should have completed his +_Dictionary_ by the end of 1750; but it was not till 1755 that he at +length gave his huge volumes to the world. During the seven years which +he passed in the drudgery of penning definitions and marking quotations +for transcription, he sought for relaxation in literary labour of a more +agreeable kind. In January 1749 he published _The Vanity of Human +Wishes_, an excellent imitation of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for +which he received fifteen guineas. + +A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of _Irene_, +begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his old pupil, +David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre. The relation between +him and his old preceptor was of a very singular kind. They repelled +each other strongly, and yet attracted each other strongly. Nature had +made them of very different clay; and circumstances had fully brought +out the natural peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned +Garrick's head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson's temper. Johnson +saw with more envy than became so great a man the villa, the plate, the +china, the Brussels carpet, which the little mimic had got by repeating, +with grimaces and gesticulations, what wiser men had written; and the +exquisitely sensitive vanity of Garrick was galled by the thought that, +while all the rest of the world was applauding him, he could obtain from +one morose cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely +any compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield men had +so many early recollections in common, and sympathized with each other +on so many points on which they sympathized with nobody else in the vast +population of the capital, that, though the master was often provoked by +the monkey-like impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish +rudeness of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by +death. Garrick now brought _Irene_ out, with alterations sufficient to +displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece pleasing to +the audience. After nine representations the play was withdrawn. The +poet however cleared by his benefit nights, and by the sale of the +copyright of his tragedy, about three hundred pounds, then a great sum +in his estimation. + +About a year after the representation of _Irene_, he began to publish a +series of short essays on morals, manners and literature. This species +of composition had been brought into fashion by the success of the +_Tatler_, and by the still more brilliant success of the _Spectator_. A +crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival Addison. The _Lay +Monastery_, the _Censor_, the _Freethinker_, the _Plain Dealer_, the +_Champion_, and other works of the same kind had had their short day. At +length Johnson undertook the adventure in which so many aspirants had +failed. In the thirty-sixth year after the appearance of the last number +of the _Spectator_ appeared the first number of the _Rambler_. From +March 1750 to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday +and Saturday. + +From the first the _Rambler_ was enthusiastically admired by a few +eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had appeared, pronounced +it equal if not superior to the _Spectator_. Young and Hartley expressed +their approbation not less warmly. In consequence probably of the good +offices of Bubb Dodington, who was then the confidential adviser of +Prince Frederick, two of his royal highness's gentlemen carried a +gracious message to the printing office, and ordered seven copies for +Leicester House. But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the +great to last him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other +door as he had haunted the door of Chesterfield. + +By the public the _Rambler_ was at first very coldly received. Though +the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did not amount to five +hundred. The profits were therefore very small. But as soon as the +flying leaves were collected and reprinted they became popular. The +author lived to see thirteen thousand copies spread over England alone. +Separate editions were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A +large party pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in +some essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a +single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous, vehemently +accused him of having corrupted the purity of the English tongue. The +best critics admitted that his diction was too monotonous, too obviously +artificial, and now and then turgid even to absurdity. But they did +justice to the acuteness of his observations on morals and manners, to +the constant precision and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the +weighty and magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the +solemn yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers. + +The last _Rambler_ was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs Johnson had +been given over by the physicians. Three days later she died. She left +her husband almost broken-hearted. Many people had been surprised to see +a man of his genius and learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying +himself almost every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, +affected old woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but +little gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her. He +had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughter. Her opinion of +his writings was more important to him than the voice of the pit of +Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the _Monthly Review_. The chief +support which had sustained him through the most arduous labour of his +life was the hope that she would enjoy the fame and the profit which he +anticipated from his _Dictionary_. She was gone; and in that vast +labyrinth of streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he +was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as he expressed +it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious years, the _Dictionary_ +was at length complete. + +It had been generally supposed that this great work would be dedicated +to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom the prospectus had +been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew the value of such a +compliment; and therefore, when the day of publication drew near, he +exerted himself to soothe, by a show of zealous and at the same time of +delicate and judicious kindness, the pride which he had so cruelly +wounded. Since the _Rambler_ had ceased to appear, the town had been +entertained by a journal called the _World_, to which many men of high +rank and fashion contributed. In two successive numbers of the _World_, +the _Dictionary_ was, to use the modern phrase, puffed with wonderful +skill. The writings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was proposed that +he should be invested with the authority of a dictator, nay, of a pope, +over our language, and that his decisions about the meaning and the +spelling of words should be received as final. His two folios, it was +said, would of course be bought by everybody who could afford to buy +them. It was soon known that these papers were written by Chesterfield. +But the just resentment of Johnson was not to be so appeased. In a +letter written with singular energy and dignity of thought and language, +he repelled the tardy advances of his patron. The _Dictionary_ came +forth without a dedication. In the Preface the author truly declared +that he owed nothing to the great, and described the difficulties with +which he had been left to struggle so forcibly and pathetically that the +ablest and most malevolent of all the enemies of his fame, Horne Tooke, +never could read that passage without tears. + +Johnson's _Dictionary_ was hailed with an enthusiasm such as no similar +work has ever excited. It was indeed the first dictionary which could be +read with pleasure. The definitions show so much acuteness of thought +and command of language, and the passages quoted from poets, divines and +philosophers are so skilfully selected, that a leisure hour may always +be very agreeably spent in turning over the pages. The faults of the +book resolve themselves, for the most part, into one great fault. +Johnson was a wretched etymologist. He knew little or nothing of any +Teutonic language except English, which indeed, as he wrote it, was +scarcely a Teutonic language; and thus he was absolutely at the mercy of +Junius and Skinner. + +The _Dictionary_, though it raised Johnson's fame, added nothing to his +pecuniary means. The fifteen hundred guineas which the booksellers had +agreed to pay him had been advanced and spent before the last sheets +issued from the press. It is painful to relate that twice in the course +of the year which followed the publication of this great work he was +arrested and carried to sponging-houses, and that he was twice indebted +for his liberty to his excellent friend Richardson. It was still +necessary for the man who had been formerly saluted by the highest +authority as dictator of the English language to supply his wants by +constant toil. He abridged his _Dictionary_. He proposed to bring out an +edition of Shakespeare by subscription, and many subscribers sent in +their names and laid down their money; but he soon found the task so +little to his taste that he turned to more attractive employments. He +contributed many papers to a new monthly journal, which was called the +_Literary Magazine_. Few of these papers have much interest; but among +them was one of the best things that he ever wrote, a masterpiece both +of reasoning and of satirical pleasantry, the review of Jenyns' _Inquiry +into the Nature and Origin of Evil_. + +In the spring of 1758 Johnson put forth the first of a series of essays, +entitled the _Idler_. During two years these essays continued to appear +weekly. They were eagerly read, widely circulated, and indeed impudently +pirated, while they were still in the original form, and had a large +sale when collected into volumes. The _Idler_ may be described as a +second part of the _Rambler_, somewhat livelier and somewhat weaker than +the first part. + +While Johnson was busied with his _Idlers_, his mother, who had +accomplished her ninetieth year, died at Lichfield. It was long since he +had seen her, but he had not failed to contribute largely out of his +small means to her comfort. In order to defray the charges of her +funeral, and to pay some debts which she had left, he wrote a little +book in a single week, and sent off the sheets to the press without +reading them over. A hundred pounds were paid him for the copyright, and +the purchasers had great cause to be pleased with their bargain, for the +book was _Rasselas_, and it had a great success. + +The plan of _Rasselas_ might, however, have seemed to invite severe +criticism. Johnson has frequently blamed Shakespeare for neglecting the +proprieties of time and place, and for ascribing to one age or nation +the manners and opinions of another. Yet Shakespeare has not sinned in +this way more grievously than Johnson. Rasselas and Imlac, Nekayah and +Pekuah, are evidently meant to be Abyssinians of the 18th century; for +the Europe which Imlac describes is the Europe of the 18th century, and +the inmates of the Happy Valley talk familiarly of that law of +gravitation which Newton discovered and which was not fully received +even at Cambridge till the 18th century. Johnson, not content with +turning filthy savages, ignorant of their letters, and gorged with raw +steaks cut from living cows, into philosophers as eloquent and +enlightened as himself or his friend Burke, and into ladies as highly +accomplished as Mrs Lennox or Mrs Sheridan, transferred the whole +domestic system of England to Egypt. Into a land of harems, a land of +polygamy, a land where women are married without ever being seen, he +introduced the flirtations and jealousies of our ball-rooms. In a land +where there is boundless liberty of divorce, wedlock is described as the +indissoluble compact. "A youth and maiden meeting by chance, or brought +together by artifice, exchange glances, reciprocate civilities, go home, +and dream of each other. Such," says Rasselas, "is the common process of +marriage." A writer who was guilty of such improprieties had little +right to blame the poet who made Hector quote Aristotle, and represented +Julio Romano as flourishing in the days of the Oracle of Delphi. + +By such exertions as have been described Johnson supported himself till +the year 1762. In that year a great change in his circumstances took +place. He had from a child been an enemy of the reigning dynasty. His +Jacobite prejudices had been exhibited with little disguise both in his +works and in his conversation. Even in his massy and elaborate +_Dictionary_ he had, with a strange want of taste and judgment, inserted +bitter and contumelious reflexions on the Whig party. The excise, which +was a favourite resource of Whig financiers, he had designated as a +hateful tax. He had railed against the commissioners of excise in +language so coarse that they had seriously thought of prosecuting him. +He had with difficulty been prevented from holding up the lord privy +seal by name as an example of the meaning of the word "renegade." A +pension he had defined as pay given to a state hireling to betray his +country; a pensioner as a slave of state hired by a stipend to obey a +master. It seemed unlikely that the author of these definitions would +himself be pensioned. But that was a time of wonders. George III. had +ascended the throne, and had, in the course of a few months, disgusted +many of the old friends, and conciliated many of the old enemies of his +house. The city was becoming mutinous; Oxford was becoming loyal. +Cavendishes and Bentincks were murmuring; Somersets and Wyndhams were +hastening to kiss hands. The head of the treasury was now Lord Bute, who +was a Tory, and could have no objection to Johnson's Toryism. Bute +wished to be thought a patron of men of letters; and Johnson was one of +the most eminent and one of the most needy men of letters in Europe. A +pension of three hundred a year was graciously offered, and with very +little hesitation accepted. + +This event produced a change in Johnson's whole way of life. For the +first time since his boyhood he no longer felt the daily goad urging him +to the daily toil. He was at liberty, after thirty years of anxiety and +drudgery, to indulge his constitutional indolence, to lie in bed till +two in the afternoon, and to sit up talking till four in the morning, +without fearing either the printer's devil or the sheriff's officer. + +One laborious task indeed he had bound himself to perform. He had +received large subscriptions for his promised edition of Shakespeare; he +had lived on those subscriptions during some years; and he could not +without disgrace omit to perform his part of the contract. His friends +repeatedly exhorted him to make an effort, and he repeatedly resolved to +do so. But, notwithstanding their exhortations and his resolutions, +month followed month, year followed year, and nothing was done. He +prayed fervently against his idleness; he determined, as often as he +received the sacrament, that he would no longer doze away and trifle +away his time; but the spell under which he lay resisted prayer and +sacrament. Happily for his honour, the charm which held him captive was +at length broken by no gentle or friendly hand. He had been weak enough +to pay serious attention to a story about a ghost which haunted a house +in Cock Lane, and had actually gone himself, with some of his friends, +at one in the morning, to St John's Church, Clerkenwell, in the hope of +receiving a communication from the perturbed spirit. But the spirit, +though adjured with all solemnity, remained obstinately silent; and it +soon appeared that a naughty girl of eleven had been amusing herself by +making fools of so many philosophers. Churchill, who, confident in his +powers, drunk with popularity, and burning with party spirit, was +looking for some man of established fame and Tory politics to insult, +celebrated the Cock Lane ghost in three cantos, nicknamed Johnson +Pomposo, asked where the book was which had been so long promised and so +liberally paid for, and directly accused the great moralist of cheating. +This terrible word proved effectual, and in October 1765 appeared, after +a delay of nine years, the new edition of Shakespeare. + +This publication saved Johnson's character for honesty, but added +nothing to the fame of his abilities and learning. The Preface, though +it contains some good passages, is not in his best manner. The most +valuable notes are those in which he had an opportunity of showing how +attentively he had during many years observed human life and human +nature. The best specimen is the note on the character of Polonius. +Nothing so good is to be found even in Wilhelm Meister's admirable +examination of _Hamlet_. But here praise must end. It would be difficult +to name a more slovenly, a more worthless edition of any great +classic.[1] Johnson had, in his prospectus, told the world that he was +peculiarly fitted for the task which he had undertaken, because he had, +as a lexicographer, been under the necessity of taking a wider view of +the English language than any of his predecessors. But, unfortunately, +he had altogether neglected that very part of our literature with which +it is especially desirable that an editor of Shakespeare should be +conversant. In the two folio volumes of the _English Dictionary_ there +is not a single passage quoted from any dramatist of the Elizabethan age +except Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Even from Ben the quotations are few. +Johnson might easily in a few months have made himself well acquainted +with every old play that was extant. But it never seems to have occurred +to him that this was a necessary preparation for the work which he had +undertaken. He would doubtless have admitted that it would be the height +of absurdity in a man who was not familiar with the works of Aeschylus +and Euripides to publish an edition of Sophocles. Yet he ventured to +publish an edition of Shakespeare, without having ever in his life, as +far as can be discovered, read a single scene of Massinger, Ford, +Dekker, Webster, Marlow, Beaumont or Fletcher. His detractors were noisy +and scurrilous. He had, however, acquitted himself of a debt which had +long lain heavy on his conscience and he sank back into the repose from +which the sting of satire had roused him. He long continued to live upon +the fame which he had already won. He was honoured by the university of +Oxford with a doctor's degree, by the Royal Academy with a +professorship, and by the king with an interview, in which his majesty +most graciously expressed a hope that so excellent a writer would not +cease to write. In the interval between 1765 and 1775 Johnson published +only two or three political tracts. + +But, though his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The influence +exercised by his conversation, directly upon those with whom he lived, +and indirectly on the whole literary world, was altogether without a +parallel. His colloquial talents were indeed of the highest order. He +had strong sense, quick discernment, wit, humour, immense knowledge of +literature and of life, and an infinite store of curious anecdotes. As +respected style, he spoke far better than he wrote. Every sentence which +dropped from his lips was as correct in structure as the most nicely +balanced period of the _Rambler_. But in his talk there were no pompous +triads, and little more than a fair proportion of words in -_osity_ and +-_ation_. All was simplicity, ease and vigour. He uttered his short, +weighty, and pointed sentences with a power of voice, and a justness and +energy of emphasis, of which the effect was rather increased than +diminished by the rollings of his huge form, and by the asthmatic +gaspings and puffings in which the peals of his eloquence generally +ended. Nor did the laziness which made him unwilling to sit down to his +desk prevent him from giving instruction or entertainment orally. To +discuss questions of taste, of learning, of casuistry, in language so +exact and so forcible that it might have been printed without the +alteration of a word, was to him no exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, +as he said, to fold his legs and have his talk out. He was ready to +bestow the overflowings of his full mind on anybody who would start a +subject: on a fellow-passenger in a stage coach, or on the person who +sat at the same table with him in an eating-house. But his conversation +was nowhere so brilliant and striking as when he was surrounded by a few +friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled them, as he once +expressed it, to send him back every ball that he threw. Some of these, +in 1764, formed themselves into a club, which gradually became a +formidable power in the commonwealth of letters. The verdicts pronounced +by this conclave on new books were speedily known over all London, and +were sufficient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the +sheets to the service of the trunkmaker and the pastrycook. Goldsmith +was the representative of poetry and light literature, Reynolds of the +arts, Burke of political eloquence and political philosophy. There, too, +were Gibbon the greatest historian and Sir William Jones the greatest +linguist of the age. Garrick brought to the meetings his inexhaustible +pleasantry, his incomparable mimicry, and his consummate knowledge of +stage effect. Among the most constant attendants were two high-born and +high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together by friendship, but of widely +different characters and habits--Bennet Langton, distinguished by his +skill in Greek literature, by the orthodoxy of his opinions, and by the +sanctity of his life, and Topham Beauclerk, renowned for his amours, his +knowledge of the gay world, his fastidious taste and his sarcastic wit. + +Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whom it has owed +the greater part of its celebrity, yet who was regarded with little +respect by his brethren, and had not without difficulty obtained a seat +among them. This was James Boswell (q.v.), a young Scots lawyer, heir to +an honourable name and a fair estate. That he was a coxcomb and a bore, +weak, vain, pushing, curious, garrulous, was obvious to all who were +acquainted with him. + +To a man of Johnson's strong understanding and irritable temper, the +silly egotism and adulation of Boswell must have been as teasing as the +constant buzz of a fly. Johnson hated to be questioned; and Boswell was +eternally catechizing him on all kinds of subjects, and sometimes +propounded such questions as, "What would you do, sir, if you were +locked up in a tower with a baby?" Johnson was a water-drinker and +Boswell was a wine-bibber, and indeed little better than an habitual +sot. It was impossible that there should be perfect harmony between two +such companions. Indeed, the great man was sometimes provoked into fits +of passion, in which he said things which the small man, during a few +hours, seriously resented. Every quarrel, however, was soon made up. +During twenty years the disciple continued to worship the master; the +master continued to scold the disciple, to sneer at him, and to love +him. The two friends ordinarily resided at a great distance from each +other. Boswell practised in the Parliament House of Edinburgh, and could +pay only occasional visits to London. During those visits his chief +business was to watch Johnson, to discover all Johnson's habits, to turn +the conversation to subjects about which Johnson was likely to say +something remarkable, and to fill quarto notebooks with minutes of what +Johnson had said. In this way were gathered the materials out of which +was afterwards constructed the most interesting biographical work in the +world. + +Soon after the club began to exist, Johnson formed a connexion less +important indeed to his fame, but much more important to his happiness, +than his connexion with Boswell. Henry Thrale, one of the most opulent +brewers in the kingdom, a man of sound and cultivated understanding, +rigid principles, and liberal spirit, was married to one of those +clever, kind-hearted, engaging, vain, pert young women who are +perpetually doing or saying what is not exactly right, but who, do or +say what they may, are always agreeable. In 1765 the Thrales became +acquainted with Johnson, and the acquaintance ripened fast into +friendship. They were astonished and delighted by the brilliancy of his +conversation. They were flattered by finding that a man so widely +celebrated preferred their house to any other in London. Johnson soon +had an apartment at the brewery in Southwark, and a still more pleasant +apartment at the villa of his friends on Streatham Common. A large part +of every year he passed in those abodes, which must have seemed +magnificent and luxurious indeed, when compared with the dens in which +he had generally been lodged. But his chief pleasures were derived from +what the astronomer of his Abyssinian tale called "the endearing +elegance of female friendship." Mrs Thrale rallied him, soothed him, +coaxed him, and if she sometimes provoked him by her flippancy, made +ample amends by listening to his reproofs with angelic sweetness of +temper. When he was diseased in body and in mind, she was the most +tender of nurses. No comfort that wealth could purchase, no contrivance +that womanly ingenuity, set to work by womanly compassion, could devise, +was wanting to his sick room. It would seem that a full half of +Johnson's life during about sixteen years was passed under the roof of +the Thrales. He accompanied the family sometimes to Bath, and sometimes +to Brighton, once to Wales and once to Paris. But he had at the same +time a house in one of the narrow and gloomy courts on the north of +Fleet Street. In the garrets was his library, a large and miscellaneous +collection of books, falling to pieces and begrimed with dust. On a +lower floor he sometimes, but very rarely, regaled a friend with a plain +dinner--a veal pie, or a leg of lamb and spinach, and a rice pudding. +Nor was the dwelling uninhabited during his long absences. It was the +home of the most extraordinary assemblage of inmates that ever was +brought together. At the head of the establishment Johnson had placed an +old lady named Williams, whose chief recommendations were her blindness +and her poverty. But, in spite of her murmurs and reproaches, he gave an +asylum to another lady who was as poor as herself, Mrs Desmoulins, whose +family he had known many years before in Staffordshire. Room was found +for the daughter of Mrs Desmoulins, and for another destitute damsel, +who was generally addressed as Miss Carmichael, but whom her generous +host called Polly. An old quack doctor named Levett, who had a wide +practice, but among the very poorest class, poured out Johnson's tea in +the morning and completed this strange menagerie. All these poor +creatures were at constant war with each other, and with Johnson's negro +servant Frank. Sometimes, indeed, they transferred their hostilities +from the servant to the master, complained that a better table was not +kept for them, and railed or maundered till their benefactor was glad to +make his escape to Streatham or to the Mitre Tavern. And yet he, who was +generally the haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who was but too +prompt to resent anything which looked like a slight on the part of a +purse-proud bookseller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore +patiently from mendicants, who, but for his bounty, must have gone to +the workhouse, insults more provoking than those for which he had +knocked down Osborne and bidden defiance to Chesterfield. Year after +year Mrs Williams and Mrs Desmoulins, Polly and Levett, continued to +torment him and to live upon him. + +The course of life which has been described was interrupted in Johnson's +sixty-fourth year by an important event. He had early read an account of +the Hebrides, and had been much interested by learning that there was so +near him a land peopled by a race which was still as rude and simple as +in the Middle Ages. A wish to become intimately acquainted with a state +of society so utterly unlike all that he had ever seen frequently +crossed his mind. But it is not probable that his curiosity would have +overcome his habitual sluggishness, and his love of the smoke, the mud, +and the cries of London, had not Boswell importuned him to attempt the +adventure, and offered to be his squire. At length, in August 1773, +Johnson crossed the Highland line, and plunged courageously into what +was then considered, by most Englishmen, as a dreary and perilous +wilderness. After wandering about two months through the Celtic region, +sometimes in rude boats which did not protect him from the rain, and +sometimes on small shaggy ponies which could hardly bear his weight, he +returned to his old haunts with a mind full of new images and new +theories. During the following year he employed himself in recording his +adventures. About the beginning of 1775 his _Journey to the Hebrides_ +was published, and was, during some weeks, the chief subject of +conversation in all circles in which any attention was paid to +literature. His prejudice against the Scots had at length become little +more than matter of jest; and whatever remained of the old feeling had +been effectually removed by the kind and respectful hospitality with +which he had been received in every part of Scotland. It was, of course, +not to be expected that an Oxonian Tory should praise the Presbyterian +polity and ritual, or that an eye accustomed to the hedgerows and parks +of England should not be struck by the bareness of Berwickshire and East +Lothian. But even in censure Johnson's tone is not unfriendly. The most +enlightened Scotsmen, with Lord Mansfield at their head, were well +pleased. But some foolish and ignorant Scotsmen were moved to anger by a +little unpalatable truth which was mingled with much eulogy, and +assailed him whom they chose to consider as the enemy of their country +with libels much more dishonourable to their country than anything that +he had ever said or written. They published paragraphs in the +newspapers, articles in the magazines, sixpenny pamphlets, five-shilling +books. One scribbler abused Johnson for being blear-eyed, another for +being a pensioner; a third informed the world that one of the doctor's +uncles had been convicted of felony in Scotland, and had found that +there was in that country one tree capable of supporting the weight of +an Englishman. Macpherson, whose _Fingal_ had been treated in the +_Journey_ as an impudent forgery, threatened to take vengeance with a +cane. The only effect of this threat was that Johnson reiterated the +charge of forgery in the most contemptuous terms, and walked about, +during some time, with a cudgel. + +Of other assailants Johnson took no notice whatever. He had early +resolved never to be drawn into controversy; and he adhered to his +resolution with a steadfastness which is the more extraordinary because +he was, both intellectually and morally, of the stuff of which +controversialists are made. In conversation he was a singularly eager, +acute and pertinacious disputant. When at a loss for good reasons, he +had recourse to sophistry; and when heated by altercation, he made +unsparing use of sarcasm and invective. But when he took his pen in his +hand, his whole character seemed to be changed. A hundred bad writers +misrepresented him and reviled him; but not one of the hundred could +boast of having been thought by him worthy of a refutation, or even of a +retort. One Scotsman, bent on vindicating the fame of Scots learning, +defied him to the combat in a detestable Latin hexameter:-- + + "Maxime, si tu vis, cupio contendere tecum." + +But Johnson took no notice of the challenge. He always maintained that +fame was a shuttlecock which could be kept up only by being beaten back +as well as beaten forward, and which would soon fall if there were only +one battledore. No saying was oftener in his mouth than that fine +apophthegm of Bentley, that no man was ever written down but by himself. + +Unhappily, a few months after the appearance of the _Journey to the +Hebrides_, Johnson did what none of his envious assailants could have +done, and to a certain extent succeeded in writing himself down. The +disputes between England and her American colonies had reached a point +at which no amicable adjustment was possible. War was evidently +impending; and the ministers seem to have thought that the eloquence of +Johnson might with advantage be employed to inflame the nation against +the opposition at home, and against the rebels beyond the Atlantic. He +had already written two or three tracts in defence of the foreign and +domestic policy of the government; and those tracts, though hardly +worthy of him, were much superior to the crowd of pamphlets which lay on +the counters of Almon and Stockdale. But his _Taxation no Tyranny_ was a +pitiable failure. Even Boswell was forced to own that in this +unfortunate piece he could detect no trace of his master's powers. The +general opinion was that the strong faculties which had produced the +_Dictionary_ and the _Rambler_ were beginning to feel the effect of time +and of disease, and that the old man would best consult his credit by +writing no more. But this was a great mistake. Johnson had failed, not +because his mind was less vigorous than when he wrote _Rasselas_ in the +evenings of a week, but because he had foolishly chosen, or suffered +others to choose for him, a subject such as he would at no time have +been competent to treat. He was in no sense a statesman. He never +willingly read or thought or talked about affairs of state. He loved +biography, literary history, the history of manners; but political +history was positively distasteful to him. The question at issue between +the colonies and the mother country was a question about which he had +really nothing to say. Happily, Johnson soon had an opportunity of +proving most signally that his failure was not to be ascribed to +intellectual decay. + +On Easter Eve 1777 some persons, deputed by a meeting which consisted of +forty of the first booksellers in London, called upon him. Though he had +some scruples about doing business at that season, he received his +visitors with much civility. They came to inform him that a new edition +of the English poets, from Cowley downwards, was in contemplation, and +to ask him to furnish short biographical prefaces. He readily undertook +the task for which he was pre-eminently qualified. His knowledge of the +literary history of England since the Restoration was unrivalled. That +knowledge he had derived partly from books, and partly from sources +which had long been closed: from old Grub Street traditions; from the +talk of forgotten poetasters and pamphleteers, who had long been lying +in parish vaults; from the recollections of such men as Gilbert +Walmesley, who had conversed with the wits of Button, Cibber, who had +mutilated the plays of two generations of dramatists, Orrery, who had +been admitted to the society of Swift and Savage, who had rendered +services of no very honourable kind to Pope. The biographer therefore +sat down to his task with a mind full of matter. He had at first +intended to give only a paragraph to every minor poet, and only four or +five pages to the greatest name. But the flood of anecdote and criticism +overflowed the narrow channel. The work, which was originally meant to +consist only of a few sheets, swelled into ten volumes--small volumes, +it is true, and not closely printed. The first four appeared in 1779, +the remaining six in 1781. + +The _Lives of the Poets_ are, on the whole, the best of Johnson's works. +The narratives are as entertaining as any novel. The remarks on life and +on human nature are eminently shrewd and profound. The criticisms are +often excellent, and, even when grossly and provokingly unjust, well +deserve to be studied. _Savage's Life_ Johnson reprinted nearly as it +had appeared in 1744. Whoever, after reading that life, will turn to the +other lives will be struck by the difference of style. Since Johnson had +been at ease in his circumstances he had written little and had talked +much. When therefore he, after the lapse of years, resumed his pen, the +mannerism which he had contracted while he was in the constant habit of +elaborate composition was less perceptible than formerly, and his +diction frequently had a colloquial ease which it had formerly wanted. +The improvement may be discerned by a skilful critic in the _Journey to +the Hebrides_, and in the _Lives of the Poets_ is so obvious that it +cannot escape the notice of the most careless reader. Among the _Lives_ +the best are perhaps those of Cowley, Dryden and Pope. The very worst +is, beyond all doubt, that of Gray; the most controverted that of +Milton. + +This great work at once became popular. There was, indeed, much just and +much unjust censure; but even those who were loudest in blame were +attracted by the book in spite of themselves. Malone computed the gains +of the publishers at five or six thousand pounds. But the writer was +very poorly remunerated. Intending at first to write very short +prefaces, he had stipulated for only two hundred guineas. The +booksellers, when they saw how far his performance had surpassed his +promise, added only another hundred. Indeed Johnson, though he did not +despise or affect to despise money, and though his strong sense and long +experience ought to have qualified him to protect his own interests, +seems to have been singularly unskilful and unlucky in his literary +bargains. He was generally reputed the first English writer of his time. +Yet several writers of his time sold their copyrights for sums such as +he never ventured to ask. To give a single instance, Robertson received +£4500 for the _History of Charles V._ + +Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities of age were +coming fast upon him. That inevitable event of which he never thought +without horror was brought near to him; and his whole life was darkened +by the shadow of death. The strange dependants to whom he had given +shelter, and to whom, in spite of their faults, he was strongly attached +by habit, dropped off one by one; and, in the silence of his home, he +regretted even the noise of their scolding matches. The kind and +generous Thrale was no more; and it was soon plain that the old +Streatham intimacy could not be maintained upon the same footing. Mrs +Thrale herself confessed that without her husband's assistance she did +not feel able to entertain Johnson as a constant inmate of her house. +Free from the yoke of the brewer, she fell in love with a music master, +high in his profession, from Brescia, named Gabriel Piozzi, in whom +nobody but herself could discover anything to admire. The secret of this +attachment was soon discovered by Fanny Burney, but Johnson at most only +suspected it. + +In September 1782 the place at Streatham was from motives of economy let +to Lord Shelburne, and Mrs Thrale took a house at Brighton, whither +Johnson accompanied her; they remained for six weeks on the old familiar +footing. In March 1783 Boswell was glad to discover Johnson well looked +after and staying with Mrs Thrale in Argyll Street, but in a bad state +of health. Impatience of Johnson's criticisms and infirmities had been +steadily growing with Mrs Thrale since 1774. She now went to Bath with +her daughters, partly to escape his supervision. Johnson was very ill in +his lodgings during the summer, but he still corresponded affectionately +with his "mistress" and received many favours from her. He retained the +full use of his senses during the paralytic attack, and in July he was +sufficiently recovered to renew his old club life and to meditate +further journeys. In June 1784 he went with Boswell to Oxford for the +last time. In September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health +was rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary régime. His asthma +tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms made their +appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured terms against the +re-marriage of his old friend Mrs Thrale, the news of which he heard +this summer. The whole dispute seems, to-day, entirely uncalled-for, but +the marriage aroused some of Johnson's strongest prejudices. He wrote +inconsiderately on the subject, but we must remember that he was at the +time afflicted in body and mentally haunted by dread of impending +change. Throughout all his troubles he had clung vehemently to life. The +feeling described in that fine but gloomy paper which closes the series +of his _Idlers_ seemed to grow stronger in him as his last hour drew +near. He fancied that he should be able to draw his breath more easily +in a southern climate, and would probably have set out for Rome and +Naples but for his fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, +indeed, he had the means of defraying; for he had laid up about two +thousand pounds, the fruit of labours which had made the fortune of +several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in upon this hoard, +and he seems to have wished even to keep its existence a secret. Some of +his friends hoped that the Government might be induced to increase his +pension to six hundred pounds a year, but this hope was disappointed, +and he resolved to stand one English winter more. + +That winter was his last. His legs grew weaker; his breath grew shorter; +the fatal water gathered fast, in spite of incisions which he, +courageous against pain but timid against death, urged his surgeons to +make deeper and deeper. Though the tender care which had mitigated his +sufferings during months of sickness at Streatham was withdrawn, and +though Boswell was absent, he was not left desolate. The ablest +physicians and surgeons attended him, and refused to accept fees from +him. Burke parted from him with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the +sick-room. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cherished with fatherly +kindness, stood weeping at the door; while Langton, whose piety +eminently qualified him to be an adviser and comforter at such a time, +received the last pressure of his friend's hand within. When at length +the moment, dreaded through so many years, came close, the dark cloud +passed away from Johnson's mind. Windham's servant, who sat up with him +during his last night, declared that "no man could appear more +collected, more devout or less terrified at the thoughts of the +approaching minute." At hour intervals, often of much pain, he was moved +in bed and addressed himself vehemently to prayer. In the morning he was +still able to give his blessing, but in the afternoon he became drowsy, +and at a quarter past seven in the evening on the 13th of December 1784, +in his seventy-sixth year, he passed away. He was laid, a week later, in +Westminster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had been the +historian--Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Congreve, Gay, Prior and +Addison. (M.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The splendid example of his style which Macaulay + contributed in the article on Johnson to the 8th edition of this + encyclopaedia has become classic, and has therefore been retained + above with a few trifling modifications in those places in which his + invincible love of the picturesque has drawn him demonstrably aside + from the dull line of veracity. Macaulay, it must be noted, + exaggerated persistently the poverty of Johnson's pedigree, the + squalor of his early married life, the grotesqueness of his entourage + in Fleet Street, the decline and fall from complete virtue of Mrs + Thrale, the novelty and success of the _Dictionary_, the complete + failure of the Shakespeare and the political tracts. Yet this + contribution is far more mellow than the article contributed on + Johnson twenty-five years before to the _Edinburgh Review_ in + correction of Croker. Matthew Arnold, who edited six selected _Lives_ + of the poets, regarded it as one of Macaulay's happiest and ripest + efforts. It was written out of friendship for Adam Black, and "payment + was not so much as mentioned." The big reviews, especially the + quarterlies, have always been the natural home of Johnsonian study. + Sir Walter Scott, Croker, Hayward, Macaulay, Thomas Carlyle (whose + famous Fraser article was reprinted in 1853) and Whitwell Elwin have + done as much as anybody perhaps to sustain the zest for Johnsonian + studies. Macaulay's prediction that the interest in the man would + supersede that in his "Works" seemed and seems likely enough to + justify itself; but his theory that the man alone mattered and that a + portrait painted by the hand of an inspired idiot was a true measure + of the man has not worn better than the common run of literary + propositions. Johnson's prose is not extensively read. But the same is + true of nearly all the great prose masters of the 18th century. As in + the case of all great men, Johnson has suffered a good deal at the + hands of his imitators and admirers. His prose, though not nearly so + uniformly monotonous or polysyllabic as the parodists would have us + believe, was at one time greatly overpraised. From the "Life of + Savage" to the "Life of Pope" it developed a great deal, and in the + main improved. To the last he sacrificed expression rather too much to + style, and he was perhaps over conscious of the balanced epithet. But + he contributed both dignity and dialectical force to the prose + movement of his period. + + The best edition of his works is still the Oxford edition of 1825 in 9 + vols. At the present day, however, his periodical writings are + neglected, and all that can be said to excite interest are, first the + _Lives of the Poets_ (best edition by Birkbeck Hill and H. S. Scott, 3 + vols., 1905), and then the _Letters_, the _Prayers_ and _Meditations_, + and the _Poems_, to which may doubtfully be added the once idolized + _Rasselas_. The _Poems_ and _Rasselas_ have been reprinted times + without number. The others have been re-edited with scrupulous care + for the Oxford University Press by the pious diligence of that most + enthusiastic of all Johnsonians, Dr Birkbeck Hill. But the tendency at + the present day is undoubtedly to prize Johnson's personality and + sayings more than any of his works. These are preserved to us in a + body of biographical writing, the efficiency of which is unequalled in + the whole range of literature. The chief constituents are Johnson's + own _Letters_ and _Account of his Life from his Birth to his Eleventh + Year_ (1805), a fragment saved from papers burned in 1784 and not seen + by Boswell; the life by his old but not very sympathetic friend and + club-fellow, Sir John Hawkins (1787); Mrs Thrale-Piozzi's _Anecdotes_ + (1785) and _Letters_; the _Diary_ and _Letters_ of Fanny Burney + (D'Arblay) (1841); the shorter Lives of Arthur Murphy, T. Tyers, &c.; + far above all, of course, the unique Life by James Boswell, first + published in 1791, and subsequently encrusted with vast masses of + Johnsoniana in the successive editions of Malone, Croker, Napier, + Fitzgerald, Mowbray Morris (Globe), Birrell, Ingpen (copiously + illustrated) and Dr Birkbeck Hill (the most exhaustive). + + The sayings and Johnsoniana have been reprinted in very many and + various forms. Valuable work has been done in Johnsonian genealogy and + topography by Aleyn Lyell Reade in his _Johnsonian Gleanings_, &c., + and in the _Memorials of Old Staffordshire_ (ed. W. Beresford). The + most excellent short Lives are those by F. Grant (Eng. Writers) and + Sir Leslie Stephen (Eng. Men of Letters). Professor W. Raleigh's essay + (Stephen Lecture), Lord Rosebery's estimate (1909), and Sir Leslie + Stephen's article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, with + bibliography and list of portraits, should be consulted. Johnson's + "Club" ("The Club") still exists, and has contained ever since his + time a large proportion of the public celebrities of its day. A + "Johnson Club," which has included many Johnson scholars and has + published papers, was founded in 1885. Lichfield has taken an active + part in the commemoration of Johnson since 1887, when Johnson's + birthplace was secured as a municipal museum, and Lichfield was the + chief scene of the Bicentenary Celebrations of September 1909 (fully + described in A. M. Broadley's _Dr Johnson and Mrs Thrale_, 1909), + containing, together with new materials and portraits, an essay + dealing with Macaulay's treatment of the Johnson-Thrale episodes by T. + Seccombe). Statues both of Johnson and Boswell are in the market-place + at Lichfield. A statue was erected in St Paul's in 1825, and there are + commemorative tablets in Lichfield Cathedral, St Nicholas (Brighton), + Uttoxeter, St Clement Danes (London), Gwaynynog and elsewhere. + (T. Se.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This famous dictum of Macaulay, though endorsed by Lord Rosebery, + has been energetically rebutted by Professor W. Raleigh and others, + who recognize both sagacity and scholarship in Johnson's Preface and + Notes. Johnson's wide grasp of the discourse and knowledge of human + nature enable him in a hundred entangled passages to go straight to + the dramatist's meaning.--(T. Se.) + + + + +JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729), English merchant, was born in Liverpool +in November 1664. He succeeded his father in 1689 as bailiff and in 1695 +as mayor. From 1701 to 1723 he represented Liverpool in parliament, and +he was knighted by Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of +Liverpool from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he +obtained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle +where he planned the town market; while the construction of the first +floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St George's +churches were due in great measure to his efforts. He was interested in +the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130 Jacobite prisoners to the +American plantations. In 1723, having lost in speculation the fortune +which he had inherited from his father, he went himself to Virginia as +collector of customs on the Rappahannock river. He died in Jamaica in +1729. A Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him. + + + + +JOHNSON, THOMAS, English 18th-century wood-carver and furniture +designer. Of excellent repute as a craftsman and an artist in wood, his +original conceptions and his adaptations of other men's ideas were +remarkable for their extreme flamboyance, and for the merciless manner +in which he overloaded them with thin and meretricious ornament. Perhaps +his most inept design is that for a table in which a duck or goose is +displacing water that falls upon a mandarin, seated, with his head on +one side, upon the rail below. No local school of Italian rococo ever +produced more extravagant absurdities. His clocks bore scythes and +hour-glasses and flashing sunbeams, together with whirls and +convolutions and floriated adornments without end. On the other hand, he +occasionally produced a mirror frame or a mantelpiece which was simple +and dignified. The art of artistic plagiarism has never been so well +understood or so dexterously practised as by the 18th-century designers +of English furniture, and Johnson appears to have so far exceeded his +contemporaries that he must be called a barefaced thief. The three +leading "motives" of the time--Chinese, Gothic and Louis Quatorze--were +mixed up in his work in the most amazing manner; and he was exceedingly +fond of introducing human figures, animals, birds and fishes in highly +incongruous places. He appears to have defended his enormities on the +ground that "all men vary in opinion, and a fault in the eye of one may +be a beauty in that of another; 'tis a duty incumbent on an author to +endeavour at pleasing every taste." Johnson, who was in business at the +"Golden Boy" in Grafton Street, Westminster, published a folio volume of +_Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra, Ceilings, &c._ (1758); and _One +Hundred and Fifty New Designs_ (1761). + + + + +JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715-1774), British soldier and American pioneer, +was born in Smithtown, County Meath, Ireland, in 1715, the son of +Christopher Johnson, a country gentleman. As a boy he was educated for a +commercial career, but in 1738 he removed to America for the purpose of +managing a tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to +his uncle, Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703-1752). He established himself +on the south bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m. W. of Schenectady. +Before 1743 he removed to the north side of the river. The new +settlement prospered from the start, and a valuable trade was built up +with the Indians, over whom Johnson exercised an immense influence. The +Mohawks adopted him and elected him a sachem. In 1744 he was appointed +by Governor George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent of the affairs of +the Six Nations (Iroquois). In 1746 he was made commissary of the +province for Indian affairs, and was influential in enlisting and +equipping the Six Nations for participation in the warfare with French +Canada, two years later (1748) being placed in command of a line of +outposts on the New York frontier. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle put a +stop to offensive operations, which he had begun. In May 1750 by royal +appointment he became a member for life of the governor's council, and +in the same year he resigned the post of superintendent of Indian +affairs. In 1754 he was one of the New York delegates to the +inter-colonial convention at Albany, N.Y. In 1755 General Edward +Braddock, the commander of the British forces in America, commissioned +him major-general, in which capacity he directed the expedition against +Crown Point, and in September defeated the French and Indians under +Baron Ludwig A. Dieskau (1701-1767) at the battle of Lake George, where +he himself was wounded. For this success he received the thanks of +parliament, and was created a baronet (November 1755). From July 1756 +until his death he was "sole superintendent of the Six Nations and other +Northern Indians." He took part in General James Abercrombie's +disastrous campaign against Ticonderoga (1758), and in 1759 he was +second in command in General John Prideaux's expedition against Fort +Niagara, succeeding to the chief command on that officer's death, and +capturing the fort. In 1760 he was with General Jeffrey Amherst +(1717-1797) at the capture of Montreal. As a reward for his services the +king granted him a tract of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk +river. It was due to his influence that the Iroquois refused to join +Pontiac in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging the +treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. After the war Sir William retired to his +estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown, he built his +residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of an English baron. +He devoted himself to colonizing his extensive lands, and is said to +have been the first to introduce sheep and blood horses into the +province. He died at Johnstown, N.Y., on the 11th of July 1774. In 1739 +Johnson had married Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children. +After her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the +Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the famous chief +Joseph Brant. + +His son, SIR JOHN JOHNSON (1742-1830), who was knighted in 1765 and +succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death, took part in the +French and Indian War and in the border warfare during the War of +Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment known as the "Queen's Royal +Greens," which he led at the battle of Oriskany and in the raids (1778 +and 1780) on Cherry Valley and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of +the officers of the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the +engagement at Newtown (Elmira), N.Y., on the 29th of August 1779. He was +made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates had +been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where he held +from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-general of Indian +affairs for British North America. He received £45,000 from the British +government for his losses. + +Sir William's nephew, GUY JOHNSON (1740-1788), succeeded his uncle as +superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served in the French and +Indian War and, on the British side, in the War of Independence. + + See W. L. Stone, _Life of Sir William Johnson_ (2 vols., 1865); W. E. + Griffis, _Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations_ (1891) in "Makers + of America" series; Augustus C. Buell, _Sir William Johnson_ (1903) in + "Historic Lives Series"; and J. Watts De Peyster, "The Life of Sir + John Johnson, Bart.," in _The Orderly Book of Sir John Johnson during + the Oriskany Campaign_, 1776-1777, annotated by William L. Stone + (1882). + + + + +JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Confederate general in the +Civil War, was born at Washington, Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of +February 1803. He graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for +eight years in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and +staff officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1836 to +Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. His rise was +very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander-in-chief in +preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he fought a duel. From +1838 to 1840 he was Texan secretary for war, and in 1839 he led a +successful expedition against the Cherokee Indians. From 1840 to the +outbreak of the Mexican War he lived in retirement on his farm, but in +1846 he led a regiment of Texan volunteers in the field, and at +Monterey, as a staff officer, he had three horses shot under him. In +1849 he returned to the United States army as major and paymaster, and +in 1855 became colonel of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in +which his lieut.-colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee +and Thomas. In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the +Mormons, and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so +successfully that the objects of the expedition were attained without +bloodshed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general. At the +outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 Johnston, then in command of the +Pacific department, resigned his commission and made his way to +Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom he had known at West Point, +at once made him a full general in the Confederate army and assigned him +to command the department of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and +weak line from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was +dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of covering +friendly country. The first serious advance of the Federals forced him +back at once, and he was freely criticized and denounced for what, in +ignorance of the facts, the Southern press and people regarded as a weak +and irresolute defence. Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil +War with the reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side, +bore with fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, and Davis loyally +supported his old friend. Johnston then marched to join Beauregard at +Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took the offensive against +Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The battle of Shiloh (q.v.) took +place on the 6th and 7th of April, 1862. The Federals were completely +surprised, and Johnston was in the full tide of success when he fell +mortally wounded. He died a few minutes afterwards. President Davis +said, in his message to the Confederate Congress, "Without doing +injustice to the living, it may safely be said that our loss is +irreparable," and the subsequent history of the war in the west went far +to prove the truth of his eulogy. + +His son, WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON (1831-1899), who served on the staff +of General Johnston and subsequently on that of President Davis, was a +distinguished professor and president of Tulane University. His chief +work is the _Life of General Albert Sidney Johnston_ (1878), a most +valuable and exhaustive biography. + + + + +JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), American historian, was born in +Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He studied at the +Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at Rutgers College in 1870, +and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in New Brunswick, New Jersey, where +he taught in the Rutgers College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He +was principal of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1879-1883, +and was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the College +of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until his death in +Princeton, N.J., on the 21st of July 1889. He wrote _A History of +American Politics_ (1881); _The Genesis of a New England +State--Connecticut_ (1883), in "Johns Hopkins University Studies"; _A +History of the United States for Schools_ (1886); _Connecticut_ (1887) +in the "American Commonwealths Series"; the article on the history of +the United States for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, +reprinted as _The United Stales: Its History and Constitution_ (1887); a +chapter on the history of American political parties in the seventh +volume of Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History of America_, and many +articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of +Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the +United States_ (1881-1884). These last articles, which like his other +writings represent much original research and are excellent examples of +Johnston's rare talent for terse narrative and keen analysis and +interpretation of facts, were republished in two volumes entitled +_American Political History 1763-1876_ (1905-1906), edited by Professor +J. A. Woodburn. + + + + +JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish geographer, was born at +Kirkhill near Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1804. After an education +at the high school and the university of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to +an engraver; and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William +Johnston, lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving +business, the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston. +His interest in geography had early developed, and his first important +work was the _National Atlas_ of general geography, which gained for him +in 1843 the appointment of Geographer-Royal for Scotland. Johnston was +the first to bring the study of physical geography into competent notice +in England. His attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt; +and after years of labour he published his magnificent _Physical Atlas_ +in 1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. This, by +means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the geology, +hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the globe. +The rest of Johnston's life was devoted to geography, his later years to +its educational aspects especially. His services were recognized by the +leading scientific societies of Europe and America. He died at Ben +Rhydding, Yorkshire, on the 9th of July 1871. Johnston published a +_Dictionary of Geography_ in 1850, with many later editions; _The Royal +Atlas of Modern Geography_, begun in 1855; an atlas of military +geography to accompany Alison's _History of Europe_ in 1848 seq.; and a +variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific +purposes. His son of the same name (1844-1879) was also the author of +various geographical works and papers; in 1873-1875 he was geographer to +a commission for the survey of Paraguay; and he died in Africa while +leading the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to Lake Nyasa. + + + + +JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641), Scottish physician and writer of Latin +verse, was the son of an Aberdeenshire laird Johnston of Johnston and +Caskieben, and on his mother's side a grandson of the seventh Lord +Forbes. It is probable that he began his university studies at one, or +both, of the colleges at Aberdeen, but in 1608 he proceeded to Italy and +graduated M.D. at Padua in 1610. Thereafter he resided at Sedan, in the +company of the exiled Andrew Melville (q.v.), and in 1619 was in +practice in Paris. He appears to have returned to England about the time +of James I.'s death and to have been in Aberdeen about 1628. He met Laud +in Edinburgh at the time of Charles I.'s Scottish coronation (1633) and +was encouraged by him in his literary efforts, partly, it is said, for +the undoing of Buchanan's reputation as a Latin poet. He was appointed +rector of King's College, Aberdeen, in June 1637. Four years later he +died at Oxford, on his way to London, whither Laud had invited him. + + Johnston left more than ten works, all in Latin. On two of these, + published in the same year, his reputation entirely rests: (a) his + version of the Psalms (_Psalmorum Davidis paraphrasis poetica et + canticorum evangelicorum_, Aberdeen, 1637), and (b) his anthology of + contemporary Latin verse by Scottish poets (_Deliciae poetarum + scotorum hujus aevi illustrium_, Amsterdam, 1637). He had published in + 1633 a volume entitled _Cantici Salomonis paraphrasis poetica_, which, + dedicated to Charles I., had brought him to the notice of Laud. The + full version of the Psalms was the result of Laud's encouragement. The + book was for some time a strong rival of Buchanan's work, though its + good Latinity was not superior to that of the latter. The _Deliciae_, + in two small thick volumes of 699 and 575 pages, was a patriotic + effort in imitation of the various volumes (under a similar title) + which had been popular on the Continent during the second decade of + the century. The volumes are dedicated by Johnston to John Scot of + Scotstarvet, at whose expense the collected works were published after + Johnston's death, at Middelburg (1642). Selections from his own poems + occupy pages 439-647 of the first volume, divided into three sections, + _Parerga_, _Epigrammata_ and _Musae Aulicae_. He published a volume of + epigrams at Aberdeen in 1632. In these pieces he shows himself at his + best. His sacred poems, which had appeared in the _Opera_ (1642), were + reprinted by Lauder in his _Poetarum Scotorum musae sacrae_ (1739). + The earliest lives are by Lauder (_u.s._) and Benson (in _Psalmi + Davidici_, 1741). Ruddiman's _Vindication of Mr George Buchanan's + Paraphrase_ (1745) began a pamphlet controversy regarding the merits + of the rival poets. + + + + +JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- ), British administrator and +explorer, was born on the 12th of June 1858 at Kennington, London, and +educated at Stockwell grammar school and King's College, London. He was +a student for four years in the painting schools of the Royal Academy. +At the age of eighteen he began a series of travels in Europe and North +Africa, chiefly as a student of painting, architecture and languages. In +1879-1880 he visited the then little known interior of Tunisia. He had +also a strong bent towards zoology and comparative anatomy, and carried +on work of this description at the Royal College of Surgeons, of whose +Hunterian Collection he afterwards became one of the trustees. In 1882 +he joined the earl of Mayo in an expedition to the southern part of +Angola, a district then much traversed by Transvaal Boers. In 1883 +Johnston visited H. M. Stanley on the Congo, and was enabled by that +explorer to visit the river above Stanley Pool at a time when it was +scarcely known to other Europeans than Stanley and De Brazza. These +journeys attracted the attention of the Royal Geographical Society and +the British Association, and the last-named in concert with the Royal +Society conferred on Johnston the leadership of the scientific +expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro which started from Zanzibar in April +1884. Johnston's work in this region was also under the direction of Sir +John Kirk, British consul at Zanzibar. While in the Kilimanjaro district +Johnston concluded treaties with the chiefs of Moshi and Taveta +(Taveita). These treaties or concessions were transferred to the +merchants who founded the British East Africa Company, and in the final +agreement with Germany Taveta fell to Great Britain. In October 1885 +Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in Cameroon and in the Niger +delta, and he became in 1887 acting consul for that region. A British +protectorate over the Niger delta had been notified in June 1885, and +between the date of his appointment and 1888, together with the consul +E. H. Hewett, Johnston laid the foundations of the British +administration in that part of the delta not reserved for the Royal +Niger Company. His action in removing the turbulent chief Ja-ja (an +ex-slave who had risen to considerable power in the palm-oil trade) +occasioned considerable criticism but was approved by the Foreign +Office. It led to the complete pacification of a region long disturbed +by trade disputes. During these three years of residence in the Gulf of +Guinea Johnston ascended the Cameroon Mountain, and made large +collections of the flora and fauna of Cameroon for the British Museum. + +In the spring of 1889 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate an arrangement +for the delimitation of the British and Portuguese spheres of influence +in South-East Africa, but the scheme drawn up, though very like the +later arrangement of those regions, was not given effect to at the time. +On his return from Lisbon he was despatched to Mozambique as consul for +Portuguese East Africa, and was further charged with a mission to Lake +Nyasa to pacify that region, then in a disturbed state owing to the +attacks of slave-trading Arabs on the stations of the African Lakes +Trading Company--an unofficial war, in which Captain (afterwards Colonel +Sir Frederick) Lugard and Mr (afterwards Sir Alfred) Sharpe +distinguished themselves. Owing to the unexpected arrival on the scene +of Major Serpa Pinto, Johnston was compelled to declare a British +protectorate over the Nyasa region, being assisted in this work by John +Buchanan (vice-consul), Sir Alfred Sharpe, Alfred Swann and others. A +truce was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and within twelve +months the British flag, by agreement with the natives, had been hoisted +over a very large region which extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the +vicinity of Uganda, to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shiré +Highlands and the central Zambezi. Johnston's scheme, in fact, was that +known as the "Cape-to-Cairo," a phrase which he had brought into use in +an article in _The Times_ in August 1888. According to his arrangement +there would have been an all-British route from Alexandria to Cape Town. +But by the Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 the British +sphere north of Tanganyika was abandoned to Germany, and the +Cape-to-Cairo route broken by a wedge of German territory. Johnston +returned to British Central Africa as commissioner and consul-general in +1891, and retained that post till 1896, in which year he was made a +K.C.B. His health having suffered much from African fever, he was +transferred to Tunis as consul-general (1897). In the autumn of 1899 Sir +Harry Johnston was despatched to Uganda as special commissioner to +reorganize the administration of that protectorate after the suppression +of the mutiny of the Sudanese soldiers and the long war with Unyoro. His +two years' work in Uganda and a portion of what is now British East +Africa were rewarded at the close of 1901 by a G.C.M.G. In the spring of +the following year he retired from the consular service. After 1904 he +interested himself greatly in the affairs of the Liberian republic, and +negotiated various arrangements with that negro state by which order was +brought into its finances, the frontier with France was delimited, and +the development of the interior by means of roads was commenced. In 1903 +he was defeated as Liberal candidate for parliament at a by-election at +Rochester. He met with no better success at West Marylebone at the +general election of 1906. + +For his services to zoology he was awarded the gold medal of the +Zoological Society in 1902, and in the same year was made an honorary +doctor of science at Cambridge. He received the gold medal of the Royal +Geographical and the Royal Scottish Geographical societies, and other +medals for his artistic work from South Kensington and the Society of +Arts. His pictures, chiefly dealing with African subjects, were +frequently exhibited at the Royal Academy. He was the author of numerous +books on Africa, including _British Central Africa_ (1897); _The +Colonization of Africa_ (1899); _The Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); +_Liberia_ (1906); _George Grenfell and the Congo_ (1908). During his +travels in the north-eastern part of the Congo Free State in 1900 he was +instrumental in discovering and naming the okapi, a mammal nearly allied +to the giraffe. His name has been connected with many other discoveries +in the African fauna and flora. + + + + +JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891), American Confederate general in +the Civil War, was born near Farmville, Prince Edward county, Virginia, +on the 3rd of February 1807. His father, Peter Johnston (1763-1841), a +Virginian of Scottish descent, served in the War of Independence, and +afterwards became a distinguished jurist; his mother was a niece of +Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point, in the same class with Robert +E. Lee, and was made brevet second lieutenant, 4th Artillery, in 1829. +He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole wars, and left the army in 1837 +to become a civil engineer, but a year afterwards he was reappointed to +the army as first lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, and breveted +captain for his conduct in the Seminole war. During the Mexican war he +was twice severely wounded in a reconnaissance at Cerro Gordo, 1847, was +engaged in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battles of Contreras, Churubusco, +and Molino del Rey, the storming of Chapultepec, and the assault on the +city of Mexico, and received three brevets for gallant and meritorious +service. From 1853 to 1855 he was employed on Western river +improvements, and in 1855 he became lieut.-colonel of the 1st U.S. +Cavalry. In 1860 he was made quartermaster-general, with the rank of +brigadier-general. In April 1861 he resigned from the United States army +and entered the Confederate service. He was commissioned major-general +of volunteers in the Army of Virginia, and assisted in organizing the +volunteers. He was later appointed a general officer of the Confederacy, +and assigned to the command of the Army of the Shenandoah, being opposed +by the Federal army under Patterson. When McDowell advanced upon the +Confederate forces under Beauregard at Manassas, Johnston moved from the +Shenandoah Valley with great rapidity to Beauregard's assistance. As +senior officer he took command on the field, and at Bull Run (Manassas) +(q.v.) won the first important Confederate victory. In August 1861 he +was made one of the five full generals of the Confederacy, remaining in +command of the main army in Virginia. He commanded in the battle of Fair +Oaks (May 31, 1862), and was so severely wounded as to be incapacitated +for several months. In March 1863, still troubled by his wound, he was +assigned to the command of the south-west, and in May was ordered to +take immediate command of all the Confederate forces in Mississippi, +then threatened by Grant's movement on Vicksburg. When Pemberton's army +was besieged in Vicksburg by Grant, Johnston used every effort to +relieve it, but his force was inadequate. Later in 1863, when the battle +of Chattanooga brought the Federals to the borders of Georgia, Johnston +was assigned to command the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the +early days of May 1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman +advanced against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign +between Sherman and Johnston see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (§ 29). From the 9th +of May to the 17th of July there were skirmishes, actions and combats +almost daily. The great numerical superiority of the Federals enabled +Sherman to press back the Confederates without a pitched battle, but the +severity of the skirmishing may be judged from the casualties of the two +armies (Sherman's about 26,000 men, Johnston's over 10,000), and the +obstinate steadiness of Johnston by the fact that his opponent hardly +progressed more than one mile a day. But a Fabian policy is never +acceptable to an eager people, and when Johnston had been driven back to +Atlanta he was superseded by Hood with orders to fight a battle. The +wisdom of Johnston's plan was soon abundantly clear, and the Confederate +cause was already lost when Lee reinstated him on the 23rd of February +1865. With a handful of men he opposed Sherman's march through the +Carolinas, and at Bentonville, N.C., fought and almost won a most +gallant and skilful battle against heavy odds. But the Union troops +steadily advanced, growing in strength as they went, and a few days +after Lee's surrender at Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis +that it was in his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict, +and he was authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered into +between these generals, on the 18th of April, having been rejected by +the United States government, another agreement was signed on the 26th +of April, the new terms being similar to those of the surrender of Lee. +After the close of the war Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874 +he published a _Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War_. +In 1877 he was elected to represent the Richmond district of Virginia in +Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland U.S. +commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in early life to Louisa +(d. 1886), daughter of Louis M'Lane. He died at Washington, D.C., on the +21st of March 1891, leaving no children. + +It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige which so +much assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he possess the power of +enforcing his will on others in the same degree, but his methods were +exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and, if he showed himself less +daring than his comrades, he was unsurpassed in steadiness. The duel of +Sherman and Johnston is almost as personal a contest between two great +captains as were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To +Montecucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in the +incidents of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance. + + See Hughes, _General Johnston_, in "Great Commanders Series" (1893). + + + + +JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the Black Cart, +11 m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), +10,503. The leading industries include flax-spinning, cotton +manufactures (with the introduction of which in 1781 the prosperity of +the town began), paper-making, shoe-lace making, iron and brass +foundries and engineering works. There are also coal mines and oil works +in the vicinity. Elderslie, 1 m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir +William Wallace, but it is doubtful if "Wallace's Yew," though of great +age, and "Wallace's Oak," a fine old tree that perished in a storm in +1856, and the small castellated building (traditionally his house) which +preceded the present mansion in the west end of the village, existed in +his day. + + + + +JOHNSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Fulton county, New York, +U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the Mohawk river and about +48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890), 7768; (1900), 10,130 (1653 +foreign-born); (1905, state census), 9765; (1910) 10,447. It is served +by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line +to Schenectady. The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a +city hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building +is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William +Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just outside +the present St John's episcopal church. Originally the hall was flanked +by two stone forts, one of which is still standing. In 1907 the hall was +bought by the state and was placed in the custody of the Johnstown +Historical Society, which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson +established in 1766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United +States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm House and +the Fulton county court house, built by Sir William Johnson in 1763 and +1772 respectively, and the gaol (1772), at first used for all New York +west of Schenectady county, and during the War of Independence as a +civil and a military prison. The court house is said to be the oldest in +the United States. Three miles south of the city is the Butler House, +built in 1742 by Colonel John Butler (d. 1794), a prominent Tory leader +during the War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the +first in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William +Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 m. distant) the +principal glove-making centre in the United States, the product being +valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14.6% of the total value of this +industry in the United States. The manufacture of gloves in commercial +quantities was introduced into the United States and Johnstown in 1809 +by Talmadge Edwards, who was buried there in the colonial cemetery. The +value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a decrease of +11.3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about 1760 by a colony of Scots +brought to America by Sir William Johnson, within whose extensive grant +it was situated, and in whose honour, in 1771, it was named. A number of +important conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois +Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during the War +of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830) defeated here a +force of British and Indians, whose leader, Walter Butler, a son of +Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a participant in the Wyoming +massacres, was mortally wounded near West Canada creek during the +pursuit. Johnstown was incorporated as a village in 1808, and was +chartered as a city in 1895. + + + + +JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about 75 m. E. by S. +of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (1900), 35,936, of whom 7318 were +foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians, 1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians; +(1910 census) 55,482. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore +& Ohio railways. The city lies about 1170 ft. above the sea, on level +ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly enclosed +by high and precipitous hills. Among the public buildings and +institutions are the Cambria free library (containing about 14,000 +volumes in 1908), the city hall, a fine high school, and the Conemaugh +Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park, about 3 m. from the city, is +reached by electric lines. Coal, iron ore, fire clay and limestone +abound in the vicinity, and the city has large plants for the +manufacture of iron and steel. The total value of the factory product in +1905 was $28,891,806, an increase of 35.2% since 1900. A settlement was +established here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named, +and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incorporated +as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown flood. In +1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended to provide a +storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had been built across the +South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh river, 12 m. above the city, but +the Pennsylvania canal was subsequently abandoned, and in 1888 the dam +was bought and repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and +Conemaugh lake was formed. On the 31st of May 1889, during a heavy +rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water 20 ft. or more in height +at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of about 20 m. an hour, +almost completely destroying the city. The Pennsylvania railroad bridge +withstood the strain, and against it the flood piled up a mass of +wreckage many feet in height and several acres in area. On or in this +confused mass many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to +be burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and villages in +the valley were also swept away, and the total loss of lives was 2000 or +more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000 was raised, and the city was +quickly rebuilt. + + + + +JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling), an +independent Malayan state at the southern end of the peninsula, +stretching from 2° 40´ S. to Cape Romania (Ramunya), the most southerly +point on the mainland of Asia, and including all the small islands +adjacent to the coast which lie to the south of parallel 2° 40´ S. It is +bounded N. by the protected native state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri +Sembilan and the territory of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides +Singapore island from the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the +Straits of Malacca. The province of Muar was placed under the +administration of Johor by the British government as a temporary measure +in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions in 1910. The +coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest length from N.W. to S.E. +is 165 m., the greatest breadth from E. to W. 100 m. The area is +estimated at about 9000 sq. m. The principal rivers are the Muar, the +most important waterway in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up +which river the old capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which +marks the boundary with Pahang; and the Batu Pahat and Sedeli, of +comparative unimportance. Johor is less mountainous than any other state +in the peninsula. The highest peak is Gunong Ledang, called Mt Ophir by +Europeans, which measures some 4000 ft. in height. Like the rest of the +peninsula, Johor is covered from end to end by one vast spread of +forest, only broken here and there by clearings and settlements of +insignificant area. The capital is Johor Bharu (pop. about 20,000), +situated at the nearest point on the mainland to the island of +Singapore. The fine palace built by the sultan Abubakar is the principal +feature of the town. It is a kind of Oriental Monte Carlo, and is much +resorted to from Singapore. The capital of the province of Muar is +Bandar Maharani, named after the wife of the sultan before he had +assumed his final title. The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for +a country situated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of +Singapore. The shade temperature varies from 98.5° F. to 68.2° F. The +rainfall averages 97.28 in. per annum. No exact figures can be obtained +as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates place it at about +200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000 Malays, 15,000 Javanese. We +are thus presented with the curious spectacle of a country under Malay +rule in which the Chinese outnumber the people of the land by more than +four to one. It is not possible to obtain any exact data on the subject +of the revenue and expenditure of the state. The revenue, however, is +probably about 750,000 dollars, and the expenditure under public service +is comparatively small. The revenue is chiefly derived from the revenue +farms for opium, spirits, gambling, &c., and from duty on pepper and +gambier exported by the Chinese. The cultivation of these products forms +the principal industry. Areca-nuts and copra are also exported in some +quantities, more especially from Muar. There is little mineral wealth of +proved value. + +_History._--It is claimed that the Mahommedan empire of Johor was +founded by the sultan of Malacca after his expulsion from his kingdom by +the Portuguese in 1511. It is certain that Johor took an active part, +only second to that of Achin, in the protracted war between the +Portuguese and the Dutch for the possession of Malacca. Later we find +Johor ruled by an officer of the sultan of Riouw (Riau), bearing the +title of Tumenggong, and owing feudal allegiance to his master in common +with the Bendahara of Pahang. In 1812, however, this officer seems to +have thrown off the control of Riouw, and to have assumed the title of +sultan, for one of his descendants, Sultan Husain, ceded the island of +Singapore to the East India Company in 1819. In 1855 the then sultan, +Ali, was deposed, and his principal chief, the Tumenggong, was given the +supreme rule by the British. His son Tumenggong Abubakar proved to be a +man of exceptional intelligence. He made numerous visits to Europe, took +considerable interest in the government and development of his country, +and was given by Queen Victoria the title of maharaja in 1879. On one of +his visits to England he was made the defendant in a suit for breach of +promise of marriage, but the plaintiff was non-suited, since it was +decided that no action lay against a foreign sovereign in the English +law courts. In 1885 he entered into a new agreement with the British +government, and was allowed to assume the title of sultan of the state +and territory of Johor. He was succeeded in 1895 by his son Sultan +Ibrahim. The government of Johor has been comparatively so free from +abuses under its native rulers that it has never been found necessary to +place it under the residential system in force in the other native +states of the peninsula which are under British control, and on several +occasions Abubakar used his influence with good effect on the side of +law and order. The close proximity of Johor to Singapore has constantly +subjected the rulers of the former state to the influence of European +public opinion. None the less, the Malay is by nature but ill fitted for +the drudgery which is necessary if proper attention is to be paid to the +dull details whereby government is rendered good and efficient. +Abubakar's principal adviser, the Dato 'Mentri, was a worthy servant of +his able master. Subsequently, however, the reins of government came +chiefly into the hands of a set of young men who lacked either +experience or the serious devotion to dull duties which is the +distinguishing mark of the English civil service. Muar, in imitation of +the British system, is ruled by a raja of the house of Johor, who bears +the title of resident. (H. Cl.) + + + + +JOIGNY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre by the +Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. It is situated on +the flank of the hill known as the Côte St Jacques on the right bank of +the Yonne. Its streets are steep and narrow, and old houses with carved +wooden façades are numerous. The church of St Jean (16th century), which +once stood within the _enceinte_ of the old castle, contains a +representation (15th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble. +Other interesting buildings are the church of St André (12th, 16th and +17th centuries), of which the best feature is the Renaissance portal +with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of St Thibault (16th century), +in which the stone crown suspended from the choir vaulting is chiefly +noticeable. The Porte du Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking +towers, is a relic of the 10th century castle; there is also a castle of +the 16th and 17th centuries, in part demolished. The hôtel de ville +(18th century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the +sepulchral chapel of the Ferrands (16th century). The town is the seat +of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, +and a communal college for boys. It is industrially unimportant, but the +wine of the Côte St Jacques is much esteemed. + +Joigny (_Joviniacum_) was probably of Roman origin. In the 10th century +it became the seat of a countship dependent on that of Champagne, which +after passing through several hands came in the 18th century into the +possession of the family of Villeroi. A fragment of a ladder preserved +in the church of St André commemorates the successful resistance offered +by the town to the English in 1429. + + + + +JOINDER, in English law, a term used in several connexions. + +_Joinder of causes of action_ is the uniting in the same action several +causes of action. Save in actions for the recovery of land and in +actions by a trustee in bankruptcy a plaintiff may without leave join in +one action, not several actions, but several "causes of action." Claims +by or against husband and wife may be joined with claims by or against +either of them separately. Claims by or against an executor or +administrator as such may be joined with claims by or against him +personally, provided such claims are alleged to arise with reference to +the estate of which the plaintiff or defendant sues or is sued as +executor or administrator. Claims by plaintiffs jointly may be joined +with claims by them or any of them separately against the same +defendant. + +_Joinder in pleading_ is the joining by the parties on the point of +matter issuing out of the allegations and pleas of the plaintiff and the +defendant in a cause and the putting the cause upon trial. + +_Joinder of parties._--Where parties may jointly, severally or in the +alternative bring separate actions in respect of or arising out of the +same transaction or series of transactions they may, by Order XVI. of +the rules of the supreme court, be joined in one action as plaintiffs. + + + + +JOINERY, one of the useful arts which contribute to the comfort and +convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and carpentry are often +followed by the same individual, it appears natural to conclude that the +same principles are common to both, but a closer examination leads to a +different conclusion. The art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to +the support of weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be +sought in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the +rough timber work necessary for support, division or connexion, and its +proper object is to give firmness and stability. The art of joinery has +for its object the addition in a building of all the fixed woodwork +necessary for convenience or ornament. The joiner's works are in many +cases of a complicated nature, and often require to be executed in an +expensive material, therefore joinery requires much skill in that part +of geometrical science which treats of the projection and description of +lines, surfaces and solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the +structure and nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without +being a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being +competent, at least, to supervise all the operations required in +carpentry. The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree +unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is expected +from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the habit of neatness +and the great precision of the joiner make him a much slower workman +than the man practised in works of carpentry. In carpentry framing owes +its strength mainly to the form and position of its parts, but in +joinery the strength of a frame depends to a larger extent upon the +strength of the joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together +as accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable +that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so that he +shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials with firmness +and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance that the work when +thus put together shall be constructed of such sound and dry materials, +and on such principles, that the whole shall bear the various changes of +temperature and of moisture and dryness, so that the least possible +shrinkage or swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so +that, if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to +the work. + +In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most artless +manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern joinery appear in the +thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early Gothic cathedrals and +churches, but even in these it is indebted to the carver for everything +that is worthy of regard. With the revival of classic art, however, +great changes took place in every sort of construction. Forms began to +be introduced in architecture which could not be executed at a moderate +expense without the aid of new principles, and these principles were +discovered and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their +scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of these +principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often obscure, and +sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of small panels gave way to the +large bolection moulded panelling. Doors which were formerly heavily +framed and hung on massive posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now +framed in light panels and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The +scarcity of oak timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led +to the importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and this +gradually superseded all other material save for special work. + +_Tools and Materials._--The joiner operates with saws, planes, chisels, +gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instruments (aided and +directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares, hammers, wallets, floor +cramps and a great many other tools. His operations consist principally +of sawing and planing in all their varieties, and of setting out and +making joints of all kinds. There is likewise a great range of other +operations--such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting +and hanging--and many which depend on nailing and screwing, such as +laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls, bracketing, +cradling, firring, and the like. In addition to the wood on which the +joiner works, he requires also glue, white lead, nails, brads, screws +and hinges, and accessorily he applies bolts, locks, bars and other +fastenings, together with pulleys, lines, weights, holdfasts, wall +hooks, &c. The joiner's work for a house is for the most part prepared +at the shop, where there should be convenience for doing everything in +the best and readiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is +ready and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames, +doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together, +i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed and +prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying, and the moulded +work--the picture and dado rails, architraves, skirtings and +panelling--is all got out at the shop. On a new building the joiner fits +up a temporary workshop with benches, sawing stools and a stove for his +glue pot. Here he adjusts the work for fitting up and makes any small +portions that may still be required. + +The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the exception--a fact +due to the ever-increasing use of machines, which have remarkably +shortened the time required to execute the ordinary operations. Various +machines rapidly and perfectly execute planing and surfacing, mortising +and moulding, leaving the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large +quantities of machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now +imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe. The +timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this, coupled with +the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily obtainable on the +Continent, enables the cost of production to be kept very low. + +The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly understood by +every joiner. The man who has made the nature of timber his study has +always a decided advantage over those who have neglected this. Timber +shrinks considerably in the width, but not appreciably in the length. +Owing to this shrinkage certain joints and details, hereinafter +described and illustrated, are in common use for the purpose of +counteracting the bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all +joinery work. + + The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different + species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and + mahogany (see TIMBER). The greater part of English joiners' work is + executed in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries. + Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from + which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from the + sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable + time and labour being saved in this way. + + A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a _balk_. In + section it may range from 1 to 1½ ft. square. _Planks_ are formed by + sawing the balk into sections from 11 to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. + thick, and the term _deal_ is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 + to 4½ in. thick. _Battens_ are boards running not more than 3 in. + thick and 4 to 7 in. wide. A _strip_ is not thicker than 1½ in., the + width being about 4 in. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + _Joints.--Side joints_ (fig. 1) are used for joining boards together + edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the _square_ + joint the edges of the boards are carefully shot, the two edges to be + joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards tightly + clamped and left to dry, when the surface is cleaned off with the + smoothing plane. A joint in general use for joining up boards for + fascias, panels, linings, window-boards, and other work of a like + nature is formed in a similar manner to the above, but with a + cross-grained tongue inserted, thereby greatly strengthening the work + at an otherwise naturally weak point. This is termed a _cross-tongued + and glued_ joint. The _dowelled_ joint is a square glued joint + strengthened with hard wood or iron dowels inserted in the edge of + each board to a depth of about ¾ in. and placed about 18 in. apart. + The _matched_ joint is shown in two forms, beaded and jointed. Matched + boarding is frequently used as a less expensive substitute for + panelled framing. Although of course in appearance it cannot compare + with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance, and the + moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detriment to the + appearance of the work. The _rebated_ joint is used in the meeting + styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in excluding + draughts and preventing observation through the joint. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + Of the _angle joints_ (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the + following are the most important. The _mitre_ is shown in the drawing, + and is so well known as to need little description. Although simple, + it needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper execution. The + common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued + into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened + with a feather of wood or iron. Other variations of the mitre are the + _mitre and butt_, used where the pieces connected are of unequal + thickness; the _mitre and rebate_, with a square section which + facilitates nailing or screwing; the _mitre rebate and feather_, + similar to the latter, with a feather giving additional strength to + the joint; and the _mitre groove and tongue_, having a tongue worked + on the material itself in place of the feather of the last-named + joint. The last two methods are used in the best work, and, carefully + worked and glued, with the assistance of angle blocks glued at the + back, obviate the necessity of face screws or nails. The _keyed mitre_ + consists of a simple mitre joint, which after being glued up has a + number of pairs of saw cuts made across the angle, into which are + fitted and glued thin triangular slips of hard wood, or as an + alternative, pieces of brass or other metal. Other forms of angle + joints are based on the rebate with a bead worked on in such a + position as to hide any bad effects caused by the joint opening by + shrinkage. They may be secured either by nailing or screwing, or by + glued angle blocks. + + The _dovetail_ is a most important joint; its most usual forms are + illustrated in fig. 3. The _mitre dovetail_ is used in the best work. + It will be seen that the dovetail is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and + it is this distinguishing feature which gives it great strength + irrespective of glue or screws. It is invaluable in framing together + joiners' fittings; its use in drawers especially provides a good + example of its purpose and structure. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Dovetails.] + + _Warping in Wide Boards._--It is necessary to prevent the tendency to + warp, twist and split, which boards of great width, or several boards + glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other hand, + swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the + atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous. To + effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction of + the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when the + boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and glued + up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let into a + wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted and + driven tightly home, but, of course, not glued. Battens of hard wood + may be used for the same purpose, fixed either with hard-wood buttons + or by means of brass slots and screws, the slots allowing for any + slight movement that may take place. With boards of a substantial + thickness light iron rods may be used, holes being bored through the + thickness of the boards and rods passed through; the edges are then + glued up. This method is very effective and neat in appearance, and is + specially suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of + the work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Prevention of Warping.] + + _Mouldings_ are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the + contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to ornament + or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may wish to + bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are required in + designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls to the + qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the + practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate and + finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character of a + moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the wood + in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly grained + wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant if worked in + a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings worked on woods of + the former type may consist of small and delicate members; woods of + the latter class require bold treatment. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Mouldings.] + + The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work used in + connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance with + full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are designed + by him to conform with the style and class of building. There are, + however, a number of moulded forms in common use which have particular + names; sections are shown of many of these in fig. 5. Most of them + occur in the classic architecture of both Greeks and Romans. A + striking distinction, however, existed in the mouldings of these two + peoples; the curves of the Greek mouldings were either derived from + conic sections or drawn in freehand, while in typical Roman work the + curved components were segments of a circle. Numerous examples of the + use of these forms occur in ordinary joinery work, and may be + recognized on reference to the illustrations, which will be easily + understood without further description. + + Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A _stuck_ moulding is + worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a _planted_ + moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or + screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; larger + ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted on + panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding into + the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel. By + adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink--as it + undoubtedly will do--without altering the good appearance of the work, + but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the latter + shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap between it + and the framing. + + _Flooring._--When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have prepared + the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations + is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked + under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order to be + thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work + of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The joints of + flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in + the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during + the process of laying. An additional expense will then be incurred by + the necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued + and driven into place. Boards of narrow width are better and more + expensive than wide ones. They may be of various woods, the kinds + generally preferred, on account of their low comparative cost and ease + of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is + an inferior wood, but is frequently used with good results for the + floors of less important apartments. A better floor is obtained with + yellow deal, which, when of good quality and well seasoned, is lasting + and wears well. For floors where a fine appearance is desired, or + which will be subjected to heavy wear, some harder and tougher + material, such as pitch pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid. + These woods are capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this + way, form a beautiful as well as a durable floor. + + Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. 1 are applied to flooring + boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side of + the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the tendency + will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead of + curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground + floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will drop + through the crevices and damage the ceiling beneath. Dowelled joints + are open to the same objection. One of the best and most economical + methods is the _ploughed and tongued_ joint. The tongue may be of hard + wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and occupies + very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of + the board as is practicable, leaving as much wearing material as + possible. Two varieties of secret joints are shown in fig. 1.--the + _splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued_, and the _rebated, grooved and + tongued_. Owing to the waste of material in forming these joints and + the extra labour involved in laying the boards, they are costly and + are only used when it is required that no heads of nails or screws + should appear on the surface. The heading joints of flooring are often + specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is far better to rebate + them. + + _Wood block floors_ are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The + blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a + damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double + purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks + in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however, + the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by + dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from + 1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide. + + _Parquet_ floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in + patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from ¼ to 1¼ + in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially for + the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths of + well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the sub-floor + due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the parquet + which is laid upon it. _Plated parquet_ consists of selected hard + woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made in sections + for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the apartment for + which they are intended. When secured to the joists these form a + perfect floor. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Built-up Skirting tongued to floor.] + + _Skirtings._--In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the + base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall (see + fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the wall, + and protects the base of the wall from injury. Skirtings may be placed + in two classes--those formed from a plain board with its upper edge + either left square or moulded, and those formed of two or more + separate members and termed a _built-up_ skirting (fig. 6). Small + angle fillets or mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirting + should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed with the heart side of + the wood outwards; any tendency to warp will then only serve to press + the top edge more closely to the wall. In good work a groove should be + formed in the floor and the skirting tongued into it so that an open + joint is avoided should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be nailed + only near the top to wood grounds fixed to wood plugs in the joints of + the brickwork. These grounds are about ¾ to 1 in. thick, i.e. the same + thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on the + edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should + always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to prevent the + space becoming a harbourage for vermin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + _Dados._--A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative and + a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that + portion of the wall between the _chair_ or _dado rail_ and the + skirting. It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with + cross tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, + or of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The + last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety + of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which are + nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7 shows + an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and skirting. A + _picture rail_ also is shown; it is a small moulding with the top edge + grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are hung. + + Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very fine + effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough + grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In + England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak + framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and + decoration, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining + buildings of that period. + + _Windows._--The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the same + terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, being + formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing. The + upright sides are _styles_; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned + into the styles, are _rails_ (fig. 7). + + Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called _casements_ + (fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed + are used as such, as for example _French casements_ (fig. 9). They may + be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult with + the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those opening + outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This form + of window, though almost superseded in England by the case frame with + hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the Continent. _Yorkshire + sliding sashes_ move in a horizontal direction upon grooved runners + with the meeting styles vertical. They are little used, and are apt to + admit draughts and wet unless efficient checks are worked upon the + sashes and frames. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Casement window fitted with shutters.] + + Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on _centre + pivots_. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots + are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work are + screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord fixed so + that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired extent, + and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round, a small + metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be used. For the + side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and factories this form + of window is in general use. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Details of French Casement to open inwards.] + + In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window is + the _cased frame with double hung sliding sashes_. This style has many + advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, ventilation + may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered and raised with + ease without interference with any blinds, curtains or other fittings, + that may be applied to the windows. In the ordinary window of this + style, however, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the external + glass without assuming a dangerous position on the sill, but there are + many excellent inventions now on the market which obviate this + difficulty by allowing--usually on the removal of a small + thumb-screw--the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge. For a small + extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they will be greatly + appreciated by those who clean the windows. The cased frames are in + the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead weights which balance + the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style--which takes the + wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on this account--an + inside lining, and an outside lining; these three members are + continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are connected with + the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys fixed in the + pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains are sometimes + used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the purpose of + fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket piece. A thin + back lining is provided to the sides only and is not required in the + head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off the water. A parting + bead separates the sashes, and the inside bead keeps them in position. + A parting slip hung from the head inside the cased frame separates the + balancing weights and ensures their smooth working. The inside lining + is usually grooved to take the elbow and soffit linings, and the + window board is fitted into a groove formed in the sill. The example + shown in fig. 7 has an extra deep bottom rail and bead; this enables + the lower sash to be raised so as to permit of ventilation between the + meeting rails without causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. + This is a considerable improvement upon the ordinary form, and the + cost of constructing the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater. + + _Bay windows_ with cased frames and double hung sashes often require + the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction in order + that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more light + than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily and the + whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be mitred and + tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt. Frequently it + is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, the side lights + being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions to be obtained, the + cords of the front windows may be taken by means of pulleys over the + heads of the side lights and attached to counter-balance weights + working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This + enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are + required to be hung the difficulty may be surmounted by hanging two + sashes to one weight. Lead weights take up less space than iron, and + are used for heavy sashes. + + In framing and fixing _skylights_ and _lantern lights_ also great care + is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough + weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in + any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere + and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the water + which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, by means + of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc or copper pipe + outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at least 6 in. to allow + of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The sashes of the lantern + usually take the form of fixed or hung casements fitted to solid + mullions and angle posts which are framed into and support a solid + head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars + framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, these rest on the head, + projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water. + + _Shutters_ for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse, + but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps + necessary. They may be divided into two classes--those fixed to the + outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened, + panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a + little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of hinges + to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these + hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large projection to + enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the wall. + Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either vertically + or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown in the + illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method of + working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by + means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting + shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, and + the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be + raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters are + balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner described for + double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in with wood and + not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a thumb-screw through + the meeting rails, the lower sash being supported on the window board + which is closed down when the sashes have been lifted out. Shutters + sliding horizontally are also used in some cases, but they are not so + convenient as the forms described above. + + _Shop-fronts._--The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a + separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction are + attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly + varying with almost every trade, careful study and close attention to + detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts, in order to + allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of + obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and stanchions are + used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron or steel of + suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and + fittings has been specialized by makers having a knowledge of the + requirements of different trades and with facilities for making the + special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. Fig. 10 shows + an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany with rolling + shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical + construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on + many points which need no further description. The London Building + Act. 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied with in + shop-fronts:--(1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft. a + shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the building + to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In streets + of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-front may + be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building line. No + woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. above the + level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be fixed nearer than 4 + in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of brick or stone must + project at least an inch in front of the woodwork. These by-laws will + be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of a shop-front + designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide. + + _Rolling shutters_ for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, and + are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the + makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow strips + of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at every + joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction allows + it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and usually + fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter is guided into + position by the edges working in metal grooves a little under an inch + wide. When the width of the opening to be closed renders it necessary + to divide the shutters into more than one portion, grooved movable + pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be lowered these are + fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working on the grooved edges + of the pilasters. _Spring roller canvas blinds_ work on a similar + principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are capable, when the blind is + extended, of being pushed up by means of a sliding arrangement, and + fixed with a pin at a level high enough to allow foot passengers to + pass along the pavement under them. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Shop-front.] + + _Doors._--External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed in + the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for the + door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. The + _jambs_ or _posts_ are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the + feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid + window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for + casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal + doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1½ in. + thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, + panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are + nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds 1 in. in thickness plugged + or nailed to the wall or partition. _Architraves_ are the borders or + finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door opening, and screwed + or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously moulded according to the + fancy of the designer. The ordinary form of architrave is shown in the + illustration of a cased window frame (fig. 8), and a variation appears + in the combined architrave and over door frieze and capping fitted + around the six-panelled door (fig. 7). The latter would need to be + worked and framed in the shop and fixed entire. Polished hard wood + architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. without the heads of nails or + screws showing on the face, by putting screws into the grounds with + their heads slightly projecting, and hanging the moulding on them by + means of keyhole slots formed in the back. + + Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, the _common + ledged_ door, consists of vertical boards with plain or matched joints + nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the rails in framed + doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors should be + furnished with braces. _Ledged and braced_ doors are similar, but + have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique braces which + prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper end of the brace + is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near the lock edge of + the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction to be + birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the hanging + edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails. _Framed + ledged and braced_ doors are a further development of this form of + door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle and + bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These members are + tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. The top rail and + styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces and middle and + bottom rails being less by the thickness of the sheathing boards, + which are tongued into the top rail and styles and carried down over + the other members to the bottom of the door. The three forms of door + described above are used mainly for temporary purposes, and stables, + farm buildings and outhouses of all descriptions. They are usually + hung by wrought-iron cross garnet or strap hinges fixed with screws or + through bolts and nuts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Forms of Panelling.] + + The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character + are commonly _framed and panelled_ in one of the many ways possible. + The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, and + these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which are + inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up. The common + forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and although they + may be made with any form and number of panels, the principles of + construction remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 is of a + six-panel door, with bolection moulded raised panels on one side, and + moulded and flat panels on the other (fig. 11). + + A clear idea of the method of jointing the various members may be + obtained from fig. 12. The tongues of raised panels should be of + parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at the moulding. The + projecting ends or _horns_ of the styles are cut off after the door + has been glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends of the styles + being damaged by the wedging process. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Joints.] + + Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions _swing + doors_, either single or double, are used. To open them it is + necessary simply to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and + shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring + causes the door to return to its original position without noise. They + are usually glazed and should be of substantial construction. The door + is hinged at the top on a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a + metal shoe connected with the spring, which is placed in a box fixed + below the floor. + + For large entrances, notably for hotels and banks, a form of door + working on the _turnstile_ principle is frequently adopted. It is + formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top + and bottom central ball-bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing + which forms a kind of vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted + with slips of india-rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the + circular framing, prevent draughts. + + When an elegant appearance is desired, and it is at the same time + necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of + pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a _veneer_ or thin + layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the + appearance of a solid door of the better material. Made in the + ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is + very liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel off. Veneered doors + made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed + on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of + pine with the grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and + glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer are + grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting glue is + applied; the two portions are then welded together under hydraulic + pressure. By reason of their construction these doors possess the + advantages of freedom from shrinking, warping and splitting, defects + which are all too common in the ordinary veneered and solid hard wood + doors. + + The best glue for internal woodwork is that made in Scotland. Ordinary + animal glue should not be used in work exposed to the weather as it + absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a compound termed + _beaumontique_, composed of white lead, linseed oil and litharge, + should be employed. + + _Church Work._--Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of + church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner's + art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English + oak; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and + made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added + to the interior of the church which cannot be obtained in any other + medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently + enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens of + early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and + churches; good work of a later date will be found in many churches and + public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples of Old + English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple Church in + London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and Haddon + Hall. Specimens of modern work are to be seen in Beverley Minster in + Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, London, and the + Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other examples both ancient and modern + abound in the country. + + _Carving_ is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a + special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful + execution. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and + carved ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid. + Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and, + being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour, are + used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved panels + also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work done + entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in its + power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the finishing + touches to the work. + + _Ironmongery._--In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail + calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate fixing + of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, locks, door + and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal finishings + required for the completion of a building. The task of the selection + belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is performed by + the joiner. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + Of _hinges_, the variety termed _butts_ are in general use for hanging + doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the + door. They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to + snap should they sustain a shock. _Lifting butts_ are made with a + removable pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without + unscrewing. _Rising butts_ have oblique joints which cause the door to + rise and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the + floor when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special + circumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the + _cross garnet_ and the _strap_. There are many varieties of _spring + hinges_ designed to bring the door automatically to a desired + position. With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor + or other convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door + being forced back. + + Among _locks and fastenings_ the ordinary _barrel_ or _tower_ bolt + needs no description. The _flush barrel_ is a bolt let in flush with + the face of a door. The _espagnolette_ is a development of the tower + bolt and extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a + convenient height, when turned, shooting bolts at the top and bottom + simultaneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The _padlock_ + is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The _stock_ lock + is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables, + church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a + key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The _metal + cased_ rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. The use + of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice in the + thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock is used. + _Finger plates_ add greatly to the good appearance of a door, and + protect the painted work. _Sash fasteners_ are fixed at the meeting + rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened from + the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly together. + They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife inserted + between the rails. _Sash lifts_ and _pulls_ of brass or bronze are + fitted to large sashes. Ornamental _casement stays_ and fasteners in + many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles. + _Fanlight openers_ for single lights, or geared for a number of + sashes, may be designed to suit positions difficult of access. + + The following are the principal books of reference on this subject: J. + Gwilt, _Encyclopaedia of Architecture_; Sutcliffe, _Modern House + Construction_; Rivington, _Notes on Building Construction_ (3 vols.); + H. Adams, _Building Construction_; C. F. Mitchell, _Building + Construction_; Robinson, _Carpentry and Joinery_; J. P. Allen, + _Practical Building Construction_; J. Newlands, _Carpenter and + Joiner's Assistant_; Bury, _Ecclesiastical Woodwork_; T. Tredgold and + Young, _Joinery_; Peter Nicholson, _Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant_. + (J. Bt.) + + + + +JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. _junctum_, _jungere_, to join), that which +joins two parts together or the place where two parts are joined. (See +JOINERY; JOINTS.) In law, the word is used adjectivally as a term +applied to obligations, estates, &c., implying that the rights in +question relate to the aggregate of the parties joined. Obligations to +which several are parties may be _several_, i.e. enforceable against +each independently of the others, or _joint_, i.e. enforceable only +against all of them taken together, or _joint and several_, i.e. +enforceable against each or all at the option of the claimant (see +GUARANTEE). So an interest or estate given to two or more persons for +their joint lives continues only so long as all the lives are in +existence. _Joint-tenants_ are co-owners who take together at the same +time, by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or +extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-tenants +dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses to his +co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to be carefully +distinguished from _tenancy in common_, when the co-tenants have each a +separate interest which on death passes to the heirs and not to the +surviving tenants. When several take an estate together any words or +facts implying severance will prevent the tenancy from being construed +as joint. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 15, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41055 *** |