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diff --git a/41055-h/41055-h.htm b/41055-h/41055-h.htm index 1787ace..6f070bd 100644 --- a/41055-h/41055-h.htm +++ b/41055-h/41055-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XV Slice IV - Jevons, Stanley to Joint. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 15, Slice 4, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 4 - "Jevons, Stanley" to "Joint" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 14, 2012 [EBook #41055] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 15, SLICE 4 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41055 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -251,7 +212,7 @@ Jevons, Stanley to Joint</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">JINN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">JOHN VI.</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">JIREČEK, JOSEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">JOHN</a> (king of Saxony)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">JIZAKH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">JOHN I.</a> (duke of Brabant)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">JOAB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JOHN</a> (margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">JOAB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">JOHN</a> (margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">JOACHIM OF FLORIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">JOHN</a> (duke of Burgundy)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">JOACHIM I.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">JOHN</a> (elector of Saxony)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">JOACHIM II.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">JOHN, DON</a> (of Austria)</td></tr> @@ -268,11 +229,11 @@ Jevons, Stanley to Joint</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">JOB’S TEARS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">JOCASTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">JOCKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">JOHN ALBERT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">JODELLE, ÉTIENNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">JOHN ANGELUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">JODELLE, ÉTIENNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">JOHN ANGELUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">JODHPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">JOHN FREDERICK I.</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">JOEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">JOHN FREDERICK</a> (duke of Saxony)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">JOEL, MANUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">JOHN GEORGE I.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">JOGUES, ISAAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">JOHN O’ GROAT’S HOUSE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">JOḤANAN BEN ZACCAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">JOHANNESBURG</a> (city of the Transvaal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">JOHNSON, ANDREW</a></td></tr> @@ -522,7 +483,7 @@ to reports of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost all parts of the civilized world. Besides the original meeting of the bishop and Ahasuerus in 1542 and others referred back to 1575 in Spain and 1599 at Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated -to have appeared at Prague (1602), at Lübeck (1603), in Bavaria +to have appeared at Prague (1602), at Lübeck (1603), in Bavaria (1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640), Leipzig (1642), Paris (1644, by the “Turkish Spy”), Stamford (1658), Astrakhan (1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the @@ -580,7 +541,7 @@ Joseph. Matthew Paris, in repeating the passage from Roger of Wendover, reported that other Armenians had confirmed the story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and regarded it as a great proof of the Christian religion. A similar account is given in the -chronicles of Philippe Mouskès (d. 1243). A variant of the same +chronicles of Philippe Mouskès (d. 1243). A variant of the same story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer quoted by Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he struck Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello @@ -628,7 +589,7 @@ since the actual legend in question can be definitely traced to the pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to the identification with the Mahommedan legend of the “eternal” Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski (<i>Zeit. f. Assyr.</i> vii. 116) and -I. Friedländer (<i>Arch. f. Religionswiss.</i> xiii. 110).</p> +I. Friedländer (<i>Arch. f. Religionswiss.</i> xiii. 110).</p> <p>This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering has attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost @@ -636,7 +597,7 @@ all European tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded as a symbolic figure representing the wanderings and sufferings of his race. The Germans have been especially attracted by the legend, which has been made the subject of poems by -Schubart, Schreiber, W. Müller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, +Schubart, Schreiber, W. Müller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that it was a particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school. They were perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who @@ -651,11 +612,11 @@ Heller wrote three cantos on the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Hans Andersen made of him an “Angel of Doubt.” Robert Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. In France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833, -and Eugène Sue, in his best-known work, <i>Le Juif errant</i> (1844), +and Eugène Sue, in his best-known work, <i>Le Juif errant</i> (1844), introduces the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different sections and associates him with the legend of Herodias. In modern times the subject has been made still more popular by -Gustave Doré’s elaborate designs (1856), containing some of his +Gustave Doré’s elaborate designs (1856), containing some of his most striking and imaginative work. Thus, probably, he suggested Grenier’s poem on the subject (1857).</p> @@ -712,7 +673,7 @@ He was one of the disputants selected to confute the Romanists at the conference of Westminster after Easter 1559; he was select preacher at St Paul’s cross on the 15th of June; and in the autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western -counties. His <i>congé d’élire</i> as bishop of Salisbury had been made +counties. His <i>congé d’élire</i> as bishop of Salisbury had been made out on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the 21st of January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary apologist of the Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of @@ -825,7 +786,7 @@ stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree. Here also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. 1). The principal items in this dazzling group are the following: Three gold pectorals -(fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked <i>à jour</i> (with the interstices +(fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked <i>à jour</i> (with the interstices left open); on the front side they are inlaid with coloured stones, the fine <i>cloisons</i> being the only portion of the gold that is visible; on the back, the gold surfaces are most delicately carved, in low relief. @@ -885,7 +846,7 @@ rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by a small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. 7), and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined -by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé on a ground +by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé on a ground inlaid with lapis lazuli.</p> </div> @@ -972,7 +933,7 @@ and stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre forming spikes—all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral forms an incessant decoration from its facile production and repetition by means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets -in gold repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the +in gold repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the decoration of the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part of the body of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with spirals, are among the more remarkable examples @@ -1007,12 +968,12 @@ three doves has been fastened with a pin.</p> <p>An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the bodies discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to those noticed above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like -or rosette ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but perfectly +or rosette ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but perfectly distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of -repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection +repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be noted (fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no “piping” -at the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have +at the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have a piping of copper wire.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -1108,7 +1069,7 @@ patterns.</p> <table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 95%;" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc">Figs.</td> <td class="tcl" style="width: 10%;">49-53</td> <td class="tcc" style="width: 10%;">(Plate I.)</td> <td class="tcl"><p>are specimens from this treasure.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">49</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Plate with repoussé ornament for sewing on +<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">49</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Plate with repoussé ornament for sewing on a dress.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">50</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on a lotus base, and having serpents issuing @@ -1116,7 +1077,7 @@ patterns.</p> Egyptian forms.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">51</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the grooves.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">52</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pendant ornament, repoussé, and originally +<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">52</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pendant ornament, repoussé, and originally inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">53</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes, modified from Egyptian forms.</p></td></tr> @@ -1234,12 +1195,12 @@ ornament for containing a scroll (fig. 19).</p> Aeolis, with filigree work and pendant Erotes.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">61</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Small bracelet.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">62-63</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Small gold reel with repoussé figures of +<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">62-63</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Small gold reel with repoussé figures of Nereid with helmet of Achilles, and Eros. From Cameiros (Rhodes).</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">64</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Filigree ornament (ear-ring?) with Eros in centre. From Syria.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">65</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Medallion ornament with repoussé head of +<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">65</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Medallion ornament with repoussé head of Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas coll.)</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">66</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Stud, with filigree work.</p></td></tr> @@ -1264,7 +1225,7 @@ London Exhibition of 1872 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Filigree</a> <table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 95%;" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc">Figs.</td> <td class="tcl" style="width: 10%;">71-77</td> <td class="tcc" style="width: 10%;">(Plate II.)</td> <td class="tcl"><p>are well-marked examples of Etruscan work, in the British Museum.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">71</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pair of sirens, repoussé, forming a hook +<tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">71</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Pair of sirens, repoussé, forming a hook and eye fastening. From Chiusi (?).</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">72</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"><p>Early fibula. Horse and chimaera. (Blacas coll.)</p></td></tr> @@ -1300,7 +1261,7 @@ uncommon.</p> <p>With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the barbarian tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An important example of this style is the remarkable gold treasure, -discovered at Pétrossa in Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and +discovered at Pétrossa in Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and now preserved, as far as it survives, in the museum of Bucharest. A runic inscription shows that it belonged to the Goths. Its style is in part the classical tradition, debased and modified; in @@ -1309,7 +1270,7 @@ Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly conventionalized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with a free use of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either -cloisonné-fashion or in a perforated gold plate. This part of the +cloisonné-fashion or in a perforated gold plate. This part of the hoard has its affinities in objects found over a wide field from Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and most naturalistic forms occur in the East in uncouth objects from Siberian tombs, whose @@ -1337,13 +1298,13 @@ a limited number of finds), of Merovingian.</p> <p>The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the 5th century, and the Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature thin plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in -walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonné enamel, +walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonné enamel, with the addition of very decorative details of filigree work, beading and twisted gold. The typical group are the contents -of the tomb of King Childeric (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 481) now in the Bibliothèque +of the tomb of King Childeric (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 481) now in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. In Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being decorated with a species -of cloisonné, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in +of cloisonné, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is also set with garnets. The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably characteristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament @@ -1359,7 +1320,7 @@ antichi</i> (<i>Accademia dei Lincei</i>), xii. 145.</p> ornaments, which has an equally long and independent line of descent. The characteristic Celtic ornaments are of hammered work with -details in repoussé, having fillings-in of vitreous +details in repoussé, having fillings-in of vitreous paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in the later examples rock crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut <i>en cabochon</i>. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> @@ -1396,7 +1357,7 @@ from the 10th to the 13th century. They are generally massive and simple. Through the 16th century a variety of changes arose; in the traditions and designs of the <i>cinquecento</i> we have plenty of evidence that the workmen used their own designs, -and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert Dürer, +and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert Dürer, Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the Italian republics must have produced works of surpassing excellence in workmanship, and reaching the highest point in @@ -1538,7 +1499,7 @@ preference to trinkets which derived their value and character from artistic design. This revolutionized the jeweller’s craft, and revived the simple ornament of gold or silver, which came forward but timidly at first, till, in the Salon of 1895, it burst -upon the world in the exhibits of René Lalique, an artist who was +upon the world in the exhibits of René Lalique, an artist who was further confirmed in his remarkable position by the exhibition of 1900. What specially stamps the works of Lalique is their striking originality. His work may be considered from the point @@ -1600,11 +1561,11 @@ which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose.</p> <p>The movement was represented in other countries also. In the United States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by Philippe Wolfers, who occupies in Belgium the position which in -France is held by René Lalique. If his design is a little heavier, +France is held by René Lalique. If his design is a little heavier, it is not less beautiful in imagination or less masterly in execution. Graceful, ingenious, fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns, his objects of jewelry and goldsmithery have a solid claim to -be considered <i>créations d’art</i>. It has also been felt in Germany, +be considered <i>créations d’art</i>. It has also been felt in Germany, Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must be admitted that many of the best artists who have devoted themselves to jewelry have been more successful in design than in securing the lightness @@ -1674,7 +1635,7 @@ in the development of the design, being itself ornamented by engraving gems being arranged in subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a decorative effect to the whole; (3) when gold or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought out by hammering -in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition +in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition of filigree work (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Filigree</a></span>), or when the surfaces are left absolutely plain but polished and highly finished.</p> @@ -1708,7 +1669,7 @@ The human figure, representations of animal life, leaves, fruit, &c., are modelled in wax, moulded and cast in gold, to be chased up and finished. As the hammering goes on the metal becomes brittle and hard, and then it is passed though the fire to anneal or soften -it. In the case of elaborate examples of repoussé, after the general +it. In the case of elaborate examples of repoussé, after the general forms are beaten up, the interior is filled with a resinous compound, pitch mixed with fire-brick dust; and this, forming a solid but pliable body underneath the metal, allows of the finished details @@ -1800,9 +1761,9 @@ places of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially at Munich.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For the Dāhshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and -others; <i>Fouilles à Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894</i> (Vienna, 1895) and -<i>Fouilles à Dahchour en 1894-1895</i> (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-<span class="correction" title="amended from hotp">hotep</span> -jewels, see Mariette, <i>Album de Musée de Boulaq</i>, pls. 29-31; Birch, +others; <i>Fouilles à Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894</i> (Vienna, 1895) and +<i>Fouilles à Dahchour en 1894-1895</i> (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-<span class="correction" title="amended from hotp">hotep</span> +jewels, see Mariette, <i>Album de Musée de Boulaq</i>, pls. 29-31; Birch, <i>Facsimiles of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-hotep</i> (1863). For Cretan excavations, see A. J. Evans, in <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>, Nos. 7 to 11; <i>Archaeologia</i>, vol. lix. For @@ -1813,17 +1774,17 @@ Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’Art</i>, vi. For the Greek Island treasure, see A. J. Evans, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiii. For Ephesus gold treasure, see D. G. Hogarth, <i>British Museum Excavations at Ephesus</i>; <i>The Archaic Artemisia</i>. For the Hermitage Collection from South -Russia, see Gillé, <i>Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien</i> (reissued by +Russia, see Gillé, <i>Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien</i> (reissued by S. Reinach), and the <i>Comptes rendus</i> of the Russian Archaeological Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, <i>Goldschmiedearbeit</i>. -For Treasure of Pétrossa, A. Odobesco, <i>Le Trésor -de Pétrossa</i>. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric jewelry, +For Treasure of Pétrossa, A. Odobesco, <i>Le Trésor +de Pétrossa</i>. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric jewelry, see O. M. Dalton, in <i>Archaeologia</i>, lviii. 237, and the <i>Treasure of the Oxus</i> (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, G. Fontenay, <i>Les Bijoux anciens et modernes</i> (Paris [Quantin], 1887). -For the recent movement, Léonce Bénédite, “La Bijouterie et la -joaillerie, à l’exposition universelle; René Lalique,” in the <i>Revue des -arts décoratifs</i>, 1900 (July, August).</p> +For the recent movement, Léonce Bénédite, “La Bijouterie et la +joaillerie, à l’exposition universelle; René Lalique,” in the <i>Revue des +arts décoratifs</i>, 1900 (July, August).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. H. Sm.)</div> @@ -1858,7 +1819,7 @@ Winby and other Tales</i> (1893); <i>The Queen’s Twin and other Stories</i <p><span class="bold">JEWS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Heb. <i>Yehūdi</i>, man of Judah; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Ioudaioi">Ἰουδαῖοι</span>; Lat. <i>Judaei</i>), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions -as “the Hebrews,” “the Jews,” and “Israel” (see § 5 below). +as “the Hebrews,” “the Jews,” and “Israel” (see § 5 below). Their history may be divided into three great periods: (1) That covered by the Old Testament to the foundation of Judaism in the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek and Roman domination @@ -2056,9 +2017,9 @@ features are best explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis. This involves the view that the historical traditions are mainly due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions, one under the influence of the teaching of Deuteronomy (Joshua -to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly character +to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly character (akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, -with traces in Judges to Kings, see § 23). There are, of course, +with traces in Judges to Kings, see § 23). There are, of course, numerous problems relating to the nature, limits and dates of the two recensions, of the incorporated sources, and of other sources (whether early or late) of independent origin; and here @@ -2175,7 +2136,7 @@ all serious biblical study, and hasty or sweeping deductions from monumental or archaeological evidence, or versions compiled promiscuously from materials of distinct origin, are alike hazardous. A glimpse at Palestine in the latter half of the -second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (§ 3) prepares us for busy scenes and +second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (§ 3) prepares us for busy scenes and active intercourse, but it is not a history of this kind which the biblical historians themselves transmit. At an age when—on literary-critical grounds—the Old Testament writings were @@ -2204,7 +2165,7 @@ as opposed to Judah (<i>a</i>), it ultimately came to designate the true nucleus of the worshippers of the national god Yahweh as opposed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory (<i>c</i>). A more general term is “Hebrew” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Language</a></span>), -which, whether originally identical with the Ḥabiru or not (§ 3), +which, whether originally identical with the Ḥabiru or not (§ 3), is used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic <span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> deserves preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or @@ -2312,7 +2273,7 @@ other, part of the religious history of “Israel,” is essentially bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence appears in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of -the present narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and +the present narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus, The</a></span>).<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> <p>6. <i>The Monarchy of Israel.</i>—The book of Joshua continues the @@ -2330,7 +2291,7 @@ internal rivalries rent the Israelites, and in the religious philosophy of a later (Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as one of alternate apostasy from and of penitent return to the Yahweh of the “exodus.” Some vague recollection of known -historical events (§ 3 end) might be claimed among the traditions +historical events (§ 3 end) might be claimed among the traditions ascribed to the closing centuries of the second millennium, but the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era when individual leaders “judged” all Israel finds no support in the @@ -2416,7 +2377,7 @@ of the sacred city from a strange and hostile people (2 Sam. v.). The famous city, within easy reach of the southern desert and central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the distances are about 18 and 35 miles respectively), had already entered into Palestinian -history in the “Amarna” age (§ 3). Anathoth, a few miles +history in the “Amarna” age (§ 3). Anathoth, a few miles to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo, and the neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the @@ -2470,7 +2431,7 @@ ideal.</p> and vivid narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon another phase of literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to the character of the material and the aims of other compilers -(see § 9 beginning). David, the conqueror, was followed by his +(see § 9 beginning). David, the conqueror, was followed by his son Solomon, famous for his wealth, wisdom and piety, above all for the magnificent Temple which he built at Jerusalem. Phoenician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with Phoenician @@ -2492,7 +2453,7 @@ accession of Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and Judah, together with David’s old general Joab and his faithful priest Abiathar, were opposed to the son of a woman who had been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of the Temple of -Jerusalem starts with a new régime, another captain of the army +Jerusalem starts with a new régime, another captain of the army <span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative purposes @@ -2515,7 +2476,7 @@ king’s apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in Jerusalem which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. Nevertheless, these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost the close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to -Josiah (§ 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity +Josiah (§ 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity was at once seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more generous treatment. The reply is memorable: “My little finger is thicker than my father’s loins; my father chastised you with @@ -2535,7 +2496,7 @@ ideas, since over two-fifths of the entire Old Testament deals with these early ages. The historical sources for the crucial period, from the separation to the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), occupy only about one-twelfth, and even of this about one-third is spread over some -fifteen years (see below, § 11). From the flourishing days of the later +fifteen years (see below, § 11). From the flourishing days of the later monarchy and onwards, different writers handled the early history of their land from different standpoints. The feeling of national unity between north and south would require historical treatment, @@ -2618,8 +2579,8 @@ to Solomon. The varied narratives, now due to Judaean editors, preserve distinct points of view, and it is extremely difficult to unravel the threads and to determine their relative position in the history. Finally, the consciousness that the people as a religious -body owed everything to the desert clans (<i>b</i>) (see § 5) subsequently -leaves its mark upon (north) Israelite history (§ 14), but has not the +body owed everything to the desert clans (<i>b</i>) (see § 5) subsequently +leaves its mark upon (north) Israelite history (§ 14), but has not the profound significance which it has in the records of Judah and Jerusalem. Without sufficient external and independent evidence wherewith to interpret in the light of history the internal features @@ -2650,7 +2611,7 @@ with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the temple of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1) corresponds to the period forward to the return from the exile -(§ 20). This falls into three equal divisions, of which the first +(§ 20). This falls into three equal divisions, of which the first ends with Jehoash’s temple-reforms and the second with Hezekiah’s death. The kingdom of Israel lasts exactly half the time. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> @@ -2665,7 +2626,7 @@ regularly finds in Israel’s troubles the punishment for its schismatic idolatry; nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by a standard which agrees with the standpoint of Deuteronomy and is scarcely earlier than the end of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> -(§§ 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel had naturally its +(§§ 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel had naturally its own independent political backgrounds and the literary sources contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic narratives which are already met with in 1 Samuel. Similarly @@ -3124,7 +3085,7 @@ or unwillingly, was included. But the Judaean records do not allow us to trace its independent history with confidence, and our estimate can scarcely base itself solely upon the accidental fulness or scantiness of political details. In the subsequent -disasters of Israel (§ 15) we may perceive the growing supremacy +disasters of Israel (§ 15) we may perceive the growing supremacy of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly indicate the dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom and Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west. @@ -3146,7 +3107,7 @@ neighbours. It is possible that tradition is right in supposing that “Judah went down from his brethren” (Gen. xxxviii. 1; cf. Judg. i. 3). Its monarchy traced its origin to Hebron in the south, and its growth is contemporary with a decline in -Israel (§ 7). It is at least probable that when Israel was supreme +Israel (§ 7). It is at least probable that when Israel was supreme an independent Judah would centre around a more southerly site than Jerusalem. It is naturally uncertain how far the traditions of David can be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean @@ -3164,7 +3125,7 @@ men of the same general stamp, with the same cult and custom; for the study of religion and social usages, therefore, they can be treated as a single people. The institution of the monarchy was opposed to the simpler local forms of government, and a -military régime had distinct disadvantages (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 11-18). +military régime had distinct disadvantages (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 11-18). The king stood at the head, as the court of final appeal, and upon him and his officers depended the people’s welfare. A more intricate social organization caused internal weakness, and Eastern @@ -3340,7 +3301,7 @@ something to be said for the hypothesis which associates it with the clans connected with the Levites (see E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 82 sqq.; B. Luther, ib. 138). It is, however, obvious that the influence due to immigrants could be, and doubtless was, exerted at -more than one period (see §§ 18, 20; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Priest</a></span>).</p> +more than one period (see §§ 18, 20; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Priest</a></span>).</p> </div> <p>15. <i>The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy.</i>—The prosperity of @@ -3546,7 +3507,7 @@ or oracles from the distant past, have come to light at the very time when “the days were full.”<a name="fa30a" id="fa30a" href="#ft30a"><span class="sp">30</span></a> There is, however, no real proof for the traditional antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very distinctive landmark in the religious history by reason of its attitude -to cult and ritual (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>, § 7). In particular +to cult and ritual (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>, § 7). In particular it is aimed against the worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries and inculcates the sole pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary—the Temple of Jerusalem. This centralization involved the removal of @@ -3579,7 +3540,7 @@ himself is praised for his justice, but faithless Judah is insincere denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear to be better than Judah (iii. 11; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious revival was a practical failure, and it was not until a century later that the opportunity again came -to put any new teaching into effect (§ 20). On the other hand, +to put any new teaching into effect (§ 20). On the other hand, the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic social-religious side; its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the distinctive features of its laws, and Josiah’s reputation (Jer. xxii. 15 seq.) and the @@ -3620,7 +3581,7 @@ made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother Jehoiakim. Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the empire which had dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over -two centuries (see § 10). Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Babylonia +two centuries (see § 10). Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Babylonia (556 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) saw in the disaster the vengeance of the gods for the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew prophets, for their part, exulted over Yahweh’s far-reaching judgment. The newly @@ -3684,7 +3645,7 @@ in other parts of Egypt. But the thread of the history is broken, and apart from an allusion to the favour shown to the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah and Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent -events are viewed from a new standpoint (§ 20).</p> +events are viewed from a new standpoint (§ 20).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The last few years of the Judaean kingdom present several difficult @@ -3801,7 +3762,7 @@ is artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a foreign land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intrusion of foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil, and strangers had settled in her midst, had formed part of the -royal guard, or had even served as janissaries (§ 15, end).</p> +royal guard, or had even served as janissaries (§ 15, end).</p> <p>Samaria had experienced several changes in its original population,<a name="fa34a" id="fa34a" href="#ft34a"><span class="sp">34</span></a> and an instructive story tells how the colonists, @@ -3883,7 +3844,7 @@ been carried back to the earliest ages; yet the present period, after the age of rival kingdoms, Judah and Israel, and before the foundation of Judaism, is that in which the historical background for the inclusion of Judah among the “sons” of Israel is equally suitable -(§§ 5, 20, end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance +(§§ 5, 20, end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance between the people of Palestine, and a greater prominence of the old holy places (Hebron, Bethel, Shechem, &c.), of which the ruined Jerusalem would not be one, and the existing condition of Judah @@ -3970,7 +3931,7 @@ Under Darius Codomannus (336-330) the advancing Greek power brought matters to a head, and at the battle of Issus in 333 Alexander settled its fate. The overthrow of Tyre and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish -state entered upon the Greek period. (See § 25.)</p> +state entered upon the Greek period. (See § 25.)</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been only @@ -4080,7 +4041,7 @@ prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine could not have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question. Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> -can be only indirectly estimated (§ 18), and the political position +can be only indirectly estimated (§ 18), and the political position must remain for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel the people beheld once more a ruler of the Davidic race. The new temple heralded a new future; the mournful fasts commemorative @@ -4102,7 +4063,7 @@ these momentous events are questions of inference.</p> <p>A work which inculcates the dependence of the state upon the purity of its ruler is the unfinished book of Kings with its history of the Davidic dynasty and the Temple. Its ideals culminate in -Josiah (§ 16, end), and there is a strong presumption that it is +Josiah (§ 16, end), and there is a strong presumption that it is intended to impress upon the new era the lessons drawn from the past. Its treatment of the monarchy is only part of a great and now highly complicated literary undertaking (traceable in the books @@ -4132,7 +4093,7 @@ of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean fortunes; not until the time of Nehemiah, about 140 years after the fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect.</p> -<p>Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (§§ 21, +<p>Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (§§ 21, 23) much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has long been recognized that 1 Chron. ii. and iv. represent a Judah composed mainly of groups which had moved up from the south @@ -4146,13 +4107,13 @@ groups had separated from the main body and were ultimately enrolled as Israelites. It is also recognized by many scholars that in the present account of the exodus there are indications of the original prominence of traditions of Kadesh, and also of a journey -northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took part (§ 5). On +northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took part (§ 5). On these and on other grounds besides, it has long been felt that south Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of real importance in biblical research, and for many years efforts have been made to determine the true significance of the evidence. The usual tendency has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of early Israelite -history, which demands some reconstruction (§ 8), and to discern +history, which demands some reconstruction (§ 8), and to discern distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah and Israel under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of T. K. Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south @@ -4185,7 +4146,7 @@ stories of the eponym who, fearless of the “giants” of Palestine, gained striking divine promises (Num. xiv. 11-24); Caleb’s overthrow of the Hebronite giants finds a parallel in David’s conflicts before the capture of Jerusalem, and may be associated with the belief that -these primitive giants once filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see § 7, +these primitive giants once filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see § 7, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, Books of</a></span>). Calebite, too, are Hebron and its patron Abraham, and both increase in prominence in the patriarchal narratives, where, moreover, an important body of tradition can have @@ -4201,7 +4162,7 @@ these families are found in Nehemiah’s time; and while the traditions know of a separation from Edom (viz. stories of Jacob and his “brother” Esau), elsewhere Edom is frequently denounced for unbrotherly conduct in connexion with some disaster which befell -Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see § 22).<a name="fa45a" id="fa45a" href="#ft45a"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The true +Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see § 22).<a name="fa45a" id="fa45a" href="#ft45a"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The true inwardness of this movement, its extent and its history, can hardly be recovered at present, but it is noteworthy that the evidence generally involves the Levites, an ecclesiastical body which underwent @@ -4252,7 +4213,7 @@ upon the accuracy of their history.<a name="fa47a" id="fa47a" href="#ft47a"><spa able to solve the problems which arise in the study of the period now under discussion; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all efforts should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see further -§ 24; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> +§ 24; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> </div> <p>21. <i>Nehemiah and Ezra.</i>—There is another remarkable gap in @@ -4353,7 +4314,7 @@ usually supposed that he is a century too late.<a name="fa49a" id="fa49a" href=" there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel -and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title<a name="fa50a" id="fa50a" href="#ft50a"><span class="sp">50</span></a> (see § 5).</p> +and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title<a name="fa50a" id="fa50a" href="#ft50a"><span class="sp">50</span></a> (see § 5).</p> <p>In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social intercourse with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (<i>q.v.</i>) requires @@ -4413,7 +4374,7 @@ which far exceed the known tolerance of Persian kings, he began wide-sweeping marriage reforms; but the record ceases abruptly (vii.-x.). (<i>c</i>) In the 20th year (445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Nehemiah returned with permission to rebuild the walls, the citadel and the governor’s house -(Neh. ii. 5, 8; see § 21 above). But (<i>d</i>), whilst as governor he +(Neh. ii. 5, 8; see § 21 above). But (<i>d</i>), whilst as governor he accomplishes various needed reforms, there is much confusion in the present narratives, due partly to the resumption of Ezra’s labours after an interval of twelve years, and partly to the closely related @@ -4471,7 +4432,7 @@ appears to have been used for the times of Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.) and subsequently of Cyrus (Ezra i.-iii.). Moreover, although general opinion identifies our Artaxerxes with the first of that name, certain features suggest that there has been some confusion with the -traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. (§ 19). But the +traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. (§ 19). But the problems are admittedly complicated, and since one is necessarily dependent upon scanty narratives arranged and rearranged by later hands in accordance with their own historical theories, it is difficult @@ -4666,7 +4627,7 @@ prophetical and priestly, continue, the former finding its further development in Christianity.<a name="fa60a" id="fa60a" href="#ft60a"><span class="sp">60</span></a></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (§ 4) does not pretend to be complete +<p>The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (§ 4) does not pretend to be complete in all its details and it is independent of its application to the historical criticism of the Old Testament. No alternative hypothesis prevails, mere desultory criticism of the internal intricacies @@ -4677,7 +4638,7 @@ and has suffered some revision in the post-exilic age. Their concessions continue to become ever more significant, and all that follows from them should be carefully noticed by those who are impressed by their arguments. They identify with Deuteronomy the -law-roll which explains the noteworthy reforms of Josiah (§ 16); +law-roll which explains the noteworthy reforms of Josiah (§ 16); but since it is naturally admitted that religious conditions had become quite inconsistent with Mosaism, the conservative view implies that the “long-lost” Deuteronomy must have differed @@ -4791,11 +4752,11 @@ within the scope or the horizon of the religious historians. They do not give us the records of the age of the Babylonian monarch Khammurabi (perhaps Amraphel, Gen. xiv.), of the Egyptian conquests in the XVIIIth and following dynasties, or of the period -illustrated by the Amarna tablets (§ 3). They treat with almost +illustrated by the Amarna tablets (§ 3). They treat with almost unique fullness a few years in the middle of the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but ignore Assyria; yet only the Assyrian inscriptions explain the political -situation (§ 10 seq.), and were it not for them the true significance -of the 8th-7th centuries could scarcely be realized (§ 15 seq.). It +situation (§ 10 seq.), and were it not for them the true significance +of the 8th-7th centuries could scarcely be realized (§ 15 seq.). It would be erroneous to confuse the extant sources with the historical material which might or must have been accessible, or to assume that the antiquity of the elements of history proves or presupposes @@ -4811,7 +4772,7 @@ evidence one is obliged to recognize the limitations of Old Testament historical criticism, even though this recognition means that positive reconstructions are more precarious than negative conclusions.</p> -<p>The naïve impression that each period of history was handled by +<p>The naïve impression that each period of history was handled by some more or less contemporary authority is not confirmed by a criticism which confines itself strictly to the literary evidence. An interest in the past is not necessarily confined to any one age, and @@ -5001,7 +4962,7 @@ of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that at this time certain Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the Samaritan -schism (§ 21 above). The combination is certainly artificial and +schism (§ 21 above). The combination is certainly artificial and not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it illustrates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited @@ -6579,7 +6540,7 @@ to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of death.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span></p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The most comprehensive of modern books dealing -with the period is Emil Schürer, <i>Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes +with the period is Emil Schürer, <i>Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foll.). Exception has been taken to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, especially the rabbis, which has been detected in the author. But at least @@ -6588,12 +6549,12 @@ and modern authorities. An earlier edition was translated into English under the title <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (Edinburgh, 1890, 1891). Of shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter’s <i>Geschichte Israel’s von Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian</i> (2nd ed., 1906) -is perhaps the least dependent upon Schürer and attempts more +is perhaps the least dependent upon Schürer and attempts more than others to interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr R. H. Charles has done much by his editions to restore to their proper prominence in connexion with Jewish history the <i>Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs</i>, <i>The Book of Jubilees</i>, <i>Enoch</i>, &c. But -Schürer gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to +Schürer gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to refer. For the Sanhedrin see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Synedrium</a></span>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div> @@ -6610,7 +6571,7 @@ who succumbed to famine, disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin lxix. 11-15). Jerusalem was rebuilt by Hadrian, orders to this effect being given during the emperor’s first journey through Syria in 130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, Tiberias and Petra -(Reinach, <i>Textes relatifs au Judaïsme</i>, p. 198). The new city +(Reinach, <i>Textes relatifs au Judaïsme</i>, p. 198). The new city was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To Eusebius the erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre @@ -6627,7 +6588,7 @@ of Antoninus Pius (138), however, gave the dispersed people of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman law was by no means intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of Caracalla (198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the civil -rights of the <i>Cives Romani</i> (Scherer, <i>Die Rechtsverhältnisse der +rights of the <i>Cives Romani</i> (Scherer, <i>Die Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden</i>, p. 10).</p> <p>Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of @@ -6665,7 +6626,7 @@ Jews were formally committed to the patriarchs, and Honorius (404) authorized the collection of the patriarch’s tax (<i>aurum coronarium</i>), by which a revenue was raised from the Jews of the diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the patriarchate -was finally abolished after a régime of three centuries and a half +was finally abolished after a régime of three centuries and a half (Graetz, <i>History of the Jews</i>, Eng. trans. vol. ii. ch. xxii.), though ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a time elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The real @@ -6746,7 +6707,7 @@ house of David, and exercised most of the functions of government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was completed. The great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea, -the former of which retained something of its dominant rôle +the former of which retained something of its dominant rôle till the 11th century, had been founded, Sura by Abba Arika (<i>q.v.</i>) (<i>c.</i> 219), but Nehardea, the more ancient seat of the two, famous in the 3rd century for its association with Abba @@ -6844,7 +6805,7 @@ were Jews in the Byzantine empire, in Rome, in France and Spain at very early periods, but it is with the Arab conquest of Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival in culture and importance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before this date -the Jews had been learning the rôle they afterwards filled, that +the Jews had been learning the rôle they afterwards filled, that of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already under Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his generous treatment of the Jews this Christian emperor stood in @@ -6929,7 +6890,7 @@ expression of its traditions.</p> humane than the Spanish variety; the latter produced thinkers, statesmen, poets and scientists; the former, men with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of robuster because -of more naïve and concentrated piety. In Spain and North Africa +of more naïve and concentrated piety. In Spain and North Africa persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or Christianity combined with a private fidelity to the rites of @@ -7142,7 +7103,7 @@ previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even more important was another privileged class—that of the <i>Schutz-Jude</i> (protected Jew). Where there were no rights, privileges had to be bought. While the court Jews were the -favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the protégés of +favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the protégés of town councils. Corruption is the frequent concomitant of privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for a price at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was @@ -7210,7 +7171,7 @@ Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. The failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (<i>q.v.</i>) had plunged the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan pretender not only proclaimed himself Messiah (<i>c.</i> 1650) but he -was accepted in that rôle by vast numbers of his brethren. At +was accepted in that rôle by vast numbers of his brethren. At the moment when Spinoza was publishing a system which is still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this other son of Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles @@ -7267,7 +7228,7 @@ others. On the other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic conception of religion (specially in his <i>Jerusalem</i>) weakened the belief of certain minds in the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus his own grandchildren (including the famous musician Felix -Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, Börne, Gans and +Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, Börne, Gans and Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself two parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as time went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves. @@ -7276,7 +7237,7 @@ Germany and at the present day the effects of the movement are widely felt in America on the Liberal side and on the opposite side in the work of the neo-orthodox school founded by S. R. Hirsch (<i>q.v.</i>). Modern seminaries were established first in -Breslau by Zacharias Fränkel (<i>q.v.</i>) and later in other cities. +Breslau by Zacharias Fränkel (<i>q.v.</i>) and later in other cities. Brilliant results accrued from all this participation in the general life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and pursuits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public @@ -7313,11 +7274,11 @@ majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the report of the assembly, established the consistorial system which remained in force, with its central consistory in the capital, until the recent separation of church and state. Many French -Jews acquired fame, among them the ministers Crémieux (1796-1879), +Jews acquired fame, among them the ministers Crémieux (1796-1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the archaeologists and -philologians Oppert, Halévy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, Darmesteters -and Reinachs; the musicians Halévy, Waldteufel and -Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendès and +philologians Oppert, Halévy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, Darmesteters +and Reinachs; the musicians Halévy, Waldteufel and +Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendès and A. d’Ennery, and many others, among them several distinguished occupants of civil and military offices.</p> @@ -7399,7 +7360,7 @@ law by administrative authority has led to many instances of intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath, some have risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian Jews have contributed their quota to learning, the arts and -literature. Löw, Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish +literature. Löw, Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish field; as poets and novelists, Kompert, Franzos, L. A. Frankl; the pianist Moscheles, the dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer and the chess-player @@ -7427,7 +7388,7 @@ But one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider themselves fully emancipated until the Synagogue was “duly recognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the country.” This recognition was granted by the law of 1895-1896. -In the words of Büchler (<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, vi. 503): “Since +In the words of Büchler (<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, vi. 503): “Since their emancipation the Jews have taken an active part in the political, industrial, scientific and artistic life of Hungary. In all these fields they have achieved prominence. They have also @@ -7516,7 +7477,7 @@ revival, while technical schools—such as the agricultural college near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and the more recent Bezalel in Jerusalem—have been established. Turkey has always on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the -new régime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th +new régime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th century were often persecuted, are still confined to a <i>mellah</i> (separate quarter), but at the coast-towns there are prosperous Jewish communities mostly engaged in commerce. In other @@ -7705,7 +7666,7 @@ Russian pogroms at various dates. But all attempts at an international union of Jews, even in view of such emergencies as these, have failed. Each country has its own local organization for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance -Israélite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Association +Israélite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Association (founded in 1871), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, and in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded 1872), in America the American Jewish Committee (founded 1906), @@ -7730,8 +7691,8 @@ several important countries, the Jewish population of the world can only be given by inferential estimate. The following approximate figures are taken from the <i>American Jewish Year-Book</i> for 1909-1910 and are based on similar estimates in the English <i>Jewish Year-Book</i>, -the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, Nossig’s <i>Jüdische Statistik</i> and the <i>Reports</i> -of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. According to these estimates +the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, Nossig’s <i>Jüdische Statistik</i> and the <i>Reports</i> +of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. According to these estimates the total Jewish population of the world in the year named was approximately 11,500,000. Of this total there were in the British Empire about 380,000 Jews (British Isles 240,000, London accounts @@ -7748,24 +7709,24 @@ Tripoli 19,000; Turkestan and Afghanistan 14,000; Switzerland and Belgium each 12,000; Mexico 9000; Greece 8000; Servia 6000; Sweden and Cuba each 4000; Denmark 3500; Brazil and Abyssinia (Falashas) each 3000; Spain and Portugal 2500; China and Japan -2000. There are also Jews in Curaçoa, Surinam, Luxemburg, +2000. There are also Jews in Curaçoa, Surinam, Luxemburg, Norway, Peru, Crete and Venezuela; but in none of these does the Jewish population much exceed 1000.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—<span class="sc">H. Graetz</span>, <i>Geschichte der Juden</i> (11 vols., 1853-1875; several subsequent editions of separate volumes; Eng. trans. 5 vols., 1891-1892); the works of L. Zunz; <i>Jewish Encyclopedia -passim</i>; publications of Jewish societies, such as <i>Études Juives</i>, +passim</i>; publications of Jewish societies, such as <i>Études Juives</i>, Jewish historical societies of England and America, German historical commission, Julius Barasch society (Rumania), Societas Litteraria Hungarico-Judaica, the Viennese communal publications, and many others to which may be added the 20 vols. of the <i>Jewish Quarterly -Review</i>; Scherer, <i>Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden</i> (1901); M. Güdemann +Review</i>; Scherer, <i>Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden</i> (1901); M. Güdemann <i>Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden</i> (1880, &c.); A. Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>Israel among the Nations</i> (1895); I. Abrahams, <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i> (1896); G. F. Abbott, <i>Israel in Europe</i> (1905); G. Caro, <i>Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden</i> (1908); M. Philippson, -<i>Neueste Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i> (1907, &c.); Nossig, <i>Jüdische +<i>Neueste Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i> (1907, &c.); Nossig, <i>Jüdische Statistik</i> (1903); and such special works as H. Gross, <i>Gallia Judaica</i> (1897), &c.</p> </div> @@ -7774,10 +7735,10 @@ Statistik</i> (1903); and such special works as H. Gross, <i>Gallia Judaica</i> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the homogeneity of the population, see further, W. R. Smith, -<i>Religion of the Semites</i> (2nd ed., chaps, i.-iii.); T. Nöldeke, <i>Sketches +<i>Religion of the Semites</i> (2nd ed., chaps, i.-iii.); T. Nöldeke, <i>Sketches from Eastern History</i>, pp. 1-20 (on “Some Characteristics of the Semitic Race”); and especially E. Meyer, <i>Gesch. d. Altertums</i> (2nd ed., -i. §§ 330, sqq.). For the relation between the geographical characteristics +i. §§ 330, sqq.). For the relation between the geographical characteristics and the political history, see G. A. Smith, <i>Historical Geography of the Holy Land</i>.</p> @@ -7821,7 +7782,7 @@ pp. 54-89 (“The Present Stage of O.T. Research”).</p> <p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its own, and appears to be from an independent cycle, which has been used to form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus; -see also Ed. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i> (1906), +see also Ed. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme</i> (1906), pp. 228, 433; B. Luther, ibid. pp. 108 seq., 142 sqq. Neither of the poems in Deut. xxxii. seq. alludes to an escape from Egypt; Israel is merely a desert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently @@ -7839,7 +7800,7 @@ Luther, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 110, 227 seq., 415, 433).</p> <p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This is especially true of the various ingenious attempts to combine the invasion of the Israelites with the movements of the Ḥabiru -in the Amarna period (§ 3).</p> +in the Amarna period (§ 3).</p> <p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Cf. Winckler, <i>Keil. u. das Alte Test.</i> p. 212 seq.; also his “Der alte Orient und die Geschichtsforschung” in <i>Mitteilungen der Vorderasiat. @@ -7856,7 +7817,7 @@ reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. 1 and <i>passim</i>).</p> treatment of his material, apparently points to some tradition of Egyptian suzerainty.</p> -<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See for chronology, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>, §§ v. and viii.</p> +<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See for chronology, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>, §§ v. and viii.</p> <p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See <i>Jew. Quart. Rev.</i> (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points @@ -7867,7 +7828,7 @@ of the various writers.</p> <p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See W. R. Smith (after Kuenen), <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, col. 2670; also W. E. Addis, ib., 1276, the commentaries of Benzinger (p. 130) and Kittel (pp. 153 seq.) on Kings; J. S. Strachan, Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i>, -i. 694; G. A. Smith, <i>Hist. Geog. of Holy Land</i>, p. 582; König and +i. 694; G. A. Smith, <i>Hist. Geog. of Holy Land</i>, p. 582; König and Hirsch, <i>Jew. Ency.</i> v. 137 seq. (“legend ... as indifferent to accuracy in dates as it is to definiteness of places and names”); W. R. Harper, <i>Amos and Hosea</i>, p. xli. seq. (“the lack of chronological order ... the @@ -7927,7 +7888,7 @@ That is indeed the glory of Israel....”</p> of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the Old Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late prophecies of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam II. -(see § 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this nature +(see § 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this nature from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely the Oriental mind and Oriental usage.</p> @@ -7948,10 +7909,10 @@ would suggest that the term “Hittite” had been extended to Palestine.</p> <p><a name="ft29a" id="ft29a" href="#fa29a"><span class="fn">29</span></a> So K. Budde, <i>Rel. of Israel to Exile</i>, pp. 165-167. For an -attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, <i>Hebräer</i> +attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, <i>Hebräer</i> (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 150 sqq.</p> -<p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See G. Maspero, <i>Gesch. d. morgenländ. Völker</i> (1877), p. 446; +<p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See G. Maspero, <i>Gesch. d. morgenländ. Völker</i> (1877), p. 446; E. Naville, <i>Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol.</i> (1907), pp. 232 sqq., and T. K. Cheyne, <i>Decline and Fall of Judah</i> (1908), p. 13, with references. [The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a matter for historical @@ -7965,7 +7926,7 @@ clung to the belief in their trustworthiness.—(<i>Communicated.</i>)]</p> <p><a name="ft31a" id="ft31a" href="#fa31a"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings</a></span>).</p> -<p><a name="ft32a" id="ft32a" href="#fa32a"><span class="fn">32</span></a> But see N. Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, “Scythians,” § 1.</p> +<p><a name="ft32a" id="ft32a" href="#fa32a"><span class="fn">32</span></a> But see N. Schmidt, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, “Scythians,” § 1.</p> <p><a name="ft33a" id="ft33a" href="#fa33a"><span class="fn">33</span></a> So also one can now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in Egypt in Jer. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are @@ -7990,7 +7951,7 @@ startle us with our generally received notions of the whole nation as exiled. But there are facts which support it” (<i>Jerusalem</i>, ii. 268).</p> <p><a name="ft36a" id="ft36a" href="#fa36a"><span class="fn">36</span></a> On the place of Palestine in Persian history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>History, -ancient</i>, especially § 5 ii.; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artaxerxes</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambyses</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrus</a></span>; +ancient</i>, especially § 5 ii.; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artaxerxes</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambyses</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrus</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Darius</a></span>, &c.</p> <p><a name="ft37a" id="ft37a" href="#fa37a"><span class="fn">37</span></a> The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others @@ -8006,7 +7967,7 @@ governor who flourished about 408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (See p. 286, n. <p><a name="ft38a" id="ft38a" href="#fa38a"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Thus a decree of Darius I. takes the part of his subjects against the excessive zeal of the official Gadatas, and grants freedom of taxation and exemption from forced labour to those connected with a -temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (<i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>, +temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (<i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>, xiii. 529; E. Meyer, <i>Entstehung des Judenthums</i>, p. 19 seq.; cf. id. <i>Forschungen</i>, ii. 497).</p> @@ -8016,20 +7977,20 @@ tolerance which illustrates the biblical account of Ezra and Nehemiah (Brugsch, <i>Gesch. Aeg.</i> pp. 784 sqq.; see Cheyne, <i>Jew. Relig. Life after the Exile</i>, pp. 40-43).</p> -<p><a name="ft40a" id="ft40a" href="#fa40a"><span class="fn">40</span></a> From Têma in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence +<p><a name="ft40a" id="ft40a" href="#fa40a"><span class="fn">40</span></a> From Têma in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for Babylonian and Assyrian influence upon the language, cult and art. For Nippur, see <i>Bab. Exped. of Univ. of Pennsylvania</i>, series A., vol. ix. (1898), by H. V. Hilprecht; for Elephantine, the Mond papyri, A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley, <i>Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan</i> (1906), and those cited above (p. 282, n. 1). For the Jewish colonies in general, see H. Guthe, <i>Ency. -Bib.</i>, art. “Dispersion” (with references); also below, § 25 sqq.</p> +Bib.</i>, art. “Dispersion” (with references); also below, § 25 sqq.</p> <p><a name="ft41a" id="ft41a" href="#fa41a"><span class="fn">41</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra and Nehemiah</a></span> with bibliographical references, also T. K. Cheyne, <i>Introd. to Isaiah</i> (1895); <i>Jew. Religious Life -after the Exile</i> (1898); E. Sellin, <i>Stud. z. Entstehungsgesch. d. jüd. +after the Exile</i> (1898); E. Sellin, <i>Stud. z. Entstehungsgesch. d. jüd. Gemeinde</i> (1901); R. H. Kennett in Swete’s <i>Cambridge Biblical -Essays</i> (pp. 92 sqq.); G. Jahn, <i>Die Bücher Esra u. Nehemja</i> (1909); +Essays</i> (pp. 92 sqq.); G. Jahn, <i>Die Bücher Esra u. Nehemja</i> (1909); and C. C. Torrey, <i>Ezra Studies</i> (1910).</p> <p><a name="ft42a" id="ft42a" href="#fa42a"><span class="fn">42</span></a> There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of tradition @@ -8044,7 +8005,7 @@ finds no place in the shorter text of the Septuagint (see W. R. Smith, <i>Old Test. and Jew. Church</i>, pp. 104 sqq.).</p> <p><a name="ft43a" id="ft43a" href="#fa43a"><span class="fn">43</span></a> The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has -been suggested by M. Vernes, <i>Nouvelle hypothèse sur la comp. et +been suggested by M. Vernes, <i>Nouvelle hypothèse sur la comp. et l’origine du Deut.</i> (1887); Havet, <i>Christian. et ses origines</i> (1878); Horst, in <i>Rev. de l’hist. des relig.</i>, 1888; and more recently by E. Day, <i>Journ. Bib. Lit.</i> (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, <i>Journ. @@ -8063,8 +8024,8 @@ Burney, <i>Journ. Theol. Stud.</i> (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; O. A. Toffteen, <i>The Historic Exodus</i> (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially Meyer and Luther, <i>Die Israeliten</i>, pp. 442-440, &c. For the early recognition of the evidence in question, see J. Wellhausen, <i>De gentibus et familiis -Judaeis</i> (Göttingen, 1870); <i>Prolegomena</i> (Eng. trans.), pp. 216 sqq., -342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. “Israel,” § 2, <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed.); +Judaeis</i> (Göttingen, 1870); <i>Prolegomena</i> (Eng. trans.), pp. 216 sqq., +342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. “Israel,” § 2, <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed.); also A. Kuenen, <i>Relig. of Israel</i> (i. 135 seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith, <i>Prophets of Israel</i>, pp. 28 seq., 379.</p> @@ -8072,7 +8033,7 @@ also A. Kuenen, <i>Relig. of Israel</i> (i. 135 seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith, E. Meyer, <i>Entstehung d. Judenthums</i> (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177, 183 n. 1; <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 seq.</p> -<p><a name="ft46a" id="ft46a" href="#fa46a"><span class="fn">46</span></a> See § 23 end, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>. When Edom is renowned for wisdom +<p><a name="ft46a" id="ft46a" href="#fa46a"><span class="fn">46</span></a> See § 23 end, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>. When Edom is renowned for wisdom and a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have south Palestinian affinity (1 Chron. ii. 6), and when such names as Korah, Heman, Ethan and Obed-edom, are associated with psalmody, @@ -8127,7 +8088,7 @@ The objections against this very probable view undervalue Ezra iv. and external history, and (<i>c</i>) the recovery of the historical facts. To start with the last before considering (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>) would be futile.</p> -<p><a name="ft55a" id="ft55a" href="#fa55a"><span class="fn">55</span></a> For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (§ 19) have +<p><a name="ft55a" id="ft55a" href="#fa55a"><span class="fn">55</span></a> For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (§ 19) have been ascribed such passages as Isa. lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12; Ps. xliv., lxxiv., lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii. (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lamentations</a></span>). In their present form they are not of the beginning of the 6th century and, if the @@ -8157,7 +8118,7 @@ name as the one who advised Rehoboam to acquiesce in the disruption (1 Kings xii. 21-24), or announced the divine selection of Jeroboam (ib. v. 24, Septuagint only).</p> -<p><a name="ft58a" id="ft58a" href="#fa58a"><span class="fn">58</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>, § 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the +<p><a name="ft58a" id="ft58a" href="#fa58a"><span class="fn">58</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>, § 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the histories of Israel.</p> <p><a name="ft59a" id="ft59a" href="#fa59a"><span class="fn">59</span></a> J. Wellhausen, art. “Israel,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed., vol. xiii. p. 419; @@ -8180,7 +8141,7 @@ value in any consideration of the development of thought illustrated in the Old Testament itself.</p> <p><a name="ft63a" id="ft63a" href="#fa63a"><span class="fn">63</span></a> Reference may be made to H. Winckler, <i>Gesch. Israels</i>, ii. (1900); -W. Erbt, <i>Die Hebräer</i> (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, <i>Traditions and +W. Erbt, <i>Die Hebräer</i> (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, <i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i> (1907).</p> <p><a name="ft64a" id="ft64a" href="#fa64a"><span class="fn">64</span></a> On the writers mentioned below see articles <i>s.v.</i></p> @@ -8285,7 +8246,7 @@ five Jew’s harps, all tuned to different notes; by holding one in each hand, a large compass, with duplicate notes, became available; he called this complex Jew’s harp <i>Aura</i><a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and with it played themes with variations, marches, Scotch reels, &c. Other -virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of Würtemberg, achieved +virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of Würtemberg, achieved the same result by placing the variously tuned Jew’s harps upon the table in front of him, taking them up and setting them down as required. Eulenstein created a sensation in London in 1827 @@ -8351,7 +8312,7 @@ also applied to the great plain (Esdraelon) dominated by the city (“valley of Jezreel,” Josh. xvii. 16, &c.). The site has never been lost, and the present village <i>Zercīn</i> retains the name radically unchanged. In Greek (<i>e.g.</i> Judith) the name appears -under the form <span class="grk" title="Esdraêla">Ἐσδραηλά</span>; it is <i>Stradela</i> in the <i>Bordeaux Pilgrim</i>, +under the form <span class="grk" title="Esdraêla">Ἐσδραηλά</span>; it is <i>Stradela</i> in the <i>Bordeaux Pilgrim</i>, and to the Crusaders the place was known as <i>Parvum Gerinum</i>. The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500 ft. above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a @@ -8380,8 +8341,8 @@ Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, <i>Hist. Geog.</i> xix.</p> agency. Area, with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> Pop. (1901), 80,889. More than half the inhabitants belong to -the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated revenue, £7000; tribute, -£1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The chief, whose +the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated revenue, £7000; tribute, +£1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended from a branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested in 1898 with the powers of administration.</p> @@ -8394,7 +8355,7 @@ Diamond Jubilee in 1897.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JHALAWAR,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, -pop. (1901), 90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000. +pop. (1901), 90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000. Area, 810 sq. m. The ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and their ancestors were petty chiefs of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, in Kathiawar. About @@ -8412,9 +8373,9 @@ In 1838 it was resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the state, and to create the new principality of Jhalawar as a separate provision for the descendants of Zalim Singh. The districts then severed from Kotah were considered -to represent one-third (£120,000) of the income of Kotah; by +to represent one-third (£120,000) of the income of Kotah; by treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the British, and -agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh received +agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh received the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing as the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son of his successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becoming @@ -8424,7 +8385,7 @@ his relations with the British government became strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, “on account of persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers of a ruling chief.” He went to live at Benares, on a pension of -£2000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the +£2000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the British resident. After much consideration, the government resolved in 1897 to break up the state, restoring the greater part to Kotah, but forming the two districts of Shahabad and the @@ -8490,7 +8451,7 @@ obtained the title of khan bahadur, with a small <i>jagir</i> for life.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JHANSI,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad -division o£ the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the +division o£ the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the Indian Midland railway system, whence four lines diverge to Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724. A stone fort crowns a neighbouring rock. Formerly the capital @@ -8665,13 +8626,13 @@ territories, into the hands of the British.</p> born on the 22nd of August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland, where his father practised as a lawyer. Young Jhering entered the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, after the fashion of -German students, visited successively Göttingen and Berlin. -G. F. Puchta, the author of <i>Geschichte des Rechts bei dem römischen +German students, visited successively Göttingen and Berlin. +G. F. Puchta, the author of <i>Geschichte des Rechts bei dem römischen Volke</i>, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his admiration and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating <i>doctor juris</i>, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as <i>privatdocent</i> for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on -the <i>Geist des römischen Rechts</i>, the theme which may be said to +the <i>Geist des römischen Rechts</i>, the theme which may be said to have constituted his life’s work. In 1845 he became an ordinary professor at Basel, in 1846 at Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in 1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats of learning he left his @@ -8681,7 +8642,7 @@ under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older school looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who essayed to adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a system of natural jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his -famous work, <i>Geist des römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen +famous work, <i>Geist des römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung</i> (1852-1865), which for originality of conception and lucidity of scientific reasoning placed its author in the forefront of modern Roman jurists. It is no exaggeration @@ -8700,7 +8661,7 @@ official world. He became one of the lions of society, the Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1872 a title of hereditary nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions of the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly -exchanged its brilliant circles for the repose of Göttingen, where +exchanged its brilliant circles for the repose of Göttingen, where he became professor in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna before an admiring audience a lecture, published under the title of <i>Der Kampf um’s Recht</i> (1872; Eng. trans., <i>Battle for Right</i>, @@ -8714,15 +8675,15 @@ his juristic method and logic: “to assert his rights is the duty that every responsible person owes to himself.” In the <i>Zweck im Recht</i> is perceived the bent of the author’s intellect. But perhaps the happiest combination of all his distinctive characteristics -is to be found in his <i>Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens</i> +is to be found in his <i>Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens</i> (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great feature of his lectures was his so-called <i>Praktika</i>, problems in Roman law, and a collection of these with hints for solution was published as early as -1847 under the title <i>Civilrechtsfälle ohne Entscheidungen</i>. In -Göttingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of +1847 under the title <i>Civilrechtsfälle ohne Entscheidungen</i>. In +Göttingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of September 1892. A short time previously he had been the centre of a devoted crowd of friends and former pupils, assembled at -Wilhelmshöhe near Cassel to celebrate the jubilee of his doctorate. +Wilhelmshöhe near Cassel to celebrate the jubilee of his doctorate. Almost all countries were worthily represented, and this pilgrimage affords an excellent illustration of the extraordinary fascination and enduring influence that Jhering @@ -8734,9 +8695,9 @@ the best beloved and the most talented of Roman-law professors of modern times. It was said of him by Professor Adolf Merkel in a memorial address, <i>R. v. Jhering</i> (1893), that he belonged to the happy class of persons to whom Goethe’s lines are applicable: -“Was ich in der Jugend gewünscht, das habe ich im Alter die -Fülle,” and this may justly be said of him, though he did not -live to complete his <i>Geist des römischen Rechts</i> and his <i>Rechtsgeschichte</i>. +“Was ich in der Jugend gewünscht, das habe ich im Alter die +Fülle,” and this may justly be said of him, though he did not +live to complete his <i>Geist des römischen Rechts</i> and his <i>Rechtsgeschichte</i>. For this work the span of a single life would have been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument of vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original @@ -8745,16 +8706,16 @@ of the spirit of Roman law.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author -and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: <i>Beiträge -zur Lehre von Besitz</i>, first published in the <i>Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik -des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privat-rechts</i>, and then separately; +and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: <i>Beiträge +zur Lehre von Besitz</i>, first published in the <i>Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik +des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privat-rechts</i>, and then separately; <i>Der Besitzwille</i>, and an article entitled “Besitz” in the -<i>Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften</i> (1891), which aroused at +<i>Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften</i> (1891), which aroused at the time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition manifested to Savigny’s conception of the subject. See also <i>Scherz -und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz</i> (1885); <i>Das Schuldmoment im römischen +und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz</i> (1885); <i>Das Schuldmoment im römischen Privat-recht</i> (1867); <i>Das Trinkgeld</i> (1882); and among the papers he -left behind him his <i>Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer</i>, a fragment, has +left behind him his <i>Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer</i>, a fragment, has been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his life also M. de Jonge, <i>Rudolf v. Jhering</i> (1888); and A. Merkel, <i>Rudolf von Jhering</i> (1893).</p> @@ -8772,7 +8733,7 @@ river.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JIBUTI<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Djibouti</span>), the chief port and capital of French -Somaliland, in 11° 35′ N., 43° 10′ E. Jibuti is situated at the +Somaliland, in 11° 35′ N., 43° 10′ E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are @@ -8781,7 +8742,7 @@ palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European quarter are built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with verandas. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reservoir -about 2½ m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and +about 2½ m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town, consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well @@ -8818,7 +8779,7 @@ reference to their excellent basket-work.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JIDDA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (also written <span class="sc">Jeddah</span>, <span class="sc">Djiddah</span>, <span class="sc">Djeddeh</span>), a town in -Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21° 28′ N. and 39° 10′ E. It is of +Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21° 28′ N. and 39° 10′ E. It is of importance mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to Mecca, from which it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a low sandy plain backed by a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with @@ -8854,7 +8815,7 @@ The outer suburbs are merely collections of brushwood huts. The bazaars are well supplied with food-stuffs imported by sea, and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi Fatima. The water supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, two sweet -wells and a spring 7½ m. from the town, and most of the houses +wells and a spring 7½ m. from the town, and most of the houses have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and damp, but fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour though inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs; @@ -8888,8 +8849,8 @@ which is now regarded as the annual harvest of Jidda. The average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds 50,000, and in 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of the port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased -from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the -latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance +from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the +latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance of trade is paid by a very large export of specie, collected from the pilgrims during their stay in the country.</p> @@ -8947,7 +8908,7 @@ straight to paradise.</p> <p><span class="bold">JIMENES<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ximenes</span>) <span class="bold">DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO</span> (1436-1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at Torrelaguna in Castile, of good but poor family. He studied at -Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459, +Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. Returning to Spain in 1465, he brought with him an “expective” letter from the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the archpriestship @@ -8971,7 +8932,7 @@ and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life was most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought crowds to confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely -monastery of Our Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his +monastery of Our Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his own hands a rude hut in the neighbouring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite. He was afterwards guardian of a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now archbishop @@ -9098,7 +9059,7 @@ and power he at last attained.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of -Alcalá de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose +Alcalá de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose sole expense it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magnificence and internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within its walls. In 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the @@ -9107,11 +9068,11 @@ romances generally found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused to be published religious treatises by himself and others. He revived also the Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to be used. But his most famous literary service -was the printing at Alcalá (in Latin <i>Complutum</i>) of the Complutensian +was the printing at Alcalá (in Latin <i>Complutum</i>) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original text. In this work, on which he is said to have expended half a million of ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica -(D. Lopez de Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pincianus), +(D. Lopez de Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pincianus), the Hebraist Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas, and by three Jewish converts, of whom Zamora edited the Targum to the Pentateuch. The other @@ -9128,14 +9089,14 @@ at the expense of Philip II. The second edition is known as the <i>Biblia Regia</i> or <i>Filipina</i>.</p> <p>The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, <i>De Rebus Gestis Francisci -Ximenii</i> (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the +Ximenii</i> (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the materials for biographies of Jimenes—in Spanish by Robles (1604) and Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier -(1684), Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele +(1684), Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele (1844, translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Havemann (1848); and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott’s <i>Ferdinand and Isabella</i>; <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i> (May 1841) and -<i>Mém. de l’Acad. d’hist. de Madrid</i>, vol. iv.</p> +<i>Mém. de l’Acad. d’hist. de Madrid</i>, vol. iv.</p> </div> @@ -9145,7 +9106,7 @@ as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts. Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, showing a decrease of 1% in the decade. Estimated gross -revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. Grain and cotton are exported, +revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. Grain and cotton are exported, and there are manufactures of gold and silver ornaments, leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian family. @@ -9170,7 +9131,7 @@ raja since 1827 is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852.</p> <p><span class="bold">JINGO,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chūai, the 14th mikado (191-200). On her husband’s death she assumed the government, and fitted out an army for the invasion of Korea -(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § 9). She returned to Japan completely victorious +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § 9). She returned to Japan completely victorious after three years’ absence. Subsequently her son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan @@ -9225,7 +9186,7 @@ extremes of beauty and ugliness.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JIREČEK, JOSEF<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at -Vysoké Mýto in Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered +Vysoké Mýto in Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities @@ -9238,7 +9199,7 @@ the 25th of November 1888.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>With Hermenegild Jireček he defended in 1862 the genuineness -of the Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He +of the Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He published in the Czech language an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-1861), a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-1876), a Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw’s @@ -9247,8 +9208,8 @@ father-in-law Pavel Josef Šafařik (1795-1861).</p> </div> <p>His brother <span class="sc">Hermenegild Jireček</span>, Ritter von Samakow -(1827-  ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké -Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was also an official in the +(1827-  ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké +Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was also an official in the education department.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -9439,7 +9400,7 @@ especially after a division had been produced in the Franciscan order. The rigorists, who soon became known as “Spirituals,” represented St Francis as the initiator of Joachim’s third age. Certain convents became centres of Joachimism. Around the -hermit of Hyères, Hugh of Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans +hermit of Hyères, Hugh of Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans who expected from the advent of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. The Joachimites even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected John of Parma, one of their @@ -9488,7 +9449,7 @@ anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as Roger Bacon, -Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often comforted +Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has placed him in Paradise (<i>Par.</i>, xii. 140-141).</p> @@ -9497,10 +9458,10 @@ placed him in Paradise (<i>Par.</i>, xii. 140-141).</p> <i>Abhandl. der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3 (Munich, 1874); idem, <i>Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, “Joachim de Flore et -l’Évangile éternel” in <i>Nouvelles études d’histoire religieuse</i> (Paris, +l’Évangile éternel” in <i>Nouvelles études d’histoire religieuse</i> (Paris, 1884); F. Tocco, <i>L’Eresia nel medio evo</i> (Florence, 1884); H. Denifle, “Das Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni” in -<i>Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters</i>, vol. i.; Paul +<i>Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters</i>, vol. i.; Paul Fournier, “Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence” in <i>Revue des questions historiques</i>, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, <i>History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages</i>, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); @@ -9508,7 +9469,7 @@ F. Ehrle’s article “Joachim” in Wetzer and Welte’s <i>Ki On Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, “Recherches nouvelles sur l’histoire du Joachimisme” in <i>Revue historique</i>, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, “Zur Gesch. des Joachimismus” in <i>Briegers Zeitschrift -für Kirchengesch.</i>, vol. vii. (1885).</p> +für Kirchengesch.</i>, vol. vii. (1885).</p> </div> <div class="author">(P. A.)</div> @@ -9584,7 +9545,7 @@ broke out between Charles and the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor. With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender -to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in April 1547, +to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in April 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack @@ -9616,14 +9577,14 @@ Halberstadt, both of which he secured for his son Frederick in son Sigismund obtained the two sees; and on Sigismund’s death in 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his nephew, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, who was a prince -of generous and cultured tastes, died at Köpenick on the 3rd of +of generous and cultured tastes, died at Köpenick on the 3rd of January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In 1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Steinmüller, <i>Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark +<p>See Steinmüller, <i>Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark Brandenburg durch Joachim II.</i> (1903); S. Isaacsohn, “Die Finanzen -Joachims II.” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und Landeskunde</i> +Joachims II.” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und Landeskunde</i> (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, <i>Geschichte der Preussischen Politik</i> (1855-1886).</p> </div> @@ -9636,7 +9597,7 @@ was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder Hellmesberger -and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the +and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a @@ -9661,16 +9622,16 @@ his position to Liszt afford one of the finest illustrations of his character.</p> <p>His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into -a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival +a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival of 1853 procured him the intimate friendship of Robert Schumann. His introduction of the young Brahms to Schumann is a famous incident of this time. Schumann and Brahms collaborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin and -piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover -he was <i>königlicher Konzertdirektor</i> from 1853 to 1868, when he +piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover +he was <i>königlicher Konzertdirektor</i> from 1853 to 1868, when he made Berlin his home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano singer, Amalie Weiss, who died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was -appointed head of the newly founded <i>königliche Hochschule für +appointed head of the newly founded <i>königliche Hochschule für Musik</i> in Berlin. The famous “Joachim quartet” was started in the <i>Sing-Akademie</i> in the following year. Of his later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is little to @@ -9745,8 +9706,8 @@ legend in his <i>Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit</i>. He is believed to have derived it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors between the 13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. Its explosion was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a -French Calvinist, in his <i>Éclaircissement de la question si une femme -a été assise au siège papal de Rome</i> (1647); and <i>De Joanna Papissa</i> +French Calvinist, in his <i>Éclaircissement de la question si une femme +a été assise au siège papal de Rome</i> (1647); and <i>De Joanna Papissa</i> (1657). The refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his <i>Papstfabeln des Mittelalters</i> (1863; Eng. trans. 1872).</p> </div> @@ -9760,7 +9721,7 @@ Jacques Darc, peasant proprietor, of Domremy, a small village in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly in Lorraine, and of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who from having made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of -Romée. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan +Romée. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan never learned to read or write, and received her sole religious instruction from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, and Credo. She sometimes guarded her @@ -9854,11 +9815,11 @@ Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity, remained with the army, but the king played her false when she attempted the capture of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of September, when Joan was wounded,<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> his troops were disbanded. -Joan went into Normandy to assist the duke of Alençon, but in +Joan went into Normandy to assist the duke of Alençon, but in December returned to the court, and on the 29th she and her family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. Unconsoled by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to assist -in the defence of Compiègne against the duke of Burgundy; and +in the defence of Compiègne against the duke of Burgundy; and on the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the besiegers, when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles, partly perhaps on account of his natural indolence, partly on @@ -9913,15 +9874,15 @@ was in any case exceptional. She undoubtedly nerved the French at a critical time, and inspired an army of laggards and pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with that of Cromwell’s Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military -qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d’Alençon; and -Captain Marin, in his <i>Jeanne d’Arc, tacticien et stratégiste</i> (1891), +qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d’Alençon; and +Captain Marin, in his <i>Jeanne d’Arc, tacticien et stratégiste</i> (1891), takes a high view of her achievements. The nobility of her purpose and the genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined with her purity of character and simple patriotism, stand clear. As to her “supranormal” faculties, a matter concerning which belief largely depends on the point of view, it is to be remarked that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly devoid of clerical influences, -admits them (<i>Aperçus nouveaux</i>, 1850), saying that the evidence +admits them (<i>Aperçus nouveaux</i>, 1850), saying that the evidence is as good as for any facts in her history. See also A. Lang on “the voices” in <i>Proc. Soc. Psychical Research</i>, vol. xi.</p> @@ -9931,18 +9892,18 @@ is as good as for any facts in her history. See also A. Lang on the 19th century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely neglected; Voltaire’s scurrilous satire <i>La Pucelle</i>, while indicative of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair -praises in the <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The first attempt at a study of the +praises in the <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The first attempt at a study of the sources was that of L’Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume -of <i>Mémoires</i> of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the -base for all lives until J. Quicherat’s great work, <i>Le Procès de Jeanne +of <i>Mémoires</i> of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the +base for all lives until J. Quicherat’s great work, <i>Le Procès de Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid that they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great distinctness. Michelet’s sketch of her work in his <i>Histoire de France</i>, one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid than these sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that of H. A. Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, <i>L’Histoire de Jeanne -d’Arc d’après des documents originaux</i>, with introduction by M. Sepet -(1907); P. H. Dunand, <i>Jeanne d’Arc et l’église</i> (1908); and especially +d’Arc d’après des documents originaux</i>, with introduction by M. Sepet +(1907); P. H. Dunand, <i>Jeanne d’Arc et l’église</i> (1908); and especially Andrew Lang, <i>The Maid of France</i> (1908). The <i>Vie de Jeanne d’Arc</i>, by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and erudite, but in some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and prejudice in its @@ -9951,11 +9912,11 @@ Times</i>, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1908). The attempt to establish the reality of the “revelations” and consequently to obtain the canonization of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to publish lives (such as Sepet’s, 1869) in support of their claims. Excellent -works worth special mention are: Siméon Luce, <i>Jeanne d’Arc à -Domremy</i>; L. Jarry, <i>L’Armée anglaise au siège d’Orleans</i> (1892); -J. J. Bourassé, <i>Miracles de Madame Sainte Kathérine de Fierbois</i> +works worth special mention are: Siméon Luce, <i>Jeanne d’Arc à +Domremy</i>; L. Jarry, <i>L’Armée anglaise au siège d’Orleans</i> (1892); +J. J. Bourassé, <i>Miracles de Madame Sainte Kathérine de Fierbois</i> (1858, trans. by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beaucorps, -<i>L’Armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1892); R. P. +<i>L’Armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1892); R. P. Agroles, S.J., <i>La Vraie Jeanne d’Arc</i>. For the “false Pucelle” see A. Lang’s article in his <i>Valet’s Tragedy</i> (1903). Of the numerous dramas and poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject, @@ -9974,8 +9935,8 @@ that the father of Joan was not of noble origin, but Bouteiller suggests that at that period the apostrophe did not indicate nobility. Her mother, it may be noted, is called “de Vouthon.”</p> -<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Porte St Honoré where Joan was wounded stood where the -Comédie Française now stands.</p> +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Porte St Honoré where Joan was wounded stood where the +Comédie Française now stands.</p> </div> @@ -10032,7 +9993,7 @@ Ferdinand I., and four daughters, among them being Maria governor-general of the Netherlands.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See R. Villa, <i>La Reina doña Juana la Loca</i> (Madrid, 1892); Rösler, +<p>See R. Villa, <i>La Reina doña Juana la Loca</i> (Madrid, 1892); Rösler, <i>Johanna die Wahnsinnige</i> (Vienna, 1890); W. H. Prescott, <i>Hist. of Ferdinand and Isabella</i> (1854); and H. Tighe, <i>A Queen of Unrest</i> (1907).</p> </div> @@ -10125,7 +10086,7 @@ disorders broke out, and Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto, led a revolt against Joanna in Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while conducting a campaign against the rebels (1434), and Joanna herself died on the 11th of February 1435, after having appointed -his son René her successor. Weak, foolish and dissolute, she +his son René her successor. Weak, foolish and dissolute, she made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the kingdom to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues and her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy and @@ -10196,7 +10157,7 @@ see Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 5373.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOB.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> The book of Job (Heb. <span title="Iyyob">איוב</span> <i>‘Iyyob</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iôb">Ἰώβ</span>), in the Bible, +<p><span class="bold">JOB.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> The book of Job (Heb. <span title="Iyyob">איוב</span> <i>‘Iyyob</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iôb">Ἰώβ</span>), in the Bible, the most splendid creation of Hebrew poetry, is so called from the name of the man whose history and afflictions and sayings form the theme of it.</p> @@ -10499,7 +10460,7 @@ Perhaps here, where an artistic fault might seem to be committed, the art of the writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary freedom with which he moves among his materials, as well as the power and individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remarkable. -The rôle which the author reserved for himself was to teach +The rôle which the author reserved for himself was to teach the truth on the question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by allowing his performers to push their false principles to their proper extreme. There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as @@ -10888,7 +10849,7 @@ God’s works.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Commentaries by Ewald (1854); Renan (1859); -Delitzsch (1864); Zöckler in Lange’s <i>Bibelwerk</i> (1872); F. C. Cook +Delitzsch (1864); Zöckler in Lange’s <i>Bibelwerk</i> (1872); F. C. Cook in <i>Speaker’s Comm.</i> (1880); A. B. Davidson in <i>Cambridge Bible</i> (1884); Dillmann (1891); K. Budde (1896); Duhm (1897). See also Hoekstra, “Job de Knecht van Jehovah” in <i>Theol. Tijdschr.</i> @@ -10933,7 +10894,7 @@ fairly bear. In favour of (<i>b</i>) may be adduced the persistent refusal of Job throughout to entertain the idea of a restoration in this life: the word “afterwards”; and perhaps the analogy of other passages where the same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and lxxiii., although -the actual dénouement of the tragedy supports (<i>a</i>). The difference +the actual dénouement of the tragedy supports (<i>a</i>). The difference between the two senses is not important, when the Old Testament view of immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the life beyond was not what it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and admission @@ -10981,10 +10942,10 @@ on the 17th of January 1411 prevented hostilities between the rival kings.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. M. Pelzel, <i>Lebensgeschichte des römischen und böhmischen -Königs Wenceslaus</i> (1788-1790); J. Heidemann, <i>Die Mark Brandenburg -unter Jobst von Mähren</i> (1881); J. Aschbach, <i>Geschichte Kaiser -Sigmunds</i> (1838-1845); F. Palacky, <i>Geschichte von Böhmen</i>, iii. +<p>See F. M. Pelzel, <i>Lebensgeschichte des römischen und böhmischen +Königs Wenceslaus</i> (1788-1790); J. Heidemann, <i>Die Mark Brandenburg +unter Jobst von Mähren</i> (1881); J. Aschbach, <i>Geschichte Kaiser +Sigmunds</i> (1838-1845); F. Palacky, <i>Geschichte von Böhmen</i>, iii. (1864-1874); and T. Lindner, <i>Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom Ende des 14 Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation</i>, i. (1875-1880).</p> </div> @@ -11010,8 +10971,8 @@ century as a tender annual.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOCASTA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Iocasta</span> (<span class="grk" title="Iokastê">Ἰοκάστη</span>; in Homer, <span class="grk" title="Epikastê">Ἐπικάστη</span>), in -Greek legend, wife of Laïus, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus +<p><span class="bold">JOCASTA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Iocasta</span> (<span class="grk" title="Iokastê">Ἰοκάστη</span>; in Homer, <span class="grk" title="Epikastê">Ἐπικάστη</span>), in +Greek legend, wife of Laïus, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus (<i>q.v.</i>), daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon. According to Homer (<i>Od.</i> xi. 271) and Sophocles (<i>Oed. Tyr.</i> 1241), on learning that Oedipus was her son she immediately hanged @@ -11037,22 +10998,22 @@ heavy whip used by horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JODELLE, ÉTIENNE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573), +<p><span class="bold">JODELLE, ÉTIENNE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573), French dramatist and poet, was born in Paris of a noble family. -He attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pléiade (see +He attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pléiade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daurat</a></span>) and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical drama that should be in every respect different from the moralities and <i>soties</i> that then occupied the French stage. -His first play, <i>Cléopâtre captive</i>, was represented before the court -at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title rôle, and the -cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Péruse. +His first play, <i>Cléopâtre captive</i>, was represented before the court +at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title rôle, and the +cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Péruse. In honour of the play’s success the friends organized a little -fête at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in +fête at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in procession and presented to the author—a ceremony exaggerated by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two other plays. -<i>Eugène</i>, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success +<i>Eugène</i>, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle’s predecessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so very different from theirs. <i>Didon se sacrifiant</i>, a tragedy which @@ -11060,7 +11021,7 @@ follows Virgil’s narrative, appears never to have been represented. Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected the year after his death by Charles de la Mothe. They include a quantity of miscellaneous verse dating chiefly from Jodelle’s -youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small. <i>Cléopâtre</i> +youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small. <i>Cléopâtre</i> is lyric rather than dramatic. Throughout the five acts of the piece nothing actually happens. The death of Antony is announced by his ghost in the first act; the story of Cleopatra’s @@ -11068,14 +11029,14 @@ suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each act is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as the inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on human pride. But the play was the starting-point of French -classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the <i>Médée</i> (1553) of -Jean de la Péruse and the <i>Aman</i> (1561) of André de Rivaudeau. +classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the <i>Médée</i> (1553) of +Jean de la Péruse and the <i>Aman</i> (1561) of André de Rivaudeau. Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and fond of dissipation. His friend Ronsard said that his published poems gave no adequate idea of his powers.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Jodelle’s works are collected (1868) in the <i>Pléiade française</i> of +<p>Jodelle’s works are collected (1868) in the <i>Pléiade française</i> of Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full information of the sources of Jodelle’s biography, and La Mothe’s criticism is reprinted in its entirety.</p> @@ -11086,7 +11047,7 @@ is reprinted in its entirety.</p> <p><span class="bold">JODHPUR,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Marwar</span>, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. Area, 34,963 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935,565, showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, due to the results of -famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; tribute, £14,000. The +famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; tribute, £14,000. The general aspect of the country is that of a sandy plain, divided into two unequal parts by the river Lūni, and dotted with picturesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 ft. @@ -11154,7 +11115,7 @@ children. The quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted through many generations, and led to the invitation of Mahratta help from the rival aspirants to power, and finally to the subjection of all the Rājput states to the Mahrattās. Jodhpur was -conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of £60,000, and took +conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of £60,000, and took from it the fort and town of Ajmere. Internecine disputes and succession wars disturbed the peace of the early years of the century, until in January 1818 Jodhpur was taken under British @@ -11520,7 +11481,7 @@ also that in v. 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language of chap. i.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wünsche +<p>See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wünsche (1872), Merx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history of interpretation from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends the Ethiopic text edited by Dillmann. Nowack and Marti should also @@ -11528,7 +11489,7 @@ be consulted (see their respective series of commentaries); also G. A. Smith, in <i>The Book of the Twelve Prophets</i>, vol. i. (1896), and S. R. Driver, <i>Joel and Amos</i> (1897). On the language of Joel, see Holzinger, <i>Z. A. T. W.</i> (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the most -valuable is Pocock’s (Oxford, 1691). Bochart’s <i>Hierozoïcon</i> may +valuable is Pocock’s (Oxford, 1691). Bochart’s <i>Hierozoïcon</i> may also be consulted.</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. R. S.; T. K. C.)</div> @@ -11548,7 +11509,7 @@ later interpreters, <i>e.g.</i> the LXX translators, may have misunderstood. The text of the passages has to be critically treated anew. See Cheyne, <i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i> (on Gen. x. 2).</p> -<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Compare Movers, <i>Phönizisches Alterthum</i>, iii. i. 70 seq.</p> +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Compare Movers, <i>Phönizisches Alterthum</i>, iii. i. 70 seq.</p> <p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Ewald on Jer. xlviii. 47, Kuenen, <i>Theol. Tijdschrift</i> (1873), p. 519; Schwally, <i>Z. A. T. W.</i>, viii. 200, and Briggs on Ps. xiv. 7.</p> @@ -11584,7 +11545,7 @@ Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed how Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonides and how Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to Hasdai Crescas. These essays were collected in two volumes -of <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (1876), while another +of <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (1876), while another two volumes of <i>Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte</i> (1880-1883) threw much light on the development of religious thought in the early centuries of the Christian era. Equally renowned were @@ -11596,7 +11557,7 @@ readers.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1846-1890), +<p><span class="bold">JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1846-1890), French politician, was born at Troyes on the 16th of March 1846. He served in the Franco-German War, was involved in the Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a political exile. @@ -11654,7 +11615,7 @@ to the imperial dignity Joḥanan, like Josephus, is said to have foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he desired. Joḥanan obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia (Jabneh), which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically -exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 40 +exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 40 ad fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the Mishnah, was the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia. Joḥanan solaced his disciples on the fall of the Temple by the @@ -11677,9 +11638,9 @@ vol. i. ch. iii.</p> <p><span class="bold">JOHANNESBURG,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a city of the Transvaal and the centre of the Rand gold-mining industry. It is the most populous city and the commercial capital of South Africa. It is built on the -southern slopes of the Witwatersrand in 26° 11′ S. 28° 2′ E., at +southern slopes of the Witwatersrand in 26° 11′ S. 28° 2′ E., at an elevation of 5764 ft. above the sea. The distances by rail -from Johannesburg to the following seaports are: Lourenço +from Johannesburg to the following seaports are: Lourenço Marques, 364 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East London, 659 m.; Port Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, by rail, 46 m. N. by E.</p> @@ -11701,7 +11662,7 @@ buildings recalls the early character of the town.</p> <p><i>Chief Buildings, &c.</i>—In the centre of Market Square are the market buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph -offices, a handsome block of buildings with a façade 200 ft. long +offices, a handsome block of buildings with a façade 200 ft. long and a tower 106 ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile long, is the largest in South Africa. The offices of the Witwatersrand chamber of mines face the market buildings. The stock @@ -11768,7 +11729,7 @@ healthy place for European habitation. Built on open undulating ground, the town is, however, subject to frequent dust storms and to considerable variations in the temperature. The nights in winter are frosty and snow falls occasionally. The -average day temperature in winter is 53° F., in summer 75°; +average day temperature in winter is 53° F., in summer 75°; the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate among white inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal causes of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants, @@ -11783,7 +11744,7 @@ free but not compulsory. The Transvaal university college, founded in 1904 as the technical institute (the change of title being made in 1906), provides full courses in science, mining, engineering and law. In 1906 Alfred Beit (<i>q.v.</i>) bequeathed -£200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping university +£200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping university buildings.</p> <p>In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town @@ -11814,8 +11775,8 @@ and includes several of the largest mines. The local government is carried on by an elected municipal council, the franchise being restricted to white British subjects (men and women) who rent or own property of a certain value. In 1908 the rateable -value of the municipality was £36,466,644, the rate 2¼d. in the £, -and the town debt £5,500,000.</p> +value of the municipality was £36,466,644, the rate 2¼d. in the £, +and the town debt £5,500,000.</p> <p><i>Population.</i>—In 1887 the population was about 3000. By the beginning of 1890 it had increased to over 25,000. A census @@ -11864,7 +11825,7 @@ at the end of 1897 an elective <i>stadsraad</i> (town council) was constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. There was a great development in the mining industry during 1897-1898 and 1899, the value of the gold extracted in 1898 -exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse, +exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse, and in September 1899, owing to the imminence of war between the Transvaal and Great Britain, the majority of the Uitlanders fled from the city. Between October 1899, when war broke out, @@ -11885,7 +11846,7 @@ a successful agitation for the importation of coolies from China (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: <i>History</i>). During 1904-1906 over 50,000 coolies were brought to the mines, a greatly increased output being the result, the value of the gold extracted in 1905 exceeding -£20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased production of +£20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased production of gold, Johannesburg during 1905-1907 passed through a period of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the unsettled political situation. In June 1907 the repatriation of the @@ -11905,7 +11866,7 @@ bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>.</p <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHANNISBERG,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank -of the Rhine, 6 m. S. of Rüdesheim by railway. The place is +of the Rhine, 6 m. S. of Rüdesheim by railway. The place is mainly celebrated for the beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill overlooking the Rhine valley, and is surrounded by vineyards yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The Schloss, built in @@ -11918,9 +11879,9 @@ still remains.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Yohanan">יוחנן</span>), <i>Yōḥānān</i>, “Yahweh has been gracious,” -Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iôannês">Ἰωάννης</span>, Lat. <i>Joannes</i>, Ital. <i>Giovanni</i>, Span. <i>Juan</i>, Port. -<i>João</i>, Fr. <i>Jean</i>, Ger. <i>Johannes</i>, <i>Johann</i> [abbr. <i>Hans</i>], Gael. <i>Ian</i>, -Pol. and Czech <i>Jan</i>, Hung. <i>János</i>), a masculine proper name +Gr. <span class="grk" title="Iôannês">Ἰωάννης</span>, Lat. <i>Joannes</i>, Ital. <i>Giovanni</i>, Span. <i>Juan</i>, Port. +<i>João</i>, Fr. <i>Jean</i>, Ger. <i>Johannes</i>, <i>Johann</i> [abbr. <i>Hans</i>], Gael. <i>Ian</i>, +Pol. and Czech <i>Jan</i>, Hung. <i>János</i>), a masculine proper name common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to its having been borne by the “Beloved Disciple” of Christ, St John the Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the @@ -12002,9 +11963,9 @@ upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been disputed. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Revelation, Book of</a></span>.) The question has not been strictly one between advanced and -conservative criticism, for the Tübingen school recognized the +conservative criticism, for the Tübingen school recognized the Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it a confirmation of John’s -residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, Lützelberger (1840), +residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, Lützelberger (1840), Th. Keim (<i>Jesus v. Naz.</i>, vol. i., 1867), J. H. Scholten (1872), H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in <i>Einl. in d. N. T.</i>, 3rd ed., 1902), and other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had @@ -12046,7 +12007,7 @@ accept it as correct is distinctly on the increase.</p> <p><span class="bold">JOHN THE BAPTIST,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> in the Bible, the “forerunner” of Jesus Christ in the Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he evidently made a great impression upon his contemporaries -(cf. Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xviii., § 5). According to the birth-narrative +(cf. Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xviii., § 5). According to the birth-narrative embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was born in “a city of Judah” in “the hill country” (possibly Hebron<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a>) of priestly parentage. His father Zacharias was a priest “of the course of Abijah,” and @@ -12446,13 +12407,13 @@ textbook in logic, the <i>Summulae logicales</i>. John XXI. is constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant chroniclers.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Les Registres de Grégoire X. et Jean XXI.</i>, published by -J. Guiraud and E. Cadier in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes +<p>See <i>Les Registres de Grégoire X. et Jean XXI.</i>, published by +J. Guiraud and E. Cadier in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1898); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i>, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. v., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); R. Stapper, <i>Papst -Johann XXI.</i> (Münster, 1898); J. T. Köhler, <i>Vollständige Nachricht -von Papst Johann XXI.</i> (Göttingen, 1760).</p> +Johann XXI.</i> (Münster, 1898); J. T. Köhler, <i>Vollständige Nachricht +von Papst Johann XXI.</i> (Göttingen, 1760).</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> @@ -12460,7 +12421,7 @@ von Papst Johann XXI.</i> (Göttingen, 1760).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span></p> <p><span class="bold">JOHN XXII.,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors, -France, in 1249. His original name was Jacques Duèse, and he +France, in 1249. His original name was Jacques Duèse, and he came either of a family of petty nobility or else of well-to-do middle-class parents, and was not, as has been popularly supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his education @@ -12468,7 +12429,7 @@ with the Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught at Cahors and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with the bishop Louis, son of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he -was elevated to the episcopal see of Fréjus by Pope Boniface +was elevated to the episcopal see of Fréjus by Pope Boniface VIII. at the instance of the king of Naples, and in 1308 was made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining this office under Charles’s successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1310 Pope Clement V. @@ -12490,7 +12451,7 @@ be obtained, the cardinals separated, and it was not until the Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in deference to the pressure exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. After deliberating for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou’s candidate, -Jacques Duèse, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and +Jacques Duèse, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and on the 2nd of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained for the rest of his life.</p> @@ -12517,7 +12478,7 @@ with Louis of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the Spiritual Franciscans. In October 1314 Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had each been elected German king by the divided electors. Louis was gradually recognized by the whole -of Germany, especially after his victory at Mühldorf (1322), and +of Germany, especially after his victory at Mühldorf (1322), and gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he supported the Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope. John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th @@ -12615,7 +12576,7 @@ John, on the other hand, in the bull <i>Quorundam exigit</i> (April and by the bull <i>Gloriosam ecclesiam</i> (January 23, 1318) condemned the protests which had been raised against the bull <i>Quorundam</i> by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed -to Avignon by the monk Bernard Délicieux. Shortly afterwards +to Avignon by the monk Bernard Délicieux. Shortly afterwards four Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were immediately hailed as martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted Franciscans at Naples and in Sicily and the south of France the @@ -12651,16 +12612,16 @@ region by the Inquisition.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See M. Souchon, <i>Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII. bis Urban VI.</i> -(Brunswick, 1888); Abbé Albe, <i>Autour de Jean XXII.</i> (Rome, 1904); -K. Müller, <i>Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie</i> (Tübingen, -1879 seq.); W. Preger, “Mémoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et -Louis de Bavière” in <i>Abhandl. der bayr. Akad.</i>, hist. sec., xv., xvi., -xvii.; S. Riezler, <i>Die litterar. Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs +(Brunswick, 1888); Abbé Albe, <i>Autour de Jean XXII.</i> (Rome, 1904); +K. Müller, <i>Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie</i> (Tübingen, +1879 seq.); W. Preger, “Mémoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et +Louis de Bavière” in <i>Abhandl. der bayr. Akad.</i>, hist. sec., xv., xvi., +xvii.; S. Riezler, <i>Die litterar. Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs des Baiers</i> (Leipzig, 1874); F. Ehrle, “Die Spiritualen” in <i>Archiv -für Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters</i> (vols. i. and ii.); -C. Samaran and G. Mollat, <i>La Fiscalité pontificale en France au xiv<span class="sp">e</span> -siècle</i> (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, <i>Lettres secrètes et -curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant à la France</i> (Paris, 1899, +für Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters</i> (vols. i. and ii.); +C. Samaran and G. Mollat, <i>La Fiscalité pontificale en France au xiv<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, <i>Lettres secrètes et +curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant à la France</i> (Paris, 1899, seq.).</p> </div> <div class="author">(P. A.)</div> @@ -12855,7 +12816,7 @@ apparently derived from the Armenian <i>tshemshkik</i> (red boot).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, vol. vi. (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i>, ii. 334-360 (ed. 1877); -G. Schlumberger, <i>L’Épopée Byzantine</i>, i. 1-326 (1896).</p> +G. Schlumberger, <i>L’Épopée Byzantine</i>, i. 1-326 (1896).</p> </div> @@ -12901,8 +12862,8 @@ by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, vi. 431-462 (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i>, iii. 196-320 -(ed. 1877); A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Basileiou tês Nikaias kai tou -Despotatou tês Êpeirou">Ἱστορία τοῦ Βασιλείου τῆς Νικαίας καὶ τοῦ +(ed. 1877); A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Basileiou tês Nikaias kai tou +Despotatou tês Êpeirou">Ἱστορία τοῦ Βασιλείου τῆς Νικαίας καὶ τοῦ Δεσποτάτου τῆς Ἠπείρου</span>, pp. 155-421 (1898).</p> </div> @@ -12916,7 +12877,7 @@ him in a remote castle, where he died a long time after.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, vi. 459-466 -(ed. Bury, 1896); A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Basileiou tês Nikaias">Ἱστορία τοῦ Βασιλείου τῆς Νικαίας</span> +(ed. Bury, 1896); A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Basileiou tês Nikaias">Ἱστορία τοῦ Βασιλείου τῆς Νικαίας</span> (Athens, 1898), pp. 491-528.</p> </div> @@ -12995,8 +12956,8 @@ five books of Aristotle’s <i>Ethics</i>, and of several controversial theo treatises, one of which (<i>Against Mohammedanism</i>) is printed in Migne (<i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, cliv.). <i>History</i>, ed. pr. by J. Pontanus (1603); in Bonn, <i>Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz.</i>, by J. Schopen (1828-1832) -and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, <i>Cantacuzène, -homme d’état et historien</i> (1845); E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. +and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, <i>Cantacuzène, +homme d’état et historien</i> (1845); E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. lxiii.; and C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> </div> @@ -13101,7 +13062,7 @@ until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders. By his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the English baronage (1200); by his marriage with Isabella of -Angoulême, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an +Angoulême, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an opportunity to the discontented Poitevins for invoking French assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing against him a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (1203) ruined his @@ -13133,7 +13094,7 @@ England at the moment of his death, on the 19th of October 1216, was in the main his work; and while he lived a national reaction in favour of the dynasty was out of the question.</p> -<p>John’s second wife, Isabella of Angoulême (d. 1246), who +<p>John’s second wife, Isabella of Angoulême (d. 1246), who married her former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the English king’s death, bore the king two sons, Henry III. and Richard, earl of Cornwall; and three daughters, Joan (1210-1238), @@ -13150,11 +13111,11 @@ in 1236 or 1237.</p> Canterbury’s <i>Gesta regum</i>, Ralf of Coggeshall’s <i>Chronicon</i>, Walter of Coventry’s <i>Memoriale</i>, Roger of Wendover’s <i>Flores historiarum</i>, the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan—all these in the Rolls -Series. The French chronicle of the so-called “Anonyme de Béthune” +Series. The French chronicle of the so-called “Anonyme de Béthune” (Bouquet, <i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France</i>, vol. xxiv.), the <i>Histoire des ducs de Normandie et des rois d’Angleterre</i> (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) and the metrical biography of William -the Marshal (<i>Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal</i>, ed. Paul Meyer, +the Marshal (<i>Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal</i>, ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.) throw valuable light on certain episodes. H. S. Sweetman’s <i>Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland</i>, vol. i. (Rolls Series); W. H. Bliss’s <i>Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers</i>, @@ -13165,8 +13126,8 @@ and L. Delisle’s <i>Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste</i> (Paris, 18 are the most important guides to the documents. Of modern works W. Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional history</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); the same writer’s preface to <i>Walter of Coventry</i>, vol. ii. (Rolls Series); Miss K. -Norgate’s <i>John Lackland</i> (London, 1902); C. Petit-Dutaillis’ <i>Étude -sur la vie et le règne de Louis VIII.</i> (Paris, 1894) and W. S. +Norgate’s <i>John Lackland</i> (London, 1902); C. Petit-Dutaillis’ <i>Étude +sur la vie et le règne de Louis VIII.</i> (Paris, 1894) and W. S. McKechnie’s <i>Magna Carta</i> (Glasgow, 1905) are among the most useful.</p> </div> @@ -13224,8 +13185,8 @@ second marriage, who was already associated with his wife Isabella as joint sovereign of Castile.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the history, see Rivadeneyra, “Cronicás de los reyes de -Castilla,” <i>Biblioteca de antares españoles</i>, vols. lxvi, lxviii (Madrid, +<p>For the history, see Rivadeneyra, “Cronicás de los reyes de +Castilla,” <i>Biblioteca de antares españoles</i>, vols. lxvi, lxviii (Madrid, 1845, &c.); G. Zurita, <i>Anales de Aragon</i> (Saragossa, 1610). The reign of John II. of Aragon is largely dealt with in W. H. Prescott’s <i>History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella</i> (1854).</p> @@ -13273,7 +13234,7 @@ John XXII. to head a crusade; and claiming to be king of Poland he attacked the Poles and brought Silesia under his rule. He obtained Tirol by marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of the county, assisted the emperor to -defeat and capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Mühldorf +defeat and capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322, and was alternately at peace and at war with the dukes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> of Austria and with his former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He was @@ -13282,7 +13243,7 @@ had a personal and hereditary interest; and on several occasions his prowess was serviceable to his brother-in-law King Charles IV., and to Charles’s successor Philip VI., whose son John, afterwards King John II., married a daughter of the Bohemian king. Soon -after the battle of Mühldorf, the relations between John and the +after the battle of Mühldorf, the relations between John and the emperor became somewhat strained, partly owing to the king’s growing friendship with the Papacy and with France, and partly owing to territorial disputes. An agreement, however, was concluded, @@ -13310,7 +13271,7 @@ Pope Clement VI. he secured the formal deposition of Louis and the election of his own son Charles, margrave of Moravia, as German king, or king of the Romans, in July 1346. Then journeying to help Philip of France against the English, he -fought at the battle of Crécy, where his heroic death on the 26th +fought at the battle of Crécy, where his heroic death on the 26th of August 1346 was a fitting conclusion to his adventurous life.</p> @@ -13326,16 +13287,16 @@ Louis I., duke of Bourbon, by whom he had a son, Wenceslas (d. 1383). According to Camden the crest or badge of three ostrich feathers, with the motto <i>Ich dien</i>, borne by the prince of Wales was originally that of John of Bohemia and was first -assumed by Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crécy. +assumed by Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crécy. There is no proof, however, that this badge was ever worn by John—it certainly was not his crest—and its origin must be sought elsewhere.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Schötter, <i>Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and König von -Böhmen</i> (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, <i>Kaiser Ludwig der -Bayer und König Johann von Böhmen</i> (Munich, 1860), and U. -Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>, tome v. (Paris, 1905).</p> +<p>See J. Schötter, <i>Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and König von +Böhmen</i> (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, <i>Kaiser Ludwig der +Bayer und König Johann von Böhmen</i> (Munich, 1860), and U. +Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>, tome v. (Paris, 1905).</p> </div> @@ -13356,7 +13317,7 @@ death of his father-in-law in 1383, John endeavoured to enforce the claims of his wife, Ferdinand’s only child, to the crown of Portugal. He was resisted by the national sentiment of the people, and was utterly defeated at the battle of Aljubarrota, -on the 14th of August 1385. King John was killed at Alcalá on +on the 14th of August 1385. King John was killed at Alcalá on the 9th of October 1390 by the fall of his horse, while he was riding in a <i>fantasia</i> with some of the light horsemen known as the <i>farfanes</i>, who were mounted and equipped in the Arab style.</p> @@ -13424,7 +13385,7 @@ England to await ransom, John was at first installed in the Savoy Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and at last in the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive companions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with -luxuries imported by him from France. The treaty of Brétigny +luxuries imported by him from France. The treaty of Brétigny (1360), which fixed his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him to return to France, but although he married his daughter Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, for a gift of 600,000 @@ -13442,7 +13403,7 @@ April, and the body was sent back to France with royal honours.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Froissart’s <i>Chronicles</i>; Duc d’Aumale, <i>Notes et documents -relatifs à Jean, roi de France, et à sa captivité</i> (1856); A. Coville, in +relatifs à Jean, roi de France, et à sa captivité</i> (1856); A. Coville, in Lavisse’s <i>Histoire de France</i>, vol. iv., and authorities cited there.</p> </div> @@ -13450,8 +13411,8 @@ Lavisse’s <i>Histoire de France</i>, vol. iv., and authorities cited there <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHN<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Zapolya</span>) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the son of the palatine Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of -Teschen, and was born at the castle of Szepesvár. He began his -public career at the famous Rákos diet of 1505, when, on his +Teschen, and was born at the castle of Szepesvár. He began his +public career at the famous Rákos diet of 1505, when, on his motion, the assembly decided that after the death of the reigning king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be elected king of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for @@ -13471,35 +13432,35 @@ infernal torments by means of which the rebel leader was slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. With the gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of -Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rákos (1516) appointed him +Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rákos (1516) appointed him the governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the dignity of palatine also, but the council of state and the court -party combined against him and appointed István Báthory +party combined against him and appointed István Báthory instead (1519). The strife of factions now burnt more fiercely than ever at the very time when the pressure of the Turk demanded the combination of all the national forces against a common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and -dissensions of Zapolya and Báthory that the great fortress of +dissensions of Zapolya and Báthory that the great fortress of Belgrade was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the fate of Hungary. In 1522 the diet would have appointed both -Zapolya and Báthory captains-general of the realm, but the -court set Zapolya aside and chose Báthory only. At the diets -of Hátvan and Rákos in 1522, Zapolya placed himself at the head +Zapolya and Báthory captains-general of the realm, but the +court set Zapolya aside and chose Báthory only. At the diets +of Hátvan and Rákos in 1522, Zapolya placed himself at the head of a confederation to depose the palatine and the other great officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following year, -however, the revolutionary Hátvan diet drove out all the members -of the council of state and made István Verböczy, the great +however, the revolutionary Hátvan diet drove out all the members +of the council of state and made István Verböczy, the great jurist, and a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this hopeless anarchy, Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary with a countless army, and the young king perished on the field of -Mohács in a vain attempt to stay his progress, the contradictory +Mohács in a vain attempt to stay his progress, the contradictory orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya from arriving in time to turn the fortunes of the day. The court party accused him of deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge must be pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed -at Mohács, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya +at Mohács, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya was elected king of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj -(Oct. 14), the election was confirmed by the diet of Székesfehérvár +(Oct. 14), the election was confirmed by the diet of Székesfehérvár (10th of November), and he was crowned on the following day with the holy crown.</p> @@ -13507,22 +13468,22 @@ day with the holy crown.</p> I., at once ensued (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>) and it was only with the aid of the Turks that king John was able to exhaust his opponent and compel him to come to terms. Finally, in 1538, -by the compact of Nagyvárad, Ferdinand recognized John as king +by the compact of Nagyvárad, Ferdinand recognized John as king of Hungary, but secured the right of succession on his death. Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the kingdom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection. John was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a statesman, lies in his stout vindication of the national independence, -though without the assistance of his great minister György +though without the assistance of his great minister György Utiesenovich, better known as “Frater George” (Cardinal Martinuzzi (<i>q.v.</i>)), this would have been impossible. Indirectly he contributed to the subsequent conquest of Hungary by admitting the Turk as a friend.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Vilmos Fraknoi, <i>Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohács</i> (Budapest, -1886); L. Kupelwieser, <i>Die Kämpfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen -bis zur Schlacht bei Mohács</i> (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History +<p>See Vilmos Fraknoi, <i>Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohács</i> (Budapest, +1886); L. Kupelwieser, <i>Die Kämpfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen +bis zur Schlacht bei Mohács</i> (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i>, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902-1904).</p> </div> @@ -13582,9 +13543,9 @@ Constantinople.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The story of John’s career must be sought partly in histories of the kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East, -partly in monographs. Among these, of which R. Röhricht gives a -list (<i>Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem</i>, p. 699, n. 3), see especially -that of E. de Montcarmet, <i>Un chevalier du temps passé</i> (Limoges, +partly in monographs. Among these, of which R. Röhricht gives a +list (<i>Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem</i>, p. 699, n. 3), see especially +that of E. de Montcarmet, <i>Un chevalier du temps passé</i> (Limoges, 1876 and 1881).</p> </div> @@ -13605,7 +13566,7 @@ in the following year and assisted Czarniecki in his difficult task of expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish provinces. For his subsequent services to King John Casimir, especially in the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks, -he received the grand bâton of the crown, or commandership-in-chief +he received the grand bâton of the crown, or commandership-in-chief (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded Czarniecki as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned these distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but @@ -13761,7 +13722,7 @@ he was succeeded by his son Edward or Duarte, so named out of compliment to Edward III. of England.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. P. Oliveira Martins, <i>Os filhos de D. João I.</i> and <i>A vida de +<p>See J. P. Oliveira Martins, <i>Os filhos de D. João I.</i> and <i>A vida de Nun’ Alvares</i> (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894).</p> </div> @@ -13931,16 +13892,16 @@ fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on the 29th of October 1873.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Petzholdt, “Zur Litteratur des Königs Johann,” <i>Neuer -Anzeiger für Bibliographie</i> (1858, 1859, 1871, 1873, 1874); “Aphorismen -über unsern König J.,” <i>Bote von Geising</i> (1866-1869); <i>Das Büchlein -vom König Johann</i> (Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, <i>Preussische -Jahrbücher</i> 23 (1869); A. Reumont, “Elogio di Giovanni, Rè di +<p>See J. Petzholdt, “Zur Litteratur des Königs Johann,” <i>Neuer +Anzeiger für Bibliographie</i> (1858, 1859, 1871, 1873, 1874); “Aphorismen +über unsern König J.,” <i>Bote von Geising</i> (1866-1869); <i>Das Büchlein +vom König Johann</i> (Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, <i>Preussische +Jahrbücher</i> 23 (1869); A. Reumont, “Elogio di Giovanni, Rè di Sassonia,” <i>Dagli Atti della Accademia della Crusca</i> (Florence, 1874); -J. P. von Winterstein, <i>Johann, König von Sachsen</i> (Dresden, 1878), +J. P. von Winterstein, <i>Johann, König von Sachsen</i> (Dresden, 1878), and in <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i> (1881); H. Ermisch, <i>Die Wettiner -und die Landesgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1902); O. Kaemmel, <i>Sächsische -Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Göschen).</p> +und die Landesgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1902); O. Kaemmel, <i>Sächsische +Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Göschen).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> @@ -13995,14 +13956,14 @@ ducibus historia usque in annum 1526</i> (Louvain, 1566); G. C. van der Berghe, <i>Jean le Victorieux, duc de Brabant</i> (1259-1294), (Louvain, 1857); K. F. Stallaert, <i>Gesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en zijne tijdvak</i> (Brussels, 1861); A. Wauters, <i>Le Duc Jean I<span class="sp">er</span> et le Brabant sous le -règne de ce prince</i> (Brussels, 1859).</p> +règne de ce prince</i> (Brussels, 1859).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">JOHN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hans</span> (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, +<p><span class="bold">JOHN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hans</span> (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, was the younger son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, -and was born at Tangermünde on the 3rd of August 1513. +and was born at Tangermünde on the 3rd of August 1513. In spite of the <i>dispositio Achillea</i> which decreed the indivisibility of the electorate, John inherited the new mark of Brandenburg on his father’s death in July 1535. He had been brought up @@ -14022,15 +13983,15 @@ him and after some differences of opinion with Maurice, elector of Saxony, he returned to the emperor’s side. His remaining years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he ruled carefully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase -of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Cüstrin and -Peitz. He died at Cüstrin on the 13th of January 1571. His +of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Cüstrin and +Peitz. He died at Cüstrin on the 13th of January 1571. His wife Catherine was a daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick, and as he left no sons the new mark passed on his death to his nephew John George, elector of Brandenburg.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Berg, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von -Küstrin</i> (Landsberg, 1903).</p> +<p>See Berg, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von +Küstrin</i> (Landsberg, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -14087,10 +14048,10 @@ The court decided to negotiate, and called upon the duke to return. John entered Paris in triumph, and instructed the Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) to pronounce an apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to his -estates by a rising of the people of Liége against his brother-in-law, +estates by a rising of the people of Liége against his brother-in-law, the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party took every advantage of his absence and had Petit’s discourse solemnly -refuted. John’s victory over the Liégeois at Hasbain on the +refuted. John’s victory over the Liégeois at Hasbain on the 23rd of September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he <span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> was reinstated in his ancient privileges. By the peace of @@ -14102,7 +14063,7 @@ of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed against the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party opposed to the Burgundians took its name. The peace of -Bicêtre (Nov. 2, 1410) prevented the outbreak of hostilities, +Bicêtre (Nov. 2, 1410) prevented the outbreak of hostilities, inasmuch as the parties were enjoined by its terms to return to their estates; but in 1411, in consequence of ravages committed by the Armagnacs in the environs of Paris, the duke of @@ -14143,22 +14104,22 @@ companions, and done to death by the other members of the dauphin’s escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and afterwards removed to the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in a magnificent tomb sculptured by Juan de la Huerta; the tomb -was afterwards transferred to the museum in the <i>hôtel de ville</i>.</p> +was afterwards transferred to the museum in the <i>hôtel de ville</i>.</p> <p>By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son, Philip the Good, who succeeded him; and seven daughters—Margaret, who married in 1404 Louis, son of Charles VI., and in 1423 Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards duke of Brittany; Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in 1410 -to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Châtillon, -count of Penthièvre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who married +to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Châtillon, +count of Penthièvre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who married John, duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married Charles I., duke of Bourbon, in 1425.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, <i>Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne</i>, (Brussels, 1835-1836); B. Zeller, <i>Louis de France et Jean sans Peur</i> -(Paris, 1886); and E. Petit, <i>Itinéraire de Philippe le Hardi et de Jean +(Paris, 1886); and E. Petit, <i>Itinéraire de Philippe le Hardi et de Jean sans Peur</i> (Paris, 1888).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. Po.)</div> @@ -14205,7 +14166,7 @@ in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely refused to come to any understanding with other opponents of the older faith.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Becker, <i>Kurfürst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen +<p>See J. Becker, <i>Kurfürst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen zu Luther</i> (Leipzig, 1890); J. Janssen, <i>History of the German People</i> (English translation), vol. v. (London, 1903); L. von Ranke, <i>Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p> @@ -14228,7 +14189,7 @@ as his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. In September 1559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the boy as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court as Don Juan de Austria. For three years he was educated at -Alcalá, and had as school companions his nephews, the infante +Alcalá, and had as school companions his nephews, the infante Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. With Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been Philip’s intention that Don John should become a monk, but he @@ -14322,7 +14283,7 @@ as the natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother, Maria Calderon, or Calderona, being an actress. Scandal accused her of a prodigality of favours which must have rendered the paternity of Don John very dubious. He was, however, -recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocaña, +recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocaña, and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military orders, and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647 to Naples—then in the throes of the popular rising first led by @@ -14342,13 +14303,13 @@ and handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven-black hair—a complete contrast to the fair complexions of the Habsburgs—made him a popular favourite. In 1656 he was sent to command in Flanders, in combination with the prince of -Condé, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At the storming +Condé, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At the storming of the French camp at Valenciennes in 1656, Don John displayed brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry charge. When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at the Dunes in the battle fought against Turenne and the British forces sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten, -in spite of the efforts of Condé, whose advice he neglected, and +in spite of the efforts of Condé, whose advice he neglected, and of the hard fighting of English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and 1662 he commanded against the Portuguese in Estremadura. The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, irregularly paid and untrustworthy, @@ -14369,7 +14330,7 @@ Philip IV. in 1665 Don John became the recognized leader of the opposition to the government of Philip’s widow, the queen regent. She and her favourite, the German Jesuit Nithard, seized and put to death one of his most trusted servants, Don -José Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of +José Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of Nithard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however, forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In @@ -14418,7 +14379,7 @@ He became a professed Carmelite in 1564, and was ordained priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much opposition in his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St Theresa, and was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de -Yepez y Álvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San +Yepez y Ãlvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San Matias till 1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> Broken by persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda, @@ -14432,7 +14393,7 @@ their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of expression.</p> <p>Some of his poems have been translated with great success by Arthur Symons in <i>Images of Good and Evil</i>; the most convenient edition of his works, which have been frequently reprinted, is that -contained in vol. xvi. of the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>.</p> +contained in vol. xvi. of the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>.</p> </div> @@ -14506,14 +14467,14 @@ written from the narrow point of view of one to whom Monophysite “orthodoxy” was all-important, it is evidently a faithful reproduction of events as they occurred. This third part was edited by Cureton (Oxford, 1853), and was translated into English by R. Payne-Smith -(Oxford, 1860) and into German by J. M. Schönfelder (Munich, +(Oxford, 1860) and into German by J. M. Schönfelder (Munich, 1862).</p> <p>John’s other known work was a series of <i>Biographies of Eastern Saints</i>, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in <i>Anecdota Syriaca</i>, ii. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen and Land (Amsterdam, 1889). An interesting estimate of John -as an ecclesiastic and author was given by the Abbé Duchesne in a +as an ecclesiastic and author was given by the Abbé Duchesne in a memoir read before the five French Academies on the 25th of October 1892.</p> </div> @@ -14526,10 +14487,10 @@ October 1892.</p> <p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See <i>Bulletin critique</i>, 15th June and 25th Aug. 1896, and 25th Jan. 1897; <i>Journal asiatique</i>, 9th series, vol. viii. (1896) pp. 346 sqq. and -vol. ix. (1897) p. 529; also <i>Revue de l’Orient chrétien, Suppl. trimestriel</i> -(1897), pp. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Nöldeke in <i>Vienna Oriental +vol. ix. (1897) p. 529; also <i>Revue de l’Orient chrétien, Suppl. trimestriel</i> +(1897), pp. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Nöldeke in <i>Vienna Oriental Journal</i> (1896), pp. 160 sqq. The facts are briefly stated in Duval’s -<i>Littérature syriaque</i>, p. 192. A full analysis of this second part of +<i>Littérature syriaque</i>, p. 192. A full analysis of this second part of John’s history has been given by M. Nau.</p> </div> @@ -14576,13 +14537,13 @@ thinker but because he compiled into systematic form the scattered teaching of his theological predecessors. Several treatises attributed to him are probably spurious, but his undoubted works are numerous and embrace a wide range. The most important contains three parts -under the general title <span class="grk" title="Pêgê gnôseôs">Πηγὴ γνώσεως</span> (“The Fountain of Knowledge”). -The first part, entitled <span class="grk" title="Kephàlaia philosophika">Κεφάλαια φιλοσοφικά</span>, is an exposition and application +under the general title <span class="grk" title="Pêgê gnôseôs">Πηγὴ γνώσεως</span> (“The Fountain of Knowledge”). +The first part, entitled <span class="grk" title="Kephà laia philosophika">Κεφάλαια φιλοσοφικά</span>, is an exposition and application of theology of Aristotle’s Dialectic. The second, entitled <span class="grk" title="Peri -aireseôn">Περὶ αίρέσεων</span> (“Of Heresies”), is a reproduction of the earlier work of Epiphanius, +aireseôn">Περὶ αίρέσεων</span> (“Of Heresies”), is a reproduction of the earlier work of Epiphanius, with a continuation giving an account of the heresies that arose after the time of that writer. The third part, entitled <span class="grk" title="Hekdosis -akribês tês orthodoxou pisteos">Ἔκδοσις ἀκριβὴς τῆς ὀρθοδόξου πίστεως</span> (“An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox +akribês tês orthodoxou pisteos">Ἔκδοσις ἀκριβὴς τῆς ὀρθοδόξου πίστεως</span> (“An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith”), is much the most important, containing as it does a complete system of theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church councils, from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the @@ -14633,7 +14594,7 @@ A monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879. A. Harnack’s image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so are the similar works of F. Loofs-Seeberg and A. Dorner. See also O. Bardenhewer’s <i>Patrologie</i>, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch’s excellent -article in Hauck-Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. ix.</p> +article in Hauck-Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. ix.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -14754,7 +14715,7 @@ Poggio Bracciolini.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be -found in E. T. Klette, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte und Litteratur der +found in E. T. Klette, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte und Litteratur der italienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance</i>, vol. i. (1888); see also G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums</i>, who, however, identifies (1) and (2).</p> @@ -14770,21 +14731,21 @@ Norman race, and applies to himself the cognomen of <i>Parvus</i>, life; but from his own statements it is gathered that he crossed to France about 1136, and began regular studies in Paris under Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his famous -school on Mont St Geneviève. After Abelard’s retirement, John +school on Mont St Geneviève. After Abelard’s retirement, John carried on his studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of Melun. From 1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the -classics under William of Conches and Richard l’Evêque, the +classics under William of Conches and Richard l’Evêque, the disciples of Bernard of Chartres, though it is still a matter of controversy whether it was in Chartres or not (cf. A. Clerval, -<i>Les Écoles de Chartres au moyen âge</i>, 1895). Bernard’s teaching +<i>Les Écoles de Chartres au moyen âge</i>, 1895). Bernard’s teaching was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic tendency, partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater Latin writers; and the influence of the latter feature is noticeable in all John of Salisbury’s works. About 1140 he was at Paris -studying theology under Gilbert de la Porrée, then under +studying theology under Gilbert de la Porrée, then under Robert Pullus and Simon of Poissy. In 1148 he resided at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> -Moûtiers la Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter +Moûtiers la Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter of Celle. He was present at the council of Reims, presided over by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented by Bernard of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose @@ -14924,7 +14885,7 @@ a member of the same community or house-church (9) as that to which 2 John is written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (9-10) had repudiated the authority of the writer and his party, threatening even to excommunicate Gaius and others from -the church (cf. Abbott’s <i>Diatessarica</i>, § 2258). With this +the church (cf. Abbott’s <i>Diatessarica</i>, § 2258). With this opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person before very long. Meantime (14) he despatches the present note, in hearty appreciation of his correspondent’s attitude @@ -14933,7 +14894,7 @@ and character.</p> <p>The allusion in 9 (<span class="grk" title="egrapsa">ἔγραψα</span>) refers in all likelihood to the “second” epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c.). In order to avoid the suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, <span class="grk" title="an">ἂν</span> was inserted -at an early stage in the textual history of the note. If <span class="grk" title="ekklêsias">ἐκκλήσιας</span> +at an early stage in the textual history of the note. If <span class="grk" title="ekklêsias">ἐκκλήσιας</span> could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter; in any case, he is not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> @@ -14963,15 +14924,15 @@ be inferred from its inner connexion with the Fourth Gospel.</p> <p>The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated, resembling a series of variations upon one or two favourite themes rather than a carefully constructed melody. Fellowship -(<span class="grk" title="koinonía">κοινωνία</span>) with God and man is its dominant note. After -defining the essence of Christian <span class="grk" title="koinonía">κοινονία</span> (i. 1-3),<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the writer +(<span class="grk" title="koinonÃa">κοινωνία</span>) with God and man is its dominant note. After +defining the essence of Christian <span class="grk" title="koinonÃa">κοινονία</span> (i. 1-3),<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the writer passes on to its conditions (i. 5-ii. 17), under the antithesis of light and darkness. These conditions are twofold: (<i>a</i>) a sense of sin, which leads Christians to a sense of forgiveness<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> through Jesus Christ, (<i>b</i>) and obedience to the supreme law of brotherly love (cf. Ignat. <i>Ad Smyrn.</i> 6). If these conditions are unfulfilled, moral darkness is the issue, a darkness which spells ruin to the -soul. This prompts the writer to explain the dangers of <span class="grk" title="koinonía">κοινωνία</span> +soul. This prompts the writer to explain the dangers of <span class="grk" title="koinonÃa">κοινωνία</span> (ii. 18-29), under the antithesis of truth and falsehood, the immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the person of Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then developed @@ -15027,9 +14988,9 @@ ideas under this special category.</p> 39), that the writing was addressed <i>ad Parthos</i>, has been literally taken by several Latin fathers and later writers (<i>e.g.</i> Grotius, Paulus, Hammond), but this title probably was a corruption of <i>ad -sparsos</i> (Wetstein, Wegschneider) or of <span class="grk" title="pròs parthénous">πρὸς παρθένους</span> (Whiston: +sparsos</i> (Wetstein, Wegschneider) or of <span class="grk" title="pròs parthénous">πρὸς παρθένους</span> (Whiston: the Christians addressed as virgin, <i>i.e.</i> free from heresy), if -not of <span class="grk" title="parthénos">παρθένος</span>, as applied in early tradition to John the apostle. +not of <span class="grk" title="parthénos">παρθένος</span>, as applied in early tradition to John the apostle. The circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the first instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to determine whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger @@ -15044,12 +15005,12 @@ possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxi. But <i>res lubrica, opinio incerta</i>.</p> <p>It is unsafe to lay much stress upon the apparent reminiscence -of iv. 2-3 (or of 2 John 7) in Polycarp, <i>ad Phil.</i> 7 reading <span class="grk" title="élêluthóta">ἐληλυθότα</span> -instead of <span class="grk" title="èlêluthénai">ἑληλυθέναι</span>), though, if a literary filiation is assumed, +of iv. 2-3 (or of 2 John 7) in Polycarp, <i>ad Phil.</i> 7 reading <span class="grk" title="élêluthóta">ἐληλυθότα</span> +instead of <span class="grk" title="èlêluthénai">ἑληλυθέναι</span>), though, if a literary filiation is assumed, the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from the epistle, not vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his <i>Ursprung d. unseren Evglien</i> 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (<i>H. E.</i> iii. 39) to -have used <span class="grk" title="ê Ioânnou protéra">ἡ Ἰωάννου προτέρα</span> (= <span class="grk" title="ê Ioánnou protê">ἡ Ἰωάννου πρώτη</span>, v. 8?), <i>i.e.</i> the +have used <span class="grk" title="ê Ioânnou protéra">ἡ Ἰωάννου προτέρα</span> (= <span class="grk" title="ê Ioánnou protê">ἡ Ἰωάννου πρώτη</span>, v. 8?), <i>i.e.</i> the anonymous tract, which, by the time of Eusebius, had come to be known as 1 John, and we have no reason to suspect or reject this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another Asiatic @@ -15078,8 +15039,8 @@ on the first epistle (cf. <i>Expository Times</i>, vols. iii. v.). Otto Baumgarten’s popular edition in <i>Die Schriften des N. T.</i> (1907) is, like that of Forbes, written from practically the same standpoint as Holtzmann’s. The earlier commentaries of Alford (2nd ed., -1862), C. A. Wolf (2nd ed., 1885), Ewald (<i>Die Joh. Briefe übersetzt und -erklaert</i>, Göttingen, 1861-1862), and Lücke (3rd ed., revised by +1862), C. A. Wolf (2nd ed., 1885), Ewald (<i>Die Joh. Briefe übersetzt und +erklaert</i>, Göttingen, 1861-1862), and Lücke (3rd ed., revised by Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions those of W. Whiston (<i>Comm. on St John’s Three Catholic Epistles</i>, 1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegetical @@ -15087,11 +15048,11 @@ interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (1851; Eng. trans. New York, 1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C. Watson (1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern -(<i>De epistolae Joh. consilio</i>, Tübingen, 1830), Erdmann (<i>Primae Joh. +(<i>De epistolae Joh. consilio</i>, Tübingen, 1830), Erdmann (<i>Primae Joh. epistolae argumentum, nexus et consilium</i>, Berlin, 1855), C. E. Luthardt (<i>De primae Joannis epistolae compositione</i>, 1860), J. Stockmeyer (<i>Die Structur des ersten Joh. Briefes</i>, Basel, 1873) and, most -elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (<i>Jahrb. für protest. Theologie</i>, 1881, +elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (<i>Jahrb. für protest. Theologie</i>, 1881, pp. 690 seq.; 1882, pp. 128 seq., 316 seq., 460 seq.). To the monographs already noted in the course of this article may be added the essays by Wiesinger (<i>Studien und Kritiken</i>, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) and Wohlenberg @@ -15099,12 +15060,12 @@ Wiesinger (<i>Studien und Kritiken</i>, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) and Wohlenberg 1902, pp. 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are special commentaries and studies by Ritmeier (<i>De electa domina</i>, 1706), C. A. Kriegele (<i>De</i> <span class="grk" title="kuria">κυρία</span> <i>Johannis</i>, 1758), Carpzov (<i>Theolog. exegetica</i>, pp. 105-208), -H. G. B. Müller (<i>Comment. in secundam epistolam Joannis</i>, 1783), +H. G. B. Müller (<i>Comment. in secundam epistolam Joannis</i>, 1783), C. Klug (<i>De authentia</i>, &c., 1823), J. Rendel Harris (<i>Expositor</i>, 6th series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), W. M. Ramsay (ibid., pp. 354 seq.) and Gibbins (ibid., 1902, pp. 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann’s -<i>Comment, in Joan. ep. III.</i> (1778), P. L. Gachon (<i>Authenticité de la -deuxième et troisième épîtres de Jean</i>, 1851), Poggel (<i>Der zweite und +<i>Comment, in Joan. ep. III.</i> (1778), P. L. Gachon (<i>Authenticité de la +deuxième et troisième épîtres de Jean</i>, 1851), Poggel (<i>Der zweite und dritte Briefe d. Apostel Johannis</i>, 1896), and Chapman (<i>Journal of Theological Studies</i>, 1904, “The Historical Setting of the Second and the Third Epistles of St John”), have discussed both of the minor @@ -15119,12 +15080,12 @@ Bartlet (<i>The Apostolic Age</i>, 1900, pp. 418 seq.; from a more advanced critical position by Cone (<i>The Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations</i>, 1893, pp. 320-327), P. W. Schmiedel (<i>Ency. Bib.</i>, 2556-2562, also in a pamphlet, <i>Evangelium, Briefe, und Offenbarung des Johannes</i>, 1906; -Eng. trans. 1908), J. Réville (<i>Le Quatrième Evangile</i>, 1901, pp. 49 +Eng. trans. 1908), J. Réville (<i>Le Quatrième Evangile</i>, 1901, pp. 49 seq.) and Pfleiderer (<i>Das Urchristentum</i>, 2nd ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq.). The problem of the epistles is discussed incidentally by many writers on the Fourth Gospel, as well as by writers on New Testament introduction like Zahn, Jacquier, Barth and Belser, on the Conservative -side, and Hilgenfeld, Jülicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On +side, and Hilgenfeld, Jülicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On the older Syriac version of 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn’s article in <i>Hermathena</i> (1890), pp. 281 seq. On the general reception of the three epistles in the early Church, Zahn’s paragraphs (in his @@ -15137,8 +15098,8 @@ three epistles in the early Church, Zahn’s paragraphs (in his <p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Selwyn, <i>Christian Prophets</i> (pp. 133-145), Harnack, Heinrici (<i>Das Urchristenthum</i>, 1902, pp. 129 seq.), and von Soden (<i>History of -Early Christian Literature</i>, pp. 445-446), after Renan (<i>L’Église -chrétienne</i>, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschütz (<i>Christian Life in the +Early Christian Literature</i>, pp. 445-446), after Renan (<i>L’Église +chrétienne</i>, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschütz (<i>Christian Life in the Primitive Church</i>, pp. 218 seq.) and R. Knopf (<i>Das nachapost. Zeitalter</i>, 1905, pp. 32 seq., &c.) are among the most recent critics who ascribe all three epistles to the presbyter.</p> @@ -15150,25 +15111,25 @@ and Leipoldt’s <i>Geschichte d. neut. Kanons</i> (1907), i. pp. 66 seq., 7 seq., 99 seq., 151 seq., 192 seq., 232 seq.</p> <p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In his ingenious study (<i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>, xv. 3), whose -main contention is adopted by von Dobschütz and Knopf. On this -view (for criticism see Belser in the <i>Tübing. Quartalschrift</i>, 1897, -pp. 150 seq., Krüger in <i>Zeitschrift für die wiss. Theologie</i>, 1898, pp. +main contention is adopted by von Dobschütz and Knopf. On this +view (for criticism see Belser in the <i>Tübing. Quartalschrift</i>, 1897, +pp. 150 seq., Krüger in <i>Zeitschrift für die wiss. Theologie</i>, 1898, pp. 307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316-320), Diotrephes was voicing a successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the older itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedel, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, 3146-3147). As Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (<i>Hermes</i>, 1898, pp. 529 seq.) points out, there is a close connexion between ver. 11 and ver. 10. The same -writer argues that, as the substitution of <span class="grk" title="âgapêtos">ἀγαπήτος</span> for <span class="grk" title="philtatos">φίλτατος</span> -(ver. 1) “ist Schönrednerei und nicht vom besten Geschmacke,” the -writer adds <span class="grk" title="ón égô ágapô én álêtheía">ὅν ἐγὼ ἀγαπῶ ἐν ἀληθείᾳ</span>.</p> +writer argues that, as the substitution of <span class="grk" title="âgapêtos">ἀγαπήτος</span> for <span class="grk" title="philtatos">φίλτατος</span> +(ver. 1) “ist Schönrednerei und nicht vom besten Geschmacke,” the +writer adds <span class="grk" title="ón égô ágapô én álêtheÃa">ὅν ἐγὼ ἀγαπῶ ἐν ἀληθείᾳ</span>.</p> -<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This is the force of the <span class="grk" title="êmeîs">ἡμεῖς</span> in 3 John 9-10 (cf. 1 John iv. 6, 14) +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This is the force of the <span class="grk" title="êmeîs">ἡμεῖς</span> in 3 John 9-10 (cf. 1 John iv. 6, 14) “The truth” (3 John 3-5) seems to mean a life answering to the apostolic standard thus enforced and exemplified.</p> <p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Several of these traits were reproduced in the teaching of Cerinthus, others may have been directly Jewish or Jewish Christian. -The opposition to the Messianic rôle of Jesus had varied adherents. +The opposition to the Messianic rôle of Jesus had varied adherents. The denial of the Virgin-birth, which also formed part of the system of Cerinthus, was met by anticipation in the stories of Matthew and Luke, which pushed back the reception of the spirit @@ -15179,13 +15140,13 @@ Logos, with its implicate of pre-existence.</p> <p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> On the vexed question whether the language of this paragraph is purely spiritual or includes a realistic reference, cf. G. E. Findlay (<i>Expositor</i>, 1893, pp. 97 seq.), and Dr E. A. Abbott’s recent study in -<i>Diatessarica</i>, §§ 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the Docetic +<i>Diatessarica</i>, §§ 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the Docetic heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of communications with the apostolic base.</p> <p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The universal range (ii. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work of Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic narrowing -of salvation to Israel; only <span class="grk" title="êmeîs">ἡμεῖς</span> here denotes Christians in +of salvation to Israel; only <span class="grk" title="êmeîs">ἡμεῖς</span> here denotes Christians in general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the Gnostic pride of perfectionism (i. 8), cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19. The emphasis on “you all” (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic system of degrees @@ -15195,7 +15156,7 @@ among believers, which naturally tended to break up brotherly love into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea cf. Iren. <i>Adv. Haer.</i> i. 64, and Tertull. <i>De anima</i>, 11 [haeretici] “nescio quod spiritale semen infulciunt animae”. Cf. the general discussions -by Häring in <i>Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsäcker gewidmet</i> +by Häring in <i>Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsäcker gewidmet</i> (1892), pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in <i>Wanderungen durch Schrift u. Geschichte</i> (1892), pp. 3-74.</p> @@ -15209,7 +15170,7 @@ a primacy is given to the spiritual.... Except through the historical, there is no Christianity at all, but neither is there any Christianity till the historical has been spiritually comprehended.” The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly witnesses (v. 7) -has now been proved by Karl Künstle (<i>Das Comma Johanneum</i>, +has now been proved by Karl Künstle (<i>Das Comma Johanneum</i>, 1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th century Spaniard, Priscillian, who himself denied all distinctions of person in the Godhead.</p> @@ -15218,11 +15179,11 @@ Godhead.</p> Karl’s <i>Johann. Studien</i> (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel’s <i>La Notion johannique de l’esprit</i> (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best -handled by Grill in his <i>Untersuchungen über die Entstehung des vierten +handled by Grill in his <i>Untersuchungen über die Entstehung des vierten Evgliums</i> (1902), pp. 301 seq., 312 seq.</p> -<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In Preuschen’s <i>Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft</i> (1907), -pp. 1-8, von Dobschütz tries to show that the present text of ii. 28-iii. +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In Preuschen’s <i>Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft</i> (1907), +pp. 1-8, von Dobschütz tries to show that the present text of ii. 28-iii. 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier text. Cludius (<i>Uransichten des Christentums</i>, Altona, 1808) had already conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a Jewish @@ -15233,10 +15194,10 @@ Christian document.</p> Christianity ignores or underrates several of the data. He is supported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen’s <i>Zeitschrift</i> (1905), pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish touch, <i>e.g.</i> in the -claim of iii. 1 (note the emphatic <span class="grk" title="hêmin">ἡμῖν</span>), when one recollects the -saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and Philo’s remark, <span class="grk" title="kai gar ei mêpô -ikanoi theou paides nomizesthai gegonamen, alla toi tês aeidous eikonos autou, -logou tou hierôt atou theou gar eikôn logos ho presbytatos">καὶ γὰρ εἰ μήπω +claim of iii. 1 (note the emphatic <span class="grk" title="hêmin">ἡμῖν</span>), when one recollects the +saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and Philo’s remark, <span class="grk" title="kai gar ei mêpô +ikanoi theou paides nomizesthai gegonamen, alla toi tês aeidous eikonos autou, +logou tou hierôt atou theou gar eikôn logos ho presbytatos">καὶ γὰρ εἰ μήπω ἴκανοι θεοῦ παῖδες νομίζεσθαι γεγόναμεν, ἀλλά τοι τῆς ἀειδοῦς εἰκόνος αὐτοῦ, λόγου τοῦ ἱερωτ άτου θεοῦ γὰρ εἰκὼν λόγος ὁ πρεσβύτατος</span> (<i>De conf. ling.</i> 28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, unlike that of @@ -15549,7 +15510,7 @@ with a didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denunciatory exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. “This is eternal life, that they may know Thee the only true God and Jesus Christ whom Thou hast sent” (xvii. 3), is part of the high-priestly -prayer; yet Père Calmes, with the papal censor’s approbation, says, +prayer; yet Père Calmes, with the papal censor’s approbation, says, “It seems to us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic developments explicable rather by the evangelist’s habits of mind than by the actual words of Jesus.” “I have told you of earthly @@ -15886,7 +15847,7 @@ system,” “history is seen through the intervening dogmatic development,” “the Samaritan woman is ... a personification,” “the behaviour of the Greeks is entirely natural in such a book.” We thus get at cross-purposes with this powerful, -profound work. Only some such position as Abbé Loisy’s +profound work. Only some such position as Abbé Loisy’s critical summing up (1903) brings out its specific greatness. “What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, tells us to some extent: a Christian of Judeo-Alexandrine formation; a @@ -16097,10 +16058,10 @@ in d. N. T.</i> (3rd ed., 1892) and his <i>Lehrbuch der N. T. Theologie</i> (1897), vol. 2. Professor C. E. Luthardt’s <i>St John, Author of the Fourth Gospel</i> (Eng. trans., with admirable bibliography by C. R. Gregory, 1875), still remains the best conservative statement. Among the -few critically satisfactory French books, Abbé Loisy’s <i>Le Quatrième -évangile</i> (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological analysis -and continuous sense of the book’s closely knit unity; whilst Père -Th. Calmes’ <i>Évangile selon S. Jean</i> (1904) indicates how numerous +few critically satisfactory French books, Abbé Loisy’s <i>Le Quatrième +évangile</i> (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological analysis +and continuous sense of the book’s closely knit unity; whilst Père +Th. Calmes’ <i>Évangile selon S. Jean</i> (1904) indicates how numerous are the admissions as to the book’s character and the evidences for its authorship, made by intelligent Roman Catholic apologists with Rome’s explicit approbation. In England a considerably less docile @@ -16211,7 +16172,7 @@ brother, John Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an ardent Lutheran and had a high regard for Luther, continued the religious policy of his father. In 1534 he assisted to make peace between the German king Ferdinand I. and Ulrich, -duke of Württemberg, but his general attitude was one of +duke of Württemberg, but his general attitude was one of vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous colleague in the league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of Hesse. He was often at variance with Philip, whose bigamy he @@ -16227,7 +16188,7 @@ Wurzen, the property of the bishop of Meissen, whose see was under the joint protection of electoral and ducal Saxony. Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive -Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, from his duchy, but in +Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, from his duchy, but in spite of this his relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in 1544 were very amicable. This was, however, only a lull in the storm, and the emperor soon began to make preparations for @@ -16242,7 +16203,7 @@ the land, took his ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, prisoner at Rochlitz, and overran ducal Saxony. His progress, however, was checked by the advance of Charles V. Notwithstanding his valour he was wounded and taken prisoner at -Mühlberg on the 24th of April 1547, and was condemned to death +Mühlberg on the 24th of April 1547, and was condemned to death in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was not carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May 1547) he renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his @@ -16272,8 +16233,8 @@ Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a benefactor to that of Leipzig.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Mentz, <i>Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige</i> (Jena, 1903); Rogge, -<i>Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige</i> (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, +<p>See Mentz, <i>Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige</i> (Jena, 1903); Rogge, +<i>Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige</i> (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, <i>Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p> </div> @@ -16320,7 +16281,7 @@ husband’s imprisonment for twenty-two years.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See A. Beck, <i>Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, Herzog zu Sachsen</i> (Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, <i>Geschichte der Grumbachischen -Händel</i> (Jena, 1868-1870).</p> +Händel</i> (Jena, 1868-1870).</p> </div> @@ -16360,7 +16321,7 @@ for the exemption of the electorate from the area covered by the edict, John George took no decided measures to break his alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631 call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite -of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoë von Hohenegg +of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoë von Hohenegg (1580-1645) he contented himself with a formal protest. Meanwhile Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, and the elector had refused to allow him to cross the Elbe at Wittenberg, thus @@ -16376,7 +16337,7 @@ began to negotiate for peace and consequently his soldiers offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who drove them back into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of Gustavus Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the -position was changed by the death of the king at Lützen in 1632, +position was changed by the death of the king at Lützen in 1632, and the refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under Swedish leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated @@ -16433,7 +16394,7 @@ armies invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one of the first to take up arms against the French, and after sharing in the capture of Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. He had not, however, met with any -notable success when he died at Tübingen on the 12th of September +notable success when he died at Tübingen on the 12th of September 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, but he appears to have been less extravagant than John George II. His wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick III. king of @@ -16444,18 +16405,18 @@ king of Poland as Augustus II.</p> <p><span class="sc">John George IV</span>. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on the 18th of October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his -chief adviser was Hans Adam von Schöning (1641-1696), who +chief adviser was Hans Adam von Schöning (1641-1696), who counselled a union between Saxony and Brandenburg and a more independent attitude towards the emperor. In accordance with this advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I. to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops withdrew from the imperial army, a proceeding which led the -chagrined emperor to seize and imprison Schöning in July 1692. +chagrined emperor to seize and imprison Schöning in July 1692. Although John George was unable to procure his minister’s release, Leopold managed to allay the elector’s anger, and early in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the imperialists. This elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for Magdalene Sibylle -von Neidschütz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of Rochlitz, +von Neidschütz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of Rochlitz, whom on his accession he publicly established as his mistress. John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27th of April 1694.</p> @@ -16489,7 +16450,7 @@ refused to retain his post unless he was given a free hand, and he returned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the States army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and -1646. When the war was ended by the peace of Münster in +1646. When the war was ended by the peace of Münster in January 1648, he accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was as great as it had @@ -16497,7 +16458,7 @@ been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and wise ruler. At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St John and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; when the war broke out with England supported by -an invasion from the bishop of Münster, he was appointed commander-in-chief +an invasion from the bishop of Münster, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Dutch forces on land. Though hampered in his command by the restrictions of the states-general, he repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph von Galen, was @@ -16516,7 +16477,7 @@ art.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Caspar Barlaeus, <i>Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefectura illustrissimi comitis J. Mauritii Nassoviae</i> (Amsterdam, 1647); L. Driessen, <i>Leben des -Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau</i> (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, +Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau</i> (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, <i>Leven van Jaan Maurits</i>, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem, 1840).</p> </div> @@ -16525,13 +16486,13 @@ Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau</i> (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, <p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This name is usually written Joan, the form used by the man himself in his signature—see the facsimile in Netscher’s <i>Les -Hollandais en Brésil</i>.</p> +Hollandais en Brésil</i>.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHN O’ GROAT’S HOUSE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span>, a spot on the north coast of Caithness, -Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and 1¾ m. W. of Duncansby +Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and 1¾ m. W. of Duncansby Head. It is the mythical site of an octagonal house said to have been erected early in the 16th century by one John Groot, a Dutchman who had migrated to the north of Scotland by permission @@ -16643,7 +16604,7 @@ president.</p> <p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the 10th of February 1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865, studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at -the university of Göttingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams +the university of Göttingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams College in 1872-1876, and in 1876 became professor cf chemistry at Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of chemistry, organic and inorganic, which were republished in England @@ -16896,13 +16857,13 @@ was the original Captain Driver in <i>Oronooko</i> (1696), Captain Fireball in Farquhar’s <i>Sir Harry Wildair</i> (1701), Sable in Steele’s <i>Funeral</i> (1702), &c.; as the First Gravedigger in <i>Hamlet</i> and in several characters in the plays of Ben Jonson he was particularly -good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett’s rôles.</p> +good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett’s rôles.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHNSON, EASTMAN<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1824-1906), American artist, was born at Lovell, Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at -Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his +Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his home for four years. In 1860 he was elected to the National Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his own, @@ -17190,7 +17151,7 @@ distinguish rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or never been in the same room with a woman of real fashion, his Tetty, as he called her, was the most beautiful, graceful and accomplished of her sex. That his admiration was unfeigned cannot -be doubted; she had, however, a jointure of £600 and perhaps a +be doubted; she had, however, a jointure of £600 and perhaps a little more; she came of a good family, and her son Jervis (d. 1763) commanded H.M.S. “Hercules.” The marriage, in spite of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been @@ -17271,7 +17232,7 @@ meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness. Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great, the sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds of prey. His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries -and <i>à la mode</i> beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he +and <i>à la mode</i> beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he was so fortunate as to have near him a hare that had been kept too long, or a meat pie made with rancid butter, he gorged himself with such violence that his veins swelled and the moisture broke @@ -18109,7 +18070,7 @@ his own interests, seems to have been singularly unskilful and unlucky in his literary bargains. He was generally reputed the first English writer of his time. Yet several writers of his time sold their copyrights for sums such as he never ventured to ask. -To give a single instance, Robertson received £4500 for the +To give a single instance, Robertson received £4500 for the <i>History of Charles V.</i></p> <p>Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities @@ -18148,7 +18109,7 @@ the paralytic attack, and in July he was sufficiently recovered to renew his old club life and to meditate further journeys. In June 1784 he went with Boswell to Oxford for the last time. In September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health was -rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary régime. His +rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary régime. His asthma tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms made their appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured terms against the re-marriage of his old friend Mrs Thrale, the @@ -18427,7 +18388,7 @@ made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates had been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where he held from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-general of Indian affairs for British North America. He received -£45,000 from the British government for his losses.</p> +£45,000 from the British government for his losses.</p> <p>Sir William’s nephew, <span class="sc">Guy Johnson</span> (1740-1788), succeeded his uncle as superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served @@ -18683,7 +18644,7 @@ A truce was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and within twelve months the British flag, by agreement with the natives, had been hoisted over a very large region which extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the vicinity of Uganda, -to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shiré Highlands +to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shiré Highlands and the central Zambezi. Johnston’s scheme, in fact, was that known as the “Cape-to-Cairo,” a phrase which he had brought into use in an article in <i>The Times</i> in August 1888. According @@ -18778,7 +18739,7 @@ to the borders of Georgia, Johnston was assigned to command the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the early days of May 1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman advanced against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign -between Sherman and Johnston see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span> (§ 29). +between Sherman and Johnston see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span> (§ 29). From the 9th of May to the 17th of July there were skirmishes, actions and combats almost daily. The great numerical superiority of the Federals enabled Sherman to press back the Confederates @@ -18941,10 +18902,10 @@ was raised, and the city was quickly rebuilt.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOHOR<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling), an independent Malayan state at the southern end of the -peninsula, stretching from 2° 40′ S. to Cape Romania (Ramūnya), +peninsula, stretching from 2° 40′ S. to Cape Romania (Ramūnya), the most southerly point on the mainland of Asia, and including all the small islands adjacent to the coast which lie to the south -of parallel 2° 40′ S. It is bounded N. by the protected native +of parallel 2° 40′ S. It is bounded N. by the protected native state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri Sembilan and the territory of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides Singapore island from the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the Straits of @@ -18974,7 +18935,7 @@ capital of the province of Mūar is Bandar Maharani, named after the wife of the sultan before he had assumed his final title. The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for a country situated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of Singapore. -The shade temperature varies from 98.5° F. to 68.2° F. The +The shade temperature varies from 98.5° F. to 68.2° F. The rainfall averages 97.28 in. per annum. No exact figures can be obtained as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates place it at about 200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000 @@ -19042,26 +19003,26 @@ bears the title of resident.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">JOIGNY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre -by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. -It is situated on the flank of the hill known as the Côte St +by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. +It is situated on the flank of the hill known as the Côte St Jacques on the right bank of the Yonne. Its streets are steep -and narrow, and old houses with carved wooden façades are +and narrow, and old houses with carved wooden façades are numerous. The church of St Jean (16th century), which once stood within the <i>enceinte</i> of the old castle, contains a representation (15th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble. -Other interesting buildings are the church of St André (12th, +Other interesting buildings are the church of St André (12th, 16th and 17th centuries), of which the best feature is the Renaissance portal with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of St Thibault (16th century), in which the stone crown suspended from the choir vaulting is chiefly noticeable. The Porte du Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking towers, is a relic of the 10th century castle; there is also a castle of the 16th and -17th centuries, in part demolished. The hôtel de ville (18th +17th centuries, in part demolished. The hôtel de ville (18th century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the sepulchral chapel of the Ferrands (16th century). The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a communal college for boys. It is industrially -unimportant, but the wine of the Côte St Jacques is much +unimportant, but the wine of the Côte St Jacques is much esteemed.</p> <p>Joigny (<i>Joviniacum</i>) was probably of Roman origin. In the @@ -19069,7 +19030,7 @@ esteemed.</p> that of Champagne, which after passing through several hands came in the 18th century into the possession of the family of Villeroi. A fragment of a ladder preserved in the church of St -André commemorates the successful resistance offered by the +André commemorates the successful resistance offered by the town to the English in 1429.</p> @@ -19230,11 +19191,11 @@ the sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable time and labour being saved in this way.</p> <p>A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a <i>balk</i>. In -section it may range from 1 to 1½ ft. square. <i>Planks</i> are formed by +section it may range from 1 to 1½ ft. square. <i>Planks</i> are formed by sawing the balk into sections from 11 to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. thick, and the term <i>deal</i> is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 to -4½ in. thick. <i>Battens</i> are boards running not more than 3 in. thick -and 4 to 7 in. wide. A <i>strip</i> is not thicker than 1½ in., the width +4½ in. thick. <i>Battens</i> are boards running not more than 3 in. thick +and 4 to 7 in. wide. A <i>strip</i> is not thicker than 1½ in., the width being about 4 in.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -19261,7 +19222,7 @@ glued</i> joint. The <i>dowelled</i> joint is a square glued joint strengthened with hard wood or iron dowels inserted in the edge of each -board to a depth of about ¾ in. +board to a depth of about ¾ in. and placed about 18 in. apart. The <i>matched</i> joint is shown in two forms, beaded and jointed. @@ -19477,9 +19438,9 @@ dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from 1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide.</p> <p><i>Parquet</i> floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in -patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from ¼ to +patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from ¼ to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> -1¼ in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially +1¼ in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the sub-floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the @@ -19512,7 +19473,7 @@ tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to wood plugs in the joints of the brickwork. These -grounds are about ¾ to 1 in. thick, <i>i.e.</i> the same +grounds are about ¾ to 1 in. thick, <i>i.e.</i> the same thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to @@ -19735,7 +19696,7 @@ The <i>jambs</i> or <i>posts</i> are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal -doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1½ in. +doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1½ in. thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds 1 in. in thickness @@ -19844,7 +19805,7 @@ off. Veneered doors made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of pine with the -grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° +grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer are grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting @@ -19983,383 +19944,7 @@ will prevent the tenancy from being construed as joint.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 15, Slice 4, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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