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diff --git a/41047-h/41047-h.htm b/41047-h/41047-h.htm index f400201..7dc876a 100644 --- a/41047-h/41047-h.htm +++ b/41047-h/41047-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of International Law Vol. II, by Oppenheim, Lassa</title> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> @@ -79,51 +79,7 @@ td.tdleft1 { text-align:left;margin-left:0;text-indent:0;padding-top:1%;paddi <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Law. A Treatise. Volume II -(of 2), by Lassa Francis Oppenheim - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: International Law. A Treatise. Volume II (of 2) - War and Neutrality. Second Edition - -Author: Lassa Francis Oppenheim - -Release Date: October 16, 2012 [EBook #41047] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LAW, A TREATISE, VOL II *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41047 ***</div> <div class="box1"> @@ -215,8 +171,8 @@ are fully discussed and expounded. But the increase is also due to the fact that a number of other new topics have been discussed; I will only mention the questions whether enemy subjects have <i>persona standi in judicio</i> -(§ <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>), and whether trading with enemy subjects is -permitted (§ <a href="#Following101">101</a>).</p> +(§ <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>), and whether trading with enemy subjects is +permitted (§ <a href="#Following101">101</a>).</p> <p>The system of the work, with but occasional slight alterations in arrangement and the headings of the @@ -328,12 +284,12 @@ form, as follows:—</p> <p class="indh">Barboux = Barboux, Jurisprudence Du Conseil Des Prises Pendant La Guerre De 1870-71 (1871).</p> <p class="indh">Barclay, = Barclay, Problems of International Practice Problems and Diplomacy (1907).</p> <p class="indh">Bernsten = Bernsten, Das Seekriegsrecht (1911).</p> -<p class="indh">Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 3rd ed. (1878).</p> -<p class="indh">Boeck = Boeck, De La Propriété Privée Ennemie Sous Pavillon Ennemi (1882).</p> -<p class="indh">Boidin = Boidin, Les Lois De La Guerre et Les Deux Conférences De La Haye (1908).</p> +<p class="indh">Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 3rd ed. (1878).</p> +<p class="indh">Boeck = Boeck, De La Propriété Privée Ennemie Sous Pavillon Ennemi (1882).</p> +<p class="indh">Boidin = Boidin, Les Lois De La Guerre et Les Deux Conférences De La Haye (1908).</p> <p class="indh">Bonfils = Bonfils, Manuel De Droit International Public, 6th ed. by Fauchille (1912).</p> <p class="indh">Bordwell = Bordwell, The Law of War between Belligerents (1908).</p> -<p class="indh">Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887).</p> +<p class="indh">Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887).</p> <p class="indh">Calvo = Calvo, Le Droit International, etc., 5th ed., 6 vols. (1896).</p> <p class="indh">Convention I. = Hague Convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes.</p> <p class="indh">Convention II. = Hague Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts.</p> @@ -367,24 +323,24 @@ form, as follows:—</p> war.</p> <p class="indh">Despagnet = Despagnet, Cours De Droit International Public, 4th ed. by de Boeck (1910).</p> -<p class="indh">Deuxième Conférence, = Deuxième Conférence Internationale De +<p class="indh">Deuxième Conférence, = Deuxième Conférence Internationale De Actes La Paix, Actes et Documents, 3 vols. (1908-1909).</p> <p class="indh">Dupuis = Dupuis, Le Droit De La Guerre Maritime - D'après Les Doctrines Anglaises Contemporaines + D'après Les Doctrines Anglaises Contemporaines (1899).</p> <p class="indh">Dupuis, Guerre = Dupuis, Le Droit De La Guerre Maritime - D'après Les Conférences de la Haye et + D'après Les Conférences de la Haye et de Londres (1911).</p> <p class="indh">Field = Field, Outlines of an International Code, 2 vols. (1872-1873).</p> <p class="indh">Fiore = Fiore, Nouveau Droit International Public, - deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien - et annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, - nouvelle édition, traduite de l'Italien + deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien + et annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, + nouvelle édition, traduite de l'Italien par Antoine (1911).</p> -<p class="indh">Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, +<p class="indh">Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 2nd ed. (1901).</p> <p class="indh">Gessner = Gessner, Le Droit Des Neutres Sur Mer (1865).</p> @@ -397,20 +353,20 @@ form, as follows:—</p> <p class="indh">Halleck = Halleck, International Law, 3rd English ed. by Sir Sherston Baker, 2 vols. (1893).</p> <p class="indh">Hartmann = Hartmann, Institutionen des praktischen - Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874).</p> + Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874).</p> <p class="indh">Hautefeuille = Hautefeuille, Des Droits Et Des Devoirs Des Nations Neutres En Temps De Guerre Maritime, 3 vols. 2nd ed. (1858).</p> -<p class="indh">Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der +<p class="indh">Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart, 8th ed. by Geffcken (1888).</p> <p class="indh">Heilborn, Rechte = Heilborn, Rechte und Pflichten der Neutralen - Staaten in Bezug auf die während - des Krieges auf ihr Gebiet übertretenden - Angehörigen einer Armee und das + Staaten in Bezug auf die während + des Krieges auf ihr Gebiet übertretenden + Angehörigen einer Armee und das dorthin gebrachte Kriegsmaterial der - Kriegführenden Parteien (1888).</p> -<p class="indh">Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts - entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen + Kriegführenden Parteien (1888).</p> +<p class="indh">Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts + entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896).</p> <p class="indh">Higgins = Higgins, The Hague Peace Conferences (1909).</p> @@ -421,11 +377,11 @@ form, as follows:—</p> <p class="indh">Holland, Jurisprudence = Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence, 6th ed. (1893).</p> <p class="indh">Holland, War = Holland, The Laws of War on Land (1908).</p> -<p class="indh">Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, +<p class="indh">Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. (1885-1889).</p> -<p class="indh">Kleen = Kleen, Lois et Usages De La Neutralité, +<p class="indh">Kleen = Kleen, Lois et Usages De La Neutralité, 2 vols. (1900).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. +<p class="indh">Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. by Morstadt (1851).</p> <p class="indh">Kriegsbrauch = Kriegsbrauch im Landkriege (1902). (Heft 31 der kriegsgeschichtlichen Einzelschriften, @@ -443,9 +399,9 @@ form, as follows:—</p> (1884).</p> <p class="indh">Lawrence, War = Lawrence, War and Neutrality in the Far East, 2nd ed. (1904).</p> -<p class="indh">Lémonon = Lémonon, La Seconde Conférence De La +<p class="indh">Lémonon = Lémonon, La Seconde Conférence De La Paix (1908).</p> -<p class="indh">Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910).</p> +<p class="indh">Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910).</p> <p class="indh">Longuet = Longuet, Le Droit Actuel De La Guerre Terrestre (1901).</p> <p class="indh">Lorimer = Lorimer, The Institutes of International @@ -454,24 +410,24 @@ form, as follows:—</p> <p class="indh">Manning = Manning, Commentaries on the Law of Nations, new ed. by Sheldon Amos (1875).</p> -<p class="indh">Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation +<p class="indh">Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation of the Russian original, 2 vols. (1883).</p> -<p class="indh">Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens - Moderne De l'Europe, nouvelle éd. by - Vergé, 2 vols. (1858).</p> +<p class="indh">Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens + Moderne De l'Europe, nouvelle éd. by + Vergé, 2 vols. (1858).</p> <p class="indh">Martens, R. }</p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R. } </p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.S. } </p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R.G. }</p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. }</p> <p class="indh11">Martens. N.R.G. 3rd Ser. } These are the abbreviated quotations of the different parts of -Martens, Recueil de Traités +Martens, Recueil de Traités (see <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Page_102"> p. 102 of vol. i.</a>), which are in common use.</p> -<p class="indh">Martens, Causes = Martens, Causes Célèbres du Droit des - Célèbres Gens, 5 vols., 2nd ed. (1858-1861).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Les Lois Et Coutumes De La +<p class="indh">Martens, Causes = Martens, Causes Célèbres du Droit des + Célèbres Gens, 5 vols., 2nd ed. (1858-1861).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Les Lois Et Coutumes De La Guerre Sur Terre (1903).</p> <p class="indh">Meurer = Meurer, Die Haager Friedenskonferenz, 2 vols. (1905-1907).</p> @@ -483,27 +439,27 @@ are in common use.</p> <p class="indh">Nippold = Nippold, Die Zweite Haager Friedenskonferenz, 2 vols. (1908-1911).</p> <p class="indh">Nys = Nys, Le Droit International, vol. i. (1904).</p> -<p class="indh">Ortolan = Ortolan, Règles Internationales et Diplomatie +<p class="indh">Ortolan = Ortolan, Règles Internationales et Diplomatie de la Mer, 2 vols., 3rd ed. (1856).</p> -<p class="indh">Perels = Perels, Das Internationale öffentliche +<p class="indh">Perels = Perels, Das Internationale öffentliche Seerecht der Gegenwart, 2nd ed. (1903).</p> <p class="indh">Phillimore = Phillimore, Commentaries upon International Law, 4 vols., 3rd ed. (1879-1888).</p> -<p class="indh">Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International +<p class="indh">Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International Public, 2 vols. (1894-1895).</p> <p class="indh">Pillet = Pillet, Les Lois Actuelles De La Guerre (1901).</p> -<p class="indh">Pistoye et Duverdy = Pistoye et Duverdy, Traité Des Prises +<p class="indh">Pistoye et Duverdy = Pistoye et Duverdy, Traité Des Prises Maritimes, 2 vols. (1854-1859).</p> -<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International +<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International Public, 8 vols. (1885-1906).</p> <p class="indh">Pufendorf = Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1672).</p> -<p class="indh">R.G. = Revue Générale De Droit International +<p class="indh">R.G. = Revue Générale De Droit International Public.</p> <p class="indh">R.I. = Revue De Droit International Et De - Législation Comparée.</p> + Législation Comparée.</p> <p class="indh">Rivier = Rivier, Principes Du Droit Des Gens, 2 vols. (1896).</p> <p class="indh">Scott, Conferences = Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of @@ -518,14 +474,14 @@ are in common use.</p> Boutiron (1886).</p> <p class="indh">Twiss = Twiss, The Law of Nations, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1884, 1875).</p> -<p class="indh">Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908).</p> +<p class="indh">Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908).</p> <p class="indh">U.S. Naval War = The Laws and Usages of War at Sea, published Code on June 27, 1900, by the Navy Department, Washington, for the use of the U. S. Navy and for the information of all concerned.</p> <p class="indh">Vattel = Vattel, Le Droit Des Gens, 4 books in 2 - vols., nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773).</p> + vols., nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773).</p> <p class="indh">Walker = Walker, A Manual of Public International Law (1895).</p> <p class="indh">Walker, History = Walker, A History of the Law of Nations, @@ -546,7 +502,7 @@ are in common use.</p> 8th American ed. by Dana (1866).</p> <p class="indh">Zorn = Zorn, Das Kriegsrecht zu Lande in seiner neuesten Gestaltung (1906).</p> -<p class="indh">Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht.</p> +<p class="indh">Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> </div> @@ -560,292 +516,292 @@ are in common use.</p> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Acteon, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Acteon, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Adonis, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 7; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Adonis, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 7; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Africa, the, § 413, p. <a href="#Page_531">531</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Africa, the, § 413, p. <a href="#Page_531">531</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Alabama, the, § 335, p. <a href="#Page_406">406</a></p> +<p class="indh">Alabama, the, § 335, p. <a href="#Page_406">406</a></p> -<p class="indh">Alaska Boundary Dispute (1903), § 14, p. <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> +<p class="indh">Alaska Boundary Dispute (1903), § 14, p. <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> -<p class="indh">Alcinous <i>v.</i> Nygreu, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> +<p class="indh">Alcinous <i>v.</i> Nygreu, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> -<p class="indh">Alexander, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Alexander, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Alexis, the, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></p> +<p class="indh">Alexis, the, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></p> -<p class="indh">Andersen <i>v.</i> Marten, § 435, p. <a href="#Page_555">555</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Andersen <i>v.</i> Marten, § 435, p. <a href="#Page_555">555</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">André, Major, § 160, p. <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p> +<p class="indh">André, Major, § 160, p. <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ann Green, the, § 92, p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Ann Green, the, § 92, p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Anna, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">Anna, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> -<p class="indh">Anthon <i>v.</i> Fisher, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Anthon <i>v.</i> Fisher, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Antoine <i>v.</i> Morshead, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Antoine <i>v.</i> Morshead, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Apollo, the, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Apollo, the, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 1</p> <p class="indh">Aryol, the. <i>See</i> <a href="#Orel">Orel</a></p> -<p class="indh">Asgill, Captain, § 249, p. <a href="#Page_307">307</a></p> +<p class="indh">Asgill, Captain, § 249, p. <a href="#Page_307">307</a></p> -<p class="indh">Askold, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> +<p class="indh">Askold, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> -<p class="indh">Astrolabe, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Astrolabe, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> -<p class="indh">Atalanta, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a>; § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Atalanta, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a>; § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Aurora, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Aurora, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> -<p class="indh">Awni-Illa, the, § 213, p. <a href="#Page_269">269</a></p> +<p class="indh">Awni-Illa, the, § 213, p. <a href="#Page_269">269</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Baltica, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 1; § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Baltica, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 1; § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Bellona, the, § 271, p. <a href="#Page_332">332</a></p> +<p class="indh">Bellona, the, § 271, p. <a href="#Page_332">332</a></p> -<p class="indh">Benito Estenger, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Benito Estenger, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Bentzen <i>v.</i> Boyle, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Bentzen <i>v.</i> Boyle, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Bermuda, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Bermuda, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Betsey, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_469">469</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Betsey, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_469">469</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Bolivia-Peruvian Boundary Dispute (1910), § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> +<p class="indh">Bolivia-Peruvian Boundary Dispute (1910), § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> <p class="indh">Boudeuse, La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Boud">La Boudeuse</a></p> -<p class="indh">Boussmaker, <i>ex parte</i>, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 4; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> +<p class="indh">Boussmaker, <i>ex parte</i>, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 4; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> -<p class="indh">Boussole, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Boussole, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> -<p class="indh">Brandon <i>v.</i> Curling, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Brandon <i>v.</i> Curling, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Bundesrath, the, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a>; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a> note 1; § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; -§ 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a> note 2; § 433, p. <a href="#Page_552">552</a></p> +<p class="indh">Bundesrath, the, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a>; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a> note 1; § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; +§ 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a> note 2; § 433, p. <a href="#Page_552">552</a></p> </div> -<div class="box"><p class="indh">Calypso, the, § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> +<div class="box"><p class="indh">Calypso, the, § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Camille, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> +<p class="indh">Camille, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> -<p class="indh">Captain W. Menzel, the, § 311, p. <a href="#Page_376">376</a> note</p> +<p class="indh">Captain W. Menzel, the, § 311, p. <a href="#Page_376">376</a> note</p> -<p class="indh">Carolina, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a></p> +<p class="indh">Carolina, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a></p> -<p class="indh">Caroline, the (1808), § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Caroline, the (1808), § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Caroline, the (1904), § 311, p. <a href="#Page_376">376</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Caroline, the (1904), § 311, p. <a href="#Page_376">376</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Carthage, the, § 403<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_506">506</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Carthage, the, § 403<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_506">506</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Cesarewitch, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Cesarewitch, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ceylon, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Ceylon, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Charlotta, the (1810), § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Charlotta, the (1810), § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Charlotta, the (1814), § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> +<p class="indh">Charlotta, the (1814), § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> -<p class="indh">Circassian, the, § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Circassian, the, § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Columbia, the, § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 3; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Columbia, the, § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 3; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Commercen, the, § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Commercen, the, § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Cornu <i>v.</i> Blackburne, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Cornu <i>v.</i> Blackburne, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Cumberland, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Cumberland, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> note 2</p> </div> -<div class="box"><p class="indh">Daifje, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 4</p> +<div class="box"><p class="indh">Daifje, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Danous, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_115">115</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Danous, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_115">115</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">De Fortuyn, the, § 181, p. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">De Fortuyn, the, § 181, p. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">De <a name="Jager" id="Jager"></a>Jager <i>v.</i> Attorney-General, § 100, p. <a href="#Page_132">132</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">De <a name="Jager" id="Jager"></a>Jager <i>v.</i> Attorney-General, § 100, p. <a href="#Page_132">132</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">De <a name="Jarnett" id="Jarnett"></a>Jarnett <i>v.</i> De Giversville, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">De <a name="Jarnett" id="Jarnett"></a>Jarnett <i>v.</i> De Giversville, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Dessaix, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> +<p class="indh">Dessaix, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> -<p class="indh">De <a name="Wahl" id="Wahl"></a>Wahl <i>v.</i> Browne, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">De <a name="Wahl" id="Wahl"></a>Wahl <i>v.</i> Browne, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">De Wütz <i>v.</i> Hendricks, § 352, p. <a href="#Page_430">430</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">De Wütz <i>v.</i> Hendricks, § 352, p. <a href="#Page_430">430</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Diana, the (1799), § 189, p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p> +<p class="indh">Diana, the (1799), § 189, p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p> -<p class="indh">Diana, the (1904), § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> +<p class="indh">Diana, the (1904), § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> -<p class="indh">Discovery, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> +<p class="indh">Discovery, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> -<p class="indh">Doelwijk, the, § 403, p. <a href="#Page_505">505</a>; § 436, p. <a href="#Page_556">556</a></p> +<p class="indh">Doelwijk, the, § 403, p. <a href="#Page_505">505</a>; § 436, p. <a href="#Page_556">556</a></p> -<p class="indh">Dogger Bank, § 5, p. <a href="#Page_7">7</a> note 2; § 11, p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a> note 1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Dogger Bank, § 5, p. <a href="#Page_7">7</a> note 2; § 11, p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a> note 1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Dorsey <i>v.</i> Kyle, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Dorsey <i>v.</i> Kyle, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Driefontein Consolidated Gold Mines Co. <i>v.</i> Janson, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Driefontein Consolidated Gold Mines Co. <i>v.</i> Janson, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Du Belloix <i>v.</i> Lord Waterpark, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 9</p> +<p class="indh">Du Belloix <i>v.</i> Lord Waterpark, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 9</p> -<p class="indh">Duclair, British coal vessels at, § 365, p. <a href="#Page_448">448</a></p> +<p class="indh">Duclair, British coal vessels at, § 365, p. <a href="#Page_448">448</a></p> </div> -<div class="box"><p class="indh">El Arish, Capitulation of, § 229, pp. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-9</p> +<div class="box"><p class="indh">El Arish, Capitulation of, § 229, pp. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-9</p> -<p class="indh">Elba, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Elba, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> -<p class="indh">Elisabeth, the, § 189, p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p> +<p class="indh">Elisabeth, the, § 189, p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p> -<p class="indh">Eliza and Katy, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Eliza and Katy, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Elizabeth, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 8</p> +<p class="indh">Elizabeth, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 8</p> -<p class="indh">Elsebe, the, § 425, p. <a href="#Page_543">543</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Elsebe, the, § 425, p. <a href="#Page_543">543</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Emilia, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Emilia, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Espiègle, L'. <i>See</i> <a href="#Espi">L'Espiègle</a></p> +<p class="indh">Espiègle, L'. <i>See</i> <a href="#Espi">L'Espiègle</a></p> -<p class="indh">Esposito <i>v.</i> Bowden, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> notes 1, 7, and 8; p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Esposito <i>v.</i> Bowden, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> notes 1, 7, and 8; p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Étoile, L'. <i>See</i> <a href="#toile">L'Étoile</a></p> +<p class="indh">Étoile, L'. <i>See</i> <a href="#toile">L'Étoile</a></p> -<p class="indh">Euridice, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> +<p class="indh">Euridice, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> -<p class="indh">Exchange, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Exchange, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Fanny, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> note 2; § 424, p. <a href="#Page_542">542</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Fanny, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> note 2; § 424, p. <a href="#Page_542">542</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Felicity, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Felicity, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Florida, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">Florida, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> -<p class="indh">Försigtigheten, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> +<p class="indh">Försigtigheten, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p> -<p class="indh">Fortuna, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Fortuna, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Fox and others, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Fox and others, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Franciska, the, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a> note 2; § 380, p. <a href="#Page_462">462</a> note 2; § 380, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a> note 1; § 381, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a> note 2; § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> +<p class="indh">Franciska, the, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a> note 2; § 380, p. <a href="#Page_462">462</a> note 2; § 380, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a> note 1; § 381, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a> note 2; § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> -<p class="indh">Freden, the, § 360, p. <a href="#Page_441">441</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Freden, the, § 360, p. <a href="#Page_441">441</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Frederick Moltke, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Frederick Moltke, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Freundschaft, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Freundschaft, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5</p> -<p class="indh">Friendship, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_518">518</a>; § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Friendship, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_518">518</a>; § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Furtado <i>v.</i> Rodgers, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Furtado <i>v.</i> Rodgers, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Gamba <i>v.</i> Le Mesurier, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Gamba <i>v.</i> Le Mesurier, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Gelderland, the, § 354, p. <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p> +<p class="indh">Gelderland, the, § 354, p. <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p> -<p class="indh">General, the, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a></p> +<p class="indh">General, the, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a></p> -<p class="indh">General Armstrong, the, § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> +<p class="indh">General Armstrong, the, § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> -<p class="indh">General Hamilton, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 3; § 389, p. <a href="#Page_476">476</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">General Hamilton, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 3; § 389, p. <a href="#Page_476">476</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Genoa, Capitulation of, § 226, p. <a href="#Page_284">284</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Genoa, Capitulation of, § 226, p. <a href="#Page_284">284</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Georgina, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Georgina, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Gerasimo, the, § 371, p. <a href="#Page_453">453</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Gerasimo, the, § 371, p. <a href="#Page_453">453</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">German contract for cutting trees in French forests, § 282, p. <a href="#Page_342">342</a></p> +<p class="indh">German contract for cutting trees in French forests, § 282, p. <a href="#Page_342">342</a></p> -<p class="indh">Gist <i>v.</i> Mason, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Gist <i>v.</i> Mason, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> <p class="indh">Gloire, La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Gloi">La Gloire</a></p> -<p class="indh">Goodrich and De Forest <i>v.</i> Gordon, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Goodrich and De Forest <i>v.</i> Gordon, § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Griswold <i>v.</i> Boddington, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 8</p> +<p class="indh">Griswold <i>v.</i> Boddington, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 8</p> -<p class="indh">Grossovoi, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> +<p class="indh">Grossovoi, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Haimun, the, § 210, p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a> note 1; § 356, p. <a href="#Page_437">437</a></p> +<p class="indh">Haimun, the, § 210, p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a> note 1; § 356, p. <a href="#Page_437">437</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hale, Captain Nathan, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a></p> +<p class="indh">Hale, Captain Nathan, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hanger <i>v.</i> Abbot, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Hanger <i>v.</i> Abbot, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> note 1</p> <p class="indh">Hardy, Le. <i>See</i> <a href="#Hardy">Le Hardy</a></p> -<p class="indh">Harmony, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Harmony, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Henkle <i>v.</i> London Exchange Assurance Co., § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Henkle <i>v.</i> London Exchange Assurance Co., § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Henrik and Maria, the, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_456">456</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Henrik and Maria, the, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_456">456</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Herzog, the, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; § 433, p. <a href="#Page_552">552</a></p> +<p class="indh">Herzog, the, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; § 433, p. <a href="#Page_552">552</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hipsang, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Hipsang, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hoare <i>v.</i> Allan, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 10</p> +<p class="indh">Hoare <i>v.</i> Allan, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 10</p> -<p class="indh">Hobbs <i>v.</i> Henning, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Hobbs <i>v.</i> Henning, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Hoffnung, the, § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Hoffnung, the, § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Hoop, the, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 2; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Hoop, the, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 2; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 195, p. <a href="#Page_246">246</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Hope, the, § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Hope, the, § 412, p. <a href="#Page_527">527</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Hunter, the, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_544">544</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Hunter, the, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_544">544</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Hurtige Hanne, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Hurtige Hanne, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 5</p> -<p class="indh">Hussar, the, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> +<p class="indh">Hussar, the, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Icona, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Icona, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Iltis, the, § 348 (1), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Iltis, the, § 348 (1), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> -<p class="indh">Imina, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1; § 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a></p> +<p class="indh">Imina, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1; § 402, p. <a href="#Page_503">503</a></p> -<p class="indh">Indian Chief, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Indian Chief, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Industrie, the, § 410, p. <a href="#Page_525">525</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Industrie, the, § 410, p. <a href="#Page_525">525</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Inflexible, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> +<p class="indh">Inflexible, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> -<p class="indh">Investigator, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Investigator, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Invincible, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> +<p class="indh">Invincible, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> -<p class="indh">Italy <i>v.</i> Peru (Canevaro claim), § 24, p. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Italy <i>v.</i> Peru (Canevaro claim), § 24, p. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> note 1</p> </div> @@ -853,123 +809,123 @@ are in common use.</p> <p class="indh">Jager. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jager">De Jager</a></p> -<p class="indh">Jakoga, Major, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a> note 1; § 255, p. <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p> +<p class="indh">Jakoga, Major, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a> note 1; § 255, p. <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p> -<p class="indh">James Cook, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_469">469</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">James Cook, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_469">469</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Jameson Raid, § 56, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a></p> +<p class="indh">Jameson Raid, § 56, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a></p> -<p class="indh">Jan Frederick, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> notes 4 and 6; § 92, p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Jan Frederick, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> notes 4 and 6; § 92, p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a> note 2</p> <p class="indh">Jarnett. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jarnett">De Jarnett</a></p> -<p class="indh">Jemchug, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Jemchug, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> -<p class="indh">Jemmy, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Jemmy, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 5</p> <p class="indh">Joan, Le. <i>See</i> <a href="#Joan">Le Joan</a></p> -<p class="indh">Johanna Emilie, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Johanna Emilie, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Jonge Klassina, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Jonge Klassina, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Jonge Margaretha, the, § 394, p. <a href="#Page_486">486</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Jonge Margaretha, the, § 394, p. <a href="#Page_486">486</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Jonge Pieter, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 6</p> +<p class="indh">Jonge Pieter, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 6</p> -<p class="indh">Juno, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Juno, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 4</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Kellner <i>v.</i> Le Mesurier, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Kellner <i>v.</i> Le Mesurier, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Knight Commander, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Knight Commander, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Korietz, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Korietz, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Kow-shing, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 1; § 348, p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Kow-shing, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 1; § 348, p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">La <a name="Boud" id="Boud"></a>Boudeuse, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> +<p class="indh">La <a name="Boud" id="Boud"></a>Boudeuse, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> -<p class="indh">La <a name="Gloi" id="Gloi"></a>Gloire, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">La <a name="Gloi" id="Gloi"></a>Gloire, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">La <a name="Paix" id="Paix"></a>Paix, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">La <a name="Paix" id="Paix"></a>Paix, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">La <a name="Rosina" id="Rosina"></a>Rosina, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">La <a name="Rosina" id="Rosina"></a>Rosina, the, § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">La <a name="Santissima" id="Santissima"></a>Santissima Trinidad, the, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_405">405</a></p> +<p class="indh">La <a name="Santissima" id="Santissima"></a>Santissima Trinidad, the, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_405">405</a></p> <p class="indh">Laura-Louise. <i>See</i> <a href="#Laur">Le Laura-Louise</a></p> -<p class="indh">Lavabre <i>v.</i> Wilson, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Lavabre <i>v.</i> Wilson, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Le <a name="Hardy" id="Hardy"></a>Hardy contre La Voltigeante, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Le <a name="Hardy" id="Hardy"></a>Hardy contre La Voltigeante, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Le <a name="Joan" id="Joan"></a>Joan, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Le <a name="Joan" id="Joan"></a>Joan, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Le <a name="Laur" id="Laur"></a>Laura-Louise, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Le <a name="Laur" id="Laur"></a>Laura-Louise, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Lena, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> +<p class="indh">Lena, the, § 347 (3), p. <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> -<p class="indh">Le Nicolaüs, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Le Nicolaüs, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">L'<a name="Espi" id="Espi"></a>Espiègle, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">L'<a name="Espi" id="Espi"></a>Espiègle, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> -<p class="indh">Le <a name="Thalia" id="Thalia"></a>Thalia, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Le <a name="Thalia" id="Thalia"></a>Thalia, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">L'É<a name="toile" id="toile"></a>toile, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> +<p class="indh">L'É<a name="toile" id="toile"></a>toile, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> -<p class="indh">Leucade, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Leucade, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a> note 5; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_547">547</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Lion, the, § 348, p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Lion, the, § 348, p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> -<p class="indh">Lisette, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Lisette, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Ludwig, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> +<p class="indh">Ludwig, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> -<p class="indh">Luxor, the, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a>; § 437, p. <a href="#Page_558">558</a></p> +<p class="indh">Luxor, the, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a>; § 437, p. <a href="#Page_558">558</a></p> </div> -<div class="box"><p class="indh">Madison, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a> note 2</p> +<div class="box"><p class="indh">Madison, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Madonna delle Gracie, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Madonna delle Gracie, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Malacca, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> +<p class="indh">Malacca, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> -<p class="indh">Manouba, the, § 413, p. <a href="#Page_531">531</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Manouba, the, § 413, p. <a href="#Page_531">531</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Margaret, the, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Margaret, the, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Maria, the (1799), § 422, p. <a href="#Page_540">540</a> note 1; § 423, p. <a href="#Page_541">541</a> note 1; § 425, p. <a href="#Page_543">543</a> note 1; § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Maria, the (1799), § 422, p. <a href="#Page_540">540</a> note 1; § 423, p. <a href="#Page_541">541</a> note 1; § 425, p. <a href="#Page_543">543</a> note 1; § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Maria, the (1805), § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Maria, the (1805), § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Maria <i>v.</i> Hall, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 2; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Maria <i>v.</i> Hall, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a> note 2; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 5</p> -<p class="indh">Mashona, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Mashona, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Mayer <i>v.</i> Reed, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 9</p> +<p class="indh">Mayer <i>v.</i> Reed, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 9</p> -<p class="indh">Melville <i>v.</i> De Wold, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> +<p class="indh">Melville <i>v.</i> De Wold, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 7</p> -<p class="indh">Mentor, the, § 272, p. <a href="#Page_333">333</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Mentor, the, § 272, p. <a href="#Page_333">333</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Mercurius, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Mercurius, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Meteor, the, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_405">405</a></p> +<p class="indh">Meteor, the, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_405">405</a></p> -<p class="indh">Minerva, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">Minerva, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> -<p class="indh">Modeste, the, § 360, p. <a href="#Page_441">441</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Modeste, the, § 360, p. <a href="#Page_441">441</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Montara, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Montara, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 2</p> </div> @@ -977,244 +933,244 @@ are in common use.</p> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Nancy, the (1800), § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Nancy, the (1800), § 404, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Nancy, the (1809), § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Nancy, the (1809), § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Nancy Court of Appeal, § 172, p. <a href="#Page_215">215</a></p> +<p class="indh">Nancy Court of Appeal, § 172, p. <a href="#Page_215">215</a></p> -<p class="indh">Naniwa, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 1; § 348, p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Naniwa, the, § 89, p. <a href="#Page_114">114</a> note 1; § 348, p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> -<p class="indh">Neptunus, the (1799), § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Neptunus, the (1799), § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Neptunus, the (1800), § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Neptunus, the (1800), § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Nereide, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> note 2; § 424, p. <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Nereide, the, § 185, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a> note 2; § 424, p. <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Neutralitet, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 9</p> +<p class="indh">Neutralitet, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 9</p> -<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Buck, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Buck, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Davis, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Davis, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Stathem, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Stathem, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Symes, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">New York Life Insurance Co. <i>v.</i> Symes, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Niagara, the, § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> +<p class="indh">Niagara, the, § 382, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> -<p class="indh">Nigretia, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Nigretia, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">North-Eastern Boundary Dispute between Great Britain and the United States (1831), § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> +<p class="indh">North-Eastern Boundary Dispute between Great Britain and the United States (1831), § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> -<p class="indh">North German Confederation Volunteer Fleet scheme, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p> +<p class="indh">North German Confederation Volunteer Fleet scheme, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p> -<p class="indh">Novara, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Novara, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> -<p class="indh">Novik, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Novik, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Oki, Captain Teisuki, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a> note 1; § 255, p. <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p> +<p class="indh">Oki, Captain Teisuki, § 161, p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a> note 1; § 255, p. <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p> -<p class="indh">Oldhamia, the, § 206, p. <a href="#Page_256">256</a> note 1; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Oldhamia, the, § 206, p. <a href="#Page_256">256</a> note 1; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Oleg, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> +<p class="indh">Oleg, the, § 347 (4), p. <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p> -<p class="indh">Olinde Rodrigues, the, § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Olinde Rodrigues, the, § 380, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh"><a name="Orel" id="Orel"></a>Orel (or Aryol), the, § 206, p. <a href="#Page_256">256</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh"><a name="Orel" id="Orel"></a>Orel (or Aryol), the, § 206, p. <a href="#Page_256">256</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Orinoco Steamship Co., § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> +<p class="indh">Orinoco Steamship Co., § 16, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> -<p class="indh">Orozembo, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_518">518</a>; § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a></p> +<p class="indh">Orozembo, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_518">518</a>; § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Pacifico, Don, § 35, p. 41; § 44, p. <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> +<p class="indh">Pacifico, Don, § 35, p. 41; § 44, p. <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> <p class="indh">Paix, La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Paix">La Paix</a></p> -<p class="indh">Palme, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Palme, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> -<p class="indh">Panaghia Rhomba, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Panaghia Rhomba, the, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Paquette Habana, the, § 187, p. <a href="#Page_234">234</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Paquette Habana, the, § 187, p. <a href="#Page_234">234</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Pascal, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Pascal, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> -<p class="indh">Peterburg, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> +<p class="indh">Peterburg, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> -<p class="indh">Peterhoff, the, § 373, p. <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> +<p class="indh">Peterhoff, the, § 373, p. <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> -<p class="indh">Phœnix, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Phœnix, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Planche <i>v.</i> Fletcher, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> +<p class="indh">Planche <i>v.</i> Fletcher, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a> note 3<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Portland, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Portland, the, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 5</p> -<p class="indh">Postilion, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_115">115</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Postilion, the, § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_115">115</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Potts <i>v.</i> Bell, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Potts <i>v.</i> Bell, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 1; § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Princesse Marie, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Princesse Marie, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Quang-nam, the, § 410, p. <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, note 1</p></div> +<p class="indh">Quang-nam, the, § 410, p. <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, note 1</p></div> -<div class="box"><p class="indh">Ramillies, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> +<div class="box"><p class="indh">Ramillies, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> -<p class="indh">Rapid, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">Rapid, the, § 409, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ras-el-Tin Fort, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> +<p class="indh">Ras-el-Tin Fort, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> -<p class="indh">Recovery, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Recovery, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_554">554</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Reshitelni, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Reshitelni, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Resolution, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> +<p class="indh">Resolution, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> -<p class="indh">Reuss, M. de, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></p> +<p class="indh">Reuss, M. de, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></p> -<p class="indh">Richmond, the, § 397, p. <a href="#Page_494">494</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Richmond, the, § 397, p. <a href="#Page_494">494</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Rolla, the, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a> note 2; § 375, p. <a href="#Page_456">456</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Rolla, the, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_452">452</a> note 2; § 375, p. <a href="#Page_456">456</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Rose in Bloom, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Rose in Bloom, the, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 2</p> <p class="indh">Rosina, La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Rosina">La Rosina</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">St. Kilda, the, § 431, p. 548</p> +<p class="indh">St. Kilda, the, § 431, p. 548</p> -<p class="indh">St. Nicholas, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">St. Nicholas, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Samuel, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 6</p> +<p class="indh">Samuel, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 6</p> <p class="indh">Santissima Trinidad, La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Santissima">La Santissima Trinidad</a></p> -<p class="indh">Sarah, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Sarah, the, § 428, p. <a href="#Page_545">545</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Sechs Geschwistern, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 5</p> +<p class="indh">Sechs Geschwistern, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 5</p> -<p class="indh">Seymour <i>v.</i> London and Provincial Marine Insurance Co., § 402, p. <a href="#Page_504">504</a> note </p> +<p class="indh">Seymour <i>v.</i> London and Provincial Marine Insurance Co., § 402, p. <a href="#Page_504">504</a> note </p> -<p class="indh">Shepeler <i>v.</i> Durand, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Shepeler <i>v.</i> Durand, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Shepherdess, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 6</p> +<p class="indh">Shepherdess, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 6</p> -<p class="indh">Sicilian Sulphur Monopoly, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sicilian Sulphur Monopoly, § 34, p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a></p> -<p class="indh">Silesian Loan, § 37, p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; § 437, p. <a href="#Page_557">557</a></p> +<p class="indh">Silesian Loan, § 37, p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; § 437, p. <a href="#Page_557">557</a></p> -<p class="indh">Smolensk, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> +<p class="indh">Smolensk, the, § 84, p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> -<p class="indh">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel <i>v.</i> Town of Newhaven, § 99, p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel <i>v.</i> Town of Newhaven, § 99, p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Spes and Irene, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 10</p> +<p class="indh">Spes and Irene, the, § 386, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a> note 10</p> -<p class="indh">Springbok, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> +<p class="indh">Springbok, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 390, p. <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_500">500</a> note 1; § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> -<p class="indh">Stackelberg, Baron de, § 37, p. <a href="#Page_43">43</a></p> +<p class="indh">Stackelberg, Baron de, § 37, p. <a href="#Page_43">43</a></p> -<p class="indh">Stephen Hart, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Stephen Hart, the, § 385, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Stert, the, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Stert, the, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Sutton <i>v.</i> Sutton, § 99, p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Sutton <i>v.</i> Sutton, § 99, p. <a href="#Page_130">130</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Swineherd, the, § 271, p. <a href="#Page_332">332</a></p> +<p class="indh">Swineherd, the, § 271, p. <a href="#Page_332">332</a></p> -<p class="indh">Sybille, the, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sybille, the, § 211, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Talbot, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> +<p class="indh">Talbot, the, § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a></p> -<p class="indh">Temeraire, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> +<p class="indh">Temeraire, the, § 223, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p> -<p class="indh">Tetardos, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Tetardos, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Teutonia, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Teutonia, the, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_138">138</a> note 1</p> <p class="indh">Thalia, Le. <i>See</i> <a href="#Thalia">Le Thalia</a>.</p> -<p class="indh">Thea, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> +<p class="indh">Thea, the, § 431, p. <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> -<p class="indh">Thirty Hogsheads of Sugar <i>v.</i> Boyle, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Thirty Hogsheads of Sugar <i>v.</i> Boyle, § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Trende Sostre, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Trende Sostre, the, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_498">498</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Trent, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a> note 3; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> +<p class="indh">Trent, the, § 408, p. <a href="#Page_519">519</a> note 3; § 431, p. <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> -<p class="indh">Twee Gebroeders, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">Twee Gebroeders, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Variag, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Variag, the, § 320, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; § 348 (2), p. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; § 361, p. <a href="#Page_442">442</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Vega, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Vega, the, § 186, p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> -<p class="indh">Venezuelan Boundary Dispute (1900), § 14, p. <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> +<p class="indh">Venezuelan Boundary Dispute (1900), § 14, p. <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> -<p class="indh">Venus, the (1803), § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Venus, the (1803), § 225, p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Venus, the (1814), § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Venus, the (1814), § 88, p. <a href="#Page_112">112</a> note 1; § 90, p. <a href="#Page_116">116</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Victor, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p> +<p class="indh">Victor, the, § 349, p. <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p> -<p class="indh">Vigilantia, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Vigilantia, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Vorwärts, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> +<p class="indh">Vorwärts, the, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> -<p class="indh">Vrouw Judith, the, § 376, p. <a href="#Page_458">458</a> note 1; § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3; § 387, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Vrouw Judith, the, § 376, p. <a href="#Page_458">458</a> note 1; § 384, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 3; § 387, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Vrow Houwina, the, § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> +<p class="indh">Vrow Houwina, the, § 401, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> -<p class="indh">Vrow Margaretha, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Vrow Margaretha, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_118">118</a> note 4</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Wachuset, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">Wachuset, the, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> <p class="indh">Wahl. <i>See</i> <a href="#Wahl">De Wahl</a></p> -<p class="indh">War Onskan, the, § 432, p. <a href="#Page_551">551</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">War Onskan, the, § 432, p. <a href="#Page_551">551</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Washburne, § 157, p. <a href="#Page_194">194</a></p> +<p class="indh">Washburne, § 157, p. <a href="#Page_194">194</a></p> -<p class="indh">Wells <i>v.</i> Williams, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Wells <i>v.</i> Williams, § 100<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_133">133</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Welvaart van Pillaw, the, § 389 p. <a href="#Page_476">476</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Welvaart van Pillaw, the, § 389 p. <a href="#Page_476">476</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">William, the, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">William, the, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_499">499</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Willison <i>v.</i> Paterson, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Willison <i>v.</i> Paterson, § 101, p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note 2</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Yangtsze Insurance Association <i>v.</i> Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company, § 407, p. <a href="#Page_516">516</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Yangtsze Insurance Association <i>v.</i> Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company, § 407, p. <a href="#Page_516">516</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Young Jacob and Joanna, the, § 187, p. <a href="#Page_234">234</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Young Jacob and Joanna, the, § 187, p. <a href="#Page_234">234</a> note 2</p> </div> @@ -2458,7 +2414,7 @@ Neutral Territory <a href="#Page_391">391</a></p> <p class="toc3">III. <i>Neutrals and Military Preparations</i></p> -<p class="indh">329. Depôts and Factories on Neutral Territory <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p> +<p class="indh">329. Depôts and Factories on Neutral Territory <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p> <p class="indh">330. Levy of Troops, and the like <a href="#Page_398">398</a></p> @@ -3053,11 +3009,11 @@ IN GENERAL</span> -<p class="indh1">Twiss, II. §§ 1-3—Ullmann, §§ 148-150—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -5-12—Heffter, §§ 105-107—Rivier, II. § 57—Bonfils, No. 930—Despagnet, -No. 469—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. Nos. 2580-2583—Calvo, III. §§ 1670-1671—Martens, -II. §§ 101-102—Fiore, II. Nos. 1192-1198, and Code, No. 1246—Wagner, -<i>Zur Lehre von den Streiterledigungsmitteln des Völkerrechts</i> +<p class="indh1">Twiss, II. §§ 1-3—Ullmann, §§ 148-150—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +5-12—Heffter, §§ 105-107—Rivier, II. § 57—Bonfils, No. 930—Despagnet, +No. 469—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. Nos. 2580-2583—Calvo, III. §§ 1670-1671—Martens, +II. §§ 101-102—Fiore, II. Nos. 1192-1198, and Code, No. 1246—Wagner, +<i>Zur Lehre von den Streiterledigungsmitteln des Völkerrechts</i> (1900.)</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Legal and @@ -3065,7 +3021,7 @@ political International Differences.</p></div> -<p>§ 1. International differences can arise from a +<p>§ 1. International differences can arise from a variety of grounds. Between the extremes of a simple and comparatively unimportant act of discourtesy committed by one State against another, on the one @@ -3095,7 +3051,7 @@ case which arises to distinguish the legal from the political character of the difference.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. § 149</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. § 149</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Law not @@ -3104,7 +3060,7 @@ concerned with Legal Differences.</p></div> -<p>§ 2. It is often maintained that the Law of Nations +<p>§ 2. It is often maintained that the Law of Nations is concerned with legal differences only, political differences being a matter not of law but of politics. Now it is certainly true that only legal differences can @@ -3131,7 +3087,7 @@ settling differences—namely, pacific blockade and intervention.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Amicable in contradistinction to compulsive settlement of Differences.</p></div> -<p>§ 3. <a name="Political_and_legal3" id="Political_and_legal3"></a>Political and legal differences can be settled +<p>§ 3. <a name="Political_and_legal3" id="Political_and_legal3"></a>Political and legal differences can be settled either by amicable or by compulsive means. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> are four kinds of amicable means—namely, negotiation between the parties, good offices of third parties, @@ -3160,7 +3116,7 @@ arbitration, or even to try to settle them in this way, before they make use of compulsive means.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Some writers (see - Hall, § 118, and Heilborn, <i>System</i>, p. + Hall, § 118, and Heilborn, <i>System</i>, p. 404) refuse to treat negotiation, good offices, and mediation as means of settling differences, because they cannot find that these means are of any legal value, it being in the choice of the parties whether or not @@ -3173,14 +3129,14 @@ existence concerning these means—see Hague Arbitration Treaty, articles <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Except in the case of contract debts claimed from the Government of one country by the Government of another country as being due to its nationals. See Convention II.; -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. § 135</a>, p. 192; -and below, § <a href="#Of_the_97_articles19">19</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. § 135</a>, p. 192; +and below, § <a href="#Of_the_97_articles19">19</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ne553">vol. I. § 553</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ne553">vol. I. § 553</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_often17">17</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_often17">17</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p></div> @@ -3190,17 +3146,17 @@ and below, § <a href="#Of_the_97_articles19">19</a>.</p></div> <span class="smaller">NEGOTIATION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Twiss, II. § 4—Lawrence, § 220—Moore, VII. § 1064—Taylor, §§ 359-360—Heffter, -§ 107—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 13-17—Ullmann, -§ 151—Bonfils, Nos. 931-932—Despagnet, Nos. 470 and 477—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2584-2587—Rivier, II. § 57—Calvo, III. §§ 1672-1680—Martens, -II. § 103—Nys, III. pp. 56-58.</p> +<p class="indh1">Twiss, II. § 4—Lawrence, § 220—Moore, VII. § 1064—Taylor, §§ 359-360—Heffter, +§ 107—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 13-17—Ullmann, +§ 151—Bonfils, Nos. 931-932—Despagnet, Nos. 470 and 477—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2584-2587—Rivier, II. § 57—Calvo, III. §§ 1672-1680—Martens, +II. § 103—Nys, III. pp. 56-58.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>In what Negotiation consists.</p></div> -<p>§ 4. <a name="Th4" id="Th4"></a>The simplest means of settling State differences, +<p>§ 4. <a name="Th4" id="Th4"></a>The simplest means of settling State differences, and that to which States always resort before they make use of other means, is negotiation. It consists in such acts of intercourse between the parties @@ -3221,7 +3177,7 @@ variance, may be arranged for the purpose of discussing the differences and preparing the basis for an understanding.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In477">vol. I. §§ 477</a>-482, where the international transaction of + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In477">vol. I. §§ 477</a>-482, where the international transaction of negotiation in general is discussed.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International @@ -3229,7 +3185,7 @@ Commissions of Inquiry.</p></div> -<p>§ 5. <a name="Th5" id="Th5"></a>The contracting Powers of the Hague Convention +<p>§ 5. <a name="Th5" id="Th5"></a>The contracting Powers of the Hague Convention for the peaceful settlement of international differences deem it expedient and desirable that, if the ordinary diplomatic negotiation has failed to settle @@ -3301,7 +3257,7 @@ share of the expenses of the Commission (article 36).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See Herr, <i>Die Untersuchungskommissionen der Haager Friedenskonferenzen</i> (1911); Meurer, I. pp. 129-165; Higgins, pp. -167-170; Lémonon, pp. 77-91: Wehberg, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. 21-46; Nippold, +167-170; Lémonon, pp. 77-91: Wehberg, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. 21-46; Nippold, I. pp. 23-35; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 265-273; Politis in <i>R.G.</i> XIX. (1912), pp. 149-188.</p></div> @@ -3328,7 +3284,7 @@ were "not of a nature to cast any discredit upon the military qualities or the humanity of Admiral Rojdestvensky or of the <i>personnel</i> of his squadron." In consequence of the last part of this report Great Britain could not insist upon any punishment to be meted out to the responsible -Russian Admiral, but Russia paid a sum of £65,000 to indemnify the +Russian Admiral, but Russia paid a sum of £65,000 to indemnify the victims of the incident and the families of the two dead fishermen. See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXXIII. (1906), pp. 641-716, And Mandelstam in <i>R.G.</i> XII. (1905), pp. 161 and 351.</p></div> @@ -3336,7 +3292,7 @@ in <i>R.G.</i> XII. (1905), pp. 161 and 351.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 6. The effect of negotiation can be to make it +<p>§ 6. The effect of negotiation can be to make it apparent that the parties cannot come to an amicable understanding at all. But frequently the effect is that one of the parties acknowledges the claim of the other @@ -3368,15 +3324,15 @@ negotiation of some kind or other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Pa </h4> -<p class="indh1">Maine, pp. 207-228—Phillimore, III. §§ 3-5—Twiss, II. § 7—Lawrence, § 220—Moore, -VII. §§ 1065-1068—Taylor, §§ 359-360—Wheaton, § 73—Bluntschli, -§§ 483-487—Heffter, §§ 107-108—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 17-30—Ullmann, §§ 152-153—Bonfils, Nos. 932<span class="topnum">1</span>-943<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, -Nos. 471-476—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2588-2593—Mérignhac, I. pp. -429-447—Rivier, II. § 58—Nys, III. pp. 59-61—Calvo, III. §§ 1682-1705—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Maine, pp. 207-228—Phillimore, III. §§ 3-5—Twiss, II. § 7—Lawrence, § 220—Moore, +VII. §§ 1065-1068—Taylor, §§ 359-360—Wheaton, § 73—Bluntschli, +§§ 483-487—Heffter, §§ 107-108—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 17-30—Ullmann, §§ 152-153—Bonfils, Nos. 932<span class="topnum">1</span>-943<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, +Nos. 471-476—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2588-2593—Mérignhac, I. pp. +429-447—Rivier, II. § 58—Nys, III. pp. 59-61—Calvo, III. §§ 1682-1705—Fiore, III. Nos. 1199-1201, and Code, Nos. 1248-1293—Martens, II. -§ 103—Holls, <i>The Peace Conference at the Hague</i> (1900), pp. 176-203—Zamfiresco, -<i>De la médiation</i> (1911)—Politis in <i>R.G.</i> XVII. (1910), pp. +§ 103—Holls, <i>The Peace Conference at the Hague</i> (1900), pp. 176-203—Zamfiresco, +<i>De la médiation</i> (1911)—Politis in <i>R.G.</i> XVII. (1910), pp. 136-163.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occasions @@ -3384,7 +3340,7 @@ for Good Offices and Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 7. When parties are not inclined to settle their +<p>§ 7. When parties are not inclined to settle their differences by negotiation, or when they have negotiated without effecting an understanding, a third State can procure a settlement through its good @@ -3409,7 +3365,7 @@ account.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Right and duty of offering, requesting, and rendering Good Offices and Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 8. As a rule, no duty exists for a third State to +<p>§ 8. As a rule, no duty exists for a third State to offer its good offices or mediation, or to respond to a request of the conflicting States for such, nor is it, as a rule, the duty of the conflicting parties themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> @@ -3433,7 +3389,7 @@ Powers for their mediation. And lately the Hague Conventions for the peaceful settlement of international differences have laid down some stipulations respecting the right and duty of good offices and mediation, -which will be found below in § 10.</p> +which will be found below in § 10.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> But Italy did not comply with this stipulation before she declared war against Turkey in September 1911.</p></div> @@ -3443,7 +3399,7 @@ Offices in contradistinction to Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 9. <a name="Di9" id="Di9"></a>Diplomatic practice frequently does not distinguish +<p>§ 9. <a name="Di9" id="Di9"></a>Diplomatic practice frequently does not distinguish between good offices and mediation. But although good offices can easily develop into mediation, they must not be confounded with it. The @@ -3487,7 +3443,7 @@ to the Hague Arbitration Convention.</p></div> -<p>§ 10. The Hague Convention for the peaceful settlement +<p>§ 10. The Hague Convention for the peaceful settlement of international differences<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> undertakes in articles 2-8 the task of making the signatory Powers have recourse more frequently than hitherto to @@ -3497,7 +3453,7 @@ are the following:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See Meurer, I. pp. 104-128; Higgins, p. 167; Barclay, -<i>Problems</i>, pp. 191-197; Lémonon, pp. 69-73; Wehberg, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. +<i>Problems</i>, pp. 191-197; Lémonon, pp. 69-73; Wehberg, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. 10-21; Nippold, I. pp. 21-22; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 256-265.</p></div> <p>(1) The contracting Powers agree to have recourse, @@ -3584,7 +3540,7 @@ to restore peace.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Good Offices and Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 11. The value of good offices and mediation for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +<p>§ 11. The value of good offices and mediation for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> the amicable settlement of international conflicts, be it before or after the parties have appealed to arms, cannot be over-estimated. Hostilities have been frequently @@ -3609,7 +3565,7 @@ mediation before and during hostilities.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See the important cases of mediation discussed by Calvo, -III. §§ 1684-1700, and Bonfils, Nos. 936-942. From our own days the case +III. §§ 1684-1700, and Bonfils, Nos. 936-942. From our own days the case of the Dogger Bank incident of 1904 may be quoted as an example, for it was through the mediation of France that Great Britain and Russia agreed upon the establishment of an International Commission of Inquiry. @@ -3624,20 +3580,20 @@ the Peace of Portsmouth on September 5, 1905.</p></div> <span class="smaller">ARBITRATION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 23, § 8—Vattel, II. § 329—Hall, § 119—Westlake, I. pp. 332-356—Lawrence, -§ 221—Phillimore, III. §§ 3-5—Twiss, II. § 5—Taylor, -§§ 357-358—Wharton, III. § 316—Moore, VII. §§ 1069-1080—Bluntschli, -§§ 488-498—Heffter, § 109—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 30-58—Ullmann, -§§ 154-156—Bonfils, Nos. 944-969—Despagnet, Nos. 722-741—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2602-2630—Mérignhac, I. pp. 448-485—Rivier, -II. § 59—Calvo, III. §§ 1706-1806—Fiore, II. Nos. 1202-1215, and Code, -Nos. 1294-1380—Nys, III. pp. 65-80—Martens, II. § 104—Rouard de Card, -<i>L'arbitrage international</i> (1876)—Mérignhac, <i>Traité théorique et pratique de +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 23, § 8—Vattel, II. § 329—Hall, § 119—Westlake, I. pp. 332-356—Lawrence, +§ 221—Phillimore, III. §§ 3-5—Twiss, II. § 5—Taylor, +§§ 357-358—Wharton, III. § 316—Moore, VII. §§ 1069-1080—Bluntschli, +§§ 488-498—Heffter, § 109—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 30-58—Ullmann, +§§ 154-156—Bonfils, Nos. 944-969—Despagnet, Nos. 722-741—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2602-2630—Mérignhac, I. pp. 448-485—Rivier, +II. § 59—Calvo, III. §§ 1706-1806—Fiore, II. Nos. 1202-1215, and Code, +Nos. 1294-1380—Nys, III. pp. 65-80—Martens, II. § 104—Rouard de Card, +<i>L'arbitrage international</i> (1876)—Mérignhac, <i>Traité théorique et pratique de l'arbitrage</i> (1895)—Moore, <i>History and Digest of the Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party</i>, 6 vols. (1898)—Darby, <i>International Arbitration</i>, 4th ed. (1904)—Dumas, <i>Les sanctions de l'arbitrage international</i> (1905), and in A.J. V. (1911), pp. 934-957—Nippold, Die <i>Fortbildung des -Verfahrens in völkerrechtlichen Streitigkeiten</i> (1907)—Reinsch in A.J. V. +Verfahrens in völkerrechtlichen Streitigkeiten</i> (1907)—Reinsch in A.J. V. (1911), pp. 604-614—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 188-253—Lapradelle et Politis, <i>Recueil des arbitrages internationaux</i>, I. (1798-1855), (1905)—Fried, <i>Handbuch der Friedensbewegung</i>, 2nd ed. (1911), pp. 135-184—Morris, @@ -3648,7 +3604,7 @@ Thomas Willing Balch, 1912).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 12. Arbitration is the name for the determination +<p>§ 12. Arbitration is the name for the determination of differences between States through the verdict of one or more umpires chosen by the parties. As there is no central political authority above the Sovereign @@ -3665,7 +3621,7 @@ themselves for that purpose.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 13. It is, therefore, necessary for such conflicting +<p>§ 13. It is, therefore, necessary for such conflicting States as intend to have the conflict determined by arbitration to conclude a treaty by which they agree to this course. Such treaty of arbitration involves @@ -3697,17 +3653,17 @@ success of this conference, with the result that from treaties have been concluded.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXII. p. 590.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#It_is_often17">17</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#It_is_often17">17</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Who is to arbitrate?</p></div> -<p>§ 14. States which conclude an arbitration treaty +<p>§ 14. States which conclude an arbitration treaty have to agree upon the arbitrators. If they choose a third State as arbitrator, they have to conclude a treaty (<i>receptum arbitri</i>) with such State, by which @@ -3741,7 +3697,7 @@ proceed and decide.</p></div> -<p>§ 15. The treaty of arbitration must stipulate the +<p>§ 15. The treaty of arbitration must stipulate the principles according to which the arbitrators have to give their verdict. These principles may be the general rules of International Law, but they may also be the rules @@ -3760,14 +3716,14 @@ have to work out such rules and to communicate them to the parties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#The_movement_for335">335</a>, concerning the "Three rules of Washington."</p></div> +below, § <a href="#The_movement_for335">335</a>, concerning the "Three rules of Washington."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Binding force of Arbitral Verdict.</p></div> -<p>§ 16. <a name="An_arbitral_verdict16" id="An_arbitral_verdict16"></a>An arbitral verdict is final if the arbitration +<p>§ 16. <a name="An_arbitral_verdict16" id="An_arbitral_verdict16"></a>An arbitral verdict is final if the arbitration treaty does not stipulate the contrary, and the verdict<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> given by the arbitrators is binding upon the parties. As, however, no such central authority exists above @@ -3804,7 +3760,7 @@ by Mr. Barge.</p> pp. 5-34 and 595-641.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See -Moore, VII. § 1082, and Moore, <i>Arbitrations</i>, I. pp. +Moore, VII. § 1082, and Moore, <i>Arbitrations</i>, I. pp. 81-161.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See @@ -3818,7 +3774,7 @@ can be decided by Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 17. <a name="It_is_often17" id="It_is_often17"></a>It is often maintained that every possible +<p>§ 17. <a name="It_is_often17" id="It_is_often17"></a>It is often maintained that every possible difference between States could not be determined by arbitration, and, consequently, efforts are made to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> distinguish those groups of State differences which @@ -3901,7 +3857,7 @@ shall be settled by arbitration.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a 2nd Ser. XXIX. p. 137—Argentina and Italy, and on November 9, 1899—see Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXXII. (1905), p. 404—Argentina and Paraguay had concluded treaties according to which all differences without -exception shall be settled by arbitration. See also above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>, +exception shall be settled by arbitration. See also above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>, concerning the Compromise Clause.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> A list of all the arbitration treaties which have been @@ -3911,7 +3867,7 @@ Conference of 1899, is to be found in Fried, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 185.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 18. There can be no doubt that arbitration is, +<p>§ 18. There can be no doubt that arbitration is, and every day becomes more and more, of great importance. History proves that in antiquity and during the Middle Ages arbitration was occasionally<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> made use @@ -3944,7 +3900,7 @@ the time is by no means in sight when all international differences will find their settlement by arbitration.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See - examples in Calvo, III. §§ + examples in Calvo, III. §§ 1707-1712, and in Nys, <i>Les origines du droit international</i> (1894), pp. 52-61.</p></div> @@ -3974,7 +3930,7 @@ side with the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the chances of arbitration will be greatly increased.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Va476b">vol. I. § 476<i>b</i></a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Va476b">vol. I. § 476<i>b</i></a>.</p></div> @@ -3984,19 +3940,19 @@ chances of arbitration will be greatly increased.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Ullmann, §§ 155-156—Bonfils, Nos. 953<span class="topnum">1</span>-955<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 742-746<i>bis</i>—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Ullmann, §§ 155-156—Bonfils, Nos. 953<span class="topnum">1</span>-955<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 742-746<i>bis</i>—Mérignhac, I. pp. 486-539—Holls, <i>The Peace Conference at the Hague</i> -(1900)—Martens, <i>La conférence de la paix à la Haye</i> (1900)—Mérignhac, -<i>La conférence internationale de la paix</i> (1900)—Fried, <i>Die zweite Haager +(1900)—Martens, <i>La conférence de la paix à la Haye</i> (1900)—Mérignhac, +<i>La conférence internationale de la paix</i> (1900)—Fried, <i>Die zweite Haager Konferenz</i> (1908)—Meurer, I. pp. 299-372—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. -286-385—Higgins, pp. 164-179—Lémonon, pp. 188-219—Nippold, I. +286-385—Higgins, pp. 164-179—Lémonon, pp. 188-219—Nippold, I. pp. 36-231—Wehberg, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. 46-164.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Arbitral Justice in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 19. <a name="Of_the_97_articles19" id="Of_the_97_articles19"></a>Of the 97 articles of the Hague Convention +<p>§ 19. <a name="Of_the_97_articles19" id="Of_the_97_articles19"></a>Of the 97 articles of the Hague Convention for the peaceful adjustment of international differences, no fewer than 44—namely, articles 37-90—deal with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> arbitration in three chapters, headed "On Arbitral @@ -4067,7 +4023,7 @@ debtor State refuses arbitration, compulsory arbitration has in this instance been victorious.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. § 135, p. 192</a>, where the so-called Drago doctrine is +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. § 135, p. 192</a>, where the so-called Drago doctrine is likewise discussed.</p></div> <p>Secondly, although it was not possible to agree upon @@ -4098,7 +4054,7 @@ Treaty and appointment of Arbitrators.</p></div> -<p>§ 20. <a name="Ac20" id="Ac20"></a>According to article 52 the conflicting States +<p>§ 20. <a name="Ac20" id="Ac20"></a>According to article 52 the conflicting States which resort to arbitration shall sign a special Act, the <i>Compromis</i>, in which is clearly defined: the subject of the dispute; the time allowed for appointing the @@ -4118,7 +4074,7 @@ to settle the <i>Compromis</i> (articles 53-54). The parties may agree to have recourse to the Permanent Court of Arbitration which was instituted by the Hague Convention and regarding which details have been given - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In472">Vol. I., §§ 472</a>-476, but they may also assign the + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In472">Vol. I., §§ 472</a>-476, but they may also assign the arbitration to one or several arbitrators chosen by them either from the members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration or elsewhere (article 55). If they choose @@ -4153,7 +4109,7 @@ before the Arbitral Tribunal.</p></div> -<p>§ 21. The parties may agree upon such rules of +<p>§ 21. The parties may agree upon such rules of arbitral procedure as they like. If they fail to stipulate special rules of procedure, the following rules are valid, whether the parties have brought their case before the @@ -4268,7 +4224,7 @@ closed (article 77).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Arbitral Award.</p></div> -<p>§ 22. The arbitral award is given after a deliberation +<p>§ 22. The arbitral award is given after a deliberation which has taken place behind closed doors, and the proceedings remain secret (article 78). The members of the tribunal vote, and the majority of the @@ -4286,7 +4242,7 @@ summoned to attend (article 80).</p> force of Awards.</p></div> -<p>§ 23. The award, when duly pronounced and +<p>§ 23. The award, when duly pronounced and notified to the agents of the parties, decides the dispute finally and without appeal (article 81). Any dispute arising between the parties as to the interpretation or @@ -4323,7 +4279,7 @@ parties' instructions given by the treaty of agreement; if the award was given under the influence of undue coercion; or, lastly, if one of the parties has intentionally and maliciously led the tribunal into an -essential material error. (See above, § <a href="#An_arbitral_verdict16">16</a>).</p> +essential material error. (See above, § <a href="#An_arbitral_verdict16">16</a>).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Award binding @@ -4331,7 +4287,7 @@ upon Parties only.</p></div> -<p>§ 24. The award<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> is binding only upon the parties +<p>§ 24. The award<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> is binding only upon the parties to the proceedings. But when there is a question of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> interpreting a convention to which other States than the States at variance are parties, the conflicting States @@ -4343,13 +4299,13 @@ contained in the award is as binding upon them as upon the conflicting parties (article 84).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The awards hitherto given are enumerated - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th476">vol. I. § 476, p. 521</a>, but the case of Italy <i>v.</i> Peru (Canevaro claim, May 3, + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th476">vol. I. § 476, p. 521</a>, but the case of Italy <i>v.</i> Peru (Canevaro claim, May 3, 1912) must now be added.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Costs of Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 25. Each party pays its own expenses and an +<p>§ 25. Each party pays its own expenses and an equal share of those of the tribunal<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> (article 85).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See @@ -4360,7 +4316,7 @@ by Summary Procedure.</p></div> -<p>§ 25<i>a</i>. With a view to facilitating the working of +<p>§ 25<i>a</i>. With a view to facilitating the working of arbitration in disputes of minor importance admitting an abbreviated procedure, the contracting Powers propose the following rules for a summary procedure @@ -4413,13 +4369,13 @@ with the rules laid down in articles 87 to 90 DIFFERENCES IN GENERAL</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 136—Westlake, II. p. 6—Phillimore, III. § 7—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 136—Westlake, II. p. 6—Phillimore, III. § 7—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2632—Despagnet, No. 483—Fiore, II. No. 1225, and Code, Nos. -1381-1385—Taylor, § 431—Nys, III. pp. 83-94.</p> +1381-1385—Taylor, § 431—Nys, III. pp. 83-94.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and kinds of Compulsive Means of Settlement.</p></div> -<p>§ 26. Compulsive means of settlement of differences +<p>§ 26. Compulsive means of settlement of differences are measures containing a certain amount of compulsion taken by a State for the purpose of making another State consent to such settlement of a difference @@ -4438,7 +4394,7 @@ Means in contradistinction to War.</p></div> -<p>§ 27. <a name="Wa27" id="Wa27"></a>War is very often enumerated among the +<p>§ 27. <a name="Wa27" id="Wa27"></a>War is very often enumerated among the compulsive means of settling international differences. This is in a sense correct, for a State might make war for no other purpose than that of compelling another @@ -4480,7 +4436,7 @@ to an Ultimatum and Demonstrations.</p></div> -<p>§ 28. <a name="The_above-described28" id="The_above-described28"></a>The above-described characteristics of compulsive +<p>§ 28. <a name="The_above-described28" id="The_above-described28"></a>The above-described characteristics of compulsive means for the settlement of international differences make it necessary to mention the distinction between such means and an <i>ultimatum</i>. The latter is @@ -4503,12 +4459,12 @@ contrive, indirectly, the settlement of differences, yet they do not contain in themselves any compulsion.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See -Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2649, and - below, § <a href="#The_second_form95">95</a>.</p></div> +Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2649, and + below, § <a href="#The_second_form95">95</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> See -Taylor, §§ 431, 433, 441; Moore, VII. §§ 1089, 1091, -1099; Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2633.</p></div> +Taylor, §§ 431, 433, 441; Moore, VII. §§ 1089, 1091, +1099; Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2633.</p></div> @@ -4518,20 +4474,20 @@ Taylor, §§ 431, 433, 441; Moore, VII. §§ 1089, 1091, </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 341—Hall, § 120—Westlake, II. p. 6—Phillimore, III. § 7—Twiss -II. § 10—Taylor, § 435—Wharton, III. § 318—Moore, VII. § 1090—Wheaton, -§ 290—Bluntschli, § 505—Heffter, § 110—Bulmerincq in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 59-71—Ullmann, § 159—Bonfils, Nos. 972-974—Despagnet, -Nos. 484-486—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2634-2636—Rivier, -II. § 60—Calvo, III. § 1807—Fiore, II. Nos. 1226-1227, and Code, Nos. -1386-1390—Martens, II § 105.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 341—Hall, § 120—Westlake, II. p. 6—Phillimore, III. § 7—Twiss +II. § 10—Taylor, § 435—Wharton, III. § 318—Moore, VII. § 1090—Wheaton, +§ 290—Bluntschli, § 505—Heffter, § 110—Bulmerincq in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 59-71—Ullmann, § 159—Bonfils, Nos. 972-974—Despagnet, +Nos. 484-486—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2634-2636—Rivier, +II. § 60—Calvo, III. § 1807—Fiore, II. Nos. 1226-1227, and Code, Nos. +1386-1390—Martens, II § 105.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and Character of Retorsion.</p></div> -<p>§ 29. Retorsion is the technical term for the retaliation +<p>§ 29. Retorsion is the technical term for the retaliation of discourteous or unkind or unfair and inequitable acts by acts of the same or a similar kind. Retorsion has nothing to do with international delinquencies, @@ -4549,7 +4505,7 @@ thereby, a political difference is created which might be settled by retorsion.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For this reason—see Heilborn, <i>System</i>, p. 352, and -Wagner, <i>Zur Lehre von den Streiterledigungsmitteln des Völkerrechts</i> +Wagner, <i>Zur Lehre von den Streiterledigungsmitteln des Völkerrechts</i> (1900), pp. 53-60—it is correctly maintained that retorsion, in contradistinction to reprisals, is not of legal, but only of political importance. Nevertheless, a system of the Law of Nations must not omit @@ -4561,7 +4517,7 @@ important means of settling political differences.</p></div> when justified.</p></div> -<p>§ 30. The question when retorsion is and when it +<p>§ 30. The question when retorsion is and when it is not justified is not one of law, and is difficult to answer. The difficulty arises from the fact that retorsion is a means of settling such differences as are @@ -4585,7 +4541,7 @@ similar cases.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Retorsion, how exercised.</p></div> -<p>§ 31. The essence of retorsion consists in retaliation +<p>§ 31. The essence of retorsion consists in retaliation for a noxious act by an act of the same kind. But a State in making use of retorsion is by no means confined to acts of the same kind as those complained of, acts of a @@ -4600,7 +4556,7 @@ State changes its behaviour.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Retorsion.</p></div> -<p>§ 32. The value of retorsion as a means of settling +<p>§ 32. The value of retorsion as a means of settling certain international differences consists in its compulsory force, which has great power in regulating the intercourse of States. It is a commonplace of human @@ -4625,21 +4581,21 @@ the temptation.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 2—Vattel, II. §§ 342-354—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones jur. -publ.</i> I. c. 24—Hall, § 120—Lawrence, §§ 136-137—Westlake, II. pp. 7-11—Twiss, -II. §§ 11-22—Moore, VII. §§ 1095, 1096-1098—Taylor, §§ 436-437—Wharton, -III. §§ 318-320—Wheaton, §§ 291-293—Bluntschli, §§ -500-504—Heffter, §§ 111-112—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 72-116—Ullmann, -§ 160—Bonfils, Nos. 975-985—Despagnet, Nos. 487-495—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2637-2647—Rivier, II. § 60—Nys, III. pp. 84-91—Calvo, -III. §§ 1808-1831—Fiore, II. Nos. 1228-1230, and Code, Nos. -1391-1399—Martens, II. § 105—Lafargue, <i>Les représailles en temps de -paix</i> (1899)—Ducrocq, <i>Représailles en temps de paix</i> (1901), pp. 5-57, 175-232—Westlake +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 2—Vattel, II. §§ 342-354—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones jur. +publ.</i> I. c. 24—Hall, § 120—Lawrence, §§ 136-137—Westlake, II. pp. 7-11—Twiss, +II. §§ 11-22—Moore, VII. §§ 1095, 1096-1098—Taylor, §§ 436-437—Wharton, +III. §§ 318-320—Wheaton, §§ 291-293—Bluntschli, §§ +500-504—Heffter, §§ 111-112—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 72-116—Ullmann, +§ 160—Bonfils, Nos. 975-985—Despagnet, Nos. 487-495—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2637-2647—Rivier, II. § 60—Nys, III. pp. 84-91—Calvo, +III. §§ 1808-1831—Fiore, II. Nos. 1228-1230, and Code, Nos. +1391-1399—Martens, II. § 105—Lafargue, <i>Les représailles en temps de +paix</i> (1899)—Ducrocq, <i>Représailles en temps de paix</i> (1901), pp. 5-57, 175-232—Westlake in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXV. (1909), pp. 127-137.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Reprisals in contradistinction to Retorsion.</p></div> -<p>§ 33. <a name="Reprisals_is_the_term33" id="Reprisals_is_the_term33"></a>Reprisals is the term applied to such injurious +<p>§ 33. <a name="Reprisals_is_the_term33" id="Reprisals_is_the_term33"></a>Reprisals is the term applied to such injurious and otherwise internationally illegal acts of one State against another as are exceptionally permitted for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> purpose of compelling the latter to consent to a satisfactory @@ -4666,7 +4622,7 @@ for all International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 34. <a name="Reprisals_are_admissible34" id="Reprisals_are_admissible34"></a>Reprisals are admissible not only, as some +<p>§ 34. <a name="Reprisals_are_admissible34" id="Reprisals_are_admissible34"></a>Reprisals are admissible not only, as some writers<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> maintain, in case of denial or delay of justice, or of any other internationally interdicted ill-treatment of foreign citizens, but in every case of an international @@ -4678,10 +4634,10 @@ obligations, violation of the dignity of a foreign State, violation of foreign territorial supremacy, or any other internationally illegal act.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See, for instance, Twiss, II. § 19.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See, for instance, Twiss, II. § 19.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> As regards reprisals for the non-payment of contract-debts, -see below, § <a href="#Like_all_other41">41</a>.</p></div> +see below, § <a href="#Like_all_other41">41</a>.</p></div> <p>Thus, to give an example, Great Britain, in the case of the Sicilian Sulphur Monopoly, performed acts of @@ -4720,7 +4676,7 @@ for International Delinquencies only.</p></div> -<p>§ 35. <a name="Reprisals_are_admissible35" id="Reprisals_are_admissible35"></a>Reprisals are admissible in the case of international +<p>§ 35. <a name="Reprisals_are_admissible35" id="Reprisals_are_admissible35"></a>Reprisals are admissible in the case of international delinquencies only and exclusively. As internationally injurious acts on the part of administrative and judicial officials, armed forces, and private individuals @@ -4734,7 +4690,7 @@ and thereby an international delinquency would be created for which reprisals are indeed admissible.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. §§ 149</a> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. §§ 149</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It150">150</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p></div> <p>The reprisals ordered by Great Britain in the case @@ -4752,7 +4708,7 @@ damages against the rioters before the Greek Courts. Great Britain continued to press her claim, and finally in 1850 blockaded the Greek coast and ordered, by way of reprisal, the capture of Greek vessels. The conflict -was eventually settled by Greece paying £150 to Don +was eventually settled by Greece paying £150 to Don Pacifico. It is generally recognised that England had no right to act as she did in this case. She could have claimed damages directly from the Greek Government @@ -4760,14 +4716,14 @@ only after the Greek Courts had denied satisfaction to Don Pacifico.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th167">vol. I. § 167.</a> The case is reported with all its -details in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, V. pp. 395-531.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th167">vol. I. § 167.</a> The case is reported with all its +details in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, V. pp. 395-531.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reprisals, by whom performed.</p></div> -<p>§ 36. Acts of reprisal may nowadays be performed +<p>§ 36. Acts of reprisal may nowadays be performed only by State organs such as armed forces, or men-of-war, or administrative officials, in compliance with a special order of their State. But in former times @@ -4801,7 +4757,7 @@ forces to perform all kinds of such acts (<i>general</i> reprisals). The term "General Reprisals" is by Great Britain nowadays used for the authorisation of the British fleet to seize in time of war all enemy ships and goods. -Phillimore (III. § 10) cites the following Order in Council +Phillimore (III. § 10) cites the following Order in Council of March 27, 1854: "Her Majesty having determined to afford active assistance to her ally, His Highness the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, for the protection @@ -4819,7 +4775,7 @@ vessels, and goods," &c.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Objects of Reprisals.</p></div> -<p>§ 37. <a name="An_act_of_reprisal37" id="An_act_of_reprisal37"></a>An act of reprisal may be performed against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +<p>§ 37. <a name="An_act_of_reprisal37" id="An_act_of_reprisal37"></a>An act of reprisal may be performed against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> anything and everything that belongs or is due to the delinquent State or its citizens. Ships sailing under its flag may be seized, treaties concluded with it may @@ -4849,7 +4805,7 @@ and under no condition or circumstance may they be executed or subjected to punishment of any kind.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible34">34</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible34">34</a>.</p></div> <p>The rule that anything and everything belonging to the delinquent State may be made the object of @@ -4868,25 +4824,25 @@ Silesian loan due to English creditors, Great Britain, in addition to denying the question that there was at all a just cause for reprisals, maintained that public debts may not be made the object of reprisals. English -jurists and others, as, for instance, Vattel (II. § 344), +jurists and others, as, for instance, Vattel (II. § 344), consent to this, but German writers dissent.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See -the case reported in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, I. p. +the case reported in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, I. p. 35.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See -Phillimore, III. § 22, in contradistinction to Heffter, -§ 111, note 5. The case is reported with all its details in Martens, -<i>Causes Célèbres</i>, II. pp. 97-168. The dispute was settled in 1756—see -below, § <a href="#Hitherto_if_a_trial437">437</a>—through Great Britain paying an indemnity of £20,000.</p></div> +Phillimore, III. § 22, in contradistinction to Heffter, +§ 111, note 5. The case is reported with all its details in Martens, +<i>Causes Célèbres</i>, II. pp. 97-168. The dispute was settled in 1756—see +below, § <a href="#Hitherto_if_a_trial437">437</a>—through Great Britain paying an indemnity of £20,000.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Positive and Negative Reprisals.</p></div> -<p>§ 38. Reprisals can be positive or negative. One +<p>§ 38. Reprisals can be positive or negative. One speaks of positive reprisals when such acts are performed as would under ordinary circumstances involve an international delinquency. On the other hand, @@ -4899,7 +4855,7 @@ or the payment of a debt is refused.</p> must be proportionate.</p></div> -<p>§ 39. Reprisals, be they positive or negative, must +<p>§ 39. Reprisals, be they positive or negative, must be in proportion to the wrong done and to the amount of compulsion necessary to get reparation. For instance, a State would not be justified in arresting by @@ -4914,7 +4870,7 @@ its commercial treaty with such State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Embargo.</p></div> -<p>§ 40. <a name="A_kind_of_reprisal40" id="A_kind_of_reprisal40"></a>A kind of reprisal, which is called <i>Embargo</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +<p>§ 40. <a name="A_kind_of_reprisal40" id="A_kind_of_reprisal40"></a>A kind of reprisal, which is called <i>Embargo</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> must be specially mentioned. This term of Spanish origin means detention, but in International Law it has the technical meaning of detention of ships in @@ -4925,7 +4881,7 @@ the ports of the injured State for the purpose of compelling the delinquent State to make reparation for the wrong done.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Thus in 1840—see above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible34">34</a>—Great Britain +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Thus in 1840—see above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible34">34</a>—Great Britain laid an embargo on Sicilian ships.</p></div> @@ -4936,11 +4892,11 @@ reasons. According to a now obsolete<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40" Law, conflicting States could, when war was breaking out or impending, lay an <i>embargo</i> on, and appropriate each other's merchantmen. Another kind -of <i>embargo</i> is the so-called <i>arrêt de prince</i><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—that is, a +of <i>embargo</i> is the so-called <i>arrêt de prince</i><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—that is, a detention of foreign ships for the purpose of preventing them from spreading news of political importance. And there is, thirdly, an <i>embargo</i> arising out of the so-called -<i>jus angariæ</i>—that is, the right of a belligerent +<i>jus angariæ</i>—that is, the right of a belligerent State to seize and make use of neutral property in case of necessity, under the obligation to compensate the neutral owner of such property. States have in the @@ -4949,19 +4905,19 @@ had not enough ships for the necessary transport of troops, ammunition, and the like.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See, however, -below, § <a href="#In_former_times102a">102<i>a</i></a> and article 1 of Convention +below, § <a href="#In_former_times102a">102<i>a</i></a> and article 1 of Convention VI., which only stipulates that it is <i>desirable</i> that enemy vessels in the port of a belligerent at the outbreak of war should be allowed to depart freely; see also article 2 of Convention VI.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See - Steck, <i>Versuch über Handels-und Schiffahrts-Verträge</i> + Steck, <i>Versuch über Handels-und Schiffahrts-Verträge</i> (1782), p. 355; Caumont, <i>Dictionnaire universel de droit maritime</i> -(1867), pp. 247-265; Calvo, III. § 1277; Pradier-Fodéré, V. p. 719; +(1867), pp. 247-265; Calvo, III. § 1277; Pradier-Fodéré, V. p. 719; Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 98-104.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Under_the364">364</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Under_the364">364</a>.</p></div> <p>These kinds of international <i>embargo</i> must not be confounded with the so-called <i>civil embargo</i> of @@ -4970,7 +4926,7 @@ Sovereign to English ships not to leave English ports.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See - Phillimore, III. § 26.</p></div> + Phillimore, III. § 26.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reprisals to be preceded @@ -4982,7 +4938,7 @@ stopped when Reparation is made.</p></div> -<p>§ 41. <a name="Like_all_other41" id="Like_all_other41"></a>Like all other compulsive means of settling +<p>§ 41. <a name="Like_all_other41" id="Like_all_other41"></a>Like all other compulsive means of settling international differences, reprisals are admissible only after negotiations have been conducted in vain for the purpose of obtaining reparation from the delinquent @@ -5003,7 +4959,7 @@ be evacuated, suspended treaties must again be put into force, and the like.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See - Phillimore, III. § 14.</p></div> + Phillimore, III. § 14.</p></div> <p>It must be specially mentioned that in the case of recovery of contract debts claimed from the Government @@ -5021,7 +4977,7 @@ to Reprisals during War.</p></div> -<p>§ 42. <a name="Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42" id="Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42"></a>Reprisals in time of peace must not be confounded +<p>§ 42. <a name="Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42" id="Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42"></a>Reprisals in time of peace must not be confounded with reprisals between belligerents. Whereas the former are resorted to for the purpose of settling a conflict without going to war, the latter<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> are retaliations @@ -5029,12 +4985,12 @@ to force an enemy guilty of a certain act of illegitimate warfare to comply with the laws of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals247">247</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals247">247</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Reprisals.</p></div> -<p>§ 43. The value of reprisals as a means of settling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +<p>§ 43. The value of reprisals as a means of settling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> international differences is analogous to the value of retorsion. States will have recourse to reprisals for such international delinquencies as they think insufficiently @@ -5066,18 +5022,18 @@ almost disappear.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 121—Lawrence, § 138—Westlake, II. pp. 11-18—Taylor, § 444—Moore, -VII. § 1097—Bluntschli, §§ 506-507—Heffter, § 112—Bulmerincq -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 116-127—Ullmann, § 162—Bonfils, Nos. 986-994—Despagnet, -Nos. 496-498—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2483-2489, VI. No. -2648—Rivier, II. § 60—Nys, III. pp. 91-94—Calvo, III. §§ 1832-1859—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 121—Lawrence, § 138—Westlake, II. pp. 11-18—Taylor, § 444—Moore, +VII. § 1097—Bluntschli, §§ 506-507—Heffter, § 112—Bulmerincq +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 116-127—Ullmann, § 162—Bonfils, Nos. 986-994—Despagnet, +Nos. 496-498—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2483-2489, VI. No. +2648—Rivier, II. § 60—Nys, III. pp. 91-94—Calvo, III. §§ 1832-1859—Fiore, II. No. 1231, and Code, Nos. 1404-1414—Martens, II. 105—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 151-167—Deane, <i>The Law of Blockade</i> (1870), pp. 45-48—Fauchille, <i>Du blocus maritime</i> (1882), pp. 37-67—Falcke, <i>Die Hauptperioden -der sogenannten Friedensblockade</i> (1891), and in the <i>Zeitschrift für Internationales -Recht</i>, XIX. (1909), pp. 63-175—Barès, <i>Le blocus pacifique</i> (1898)—Ducrocq, -<i>Représailles en temps de paix</i> (1901), pp. 58-174—Hogan, -<i>Pacific Blockade</i> (1908)—Söderquist, <i>Le Blocus Maritime</i> (1908)—Staudacher, +der sogenannten Friedensblockade</i> (1891), and in the <i>Zeitschrift für Internationales +Recht</i>, XIX. (1909), pp. 63-175—Barès, <i>Le blocus pacifique</i> (1898)—Ducrocq, +<i>Représailles en temps de paix</i> (1901), pp. 58-174—Hogan, +<i>Pacific Blockade</i> (1908)—Söderquist, <i>Le Blocus Maritime</i> (1908)—Staudacher, <i>Die Friedensblockade</i> (1909)—Westlake in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXV. (1909), pp. 13-23.</p> @@ -5087,7 +5043,7 @@ practice of Pacific Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 44. Before the nineteenth century blockade was +<p>§ 44. Before the nineteenth century blockade was only known as a measure between belligerents in time of war. It was not until the second quarter of the nineteenth century that the first case occurred @@ -5153,7 +5109,7 @@ compensation ought not to be paid for losses sustained by foreign vessels so detained.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible35">35</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Reprisals_are_admissible35">35</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> This blockade, although ostensibly a war blockade for the purpose of preventing the ingress of foreign vessels, was nevertheless @@ -5166,7 +5122,7 @@ of Pacific Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 45. No unanimity exists among international +<p>§ 45. No unanimity exists among international lawyers with regard to the question whether or not pacific blockades are admissible according to the principles of the Law of Nations. There is no doubt @@ -5210,7 +5166,7 @@ vessels of third States.</p></div> -<p>§ 46. It has already been stated that those writers +<p>§ 46. It has already been stated that those writers who admit the legality of pacific blockades are unanimous regarding the fact that no right exists for the blockading State to seize and sequestrate such ships of @@ -5229,10 +5185,10 @@ the conflicting parties. The declaration of the Institute of International Law in favour of pacific blockade contains, therefore, the condition: "Les navires de pavillons neutres peuvent entrer librement -malgré le blocus."</p> +malgré le blocus."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See - Heffter, § 112; Perels, § 30.</p></div> + Heffter, § 112; Perels, § 30.</p></div> <p>The practice of pacific blockade has varied with regard to ships of third States. Before 1850 ships @@ -5269,7 +5225,7 @@ vessels of the blockaded State.</p></div> -<p>§ 47. Theory and practice seem nowadays to agree +<p>§ 47. Theory and practice seem nowadays to agree upon the rule that the ships of a pacifically blockaded State trying to break the blockade may be seized and sequestrated. But they may not be condemned and @@ -5284,7 +5240,7 @@ was raised.</p> of Pacific Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 48. Pacific blockade is a measure of such enormous +<p>§ 48. Pacific blockade is a measure of such enormous consequences that it can be justified only after the failure of preceding negotiations for the purpose of settling the questions in dispute. And further, as @@ -5301,14 +5257,14 @@ doubt that pacific blockades ought to be likewise<span class="pagenum"><a name=" effective. The declaration of the Institute of International Law in favour of pacific blockade contains, therefore, the condition: "Le blocus pacifique doit -être déclaré et notifié officiellement, et maintenu par +être déclaré et notifié officiellement, et maintenu par une force suffisante."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Pacific Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 49. As the establishment of a pacific blockade +<p>§ 49. As the establishment of a pacific blockade has in various instances not prevented the outbreak of hostilities, the value of a pacific blockade as a means of non-hostile settlement of international differences @@ -5331,22 +5287,22 @@ with success against a powerful naval State if exercised by the united navies of several Powers.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The following is the full text of the declaration of the -Institute of International Law referred to above, § 45: +Institute of International Law referred to above, § 45: </p><p class="noindent"> -"L'établissement d'un blocus en dehors de l'état de guerre ne doit être -considéré comme permis par le droit de gens que sous les conditions +"L'établissement d'un blocus en dehors de l'état de guerre ne doit être +considéré comme permis par le droit de gens que sous les conditions suivantes: </p><p class="noindent"> -"1. Les navires de pavillon étranger peuvent entrer librement malgré le +"1. Les navires de pavillon étranger peuvent entrer librement malgré le blocus. </p><p class="noindent"> -"2. Le blocus pacifique doit être déclaré et notifié officiellement et +"2. Le blocus pacifique doit être déclaré et notifié officiellement et maintenu par une force suffisante. </p><p class="noindent"> -"3. Les navires de la puissance bloquée qui ne respectent pas un pareil -blocus, peuvent être séquestrés. Le blocus ayant cessé, ils doivent être -restitués avec leurs cargaisons à leurs propriétaires, mais sans -dédommagement à aucun titre."</p></div> +"3. Les navires de la puissance bloquée qui ne respectent pas un pareil +blocus, peuvent être séquestrés. Le blocus ayant cessé, ils doivent être +restitués avec leurs cargaisons à leurs propriétaires, mais sans +dédommagement à aucun titre."</p></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> <h4> @@ -5356,7 +5312,7 @@ dédommagement à aucun titre."</p></div> <p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above in -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. at the commencement of § 134</a>.</p> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. at the commencement of § 134</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intervention in @@ -5366,7 +5322,7 @@ Participation in a difference.</p></div> -<p>§ 50. <a name="In50" id="In50"></a>Intervention as a means of settling international +<p>§ 50. <a name="In50" id="In50"></a>Intervention as a means of settling international differences is only a special kind of intervention in general, which has already been discussed.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> It consists in the dictatorial interference of a third @@ -5398,7 +5354,7 @@ dictatorially requests them to settle their dispute through arbitration.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. §§ 134</a>-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. §§ 134</a>-138.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p></div> <p>Intervention, in the form of dictatorial interference, must, further, be distinguished from such efforts of @@ -5409,13 +5365,13 @@ advice. It is, therefore, incorrect when some jurists<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id speak of good offices and the like as an "amicable" in contradistinction to a "hostile" intervention.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Thus, for instance, Rivier, II. § 58. See also - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. § 134</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Thus, for instance, Rivier, II. § 58. See also + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Intervention_is134">vol. I. § 134</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode of Intervention.</p></div> -<p>§ 51. Intervention in a difference between two +<p>§ 51. Intervention in a difference between two States is exercised through a communication of the intervening State to one or both of the conflicting States with a dictatorial request for the settlement of @@ -5436,13 +5392,13 @@ by several great Powers in the interest of the balance of power and of humanity.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In_contradistinction136">vol. I. §§ 136</a> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In_contradistinction136">vol. I. §§ 136</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ma137">137</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Time of Intervention.</p></div> -<p>§ 52. An intervention in a difference between two +<p>§ 52. An intervention in a difference between two States can take place at any time from the moment a conflict arises till the moment it is settled, and even immediately after the settlement. In many cases @@ -5462,7 +5418,7 @@ State by the victor.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#F <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> With regard to the question of the right of intervention, the admissibility of intervention in default of a right, and to all other details concerning intervention, the reader must be referred -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. §§ 135</a>-138.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_apparent135">vol. I. §§ 135</a>-138.</p></div> <div class="box4"> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> @@ -5487,24 +5443,24 @@ above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It_is_a -<p class="indh1">Grotius, I. c. 1, § 2—Vattel, III. §§ 1-4, 69-72—Hall, §§ 15-18—Westlake, -II. pp. 1-6—Lawrence, § 135—Lorimer, II. pp. 18-28—Manning, pp. -131-133—Phillimore, III. § 49—Twiss, II. §§ 22-29—Taylor, §§ 449-451—Wheaton, -§ 295—Bluntschli, §§ 510-514—Heffter, §§ 113-114—Lueder in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 175-198—Klüber, §§ 235-237—G. F. Martens, II. § -263—Ullmann, § 165—Bonfils, Nos. 1000-1001—Despagnet, Nos. 499-505—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2650-2660—Rivier, II. § 61—Nys, III. -pp. 95-117—Calvo, IV. §§ 1860-1864—Fiore, III. Nos. 1232-1268—Martens, -II. § 106—Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, pp. 258-264—Heilborn, <i>System</i>, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, I. c. 1, § 2—Vattel, III. §§ 1-4, 69-72—Hall, §§ 15-18—Westlake, +II. pp. 1-6—Lawrence, § 135—Lorimer, II. pp. 18-28—Manning, pp. +131-133—Phillimore, III. § 49—Twiss, II. §§ 22-29—Taylor, §§ 449-451—Wheaton, +§ 295—Bluntschli, §§ 510-514—Heffter, §§ 113-114—Lueder in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 175-198—Klüber, §§ 235-237—G. F. Martens, II. § +263—Ullmann, § 165—Bonfils, Nos. 1000-1001—Despagnet, Nos. 499-505—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2650-2660—Rivier, II. § 61—Nys, III. +pp. 95-117—Calvo, IV. §§ 1860-1864—Fiore, III. Nos. 1232-1268—Martens, +II. § 106—Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, pp. 258-264—Heilborn, <i>System</i>, pp. 321-332—Rettich, <i>Zur Theorie und Geschichte des Rechts zum Kriege</i> -(1888), pp. 3-140—Wiesse, <i>Le Droit international appliqué aux guerres +(1888), pp. 3-140—Wiesse, <i>Le Droit international appliqué aux guerres civiles</i> (1898)—Rougier, <i>Les guerres civiles et le droit des gens</i> (1903)—Higgins, <i>War and the Private Citizen</i> (1912), pp. 3-72.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>War no illegality.</p></div> -<p>§ 53. As within the boundaries of the modern State +<p>§ 53. As within the boundaries of the modern State an armed contention between two or more citizens is illegal, public opinion has become convinced that armed contests between citizens are inconsistent with @@ -5546,7 +5502,7 @@ be realised.</p> of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 54. <a name="War_is_the_contention54" id="War_is_the_contention54"></a>War is the contention between two or more +<p>§ 54. <a name="War_is_the_contention54" id="War_is_the_contention54"></a>War is the contention between two or more States through their armed forces for the purpose of overpowering each other and imposing such conditions of peace as the victor pleases. War is a fact @@ -5568,13 +5524,13 @@ is in such case performed by the war. And the same laws of war are valid, whether wars are waged on account of legal or of political differences.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 1; Phillimore, III. § 49; -Twiss, II. § 26; Bluntschli, § 510; Bulmerincq, § 92.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 1; Phillimore, III. § 49; +Twiss, II. § 26; Bluntschli, § 510; Bulmerincq, § 92.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>War a contention.</p></div> -<p>§ 55. In any case, it is universally recognised that +<p>§ 55. In any case, it is universally recognised that war is a <i>contention</i>, which means, <i>a violent struggle through the application of armed force</i>. For a war to be in existence, two or more States must actually have @@ -5610,7 +5566,7 @@ contention between States.</p></div> -<p>§ 56. <a name="To_be_considered_war56" id="To_be_considered_war56"></a>To be considered war, the contention must +<p>§ 56. <a name="To_be_considered_war56" id="To_be_considered_war56"></a>To be considered war, the contention must be going on <i>between States</i>. In the Middle Ages wars were known between private individuals, so-called private wars, and wars between corporations, as the @@ -5649,14 +5605,14 @@ the Southern member-States in 1861-1865 was real war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Some publicists maintain, however, that a contention between a State and the armed forces of a party fighting for public -rights must be considered as war. See, for instance, Bluntschli, § 113, -and Fiore, III. § 1265.</p></div> +rights must be considered as war. See, for instance, Bluntschli, § 113, +and Fiore, III. § 1265.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Such_States_as_do75">75</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Such_States_as_do75">75</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Bulgaria was at that time still a vassal State under Turkish suzerainty.</p></div> @@ -5670,7 +5626,7 @@ through armed forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 57. <a name="It_must_be_emphasised57" id="It_must_be_emphasised57"></a>It must be emphasised that war nowadays +<p>§ 57. <a name="It_must_be_emphasised57" id="It_must_be_emphasised57"></a>It must be emphasised that war nowadays is a contention of States <i>through their armed forces</i>. Those private subjects of the belligerents who do not directly or indirectly belong to the armed forces do @@ -5706,7 +5662,7 @@ declaring that war is a relation between States and not between individuals, and that consequently the subjects of the belligerents are only enemies as soldiers, not as citizens. And although this new doctrine did -not, as Hall (§ 18) shows, spread at once, it has since +not, as Hall (§ 18) shows, spread at once, it has since the second half of the nineteenth century been proclaimed on the European continent by the majority of writers. British and American-English writers, @@ -5715,7 +5671,7 @@ always maintained that the relation of enmity between the belligerents extends also to their private citizens.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See - Lassudrie-Duchêne, <i>Jean Jacques Rousseau et le droit + Lassudrie-Duchêne, <i>Jean Jacques Rousseau et le droit des gens</i> (1906).</p></div> <p>I think, if the facts of war are taken into consideration @@ -5785,14 +5741,14 @@ British forces in the vicinity of their home."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> But many continental writers constantly make use of Rousseau's <i>dictum</i> in order to defend untenable positions. See -Oppenheim, <i>Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts</i> (1911), pp. 59-61.</p></div> +Oppenheim, <i>Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts</i> (1911), pp. 59-61.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See -Breton, <i>Les non-belligérants: Leurs devoirs, leurs +Breton, <i>Les non-belligérants: Leurs devoirs, leurs droits, et la question des otages</i> (1904).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The first edition of this work was wrong in stating that through military occupation private enemy individuals fall under the @@ -5810,16 +5766,16 @@ patriotic motives and may be highly praised for their acts by their compatriots. The high-sounding and well-meant words of Baron Lambermont, one of the Belgian delegates at the Conference of Brussels of -1874—"Il y a des choses qui se font à la guerre, qui +1874—"Il y a des choses qui se font à la guerre, qui se feront toujours, et que l'on doit bien accepter. Mais il s'agit ici de les convertir en lois, en prescriptions positives et internationales. Si les citoyens doivent -être conduits au supplice pour avoir tenté de défendre -leur pays au péril de leur vie, il ne faut pas qu'ils +être conduits au supplice pour avoir tenté de défendre +leur pays au péril de leur vie, il ne faut pas qu'ils trouvent inscrits sur le poteau au pied duquel ils seront -fusilés l'article d'un traité signé par leur propre gouvernement -qui d'avance les condamnait à mort"—have no -<i>raison d'être</i> in face of the fact that according to a +fusilés l'article d'un traité signé par leur propre gouvernement +qui d'avance les condamnait à mort"—have no +<i>raison d'être</i> in face of the fact that according to a generally recognised customary rule of International Law hostile acts on the part of private individuals are not acts of legitimate warfare, and the offenders may @@ -5832,7 +5788,7 @@ whether or not such acts may be styled "crimes" is again only one of terminology; materially the rule is not at all controverted.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 18, p. 74, and Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, p. 262.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 18, p. 74, and Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, p. 262.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> It is of value to quote articles 20-26 of the <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i>, which @@ -5889,7 +5845,7 @@ overpowering each other.</p></div> -<p>§ 58. The last, and not the least important, characteristic +<p>§ 58. The last, and not the least important, characteristic of war is its purpose. It is a contention between States for the purpose of overpowering each other. This purpose of war is not to be confounded @@ -5927,14 +5883,14 @@ State is a higher consideration than any individual well-being.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Civil War.</p></div> -<p>§ 59. <a name="The_characteristics59" id="The_characteristics59"></a>The characteristics of war as developed above +<p>§ 59. <a name="The_characteristics59" id="The_characteristics59"></a>The characteristics of war as developed above must help to decide the question whether so-called civil wars are war in the technical meaning of the term. -It has already been stated above (in § <a href="#To_be_considered_war56">56</a>) that an armed +It has already been stated above (in § <a href="#To_be_considered_war56">56</a>) that an armed contention between member-States of a Federal State and the latter and between a suzerain and its vassal ought to be considered as war because both parties are @@ -5982,18 +5938,18 @@ and the re-occupation by the legitimate Government of the territory occupied by them.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See -below, §§ <a href="#The_distinction76">76</a> and <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>.</p></div> +below, §§ <a href="#The_distinction76">76</a> and <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th63">vol. I. § 63</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th63">vol. I. § 63</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Guerilla War.</p></div> -<p>§ 60. <a name="The_characteristics60" id="The_characteristics60"></a>The characteristics of war as developed +<p>§ 60. <a name="The_characteristics60" id="The_characteristics60"></a>The characteristics of war as developed above are also decisive for the answer to the question whether so-called guerilla war is real war in the technical sense of the term. Such guerilla war must not be confounded @@ -6079,14 +6035,14 @@ bands without recourse to methods of harshness.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, I. c. 3; II. c. 1; III. c. 3—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 6, § 9—Vattel, III. -§§ 2, 5, 24-50, 183-187—Lorimer, II. pp. 29-48—Phillimore, III. §§ 33-48—Twiss, -II. §§ 26-30—Halleck, I. pp. 488-519—Taylor, §§ 452-454—Wheaton, -§§ 295-296—Bluntschli, §§ 515-521—Heffter, § 113—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 221-236—Klüber, §§ 41, 235, 237—G. F. Martens, -§§ 265-266—Ullmann, § 166—Bonfils, Nos. 1002-1005—Despagnet, No. -506—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2661-2670—Rivier, II. p. 219—Nys, III. -pp. 106-114—Calvo, IV. §§ 1866-1896—Fichte, <i>Ueber den Begriff des +<p class="indh1">Grotius, I. c. 3; II. c. 1; III. c. 3—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 6, § 9—Vattel, III. +§§ 2, 5, 24-50, 183-187—Lorimer, II. pp. 29-48—Phillimore, III. §§ 33-48—Twiss, +II. §§ 26-30—Halleck, I. pp. 488-519—Taylor, §§ 452-454—Wheaton, +§§ 295-296—Bluntschli, §§ 515-521—Heffter, § 113—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 221-236—Klüber, §§ 41, 235, 237—G. F. Martens, +§§ 265-266—Ullmann, § 166—Bonfils, Nos. 1002-1005—Despagnet, No. +506—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2661-2670—Rivier, II. p. 219—Nys, III. +pp. 106-114—Calvo, IV. §§ 1866-1896—Fichte, <i>Ueber den Begriff des wahrhaften Krieges</i> (1815)—Rettich, <i>Zur Theorie und Geschichte des Rechts zum Kriege</i> (1888), pp. 141-292—Peyronnard, <i>Des causes de la guerre</i> (1901).</p> @@ -6098,7 +6054,7 @@ of Causes of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 61. <a name="Whatever_may_be61" id="Whatever_may_be61"></a>Whatever may be the cause of a war that +<p>§ 61. <a name="Whatever_may_be61" id="Whatever_may_be61"></a>Whatever may be the cause of a war that has broken out, and whether or no the cause be a so-called just cause, the same rules of International Law are valid as to what must not be done, may be @@ -6122,7 +6078,7 @@ international treaties.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Causes of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 62. The causes of war are innumerable. They +<p>§ 62. The causes of war are innumerable. They are involved in the fact that the development of mankind is indissolubly connected with the national development of States. The millions of individuals who @@ -6173,7 +6129,7 @@ politics.</p> Causes of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 63. However this may be, it often depends largely +<p>§ 63. However this may be, it often depends largely upon the standpoint from which they are viewed whether or no causes of war are to be called just causes. A war may be just or unjust from the standpoint of @@ -6206,7 +6162,7 @@ the standpoint of at any rate one of the belligerents, necessary and therefore just wars.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. §§ 151</a>-156.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. §§ 151</a>-156.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Causes in contradistinction @@ -6214,7 +6170,7 @@ to Pretexts for War.</p></div> -<p>§ 64. Be that as it may, causes of war must not be +<p>§ 64. Be that as it may, causes of war must not be confounded with pretexts for war. A State which makes war against another will never confess that there is no just cause for war, and it will therefore, @@ -6242,7 +6198,7 @@ some time.</p> kinds of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 65. Such writers on International Law as lay +<p>§ 65. Such writers on International Law as lay great stress upon the causes of war in general and upon the distinction between just causes and others, also lay great stress upon the distinction between different @@ -6262,12 +6218,12 @@ no further details are necessary respecting kinds of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Whatever_may_be61">61</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Whatever_may_be61">61</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ends of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 66. <a name="The_cause_or_causes66" id="The_cause_or_causes66"></a>The cause or causes of a war determine at its +<p>§ 66. <a name="The_cause_or_causes66" id="The_cause_or_causes66"></a>The cause or causes of a war determine at its inception the ends of such war. The ends of war must not be confounded with the purpose of war.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Whereas the purpose of war is always the same—namely, the @@ -6312,14 +6268,14 @@ dangers which such alteration of the ends of a war may eventually involve.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ends of war must likewise not be confounded with aims of -land and sea warfare; see below, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war103">103</a> and <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>.</p></div> +land and sea warfare; see below, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war103">103</a> and <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> See -Bluntschli, § 536; Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 364; +Bluntschli, § 536; Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 364; Rivier, II. p. 219.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#War_is_the_contention54">54</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#War_is_the_contention54">54</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -6327,20 +6283,20 @@ Rivier, II. p. 219.</p></div> <span class="smaller">THE LAWS OF WAR</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 17—Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, pp. 232-235—Maine, pp. 122-159—Phillimore, -III. § 50—Taylor, § 470—Walker, <i>History</i>, I. §§ 106-108—Heffter, § 119—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 253-333—Ullmann, §§ 167 and 170—Bonfils, -Nos. 1006-1013—Despagnet, Nos. 508-510—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 17—Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, pp. 232-235—Maine, pp. 122-159—Phillimore, +III. § 50—Taylor, § 470—Walker, <i>History</i>, I. §§ 106-108—Heffter, § 119—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 253-333—Ullmann, §§ 167 and 170—Bonfils, +Nos. 1006-1013—Despagnet, Nos. 508-510—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3212-3213—Rivier, II. pp. 238-242—Nys, III. pp. 160-164—Calvo, -IV. §§ 1897-1898—Fiore, III. Nos. 1244-1260—Martens, II. § 107—Longuet, +IV. §§ 1897-1898—Fiore, III. Nos. 1244-1260—Martens, II. § 107—Longuet, p. 12—Bordwell, pp. 100-196—Spaight, pp. 1-19—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, -p. 2—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 1-7—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 40-96.</p> +p. 2—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 1-7—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 40-96.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Origin of the Laws of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 67. <a name="Laws_of_War67" id="Laws_of_War67"></a>Laws of War are the rules of the Law of +<p>§ 67. <a name="Laws_of_War67" id="Laws_of_War67"></a>Laws of War are the rules of the Law of Nations respecting warfare. The roots of the present Laws of War are to be traced back to practices of belligerents which arose and grew gradually during @@ -6402,7 +6358,7 @@ of the Laws of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 68. <a name="Th68" id="Th68"></a>The latest and the most important development +<p>§ 68. <a name="Th68" id="Th68"></a>The latest and the most important development of the Laws of War was produced through general treaties concluded between the majority of States since the beginning of the second part of the nineteenth @@ -6524,13 +6480,13 @@ the Hague Convention of 1899." See also Holland, <i>The Laws of War on Land (Written and Unwritten)</i>, Oxford, 1908.</p></div> <p>(5) The Declaration concerning expanding (dumdum) -bullets; see below, § <a href="#As_Great_Britain112">112</a>.</p> +bullets; see below, § <a href="#As_Great_Britain112">112</a>.</p> <p>(6) The Declaration concerning projectiles and explosives -launched from balloons; see below, § <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>.</p> +launched from balloons; see below, § <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>.</p> <p>(7) The Declaration concerning projectiles diffusing -asphyxiating or deleterious gases; see below, § <a href="#The_First_Hague113">113</a>.</p> +asphyxiating or deleterious gases; see below, § <a href="#The_First_Hague113">113</a>.</p> <p>(8) <a name="The_Con68no8" id="The_Con68no8"></a>The Convention for the adaptation to sea warfare of the principles of the Geneva Convention, produced @@ -6575,20 +6531,20 @@ of vessels to a neutral flag, enemy character, convoy, and resistance to search.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> The United States of America (see - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Sh32">vol. I. § 32</a>), + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Sh32">vol. I. § 32</a>), published on June 27, 1900, a body of rules for the use of her navy under the title <i>The Laws and Usages of War on Sea</i>—the so-called "United States Naval War Code." This code, although withdrawn on February 4, 1904, will undoubtedly be the starting-point of a movement for a Naval War Code to be generally agreed upon by the Powers. See -below, § <a href="#Be_that_as_it179">179</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Be_that_as_it179">179</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Binding force of the Laws of War</p></div> -<p>§ 69. As soon as usages of warfare have by custom +<p>§ 69. As soon as usages of warfare have by custom or treaty evolved into laws of war, they are binding upon belligerents under all circumstances and conditions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> except in the case of reprisals<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> as retaliation @@ -6613,13 +6569,13 @@ therefore, against such an exception is the more justified, as a great danger would be involved by its admission.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> See, for instance, Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 254-257; -Ullmann, § 170; Meurer, II. pp. 7-15. Liszt, who in former editions -agreed with these writers, deserts their ranks in the sixth edition (§ +Ullmann, § 170; Meurer, II. pp. 7-15. Liszt, who in former editions +agreed with these writers, deserts their ranks in the sixth edition (§ 24, IV. 3), and correctly takes the other side. See also Nys, III. p. -202, and Holland, <i>War</i>, § 2, where the older literature is quoted.</p></div> +202, and Holland, <i>War</i>, § 2, where the older literature is quoted.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See Rivier, II. p. 242.</p></div> @@ -6656,7 +6612,7 @@ of war. <i>Kriegsraeson geht vor Kriegsmanier</i>, but not <i>vor Kriegsrecht</i>!</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Concerning the distinction between usage and custom, see - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Cu17">vol. I. § 17</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Cu17">vol. I. § 17</a>.</p></div> @@ -6666,10 +6622,10 @@ of war. <i>Kriegsraeson geht vor Kriegsmanier</i>, but not </h4> -<p class="indh1">Taylor, §§ 471 and 498—Heffter, § 118—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -362-364—Klüber, § 242—Liszt, § 40, I.—Ullmann, § 174—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Taylor, §§ 471 and 498—Heffter, § 118—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +362-364—Klüber, § 242—Liszt, § 40, I.—Ullmann, § 174—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2733, and VIII. Nos. 3104-3106—Rivier, II. pp. 216-219—Boeck, -Nos. 214-230—Longuet, §§ 18-25—Perels, § 33—Rettich, <i>Zur +Nos. 214-230—Longuet, §§ 18-25—Perels, § 33—Rettich, <i>Zur Theorie und Geschichte des Rechts zum Kriege</i> (1888), pp. 174-213.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Region of @@ -6679,7 +6635,7 @@ to Theatre of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 70. <a name="Region_of_war70" id="Region_of_war70"></a>Region of war is that part of the surface of +<p>§ 70. <a name="Region_of_war70" id="Region_of_war70"></a>Region of war is that part of the surface of the earth in which the belligerents may prepare and execute hostilities against each other. In this meaning region of war ought<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> to be distinguished from @@ -6704,7 +6660,7 @@ not appear to have been made by any other publicist.</p></div> Region of every War.</p></div> -<p>§ 71. <a name="The_region_of_war71" id="The_region_of_war71"></a>The region of war depends upon the belligerents. +<p>§ 71. <a name="The_region_of_war71" id="The_region_of_war71"></a>The region of war depends upon the belligerents. For this reason every war has its particular region, so far at any rate as territorial region is concerned. For besides the Open Sea<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and all such territories @@ -6717,10 +6673,10 @@ which is permanently neutralised,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></ from the region of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al256">vol. I. § 256</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al256">vol. I. § 256</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Although_the_Open_Sea72">72</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Although_the_Open_Sea72">72</a>.</p></div> <p>Since colonies are a part of the territory of the mother country, they fall within the region of war in @@ -6749,11 +6705,11 @@ between Turkey and another Power, Great Britain excepted.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th91">vol. I. §§ 91</a> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th91">vol. I. §§ 91</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th169">169</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th171">vol. I. § 171</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th171">vol. I. § 171</a>.</p></div> <p>Although as a rule the territories of both belligerents, together with the Open Sea, fall within the region of @@ -6793,10 +6749,10 @@ actually under British occupation, and that Crete is forcibly kept by the Powers under Turkish suzerainty.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_occasions_during339">339</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_occasions_during339">339</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exclusion from @@ -6805,7 +6761,7 @@ war through neutralisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 72. <a name="Although_the_Open_Sea72" id="Although_the_Open_Sea72"></a>Although the Open Sea in its whole extent +<p>§ 72. <a name="Although_the_Open_Sea72" id="Although_the_Open_Sea72"></a>Although the Open Sea in its whole extent and the whole of the territories of the belligerents are as a rule within the region of war, certain parts can be excluded through neutralisation. Such neutralisation @@ -6855,7 +6811,7 @@ paragraph—that the neutralisation shall not be valid in the case of a war against a common enemy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It181">vol. I. §§ 181</a> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It181">vol. I. §§ 181</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al256">256</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> The matter is thoroughly treated in Rettich, <i>Zur Theorie @@ -6864,21 +6820,21 @@ the neutralisation of some so-called international rivers, especially the Danube, Congo, and Niger, is discussed.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Si207">vol. I. § 207</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Si207">vol. I. § 207</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XVIII. p. 63.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_most_important183">vol. I. § 183</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_most_important183">vol. I. § 183</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XII. p. 491, and above, - <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_358_358">vol. I. § 195, p. 267, note 2, </a> -and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_931_931">§ 568, p. 592, note 2.</a></p></div> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_358_358">vol. I. § 195, p. 267, note 2, </a> +and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_931_931">§ 568, p. 592, note 2.</a></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Already_in184">vol. I. § 184</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Already_in184">vol. I. § 184</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXXIV. (1907), p. 703.</p></div> @@ -6901,7 +6857,7 @@ War in 1911, Turkey proposed the neutralisation of the Red Sea, but Italy refused to agree to it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> See -Perels, § 33, p. 160, note 2.</p></div> +Perels, § 33, p. 160, note 2.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Asserted exclusion @@ -6911,7 +6867,7 @@ Sea from the Region of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 73. That there is at present no part of the Open +<p>§ 73. That there is at present no part of the Open Sea neutralised is universally recognised, and this applies to the Baltic Sea, which is admittedly part of the Open Sea. Some writers,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> however, maintain @@ -6934,7 +6890,7 @@ Perels, pp. 160-163, who discusses the question at some length and answers it in the affirmative.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> See -Rivier, II. p. 218; Bonfils, § 504; Nys, I. pp. +Rivier, II. p. 218; Bonfils, § 504; Nys, I. pp. 448-450.</p></div> @@ -6947,12 +6903,12 @@ Rivier, II. p. 218; Bonfils, § 504; Nys, I. pp. -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 4—Phillimore, III. §§ 92-93—Taylor, §§ 458-460—Wheaton, § -294—Bluntschli, §§ 511-514—Heffter, §§ 114-117—Lueder in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 237-248—Klüber, § 236—G. F. Martens, II. § 264—Gareis, § 83—Liszt, -§ 39, II.—Ullmann, §§ 168-169—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2656-2660—Rivier, -II. pp. 207-216—Nys. III. pp. 114-118—Calvo, IV. §§ -2004-2038—Martens, II. § 108—Heilborn, <i>System</i>, pp. 333-335.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 4—Phillimore, III. §§ 92-93—Taylor, §§ 458-460—Wheaton, § +294—Bluntschli, §§ 511-514—Heffter, §§ 114-117—Lueder in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 237-248—Klüber, § 236—G. F. Martens, II. § 264—Gareis, § 83—Liszt, +§ 39, II.—Ullmann, §§ 168-169—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2656-2660—Rivier, +II. pp. 207-216—Nys. III. pp. 114-118—Calvo, IV. §§ +2004-2038—Martens, II. § 108—Heilborn, <i>System</i>, pp. 333-335.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Qualification to @@ -6961,7 +6917,7 @@ Belligerent (<i>facultas bellandi</i>).</p></div> -<p>§ 74. As the Law of Nations recognises the status +<p>§ 74. As the Law of Nations recognises the status of war and its effects as regards rights and duties between the two or more belligerents on the one hand, and, on the other, between the belligerents and neutral @@ -7000,7 +6956,7 @@ to become a Belligerent.</p></div> -<p>§ 75. <a name="Such_States_as_do75" id="Such_States_as_do75"></a>Such States as do not possess the legal qualification +<p>§ 75. <a name="Such_States_as_do75" id="Such_States_as_do75"></a>Such States as do not possess the legal qualification to become belligerents are by law prohibited from offensive or defensive warfare. But the possession of armed forces makes it possible for them in @@ -7046,7 +7002,7 @@ accession became a party to the Geneva Convention at a time when she was still a vassal State under Turkish suzerainty.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#To_be_considered_war56">56</a>, and Baty, <i>International Law in South +above, § <a href="#To_be_considered_war56">56</a>, and Baty, <i>International Law in South Africa</i> (1900), pp. 66-68.</p></div> @@ -7055,7 +7011,7 @@ as a Belligerent Power.</p></div> -<p>§ 76. <a name="The_distinction76" id="The_distinction76"></a>The distinction between legal qualification +<p>§ 76. <a name="The_distinction76" id="The_distinction76"></a>The distinction between legal qualification and actual power to make war explains the fact that insurgents may become a belligerent Power. It is a customary rule of the Law of Nations that any State @@ -7074,7 +7030,7 @@ as long as they have not received recognition as a belligerent Power.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>. See also Rougier, <i>Les guerres civiles</i>, + above, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>. See also Rougier, <i>Les guerres civiles</i>, &c. (1903), pp. 372-447, and Westlake, I. pp. 50-57. The Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Neuchatel in 1900, adopted a body of nine articles concerning the rights and duties of foreign States in @@ -7086,7 +7042,7 @@ and accessory Belligerent Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 77. <a name="War_occurs_usually77" id="War_occurs_usually77"></a>War occurs usually between two States, one +<p>§ 77. <a name="War_occurs_usually77" id="War_occurs_usually77"></a>War occurs usually between two States, one belligerent party being on each side. But there are cases in which there are on one or on both sides several parties, and in some of such cases principal and accessory @@ -7115,7 +7071,7 @@ peace, by the terms of which it had to grant a coaling station, the passage of troops through its territory, and the like, to one of the belligerents. This question is identical with the question, to be treated below in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> -§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>, whether a qualified neutrality, in contradistinction +§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>, whether a qualified neutrality, in contradistinction to a perfect neutrality, is admissible. Since the answer to this question is in the negative, such State as fulfils a treaty obligation of this kind in time of war @@ -7136,19 +7092,19 @@ either of munitions of war or of supplies."</p> <span class="smaller">THE ARMED FORCES OF THE BELLIGERENTS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 223-231—Hall, §§ 177-179, 181—Lawrence, §§ 148-150—Westlake, -II. pp. 60-63—Manning, pp. 206-210—Phillimore, III. § 94—Twiss, -II. § 45—Halleck, I. pp. 555-562—Taylor, §§ 471-476—Moore, -VII. § 1109—Wheaton, §§ 356-358—Bluntschli, §§ 569-572—Heffter, §§ -124-124<span class="smcap">A</span>—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 371-385—Klüber, 267—G. F. -Martens, II. § 271—Gareis, § 83—Ullmann, § 175—Liszt, § 40, II.—Bonfils, -Nos. 1088-1098—Despagnet, Nos. 520-523—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 223-231—Hall, §§ 177-179, 181—Lawrence, §§ 148-150—Westlake, +II. pp. 60-63—Manning, pp. 206-210—Phillimore, III. § 94—Twiss, +II. § 45—Halleck, I. pp. 555-562—Taylor, §§ 471-476—Moore, +VII. § 1109—Wheaton, §§ 356-358—Bluntschli, §§ 569-572—Heffter, §§ +124-124<span class="smcap">A</span>—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 371-385—Klüber, 267—G. F. +Martens, II. § 271—Gareis, § 83—Ullmann, § 175—Liszt, § 40, II.—Bonfils, +Nos. 1088-1098—Despagnet, Nos. 520-523—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2721-2732, and VIII. Nos. 3091-3102—Nys, III. pp. 155-202—Rivier, II. -pp. 242-259—Calvo, IV. §§ 2044-2065—Fiore, III. Nos. 1303-1316, and -Code, Nos. 1455-1475—Martens, II. § 112—Longuet, §§ 26-36—Pillet, pp. -35-59—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 4-8—Perels, § 34—Boeck, Nos. 209-213—Dupuis, +pp. 242-259—Calvo, IV. §§ 2044-2065—Fiore, III. Nos. 1303-1316, and +Code, Nos. 1455-1475—Martens, II. § 112—Longuet, §§ 26-36—Pillet, pp. +35-59—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 4-8—Perels, § 34—Boeck, Nos. 209-213—Dupuis, Nos. 74-91—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 195-218—Zorn, pp. 36-73—Bordwell, -pp. 228-236—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 17-38—Meurer, II. §§ 11-20—Spaight, +pp. 228-236—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 17-38—Meurer, II. §§ 11-20—Spaight, pp. 34-72—Ariga, pp. 74-91—Takahashi, pp. 89-93.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Regular @@ -7156,7 +7112,7 @@ Armies and Navies.</p></div> -<p>§ 78. The chief part of the armed forces of the +<p>§ 78. The chief part of the armed forces of the belligerents are their regular armies and navies. What kinds of forces constitute a regular army and a regular navy is not for International Law to determine, but a @@ -7179,14 +7135,14 @@ Members of Armed Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 79. <a name="In_the_main79" id="In_the_main79"></a>In the main, armed forces consist of combatants, +<p>§ 79. <a name="In_the_main79" id="In_the_main79"></a>In the main, armed forces consist of combatants, but no army in the field consists of combatants exclusively, as there are always several kinds of other individuals, such as couriers, aeronauts, doctors, farriers, veterinary surgeons, chaplains, nurses, official and voluntary ambulance men, contractors, canteen-caterers, newspaper correspondents,<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> civil servants, -diplomatists, and foreign military attachés<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> in +diplomatists, and foreign military attachés<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> in the suite of the Commander-in-Chief.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> See @@ -7215,12 +7171,12 @@ are accompanying. However, when one speaks of armed forces generally, combatants only are in consideration.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Every_individual127">127</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p></div> +below, § <a href="#Every_individual127">127</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Irregular Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 80. <a name="Very_often_the_armed80" id="Very_often_the_armed80"></a>Very often the armed forces of belligerents +<p>§ 80. <a name="Very_often_the_armed80" id="Very_often_the_armed80"></a>Very often the armed forces of belligerents consist throughout the war of their regular armies only, but, on the other hand, it happens frequently that irregular forces take part in the war. Of such @@ -7259,7 +7215,7 @@ and severally are still liable to be treated as war criminals, and shot.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> The distance at which the emblem should be visible is -undetermined. See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 23, where it is pointed out that it +undetermined. See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 23, where it is pointed out that it is reasonable to expect that the silhouette of an irregular combatant in the position of standing against the skyline should be at once distinguishable from the outline of a peaceable inhabitant, and this by @@ -7269,17 +7225,17 @@ irregulars who were treated as criminals and shot by the Japanese after the occupation of Vladimirowka on the island of Sakhaline.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> See - <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 26; individuals whose sole arm is a + <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 26; individuals whose sole arm is a pistol, hand-grenade, a dagger concealed about the person, or a sword-stick, are not such as carry their arms openly.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Levies <i>en masse</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 81. <a name="It_sometimes81" id="It_sometimes81"></a>It sometimes happens during war that on the +<p>§ 81. <a name="It_sometimes81" id="It_sometimes81"></a>It sometimes happens during war that on the approach of the enemy a belligerent calls the whole population of the country to arms and thus makes them a part, although a more or less irregular part, of @@ -7315,7 +7271,7 @@ those taking part in such a levy <i>en masse</i>, if captured, are liable to be shot.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>. Article 85 of the American <i>Instructions +below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>. Article 85 of the American <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies in the Field</i> of 1863 has enacted this rule as follows: "War rebels are persons within an occupied territory who rise in arms against the occupying or conquering army, or against the @@ -7342,18 +7298,18 @@ in the levy <i>en masse</i> are acting in immediate combination with a regular army or separately from it.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Concerning the difference between invasion and occupation, -see below, § <a href="#Since_an_occupant167">167</a>.</p></div> +see below, § <a href="#Since_an_occupant167">167</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> See - <i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 31-32.</p></div> + <i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 31-32.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> See - <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 34.</p></div> + <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 34.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Barbarous Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 82. As International Law grew up amongst the +<p>§ 82. As International Law grew up amongst the States of Christendom, and as the circle of the members of the Family of Nations includes only civilised, although not necessarily Christian, States, all writers on International @@ -7398,7 +7354,7 @@ into their hands.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privateers.</p></div> -<p>§ 83. <a name="Formerly_privateers83" id="Formerly_privateers83"></a>Formerly privateers were a generally recognised +<p>§ 83. <a name="Formerly_privateers83" id="Formerly_privateers83"></a>Formerly privateers were a generally recognised part of the armed forces of the belligerents, private vessels being commissioned by the belligerents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> through Letters of Marque to carry on hostilities at @@ -7426,10 +7382,10 @@ et surtout les reprises</i> (1795).</p></div> commissioned by another State than that of which he is a subject is liable to be treated as a pirate when captured. With this, however, I cannot agree; see -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Private_vessels273">vol. I. § 273</a>, Hall, § 81, and below, § <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Private_vessels273">vol. I. § 273</a>, Hall, § 81, and below, § <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Things_began_to177">177</a>. It is confidently to be hoped that the + below, § <a href="#Things_began_to177">177</a>. It is confidently to be hoped that the great progress made by the abolition of privateering through the Declaration of Paris will never be undone. But it is of importance to note the fact that up to the present day endeavours have been made on @@ -7441,12 +7397,12 @@ Declaration of Paris being a law-making treaty which does not provide the right of the several signatory Powers to give notice of withdrawal, a signatory Power is not at liberty to give such notice, although Mr. Gibson Bowles (<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 169-179) asserts that this could be done. -See above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh12">vol. I. § 12</a>.</p></div> +See above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh12">vol. I. § 12</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Converted Merchantmen.</p></div> -<p>§ 84. <a name="A_case_which_happened_in84" id="A_case_which_happened_in84"></a>A case which happened in 1870, soon after +<p>§ 84. <a name="A_case_which_happened_in84" id="A_case_which_happened_in84"></a>A case which happened in 1870, soon after the outbreak of the Franco-German war, gave occasion for the question whether converted merchantmen could be considered a part of the armed naval forces @@ -7471,7 +7427,7 @@ after the war undamaged, the owner should retain the 10 per cent. received as charter price. All such vessels should only try to capture or destroy French men-of-war, and if successful the owner should receive -a sum between £1500 and £7500 as premium. The +a sum between £1500 and £7500 as premium. The French Government considered this scheme a disguised evasion of the Declaration of Paris which abolished privateering, and requested the intervention @@ -7483,7 +7439,7 @@ the British Government refused to object to it. The scheme, however, was never put into practice.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> See - Perels, § 34; Hall, § 182; Boeck, No. 211; Dupuis, Nos. + Perels, § 34; Hall, § 182; Boeck, No. 211; Dupuis, Nos. 81-84.</p></div> <p>Now, in spite of the opinion of the British Law @@ -7511,8 +7467,8 @@ with the American Line.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a h Dupuis, No. 86.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> See -Lawrence, § 201, and Dupuis, Nos. 87-88. On the whole -question see Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3102-3103.</p></div> +Lawrence, § 201, and Dupuis, Nos. 87-88. On the whole +question see Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3102-3103.</p></div> <p>Matters were brought to a climax in 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, through the cases of the @@ -7543,7 +7499,7 @@ these vessels in Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 205 <i>seq.</i></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th197">vol. I. § 197</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th197">vol. I. § 197</a>.</p></div> <p>This case was the cause of the question of the conversion of merchantmen into men-of-war being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> @@ -7571,7 +7527,7 @@ by the belligerent concerned in the list of the ships of his military fleet (article 6).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> See -Wilson in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 271-275; Lémonon, pp. +Wilson in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 271-275; Lémonon, pp. 607-622; Higgins, pp. 312-321; Dupuis, Nos. 48-58; Nippold, II. pp. 73-84; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 568-576; Higgins, <i>War and the Private Citizen</i> (1912), pp. 115-168.</p></div> @@ -7615,7 +7571,7 @@ below, <a href="#Footnote_364_364">p. 231, <i>note</i> 2</a>.</p></div> Crews of Merchantmen.</p></div> -<p>§ 85. <a name="In_a_sense_the_crews85" id="In_a_sense_the_crews85"></a>In a sense the crews of merchantmen owned +<p>§ 85. <a name="In_a_sense_the_crews85" id="In_a_sense_the_crews85"></a>In a sense the crews of merchantmen owned by subjects of the belligerents belong to the latter's armed forces. For those vessels are liable to be seized by enemy men-of-war, and if attacked for that purpose @@ -7639,14 +7595,14 @@ without foundation nowadays,<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a it was not generally recognised.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> See - Wheaton, § 357; Taylor, § 496; Walker, p. 135, and + Wheaton, § 357; Taylor, § 496; Walker, p. 135, and <i>Science</i>, p. 268.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#All_enemy_men-of-war181">181</a>, and Hall, § 183.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#All_enemy_men-of-war181">181</a>, and Hall, § 183.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> See -Vattel, III. § 226, and G. F. Martens, II. § 289.</p></div> +Vattel, III. § 226, and G. F. Martens, II. § 289.</p></div> <p>It should be mentioned in regard to the fate of the crews of captured merchantmen that a distinction is to @@ -7682,13 +7638,13 @@ by the parole.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> This follows indirectly from article 8 of Convention XI.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p></div> +below, § <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Deserters and Traitors.</p></div> -<p>§ 86. The privileges of members of armed forces +<p>§ 86. The privileges of members of armed forces cannot be claimed by members of the armed forces of a belligerent who go over to the forces of the enemy and are afterwards captured by the former. They @@ -7700,7 +7656,7 @@ Even if they appear under the protection of a flag of truce, deserters and traitors may be seized and punished.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Bearers_of_flags222">222</a>; Hall, § 190; <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 36.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Bearers_of_flags222">222</a>; Hall, § 190; <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 36.</p></div> @@ -7710,18 +7666,18 @@ truce, deserters and traitors may be seized and punished.<a name="FNanchor_142_1 </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 4, §§ 6 and 7—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones juris publici</i>, I. c. 3 -<i>in fine</i>—Hall, §§ 167-175—Lawrence, §§ 151-159—Westlake, II. pp. 140-154—Phillimore, -III. §§ 82-86—Twiss, II. §§ 152-162—Taylor, §§ 468 and -517—Walker, §§ 39-43—Wharton, III. §§ 352-353—Wheaton, §§ 324-341—Moore, -VII. §§ 1185-1194—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 581-588—Ullmann, -§ 192—Nys, III. pp. 150-154—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 4, §§ 6 and 7—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones juris publici</i>, I. c. 3 +<i>in fine</i>—Hall, §§ 167-175—Lawrence, §§ 151-159—Westlake, II. pp. 140-154—Phillimore, +III. §§ 82-86—Twiss, II. §§ 152-162—Taylor, §§ 468 and +517—Walker, §§ 39-43—Wharton, III. §§ 352-353—Wheaton, §§ 324-341—Moore, +VII. §§ 1185-1194—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 581-588—Ullmann, +§ 192—Nys, III. pp. 150-154—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3166-3175—Bonfils, Nos. 1343-1349<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 650-653 <i>quinto</i>—Calvo, -IV. §§ 1932-1952—Fiore, III. Nos. 1432-1436, and Code, Nos. +IV. §§ 1932-1952—Fiore, III. Nos. 1432-1436, and Code, Nos. 1701-1709—Boeck, Nos. 156-190—Dupuis, Nos. 92-129, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. -59-73—Lémonon, pp. 426-467—Higgins, p. 593—Nippold, II. pp. 40-54—Scott, +59-73—Lémonon, pp. 426-467—Higgins, p. 593—Nippold, II. pp. 40-54—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 541-555—Frankenbach, <i>Die Rechtsstellung von -neutralen Staatsangehörigen in kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910)—Baty in +neutralen Staatsangehörigen in kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910)—Baty in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, IX. Part I. (1908), pp. 157-166, and Westlake, <i>ibidem</i>, Part II. (1909), pp. 265-268—Oppenheim in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXV. (1909), pp. 372-383.</p> @@ -7731,7 +7687,7 @@ Enemy Character in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 87. Since the belligerents, for the realisation of +<p>§ 87. Since the belligerents, for the realisation of the purpose of war, are entitled to many kinds of measures against enemy persons and enemy property, the question must be settled as to what persons and @@ -7802,7 +7758,7 @@ transfer of enemy goods on enemy vessels.</p> Character of Individuals.</p></div> -<p>§ 88. <a name="The_general_rule88" id="The_general_rule88"></a>The general rule with regard to individuals is +<p>§ 88. <a name="The_general_rule88" id="The_general_rule88"></a>The general rule with regard to individuals is that subjects of the belligerents bear enemy character, whereas subjects of neutral States do not. In this sense article 16 of Convention V. stipulates: "The @@ -7883,7 +7839,7 @@ appearance down to our own no difference has been made by a belligerent in the treatment accorded to subjects of the enemy and subjects of neutral States inhabiting the enemy country. Thus Grotius (III. -c. 4, §§ 6 and 7) teaches that foreigners must share the +c. 4, §§ 6 and 7) teaches that foreigners must share the fate of the population living on enemy territory, and Bynkershoek<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> distinctly teaches that foreigners residing in enemy country bear enemy character. English<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> @@ -7975,13 +7931,13 @@ goods.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_14 253.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_an_old90">90</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_an_old90">90</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Enemy Character of Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 89. <a name="The_general_rule89" id="The_general_rule89"></a>The general rule with regard to vessels is that +<p>§ 89. <a name="The_general_rule89" id="The_general_rule89"></a>The general rule with regard to vessels is that their character is determined by their flag. Whatever may be the nationality of the owner of a vessel—whether he be a subject of a neutral State, or of @@ -8038,7 +7994,7 @@ of war.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_1 neutral merchantman acquires enemy character <i>ipso facto</i> by forcibly resisting the legitimate exercise of the right of visitation and capture on the part of a belligerent -cruiser (see details below, § <a href="#If_a_neutral422">422</a>).</p> +cruiser (see details below, § <a href="#If_a_neutral422">422</a>).</p> <p>(3) According to British practice—adopted by America and Japan<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>—neutral merchantmen likewise @@ -8076,7 +8032,7 @@ the Second Hague Peace Conference, concerning the establishment of an International Prize Court).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> The case of the <i>Kow-shing</i> ought here to be mentioned, although it has now lost its former importance:— @@ -8096,21 +8052,21 @@ action of the Japanese was in accordance with the rules of International Law existing at the time. But in consequence of Convention III. of the Second Peace Conference which requires a declaration of war before the opening of hostilities, such action nowadays would not be justifiable. -See Hall, § 168*; Takahashi, pp. 27-51; Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. +See Hall, § 168*; Takahashi, pp. 27-51; Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 126-128.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> See the case of the <i>Montara</i> in Takahashi, p. 633.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a>, and Higgins, <i>War and the Private + below, § <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a>, and Higgins, <i>War and the Private Citizen</i> (1912), pp. 169-192.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Enemy Character of Goods.</p></div> -<p>§ 90. <a name="It_is_an_old90" id="It_is_an_old90"></a>It is an old customary rule that all goods +<p>§ 90. <a name="It_is_an_old90" id="It_is_an_old90"></a>It is an old customary rule that all goods found on board an enemy merchantman are presumed to be enemy goods unless the contrary is proved by the neutral owners concerned. It is, further, generally @@ -8201,14 +8157,14 @@ v. <i>Boyle</i> (<i>Bentzen</i> v. <i>Boyle</i>) (1815), 9 Cranch, 191.</p></div <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> See the French cases of:—<i>Le Hardy contre La Voltigeante</i> (1802) and <i>La Paix</i> (1803), 1 Pistoye et Duverdy, pp. 321 and 486; <i>Le -Joan</i> (1871), <i>Le Nicolaüs</i> (1871), <i>Le Thalia</i> (1871); <i>Le +Joan</i> (1871), <i>Le Nicolaüs</i> (1871), <i>Le Thalia</i> (1871); <i>Le Laura-Louise</i> (1871), Barboux, pp. 101, 108, 116, 119.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Transfer of Enemy Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 91. The question of the transfer of enemy vessels +<p>§ 91. The question of the transfer of enemy vessels to subjects of neutral States, either shortly before or during the war, must be regarded as forming part of the larger question of enemy character, for the point @@ -8286,8 +8242,8 @@ under which the vessel is sailing have not been fulfilled.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> See - Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 19; Hall, § 171; Twiss, II. §§ -162-163; Phillimore, III. § 386; Boeck, Nos. 178-180; Bonfils, Nos. + Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 19; Hall, § 171; Twiss, II. §§ +162-163; Phillimore, III. § 386; Boeck, Nos. 178-180; Bonfils, Nos. 1344-1349<span class="topnum">1</span>; Dupuis, Nos. 117-129, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 62-66.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> See @@ -8314,7 +8270,7 @@ of Goods on Enemy Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 92. The subject of the transfer of enemy goods on +<p>§ 92. The subject of the transfer of enemy goods on enemy vessels must likewise be considered as forming part of the larger subject of enemy character, for the question is here also whether such a transfer divests @@ -8354,8 +8310,8 @@ his right of stoppage <i>in transitu</i>, the goods regain their neutral character and may not therefore be confiscated.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> See - Hall, § 172; Twiss, II. §§ 162 and 163; Phillimore, -III. §§ 387 and 388; Dupuis, No. 1421, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 68-73; Boeck, + Hall, § 172; Twiss, II. §§ 162 and 163; Phillimore, +III. §§ 387 and 388; Dupuis, No. 1421, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 68-73; Boeck, Nos. 182 and 183.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> The <i>Jan Frederick</i> (1804), 5 C. Rob. 128; the <i>Ann Green</i> @@ -8386,26 +8342,26 @@ Goods Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Vict. c. 71).</p></div> <p class="indh1">Grotius, c. 3, 5-14—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones juris publici</i>, I. c. 2—Vattel, -III. §§ 51-65—Hall, § 123—Westlake, II. pp. 18-26, and 267—Lawrence, -§ 140—Manning, pp. 161-163—Phillimore, III. §§ 51-56—Twiss, II. §§ -31-40—Halleck, I. pp. 521-526—Taylor, §§ 455-456—Moore, VII. §§ -1106-1108—Walker, § 37—Wharton, III. §§ 333-335—Wheaton, § 297—Bluntschli, -§§ 521-528—Heffter, § 120—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -332-347—Gareis, § 80—Liszt, § 39, V.—Ullmann, § 171—Bonfils, Nos. -1027-1031<span class="topnum">2</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 513-516—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2671-2693—Nys, -III. pp. 118-133—Rivier, II. pp. 220-228—Calvo, IV. §§ +III. §§ 51-65—Hall, § 123—Westlake, II. pp. 18-26, and 267—Lawrence, +§ 140—Manning, pp. 161-163—Phillimore, III. §§ 51-56—Twiss, II. §§ +31-40—Halleck, I. pp. 521-526—Taylor, §§ 455-456—Moore, VII. §§ +1106-1108—Walker, § 37—Wharton, III. §§ 333-335—Wheaton, § 297—Bluntschli, +§§ 521-528—Heffter, § 120—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +332-347—Gareis, § 80—Liszt, § 39, V.—Ullmann, § 171—Bonfils, Nos. +1027-1031<span class="topnum">2</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 513-516—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2671-2693—Nys, +III. pp. 118-133—Rivier, II. pp. 220-228—Calvo, IV. §§ 1899-1911—Fiore, III. Nos. 1272-1276, and Code, 1422-1428—Martens, -II. § 109—Longuet, §§ 1-7, 15-16—Mérignhac, pp. 29-41—Pillet, pp. +II. § 109—Longuet, §§ 1-7, 15-16—Mérignhac, pp. 29-41—Pillet, pp. 61-72—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 26-44—Barclay, pp. 53-58—Boidin, pp. 116-121—Bordwell, -pp. 198-200—Higgins, pp. 202-205—Holland, <i>War</i>, § 16—Lémonon, +pp. 198-200—Higgins, pp. 202-205—Holland, <i>War</i>, § 16—Lémonon, pp. 309-406—Nippold, II. pp. 6-10—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. -516-522—Spaight, pp. 20-33—Ariga, §§ 11-12—Takahashi, pp. 1-25—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 8-10—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, p. 115—Sainte-Croix, <i>La -Déclaration de guerre et ses effets immédiats</i> (1892)—Bruyas, <i>De la déclaration +516-522—Spaight, pp. 20-33—Ariga, §§ 11-12—Takahashi, pp. 1-25—<i>Land +Warfare</i>, §§ 8-10—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, p. 115—Sainte-Croix, <i>La +Déclaration de guerre et ses effets immédiats</i> (1892)—Bruyas, <i>De la déclaration de guerre</i>, etc. (1899)—Tambaro, <i>L'inizio della guerra et la 3<span class="topnum">a</span> convenzione -dell' Aja del 1907</i> (1911)—Maurel, <i>De la déclaration de guerre</i> (1907)—Soughimoura, -<i>De la Déclaration de Guerre</i> (1912)—Brocher in <i>R.I.</i> IV. -(1872), p. 400; Férand-Giraud in <i>R.I.</i> XVII. (1885), p. 19; Nagaoka in +dell' Aja del 1907</i> (1911)—Maurel, <i>De la déclaration de guerre</i> (1907)—Soughimoura, +<i>De la Déclaration de Guerre</i> (1912)—Brocher in <i>R.I.</i> IV. +(1872), p. 400; Férand-Giraud in <i>R.I.</i> XVII. (1885), p. 19; Nagaoka in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. VI. p. 475—Rolin in <i>Annuaire</i>, XX. (1904), pp. 64-70—Ebren and Martens in <i>R.G.</i> XI. (1904), pp. 133 and 148—Dupuis in <i>R.G.</i> XIII. (1906), pp. 725-735—Stowell in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 50-62.</p> @@ -8415,7 +8371,7 @@ of War in General.</p></div> -<p>§ 93. According to the former practice of the States +<p>§ 93. According to the former practice of the States a condition of war could <i>de facto</i> arise either through a declaration of war; or through a proclamation and manifesto of a State that it considered itself at war @@ -8423,7 +8379,7 @@ with another State; or through the committal by one State of certain hostile acts of force against another State. History presents many instances of wars commenced in one of these three ways. Although Grotius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> -(III. c. 3, § 5) laid down the rule that a declaration of +(III. c. 3, § 5) laid down the rule that a declaration of war is necessary for its commencement, the practice of the States shows that this rule was not accepted, and many wars have taken place between the time of @@ -8479,16 +8435,16 @@ and Nicaragua, both of which, however, acceded later.</p> Maurice, <i>Hostilities without Declaration of War</i> (1883).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 51; Calvo, IV. § 1907; -Bluntschli, § 571; Fiore, III. No. 1274; Heffter, § 120.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 51; Calvo, IV. § 1907; +Bluntschli, § 571; Fiore, III. No. 1274; Heffter, § 120.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> See, for instance, Bynkershoek, <i>Quaestiones juris -publici</i>, I. c. 2; Klüber, § 238; G. F. Martens, § 267; Twiss, II. § 35: -Phillimore, III. §§ 51-55; Hall, § 123; Ullmann (first edition), § 145; -Gareis, § 80.</p></div> +publici</i>, I. c. 2; Klüber, § 238; G. F. Martens, § 267; Twiss, II. § 35: +Phillimore, III. §§ 51-55; Hall, § 123; Ullmann (first edition), § 145; +Gareis, § 80.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>, where the rule is quoted that no State is + above, § <a href="#Political_and_legal3">3</a>, where the rule is quoted that no State is allowed to make use of compulsive means of settling differences before negotiation has been tried.</p></div> @@ -8499,7 +8455,7 @@ negotiation has been tried.</p></div> of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 94. <a name="According_to94" id="According_to94"></a>According to article 1 of Convention III. +<p>§ 94. <a name="According_to94" id="According_to94"></a>According to article 1 of Convention III. hostilities must not commence without a previous and unequivocal warning, and one of the forms which this warning may take is a declaration of war stating the @@ -8572,11 +8528,11 @@ doubt that they were in fact aware of the condition of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Since_neutrality307">307</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Since_neutrality307">307</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ultimatum.</p></div> -<p>§ 95. <a name="The_second_form95" id="The_second_form95"></a>The second form which the unequivocal +<p>§ 95. <a name="The_second_form95" id="The_second_form95"></a>The second form which the unequivocal warning, stipulated by article 1 of Convention III. as necessary before the commencement of hostilities, may take is an ultimatum with a conditional declaration @@ -8629,14 +8585,14 @@ war must be communicated to the other party by a written document.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_above-described28">28</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_above-described28">28</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Initiative hostile Acts of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 96. There is no doubt that, in consequence of +<p>§ 96. There is no doubt that, in consequence of Convention III. of the Second Peace Conference, the recourse to hostilities without a previous declaration of war or qualified ultimatum is forbidden. But the fact @@ -8689,21 +8645,21 @@ aware of the outbreak of war.</p> <span class="smaller">EFFECTS OF THE OUTBREAK OF WAR</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 63—Hall, §§ 124-126—Westlake, II. pp. 29-32—Lawrence, §§ -143-146—Manning, pp. 163-165—Phillimore, III. §§ 67-91—Twiss, II. -§§ 41-61—Halleck, I. pp. 526-552, and II. pp. 124-140—Taylor, §§ 461-468—Walker, -§§ 44-50—Wharton, III. §§ 336-337<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 298-319—Moore, -V. § 779, and VII. §§ 1135-1142—Heffter, §§ 121-123—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 347-363—Gareis, § 81—Liszt, § 39, V.—Ullmann, -§ 173—Bonfils, Nos. 1044-1065—Despagnet, Nos. 517-519—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 63—Hall, §§ 124-126—Westlake, II. pp. 29-32—Lawrence, §§ +143-146—Manning, pp. 163-165—Phillimore, III. §§ 67-91—Twiss, II. +§§ 41-61—Halleck, I. pp. 526-552, and II. pp. 124-140—Taylor, §§ 461-468—Walker, +§§ 44-50—Wharton, III. §§ 336-337<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 298-319—Moore, +V. § 779, and VII. §§ 1135-1142—Heffter, §§ 121-123—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 347-363—Gareis, § 81—Liszt, § 39, V.—Ullmann, +§ 173—Bonfils, Nos. 1044-1065—Despagnet, Nos. 517-519—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2694-2720—Nys, III. pp. 134-150—Rivier, II. pp. 228-237—Calvo, -IV. §§ 1911-1931—Fiore, III. Nos. 1290-1301, and Code, -Nos. 1439-1445—Martens, II. § 109—Longuet, §§ 8-15—Mérignhac, pp. +IV. §§ 1911-1931—Fiore, III. Nos. 1290-1301, and Code, +Nos. 1439-1445—Martens, II. § 109—Longuet, §§ 8-15—Mérignhac, pp. 72-84—Pillet, pp. 42-59—Bordwell, pp. 200-211—Spaight, pp. 25-33—Ariga, -§§ 13-15—Takahashi, pp. 26-88—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 45-55—Sainte-Croix, -<i>La Déclaration de guerre et ses effets immédiats</i> (1892), pp. -166-207—Meyer, <i>De l'interdiction du commerce entre les belligérants</i> (1902)—Jaconnet, -<i>La guerre et les traités</i> (1909)—Politis in <i>Annuaire</i> XXIII. +§§ 13-15—Takahashi, pp. 26-88—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 45-55—Sainte-Croix, +<i>La Déclaration de guerre et ses effets immédiats</i> (1892), pp. +166-207—Meyer, <i>De l'interdiction du commerce entre les belligérants</i> (1902)—Jaconnet, +<i>La guerre et les traités</i> (1909)—Politis in <i>Annuaire</i> XXIII. (1910), pp. 251-282, and XXIV. (1911), pp. 200-223.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>General @@ -8712,7 +8668,7 @@ the Outbreak of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 97. <a name="When_war97" id="When_war97"></a>When war breaks out, even if it be limited +<p>§ 97. <a name="When_war97" id="When_war97"></a>When war breaks out, even if it be limited to only two members of the Family of Nations, nevertheless the whole Family of Nations is thereby affected, since the rights and duties of neutrality devolve upon @@ -8740,7 +8696,7 @@ Law, although it involves a rupture of peaceful relations between the belligerents.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rupture of Diplomatic @@ -8749,7 +8705,7 @@ and Consular Activity.</p></div> -<p>§ 98. <a name="Th98" id="Th98"></a>The outbreak of war causes at once the rupture +<p>§ 98. <a name="Th98" id="Th98"></a>The outbreak of war causes at once the rupture of diplomatic intercourse between the belligerents, if such rupture has not already taken place. The respective diplomatic envoys are recalled and ask for @@ -8761,14 +8717,14 @@ likewise comes to an end through the outbreak of war.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh413">vol. I. §§ 413</a> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh413">vol. I. §§ 413</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#De436">436</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Cancellation of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 99. <a name="The_doctrine_was99" id="The_doctrine_was99"></a>The doctrine was formerly held, and a few +<p>§ 99. <a name="The_doctrine_was99" id="The_doctrine_was99"></a>The doctrine was formerly held, and a few writers<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> maintain it even now, that the outbreak of war <i>ipso facto</i> cancels all treaties previously concluded between the belligerents, such treaties only excepted @@ -8819,8 +8775,8 @@ belligerents may suspend them, as far as they themselves<span class="pagenum"><a are concerned, in case the necessities of war compel them to do so.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> See, for instance, Phillimore, III. § 530, and Twiss, I. § -252, in contradistinction to Hall, § 125.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> See, for instance, Phillimore, III. § 530, and Twiss, I. § +252, in contradistinction to Hall, § 125.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> See Jaconnet, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 113-128.</p></div> @@ -8833,12 +8789,12 @@ with the United States of America, see Moore, V. pp. 375-380.</p></div> (1823), 8 Wheaton 464, and <i>Sutton</i> v. <i>Sutton</i> (1830), 1 Russel & Mylne, 663—have declared that article IX. of the treaty of Nov. 19, 1794, between Great Britain and the United States was not annulled by -the outbreak of war in 1812. See Moore, V. § 779 and Westlake, II. p. +the outbreak of war in 1812. See Moore, V. § 779 and Westlake, II. p. 30; see also the foreign cases discussed by Jaconnet, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 168-179.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Treaties_are18">vol. I. §§ 18,</a> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Treaties_are18">vol. I. §§ 18,</a> <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#These_important_functions492">492, </a> <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#La555">555</a>-568<i>b</i>.</p></div> @@ -8853,7 +8809,7 @@ subjects on Enemy Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 100. <a name="The_outbreak_of_war100" id="The_outbreak_of_war100"></a>The outbreak of war affects likewise such +<p>§ 100. <a name="The_outbreak_of_war100" id="The_outbreak_of_war100"></a>The outbreak of war affects likewise such subjects of the belligerents as are at the time within the enemy's territory. In former times they could at once be detained as prisoners of war, and many @@ -8912,7 +8868,7 @@ so, he is liable to be punished for treason<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanch Sovereign after the withdrawal of the enemy forces.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> See - a list of such treaties in Hall, § 126, p. 107, note + a list of such treaties in Hall, § 126, p. 107, note 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> With regard to the 10,000 Englishmen who were arrested in @@ -8925,18 +8881,18 @@ the part of England to begin hostilities by capturing two French merchantmen in the Bay of Audierne without a formal declaration of war. See Alison, <i>History of Europe</i>, V. p. 277, and Bonfils, No. 1052.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> See Twiss, II. § 50; Rivier, II. p. 320; Liszt, § 39, V.; +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> See Twiss, II. § 50; Rivier, II. p. 320; Liszt, § 39, V.; Holland, <i>Letters upon War and Neutrality</i> (1909), p. 39.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 12.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 12.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 13.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 13.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#On324">vol. I. § 324</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#On324">vol. I. § 324</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wi317">vol. I. § 317</a>, p. 394, where the case of <i>De + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wi317">vol. I. § 317</a>, p. 394, where the case of <i>De Jager</i> v. <i>Attorney General</i> is discussed.</p></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> @@ -8946,7 +8902,7 @@ judicio</i> on Enemy Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 100<i>a</i>. <a name="Formerly_the_rule100a" id="Formerly_the_rule100a"></a>Formerly the rule prevailed everywhere +<p>§ 100<i>a</i>. <a name="Formerly_the_rule100a" id="Formerly_the_rule100a"></a>Formerly the rule prevailed everywhere that an enemy subject has no <i>persona standi in judicio</i> and is, therefore, <i>ipso facto</i> by the outbreak of war, prevented from either taking or defending proceedings @@ -9027,12 +8983,12 @@ occupied enemy territory.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> It is impossible here to discuss the details of this controversy which the third Peace Conference must settle. See above, -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It554"> vol. I. § 554, No. 10;</a> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It554"> vol. I. § 554, No. 10;</a> Politis in <i>R.G.</i> XVIII. (1911), pp. 249-259, and the literature there quoted; Kohler in <i>Z.V.</i> V. (1911), pp. 384-393; Holland in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXVIII. (1912), pp. 94-98; Charteris in <i>The Juridical Review</i>, XXIII. (1911), pp. 307-323; -Oppenheim, <i>Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts</i> (1911), pp. 30-32.</p></div> +Oppenheim, <i>Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts</i> (1911), pp. 30-32.</p></div> <p>However this may be, it must be especially observed that, according to British and American law, claims @@ -9057,7 +9013,7 @@ between Subjects of Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 101. <a name="Following101" id="Following101"></a>Following Bynkershoek,<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> all British and +<p>§ 101. <a name="Following101" id="Following101"></a>Following Bynkershoek,<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> all British and American writers and cases, and also some French<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> and German<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> writers assert the existence of a rule of International Law that all intercourse, and especially @@ -9078,7 +9034,7 @@ subjects.</p> specialis sit commerciorum prohibitio ipsa tamen jure belli commercia sunt vetita</i>."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> For instance, Pillet, p. 74, and Mérignhac, p. 57.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> For instance, Pillet, p. 74, and Mérignhac, p. 57.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> For instance, Geffcken in his note 4 to Heffter, p. 265.</p></div> @@ -9114,7 +9070,7 @@ Governments to allow by special licences all or certain kinds of such trade.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th20">vol. I. § 20</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th20">vol. I. § 20</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> See Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 91.</p></div> @@ -9173,7 +9129,7 @@ of the outbreak of war, from the premiums actually paid. <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> See besides the English and American text-books quoted -above at the commencement of § <a href="#When_war97">97</a>, +above at the commencement of § <a href="#When_war97">97</a>, Pennant, Chadwick, and Gregory in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XVIII. (1902), pp. 289-296, XX. (1904), pp. 167-185, XXV. (1909), pp. 297-316; Bentwich, <i>The Law of Private @@ -9246,7 +9202,7 @@ United States, 425.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that, if the continental interpretation of article 23 (<i>h</i>) of the Hague Regulations—see -above, § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>—were not contradicted by Great +above, § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>—were not contradicted by Great Britain and the United States of America, both countries would be compelled to alter their Municipal Laws in so far as these declare such contracts as have been entered @@ -9254,7 +9210,7 @@ into with alien enemies before the outbreak of war dissolved, void, or suspended. Article 23 (<i>h</i>) distinctly enacts that it is forbidden to declare extinguished or suspended the rights of the nationals of the adverse -party. Since, however, as stated above in § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>, +party. Since, however, as stated above in § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>, Great Britain and the United States of America uphold a different interpretation, this article does not concern their Municipal Laws respecting trading with alien @@ -9268,7 +9224,7 @@ in the Enemy State.</p></div> -<p>§ 102. <a name="In_former_times_all102" id="In_former_times_all102"></a>In former times all private and public enemy +<p>§ 102. <a name="In_former_times_all102" id="In_former_times_all102"></a>In former times all private and public enemy property, immoveable or moveable, on each other's territory could be confiscated by the belligerents at the outbreak of war, as could also enemy debts; and the @@ -9311,7 +9267,7 @@ enemy debts till after the conclusion of peace in order to prevent the increase of resources of the enemy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_outbreak_of_war100">100</a>; Moore, VII. § 1196; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, + above, § <a href="#The_outbreak_of_war100">100</a>; Moore, VII. § 1196; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 559-563.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> The indulgence granted to enemy merchantmen in Russian and @@ -9325,7 +9281,7 @@ country, provided they are restored and indemnities paid after the conclusion of peace, seizure must likewise—under the same conditions—be permissible in case these articles are on the territory of a belligerent. As regards rolling stock belonging to private enemy -railway companies, see Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen im Kriege</i> (1906), § +railway companies, see Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen im Kriege</i> (1906), § 15.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of @@ -9334,7 +9290,7 @@ of War on Merchantmen.</p></div> -<p>§ 102<i>a</i>. <a name="In_former_times102a" id="In_former_times102a"></a>In former times International Law empowered +<p>§ 102<i>a</i>. <a name="In_former_times102a" id="In_former_times102a"></a>In former times International Law empowered States at the outbreak of war to lay an embargo upon all enemy merchantmen in their harbours in order to confiscate them. And enemy merchantmen on the @@ -9376,9 +9332,9 @@ of the belligerents and vessels on the sea. Its provisions are the following:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 647-661; Higgins, pp. 300-307; Nippold, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 647-661; Higgins, pp. 300-307; Nippold, II. pp. 146-153; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 556-568; Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 74-81; Scott in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 260-269.</p></div> @@ -9473,11 +9429,11 @@ that Convention VI. does not affect such vessels.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 136-138—Hall, §§ 184-185—Phillimore, III. § 94—Taylor, § -469—Wheaton, § 342—Bluntschli, §§ 534-535—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 388-389—Gareis, § 84—Bonfils, Nos. 1066-1067—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2734-2741—Longuet, § 41—Mérignhac, p. 146—Pillet, -pp. 85-89—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, p. 9—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 39—Holland, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 136-138—Hall, §§ 184-185—Phillimore, III. § 94—Taylor, § +469—Wheaton, § 342—Bluntschli, §§ 534-535—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 388-389—Gareis, § 84—Bonfils, Nos. 1066-1067—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2734-2741—Longuet, § 41—Mérignhac, p. 146—Pillet, +pp. 85-89—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, p. 9—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 39—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 1-15.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Aims and @@ -9485,7 +9441,7 @@ Means of Land Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 103. <a name="The_purpose_of_war103" id="The_purpose_of_war103"></a>The purpose of war, namely, the overpowering +<p>§ 103. <a name="The_purpose_of_war103" id="The_purpose_of_war103"></a>The purpose of war, namely, the overpowering of the enemy, is served in land warfare through two aims<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>—firstly, defeat of the enemy armed forces on land, and, secondly, occupation and administration of @@ -9503,7 +9459,7 @@ warfare on land must be discussed in this chapter, as must also occupation of enemy territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> Aims of land warfare must not be confounded with ends of war; see -above, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Lawful and @@ -9511,7 +9467,7 @@ Unlawful Practices of Land Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 104. But—to use the words of article 22 of the +<p>§ 104. But—to use the words of article 22 of the Hague Regulations—"the belligerents have not an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> unlimited right as to the means they adopt for injuring the enemy." For not all possible practices of injuring @@ -9527,14 +9483,14 @@ all kinds and degrees of force and many other practices may be made use of in war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Laws_of_War67">67</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Laws_of_War67">67</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Objects of the Means of Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 105. In a sense all means of warfare are directed +<p>§ 105. In a sense all means of warfare are directed against one object only—namely, the enemy State, which is to be overpowered by all legitimate means. Apart from this, the means of land warfare are directed @@ -9557,7 +9513,7 @@ in contradistinction to Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 106. Land warfare must be distinguished from sea +<p>§ 106. Land warfare must be distinguished from sea warfare chiefly for two reasons. Firstly, their circumstances and conditions differ widely from each other, and, therefore, their means and practices also differ. @@ -9576,20 +9532,20 @@ exclusively with warfare on land.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Pa </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 4—Vattel, III. §§ 139-159—Hall, §§ 128, 129, 185—Westlake, -II. pp. 72-76—Lawrence, §§ 161, 163, 166-169—Maine, pp. 123-148—Manning, -pp. 196-205—Phillimore, III. §§ 94-95—Halleck, II. pp. 14-18—Moore, -VII. §§ 1111, 1119, 1122, 1124—Taylor, §§ 477-480—Walker, -§ 50—Wheaton, §§ 343-345—Bluntschli, §§ 557-563—Heffter, § 126—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 390-394—Gareis, § 85—Klüber, § 244—Liszt, -§ 40, III.—G. F. Martens, II. § 272—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. -1068-1071, 1099, 1141—Despagnet, Nos. 525-527—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 4—Vattel, III. §§ 139-159—Hall, §§ 128, 129, 185—Westlake, +II. pp. 72-76—Lawrence, §§ 161, 163, 166-169—Maine, pp. 123-148—Manning, +pp. 196-205—Phillimore, III. §§ 94-95—Halleck, II. pp. 14-18—Moore, +VII. §§ 1111, 1119, 1122, 1124—Taylor, §§ 477-480—Walker, +§ 50—Wheaton, §§ 343-345—Bluntschli, §§ 557-563—Heffter, § 126—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 390-394—Gareis, § 85—Klüber, § 244—Liszt, +§ 40, III.—G. F. Martens, II. § 272—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. +1068-1071, 1099, 1141—Despagnet, Nos. 525-527—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2742-2758—Rivier, II. pp. 260-265—Nys, III. pp. 206-209—Calvo, IV. 2098-2105—Fiore, III. Nos. 1317-1320, 1342-1348, and Code, Nos. 1476-1483—Martens, -II. § 110—Longuet, §§ 42-49—Mérignhac, pp. 146-165—Pillet, +II. § 110—Longuet, §§ 42-49—Mérignhac, pp. 146-165—Pillet, pp. 85-95—Holland, <i>War</i>, pp. 70-76—Zorn, pp. 127-161—Bordwell, -pp. 278-283—Meurer, II. §§ 30-31—Spaight, pp. 73-156—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, -pp. 9-11—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 39-53.</p> +pp. 278-283—Meurer, II. §§ 30-31—Spaight, pp. 73-156—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +pp. 9-11—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 39-53.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>On Violence @@ -9598,7 +9554,7 @@ against Enemy Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 107. <a name="As_war_is_a_contention107" id="As_war_is_a_contention107"></a>As war is a contention between States for +<p>§ 107. <a name="As_war_is_a_contention107" id="As_war_is_a_contention107"></a>As war is a contention between States for the purpose of overpowering each other, violence consisting of different sorts of force applied against enemy persons is the chief and decisive means of @@ -9621,7 +9577,7 @@ and Wounding of Combatants.</p></div> -<p>§ 108. Every combatant may be killed or wounded, +<p>§ 108. Every combatant may be killed or wounded, whether a private soldier or an officer, or even the monarch or a member of his family. Some publicists<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> assert that it is a usage of warfare not to aim at a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> @@ -9640,11 +9596,11 @@ of the Hague Regulations, although the fury of battle frequently makes individual fighters<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> forget and neglect them.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> See Klüber, § 245; G. F. Martens, II. § 278; Heffter, § 126.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> See Klüber, § 245; G. F. Martens, II. § 278; Heffter, § 126.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Says Vattel, III. § 159: "Mais ce n'est point une loi de la -guerre d'épargner en toute rencontre la personne du roi ennemi; et on -n'y est obligé que quand on a la facilité de le faire prisonnier." The +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Says Vattel, III. § 159: "Mais ce n'est point une loi de la +guerre d'épargner en toute rencontre la personne du roi ennemi; et on +n'y est obligé que quand on a la facilité de le faire prisonnier." The example of Charles XII. of Sweden (quoted by Vattel), who was intentionally fired at by the defenders of the fortress of Thorn, besieged by him, and who said that the defenders were within their @@ -9656,7 +9612,7 @@ right, ought to settle the point.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Refusal of Quarter.</p></div> -<p>§ 109. However, the rule that quarter must be given +<p>§ 109. However, the rule that quarter must be given has its exceptions. Although it has of late been a customary rule of International Law, and although the Hague Regulations now expressly stipulate by @@ -9680,11 +9636,11 @@ attack of artillery, and to the weak garrison who obstinately and uselessly persevered in defending a fortified place against overwhelming enemy forces.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2800-2801, who opposes this +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2800-2801, who opposes this principle but discusses the subject in a very detailed way.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> See Payrat, <i>Le Prisonnier de Guerre</i> (1910), pp. 191-220, -and <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 80.</p></div> +and <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 80.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Accordingly, the Boers frequently during the South African War set free British soldiers whom they had captured.</p></div> @@ -9698,7 +9654,7 @@ and wounding Combatants.</p></div> -<p>§ 110. <a name="Apart_from_such110" id="Apart_from_such110"></a>Apart from such means as are expressly +<p>§ 110. <a name="Apart_from_such110" id="Apart_from_such110"></a>Apart from such means as are expressly prohibited by treaties or custom, all means of killing and wounding that exist or may be invented are lawful. And it matters not whether the means used are directed @@ -9731,7 +9687,7 @@ wounds is permitted.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Explosive Bullets.</p></div> -<p>§ 111. <a name="In_1868_a_conference111" id="In_1868_a_conference111"></a>In 1868 a conference met at St. Petersburg +<p>§ 111. <a name="In_1868_a_conference111" id="In_1868_a_conference111"></a>In 1868 a conference met at St. Petersburg for the examination of a proposition made by Russia with regard to the use of explosive projectiles in war. The representatives of seventeen Powers—namely, @@ -9739,7 +9695,7 @@ Great Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Holland, Italy, Persia, Portugal, Prussia and the North German Confederation, Sweden-Norway, Switzerland, Turkey -and Württemberg (Brazil acceded later) signed on +and Württemberg (Brazil acceded later) signed on December 11, 1868, the so-called Declaration of St. Petersburg,<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> which stipulates that the signatory Powers, and those who should accede later, renounce in case @@ -9753,14 +9709,14 @@ a non-contracting Power takes part in a war between any of the contracting Powers.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th562">vol. I. § 562</a>, and Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XVIII. p. +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th562">vol. I. § 562</a>, and Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XVIII. p. 474.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expanding (Dum-Dum) Bullets.</p></div> -<p>§ 112. <a name="As_Great_Britain112" id="As_Great_Britain112"></a>As Great Britain had introduced bullets +<p>§ 112. <a name="As_Great_Britain112" id="As_Great_Britain112"></a>As Great Britain had introduced bullets manufactured at the Indian arsenal of Dum-Dum, near Calcutta, the hard jacket of which did not quite cover the core and which therefore easily expanded @@ -9786,7 +9742,7 @@ or Deleterious Gases.</p></div> -<p>§ 113. <a name="The_First_Hague113" id="The_First_Hague113"></a>The First Hague Peace Conference also +<p>§ 113. <a name="The_First_Hague113" id="The_First_Hague113"></a>The First Hague Peace Conference also adopted a Declaration, signed on July 29, 1899, by sixteen States—namely, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Mexico, France, Greece, Montenegro, Holland, Persia, @@ -9803,7 +9759,7 @@ Britain acceded later.</p> directed from Air-Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 114. <a name="The_First_Hague_Peace114" id="The_First_Hague_Peace114"></a>The First Hague Peace Conference adopted +<p>§ 114. <a name="The_First_Hague_Peace114" id="The_First_Hague_Peace114"></a>The First Hague Peace Conference adopted likewise a Declaration, signed on July 29, 1899, prohibiting <i>for a term of five years</i> the launching of projectiles or explosives from balloons or other kinds @@ -9839,9 +9795,9 @@ as regards violence directed from air vessels.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See, besides the literature quoted above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_292_292">vol. I. p. 237, note 1,</a> - Mérignhac, pp. 198-209; Bonfils, Nos. 1440<span class="topnum">4</span>-1440<span class="topnum">21</span>; + Mérignhac, pp. 198-209; Bonfils, Nos. 1440<span class="topnum">4</span>-1440<span class="topnum">21</span>; Despagnet, No. 721 <i>bis</i>; Meyer, <i>Die Luftschiffahrt in -kriegsrechtlicher Beleuchtung</i> (1909); Philet, <i>La guerre aérienne</i> +kriegsrechtlicher Beleuchtung</i> (1909); Philet, <i>La guerre aérienne</i> (1910); Nys, Fauchille, and Bar in <i>Annuaire</i>, XIX. (1902), pp. 58-114, XXIV. (1911), pp. 23-126; Fauchille in <i>R.G.</i> VIII. (1901), pp. 414-485.</p></div> @@ -9855,7 +9811,7 @@ Members of Armed Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 115. It will be remembered from above, § <a href="#In_the_main79">79</a>, +<p>§ 115. It will be remembered from above, § <a href="#In_the_main79">79</a>, that numerous individuals belong to armed forces without being combatants. Now, since and in so far as these non-combatant members of armed forces do @@ -9873,7 +9829,7 @@ the assistance they give to the fighting forces may be of great importance.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#The_personnel121">121</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#The_personnel121">121</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violence against @@ -9881,7 +9837,7 @@ Private Enemy Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 116. <a name="Whereas_in116" id="Whereas_in116"></a>Whereas in former<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> times private enemy +<p>§ 116. <a name="Whereas_in116" id="Whereas_in116"></a>Whereas in former<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> times private enemy persons of either sex could be killed or otherwise badly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> treated according to discretion, and whereas in especial the inhabitants of fortified places taken by assault @@ -9900,7 +9856,7 @@ train carrying private individuals as well as soldiers is wrecked by a mine, no violation of the rule prohibiting attack on private enemy persons has taken place.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> See Grotius, III. c. 4, §§ VI. and +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> See Grotius, III. c. 4, §§ VI. and IX.</p></div> <p>As regards captivity, the rule is that private enemy @@ -9923,7 +9879,7 @@ may not be detained as prisoners of war, whether they render these services voluntarily or are requisitioned or hired. See <i>Land Warfare</i>, -§ 58 note (<i>a</i>).</p></div> +§ 58 note (<i>a</i>).</p></div> <p>Apart from captivity, restrictions of all sorts may be imposed upon, and means of force may be applied @@ -9957,11 +9913,11 @@ and liberty, must be respected."</p> the peaceful population may be detained in so-called concentration camps, there is no doubt; see below, -§ <a href="#The_question_must154">154</a>. And there is likewise no +§ <a href="#The_question_must154">154</a>. And there is likewise no doubt that hostages may be taken from the peaceful population; see -below, § <a href="#An_occupant_having170">170</a>, p. 213, and - § <a href="#Footnote_491_491">259, p. 319, note 2</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#An_occupant_having170">170</a>, p. 213, and + § <a href="#Footnote_491_491">259, p. 319, note 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violence against @@ -9974,7 +9930,7 @@ Officials in Important Positions.</p></div> -<p>§ 117. <a name="The_head_of_the_enemy117" id="The_head_of_the_enemy117"></a>The head of the enemy State and officials +<p>§ 117. <a name="The_head_of_the_enemy117" id="The_head_of_the_enemy117"></a>The head of the enemy State and officials in important posts, in case they do not belong to the armed forces, occupy, so far as their liability to direct attack, death, or wounds is concerned, a position similar @@ -9997,27 +9953,27 @@ agree to terms of peace.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 130—Lawrence, § 165—Maine, pp. 156-159—Manning, p. 205—Phillimore, -III. § 95—Halleck, II. pp. 36-39—Moore, VII. § 1134—Taylor, -§§ 527-528—Bluntschli, §§ 586-592—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. -pp. 289-319, 398-421—Liszt, § 40, V.—Ullmann, § 178 and in <i>R.G.</i> IV. -(1897), pp. 437-447—Bonfils, Nos. 1108-1118<span class="topnum">7</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 551-553—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 130—Lawrence, § 165—Maine, pp. 156-159—Manning, p. 205—Phillimore, +III. § 95—Halleck, II. pp. 36-39—Moore, VII. § 1134—Taylor, +§§ 527-528—Bluntschli, §§ 586-592—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. +pp. 289-319, 398-421—Liszt, § 40, V.—Ullmann, § 178 and in <i>R.G.</i> IV. +(1897), pp. 437-447—Bonfils, Nos. 1108-1118<span class="topnum">7</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 551-553—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2794, VII. Nos. 2849-2881—Rivier, II. pp. -268-273—Nys, III. pp. 526-536—Calvo, IV. §§ 2161-2165—Fiore, III. -Nos. 1363-1372, and Code, Nos. 1589-1604—Martens, II. § 114—Longuet, -§§ 85-90—Mérignhac, pp. 114-142—Pillet, pp. 165-192—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, -p. 26—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 174-220—Zorn, p. 122—Bordwell, pp. 249-277—Spaight, +268-273—Nys, III. pp. 526-536—Calvo, IV. §§ 2161-2165—Fiore, III. +Nos. 1363-1372, and Code, Nos. 1589-1604—Martens, II. § 114—Longuet, +§§ 85-90—Mérignhac, pp. 114-142—Pillet, pp. 165-192—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +p. 26—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 174-220—Zorn, p. 122—Bordwell, pp. 249-277—Spaight, pp. 419-460—Higgins, pp. 35-38—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 61-65—Holland, -<i>War</i>, Nos. 41-69—Güret, <i>Zur Geschichte der internationalen und +<i>War</i>, Nos. 41-69—Güret, <i>Zur Geschichte der internationalen und freiwilligen Krankenpflege</i> (1873)—Lueder, <i>Die Genfer Convention</i> (1876)—Moynier, -<i>La croix rouge, son passé et son avenir</i> (1882); <i>La revision de la -Convention de Genève</i> (1898); <i>La fondation de la croix rouge</i> (1903)—Buzzati, +<i>La croix rouge, son passé et son avenir</i> (1882); <i>La revision de la +Convention de Genève</i> (1898); <i>La fondation de la croix rouge</i> (1903)—Buzzati, <i>De l'emploi abusif ... de la croix rouge</i> (1890)—Triepel, <i>Die -neuesten Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet des Kriegsrechts</i> (1894), pp. 1-41—Müller, +neuesten Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet des Kriegsrechts</i> (1894), pp. 1-41—Müller, <i>Entstehungsgeschichte des rothen Kreuzes und der Genfer Konvention</i> -(1897)—Münzel, <i>Untersuchungen über die Genfer Konvention</i> (1901)—Roszkoroski +(1897)—Münzel, <i>Untersuchungen über die Genfer Konvention</i> (1901)—Roszkoroski in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. IV. (1902), pp. 199, 299, 442—Gillot, <i>La -revision de la Convention de Genève, etc.</i> (1902)—Meurer, <i>Die Genfer Konvention +revision de la Convention de Genève, etc.</i> (1902)—Meurer, <i>Die Genfer Konvention und ihre Reform</i> (1906)—Delpech in <i>R.G.</i> XIII. (1906), pp. 629-724—Macpherson in <i>Z.V.</i> V. (1911), pp. 253-277.</p> @@ -10025,7 +9981,7 @@ in <i>Z.V.</i> V. (1911), pp. 253-277.</p> Geneva Convention.</p></div> -<p>§ 118. <a name="Al118" id="Al118"></a>Although<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> since the seventeenth century +<p>§ 118. <a name="Al118" id="Al118"></a>Although<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> since the seventeenth century several hundreds of special treaties have been concluded between different States regarding the tending of each other's wounded and the exemption of army @@ -10039,8 +9995,8 @@ who was an eye-witness of the battle of Solferino in 1859, where many thousands of wounded died who could, under more favourable circumstances, have been saved. When he published, in 1861 and 1863, his -pamphlet, <i>Un Souvenir de Solférino</i>, the Geneva <i>Société -d'utilité publique</i>, under the presidency of Gustave +pamphlet, <i>Un Souvenir de Solférino</i>, the Geneva <i>Société +d'utilité publique</i>, under the presidency of Gustave Moynier, created an agitation in favour of better arrangements for the tending of the wounded on the battlefield, and convoked an international congress at @@ -10091,7 +10047,7 @@ in time all the civilised Powers will become parties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> See Macpherson, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 254.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XVIII. p. -607, and above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th560">vol. I. § 560</a>.</p></div> +607, and above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th560">vol. I. § 560</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XVIII. p. 61.</p></div> @@ -10125,7 +10081,7 @@ Wounded and the Sick.</p></div> -<p>§ 119. According to articles 1-5 of the Geneva +<p>§ 119. According to articles 1-5 of the Geneva Convention,<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> the sick and wounded persons belonging, or officially attached, to armies must be respected and taken care of, without distinction of nationality, by @@ -10173,7 +10129,7 @@ Establishments, and Material.</p></div> -<p>§ 120. In order that the wounded and sick may +<p>§ 120. In order that the wounded and sick may receive proper treatment, mobile medical units as well as the fixed establishments of the medical service must be respected and protected by the belligerents, but this @@ -10230,7 +10186,7 @@ may be requisitioned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Personnel.</p></div> -<p>§ 121. <a name="The_personnel121" id="The_personnel121"></a>The personnel engaged exclusively in the +<p>§ 121. <a name="The_personnel121" id="The_personnel121"></a>The personnel engaged exclusively in the collection, transport, and treatment of the wounded and sick, as well as in the administration of mobile medical units and establishments, the chaplains attached @@ -10279,7 +10235,7 @@ any use of it, to notify the fact to the enemy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Convoys of Evacuation.</p></div> -<p>§ 122. Convoys used for evacuating the wounded and +<p>§ 122. Convoys used for evacuating the wounded and sick must, as regards their personnel and material, be treated in the same way as mobile medical units, but subject to the following special provisions enacted by @@ -10310,7 +10266,7 @@ Law concerning war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Distinctive Emblem.</p></div> -<p>§ 123. According to article 18 the Swiss heraldic +<p>§ 123. According to article 18 the Swiss heraldic device of the red cross on a white ground, formed by reversing the federal colours, is adopted as the emblem and distinctive sign of the medical service of armies, @@ -10355,13 +10311,13 @@ indicate the protected medical units, establishments, personnel, and material.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#All_military207">207</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#All_military207">207</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatment of the Dead.</p></div> -<p>§ 124. <a name="According_to124" id="According_to124"></a>According to a customary rule of the Law of +<p>§ 124. <a name="According_to124" id="According_to124"></a>According to a customary rule of the Law of Nations belligerents have the right to demand from one another that dead soldiers shall not be disgracefully treated, especially not mutilated, and shall be, so far @@ -10393,17 +10349,17 @@ prisoners of war, which has to transmit them to the persons interested through the channel of the authorities of their own country.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> See Grotius, II. c. 19, §§ 1 and +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> See Grotius, II. c. 19, §§ 1 and 3. Regarding a valuable suggestion of Ullmann's concerning sanitary measures for the purpose of avoiding epidemics, see above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Footnote_1002_1002">vol. I. p. 621, note 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#According_to130">130</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#According_to130">130</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Application of the @@ -10414,7 +10370,7 @@ Prevention of Abuses.</p></div> -<p>§ 124<i>a</i>. The provisions of the Geneva Convention +<p>§ 124<i>a</i>. The provisions of the Geneva Convention are only binding in the case of war between two or more of the contracting parties, they cease to be binding from the moment when one of the belligerent Powers @@ -10463,7 +10419,7 @@ of the Geneva Convention.</p></div> -<p>§ 124<i>b</i>. The Geneva Convention comes into force for +<p>§ 124<i>b</i>. The Geneva Convention comes into force for each contracting Power six months after the date of the deposit of its ratification (article 30). The new Geneva Convention replaces the old of 1864, but the @@ -10497,20 +10453,20 @@ only affects such Power as has notified it.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 14—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 3—Vattel, III. §§ -148-154—Hall, §§ 131-134—Westlake, II. pp. 63-68—Lawrence, § 164—Maine, -pp. 160-167—Manning, pp. 210-222—Phillimore, III. § 95—Twiss, -II. § 177—Halleck, II. pp. 19-30—Taylor, §§ 519-524—Moore, -VII. §§ 1127-1133—Wharton, III. §§ 348-348<span class="smcap">D</span>—Wheaton, § 344—Bluntschli, -§§ 593-626—Heffter, §§ 127-129—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. -pp. 423-445—Ullmann, § 177—Bonfils, Nos. 1119-1140—Despagnet, Nos. -544-550—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2796-2842, and VIII. No. 3208—Rivier, -II. pp. 273-279—Nys, III. pp. 537-553—Calvo, IV. §§ 2133-2157—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1355-1362, and Code, Nos. 1567-1588—Martens, II. § 113—Longuet, -§§ 77-83—Mérignhac, pp. 87-113—Pillet, pp. 145-164—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 14—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 3—Vattel, III. §§ +148-154—Hall, §§ 131-134—Westlake, II. pp. 63-68—Lawrence, § 164—Maine, +pp. 160-167—Manning, pp. 210-222—Phillimore, III. § 95—Twiss, +II. § 177—Halleck, II. pp. 19-30—Taylor, §§ 519-524—Moore, +VII. §§ 1127-1133—Wharton, III. §§ 348-348<span class="smcap">D</span>—Wheaton, § 344—Bluntschli, +§§ 593-626—Heffter, §§ 127-129—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. +pp. 423-445—Ullmann, § 177—Bonfils, Nos. 1119-1140—Despagnet, Nos. +544-550—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2796-2842, and VIII. No. 3208—Rivier, +II. pp. 273-279—Nys, III. pp. 537-553—Calvo, IV. §§ 2133-2157—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1355-1362, and Code, Nos. 1567-1588—Martens, II. § 113—Longuet, +§§ 77-83—Mérignhac, pp. 87-113—Pillet, pp. 145-164—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 11-18—Zorn, pp. 73-123—Bordwell, pp. 237-248—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 54-116—Spaight, pp. 260-320—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 24-40—Eichelmann, -<i>Über die Kriegsgefangenschaft</i> (1878)—Romberg, <i>Des belligérants +Warfare</i>, §§ 54-116—Spaight, pp. 260-320—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 24-40—Eichelmann, +<i>Ãœber die Kriegsgefangenschaft</i> (1878)—Romberg, <i>Des belligérants et des prisonniers de guerre</i> (1894)—Triepel, <i>Die neuesten Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet des Kriegsrechts</i> (1894), pp. 41-55—Holls, <i>The Peace Conference at the Hague</i> (1900), pp. 145-151—Cros, <i>Condition et traitement des @@ -10524,7 +10480,7 @@ Law regarding Captivity.</p></div> -<p>§ 125. During antiquity, prisoners of war could +<p>§ 125. During antiquity, prisoners of war could be killed, and they were very often at once actually butchered or offered as sacrifices to the gods. If they were spared, they were as a rule made slaves and only @@ -10550,7 +10506,7 @@ as possible out of their prisoners by way of ransom, provided no exchange of prisoners took place. So general was this practice that a more or less definite scale of ransom became usual. Thus, Grotius (III. -c. 14, § 9) mentions that in his time the ransom of a +c. 14, § 9) mentions that in his time the ransom of a private was the amount of his one month's pay. And since the pecuniary value of a prisoner as regards ransom rose in proportion with his fortune and his @@ -10573,7 +10529,7 @@ last<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_ and France in 1780, stipulating the ransom for members of the naval and military forces of both belligerents.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> See Hall, § 134, p. 428, note 1.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> See Hall, § 134, p. 428, note 1.</p></div> <p>It was not until the eighteenth century, with its general tendencies to mitigate the cruel practices of @@ -10604,7 +10560,7 @@ of Prisoners of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 126. According to articles 4-7 and 16-19 of the +<p>§ 126. According to articles 4-7 and 16-19 of the Hague Regulations prisoners of war are not in the power of the individuals or corps who capture them, but in the power of the Government of the captor. @@ -10662,9 +10618,9 @@ all custom and other duties as well as payments for carriage by Government railways (article 16).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 69.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 69.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Who may claim @@ -10672,7 +10628,7 @@ to be Prisoners of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 127. <a name="Every_individual127" id="Every_individual127"></a>Every individual who is deprived of his +<p>§ 127. <a name="Every_individual127" id="Every_individual127"></a>Every individual who is deprived of his liberty not for a crime but for military reasons has a claim to be treated as a prisoner of war. Article 13 of the Hague Regulations expressly enacts that non-combatant<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> @@ -10692,14 +10648,14 @@ military reasons, and they are therefore prisoners of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#In_the_main79">79</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#In_the_main79">79</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Whereas_in116">116</a> and <a href="#The_head_of_the_enemy117">117</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Whereas_in116">116</a> and <a href="#The_head_of_the_enemy117">117</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Discipline.</p></div> -<p>§ 128. Articles 8 and 9 of the Hague Regulations +<p>§ 128. Articles 8 and 9 of the Hague Regulations lay down the discipline to be observed in the case of prisoners of war in the following way:—Every prisoner who, if questioned, does not declare his true name @@ -10720,12 +10676,12 @@ forces, they are liable to disciplinary punishment.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Concerning the question whether after conclusion of peace such prisoners as are undergoing a term of imprisonment for offences -against discipline may be detained, see below, § <a href="#A_very_important275">275</a>.</p></div> +against discipline may be detained, see below, § <a href="#A_very_important275">275</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Release on Parole.</p></div> -<p>§ 129. <a name="Articles129" id="Articles129"></a>Articles 10 to 12 of the Hague Regulations +<p>§ 129. <a name="Articles129" id="Articles129"></a>Articles 10 to 12 of the Hague Regulations deal with release on parole in the following manner:—No belligerent is obliged to assent to a prisoner's request to be released on parole, and no prisoner may @@ -10750,7 +10706,7 @@ may be capital.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</ <div class="sidenote"><p>Bureau of Information.</p></div> -<p>§ 130. <a name="According_to130" id="According_to130"></a>According to articles 14 and 16 of the Hague +<p>§ 130. <a name="According_to130" id="According_to130"></a>According to articles 14 and 16 of the Hague Regulations every belligerent<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> must institute on the commencement of war a Bureau of Information relative to his prisoners of war. This Bureau is intended @@ -10785,12 +10741,12 @@ The Bureau must enjoy the privilege of free postage.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#According_to124">124</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#According_to124">124</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Relief Societies.</p></div> -<p>§ 131. A new and valuable rule, taken from the +<p>§ 131. A new and valuable rule, taken from the Brussels Declaration, is that of article 15 of the Hague Regulations making it a duty of every belligerent to grant facilities to Relief Societies to serve as intermediaries @@ -10808,7 +10764,7 @@ by the authorities for order and police.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>End of Captivity.</p></div> -<p>§ 132. <a name="Captivity_can_come132" id="Captivity_can_come132"></a>Captivity can come to an end through +<p>§ 132. <a name="Captivity_can_come132" id="Captivity_can_come132"></a>Captivity can come to an end through different modes. Apart from release on parole, which has already been mentioned, captivity comes to an end—(1) through simple release without parole; (2) @@ -10828,10 +10784,10 @@ captor but to the belligerent whose forces made the capture.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Although_prizes195">195</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Although_prizes195">195</a>.</p></div> <p>As regards the end of captivity through the war coming to an end, a distinction must be made according @@ -10862,10 +10818,10 @@ period.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_2 <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> That, nevertheless, the prisoners remain under the discipline of the captor until they have been handed over to the -authorities of their home State, will be shown below, § <a href="#A_very_important275">275</a>.</p></div> +authorities of their home State, will be shown below, § <a href="#A_very_important275">275</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_characteristics60">60</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_characteristics60">60</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Thus, after the South African War, Great Britain refused to repatriate those prisoners of war who were not prepared to take the oath @@ -10880,22 +10836,22 @@ ENEMY PROPERTY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5—Vattel, III. §§ 73, 160-164—Hall, §§ 136-138—Westlake, -II. pp. 102-107—Lawrence, § 171—Maine, pp. 192-206—Manning, pp. -179-183—Twiss, II. §§ 62-71—Halleck, II. pp. 58-68—Moore, VII. § -1148—Taylor, §§ 529-536—Wharton, III. § 340—Wheaton, §§ 346, 352-354—Bluntschli, -§§ 644-651<span class="smcap">A</span>—Heffter, §§ 130-136—Lueder in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 488-500—G. F. Martens, II. §§ 279-280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, -Nos. 1176-1193—Despagnet, Nos. 592-596—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5—Vattel, III. §§ 73, 160-164—Hall, §§ 136-138—Westlake, +II. pp. 102-107—Lawrence, § 171—Maine, pp. 192-206—Manning, pp. +179-183—Twiss, II. §§ 62-71—Halleck, II. pp. 58-68—Moore, VII. § +1148—Taylor, §§ 529-536—Wharton, III. § 340—Wheaton, §§ 346, 352-354—Bluntschli, +§§ 644-651<span class="smcap">A</span>—Heffter, §§ 130-136—Lueder in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 488-500—G. F. Martens, II. §§ 279-280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, +Nos. 1176-1193—Despagnet, Nos. 592-596—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2989-3018—Rivier, II. pp. 306-314—Nys, III. pp. 296-308—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2199-2214—Fiore, III. Nos. 1389, 1392, 1393, 1470, and Code, Nos. -1557-1560—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, § 96—Mérignhac, pp. 299-316—Pillet, +IV. §§ 2199-2214—Fiore, III. Nos. 1389, 1392, 1393, 1470, and Code, Nos. +1557-1560—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, § 96—Mérignhac, pp. 299-316—Pillet, pp. 319-340—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 57-60—Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 113—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 426-432—Meurer, II. §§ 65-69—Spaight, pp. 410-418—Zorn, -pp. 243-270—Rouard de Card, <i>La guerre continentale et la propriété</i> +Warfare</i>, §§ 426-432—Meurer, II. §§ 65-69—Spaight, pp. 410-418—Zorn, +pp. 243-270—Rouard de Card, <i>La guerre continentale et la propriété</i> (1877)—Bluntschli, <i>Das Beuterecht im Krieg, und das Seebeuterecht insbesondere</i> (1878)—Depambour, <i>Des effets de l'occupation en temps de guerre sur -la propriété et la jouissance des biens publics et particuliers</i> (1900)—Wehberg, +la propriété et la jouissance des biens publics et particuliers</i> (1900)—Wehberg, <i>Das Beuterecht im Land und Seekrieg</i> (1909; an English translation appeared in 1911 under the title <i>Capture in War on Land and Sea</i>)—Latifi, <i>Effects of War on Property</i> (1909).</p> @@ -10907,7 +10863,7 @@ Property no longer admissible.</p></div> -<p>§ 133. <a name="Under_a_former133" id="Under_a_former133"></a>Under a former rule of International Law +<p>§ 133. <a name="Under_a_former133" id="Under_a_former133"></a>Under a former rule of International Law belligerents could appropriate all public and private<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> enemy property they found on enemy territory. This rule is now obsolete. Its place is taken by several @@ -10920,8 +10876,8 @@ discussed <i>seriatim</i>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> It is impossible for a treatise to go into historical details, and to show the gradual disappearance of the old rule. But it is of importance to state the fact, that even during the nineteenth -century—see, for instance, G. F. Martens, II. § 280; Twiss, II. § 64; -Hall, § 139—it was asserted that in strict law all private enemy +century—see, for instance, G. F. Martens, II. § 280; Twiss, II. § 64; +Hall, § 139—it was asserted that in strict law all private enemy moveable property was as much booty as public property, although the growth of a usage was recognised which under certain conditions exempted it from appropriation. In the face of articles 46 and 47 of the Hague @@ -10933,7 +10889,7 @@ this matter.</p></div> Public Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 134. Appropriation of public immoveables is not +<p>§ 134. Appropriation of public immoveables is not lawful so long as the territory on which they are has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> not become State property of the occupant through annexation. During mere military occupation of the @@ -10967,7 +10923,7 @@ and the like Institutions.</p></div> -<p>§ 135. It must, however, be observed that the +<p>§ 135. It must, however, be observed that the produce of such public immoveables only as belong to the State itself may be appropriated, but not the produce of those belonging to municipalities or of @@ -10983,7 +10939,7 @@ of Public Buildings.</p></div> -<p>§ 136. So far as the necessities of war demand, +<p>§ 136. So far as the necessities of war demand, a belligerent may make use of public enemy buildings for all kinds of purposes. Troops must be housed, horses stabled, the sick and wounded nursed. Public @@ -11007,13 +10963,13 @@ Nations.</p> Public Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 137. Moveable public enemy property may certainly +<p>§ 137. Moveable public enemy property may certainly be appropriated by a belligerent provided that it can directly or indirectly be useful for military operations. Article 53 of the Hague Regulations unmistakably enacts that a belligerent occupying hostile territory may take possession of the cash, funds, realisable -securities, depôts of arms, means of transport, stores, +securities, depôts of arms, means of transport, stores, supplies, appliances on land or at sea or in the air adapted for the transmission of news or for the transport of persons or goods, and of all other moveable @@ -11021,14 +10977,14 @@ property of the hostile State which may be used for military operations. Thus, a belligerent is entitled to seize not only the money and funds of the hostile State on the one hand, and, on the other, munitions of war, -depôts of arms, stores and supplies, but also the rolling-stock +depôts of arms, stores and supplies, but also the rolling-stock of public railways<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> and other means of transport and everything and anything he can directly or indirectly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> make use of for military operations. He may, for instance, seize a quantity of cloth for the purpose of clothing his soldiers.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> See Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen im Kriege</i> (1906), §§ 15 and +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> See Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen im Kriege</i> (1906), §§ 15 and 19. Some writers—see, for instance, Bonfils, No. 1185, and Wehberg, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 22—maintain that such rolling stock may not be appropriated, but may only be made use of during war and must be @@ -11047,7 +11003,7 @@ and the like Institutions.</p></div> -<p>§ 138. But exceptions similar to those regarding the +<p>§ 138. But exceptions similar to those regarding the usufruct of public immoveables are valid in the case of the appropriation of public moveables. Article 56 of the Hague Regulations enumerates the property of @@ -11070,7 +11026,7 @@ former owners in 1815.</p> on the Battlefield.</p></div> -<p>§ 139. <a name="The_case_of_moveable139" id="The_case_of_moveable139"></a>The case of moveable enemy property found +<p>§ 139. <a name="The_case_of_moveable139" id="The_case_of_moveable139"></a>The case of moveable enemy property found by an invading belligerent on enemy territory is different from the case of moveable enemy property on the battlefield. According to a former rule of the Law @@ -11105,13 +11061,13 @@ be appropriated, whether it can be used for military operations or not; the mere fact that it was seized on the battlefield entitles a belligerent to appropriate it.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> See, for instance, Halleck, II. p. 73, and Heffter, § 135.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> See, for instance, Halleck, II. p. 73, and Heffter, § 135.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#According_to124">124</a>, and below, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#According_to124">124</a>, and below, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> According to British law all booty belongs to the Crown. -See Twiss, II. §§ 64 and 71.</p></div> +See Twiss, II. §§ 64 and 71.</p></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> @@ -11124,28 +11080,28 @@ PROPERTY</span> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5—Vattel, III. §§ 73, 160-164—Hall, §§ 139, 141-144—Lawrence, -§§ 172-175—Maine, pp. 192-206—Manning, pp. 179-183—Twiss, -II. §§ 62-71—Halleck, II. pp. 73-75—Moore, VII. §§ 1121, 1151, -1152, 1155—Taylor, §§ 529, 532, 537—Wharton, III. § 338—Wheaton, § -355—Bluntschli, §§ 652, 656-659—Heffter, §§ 130-136—Lueder in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 488-500—G.F. Martens, II. §§ 279-280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, -Nos. 1194-1206—Despagnet, Nos. 597-604—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5—Vattel, III. §§ 73, 160-164—Hall, §§ 139, 141-144—Lawrence, +§§ 172-175—Maine, pp. 192-206—Manning, pp. 179-183—Twiss, +II. §§ 62-71—Halleck, II. pp. 73-75—Moore, VII. §§ 1121, 1151, +1152, 1155—Taylor, §§ 529, 532, 537—Wharton, III. § 338—Wheaton, § +355—Bluntschli, §§ 652, 656-659—Heffter, §§ 130-136—Lueder in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 488-500—G.F. Martens, II. §§ 279-280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, +Nos. 1194-1206—Despagnet, Nos. 597-604—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 3032-3047—Rivier, II. pp. 318-329—Nys, III. pp. 296-308—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2220-2229—Fiore, III. Nos. 1391, 1392, 1472, and Code, Nos. -1530-1531—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, §§ 97-98—Mérignhac, pp. 263-268—Pillet, +IV. §§ 2220-2229—Fiore, III. Nos. 1391, 1392, 1472, and Code, Nos. +1530-1531—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, §§ 97-98—Mérignhac, pp. 263-268—Pillet, pp. 319-340—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 53-56—Zorn, pp. 270-283—Meurer, -II. § 64—Spaight, pp. 188-196—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 106-107—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 407-415—Bentwich, <i>The Law of Private Property in +II. § 64—Spaight, pp. 188-196—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 106-107—<i>Land +Warfare</i>, §§ 407-415—Bentwich, <i>The Law of Private Property in War</i> (1907)—See also the monographs of Rouard de Card, Bluntschli, Depambour, Wehberg, and Latifi, quoted above at the commencement -of § <a href="#Under_a_former133">133</a>.</p> +of § <a href="#Under_a_former133">133</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immoveable Private Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 140. Immoveable private enemy property may +<p>§ 140. Immoveable private enemy property may under no circumstances or conditions be appropriated by an invading belligerent. Should he confiscate and sell private land or buildings, the buyer would acquire @@ -11155,7 +11111,7 @@ property may not be confiscated." But confiscation differs from the temporary use of private land and buildings for all kinds of purposes demanded by the necessities of war. What has been said above in -§ 136 with regard to utilisation of public buildings finds +§ 136 with regard to utilisation of public buildings finds equal application<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> to private buildings. If necessary they may be converted into hospitals, barracks, and stables without indemnification of the proprietors, and @@ -11166,7 +11122,7 @@ the pressure of necessity he may be obliged to do this, and he is certainly not prohibited from doing it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#If_the_occupant283">283</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#If_the_occupant283">283</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> The Hague Regulations do not mention this; they simply enact in @@ -11180,7 +11136,7 @@ and Means of Transport.</p></div> -<p>§ 141. All kinds of private moveable property +<p>§ 141. All kinds of private moveable property which can serve as war material, such as arms, ammunition, cloth for uniforms, leather for boots, saddles, and also all appliances, whether on land or at sea or in the @@ -11202,7 +11158,7 @@ must settle upon whom the burden of making compensation is ultimately to fall."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> See Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen -im Kriege</i> (1906), § 15.</p></div> +im Kriege</i> (1906), § 15.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Works of Art and @@ -11210,7 +11166,7 @@ Science, Historical Monuments.</p></div> -<p>§ 142. On the other hand, works of art and science, +<p>§ 142. On the other hand, works of art and science, and historical monuments may not under any circumstances or conditions be appropriated or made use of for military operations. Article 56 of the Hague @@ -11224,7 +11180,7 @@ Private Personal Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 143. <a name="Private_personal_property143" id="Private_personal_property143"></a>Private personal property which does not +<p>§ 143. <a name="Private_personal_property143" id="Private_personal_property143"></a>Private personal property which does not consist of war material or means of transport serviceable to military operations may not as a rule be seized.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Articles 46 and 47 of the Hague Regulations expressly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> @@ -11246,22 +11202,22 @@ may be ruinous to the private individuals upon whom they are quartered.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> See -above, <a href="#Footnote_270_270">§ 133, note</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="#Footnote_270_270">§ 133, note</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> The Hague Regulations do not mention this case.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Booty on the Battlefield.</p></div> -<p>§ 144. <a name="Private_enemy_property144" id="Private_enemy_property144"></a>Private enemy property on the battlefield +<p>§ 144. <a name="Private_enemy_property144" id="Private_enemy_property144"></a>Private enemy property on the battlefield is no longer in every case an object of booty.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> Arms, horses, and military papers may indeed be appropriated,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> even if they are private property, as may also private @@ -11282,10 +11238,10 @@ impossible for the commanders to bring the offender to justice in every case.<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>, and article 4 of + above, § <a href="#The_case_of_moveable139">139</a>, and article 4 of the Hague Regulations. This article only mentions arms, horses, and military papers, but saddles, stirrups, @@ -11293,7 +11249,7 @@ and the like go with horses, as ammunition goes with arms, and these may for this reason likewise be appropriated; see <i>Land Warfare</i>, -§ 69, note (<i>e</i>).</p></div> +§ 69, note (<i>e</i>).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> It is of interest to state the fact that, during the Russo-Japanese @@ -11314,13 +11270,13 @@ into a Belligerent's Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 145. The case of private property found by a +<p>§ 145. The case of private property found by a belligerent on enemy territory differs from the case of such property brought during time of war into the territory of a belligerent. That private enemy property on a belligerent's territory at the time of the outbreak of war may not be confiscated has already been stated -above in § <a href="#In_former_times_all102">102</a>. Taking this fact into consideration, +above in § <a href="#In_former_times_all102">102</a>. Taking this fact into consideration, as well as the other fact that private property found on enemy territory is nowadays likewise as a rule exempt from confiscation, there can be no doubt that private @@ -11347,18 +11303,18 @@ territorial waters is, of course, an exception.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 165—Hall, § 140-140*—Lawrence, § 180—Westlake, II. pp. 96-102—Maine, -p. 200—Twiss, II. § 64—Halleck, II. pp. 68-69—Taylor, §§ -538-539—Moore, VII. § 1146—Bluntschli, §§ 653-655—Heffter, § 131—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 500-510—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, Nos. -1207-1226—Despagnet, Nos. 587-590—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 3048-3064—Rivier, -II. pp. 323-327—Nys, III. pp. 368-432—Calvo, IV. §§ 2231-2284—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1394, 1473-1476—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, -§§ 110-114—Mérignhac, pp. 272-298—Pillet, pp. 215-235—Zorn, pp. 283-315—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 165—Hall, § 140-140*—Lawrence, § 180—Westlake, II. pp. 96-102—Maine, +p. 200—Twiss, II. § 64—Halleck, II. pp. 68-69—Taylor, §§ +538-539—Moore, VII. § 1146—Bluntschli, §§ 653-655—Heffter, § 131—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 500-510—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, Nos. +1207-1226—Despagnet, Nos. 587-590—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 3048-3064—Rivier, +II. pp. 323-327—Nys, III. pp. 368-432—Calvo, IV. §§ 2231-2284—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1394, 1473-1476—Martens, II. § 120—Longuet, +§§ 110-114—Mérignhac, pp. 272-298—Pillet, pp. 215-235—Zorn, pp. 283-315—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 61-63—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 111-112—Bordwell, -pp. 314-324—Meurer, II. §§ 56-60—Spaight, pp. 381-408—Ariga, §§ 116-122—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 416-425—Thomas, <i>Des réquisitions militaires</i> -(1884)—Keller, <i>Requisition und Kontribution</i> (1898)—Pont, <i>Les réquisitions +pp. 314-324—Meurer, II. §§ 56-60—Spaight, pp. 381-408—Ariga, §§ 116-122—<i>Land +Warfare</i>, §§ 416-425—Thomas, <i>Des réquisitions militaires</i> +(1884)—Keller, <i>Requisition und Kontribution</i> (1898)—Pont, <i>Les réquisitions militaires du temps de guerre</i> (1905)—Albrecht, <i>Requisitionen von neutralem Privateigentum, etc.</i> (1912), pp. 1-24:—Risley in the <i>Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, new series, vol. II. (1900), pp. 214-223.</p> @@ -11367,7 +11323,7 @@ of Comparative Legislation</i>, new series, vol. II. (1900), pp. 214-223.</p> support War.</p></div> -<p>§ 146. Requisitions and contributions in war are +<p>§ 146. Requisitions and contributions in war are the outcome of the eternal principle that war must support war.<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> This means that every belligerent may make his enemy pay as far as possible for the continuation @@ -11440,12 +11396,12 @@ in Kind, and Quartering.</p></div> -<p>§ 147. <a name="Requisition_is_the_name147" id="Requisition_is_the_name147"></a>Requisition is the name for the demand for +<p>§ 147. <a name="Requisition_is_the_name147" id="Requisition_is_the_name147"></a>Requisition is the name for the demand for the supply of all kinds of articles necessary for an army, such as provisions for men and horses, clothing, or means of transport. Requisition of certain services may also be made, but they will be treated below in -§ <a href="#An_occupant_having170">170</a> together with occupation, requisitions in kind +§ <a href="#An_occupant_having170">170</a> together with occupation, requisitions in kind only being within the scope of this section. Now, what articles may be demanded by an army cannot once for all be laid down, as they depend upon the actual @@ -11461,7 +11417,7 @@ and the payment of the amount must be made as soon as possible. The principle that requisitions must be paid for by the enemy is thereby absolutely recognised, but, of course, commanders-in-chief may levy contributions—see -below, § <a href="#Contribution_is_a_payment148">148</a>—in case they do not possess cash +below, § <a href="#Contribution_is_a_payment148">148</a>—in case they do not possess cash for the payment of requisitions. However this may be, by the rule that requisitions must always be paid for, it again becomes apparent and beyond all doubt @@ -11484,7 +11440,7 @@ for, and the payment of the amount must be made as soon as possible.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Private_personal_property143">143</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Private_personal_property143">143</a>.</p></div> <p>But it must be specially observed, that neither in the case of ordinary requisitions nor in the case of quartering @@ -11495,7 +11451,7 @@ expected that the prices paid shall be fair.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contributions.</p></div> -<p>§ 148. <a name="Contribution_is_a_payment148" id="Contribution_is_a_payment148"></a>Contribution is a payment in ready money +<p>§ 148. <a name="Contribution_is_a_payment148" id="Contribution_is_a_payment148"></a>Contribution is a payment in ready money demanded either from municipalities or from inhabitants, whether enemy subjects or foreign residents. Whereas formerly no general rules concerning contributions @@ -11539,24 +11495,24 @@ all.</p></div> <span class="smaller">DESTRUCTION OF ENEMY PROPERTY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5, §§ 1-3; c. 12—Vattel, III. §§ 166-168—Hall, § 186—Lawrence, -§ 206—Manning, p. 186—Twiss, II. §§ 65-69—Halleck, II. pp. -63, 64, 71, 74—Taylor, §§ 481-482—Wharton, III. § 349—Moore, VII. § -1113—Wheaton, §§ 347-351—Bluntschli, §§ 649, 651, 662, 663—Heffter, -§ 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 482-485—Klüber, § 262—G. F. -Martens, II. § 280—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1078, 1178-1180—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 5, §§ 1-3; c. 12—Vattel, III. §§ 166-168—Hall, § 186—Lawrence, +§ 206—Manning, p. 186—Twiss, II. §§ 65-69—Halleck, II. pp. +63, 64, 71, 74—Taylor, §§ 481-482—Wharton, III. § 349—Moore, VII. § +1113—Wheaton, §§ 347-351—Bluntschli, §§ 649, 651, 662, 663—Heffter, +§ 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 482-485—Klüber, § 262—G. F. +Martens, II. § 280—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1078, 1178-1180—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2770-2774—Rivier, II. pp. 265-268—Nys, III. -pp. 220-223—Calvo, IV. §§ 2215-2222—Fiore, III. Nos. 1383-1388, and -Code, Nos. 1525-1529—Martens, II. § 110—Longuet, §§ 99, 100—Mérignhac, +pp. 220-223—Calvo, IV. §§ 2215-2222—Fiore, III. Nos. 1383-1388, and +Code, Nos. 1525-1529—Martens, II. § 110—Longuet, §§ 99, 100—Mérignhac, pp. 266-268—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 52-56—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 3 -and 76 (<i>g</i>)—Bordwell, p. 84—Spaight, pp. 129-140—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 414, +and 76 (<i>g</i>)—Bordwell, p. 84—Spaight, pp. 129-140—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 414, 422, 426, 427, 434.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Wanton destruction prohibited.</p></div> -<p>§ 149. In former times invading armies frequently +<p>§ 149. In former times invading armies frequently used to fire and destroy all enemy property they could not make use of or carry away. Afterwards, when the practice of warfare grew milder, belligerents in @@ -11582,7 +11538,7 @@ Offence and Defence.</p></div> -<p>§ 150. All destruction of and damage to enemy +<p>§ 150. All destruction of and damage to enemy property for the purpose of offence and defence is <i>necessary</i> destruction and damage, and therefore lawful. It is not only permissible to destroy and damage all @@ -11616,7 +11572,7 @@ reconnoitring, and conducting Transport.</p></div> -<p>§ 151. Destruction of enemy property in marching +<p>§ 151. Destruction of enemy property in marching troops, conducting military transport, and in reconnoitring, is likewise lawful if unavoidable. A reconnoitring party need not keep on the road if they can @@ -11635,7 +11591,7 @@ Ammunition, and Provisions.</p></div> -<p>§ 152. Whatever enemy property a belligerent may +<p>§ 152. Whatever enemy property a belligerent may appropriate he may likewise destroy. To prevent the enemy from making use of them a retreating force may destroy arms, ammunition, provisions, and the @@ -11662,7 +11618,7 @@ Works of Art, and the like.</p></div> -<p>§ 153. All destruction of and damage to historical +<p>§ 153. All destruction of and damage to historical monuments, works of art and science, buildings for charitable, educational, and religious<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> purposes are specially prohibited by article 56 of the Hague Regulations @@ -11679,10 +11635,10 @@ same conditions as other enemy property.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> It is of importance to state the fact that, according to Grotius (III. -c. 5, §§ 2 and 3), destruction of graves, +c. 5, §§ 2 and 3), destruction of graves, tombstones, churches, and the like is not prohibited by the Law of Nations, -although he strongly (III. c. 12, §§ +although he strongly (III. c. 12, §§ 5-7) advises that they should be spared unless their preservation is dangerous to the interests of the @@ -11691,7 +11647,7 @@ invader.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></spa <div class="sidenote"><p>General Devastation.</p></div> -<p>§ 154. <a name="The_question_must154" id="The_question_must154"></a>The question must also be taken into consideration +<p>§ 154. <a name="The_question_must154" id="The_question_must154"></a>The question must also be taken into consideration whether and under what conditions general devastation of a locality, be it a town or a larger part of enemy territory, is permitted. There cannot be @@ -11718,7 +11674,7 @@ specially observed that general devastation is only justified by imperative necessity and by the fact that there is no better and less severe way open to a belligerent.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> See Hall, § 186, who gives <i>in nuce</i> a good survey of the +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> See Hall, § 186, who gives <i>in nuce</i> a good survey of the doctrine and practice of general devastation from Grotius down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. See also Spaight, pp. 125-139.</p></div> @@ -11754,18 +11710,18 @@ Africa</i>, vol. V. pp. 250-252.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 168-170—Hall, § 186—Lawrence, § 204—Westlake, II. pp. 76-79—Moore, -VII. § 1112—Halleck, II. pp. 59, 67, 185—Taylor, §§ 483-485—Bluntschli, -§§ 552-554<span class="smcap">B</span>—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -448-457—G. F. Martens, II. § 286—Ullmann, § 181—Bonfils, Nos. 1079-1087—Despagnet, -Nos. 528-535—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2779-2786—Rivier, -II. pp. 284-288—Nys, III. pp. 210-219—Calvo, IV. §§ 2067-2095—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1322-1330, and Code, Nos. 1519-1524—Longuet, §§ 58-59—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 168-170—Hall, § 186—Lawrence, § 204—Westlake, II. pp. 76-79—Moore, +VII. § 1112—Halleck, II. pp. 59, 67, 185—Taylor, §§ 483-485—Bluntschli, +§§ 552-554<span class="smcap">B</span>—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +448-457—G. F. Martens, II. § 286—Ullmann, § 181—Bonfils, Nos. 1079-1087—Despagnet, +Nos. 528-535—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2779-2786—Rivier, +II. pp. 284-288—Nys, III. pp. 210-219—Calvo, IV. §§ 2067-2095—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1322-1330, and Code, Nos. 1519-1524—Longuet, §§ 58-59—Mérignhac, pp. 171-182—Pillet, pp. 101-112—Zorn, pp. 161-174—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 80-83—Rolin-Jaequemyns in <i>R.I.</i> II. (1870), pp. -659 and 674, III. (1871), pp. 297-307—Bordwell, pp. 286-288—Meurer, §§ +659 and 674, III. (1871), pp. 297-307—Bordwell, pp. 286-288—Meurer, §§ 32-34—Spaight, pp. 157-201—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 18-22—<i>Land Warfare</i>, -§§ 117-138.</p> +§§ 117-138.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Assault, Siege, and @@ -11773,7 +11729,7 @@ Bombardment, when lawful.</p></div> -<p>§ 155. Assault is the rush of an armed force upon +<p>§ 155. Assault is the rush of an armed force upon enemy forces in the battlefield, or upon intrenchments, fortifications, habitations, villages, or towns, such rushing force committing every violence against opposing @@ -11823,7 +11779,7 @@ means.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> The assertion of some writers—see, for instance, Pillet, pp. 104-107, -and Mérignhac, p. 173—that bombardment +and Mérignhac, p. 173—that bombardment is lawful only after an unsuccessful attempt of the besiegers to starve the besieged into surrender @@ -11847,7 +11803,7 @@ how carried out.</p></div> -<p>§ 156. No special rules of International Law exist +<p>§ 156. No special rules of International Law exist with regard to the mode of carrying out an assault. Therefore, only the general rules respecting offence and defence find application. It is in especial not<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> @@ -11868,7 +11824,7 @@ from article 26 of the Hague Regulations.</p></div> carried out.</p></div> -<p>§ 157. <a name="Wi157" id="Wi157"></a>With regard to the mode of carrying out +<p>§ 157. <a name="Wi157" id="Wi157"></a>With regard to the mode of carrying out siege without bombardment no special rules of International Law exist, and here too only the general rules respecting offence and defence find application. Therefore, @@ -11893,7 +11849,7 @@ drive them back.<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#F <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Apart_from_such110">110</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Apart_from_such110">110</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> Thus in 1870, during the Franco-German War, the German besiegers @@ -11902,7 +11858,7 @@ allowed the women, the children, and the sick to leave the besieged fortresses.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 129.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 129.</p></div> <p>That diplomatic envoys of neutral Powers may not be prevented from leaving a besieged town is a consequence @@ -11926,14 +11882,14 @@ decision. The whole question must be treated as open.<a name="FNanchor_304_304" (1871), pp. 371-377.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh399">vol. I. § 399</a>, and Wharton, I. § 97.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh399">vol. I. § 399</a>, and Wharton, I. § 97.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Bombardment, how carried out.</p></div> -<p>§ 158. Regarding bombardment, article 26 of the +<p>§ 158. Regarding bombardment, article 26 of the Hague Regulations enacts that the commander of the attacking forces shall do all he can to notify his intention to resort to bombardment. But it must be emphasised @@ -11992,8 +11948,8 @@ opinion does not represent the actual practice of belligerents, and the Hague Regulations do not adopt it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> See, for instance, Pillet, pp. 104-107; -Bluntschli § 554<span class="smcap">A</span>; Mérignhac, -p. 180. Vattel (III. § 169) does not +Bluntschli § 554<span class="smcap">A</span>; Mérignhac, +p. 180. Vattel (III. § 169) does not deny the right to bombard the town, although he does not recommend such bombardment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p></div> @@ -12004,20 +11960,20 @@ bombardment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a>< <span class="smaller">ESPIONAGE AND TREASON</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 179-182—Hall, § 188—Westlake, II. pp. 79 and 90—Lawrence, § -199—Phillimore, III. § 96—Halleck, I. pp. 571-575, and in <i>A.J.</i> V.(1911), -pp. 590-603—Taylor, §§ 490 and 492—Wharton, III. § 347—Moore, VII. -§ 1132—Bluntschli, §§ 563-564, 628-640—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 461-467—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1100-1104—Despagnet, -Nos. 537-542—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2762-2768—Rivier, -II. pp. 282-284—Nys, III. pp. 256-263—Calvo, IV. §§ 2111-2122—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1341, 1374-1376, and Code, Nos. 1487-1490—Martens, II. § 116—Longuet, -§§ 63-75—Mérignhac, pp. 183-209—Pillet, pp. 97-100—Zorn, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 179-182—Hall, § 188—Westlake, II. pp. 79 and 90—Lawrence, § +199—Phillimore, III. § 96—Halleck, I. pp. 571-575, and in <i>A.J.</i> V.(1911), +pp. 590-603—Taylor, §§ 490 and 492—Wharton, III. § 347—Moore, VII. +§ 1132—Bluntschli, §§ 563-564, 628-640—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 461-467—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1100-1104—Despagnet, +Nos. 537-542—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2762-2768—Rivier, +II. pp. 282-284—Nys, III. pp. 256-263—Calvo, IV. §§ 2111-2122—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1341, 1374-1376, and Code, Nos. 1487-1490—Martens, II. § 116—Longuet, +§§ 63-75—Mérignhac, pp. 183-209—Pillet, pp. 97-100—Zorn, pp. 174-195—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 84-87—Bordwell, pp. 291-292—Meurer, -§§ 35-38—Spaight, pp. 202-215, 333-335—Ariga, §§ 98-100—Takahashi, +§§ 35-38—Spaight, pp. 202-215, 333-335—Ariga, §§ 98-100—Takahashi, pp. 185-194—Friedemann, <i>Die Lage der Kriegskundschafter und Spione</i> (1892)—Violle, <i>L'espionage militaire en temps de guerre</i> (1904)—Adler, -<i>Die Spionage</i> (1906)—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 30-31—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 155-173—Bentwich +<i>Die Spionage</i> (1906)—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 30-31—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 155-173—Bentwich in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, X. (1909), pp. 243-299.</p> @@ -12027,7 +11983,7 @@ of Espionage and Treason.</p></div> -<p>§ 159. <a name="War_cannot_be159" id="War_cannot_be159"></a>War cannot be waged without all kinds of +<p>§ 159. <a name="War_cannot_be159" id="War_cannot_be159"></a>War cannot be waged without all kinds of information about the forces and the intentions of the enemy and about the character of the country within the zone of military operations. To obtain @@ -12049,14 +12005,14 @@ the other belligerent, who punishes spies and traitors, likewise acts lawfully. Indeed, espionage and treason bear a twofold character. For persons committing acts of espionage or treason are—as will be shown -below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>—considered war criminals and may be +below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>—considered war criminals and may be punished, but the employment of spies and traitors is considered lawful on the part of the belligerents.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> Some writers maintain, however, that it is not lawful to bribe enemy soldiers into espionage; see below, -§ <a href="#Treason_can_be162">162</a>.</p></div> +§ <a href="#Treason_can_be162">162</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Espionage in contradistinction @@ -12065,7 +12021,7 @@ Scouting and Despatch-bearing.</p></div> -<p>§ 160. Espionage must not be confounded, firstly, +<p>§ 160. Espionage must not be confounded, firstly, with scouting, or secondly, with despatch-bearing. According to article 29 of the Hague Regulations, espionage is the act of a soldier or other individual @@ -12105,23 +12061,23 @@ or knowingly concealing a spy are, according to a customary rule of International Law, punishable as though they were themselves acts of -espionage; see <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 172.</p></div> +espionage; see <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 172.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Information_regarding356">356</a> (4), concerning +below, § <a href="#Information_regarding356">356</a> (4), concerning wireless telegraphy.</p></div> <p>A remarkable case of espionage is that of Major -André,<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> which occurred in 1780 during the American +André,<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> which occurred in 1780 during the American War of Independence. The American General Arnold, who was commandant of West Point, on the North River, intended to desert the Americans and join the British forces. He opened negotiations with Sir Henry Clinton for the purpose of surrendering West Point, -and Major André was commissioned by Sir Henry +and Major André was commissioned by Sir Henry Clinton to make the final arrangements with Arnold. -On the night of September 21, Arnold and André met -outside the American and British lines, but André, +On the night of September 21, Arnold and André met +outside the American and British lines, but André, after having changed his uniform for plain clothes, undertook to pass the American lines on his return, furnished with a passport under the name of John @@ -12131,8 +12087,8 @@ information,<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footn article 29 of the Hague Regulations, a conviction for espionage would not, if such a case occurred to-day, be justified. But it would be possible to convict for war -treason, for André was no doubt negotiating treason. -Be that as it may, George III. considered André a +treason, for André was no doubt negotiating treason. +Be that as it may, George III. considered André a martyr, and honoured his memory by granting a pension to his mother and a baronetcy to his brother.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p> @@ -12142,14 +12098,14 @@ p. 594.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> Halleck, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 598, asserts the contrary.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 106; +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 106; Halleck, I. p. 575; Rivier, II. p. 284.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Punishment of Espionage.</p></div> -<p>§ 161. The usual punishment for spying is hanging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +<p>§ 161. The usual punishment for spying is hanging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> or shooting, but less severe punishments are, of course, admissible and sometimes inflicted. However this may be, according to article 30 of the Hague Regulations a @@ -12180,11 +12136,11 @@ could rejoin his army, and he was executed as a spy.<a name="FNanchor_313_313" i Captain Oki, which, though reported as a case of espionage, is really a case of treason, will be discussed -below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>.</p></div> +below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treason.</p></div> -<p>§ 162. <a name="Treason_can_be162" id="Treason_can_be162"></a>Treason can be committed by a soldier or an +<p>§ 162. <a name="Treason_can_be162" id="Treason_can_be162"></a>Treason can be committed by a soldier or an ordinary subject of a belligerent, but it can also be committed by an inhabitant of an occupied enemy territory or even by the subject of a neutral State @@ -12195,7 +12151,7 @@ making use of treason acts lawfully, although the Hague Regulations do not mention the matter at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> all. But many acts of different sorts can be treasonable; the possible cases of treason and the punishment -of treason will be discussed below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>.</p> +of treason will be discussed below in § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>.</p> <p>Although it is generally recognised that a belligerent acts lawfully who makes use of the offer of a traitor, the @@ -12211,11 +12167,11 @@ by the belligerents in practice,<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315" such acts, detestable and immoral as they are, are not considered illegal according to the Law of Nations.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> See Vattel, III. § 180; Heffter, § 125; Taylor, § 490; -Martens, II. § 110 (8); Longuet, § 52; Mérignhac, p. 188, and others. - See also below, § <a href="#Of_ruses_there164">164</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> See Vattel, III. § 180; Heffter, § 125; Taylor, § 490; +Martens, II. § 110 (8); Longuet, § 52; Mérignhac, p. 188, and others. + See also below, § <a href="#Of_ruses_there164">164</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 158.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 158.</p></div> @@ -12225,23 +12181,23 @@ Martens, II. § 110 (8); Longuet, § 52; Mérignhac, p. 188, and others. </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, §§ 6-18—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 1—Vattel, III. -§§ 177-178—Hall, § 187—Lawrence, § 207—Westlake, II. p. 73—Phillimore, -III. § 94—Halleck, I. pp. 566-571—Taylor, § 488—Moore, VII. § -1115—Bluntschli, §§ 565-566—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 457-461—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1073-1075—Despagnet, -Nos. 526-527—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2759-2761—Rivier, II. p. 261—Nys, -III. pp. 252-255—Calvo, IV. §§ 2106-2110—Fiore, III. Nos. 1334-1339—Longuet, -§§ 53-56—Mérignhac, pp. 165-168—Pillet, pp. 93-97—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, §§ 6-18—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 1—Vattel, III. +§§ 177-178—Hall, § 187—Lawrence, § 207—Westlake, II. p. 73—Phillimore, +III. § 94—Halleck, I. pp. 566-571—Taylor, § 488—Moore, VII. § +1115—Bluntschli, §§ 565-566—Heffter, § 125—Lueder in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 457-461—Ullmann, § 176—Bonfils, Nos. 1073-1075—Despagnet, +Nos. 526-527—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2759-2761—Rivier, II. p. 261—Nys, +III. pp. 252-255—Calvo, IV. §§ 2106-2110—Fiore, III. Nos. 1334-1339—Longuet, +§§ 53-56—Mérignhac, pp. 165-168—Pillet, pp. 93-97—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 23-24—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 78-79—Bordwell, pp. 283-286—Meurer, -II pp. 151-152—Spaight, pp. 152-156—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ +II pp. 151-152—Spaight, pp. 152-156—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 139-154—Brocher in <i>R.I.</i> V. (1873), pp. 325-329.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Character of Ruses of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 163. <a name="Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163" id="Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163"></a>Ruses of war or stratagems are deceit employed +<p>§ 163. <a name="Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163" id="Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163"></a>Ruses of war or stratagems are deceit employed during military operations for the purpose of misleading the enemy. Such deceit is of great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> importance in war, and, just as belligerents are allowed @@ -12261,7 +12217,7 @@ during battles.</p> kinds of Stratagems.</p></div> -<p>§ 164. <a name="Of_ruses_there164" id="Of_ruses_there164"></a>Of ruses there are so many kinds that it is +<p>§ 164. <a name="Of_ruses_there164" id="Of_ruses_there164"></a>Of ruses there are so many kinds that it is impossible to enumerate<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> and classify them. But in order to illustrate acts carried out as ruses some instances may be given. It is hardly necessary to @@ -12298,29 +12254,29 @@ of these symbols outside actual fighting can correctly maintain that the quoted article 23 (<i>f</i>) does not prohibit it.<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 144, where a great number of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 144, where a great number of legitimate ruses are enumerated.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> See -the examples quoted by Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2761.</p></div> +the examples quoted by Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2761.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> The point has been discussed above in § <a href="#Treason_can_be162">162</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> The point has been discussed above in § <a href="#Treason_can_be162">162</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 187; Bluntschli, § 565; Taylor, -§ 488; Calvo, IV. No. 2106; Pillet, p. 95; Longuet, § 54. But, on the +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 187; Bluntschli, § 565; Taylor, +§ 488; Calvo, IV. No. 2106; Pillet, p. 95; Longuet, § 54. But, on the other hand, the number of publicists who consider it illegal to make use of the enemy flag, ensigns, and uniforms, even before an actual attack, is daily becoming larger; see, for instance, Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. -p. 458; Mérignhac, p. 166; Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760; Bonfils, No. +p. 458; Mérignhac, p. 166; Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760; Bonfils, No. 1074; <i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, p. 24. As regards the use of the enemy flag on the -part of men-of-war, see below, in § <a href="#Ruses_are_customarily211">211</a>.</p></div> +part of men-of-war, see below, in § <a href="#Ruses_are_customarily211">211</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Some writers maintain that article 23 (<i>f</i>) of the Hague Regulations has settled the controversy, but they forget that this article speaks only of the <i>improper</i> use of the enemy ensigns and -uniform. See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 152.</p></div> +uniform. See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 152.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> The use of the enemy uniform for the purpose of deceit is different @@ -12333,7 +12289,7 @@ necessary—such distinct alterations in the uniform ought to be made as will make it apparent to which side the soldiers concerned belong (see -<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 154). Different again +<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 154). Different again is the case where soldiers are, through lack of clothing, obliged to wear the apparel of civilians, such as greatcoats, @@ -12363,7 +12319,7 @@ contradistinction to Perfidy.</p></div> -<p>§ 165. Stratagems must be carefully distinguished +<p>§ 165. Stratagems must be carefully distinguished from perfidy, since the former are allowed, whereas the latter is prohibited. Halleck (I. p. 566) correctly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> formulates the distinction by laying down the principle @@ -12386,7 +12342,7 @@ approached by the enemy and offered a bribe, accepts it feigningly but deceives the briber and leads him to disaster, no perfidy is committed.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 139-142, 146-150.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 139-142, 146-150.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p></div> @@ -12396,20 +12352,20 @@ disaster, no perfidy is committed.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 6, § 4—Vattel, III. §§ 197-200—Hall, §§ 153-161—Westlake, -II. pp. 83-106—Lawrence, §§ 176-179—Maine, pp. 176-183—Halleck, II. -pp. 432-466—Taylor, §§ 568-579—Wharton, III. §§ 354-355—Moore, VII. -§§ 1143-1155—Bluntschli, §§ 539-551—Heffter, §§ 131-132—Lueder in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 510-524—Klüber, §§ 255-256—G. F. Martens, II. § -280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, Nos. 1156-1175—Despagnet, Nos. 567-578—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 6, § 4—Vattel, III. §§ 197-200—Hall, §§ 153-161—Westlake, +II. pp. 83-106—Lawrence, §§ 176-179—Maine, pp. 176-183—Halleck, II. +pp. 432-466—Taylor, §§ 568-579—Wharton, III. §§ 354-355—Moore, VII. +§§ 1143-1155—Bluntschli, §§ 539-551—Heffter, §§ 131-132—Lueder in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 510-524—Klüber, §§ 255-256—G. F. Martens, II. § +280—Ullmann, § 183—Bonfils, Nos. 1156-1175—Despagnet, Nos. 567-578—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2939-2988, 3019-3028—Nys, III. pp. 309-351—Rivier, -II. pp. 299-306—Calvo, IV. §§ 2166-2198—Fiore, III. Nos. 1454-1481, -and Code, Nos. 1535-1563—Martens, II. §§ 117-119—Longuet, §§ -115-133—Mérignhac, pp. 241-262—Pillet, pp. 237-259—Zorn, pp. 213-243—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +II. pp. 299-306—Calvo, IV. §§ 2166-2198—Fiore, III. Nos. 1454-1481, +and Code, Nos. 1535-1563—Martens, II. §§ 117-119—Longuet, §§ +115-133—Mérignhac, pp. 241-262—Pillet, pp. 237-259—Zorn, pp. 213-243—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 45-50—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 102-106—Bordwell, -pp. 312-330—Meurer, II. §§ 45-55—Spaight, pp. 320-380—<i>Land Warfare</i>, -§§ 340-405—Waxel, <i>L'armée d'invasion el la population</i> (1874)—Litta, -<i>L'occupazione militare</i> (1874)—Löning, <i>Die Verwaltung des General-Gouvernements +pp. 312-330—Meurer, II. §§ 45-55—Spaight, pp. 320-380—<i>Land Warfare</i>, +§§ 340-405—Waxel, <i>L'armée d'invasion el la population</i> (1874)—Litta, +<i>L'occupazione militare</i> (1874)—Löning, <i>Die Verwaltung des General-Gouvernements im Elsass</i> (1874), and in <i>R.I.</i> IV. (1872), p. 622, V. (1873), p. 69—Bernier, <i>De l'occupation militaire en temps de guerre</i> (1884)—Corsi, <i>L'occupazione militare in tempo di guerra e le relazione internazionale che ne derivano</i> @@ -12426,7 +12382,7 @@ as an Aim of Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 166. If a belligerent succeeds in occupying a +<p>§ 166. If a belligerent succeeds in occupying a part or even the whole of the enemy territory, he has realised a very important aim of warfare. He can now not only make use of the resources of the enemy @@ -12461,7 +12417,7 @@ mere temporary military occupation of territory, on the one hand, and, on the other, real acquisition of territory through conquest and subjugation, became more and more apparent, is shown by the fact that -Vattel (III. § 197) drew attention to it. However, it was +Vattel (III. § 197) drew attention to it. However, it was not till long after the Napoleonic wars in the nineteenth century that the consequences of this distinction were carried to their full extent by the theory and practice @@ -12474,8 +12430,8 @@ Frederikshamm<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Foot ceded Finland to Russia. The first writer who drew all the consequences of the distinction between mere military occupation and real acquisition of territory was -Heffter in his treatise <i>Das Europaeische Völkerrecht der -Gegenwart</i> (§ 131), which made its appearance in 1844.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +Heffter in his treatise <i>Das Europaeische Völkerrecht der +Gegenwart</i> (§ 131), which made its appearance in 1844.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> And it is certain that it took the whole of the nineteenth century to develop such rules regarding occupation as are now universally recognised and in many respects @@ -12489,7 +12445,7 @@ enacted by articles 42-56 of the Hague Regulations.</p> treatment of persons and property of the inhabitants of, and public property situated within, occupied territory, they have already been taken into consideration -above in §§ <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>-154. What concerns us here are +above in §§ <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>-154. What concerns us here are the rights and duties of the occupying belligerent in relation to his political administration of the territory and to his political authority over its inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> @@ -12516,13 +12472,13 @@ of public and private property, requisitions and contributions, and destruction of public and private property, violence against private enemy subjects and enemy officials. These matters have, however, nothing to do with occupation, but are better discussed in connection with the -means of land warfare; see above, §§ <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>-154.</p></div> +means of land warfare; see above, §§ <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>-154.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occupation, when effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 167. <a name="Since_an_occupant167" id="Since_an_occupant167"></a>Since an occupant, although his power is +<p>§ 167. <a name="Since_an_occupant167" id="Since_an_occupant167"></a>Since an occupant, although his power is merely military, has certain rights and duties, the first question to deal with is, when and under what circumstances a territory must be considered occupied.</p> @@ -12539,7 +12495,7 @@ the mere invader does not. A small belligerent force can raid enemy territory without establishing any administration, but quickly rush on to some place in the interior for the purpose of reconnoitring, of destroying -a bridge or depôt of munitions and provisions, and +a bridge or depôt of munitions and provisions, and the like, and quickly withdraw after having realised its purpose.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> Although it may correctly be asserted that, so long and in so far as such raiding force is in possession @@ -12549,7 +12505,7 @@ not occupy the whole territory, and even the occupation of such locality ceases the moment the force withdraws.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 343.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 343.</p></div> <p>However this may be, as a rule occupation will be coincident with invasion. The troops march into a @@ -12626,7 +12582,7 @@ was quite sufficient to assert British authority<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="F that vast territory, although it was more than a year before peace was finally established.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 161. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 161. This was also the standpoint of the delegates of the smaller States at the Brussels Conference of 1874 when @@ -12664,8 +12620,8 @@ time afterwards, in 1901. See, however, Sir Thomas Barclay in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXI. (1905), p. 307, who asserts the contrary; see also, -below, § <a href="#Footnote_499_499">264, p. 326, note 2</a>, and - § <a href="#Footnote_500_500">265, p. 327, note 1</a>. <i>The Times' History +below, § <a href="#Footnote_499_499">264, p. 326, note 2</a>, and + § <a href="#Footnote_500_500">265, p. 327, note 1</a>. <i>The Times' History of the War in South Africa</i> (vol. V. p. 251) estimates the number of Boer fighters in May 1901 to be about @@ -12687,13 +12643,13 @@ practice of warfare and are unopposed by the Powers.<a name="FNanchor_331_331" i <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> The question is so much controverted that it is impossible to enumerate the different opinions. Readers who want to study the question must be referred to the literature quoted above at the -commencement of § 166.</p></div> +commencement of § 166.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occupation, when ended.</p></div> -<p>§ 168. Occupation comes to an end when an occupant +<p>§ 168. Occupation comes to an end when an occupant withdraws from a territory or is driven out of it. Thus, occupation remains only over a limited area of a territory if the forces in occupation are drawn into a @@ -12714,7 +12670,7 @@ General of the Occupant.</p></div> -<p>§ 169. As the occupant actually exercises authority, +<p>§ 169. As the occupant actually exercises authority, and as the legitimate Government is prevented from exercising its authority, the occupant acquires a temporary right of administration over the respective @@ -12758,7 +12714,7 @@ Occupant regarding the Inhabitants.</p></div> -<p>§ 170. <a name="An_occupant_having170" id="An_occupant_having170"></a>An occupant having authority over the +<p>§ 170. <a name="An_occupant_having170" id="An_occupant_having170"></a>An occupant having authority over the territory, the inhabitants are under his sway and have to render obedience to his commands. However, the power of the occupant over the inhabitants is not @@ -12791,7 +12747,7 @@ same scale as that by which the legitimate Government was bound.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a> and <a href="#Contribution_is_a_payment148">148</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Requisition_is_the_name147">147</a> and <a href="#Contribution_is_a_payment148">148</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> Formerly he could likewise compel them to render services as guides, but this is now prohibited by the wording which article 44 @@ -12803,7 +12759,7 @@ may be compelled to serve as guides.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> See article 52 of the Hague regulations, and <i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 388-392.</p></div> +Warfare</i>, §§ 388-392.</p></div> <p>Whoever does not comply with his commands, or commits a prohibited act, may be punished by him; @@ -12831,16 +12787,16 @@ acts or omissions of others for which he is neither legally nor morally responsible.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> See Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 110, and -<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 385-386. See also +<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 385-386. See also Zorn, pp. 239-243, where an important interpretation of article 50 is discussed.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> But this is a moot point; see -below, § <a href="#A_new_practice259">259</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#A_new_practice259">259</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Belligerents sometimes take hostages for the purpose of securing @@ -12851,8 +12807,8 @@ same treatment as prisoners of war, the practice does not seem to be illegal, although the Hague Regulations do not mention and many -publicists condemn it; see above, § <a href="#Footnote_245_245">116, p. 153, note 1</a>, and - below, § <a href="#Footnote_491_491">259, p. 319, note 2</a>.</p></div> +publicists condemn it; see above, § <a href="#Footnote_245_245">116, p. 153, note 1</a>, and + below, § <a href="#Footnote_491_491">259, p. 319, note 2</a>.</p></div> <p>It must be particularly noted that in the treatment of the inhabitants of enemy territory the occupant @@ -12861,12 +12817,12 @@ subjects of the enemy and such as are subjects of neutral States.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> See -above,§ <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>, and Frankenbach, <i>Die Rechtsstellung von -neutralen Staatsangehörigen in kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910), pp. +above,§ <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>, and Frankenbach, <i>Die Rechtsstellung von +neutralen Staatsangehörigen in kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910), pp. 46-50.</p></div> <p>And it must be further observed that, according -to British and American views—see above, § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>—article +to British and American views—see above, § <a href="#Formerly_the_rule100a">100<i>a</i></a>—article 23 (<i>h</i>) of the Hague Regulations prohibits an occupant of enemy territory from declaring extinguished, suspended, or unenforceable in a Court of @@ -12879,7 +12835,7 @@ and Municipal Functionaries during Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 171. As through occupation authority over the +<p>§ 171. As through occupation authority over the territory actually passes into the hands of the occupant,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> he may for the time of his occupation depose all Government officials and municipal functionaries that have @@ -12912,7 +12868,7 @@ Courts of Justice during Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 172. The particular position which Courts of +<p>§ 172. The particular position which Courts of Justice have nowadays in civilised countries, makes it necessary to discuss their position during occupation.<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> There is no doubt that an occupant may suspend the @@ -12956,13 +12912,13 @@ but they were certainly not obliged to admit the formula preferred by the Court; and the fact that they were disposed to admit another formula than that at first ordered ought to have made the Court accept a -compromise. Bluntschli (§ 547) correctly maintains +compromise. Bluntschli (§ 547) correctly maintains that the most natural solution of the difficulty would have been to use the neutral formula "In the name of the Law."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> See Petit, <i>L'Administration de la justice en territoire -occupé</i> (1900).</p></div> +occupé</i> (1900).</p></div> <div class="box4"> @@ -12981,27 +12937,27 @@ occupé</i> (1900).</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 147—Lawrence, §§ 193-194—Westlake, II. pp. 120-132—Maine, pp. -117-122—Manning, pp. 183-184—Phillimore, III. § 347—Twiss, II. § 73—Halleck, -II. pp. 80-82—Taylor, § 547—Wharton, III. §§ 342-345—Wheaton, -§ 355—Bluntschli, §§ 665-667—Heffter, § 139—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 547-548, 571-581—Ullmann, §§ 187-188—Bonfils, -Nos. 1268, 1294-1338—Despagnet, Nos. 647-649—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 147—Lawrence, §§ 193-194—Westlake, II. pp. 120-132—Maine, pp. +117-122—Manning, pp. 183-184—Phillimore, III. § 347—Twiss, II. § 73—Halleck, +II. pp. 80-82—Taylor, § 547—Wharton, III. §§ 342-345—Wheaton, +§ 355—Bluntschli, §§ 665-667—Heffter, § 139—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 547-548, 571-581—Ullmann, §§ 187-188—Bonfils, +Nos. 1268, 1294-1338—Despagnet, Nos. 647-649—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3066-3090, 3107-3108—Nys, III. pp. 433-466—Rivier, II. pp. 329-335—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2123, 2379-2410—Fiore, III. Nos. 1399-1413—Pillet, -pp. 118-120—Perels, § 36—Testa, pp. 147-157—Boeck, Nos. 3-153—Lawrence, +IV. §§ 2123, 2379-2410—Fiore, III. Nos. 1399-1413—Pillet, +pp. 118-120—Perels, § 36—Testa, pp. 147-157—Boeck, Nos. 3-153—Lawrence, <i>Essays</i>, pp. 278-306—Westlake, <i>Chapters</i>, pp. 245-253—Ortolan, I. pp. 35-50—Hautefeuille, I. pp. 161-167—Gessner, Westlake, -Lorimer, Rolin-Jaequemyns, Laveleye, Albéric Rolin, and Pierantoni in +Lorimer, Rolin-Jaequemyns, Laveleye, Albéric Rolin, and Pierantoni in <i>R.I.</i> VII. (1875), pp. 256-272 and 558-656—Twiss, in <i>R.I.</i> XVI. (1884), -pp. 113-137—See also the authors quoted below, § <a href="#Footnote_354_354">178, p. 223, note 1</a>.</p> +pp. 113-137—See also the authors quoted below, § <a href="#Footnote_354_354">178, p. 223, note 1</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Aims and Means of Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 173. <a name="The_purpose_of_war173" id="The_purpose_of_war173"></a>The purpose of war is the same in the case of +<p>§ 173. <a name="The_purpose_of_war173" id="The_purpose_of_war173"></a>The purpose of war is the same in the case of warfare on land or on sea—namely, the overpowering of the enemy. But sea warfare serves this purpose by attempting the accomplishment of aims different from @@ -13028,7 +12984,7 @@ espionage, treason, ruses, capture of neutral vessels carrying contraband or rendering unneutral service.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Aims of sea warfare must not be confounded with ends of war; -see above, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> +see above, § <a href="#The_cause_or_causes66">66</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Article 1 of the U.S. Naval War Code enumerates the following as aims of sea warfare:—The capture or destruction of the @@ -13046,7 +13002,7 @@ Practices of Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 174. <a name="As_regards_means174" id="As_regards_means174"></a>As regards means of sea warfare, just as +<p>§ 174. <a name="As_regards_means174" id="As_regards_means174"></a>As regards means of sea warfare, just as regards means of land warfare, it must be emphasised that not every practice capable of injuring the enemy in offence and defence is lawful. Although no regulations @@ -13066,14 +13022,14 @@ vessels carrying contraband and rendering unneutral service to the enemy, although they are means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> warfare against an enemy, are of such importance as regards neutral trade that they will be discussed below -in Part III. §§ <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>-413.</p> +in Part III. §§ <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>-413.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Objects of the Means of Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 175. Whereas the objects against which means +<p>§ 175. Whereas the objects against which means of land warfare may be directed are innumerable, the number of the objects against which means of sea warfare are directed is very limited, comprising six @@ -13094,7 +13050,7 @@ Private Property on Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 176. <a name="It_is_evident176" id="It_is_evident176"></a>It is evident that in times when a belligerent +<p>§ 176. <a name="It_is_evident176" id="It_is_evident176"></a>It is evident that in times when a belligerent could destroy all public and private enemy property he was able to seize, no special rule existed regarding private enemy ships and private enemy property @@ -13164,7 +13120,7 @@ navibus res, ex rebus naves.</i></p></div> of Paris.</p></div> -<p>§ 177. <a name="Things_began_to177" id="Things_began_to177"></a>Things began to undergo a change with the +<p>§ 177. <a name="Things_began_to177" id="Things_began_to177"></a>Things began to undergo a change with the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854, when all the belligerents proclaimed that they would not issue Letters of Marque, and when, further, Great Britain @@ -13194,7 +13150,7 @@ in practice always acted in accordance with those rules.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XV. p. 767, and - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th559">vol. I. § 559</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th559">vol. I. § 559</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> It has been asserted—see, for instance, Rivier, II. p. 429—that the neutral flag covers only private, not public, enemy @@ -13204,15 +13160,15 @@ would seem, however, to be untenable in face of the fact that the Declaration of Paris speaks of <i>marchandise neutre</i> without any qualification, only excepting contraband goods, thus protecting the whole of the cargo under the neutral flag, contraband excepted. See -below, § <a href="#Footnote_599_599">319, p. 385, note 3</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Footnote_599_599">319, p. 385, note 3</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> That there is an agitation for the abolition of the -Declaration of Paris has been mentioned above, § <a href="#Footnote_128_128">83, p. 100, note 3</a>.</p></div> +Declaration of Paris has been mentioned above, § <a href="#Footnote_128_128">83, p. 100, note 3</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Principle of Appropriation of Private Enemy Vessels and Enemy Goods thereon.</p></div> -<p>§ 178. <a name="The_Declaration_of_Paris178" id="The_Declaration_of_Paris178"></a>The Declaration of Paris did not touch upon +<p>§ 178. <a name="The_Declaration_of_Paris178" id="The_Declaration_of_Paris178"></a>The Declaration of Paris did not touch upon the old rule that private enemy vessels and private enemy goods thereon may be seized and appropriated, and this rule is, therefore, as valid as ever, although @@ -13252,12 +13208,12 @@ article 12 of this treaty—see Martens, <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. I. p. 57.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 342, pp. -260-261, and Moore, VII. § 1198, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 342, pp. +260-261, and Moore, VII. § 1198, p. 465.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 342, pp. -270-287, and Moore, VII. § 1198, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 342, pp. +270-287, and Moore, VII. § 1198, p. 466.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p></div> <p>At the outbreak of war in 1866, Prussia and Austria @@ -13333,37 +13289,37 @@ in the number of continental publicists<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_3 the abolition of the once so much objected to practice of capturing enemy merchantmen.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> See, for instance, Perels, § 36, pp. 195-198; Röpcke, <i>Das +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> See, for instance, Perels, § 36, pp. 195-198; Röpcke, <i>Das Seebeuterecht</i> (1904), pp. 36-47; Dupuis, Nos. 29-31; Pillet, p. 119; Giordana, <i>La proprieta privata nelle guerre maritime, etc.</i> (1907); Niemeyer, <i>Prinzipien des Seekriegsrechts</i> (1909); Boidin, pp. 144-167. On the other hand, the Institute of International Law has several times -voted in favour of the abolition of the rule; see <i>Tableau Général de +voted in favour of the abolition of the rule; see <i>Tableau Général de l'Institut de droit International</i> (1893), pp. 190-193. The literature concerning the question of confiscation of private enemy property on sea is abundant. The following authors, besides those already quoted above -at the commencement of § <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>, may be mentioned:—Upton, <i>The Law of +at the commencement of § <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>, may be mentioned:—Upton, <i>The Law of Nations affecting Commerce during War</i> (1863); Cauchy, <i>Du respect de la -propriété privée dans la guerre maritime</i> (1866); Vidari, <i>Del rispetto -della proprietà privata fra gli stati in guerra</i> (1867); Gessner, <i>Zur +propriété privée dans la guerre maritime</i> (1866); Vidari, <i>Del rispetto +della proprietà privata fra gli stati in guerra</i> (1867); Gessner, <i>Zur Reform des Kriegsseerechts</i> (1875); Klobukowski, <i>Die Seebeute oder das feindliche Privateigenthum zur See</i> (1877); Bluntschli, <i>Das Beuterecht im Kriege und das Seebeuterecht insbesondere</i> (1878); Boeck, <i>De la -propriété privée ennemie sous pavillon ennemi</i> (1882); Dupuis, <i>La +propriété privée ennemie sous pavillon ennemi</i> (1882); Dupuis, <i>La guerre maritime et les doctrines anglaises</i> (1899); Leroy, <i>La guerre -maritime</i> (1900); Röpcke, <i>Das Seebeuterecht</i> (1904); Hirst, <i>Commerce +maritime</i> (1900); Röpcke, <i>Das Seebeuterecht</i> (1904); Hirst, <i>Commerce and Property in Naval Warfare: A Letter of the Lord Chancellor</i> (1906); Hamman, <i>Der Streit um das Seebeuterecht</i> (1907); Wehberg, <i>Das Beuterecht im Land und Seekrieg</i> (1909); Cohen, <i>The Immunity of Enemy's Property from Capture at Sea</i> (1909); Macdonell, <i>Some plain Reasons for Immunity from Capture of Private Property at Sea</i> (1910). See also the -literature quoted by Bonfils, No. 1281, Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. +literature quoted by Bonfils, No. 1281, Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3070-3090, and Boeck, Nos. 382-572, where the arguments of the authors against and in favour of the present practice are discussed.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Impending Codification of Law of Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 179. <a name="Be_that_as_it179" id="Be_that_as_it179"></a>Be that as it may, the time is not very far +<p>§ 179. <a name="Be_that_as_it179" id="Be_that_as_it179"></a>Be that as it may, the time is not very far distant when the Powers will perforce come to an agreement on this as on other points of sea warfare, in a code of regulations regarding sea warfare as a @@ -13385,10 +13341,10 @@ restrictions on the exercise of the right of capture in maritime war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Sh32">vol. I. § 32</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Sh32">vol. I. § 32</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Footnote_83_83">68, p. 83, note 1</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#Footnote_83_83">68, p. 83, note 1</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p></div> @@ -13397,22 +13353,22 @@ above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Sh32">v <span class="smaller">ATTACK AND SEIZURE OF ENEMY VESSELS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 138 and 148—Lawrence, § 182—Westlake, II. pp. 133-140, 307-331—Phillimore, -III. § 347—Twiss, II. § 73—Halleck, II. pp. 105-108—Taylor, -§§ 545-546—Moore, VII. §§ 1175-1183, &c.,—Walker, § 50, p. 147—Wharton, -III. § 345—Bluntschli, §§ 664-670—Heffter, §§ 137-139—Ullmann, -§ 188—Bonfils, Nos. 1269-1271, 1350-1354, 1398-1400—Despagnet, -Nos. 650-659—Rivier, § 66—Nys, III. pp. 467-478—Pradier-Fodéré, -VIII. Nos. 3155-3165, 3176-3178—Calvo, IV. §§ 2368-2378—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 138 and 148—Lawrence, § 182—Westlake, II. pp. 133-140, 307-331—Phillimore, +III. § 347—Twiss, II. § 73—Halleck, II. pp. 105-108—Taylor, +§§ 545-546—Moore, VII. §§ 1175-1183, &c.,—Walker, § 50, p. 147—Wharton, +III. § 345—Bluntschli, §§ 664-670—Heffter, §§ 137-139—Ullmann, +§ 188—Bonfils, Nos. 1269-1271, 1350-1354, 1398-1400—Despagnet, +Nos. 650-659—Rivier, § 66—Nys, III. pp. 467-478—Pradier-Fodéré, +VIII. Nos. 3155-3165, 3176-3178—Calvo, IV. §§ 2368-2378—Fiore, III. Nos. 1414-1424, and Code, Nos. 1643-1649—Pillet, pp. -120-128—Perels, § 35—Testa, pp. 155-157—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 48-55, +120-128—Perels, § 35—Testa, pp. 155-157—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 48-55, 93-111—Ortolan, II. pp. 31-34—Boeck, Nos. 190-208—Dupuis, Nos. 150-158, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 74-112—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 13-16—Bernsten, -§§ 7-8.</p> +§§ 7-8.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Importance of Attack and Seizure of Enemy Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 180. Whereas in land warfare all sorts of violence +<p>§ 180. Whereas in land warfare all sorts of violence against enemy individuals are the chief means, in sea warfare attack and seizure of enemy vessels are the most important means. For together with enemy @@ -13433,7 +13389,7 @@ from directly attacking and seizing enemy vessels.</p> when legitimate.</p></div> -<p>§ 181. <a name="All_enemy_men-of-war181" id="All_enemy_men-of-war181"></a>All enemy men-of-war and other public +<p>§ 181. <a name="All_enemy_men-of-war181" id="All_enemy_men-of-war181"></a>All enemy men-of-war and other public vessels, which are met by a belligerent's men-of-war on the High Seas or within the territorial waters of either belligerent,<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> may at once be attacked, and the @@ -13462,7 +13418,7 @@ flight, but may pursue and seize her.</p> Fortuyn</i> (1760), Burrell 175.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>, and below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>. Should a merchantman, + above, § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>, and below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>. Should a merchantman, legitimately—after having been herself attacked—or illegitimately, attack an enemy vessel, and succeed in capturing her, the prize, on condemnation, becomes <i>droits</i> of Admiralty and, therefore, the property @@ -13482,7 +13438,7 @@ submit to visit.</p> how effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 182. One mode of attack which was in use at the +<p>§ 182. One mode of attack which was in use at the time of sailing ships, namely, boarding and fighting the crew, which can be described as a parallel to assault in land warfare, is no longer used, but if an instance @@ -13492,7 +13448,7 @@ opportunity arises, by ramming; and nothing forbids an attack on enemy vessels by launching projectiles and explosives from air-vessels, provided the belligerents are not parties to the Declaration—see above, - § <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>—which prohibits such attacks. As a rule attacks + § <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>—which prohibits such attacks. As a rule attacks on merchantmen will be made by cannonade only, as the attacking vessel aims at seizing her on account of her value. But, in case the attacked vessel not only @@ -13508,7 +13464,7 @@ harmless if they miss their mark.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Submarine Contact Mines.</p></div> -<p>§ 182<i>a</i>. A new mode of attack which requires special +<p>§ 182<i>a</i>. A new mode of attack which requires special attention<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> is that by means of floating mechanical, in contradistinction to so-called electro-contact, mines. The latter need not specially be discussed, because they @@ -13578,15 +13534,15 @@ a half years unless the Third Peace Conference has already taken up and settled the matter.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> See Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 93-111; Wetzstein, <i>Die -Seeminenfrage im Völkerrecht</i> (1909); Rocholl, <i>Die Frage der Minen im -Seekrieg</i> (1910); Barclay, pp. 59 and 158; Lémonon, pp. 472-502; +Seeminenfrage im Völkerrecht</i> (1909); Rocholl, <i>Die Frage der Minen im +Seekrieg</i> (1910); Barclay, pp. 59 and 158; Lémonon, pp. 472-502; Higgins, pp. 328-345; Boidin, pp. 216-235; Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 331-358; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 576-587; Martitz in the <i>Report of the 23rd Conference (1906) of the International Law Association</i>, pp. 47-74; Stockton in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 276-284.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> As regards neutrals, see - below, § <a href="#In_order_to_defend363a">363<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_order_to_defend363a">363<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> France and Germany have signed with reservations against article 2.</p></div> @@ -13605,7 +13561,7 @@ Third Peace Conference will produce a more satisfactory settlement of the problem. The Institute of International Law studied the matter at its meetings at Paris in 1910 and at Madrid in 1911, and produced -a <i>Règlementation</i><a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> <i>internationale de l'usage des mines +a <i>Règlementation</i><a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> <i>internationale de l'usage des mines sous-marines et torpilles</i>, comprising nine articles, of which the more important are the following:—</p> @@ -13664,7 +13620,7 @@ damage, before the competent International Tribunal.</p> giving Quarter.</p></div> -<p>§ 183. As soon as an attacked or counter-attacked +<p>§ 183. As soon as an attacked or counter-attacked vessel hauls down her flag and, therefore, signals that she is ready to surrender, she must be given quarter and seized without further firing. To continue an @@ -13676,7 +13632,7 @@ or of reprisals.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Seizure.</p></div> -<p>§ 184. Seizure is effected by securing possession of +<p>§ 184. Seizure is effected by securing possession of the vessel through the captor sending an officer and some of his own crew on board the captured vessel. But if for any reason this is impracticable, the captor @@ -13686,7 +13642,7 @@ according to his orders.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Seizure.</p></div> -<p>§ 185. <a name="The_effect_of_seizure185" id="The_effect_of_seizure185"></a>The effect of seizure is different with regard +<p>§ 185. <a name="The_effect_of_seizure185" id="The_effect_of_seizure185"></a>The effect of seizure is different with regard to private enemy vessels, on the one hand, and, on the other, to public vessels.</p> @@ -13707,7 +13663,7 @@ through adjudication of the prize which makes the appropriation by the capturing belligerent final.<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> Concerning the ultimate fate of -the crew, see above, § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>.</p></div> +the crew, see above, § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> It is asserted that a captured enemy merchantman may at once @@ -13721,7 +13677,7 @@ and the Private Citizen</i> (1912), pp. 138-142.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#It_has_already192">192</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#It_has_already192">192</a>.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, the effect of seizure of <i>public</i> enemy vessels is their immediate and final appropriation. @@ -13746,12 +13702,12 @@ practice they do not.<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a hre <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> See, on the one hand, the <i>Fanny</i> (1814), 1 Dodson, 443, and, on the other, the <i>Nereide</i> (1815), 9 Cranch, -388. See also below, § <a href="#Footnote_902_902">424, p. 542 note 2</a>.</p></div> +388. See also below, § <a href="#Footnote_902_902">424, p. 542 note 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immunity of Vessels charged with Religious, Scientific, or Philanthropic Mission.</p></div> -<p>§ 186. Enemy vessels engaged in scientific discovery +<p>§ 186. Enemy vessels engaged in scientific discovery and exploration were, according to a general international usage in existence before the Second Peace Conference of 1907, granted immunity from attack and @@ -13759,14 +13715,14 @@ seizure in so far and so long as they themselves abstained from hostilities. The usage grew up in the eighteenth century. In 1766, the French explorer Bougainville, who started from St. Malo with the -vessels <i>La Boudeuse</i> and <i>L'Étoile</i> on a voyage round +vessels <i>La Boudeuse</i> and <i>L'Étoile</i> on a voyage round the world, was furnished by the British Government with safe-conducts. In 1776, Captain Cook's vessels <i>Resolution</i> and <i>Discovery</i>, sailing from Plymouth for the purpose of exploring the Pacific Ocean, were declared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> exempt from attack and seizure on the part of French cruisers by the French Government. Again, the -French Count Lapérouse, who started on a voyage of +French Count Lapérouse, who started on a voyage of exploration in 1785 with the vessels <i>Astrolabe</i> and <i>Boussole</i>, was secured immunity from attack and seizure. During the nineteenth century this usage @@ -13780,7 +13736,7 @@ In June, 1871, the <i>Palme</i>, a vessel belonging to the Missionary Society of Basle, was captured by a French man-of-war, and condemned by the Prize Court of Bordeaux. The owners appealed and the French -Conseil d'État set the vessel free, not because the +Conseil d'État set the vessel free, not because the capture was not justified but because equity demanded that the fact that Swiss subjects owning sea-going vessels were obliged to have them sailing under the flag @@ -13803,7 +13759,7 @@ vessel.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_3 <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> See U.S. Naval War Code, article 13. The matter is discussed at some -length by Kleen, II. § 210, pp. 503-505. +length by Kleen, II. § 210, pp. 503-505. Concerning the case of the English explorer Flinders, who sailed with the vessel <i>Investigator</i> from @@ -13812,7 +13768,7 @@ England, but exchanged her for the 1803 by the French at Port Louis, in Mauritius, as she was not the vessel to which a safe-conduct was -given, see Lawrence, § 185.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p></div> +given, see Lawrence, § 185.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immunity of Fishing-boats @@ -13822,7 +13778,7 @@ employed in local Trade.</p></div> -<p>§ 187. Coast fishing-boats, in contradistinction to +<p>§ 187. Coast fishing-boats, in contradistinction to boats engaged in deep-sea fisheries, were, according to a general, but not universal, custom in existence during the nineteenth century, granted immunity from attack @@ -13858,9 +13814,9 @@ Prize Law, article 3 (1).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> The <i>Young Jacob and Joanna</i> (1798), 1 C. Rob, 20.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> See Hall, § 148.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> See Hall, § 148.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 36.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 36.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that boats engaged in deep-sea fisheries and large boats engaged in local @@ -13884,7 +13840,7 @@ and from a Belligerent's Port.</p></div> -<p>§ 188. Several times at the outbreak of war +<p>§ 188. Several times at the outbreak of war during the nineteenth century belligerents decreed that such enemy merchantmen as were on their voyage to one of the former's ports at the outbreak of war, @@ -13909,7 +13865,7 @@ being accompanied by a train of transport-vessels, colliers, repairing-vessels, and the like.<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> See, - however, above, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of_Paris178">178</a>, p. 222.</p></div> + however, above, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of_Paris178">178</a>, p. 222.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> This point is ably argued by Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp 54-55.</p></div> @@ -13927,12 +13883,12 @@ be paid for them if they have been requisitioned or destroyed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_former_times102a">102<i>a</i></a>, Nos. 3 and 4.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_former_times102a">102<i>a</i></a>, Nos. 3 and 4.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vessels in Distress.</p></div> -<p>§ 189. <a name="Instances_have189" id="Instances_have189"></a>Instances have occurred when enemy vessels +<p>§ 189. <a name="Instances_have189" id="Instances_have189"></a>Instances have occurred when enemy vessels which were forced by stress of weather to seek refuge in a belligerent's harbour were granted exemption from seizure.<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> Thus, when in 1746, during war with Spain, @@ -13950,24 +13906,24 @@ to vessels in distress, and no such rule is likely to grow up, especially not as regards men-of-war and such merchantmen as are easily convertible into cruisers.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> See Ortolan, II. pp. 286-291; Kleen, II. § 210, pp. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> See Ortolan, II. pp. 286-291; Kleen, II. § 210, pp. 492-494.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immunity of Hospital and Cartel Ships.</p></div> -<p>§ 190. <a name="According_to_the_Hague190" id="According_to_the_Hague190"></a>According to the Hague Convention, which +<p>§ 190. <a name="According_to_the_Hague190" id="According_to_the_Hague190"></a>According to the Hague Convention, which adapted the principles of the Geneva Convention to warfare on sea, hospital ships are inviolable, and therefore may be neither attacked nor seized; see below in -§§ <a href="#Soon_after204">204</a>-209. Concerning the immunity of cartel ships, -see below in § <a href="#Cartel225">225</a>.</p> +§§ <a href="#Soon_after204">204</a>-209. Concerning the immunity of cartel ships, +see below in § <a href="#Cartel225">225</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immunity of Mail-boats and of Mail-bags.</p></div> -<p>§ 191. <a name="No_general_rule191" id="No_general_rule191"></a>No general rule of International Law exists +<p>§ 191. <a name="No_general_rule191" id="No_general_rule191"></a>No general rule of International Law exists granting enemy mail-boats immunity from attack and seizure, but the several States have frequently stipulated such immunity in the case of war by special treaties.<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> @@ -13981,7 +13937,7 @@ these countries without impediment or molestation until special notice be given by either party that the service is to be discontinued.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> See Kleen, II. § 210, pp. 505-507.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> See Kleen, II. § 210, pp. 505-507.</p></div> <p>Whereas there is no general rule granting immunity from capture to enemy mail-boats, enemy <i>mail-bags</i> do, @@ -13998,7 +13954,7 @@ to or proceeding from a blockaded port does not enjoy the privilege of immunity.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#The_duty_of_either319">319</a> + below, §§ <a href="#The_duty_of_either319">319</a> and <a href="#According_to411">411</a>.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that postal correspondence, @@ -14014,20 +13970,20 @@ MERCHANTMEN</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 149-152, 171, 269—Lawrence, §§ 183-191—Westlake, II. pp. 156-160—Phillimore, -III. §§ 345-381—Twiss, II. §§ 72-97—Halleck, II. pp. 362-431, -510-526—Taylor, §§ 552-567—Wharton, III. § 345—Wheaton, §§ -355-394—Moore, VII. §§ 1206-1214—Bluntschli, §§ 672-673—Heffter, §§ -137-138—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 588-596—Ullmann, § 189—Bonfils, -Nos. 1396-1440—Despagnet, Nos. 670-682—Pradier-Fodéré, -VIII. Nos. 3179-3207—Rivier, II. § 66—Calvo, IV. §§ 2294-2366, V. §§ +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 149-152, 171, 269—Lawrence, §§ 183-191—Westlake, II. pp. 156-160—Phillimore, +III. §§ 345-381—Twiss, II. §§ 72-97—Halleck, II. pp. 362-431, +510-526—Taylor, §§ 552-567—Wharton, III. § 345—Wheaton, §§ +355-394—Moore, VII. §§ 1206-1214—Bluntschli, §§ 672-673—Heffter, §§ +137-138—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 588-596—Ullmann, § 189—Bonfils, +Nos. 1396-1440—Despagnet, Nos. 670-682—Pradier-Fodéré, +VIII. Nos. 3179-3207—Rivier, II. § 66—Calvo, IV. §§ 2294-2366, V. §§ 3004-3034—Fiore, III. Nos. 1426-1443, and Code, Nos. 1693-1706—Martens, -II. §§ 125-126—Pillet, pp. 342-352—Perels, §§ 36, 55-58—Testa, -pp. 147-160—Valin, <i>Traité des prises</i>, 2 vols. (1758-60), and <i>Commentaire +II. §§ 125-126—Pillet, pp. 342-352—Perels, §§ 36, 55-58—Testa, +pp. 147-160—Valin, <i>Traité des prises</i>, 2 vols. (1758-60), and <i>Commentaire sur l'ordonnance de 1681</i>, 2 vols. (1766)—Pistoye et Duverdy, -<i>Traité des prises maritimes</i>, 2 vols. (1854-1859)—Upton, <i>The Law of +<i>Traité des prises maritimes</i>, 2 vols. (1854-1859)—Upton, <i>The Law of Nations affecting Commerce during War</i> (1863)—Boeck, Nos. 156-209, 329-380—Dupuis, -Nos. 96-149, 282-301—Bernsten, § 8—Marsden, <i>Early Prize +Nos. 96-149, 282-301—Bernsten, § 8—Marsden, <i>Early Prize Jurisdiction and Prize Law in England</i> in <i>The English Historical Review</i>, XXIV. (1909), p. 675; XXV. (1910), p. 243; XXVI. (1911) p. 34—Roscoe, <i>The Growth of English Law</i> (1911), pp. 92-140. See also the literature @@ -14036,7 +13992,7 @@ quoted by Bonfils at the commencement of No. 1396.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Prize Courts.</p></div> -<p>§ 192. <a name="It_has_already192" id="It_has_already192"></a>It has already been stated above, in § <a href="#The_effect_of_seizure185">185</a>, +<p>§ 192. <a name="It_has_already192" id="It_has_already192"></a>It has already been stated above, in § <a href="#The_effect_of_seizure185">185</a>, that the capture of a private enemy vessel has to be confirmed by a Prize Court, and that it is only through the latter's adjudication that the vessel becomes @@ -14110,7 +14066,7 @@ the part of a neutral State to allow the institution on its territory of a Prize Court.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> I follow the excellent summary of the facts given by Twiss, -II. §§ 74-75, but Marsden's articles in <i>The English Historical Review</i>, +II. §§ 74-75, but Marsden's articles in <i>The English Historical Review</i>, XXIV. (1909), p. 675, XXV. (1910), p. 243, XXVI. (1911), p. 34, must likewise be referred to.</p></div> @@ -14123,7 +14079,7 @@ provided that all captures should be submitted to the High Court of Admiralty; see Marsden, <i>loc. cit.</i> XXIV. (1909), p. 690.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_belligerents434">434</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_belligerents434">434</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> The constitution and procedure of Prize Courts in Great Britain are governed by the Naval Prize Act, 1864 (27 and 28 Vict. ch. @@ -14132,12 +14088,12 @@ Prize Bill introduced by the British Government in 1911, although accepted by the House of Commons, was thrown out by the House of Lords.—It should be mentioned that the Institute of International Law has in various meetings occupied itself with the whole matter of -capture, and adopted a body of rules in the <i>Règlement international des +capture, and adopted a body of rules in the <i>Règlement international des Prises Maritimes</i>, which represent a code of Prize Law; see <i>Annuaire</i>, IX. pp. 218-243, but also XVI. pp. 44 and 311.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327">327</a>, and article 4 of Convention XIII. of the + below, § <a href="#It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327">327</a>, and article 4 of Convention XIII. of the Second Peace Conference.</p></div> <p>Whereas the ordinary Prize Courts are national @@ -14159,8 +14115,8 @@ in cases in which the International Prize Court has no jurisdiction.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th476">vol. I. § 476<i>a</i></a>, and - below, §§ <a href="#The_International_Prize442">442</a>-447.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th476">vol. I. § 476<i>a</i></a>, and + below, §§ <a href="#The_International_Prize442">442</a>-447.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that the proposed International Prize Court—see articles 3 and 4—is, @@ -14173,7 +14129,7 @@ to port of Prize Court.</p></div> -<p>§ 193. <a name="As_soon_as_a_vessel193" id="As_soon_as_a_vessel193"></a>As soon as a vessel is seized she must be +<p>§ 193. <a name="As_soon_as_a_vessel193" id="As_soon_as_a_vessel193"></a>As soon as a vessel is seized she must be conducted to a port where a Prize Court is sitting. As a rule the officer and the crew sent on board the prize by the captor will navigate the prize to the port. This @@ -14203,7 +14159,7 @@ the prize after the ship papers of the prize and witnesses have been produced before it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_would_no_doubt328">328</a>, and articles 21-23 of Convention XIII. of the + below, § <a href="#It_would_no_doubt328">328</a>, and articles 21-23 of Convention XIII. of the Second Peace Conference.</p></div> <p>The whole of the crew of the prize are, as a rule, @@ -14229,7 +14185,7 @@ destroyed, as the case may require.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Destruction of Prize.</p></div> -<p>§ 194. <a name="Since_through_adjudication194" id="Since_through_adjudication194"></a>Since through adjudication by the Prize +<p>§ 194. <a name="Since_through_adjudication194" id="Since_through_adjudication194"></a>Since through adjudication by the Prize Courts the ownership of captured private enemy vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> becomes finally transferred to the belligerent whose forces made the capture, it is evident that after transfer @@ -14262,9 +14218,9 @@ prize in only two cases—namely, first, when the prize is in such a condition as prevents her from being sent to any port of adjudication; and, secondly, when the capturing vessel is unable to spare a prize crew to navigate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> -the prize into such a port. The <i>Règlement international +the prize into such a port. The <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i> of the Institute of International -Law enumerates in § 50 five cases in which destruction +Law enumerates in § 50 five cases in which destruction of the capture is allowed—namely (1) when the condition of the vessel and the weather make it impossible to keep the prize afloat; (2) when the vessel navigates so @@ -14283,10 +14239,10 @@ cargo to a port of a Prize Court for the purpose of satisfying the latter that both the capture and the destruction were lawful.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, § +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, § 672.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> See, for instance, Martens, § 126, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> See, for instance, Martens, § 126, who moreover makes no difference between the prize being an enemy or a neutral ship.</p></div> @@ -14300,14 +14256,14 @@ military or other necessity."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> The <i>Actaeon</i> (1815), 2 Dod. 48; the <i>Felicity</i> (1819), 2 Dod. 381; the <i>Leucade</i> (1855), Spinks, 217. See also -Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 303-304.</p></div> +Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 303-304.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> The whole matter is thoroughly discussed by Boeck, Nos. 268-285; Dupuis, Nos. 262-268; and Calvo, V. -§§ 3028-3034. As regards destruction +§§ 3028-3034. As regards destruction of a neutral prize, see below, -§ <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>.</p></div> +§ <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>.</p></div> <p>But if destruction of a captured enemy merchantman can as an exception be lawful, the question as to @@ -14319,15 +14275,15 @@ remove her cargo, no indemnities need be paid. An illustrative case happened during the Franco-German War. On October 21, 1870, the French cruiser <i>Dessaix</i> seized two German merchantmen, the <i>Ludwig</i> and the -<i>Vorwärts</i>, but burned them because she could not spare +<i>Vorwärts</i>, but burned them because she could not spare a prize crew to navigate the prizes into a French port. The neutral owners of part of the cargo claimed indemnities, -but the French Conseil d'État refused to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +but the French Conseil d'État refused to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> grant indemnities on the ground that the action of the captor was lawful.<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> See Boeck, No. 146; Barboux, p. 153; Calvo, V. § 3033; -Dupuis, No. 262; Hall, § 269. Should the International Prize Court at +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> See Boeck, No. 146; Barboux, p. 153; Calvo, V. § 3033; +Dupuis, No. 262; Hall, § 269. Should the International Prize Court at the Hague be established, article 3 of Convention XII. of the Second Peace Conference would enable the owners of neutral goods destroyed with the destroyed enemy merchantmen that carried them to bring the question @@ -14335,7 +14291,7 @@ as to whether they may claim damages before this Court.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ransom of Prize.</p></div> -<p>§ 195. <a name="Although_prizes195" id="Although_prizes195"></a>Although prizes have as a rule to be brought +<p>§ 195. <a name="Although_prizes195" id="Although_prizes195"></a>Although prizes have as a rule to be brought before a Prize Court, International Law nevertheless does not forbid the ransoming of the captured vessel either directly after the capture or after she has been @@ -14396,7 +14352,7 @@ against in the High Court at the suit of His Majesty in his office of Admiralty, and on conviction to be fined, in the discretion of the Court, any sum not exceeding five hundred pounds.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> See Hall, § 151, p. 479:—"The English Courts refuse to +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> See Hall, § 151, p. 479:—"The English Courts refuse to accept such arrangements (for ransom) from the effect of the rule that the character of an alien enemy carries with it a disability to sue, and compel payment of the debt indirectly through an action brought by the @@ -14408,14 +14364,14 @@ Rob. 201; and, on the other, <i>Goodrich</i> and <i>De Forest</i> v. <i>Gordon</ (1818), 15 Johnson, 6.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> The matter of ransom is treated with great lucidity by -Twiss, II. §§ 180-183; Boeck, Nos. 257-267; Dupuis, Nos. 269-277.</p></div> +Twiss, II. §§ 180-183; Boeck, Nos. 257-267; Dupuis, Nos. 269-277.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Loss of Prize, especially Recapture.</p></div> -<p>§ 196. <a name="A_prize_is_lost196" id="A_prize_is_lost196"></a>A prize is lost—(1) when the captor intentionally +<p>§ 196. <a name="A_prize_is_lost196" id="A_prize_is_lost196"></a>A prize is lost—(1) when the captor intentionally abandons her, (2) when she escapes through being rescued by her own crew, or (3) when she is recaptured. Just as through capture the prize becomes, @@ -14470,7 +14426,7 @@ Dupuis, Nos. 278-279.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fate of Prize.</p></div> -<p>§ 197. Through being captured and afterwards condemned +<p>§ 197. Through being captured and afterwards condemned by a Prize Court, a captured enemy vessel and captured enemy goods become the property of the belligerent whose forces made the capture. What<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> @@ -14495,12 +14451,12 @@ might be restored<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="# <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, pp. 142-150.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_prize_is_lost196">196</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_prize_is_lost196">196</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vessels belonging to Subjects of Neutral States, but sailing under Enemy Flag.</p></div> -<p>§ 198. It has been already stated above in § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a> +<p>§ 198. It has been already stated above in § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a> that merchantmen owned by subjects of neutral States but sailing under enemy flag are vested with enemy character. It is, therefore, evident that they may be @@ -14511,11 +14467,11 @@ flag of another State,<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a hr of war exposed to capture.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th261">vol. I. § 261</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th261">vol. I. § 261</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Sale of Enemy Vessels during War.</p></div> -<p>§ 199. Since enemy vessels are liable to capture, +<p>§ 199. Since enemy vessels are liable to capture, the question must be taken into consideration whether the fact that an enemy vessel has been sold during the war to a subject of a neutral or to a subject of the @@ -14527,7 +14483,7 @@ property captured by selling their vessels. The question of transfer of enemy vessels must, therefore, be regarded as forming part of the larger questions of enemy character and has consequently been treated in -detail above, § 91.</p> +detail above, § 91.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Goods sold by @@ -14537,7 +14493,7 @@ Subjects during War.</p></div> -<p>§ 200. If a captured enemy vessel carries goods +<p>§ 200. If a captured enemy vessel carries goods consigned by enemy subjects to subjects of neutral States, or to subjects of the belligerent whose forces captured the vessel, they may not be appropriated, @@ -14550,7 +14506,7 @@ The subject of goods sold <i>in transitu</i> must—in the same way as the question of transfer of enemy vessels—be considered as forming part of the larger question of enemy character. It has, for this reason, -been treated above, § 92.</p> +been treated above, § 92.</p> <h4> @@ -14559,14 +14515,14 @@ been treated above, § 92.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>. +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#As_war_is_a_contention107">107</a>. See also Bonfils, Nos. 1273-1273<span class="topnum">3</span></p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violence against Combatants.</p></div> -<p>§ 201. <a name="As_regards_killing201" id="As_regards_killing201"></a>As regards killing and wounding combatants +<p>§ 201. <a name="As_regards_killing201" id="As_regards_killing201"></a>As regards killing and wounding combatants in sea warfare and the means used for the purpose, customary rules of International Law are in existence according to which only those combatants may be @@ -14586,19 +14542,19 @@ explosives launched from balloons, and projectiles diffusing asphyxiating or deleterious gases.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> See the corresponding rules for warfare on land, which are -discussed above in §§ 108-110. See also U.S. Naval War Code, article 3.</p></div> +discussed above in §§ 108-110. See also U.S. Naval War Code, article 3.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> See above,§ <a href="#In_1868_a_conference111">111</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> See above,§ <a href="#In_1868_a_conference111">111</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#As_Great_Britain112">112</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#As_Great_Britain112">112</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#The_First_Hague113">113</a> and <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#The_First_Hague113">113</a> and <a href="#The_First_Hague_Peace114">114</a>.</p></div> <p>All combatants, and also all officers and members of the crews of captured merchantmen, could formerly<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> be made prisoners of war. According to articles 5 to 7 of Convention XI. of the Second Peace Conference—see -above in § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>—such members of the crews as are subjects +above in § <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>—such members of the crews as are subjects of neutral States may never be made prisoners of war; but the captain, officers, and members of the crews who are enemy subjects, and, further, the captain @@ -14618,18 +14574,18 @@ prisoners of war.<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="# <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> This was almost generally recognised, but was refused recognition by Count Bismarck during the Franco-German War (see - below, § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>) and by some German publicists, as, for instance, Lueder in + below, § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>) and by some German publicists, as, for instance, Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 479, note 6.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>, and U.S. Naval War Code, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>, and U.S. Naval War Code, articles 10, 11.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Soldiers_sailors205">205</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Soldiers_sailors205">205</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violence against Non-combatant Members of Naval Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 202. Just as military forces consist of combatants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +<p>§ 202. Just as military forces consist of combatants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> and non-combatants, so do the naval forces of belligerents. Non-combatants, as, for instance, stokers, surgeons, chaplains, members of the hospital staff, @@ -14646,13 +14602,13 @@ the principles of the Geneva Convention.<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_ <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> See U.S. Naval War Code, article 3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_religious_medical209">209</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_religious_medical209">209</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violence against Enemy Individuals not belonging to the Naval Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 203. Since and so far as enemy individuals on +<p>§ 203. Since and so far as enemy individuals on board an attacked or seized enemy vessel who do not belong to the naval forces do not take part in the fighting, they may not directly be attacked and killed @@ -14670,10 +14626,10 @@ with lawful orders of the commanding officer. If they are enemy officials in important positions,<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> they may be made prisoners of war.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> See U.S. Naval War Code, article 11, and above, § <a href="#Whereas_in116">116</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> See U.S. Naval War Code, article 11, and above, § <a href="#Whereas_in116">116</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_head_of_the_enemy117">117</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_head_of_the_enemy117">117</a>.</p></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> <h4> @@ -14681,25 +14637,25 @@ be made prisoners of war.</p> <span class="smaller">TREATMENT OF WOUNDED AND SHIPWRECKED</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Perels, § 37—Pillet, pp. 188-191—Westlake, II. pp. 275-280—Moore, VII. -§ 1178—Bernsten, § 12—Bonfils, Nos. 1280-1280<span class="topnum">9</span>—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. +<p class="indh1">Perels, § 37—Pillet, pp. 188-191—Westlake, II. pp. 275-280—Moore, VII. +§ 1178—Bernsten, § 12—Bonfils, Nos. 1280-1280<span class="topnum">9</span>—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. No. 3209—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 21-29—Ferguson, <i>The Red Cross Alliance at Sea</i> (1871)—Houette, <i>De l'extension des principes de la Convention -de Genève aux victimes des guerres maritimes</i> (1892)—Cauwès, <i>L'extension -des principes de la Convention de Genève aux guerres maritimes</i> (1899)—Holls, +de Genève aux victimes des guerres maritimes</i> (1892)—Cauwès, <i>L'extension +des principes de la Convention de Genève aux guerres maritimes</i> (1899)—Holls, <i>The Peace Conference at the Hague</i> (1900), pp. 120-132—Boidin, pp. -248-262—Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 82-105—Meurer, II. §§ 74-87—Higgins, -pp. 382-394—Lémonon, pp. 526-554—Nippold, II. § 33—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, +248-262—Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 82-105—Meurer, II. §§ 74-87—Higgins, +pp. 382-394—Lémonon, pp. 526-554—Nippold, II. § 33—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 599-614—Takahashi, pp. 375-385—Fauchille in <i>R.G.</i> VI. (1899), pp. 291-302—Bayer, in <i>R.G.</i> VIII. (1901), pp. 225-230—Renault in <i>A.J.</i> II. pp. 295-306—Higgins, <i>War and the Private Citizen</i> (1912), pp. 73-90, and in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXVI (1910), pp. 408-414. See also the literature quoted above at the commencement - of § <a href="#Al118">118</a>.</p> + of § <a href="#Al118">118</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Adaptation of Geneva Convention to Sea Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 204. <a name="Soon_after204" id="Soon_after204"></a>Soon after the ratification of the Geneva +<p>§ 204. <a name="Soon_after204" id="Soon_after204"></a>Soon after the ratification of the Geneva Convention the necessity of adapting its principles to naval warfare was generally recognised, and among the non-ratified Additional articles to the Geneva @@ -14731,7 +14687,7 @@ of abuses and infractions.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Wounded, Sick, and Shipwrecked.</p></div> -<p>§ 205. <a name="Soldiers_sailors205" id="Soldiers_sailors205"></a>Soldiers, sailors, and other persons officially +<p>§ 205. <a name="Soldiers_sailors205" id="Soldiers_sailors205"></a>Soldiers, sailors, and other persons officially attached to fleets or armies, whatever their nationality, who are taken on board when sick or wounded, must be respected and tended by the captors (article 11). @@ -14768,11 +14724,11 @@ to the persons concerned by the authorities of their own country (article 17).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> See - below, §<a href="#Just_as_in_war348a"> 348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + below, §<a href="#Just_as_in_war348a"> 348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatment of the Dead.</p></div> -<p>§ 205<i>a</i>. After each engagement both belligerents +<p>§ 205<i>a</i>. After each engagement both belligerents must, so far as military interests permit, take measures to ensure the dead protection against pillage and maltreatment, and they must see that the burial, whether @@ -14790,7 +14746,7 @@ the authorities of their own country (article 17).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Hospital Ships.</p></div> -<p>§ 206. Three different kinds of hospital ships must +<p>§ 206. Three different kinds of hospital ships must be distinguished—namely, military hospital ships, hospital ships equipped by private individuals or relief societies of the belligerents, and hospital ships equipped @@ -14887,7 +14843,7 @@ Ships in Neutral Ports.</p></div> -<p>§ 206<i>a</i>. For the purpose of defining the status of +<p>§ 206<i>a</i>. For the purpose of defining the status of hospital ships when entering neutral ports an International Conference met at the Hague in 1904, where Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, China, Korea, @@ -14921,7 +14877,7 @@ non-contracting Power shall join one of the belligerents.</p> this day and may be signed up to October 1, 1905, by any Power which shall have expressed a wish to do so, shall be ratified as speedily as possible. The ratifications shall be deposited at -the Hague. On the deposit of the ratifications, a <i>procès-verbal</i> +the Hague. On the deposit of the ratifications, a <i>procès-verbal</i> shall be drawn up, of which a certified copy shall be conveyed by diplomatic channels, after the deposit of each ratification, to all the contracting Powers.</p> @@ -14944,7 +14900,7 @@ which shall have given notice of it.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Sick-Bays.</p></div> -<p>§ 206<i>b</i>. According to article 7, in case of a fight on +<p>§ 206<i>b</i>. According to article 7, in case of a fight on board a man-of-war, the sick-bays must, as far as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> possible, be respected and spared. These sick-bays, and the material belonging to them, remain subject to @@ -14970,7 +14926,7 @@ of Hospital Ships.</p></div> -<p>§ 207. <a name="All_military207" id="All_military207"></a>All military hospital ships must be painted +<p>§ 207. <a name="All_military207" id="All_military207"></a>All military hospital ships must be painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about one metre and a half in breadth. Other hospital ships must also be painted white outside, but with a horizontal @@ -15010,7 +14966,7 @@ Wounded, Sick, or Shipwrecked.</p></div> -<p>§ 208. A distinction must be made between neutral +<p>§ 208. A distinction must be made between neutral men-of-war and private vessels assisting the sick, wounded, and shipwrecked.</p> @@ -15033,10 +14989,10 @@ remain liable to capture for any violation of neutrality they may have committed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_can_happen348">348</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_can_happen348">348</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> See below, - § <a href="#Just_as_in_war348a">348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + § <a href="#Just_as_in_war348a">348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that, according to article 12, any man-of-war of either belligerent may @@ -15045,7 +15001,7 @@ whatever the nationality of such vessels, the surrender of the wounded, sick, or shipwrecked who are on board.</p> <p>According to the reservation of Great Britain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> -mentioned above in § 206, article 12 is understood "to +mentioned above in § 206, article 12 is understood "to apply only to the case of combatants rescued during or after a naval engagement in which they have taken part."</p> @@ -15057,7 +15013,7 @@ and Hospital Staff.</p></div> -<p>§ 209. <a name="The_religious_medical209" id="The_religious_medical209"></a>The religious, medical, and hospital staff +<p>§ 209. <a name="The_religious_medical209" id="The_religious_medical209"></a>The religious, medical, and hospital staff of any captured vessel is inviolable, and the members may not be made prisoners of war, but they must continue to discharge their duties while necessary. If @@ -15078,7 +15034,7 @@ and Prevention of Abuses.</p></div> -<p>§ 209<i>a</i>. The provisions of Convention X. are only +<p>§ 209<i>a</i>. The provisions of Convention X. are only binding in the case of war between contracting Powers, they cease to be binding the moment a non-contracting Power becomes one of the belligerents (article 18). In @@ -15110,14 +15066,14 @@ the ratification of Convention X.<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418 <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Great Britain has entered a reservation against articles 6 -and 21, but see above, § <a href="#Footnote_255_255">124<i>b</i>, p. 164, note 1</a>.</p></div> +and 21, but see above, § <a href="#Footnote_255_255">124<i>b</i>, p. 164, note 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General Provisions of Convention X.</p></div> -<p>§ 209<i>b</i>. Convention X. comes into force sixty days +<p>§ 209<i>b</i>. Convention X. comes into force sixty days after ratification or accession on the part of each Power concerned (article 26). It replaces the Convention of 1899 for the adaptation to naval warfare of the @@ -15155,14 +15111,14 @@ be supplied with duly certified extracts from it <p class="indh1">See, besides the literature quoted above at the commencement -of §§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a> and <a href="#Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163">163</a>, Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. No. 3157, and Bentwich in <i>The Journal of the +of §§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a> and <a href="#Ruses_of_war_or_stratagems163">163</a>, Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. No. 3157, and Bentwich in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, X. (1909), pp. 243-249.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Espionage and Treason.</p></div> -<p>§ 210. <a name="Es210" id="Es210"></a>Espionage<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> and treason do not play as +<p>§ 210. <a name="Es210" id="Es210"></a>Espionage<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> and treason do not play as large a part in sea warfare as in land warfare;<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> still they may be made use of by belligerents. But it must be specially observed that, since the Hague Regulations @@ -15172,14 +15128,14 @@ of these Regulations does not exist for sea warfare, although such trial by court-martial is advisable.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> As regards the case of the -<i>Haimun</i>, see below, § <a href="#Information_regarding356">356</a>.</p></div> +<i>Haimun</i>, see below, § <a href="#Information_regarding356">356</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>-162.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>-162.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ruses.</p></div> -<p>§ 211. <a name="Ruses_are_customarily211" id="Ruses_are_customarily211"></a>Ruses are customarily allowed in sea warfare +<p>§ 211. <a name="Ruses_are_customarily211" id="Ruses_are_customarily211"></a>Ruses are customarily allowed in sea warfare within the same limits as in land warfare, perfidy being excluded. As regards the use of a false flag, it is by most publicists considered perfectly lawful for a man-of-war @@ -15216,21 +15172,21 @@ up with the lieutenant and his men on board.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> The use of a false flag on the part of a belligerent man-of-war is analogous to the use of the enemy flag and the like in -land warfare; see above, § <a href="#Of_ruses_there164">164</a>. British practice—see Holland, <i>Prize -Law</i>, § 200—permits the use of false colours. U.S. Naval War Code, +land warfare; see above, § <a href="#Of_ruses_there164">164</a>. British practice—see Holland, <i>Prize +Law</i>, § 200—permits the use of false colours. U.S. Naval War Code, article 7, forbids it altogether, whereas as late as 1898, during the war with Spain in consequence of the Cuban insurrection, two American men-of-war made use of the Spanish flag (see Perels, p. 183). And during the war between Turkey and Russia, in 1877, Russian men-of-war in the -Black Sea made use of the Italian flag (see Martens, II. § 103, p. 566). +Black Sea made use of the Italian flag (see Martens, II. § 103, p. 566). The question of the permissibility of the use of a neutral or enemy flag is answered in the affirmative, among others, by Ortolan, II. p. 29; -Fiore, III. No. 1340; Perels, § 35, p. 183; Pillet, p. 116; Bonfils, No. -1274; Calvo, IV. 2106; Hall, § 187. See also Pillet in <i>R.G.</i> V. (1898), +Fiore, III. No. 1340; Perels, § 35, p. 183; Pillet, p. 116; Bonfils, No. +1274; Calvo, IV. 2106; Hall, § 187. See also Pillet in <i>R.G.</i> V. (1898), pp. 444-451. But see the arguments against the use of a false flag in -Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760.</p></div> +Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760.</p></div> -<p>Vattel (III. § 178) relates the following case of +<p>Vattel (III. § 178) relates the following case of perfidy: In 1755, during war between Great Britain and France, a British man-of-war appeared off Calais, made signals of distress for the purpose of soliciting @@ -15249,13 +15205,13 @@ which is not allowed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 140*—Lawrence, § 204—Westlake, II. pp. 315-318—Moore, VII. §§ -1166-1174—Taylor, § 499—Bonfils, Nos. 1277-1277<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 618-618 -<i>bis</i>—Fiore, Code, Nos. 1633-1642—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3153-3154—Nys, -III. pp. 430-432—Pillet, p. 117—Perels, § 35, p. 181—Holland, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 140*—Lawrence, § 204—Westlake, II. pp. 315-318—Moore, VII. §§ +1166-1174—Taylor, § 499—Bonfils, Nos. 1277-1277<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 618-618 +<i>bis</i>—Fiore, Code, Nos. 1633-1642—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3153-3154—Nys, +III. pp. 430-432—Pillet, p. 117—Perels, § 35, p. 181—Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 96-111—Dupuis, Nos. 67-73, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 42-47—Barclay, -<i>Problems</i>, p. 51—Higgins, pp. 352-357—Lémonon, pp. 503-525—Bernsten, -§ 7, III.—Boidin, pp. 201-215—Nippold, II. § 28—Scott, +<i>Problems</i>, p. 51—Higgins, pp. 352-357—Lémonon, pp. 503-525—Bernsten, +§ 7, III.—Boidin, pp. 201-215—Nippold, II. § 28—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 587-598, and in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 285-294.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Requisitions @@ -15265,7 +15221,7 @@ upon Coast Towns.</p></div> -<p>§ 212. <a name="No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212" id="No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212"></a>No case has to my knowledge occurred in +<p>§ 212. <a name="No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212" id="No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212"></a>No case has to my knowledge occurred in Europe<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> of requisitions or contributions imposed by naval forces upon enemy coast towns. The question whether or not such requisitions and contributions @@ -15279,7 +15235,7 @@ military and commercial enemy coast towns, or at least to compel them mercilessly to requisitions and contributions. As during the British naval manœuvres of 1888 and 1889 imaginary contributions -were imposed upon several coast towns, Hall (§ 140*) took +were imposed upon several coast towns, Hall (§ 140*) took into consideration the question under what conditions requisitions and contributions would be lawful in sea warfare. He concluded, after careful consideration @@ -15315,7 +15271,7 @@ in South America in 1871.</p></div> question of requisitions and contributions in sea warfare in article 4, No. 1, of its rules regarding the bombardment of open towns by naval forces; see - below, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt_whatever213">213</a>, p. 267. U.S. Naval War Code, article 4, allows + below, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt_whatever213">213</a>, p. 267. U.S. Naval War Code, article 4, allows "reasonable" requisitions, but no contributions since "ransom" is not allowed.</p></div> @@ -15345,7 +15301,7 @@ the Enemy Coast.</p></div> -<p>§ 213. <a name="There_is_no_doubt_whatever213" id="There_is_no_doubt_whatever213"></a>There is no doubt whatever that enemy +<p>§ 213. <a name="There_is_no_doubt_whatever213" id="There_is_no_doubt_whatever213"></a>There is no doubt whatever that enemy coast towns which are defended may be bombarded by naval forces, acting either independently or in co-operation with a besieging army. But before the @@ -15374,14 +15330,14 @@ in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i> in 1882. After having remarked that the ultimate object of war is to inflict the greatest possible damage to the enemy and that "La richesse est le nerf de la guerre," he goes on as follows:—"Tout ce qui frappe -l'ennemi dans sa richesse devient non seulement légitime, mais -s'impose comme obligatoire. Il faut donc s'attendre à voir les -flottes cuirassées, maîtresses de la mer, tourner leur puissance -d'attaque et déstruction, à défaut d'adversaires se dérobant à -leurs coups, contre toutes les villes du littoral, fortifiées ou non,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> -pacifiques ou guerrières, les incendier, les ruiner, et tout au -moins les rançonner sans merci. Cela s'est fait autrefois; cela -ne se fait plus; cela se fera encore: Strasbourg et Péronne en +l'ennemi dans sa richesse devient non seulement légitime, mais +s'impose comme obligatoire. Il faut donc s'attendre à voir les +flottes cuirassées, maîtresses de la mer, tourner leur puissance +d'attaque et déstruction, à défaut d'adversaires se dérobant à +leurs coups, contre toutes les villes du littoral, fortifiées ou non,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +pacifiques ou guerrières, les incendier, les ruiner, et tout au +moins les rançonner sans merci. Cela s'est fait autrefois; cela +ne se fait plus; cela se fera encore: Strasbourg et Péronne en sont garants...."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> See <i>Annuaire</i>, XV. (1896), pp. @@ -15430,7 +15386,7 @@ or contributions must in every case remain within the limits prescribed by articles 56 and 58 of the Manual of the Institute.</p> <p class="blockquot">(2) For the purpose of destroying sheds, military erections,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> -depôts of war munitions, or of war vessels in a port. Further, +depôts of war munitions, or of war vessels in a port. Further, an open town which defends itself against the entrance of troops or of disembarked marines can be bombarded for the purpose of protecting the disembarkation of the soldiers and of the @@ -15460,7 +15416,7 @@ settle the question of bombardment of ports, towns, and villages by a naval force may be referred to a subsequent Conference for consideration." The Second Peace Conference, however, by Convention IX.—see -above, § <a href="#No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212">212</a>, p. 265—has provided detailed rules concerning +above, § <a href="#No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212">212</a>, p. 265—has provided detailed rules concerning all the points in question, and the following is now the law concerning bombardment by naval forces:—</p> @@ -15477,7 +15433,7 @@ they correctly consider such a place to be "defended."<span class="pagenum"><a n <p class="blockquot">(2) Although undefended places themselves are exempt, nevertheless military works, military or naval -establishments, depôts of arms or war material, workshops +establishments, depôts of arms or war material, workshops or plant which could be utilised for the needs of the hostile fleet or army, and men-of-war in the harbour of undefended places may be bombarded. And no responsibility @@ -15518,7 +15474,7 @@ unfounded.</p> <p>(3) In case undefended places do not comply with legitimate requisitions, they likewise may be bombarded; -see details above, § <a href="#No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212">212</a>.</p> +see details above, § <a href="#No_case_has_to_my_knowledge212">212</a>.</p> <p>(4) In case of bombardments, all necessary steps must be taken to spare buildings devoted to public @@ -15549,25 +15505,25 @@ even when taken by assault, is forbidden (article 7).<span class="pagenum"><a na </h4> -<p class="indh1">Moore, VII. § 1176—Westlake, II. pp. 280-283—Liszt, § 41, III.—Bonfils, No. -1278—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2772—Fiore, III. No. 1387, and Code, -Nos. 1650-1655—Perels, § 35, p. 185—Perdrix, <i>Les câbles sousmarines et +<p class="indh1">Moore, VII. § 1176—Westlake, II. pp. 280-283—Liszt, § 41, III.—Bonfils, No. +1278—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2772—Fiore, III. No. 1387, and Code, +Nos. 1650-1655—Perels, § 35, p. 185—Perdrix, <i>Les câbles sousmarines et leur protection internationale</i> (1902)—Kraemer, <i>Die unterseeischen Telegraphenkabel in Kriegszeiten</i> (1903)—Scholz, <i>Krieg und Seekabel</i> (1904)—Zuculin, <i>I cavi sottomarini e il telegrafo senza fili nel diritto di guerra</i> (1907)—Holland, -in <i>Journal de Droit International Privé et de la Jurisprudence -comparée</i> (Clunet), XXV. (1898), pp. 648-652, and <i>War</i>, No. 114—Goffin, +in <i>Journal de Droit International Privé et de la Jurisprudence +comparée</i> (Clunet), XXV. (1898), pp. 648-652, and <i>War</i>, No. 114—Goffin, in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XV. (1899), pp. 145-154—Bar, in the -<i>Archiv für Oeffentliches Recht</i>, XV. (1900), pp. 414-421—Rey, in <i>R.G.</i> +<i>Archiv für Oeffentliches Recht</i>, XV. (1900), pp. 414-421—Rey, in <i>R.G.</i> VIII. (1901), pp. 681-762—Dupuis, in <i>R.G.</i> X. (1903), pp. 532-547—Nordon in <i>The Law Magazine and Review</i>, XXXII. (1907), pp. 166-188. See also the literature quoted above, - <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It286">vol. I., at the commencement of § 286</a>.</p> + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It286">vol. I., at the commencement of § 286</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Uncertainty of Rules concerning Interference with Submarine Telegraph Cables.</p></div> -<p>§ 214. <a name="As214" id="As214"></a>As the "International Convention<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> for the +<p>§ 214. <a name="As214" id="As214"></a>As the "International Convention<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables" of 1884 expressly stipulates by article 15 that freedom of action is reserved to belligerents, the question is not settled @@ -15585,40 +15541,40 @@ existence which deals with other possible cases of seizure and destruction.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It286">vol. I. §§ 286</a> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It286">vol. I. §§ 286</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#To287a">287</a>.</p></div> <p>The Institute of International Law has studied the matter and adopted,<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> at its meeting at Brussels in 1902, the following five rules:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>—</p> -<p class="blockquot">(1) Le câble sousmarin reliant deux territoires neutres est +<p class="blockquot">(1) Le câble sousmarin reliant deux territoires neutres est inviolable.</p> -<p class="blockquot">(2) Le câble reliant les territoires de deux belligérants -ou deux parties du territoire d'un des belligérants peut être -coupé partout, excepté dans la mer territoriale et dans les eaux -neutralisées dépendant d'un territoire neutre.</p> +<p class="blockquot">(2) Le câble reliant les territoires de deux belligérants +ou deux parties du territoire d'un des belligérants peut être +coupé partout, excepté dans la mer territoriale et dans les eaux +neutralisées dépendant d'un territoire neutre.</p> -<p class="blockquot">(3) Le câble reliant un territoire neutre au territoire d'un -des belligérants ne peut en aucun cas être coupé dans la mer -territoriale ou dans les eaux neutralisées dépendant d'un territoire -neutre. En haute mer, ce câble ne peut être coupé que s'il y a +<p class="blockquot">(3) Le câble reliant un territoire neutre au territoire d'un +des belligérants ne peut en aucun cas être coupé dans la mer +territoriale ou dans les eaux neutralisées dépendant d'un territoire +neutre. En haute mer, ce câble ne peut être coupé que s'il y a blocus effectif et dans les limites de la ligne du blocus, sauf -rétablissement du câble dans le plus bref délai possible. Le -câble peut toujours être coupé sur le territoire et dans la mer -territoriale dépendant d'un territoire ennemi jusqu'à d'une -distance de trois milles marins de la laisse de basse-marée.</p> +rétablissement du câble dans le plus bref délai possible. Le +câble peut toujours être coupé sur le territoire et dans la mer +territoriale dépendant d'un territoire ennemi jusqu'à d'une +distance de trois milles marins de la laisse de basse-marée.</p> -<p class="blockquot">(4) Il est entendu que la liberté de l'État neutre de transmettre -des dépêches n'implique pas la faculté d'en user ou d'en -permettre l'usage manifestement pour prêter assistance à l'un -des belligérants.</p> +<p class="blockquot">(4) Il est entendu que la liberté de l'État neutre de transmettre +des dépêches n'implique pas la faculté d'en user ou d'en +permettre l'usage manifestement pour prêter assistance à l'un +des belligérants.</p> -<p class="blockquot">(5) En ce qui concerne l'application des règles précédentes, -il n'y a de différence à établir ni entre les câbles d'État et les -câbles appartenant à des particuliers, ni entre les câbles de -propriété ennemie et ceux qui sont de propriété neutre.</p> +<p class="blockquot">(5) En ce qui concerne l'application des règles précédentes, +il n'y a de différence à établir ni entre les câbles d'État et les +câbles appartenant à des particuliers, ni entre les câbles de +propriété ennemie et ceux qui sont de propriété neutre.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> See <i>Annuaire</i>, XIX. (1902), p. 331.</p></div> @@ -15665,15 +15621,15 @@ BELLIGERENTS</span> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 19—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 7, §§ 1-2—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. -publ.</i> I. c. 1—Vattel, III. §§ 174-175—Hall, § 189—Lawrence, § 210—Phillimore, -III. § 97—Halleck, I. pp. 310-311—Taylor, § 508—Wheaton, -§ 399—Bluntschli, § 679—Heffter, § 141—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -525-527—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1237-1238—Despagnet, No. 555—Pradier-Fodéré, -VII. Nos. 2882-2887—Rivier, II. p. 367—Calvo, IV. §§ -2411-2412—Fiore, III. No. 1482, and Code, Nos. 1721-1723—Martens, II. § -127—Longuet, §§ 134-135—Mérignhac, pp. 218-220—Pillet, pp. 355-356—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, -p. 38—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 221-223—Emanuel, <i>Les conventions +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 19—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 7, §§ 1-2—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. +publ.</i> I. c. 1—Vattel, III. §§ 174-175—Hall, § 189—Lawrence, § 210—Phillimore, +III. § 97—Halleck, I. pp. 310-311—Taylor, § 508—Wheaton, +§ 399—Bluntschli, § 679—Heffter, § 141—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +525-527—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1237-1238—Despagnet, No. 555—Pradier-Fodéré, +VII. Nos. 2882-2887—Rivier, II. p. 367—Calvo, IV. §§ +2411-2412—Fiore, III. No. 1482, and Code, Nos. 1721-1723—Martens, II. § +127—Longuet, §§ 134-135—Mérignhac, pp. 218-220—Pillet, pp. 355-356—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +p. 38—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 221-223—Emanuel, <i>Les conventions militaires dans la guerre continentale</i> (1904).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p><i>Fides @@ -15681,7 +15637,7 @@ etiam hosti servanda.</i></p></div> -<p>§ 215. Although the outbreak of war between +<p>§ 215. Although the outbreak of war between States as a rule brings non-hostile intercourse to an end, necessity of circumstances, convenience, humanity, and other factors call, or may call, some kinds of @@ -15703,7 +15659,7 @@ as well a legal as a religious and moral sanction.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Non-hostile Relations.</p></div> -<p>§ 216. As through the outbreak of war all diplomatic +<p>§ 216. As through the outbreak of war all diplomatic intercourse and other non-hostile relations come to an end, it is obvious that non-hostile relations between belligerents must originate either from special rules of @@ -15729,10 +15685,10 @@ need not be considered in this chapter, since they have already been discussed on several previous pages.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Articles129">129</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Articles129">129</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Private_enemy_property144">144</a>.</p></div> <p>Non-hostile relations originating from special agreements of belligerents, so-called <i>commercia belli</i>, may @@ -15747,16 +15703,16 @@ also be created by peace negotiations.<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_43 non-hostile relations must be discussed separately.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#However_as_the_outbreak267">267</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#However_as_the_outbreak267">267</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Licences to Trade.</p></div> -<p>§ 217. <a name="Several217" id="Several217"></a>Several writers<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> speak of non-hostile relations +<p>§ 217. <a name="Several217" id="Several217"></a>Several writers<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> speak of non-hostile relations between belligerents created by licences to trade granted by a belligerent to enemy subjects either within certain limits or generally. It has been -explained above, in § <a href="#Following101">101</a>, that it is for Municipal Law +explained above, in § <a href="#Following101">101</a>, that it is for Municipal Law to determine whether or not through the outbreak of war all trade and the like is prohibited between the subjects of belligerents. If the Municipal Law of one @@ -15780,15 +15736,15 @@ subjects; but non-hostile relations originating from such an agreement would not be relations arising from a licence to trade, but from a cartel.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 196; +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 196; Halleck, II. pp. 343-363; Lawrence, -§ 214; Manning, p. 168; Taylor, § -512; Wheaton, §§ 409-410; Fiore, -III. No. 1500; Pradier-Fodéré, VII. +§ 214; Manning, p. 168; Taylor, § +512; Wheaton, §§ 409-410; Fiore, +III. No. 1500; Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2938.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Cartels_are_conventions224">224</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p></div> + below, § <a href="#Cartels_are_conventions224">224</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p></div> @@ -15797,20 +15753,20 @@ No. 2938.</p></div> <span class="smaller">PASSPORTS, SAFE-CONDUCTS, SAFEGUARDS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 14-22—Vattel, III. §§ 265-277—Hall, §§ 191 and 195—Lawrence, -§ 213—Phillimore, III. §§ 98-102—Halleck, II. pp. 323-328—Taylor, -§ 511—Wheaton, § 408—Moore, VII. §§ 1158-1159—Bluntschli, -§§ 675-678—Heffter, § 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 525-527—Ullmann, -§ 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1246-1247—Despagnet, Nos. 558-561—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 14-22—Vattel, III. §§ 265-277—Hall, §§ 191 and 195—Lawrence, +§ 213—Phillimore, III. §§ 98-102—Halleck, II. pp. 323-328—Taylor, +§ 511—Wheaton, § 408—Moore, VII. §§ 1158-1159—Bluntschli, +§§ 675-678—Heffter, § 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 525-527—Ullmann, +§ 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1246-1247—Despagnet, Nos. 558-561—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2884, 2932-2938—Nys, III. pp. 504-505—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2413-2418—Fiore, III. No. 1499, and Code, Nos. 1742-1749—Longuet, -§§ 142-143—Mérignhac, pp. 239-240—Pillet, pp. 359-360—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, -p. 41—Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 101—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 326-337.</p> +IV. §§ 2413-2418—Fiore, III. No. 1499, and Code, Nos. 1742-1749—Longuet, +§§ 142-143—Mérignhac, pp. 239-240—Pillet, pp. 359-360—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, +p. 41—Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 101—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 326-337.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Passports and Safe-conducts.</p></div> -<p>§ 218. <a name="Belligerents_on_occasions218" id="Belligerents_on_occasions218"></a>Belligerents on occasions arrange between +<p>§ 218. <a name="Belligerents_on_occasions218" id="Belligerents_on_occasions218"></a>Belligerents on occasions arrange between themselves that passports and safe-conducts shall be given to certain of each other's subjects. Passports are written permissions given by a belligerent to enemy @@ -15849,7 +15805,7 @@ although it is not generally made.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Safeguards.</p></div> -<p>§ 219. <a name="Belligerents_on_occasions219" id="Belligerents_on_occasions219"></a>Belligerents on occasions arrange between +<p>§ 219. <a name="Belligerents_on_occasions219" id="Belligerents_on_occasions219"></a>Belligerents on occasions arrange between themselves that they shall grant protection to certain of each other's subjects or property against their own forces in the form of safeguards, of which there are @@ -15883,20 +15839,20 @@ are inviolable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</ </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 190—Lawrence, § 211—Westlake, II. p. 81—Moore, VII. § 1157—Phillimore, -III. § 115—Halleck, II. pp. 333, 334—Taylor, § 510—Bluntschli, -§§ 681-684—Heffter, § 126—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -421-423—Ullmann, § 180—Bonfils, Nos. 1239-1245—Despagnet, Nos. -556-557—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2927-2931—Rivier, II. pp. 279-280—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2430-2432—Fiore, III. No. 1378, and Code, Nos. 1495-1500—Martens, -II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 136-138—Mérignhac, pp. 220-225—Pillet, -pp. 356-358—Zorn, pp. 195-199—Meurer, II. §§ 39-40—Bordwell, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 190—Lawrence, § 211—Westlake, II. p. 81—Moore, VII. § 1157—Phillimore, +III. § 115—Halleck, II. pp. 333, 334—Taylor, § 510—Bluntschli, +§§ 681-684—Heffter, § 126—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +421-423—Ullmann, § 180—Bonfils, Nos. 1239-1245—Despagnet, Nos. +556-557—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2927-2931—Rivier, II. pp. 279-280—Calvo, +IV. §§ 2430-2432—Fiore, III. No. 1378, and Code, Nos. 1495-1500—Martens, +II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 136-138—Mérignhac, pp. 220-225—Pillet, +pp. 356-358—Zorn, pp. 195-199—Meurer, II. §§ 39-40—Bordwell, p. 293—Spaight, pp. 216-231—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 26-29—Holland, <i>War</i>, -Nos. 88-91—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 224-255.</p> +Nos. 88-91—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 224-255.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of Flags of Truce.</p></div> -<p>§ 220. <a name="Al220" id="Al220"></a>Although the outbreak of war brings all +<p>§ 220. <a name="Al220" id="Al220"></a>Although the outbreak of war brings all negotiations between belligerents to an end, and although no negotiations are as a rule conducted during war, certain circumstances and conditions make it @@ -15928,7 +15884,7 @@ based on custom only.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatment of Unadmitted Flag-bearers.</p></div> -<p>§ 221. As a commander of an armed force is not, +<p>§ 221. As a commander of an armed force is not, according to article 33 of the Hague Regulations, compelled to receive a bearer of a flag of truce, a flag-bearer who makes his appearance may at once be signalled @@ -15957,14 +15913,14 @@ a bearer of a flag of truce.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> This becomes quite apparent from the discussion of the subject at the First Peace Conference; see Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. -XXVI. p. 465; and <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 234.</p></div> +XXVI. p. 465; and <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 234.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatment of Admitted Flag-bearers.</p></div> -<p>§ 222. <a name="Bearers_of_flags222" id="Bearers_of_flags222"></a>Bearers of flags of truce and their parties, +<p>§ 222. <a name="Bearers_of_flags222" id="Bearers_of_flags222"></a>Bearers of flags of truce and their parties, when admitted by the other side, must be granted the privilege of inviolability. They may neither be attacked nor taken prisoners, and they must be allowed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> @@ -16016,11 +15972,11 @@ principal of the reason of punishment.<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_43 rule by speaking of an individual who is "authorised" by one of the belligerents to enter into communication with the other.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> See Hall, § 190.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> See Hall, § 190.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Abuse of Flag of Truce.</p></div> -<p>§ 223. Abuse of his mission by an authorised flag-bearer +<p>§ 223. Abuse of his mission by an authorised flag-bearer must be distinguished from an abuse of the flag of truce itself. Such abuse is possible in two different forms:—</p> @@ -16072,21 +16028,21 @@ garrison under the flag of truce."</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 23-30—Vattel, III. §§ 278-286—Hall, § 193—Lawrence, -§ 212—Westlake, II. p. 139—Phillimore, III. §§ 111-112—Halleck, II. pp. -326-329—Taylor, § 599—Bluntschli, §§ 679-680—Heffter, § 142—Lueder -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 525-529—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 827 and -1280—Despagnet, No. 658—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2832-2837, 2888—Rivier, -II. p. 360—Nys, III. pp. 521-525—Calvo, IV. §§ 2419-2429—Longuet, -§§ 140, 141—Pillet, p. 359—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, p. 38—Holland, <i>War</i>, -No. 100, and <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 32-35—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 338-339.</p> +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 23-30—Vattel, III. §§ 278-286—Hall, § 193—Lawrence, +§ 212—Westlake, II. p. 139—Phillimore, III. §§ 111-112—Halleck, II. pp. +326-329—Taylor, § 599—Bluntschli, §§ 679-680—Heffter, § 142—Lueder +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 525-529—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 827 and +1280—Despagnet, No. 658—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2832-2837, 2888—Rivier, +II. p. 360—Nys, III. pp. 521-525—Calvo, IV. §§ 2419-2429—Longuet, +§§ 140, 141—Pillet, p. 359—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, p. 38—Holland, <i>War</i>, +No. 100, and <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 32-35—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 338-339.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Definition and Purpose of Cartels.</p></div> -<p>§ 224. <a name="Cartels_are_conventions224" id="Cartels_are_conventions224"></a>Cartels are conventions between belligerents +<p>§ 224. <a name="Cartels_are_conventions224" id="Cartels_are_conventions224"></a>Cartels are conventions between belligerents concluded for the purpose of permitting certain kinds of non-hostile intercourse between one another such as would otherwise be prevented by the condition of war. @@ -16105,15 +16061,15 @@ and good faith as rights and duties arising from other treaties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Several217">217</a>. But arrangements for granting passports, + above, § <a href="#Several217">217</a>. But arrangements for granting passports, safe-conducts, and safeguards—see - above, §§ <a href="#Belligerents_on_occasions218">218</a> and <a href="#Belligerents_on_occasions219">219</a>—are not a + above, §§ <a href="#Belligerents_on_occasions218">218</a> and <a href="#Belligerents_on_occasions219">219</a>—are not a matter of cartels.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Cartel Ships.</p></div> -<p>§ 225. <a name="Cartel225" id="Cartel225"></a>Cartel ships<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> are vessels of belligerents which +<p>§ 225. <a name="Cartel225" id="Cartel225"></a>Cartel ships<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> are vessels of belligerents which are commissioned for the carriage by sea of exchanged prisoners from the enemy country to their own country, or for the carriage of official communications to and @@ -16141,7 +16097,7 @@ with the general rules regarding cartel ships, or with the special conditions imposed upon them.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#According_to_the_Hague190">190</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#According_to_the_Hague190">190</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> The <i>La Rosina</i> (1800), 2 C. Rob. 372; the <i>Venus</i> (1803), 4 C. Rob. 355.</p></div> @@ -16158,24 +16114,24 @@ the special conditions imposed upon them.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 22, § 9—Vattel, III. §§ 261-264—Hall, § 194—Lawrence, § -215—Westlake, II. p. 81—Phillimore, III. §§ 122-127—Halleck, II. pp. -319-322—Taylor, §§ 514-516—Wheaton, § 405—Moore, VII. § 1160—Bluntschli, -§§ 697-699—Heffter, § 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. -527—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1259-1267—Despagnet, No. 562—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 22, § 9—Vattel, III. §§ 261-264—Hall, § 194—Lawrence, § +215—Westlake, II. p. 81—Phillimore, III. §§ 122-127—Halleck, II. pp. +319-322—Taylor, §§ 514-516—Wheaton, § 405—Moore, VII. § 1160—Bluntschli, +§§ 697-699—Heffter, § 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. +527—Ullmann, § 185—Bonfils, Nos. 1259-1267—Despagnet, No. 562—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2917-2926—Rivier, II. pp. 361-362—Nys, III. -pp. 514-517—Calvo, IV. §§ 2450-2452—Fiore, III. Nos. 1495-1497, and -Code, Nos. 1733-1740—Martens, II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 151-154—Mérignhac, +pp. 514-517—Calvo, IV. §§ 2450-2452—Fiore, III. Nos. 1495-1497, and +Code, Nos. 1733-1740—Martens, II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 151-154—Mérignhac, pp. 225-230—Pillet, pp. 361-364—Bordwell, p. 294—Meurer, -II. §§ 41-42—Spaight, pp. 249-259—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 38-41—Holland, -<i>War</i>, No. 92—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 301-325.</p> +II. §§ 41-42—Spaight, pp. 249-259—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 38-41—Holland, +<i>War</i>, No. 92—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 301-325.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Character and Purpose of Capitulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 226. Capitulations are conventions between armed +<p>§ 226. Capitulations are conventions between armed forces of belligerents stipulating the terms of surrender of fortresses and other defended places, or of men-of-war, or of troops. It is, therefore, necessary to distinguish @@ -16206,7 +16162,7 @@ its direct consequences have nothing to do with the war at large, but are local only and concern the surrendering force exclusively.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 123, who discusses the promise of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 123, who discusses the promise of Lord William Bentinck to Genoa, in 1814, regarding its independence, which was disowned by the British Government. Phillimore himself disapproves of the attitude of Great Britain, and so do some foreign @@ -16218,7 +16174,7 @@ indubitable.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contents of Capitulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 227. If special conditions are not agreed upon +<p>§ 227. If special conditions are not agreed upon in a capitulation, it is concluded under the obvious condition that the surrendering force become prisoners of war, and that all war material and other public @@ -16280,7 +16236,7 @@ February 15, 1871.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form of Capitulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 228. No rule of International Law exists regarding +<p>§ 228. No rule of International Law exists regarding the form of capitulations, which may, therefore, be concluded either orally or in writing. But they are usually concluded in writing. Negotiations for surrender, @@ -16305,7 +16261,7 @@ to conclude Capitulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 229. The competence to conclude capitulations is +<p>§ 229. The competence to conclude capitulations is vested in the commanders of the forces opposing each other. Capitulations entered into by unauthorised subordinate officers may, therefore, be disowned by @@ -16320,10 +16276,10 @@ And the same is valid if he grants conditions the fulfilment of which depends upon forces other than his own and upon superior officers. The capitulation in El Arish<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> on January 24, 1800, arranged between the -French General Kléber and the Turkish Grand Vizier, +French General Kléber and the Turkish Grand Vizier, and approved by the British Admiral, Sir Sidney Smith, presents an illustrative example of this rule. As -General Kléber, who was commanding the French army +General Kléber, who was commanding the French army in Egypt, thought that he could not remain in Egypt, he proposed surrender under the condition that his army should be safely transported to France, carrying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> @@ -16336,14 +16292,14 @@ the British Mediterranean fleet. The latter had, on January 8, 1800, received secret orders, dated December 15, 1799, from the British Government instructing him not to agree to any capitulation which stipulated the -free return of Kléber's army to France. Sir Sidney +free return of Kléber's army to France. Sir Sidney Smith did not, however, receive instructions based on these orders until February 22, 1800, and, therefore, when he approved of the capitulation of El Arish in January, was not aware that he acted against orders of the British Government.<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> Lord Keith, after having received the above orders on January 8, 1800, wrote at -once to General Kléber, pointing out that he was not +once to General Kléber, pointing out that he was not allowed to grant the return of the French army to France.<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> On the other hand, the British Government, after having been informed that Sir Sidney Smith @@ -16354,7 +16310,7 @@ Sir Sidney Smith had exceeded his competence, to allow the capitulation to be carried out and the French army to be safely transported to France. Meanwhile, however, circumstances had entirely changed. When -General Kléber had on March 17, 1800, received Lord +General Kléber had on March 17, 1800, received Lord Keith's letter of January 8, he addressed a proclamation,<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> in which Lord Keith's letter was embodied, to his troops asking them to prepare themselves for battle @@ -16400,7 +16356,7 @@ the ground.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violation of Capitulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 230. That capitulations must be scrupulously +<p>§ 230. That capitulations must be scrupulously adhered to is an old customary rule, now enacted by article 35 of the Hague Regulations. Any act contrary to a capitulation would constitute an international @@ -16416,22 +16372,22 @@ punishment of the offenders as war criminals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 1-13, c. 22, § 8—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 7, §§ 3-12—Vattel, -III. §§ 233-260—Hall, § 192—Lawrence, § 216—Westlake, p. 82—Phillimore, -III. §§ 116-121—Halleck, II. pp. 311-319—Moore, VII. § 1162—Taylor, -§§ 513 and 516—Wheaton, §§ 400-404—Bluntschli, §§ 688-699—Heffter, -§ 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 531-544—Ullmann, § 186—Bonfils, -Nos. 1248-1258—Despagnet, Nos. 563-566—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 21, §§ 1-13, c. 22, § 8—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 7, §§ 3-12—Vattel, +III. §§ 233-260—Hall, § 192—Lawrence, § 216—Westlake, p. 82—Phillimore, +III. §§ 116-121—Halleck, II. pp. 311-319—Moore, VII. § 1162—Taylor, +§§ 513 and 516—Wheaton, §§ 400-404—Bluntschli, §§ 688-699—Heffter, +§ 142—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 531-544—Ullmann, § 186—Bonfils, +Nos. 1248-1258—Despagnet, Nos. 563-566—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. 2889-2918—Rivier, II. pp. 362-368—Nys, III. pp. 518-520—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2433-2449—Fiore, III. Nos. 1484-1494, and Code, Nos. 1750-1763—Martens, -II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 145-149—Mérignhac, pp. 230-239—Pillet, +IV. §§ 2433-2449—Fiore, III. Nos. 1484-1494, and Code, Nos. 1750-1763—Martens, +II. § 127—Longuet, §§ 145-149—Mérignhac, pp. 230-239—Pillet, pp. 364-370—Zorn. pp. 201-206—Bordwell, p. 291—Meurer, -II. §§ 43-44—Spaight, pp. 232-248—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 41-44—Holland, -<i>War</i>, Nos. 93-99—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 256-300.</p> +II. §§ 43-44—Spaight, pp. 232-248—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 41-44—Holland, +<i>War</i>, Nos. 93-99—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 256-300.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Character and Kinds of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 231. Armistices or truces, in the wider sense of +<p>§ 231. Armistices or truces, in the wider sense of the term, are all agreements between belligerent forces for a temporary cessation of hostilities. They are in no wise to be compared with peace, and ought not to @@ -16456,12 +16412,12 @@ from old customary rules.</p> distinction is absolutely necessary, it is not made by several publicists. Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 93, even says: "There is no difference of meaning, according to British usage at least, between a 'truce,' an -'armistice,' and a 'suspension of arms.'" <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 256—see in +'armistice,' and a 'suspension of arms.'" <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 256—see in especial note (<i>a</i>)—accepts the distinction as indispensable.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Suspensions of Arms.</p></div> -<p>§ 232. Suspensions of arms, in contradistinction +<p>§ 232. Suspensions of arms, in contradistinction to armistices in the narrower sense of the term, are such cessations of hostilities as are agreed upon between large or small military or naval forces for a @@ -16491,7 +16447,7 @@ XIX. p. 646.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 233. A general armistice is such a cessation of +<p>§ 233. A general armistice is such a cessation of hostilities as, in contradistinction to suspensions of arms with their momentary and local military purposes, is agreed upon between belligerents for the @@ -16525,19 +16481,19 @@ armistice, provided the bulk of the forces and the greater part of the region of war are included. Thus, article 1 of the above-mentioned general armistice at the end of the Franco-German war specially excluded -all military operations in the Départements du Doubs, -du Jura, de la Côte d'Or, and likewise the siege of +all military operations in the Départements du Doubs, +du Jura, de la Côte d'Or, and likewise the siege of Belfort. It should also be mentioned that in the practice of belligerents the terms "suspension of arms" and "general armistice" are sometimes not sufficiently distinguished, but are interchangeable. Thus, for instance, the above-mentioned general armistice between France and Germany is entitled "Convention entre -l'Allemagne et la France pour la suspension des hostilités, ..." +l'Allemagne et la France pour la suspension des hostilités, ..." whereas the different articles of the Convention always speak correctly of an armistice, and whereas, further, an annexe to the Convention signed on -January 29 is entitled<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> "Annexe à la Convention +January 29 is entitled<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> "Annexe à la Convention d'armistice."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XIX. p. 636.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p></div> @@ -16545,7 +16501,7 @@ d'armistice."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Partial Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 234. Partial armistices are agreements for cessations +<p>§ 234. Partial armistices are agreements for cessations of hostilities which are not concluded by belligerents for their whole forces and the whole region of war, but do not merely serve, like suspensions of arms, @@ -16571,7 +16527,7 @@ to conclude Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 235. As regards the competence to conclude +<p>§ 235. As regards the competence to conclude armistices, a distinction is necessary between suspensions of arms and general and partial armistices.</p> @@ -16605,7 +16561,7 @@ being specially authorised thereto.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 236. No legal rule exists regarding the form of +<p>§ 236. No legal rule exists regarding the form of armistices, which may therefore be concluded either orally or in writing. However, the importance of general as well as partial armistices makes it advisable @@ -16618,7 +16574,7 @@ But suspensions of arms are often only orally concluded.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contents of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 237. That hostilities must cease is the obvious +<p>§ 237. That hostilities must cease is the obvious content of all kinds of armistices. Usually, although not at all necessarily, the parties embody special conditions in the agreement instituting an armistice. If @@ -16633,7 +16589,7 @@ recruits, build fortresses, concentrate or withdraw troops. But no unanimity exists regarding such acts as must be left undone or may be done within the very line where the belligerent forces face each other. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> -majority of writers, led by Vattel (III. § 245), maintain +majority of writers, led by Vattel (III. § 245), maintain that in the absence of special stipulations it is essentially implied in an armistice that within such line no alteration of the <i>status quo</i> shall take place which the other party, @@ -16643,7 +16599,7 @@ means, prevent from taking place. These writers consider it a breach of faith for a belligerent to make such alterations under the protection of the armistice. On the other hand, a small minority of writers, but led -by Grotius (III. c. 21, § 7) and Pufendorf (VIII. 7, § 7), +by Grotius (III. c. 21, § 7) and Pufendorf (VIII. 7, § 7), assert that cessation of hostilities and of further advance only are essentially implied in an armistice; all other acts, such as strengthening of positions by concentration @@ -16684,7 +16640,7 @@ contracting parties to settle in the terms of the armistice what communications may be held within the theatre of war with the population and with each other."</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2908, where the question of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2908, where the question of revictualling during an armistice is discussed at some length, and the opinions of many publicists from Grotius to our own days are quoted.</p></div> @@ -16697,11 +16653,11 @@ by members of either force. But such lines of demarcation do not exist, if they are not specially stipulated by the armistice concerned.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2901.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2901.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commencement of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 238. <a name="In_case_the_contrary238" id="In_case_the_contrary238"></a>In case the contrary is not stipulated, an +<p>§ 238. <a name="In_case_the_contrary238" id="In_case_the_contrary238"></a>In case the contrary is not stipulated, an armistice commences the very moment the agreement upon it is complete. But often the parties stipulate in the agreement the time from which the armistice shall @@ -16714,7 +16670,7 @@ armistice shall last from one certain day to another, commencement is controversial. Most publicists maintain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> that in such case the armistice begins at 12 o'clock of the night between the 14th and the 15th of June, -but Grotius (III. c. 21, § 4) maintains that it begins at +but Grotius (III. c. 21, § 4) maintains that it begins at 12 o'clock of the night between the 15th and the 16th of June.<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> Therefore, to avoid difficulties, agreements concerning armistices ought always to stipulate whether @@ -16735,8 +16691,8 @@ competent authorities and the troops, and that hostilities are suspended immediately after the ratification or at a fixed date, as the case may be.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2897. The controversy occurs -again with regard to the end of an armistice; see below, § <a href="#In_case_an_armistice240">240</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2897. The controversy occurs +again with regard to the end of an armistice; see below, § <a href="#In_case_an_armistice240">240</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XIX. p. 626.</p></div> @@ -16753,7 +16709,7 @@ contrary.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violation of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 239. Any violation of armistices is prohibited, +<p>§ 239. Any violation of armistices is prohibited, and, if ordered by the Governments concerned, constitutes an international delinquency. In case an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> armistice is violated by members of the forces on their @@ -16793,17 +16749,17 @@ the Hague Regulations, only the right of demanding punishment of the offenders, and, if necessary, indemnity for losses sustained.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> See, for instance, Grotius, III. c. 21, § 11; Pufendorf, -VIII. c. 7, § 11; Vattel, III. § 242; Phillimore, II. § 121; Bluntschli, -§ 695; Fiore, III. No. 1494.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> See, for instance, Grotius, III. c. 21, § 11; Pufendorf, +VIII. c. 7, § 11; Vattel, III. § 242; Phillimore, II. § 121; Bluntschli, +§ 695; Fiore, III. No. 1494.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> See, for instance, Calvo, IV. § 2436; Despagnet, No. 566; -Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2913.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> See, for instance, Calvo, IV. § 2436; Despagnet, No. 566; +Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2913.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>End of Armistices.</p></div> -<p>§ 240. <a name="In_case_an_armistice240" id="In_case_an_armistice240"></a>In case an armistice has been concluded for +<p>§ 240. <a name="In_case_an_armistice240" id="In_case_an_armistice240"></a>In case an armistice has been concluded for an indefinite period, the parties having made no stipulations regarding notice to recommence hostilities, notice may be given at any time, and hostilities recommenced @@ -16823,7 +16779,7 @@ condition, in which case the occurrence of the condition brings the armistice to an end.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#In_case_the_contrary238">238</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#In_case_the_contrary238">238</a>.</p></div> <div class="box4"> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p> @@ -16842,12 +16798,12 @@ above, § <a href="#In_case_the_contrary238">238</a>.</p></div> -<p class="indh1">Bonfils, Nos. 1014-1017—Spaight, p. 460—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 435-438. +<p class="indh1">Bonfils, Nos. 1014-1017—Spaight, p. 460—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 435-438. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Legitimate and Illegitimate Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 241. Since war is not a condition of anarchy and +<p>§ 241. Since war is not a condition of anarchy and lawlessness, International Law requires that belligerents shall comply with its rules in carrying on their military and naval operations. So long and in so far as belligerents @@ -16879,18 +16835,18 @@ warfare itself, no means whatever exist of compelling reparation.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. §§ 149</a>-150.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No149">vol. I. §§ 149</a>-150.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. § 151</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. § 151</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th156">vol. I. § 156</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th156">vol. I. § 156</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Legitimate Warfare is on the whole secured.</p></div> -<p>§ 242. Yet legitimate warfare is, on the whole at +<p>§ 242. Yet legitimate warfare is, on the whole at any rate, secured through several means recognised by International Law. These means of securing legitimate warfare may be divided into three classes. The first @@ -16920,7 +16876,7 @@ consider and punish them severely as acts of illegitimate warfare.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>.</p></div> @@ -16931,14 +16887,14 @@ INTERVENTION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1"><i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 439-440.</p> +<p class="indh1"><i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 439-440.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Complaints lodged with the Enemy.</p></div> -<p>§ 243. Commanders of forces engaged in hostilities +<p>§ 243. Commanders of forces engaged in hostilities frequently lodge complaints with each other regarding single acts of illegitimate warfare committed by members of their forces, such as abuses of the flag of truce, violations @@ -16974,7 +16930,7 @@ lodged with Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 244. If certain grave illegitimate acts or omissions +<p>§ 244. If certain grave illegitimate acts or omissions of warfare occur, belligerents frequently lodge complaints with neutral States, either asking their good offices, mediation, or intervention to make the @@ -16998,14 +16954,14 @@ and on account of the bombardment of Turkish war vessels in the harbour of Beirut.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#A_case_which_happened_in84">84</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#A_case_which_happened_in84">84</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt_whatever213">213</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt_whatever213">213</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Good Offices and Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 245. Complaints lodged with neutral States may +<p>§ 245. Complaints lodged with neutral States may have the effect of one or more of the latter lending their offices or their mediation to the belligerents for the purpose of settling such conflict as arose out of the @@ -17013,7 +16969,7 @@ alleged illegitimate acts or omissions of warfare, thus preventing them from resorting to reprisals. Such good offices and mediation do not differ from those which settle a difference between States in time of -peace and which have been discussed above in §§ 7-11; +peace and which have been discussed above in §§ 7-11; they are friendly acts in contradistinction to intervention, which is dictatorial interference for the purpose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> of making the respective belligerents comply with the @@ -17024,7 +16980,7 @@ on the part of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 246. There can be no doubt that neutral States, +<p>§ 246. There can be no doubt that neutral States, whether a complaint has been lodged with them or not, may either singly, or jointly and collectively, exercise intervention in cases of illegitimate acts or @@ -17033,7 +16989,7 @@ Governments, or committed by members of belligerent forces if the Governments concerned do not punish the offenders. It will be remembered that it has been stated above in - <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#If4of135">Vol. I. § 135, No. 4</a>, that other States + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#If4of135">Vol. I. § 135, No. 4</a>, that other States have a right to intervene in case a State violates in time of peace or war those principles of the Law of Nations which are universally recognised. There is @@ -17064,13 +17020,13 @@ one belligerent through acts of illegitimate warfare.<span class="pagenum"><a na </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. p. 142—Hall, § 135—Westlake, II. pp. 112-115, and <i>Chapters</i>, pp. -253-258—Taylor, §§ 487 and 507—Wharton, III. § 348<span class="smcap">B</span>—Moore, VII. § -1114—Bluntschli, §§ 567, 580, 654, 685—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. -392—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3214-3221—Bonfils, Nos. 1018-1026—Despagnet, -No. 543—Rivier, II. pp. 298-299—Calvo, IV. §§ 2041-2043—Martens, -II. § 121—Mérignhac, pp. 210-218—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 119-120—Bordwell, -p. 305—Spaight, pp. 462-465—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 452-460—Halleck +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. p. 142—Hall, § 135—Westlake, II. pp. 112-115, and <i>Chapters</i>, pp. +253-258—Taylor, §§ 487 and 507—Wharton, III. § 348<span class="smcap">B</span>—Moore, VII. § +1114—Bluntschli, §§ 567, 580, 654, 685—Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. +392—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3214-3221—Bonfils, Nos. 1018-1026—Despagnet, +No. 543—Rivier, II. pp. 298-299—Calvo, IV. §§ 2041-2043—Martens, +II. § 121—Mérignhac, pp. 210-218—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 119-120—Bordwell, +p. 305—Spaight, pp. 462-465—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 452-460—Halleck in <i>A.J.</i> VI. (1912), pp. 107-118.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reprisals @@ -17083,7 +17039,7 @@ Reprisals in time of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 247. <a name="Whereas_reprisals247" id="Whereas_reprisals247"></a>Whereas reprisals in time of peace are to be +<p>§ 247. <a name="Whereas_reprisals247" id="Whereas_reprisals247"></a>Whereas reprisals in time of peace are to be distinguished from retorsion and are injurious acts committed for the purpose of compelling a State to consent to a satisfactory settlement of a difference @@ -17108,11 +17064,11 @@ did not act as a deterrent against a repetition of illegitimate acts.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Reprisals_is_the_term33">33</a> and <a href="#Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42">42</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Reprisals_is_the_term33">33</a> and <a href="#Reprisals_in_time_of_peace42">42</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reprisals admissible for every Illegitimate Act of Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 248. <a name="Whereas_reprisals248" id="Whereas_reprisals248"></a>Whereas reprisals in time of peace are admissible +<p>§ 248. <a name="Whereas_reprisals248" id="Whereas_reprisals248"></a>Whereas reprisals in time of peace are admissible for international delinquencies only, reprisals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> between belligerents are at once admissible for every and any act of illegitimate warfare, whether the act @@ -17144,7 +17100,7 @@ any doubt; see Beinhauer, <i>Die Kriegsgefangenschaft</i> (1910), p. 74.</p></di <div class="sidenote"><p>Danger of Arbitrariness in Reprisals.</p></div> -<p>§ 249. <a name="The_right_to_exercise249" id="The_right_to_exercise249"></a>The right to exercise reprisals carries with +<p>§ 249. <a name="The_right_to_exercise249" id="The_right_to_exercise249"></a>The right to exercise reprisals carries with it great danger of arbitrariness, for often the alleged facts which make belligerents resort to reprisals are not sufficiently verified, or the rules of war which they @@ -17213,26 +17169,26 @@ since France had, as the law then stood, in no way committed an illegal act by detaining the German crews as prisoners of war.<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> See the case reported in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, III, -pp. 311-321. See also Phillimore, III. § 105.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> See the case reported in Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, III, +pp. 311-321. See also Phillimore, III. § 105.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 348<span class="smcap">B</span>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 348<span class="smcap">B</span>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> That Bismarck's standpoint was wrong has been pointed out -above in § <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>. Some German writers, however, take his part; see, for +above in § <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>. Some German writers, however, take his part; see, for instance, Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 479, note 6. As regards the present law on the subject, see -above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a> and <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>.</p></div> +above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a> and <a href="#As_regards_killing201">201</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> The case is one of reprisals, and has nothing to do with -the taking of hostages; see below, § <a href="#The_practice_of_taking_hostages258">258</a>.</p></div> +the taking of hostages; see below, § <a href="#The_practice_of_taking_hostages258">258</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Proposed Restriction of Reprisals.</p></div> -<p>§ 250. The Hague Regulations do not mention +<p>§ 250. The Hague Regulations do not mention reprisals at all because the Brussels Conference of 1874, which accepted the unratified Brussels Declaration, had struck out several sections of the Russian draft code @@ -17271,13 +17227,13 @@ IV. pp. 14, 139, 207.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 135—Bluntschli, §§ 627-643<span class="smcap">A</span>—Spaight, p. 462—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. -117-118—Ariga, §§ 96-99—Takahashi, pp. 166-184—Landa in <i>R.I.</i> X. -(1878), pp. 182-184—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 441-451.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 135—Bluntschli, §§ 627-643<span class="smcap">A</span>—Spaight, p. 462—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. +117-118—Ariga, §§ 96-99—Takahashi, pp. 166-184—Landa in <i>R.I.</i> X. +(1878), pp. 182-184—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 441-451.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of War Crimes.</p></div> -<p>§ 251. <a name="In_contradistinction251" id="In_contradistinction251"></a>In contradistinction to hostile acts of soldiers +<p>§ 251. <a name="In_contradistinction251" id="In_contradistinction251"></a>In contradistinction to hostile acts of soldiers by which the latter do not lose their privilege of being treated as members of armed forces who have done no wrong, war crimes are such hostile or other acts @@ -17300,14 +17256,14 @@ be the motive, the purpose, and the moral character of the respective act.<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_must_be_emphasised57">57</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_must_be_emphasised57">57</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of War Crimes.</p></div> -<p>§ 252. In spite of the uniform designation of these +<p>§ 252. In spite of the uniform designation of these acts as war crimes, four different kinds of war crimes must be distinguished on account of the essentially different character of the acts. Violations of recognised @@ -17320,7 +17276,7 @@ third; and all marauding acts belong to the fourth kind.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violations of Rules regarding Warfare.</p></div> -<p>§ 253. Violations of rules regarding warfare are +<p>§ 253. Violations of rules regarding warfare are war crimes only when committed without an order of the belligerent Government concerned. If members of the armed forces commit violations <i>by order</i> of their @@ -17409,12 +17365,12 @@ truce.</p> <p>(20) Breach of parole.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> Unjustified destruction of neutral prizes—see - below, § <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>—is not a war crime, but is nevertheless an international + below, § <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>—is not a war crime, but is nevertheless an international delinquency, if ordered by the belligerent government.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Hostilities in Arms by Private Individuals.</p></div> -<p>§ 254. <a name="Since_International_Law254" id="Since_International_Law254"></a>Since International Law is a law between +<p>§ 254. <a name="Since_International_Law254" id="Since_International_Law254"></a>Since International Law is a law between States only and exclusively, no rules of International Law can exist which prohibit private individuals from taking up arms and committing hostilities against the @@ -17455,7 +17411,7 @@ will never be able to go without the greatest danger to their troops.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Very_often_the_armed80">80</a> and <a href="#It_sometimes81">81</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Very_often_the_armed80">80</a> and <a href="#It_sometimes81">81</a>.</p></div> <p>It must be particularly noted that merchantmen of belligerents, which attack enemy vessels without previously @@ -17466,11 +17422,11 @@ to the same extent as private individuals who commit hostilities in land warfare.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a> and <a href="#All_enemy_men-of-war181">181</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a> and <a href="#All_enemy_men-of-war181">181</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Espionage and War Treason.</p></div> -<p>§ 255. <a name="Article_24_of_the_Hague255" id="Article_24_of_the_Hague255"></a>Article 24 of the Hague Regulations now +<p>§ 255. <a name="Article_24_of_the_Hague255" id="Article_24_of_the_Hague255"></a>Article 24 of the Hague Regulations now enacts the old customary rule that a belligerent has a right to employ all methods necessary to obtain information, and these methods include espionage and @@ -17481,7 +17437,7 @@ espionage or treason. There is an irreconcilable conflict between the necessity of obtaining information on the one hand, and self-preservation on the other; and accordingly espionage and treason, as has been explained -above in § <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>, bear a twofold character. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> +above in § <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>, bear a twofold character. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> the one hand, International Law gives a right to belligerents to make use of espionage and treason. On the other hand, the same law gives a right to belligerents to @@ -17491,7 +17447,7 @@ as acts of illegitimate warfare, and consequently punishable.</p> <p>Espionage has already been treated above in -§§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>-161. War treason may be committed in different +§§ <a href="#War_cannot_be159">159</a>-161. War treason may be committed in different ways. The following are the chief cases of war treason that may occur:—</p> @@ -17571,11 +17527,11 @@ crimes. To this class belong all acts which violate the<span class="pagenum"><a orders legitimately decreed by an occupant of enemy territory.<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 446.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> See <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 446.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Marauding.</p></div> -<p>§ 256. Marauders are individuals roving either +<p>§ 256. Marauders are individuals roving either singly or collectively in bands over battlefields, or following advancing or retreating forces in quest of booty. They have nothing to do with warfare in the @@ -17587,7 +17543,7 @@ place in the interest of the safety of either belligerent.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode of Punishment of War Crimes.</p></div> -<p>§ 257. <a name="All_war_crimes257" id="All_war_crimes257"></a>All war crimes may be punished with death, +<p>§ 257. <a name="All_war_crimes257" id="All_war_crimes257"></a>All war crimes may be punished with death, but belligerents may, of course, inflict a more lenient punishment, or commute a sentence of death into a more lenient penalty. If this be done and imprisonment @@ -17608,7 +17564,7 @@ belligerents would have always to pronounce and carry out sentence of capital punishment in the interest of self-preservation.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 135, p. 432.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 135, p. 432.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -17617,19 +17573,19 @@ of self-preservation.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 135 and 156—Taylor, § 525—Bluntschli, § 600—Lueder in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 475-477—Klüber, §§ 156 and 247—G. F. Martens, II. 277—Ullmann, -§ 183—Bonfils, Nos. 1145 and 1151—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. -2843-2848—Rivier, II. p. 302—Calvo, IV. §§ 2158-2160—Fiore, III. Nos. -1363-1364—Martens, II. § 119—Longuet, § 84—Bordwell, p. 305—Spaight, -pp. 465-470—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 49, 50—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 461-464.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 135 and 156—Taylor, § 525—Bluntschli, § 600—Lueder in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 475-477—Klüber, §§ 156 and 247—G. F. Martens, II. 277—Ullmann, +§ 183—Bonfils, Nos. 1145 and 1151—Pradier-Fodéré, VII. Nos. +2843-2848—Rivier, II. p. 302—Calvo, IV. §§ 2158-2160—Fiore, III. Nos. +1363-1364—Martens, II. § 119—Longuet, § 84—Bordwell, p. 305—Spaight, +pp. 465-470—<i>Kriegsbrauch</i>, pp. 49, 50—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 461-464.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Former Practice of taking Hostages.</p></div> -<p>§ 258. <a name="The_practice_of_taking_hostages258" id="The_practice_of_taking_hostages258"></a>The practice of taking hostages as a means +<p>§ 258. <a name="The_practice_of_taking_hostages258" id="The_practice_of_taking_hostages258"></a>The practice of taking hostages as a means of securing legitimate warfare prevailed in former times much more than nowadays. It was frequently resorted to in cases in which belligerent forces depended @@ -17652,7 +17608,7 @@ French notables were not taken as hostages, but were made the object of reprisals.<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> The case has been discussed - above in § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>. All the French + above in § <a href="#The_right_to_exercise249">249</a>. All the French writers who comment upon this case make the mistake of referring to it as an instance of the taking of hostages.</p></div> @@ -17661,7 +17617,7 @@ Practice of taking Hostages.</p></div> -<p>§ 259. <a name="A_new_practice259" id="A_new_practice259"></a>A new practice of taking hostages was resorted +<p>§ 259. <a name="A_new_practice259" id="A_new_practice259"></a>A new practice of taking hostages was resorted to by the Germans in 1870 during the Franco-German War for the purpose of securing the safety of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> forces against possible hostile acts on the part of private @@ -17716,22 +17672,22 @@ Pretoria, June 19, 1900, but this section was repealed by the Proclamation of July 29, 1900. See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXXII. (1905), pp. 147 and 149.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 463, does not consider the practice +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> <i>Land Warfare</i>, § 463, does not consider the practice commendable, because innocent citizens are thereby exposed to legitimate acts of train-wrecking on the part of raiding parties of armed forces of the enemy.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>, No. 8.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Article_24_of_the_Hague255">255</a>, No. 8.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Whereas_reprisals248">248</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> Belligerents sometimes take hostages to secure compliance with requisitions, contributions, ransom bills, and the like, but such cases have nothing to do with illegitimate warfare: see above, - § <a href="#Footnote_245_245">116, p. 153, note 1</a>, -and §<a href="#Footnote_338_338"> 170, p. 213, note 3</a>. The Hague Regulations do not + § <a href="#Footnote_245_245">116, p. 153, note 1</a>, +and §<a href="#Footnote_338_338"> 170, p. 213, note 3</a>. The Hague Regulations do not mention the taking of hostages for any purpose.</p></div> @@ -17742,9 +17698,9 @@ mention the taking of hostages for any purpose.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bonfils, No. 1026<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, No. 510 <i>bis</i>—Lémonon, pp. 344-346—Higgins, -pp. 260-261—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, p. 528—Nippold, II. § 24—Boidin, pp. -83-84—Spaight, p. 462—Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 19—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 436.</p> +<p class="indh1">Bonfils, No. 1026<span class="topnum">1</span>—Despagnet, No. 510 <i>bis</i>—Lémonon, pp. 344-346—Higgins, +pp. 260-261—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, p. 528—Nippold, II. § 24—Boidin, pp. +83-84—Spaight, p. 462—Holland, <i>War</i>, No. 19—<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 436.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How the Principle @@ -17755,7 +17711,7 @@ the Laws of War arose.</p></div> -<p>§ 259<i>a</i>. <a name="There_is_no_doubt259a" id="There_is_no_doubt259a"></a>There is no doubt that, if a belligerent can +<p>§ 259<i>a</i>. <a name="There_is_no_doubt259a" id="There_is_no_doubt259a"></a>There is no doubt that, if a belligerent can be made to pay compensation for all damage done by him in violating the laws of war, this will be an indirect means of securing legitimate warfare. In former times @@ -17777,7 +17733,7 @@ that he shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of his armed forces.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Since_a_treaty_of_peace274">274</a>, p. 335.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Since_a_treaty_of_peace274">274</a>, p. 335.</p></div> <p>Attention should be drawn to the fact that Germany, on whose initiative this principle was adopted, proposed @@ -17791,7 +17747,7 @@ different cases of violation but to adopt the general principle.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Many_writers_who357">357</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Many_writers_who357">357</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Compensation for @@ -17800,7 +17756,7 @@ of the Hague Regulations.</p></div> -<p>§ 259<i>b</i>. It is apparent that article 3 of Convention +<p>§ 259<i>b</i>. It is apparent that article 3 of Convention IV. enacts two different rules: firstly, that a belligerent who violates the Hague Regulations shall, if the case demand, pay compensation; and secondly, that a @@ -17813,7 +17769,7 @@ members of its armed forces is, provided the acts have not been committed by the State's command or authorisation, only a vicarious responsibility, but nevertheless the State concerned must, as was pointed out above, -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In163">Vol. I. § 163</a>, pay damages for these acts when required.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In163">Vol. I. § 163</a>, pay damages for these acts when required.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> For this reason, article 3 does not create a new rule in so far as it enacts that belligerents must pay for damage caused by members of their forces.</p> @@ -17867,17 +17823,17 @@ other laws of war.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 197—Lawrence, § 217—Phillimore, III. § 510—Taylor, § 580—Moore, -VII. § 1163—Heffter, § 176—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 791-792—Ullmann, -§ 198—Bonfils, No. 1692—Despagnet, No. 605—Calvo, V. -§ 3115—Fiore, III. No. 1693—Martens, II. § 128—Longuet, § 155.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 197—Lawrence, § 217—Phillimore, III. § 510—Taylor, § 580—Moore, +VII. § 1163—Heffter, § 176—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 791-792—Ullmann, +§ 198—Bonfils, No. 1692—Despagnet, No. 605—Calvo, V. +§ 3115—Fiore, III. No. 1693—Martens, II. § 128—Longuet, § 155.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>War a Temporary Condition.</p></div> -<p>§ 260. The normal condition between two States +<p>§ 260. The normal condition between two States being peace, war can never be more than a temporary condition; whatever may have been the cause or causes of a war, the latter cannot possibly last for ever. @@ -17899,7 +17855,7 @@ decisive battle.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Three Modes of Termination of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 261. Be that as it may, a war may be terminated +<p>§ 261. Be that as it may, a war may be terminated in three different ways. Belligerents may, first, abstain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p> @@ -17916,7 +17872,7 @@ mentioned. But it is of importance to state the fact that there is a difference between civil war and other war concerning the third mode of ending war, namely subjugation. For to terminate a civil war, conquest <i>and</i> annexation, which together make subjugation, is unnecessary (see -below, § <a href="#Subjugation_must_not264">264</a>), but conquest alone is sufficient.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Subjugation_must_not264">264</a>), but conquest alone is sufficient.</p></div> @@ -17926,11 +17882,11 @@ below, § <a href="#Subjugation_must_not264">264</a>), but conquest alone is suff </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 203—Phillimore, III. § 511—Halleck, II. p. 468—Taylor, § 584—Bluntschli, -§ 700—Heffter, § 177—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. -p. 793—Ullmann, § 198—Bonfils, No. 1693—Despagnet, No. 605—Rivier, -II. pp. 435-436—Calvo, V. § 3116—Fiore, III. No. 1693—Martens, II. -§ 128—Longuet, § 155—Mérignhac, p. 323—Pillet, p. 370.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 203—Phillimore, III. § 511—Halleck, II. p. 468—Taylor, § 584—Bluntschli, +§ 700—Heffter, § 177—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. +p. 793—Ullmann, § 198—Bonfils, No. 1693—Despagnet, No. 605—Rivier, +II. pp. 435-436—Calvo, V. § 3116—Fiore, III. No. 1693—Martens, II. +§ 128—Longuet, § 155—Mérignhac, p. 323—Pillet, p. 370.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exceptional Occurrence @@ -17939,7 +17895,7 @@ simple Cessation of Hostilities.</p></div> -<p>§ 262. The regular modes of termination of war +<p>§ 262. The regular modes of termination of war are treaties of peace or subjugation, but cases have occurred in which simple cessation of all acts of war on the part of both belligerents has actually and informally @@ -17962,7 +17918,7 @@ occur.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Termination of War through simple Cessation of Hostilities.</p></div> -<p>§ 263. <a name="Since_in_the_case263" id="Since_in_the_case263"></a>Since in the case of termination of war +<p>§ 263. <a name="Since_in_the_case263" id="Since_in_the_case263"></a>Since in the case of termination of war through simple cessation of hostilities no treaty of peace embodies the conditions of peace between the former belligerents, the question arises whether the @@ -17988,7 +17944,7 @@ settled by the actual position of affairs at the termination of hostilities, and it remains for the parties to settle them by special agreement or to let them stand over.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> See, however, Phillimore, III. § 511, who maintains that the <i>status quo +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> See, however, Phillimore, III. § 511, who maintains that the <i>status quo ante bellum</i> has to be revived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p></div> @@ -17999,21 +17955,21 @@ ante bellum</i> has to be revived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="P </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 199-203—Hall, §§ 204-205—Lawrence, § 77—Phillimore, III. -§ 512—Halleck, I. pp. 467-498—Taylor, §§ 220, 585-588—Moore, I. § 87—Walker, -§ 11—Wheaton, § 165—Bluntschli, §§ 287-289, 701-702—Heffter, -§ 178—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 792—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, -§§ 92, 97, and 197—Bonfils, Nos. 535 and 1694—Despagnet, Nos. 387-390, 605—Rivier, -II. pp. 436-441—Calvo, V. §§ 3117-3118—Fiore, II. Nos. 863, III. -No. 1693, and Code, Nos. 1078-1089—Martens. I. § 91, II. § 128—Longuet, -§ 155—Mérignhac, p. 324—Pillet, p. 371—Holtzendorff, <i>Eroberung und +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 199-203—Hall, §§ 204-205—Lawrence, § 77—Phillimore, III. +§ 512—Halleck, I. pp. 467-498—Taylor, §§ 220, 585-588—Moore, I. § 87—Walker, +§ 11—Wheaton, § 165—Bluntschli, §§ 287-289, 701-702—Heffter, +§ 178—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 792—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, +§§ 92, 97, and 197—Bonfils, Nos. 535 and 1694—Despagnet, Nos. 387-390, 605—Rivier, +II. pp. 436-441—Calvo, V. §§ 3117-3118—Fiore, II. Nos. 863, III. +No. 1693, and Code, Nos. 1078-1089—Martens. I. § 91, II. § 128—Longuet, +§ 155—Mérignhac, p. 324—Pillet, p. 371—Holtzendorff, <i>Eroberung und Eroberungsrecht</i> (1871)—Heimburger, <i>Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit</i> (1888), pp. 121-132—Westlake, in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XVII. (1901), p. 392.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjugation in contradistinction to Conquest.</p></div> -<p>§ 264. <a name="Subjugation_must_not264" id="Subjugation_must_not264"></a>Subjugation must not be confounded with +<p>§ 264. <a name="Subjugation_must_not264" id="Subjugation_must_not264"></a>Subjugation must not be confounded with conquest, although there can be no subjugation without conquest. Conquest is taking possession of enemy territory by military force. Conquest is completed as @@ -18046,26 +18002,26 @@ annexation</i><a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Foo enemy forces having been annihilated</i>.<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> The conditions of effective occupation have been discussed -above in § <a href="#Since_an_occupant167">167</a>. Regarding subjugation as a mode of acquisition of +above in § <a href="#Since_an_occupant167">167</a>. Regarding subjugation as a mode of acquisition of territory, see - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Conquest_is236">vol. I. §§ 236</a>-241.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Conquest_is236">vol. I. §§ 236</a>-241.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> The continuation of guerilla war after the termination of a -real war is discussed above in § <a href="#The_characteristics60">60</a>.</p></div> +real war is discussed above in § <a href="#The_characteristics60">60</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> That conquest alone is sufficient for the termination of -civil wars has been pointed out above, § 261, p. 323, note 1.</p></div> +civil wars has been pointed out above, § 261, p. 323, note 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> It should be mentioned that a premature annexation can become valid through the occupation in question becoming soon afterwards effective. Thus, although the annexation of the South African Republic, on September 1, 1900, was premature, it became valid through the occupation becoming effective in 1901. See - above, § <a href="#Footnote_330_330">167, p. 209, note 1</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Footnote_330_330">167, p. 209, note 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjugation a formal End of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 265. Although complete conquest, together with +<p>§ 265. Although complete conquest, together with annihilation of the enemy forces, brings the armed contention, and thereby the war, actually to an end, the formal end of the war is thereby not yet realised, @@ -18100,11 +18056,11 @@ Free State and the South African Republic.<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNancho agreement of 1902, regarding "Terms of Surrender of the Boer Forces in the Field"—see <i>Parliamentary Papers</i>, South Africa, 1902, Cd. 1096—is not a treaty of peace, and the South African War came formally to an end -through subjugation, although—see above, § <a href="#Footnote_330_330">167, p. 209, note 1</a>—the +through subjugation, although—see above, § <a href="#Footnote_330_330">167, p. 209, note 1</a>—the proclamation of the annexation was somewhat premature. The agreement embodying the terms of surrender of the routed remnants of the Boer forces has, therefore, no internationally le gal basis (see also - below, § <a href="#Footnote_511_511">274, p. 334, note 2</a>). The case would be different if the British + below, § <a href="#Footnote_511_511">274, p. 334, note 2</a>). The case would be different if the British Government had really—as Sir Thomas Barclay asserts in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXI. (1905), pp. 303 and 307—recognised the existence of the Government of the South African Republic down to May @@ -18118,18 +18074,18 @@ existence of the Government of the South African Republic down to May </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 9-18—Phillimore, III. §§ 513-516—Halleck, -I. pp. 306-324—Taylor, §§ 590-592—Moore, VII. § 1163—Wheaton, §§ 538-543—Bluntschli, -§§ 703-707—Heffter, § 179—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 794-804—Ullmann, § 198—Bonfils, Nos. 1696-1697, 1703-1705—Despagnet, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 9-18—Phillimore, III. §§ 513-516—Halleck, +I. pp. 306-324—Taylor, §§ 590-592—Moore, VII. § 1163—Wheaton, §§ 538-543—Bluntschli, +§§ 703-707—Heffter, § 179—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 794-804—Ullmann, § 198—Bonfils, Nos. 1696-1697, 1703-1705—Despagnet, Nos. 606-611—Rivier, II. pp. 443-453—Nys, III. pp. 719-734—Calvo, -V. §§ 3119-3136—Fiore, III. Nos. 1694-1700, and Code, Nos. -1931-1941—Martens, II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, +V. §§ 3119-3136—Fiore, III. Nos. 1694-1700, and Code, Nos. +1931-1941—Martens, II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, pp. 324-329—Pillet, pp. 372-375.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Peace the most frequent End of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 266. Although occasionally war ends through +<p>§ 266. Although occasionally war ends through simple cessation of hostilities, and although subjugation is not at all rare or irregular, the most frequent end of war is a treaty of peace. Many publicists @@ -18151,7 +18107,7 @@ such understanding.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Peace Negotiations.</p></div> -<p>§ 267. <a name="However_as_the_outbreak267" id="However_as_the_outbreak267"></a>However, as the outbreak of war interrupts +<p>§ 267. <a name="However_as_the_outbreak267" id="However_as_the_outbreak267"></a>However, as the outbreak of war interrupts all regular non-hostile intercourse between belligerents, negotiations for peace are often difficult of initiation. Each party, although willing to negotiate, may have @@ -18183,7 +18139,7 @@ off before an agreement is arrived at.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Preliminaries of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 268. Although ready to terminate the war through +<p>§ 268. Although ready to terminate the war through a treaty of peace, belligerents are frequently not able to settle all the terms of peace at once. In such cases hostilities are usually brought to an end through so-called @@ -18227,7 +18183,7 @@ terms of peace than those stipulated at San Stefano.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form and Parts of Peace Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 269. International Law does not contain any +<p>§ 269. International Law does not contain any rules regarding the form of peace treaties; they may, therefore, be concluded verbally or in writing. But the importance of the matter makes the parties always @@ -18257,7 +18213,7 @@ to conclude Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 270. As the treaty-making Power is according +<p>§ 270. As the treaty-making Power is according to the Law of Nations in the hands of the head<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> of the State, it is he who is competent to conclude peace. But just as constitutional restrictions imposed upon @@ -18281,10 +18237,10 @@ excepted, may declare war only with the consent of the Bundesrath, his power of making peace is unrestricted.<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th495">vol. I. § 495</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th495">vol. I. § 495</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al497">vol. I. § 497</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al497">vol. I. § 497</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> See more examples in Rivier, II. p. 445.</p></div> @@ -18296,11 +18252,11 @@ he does not by becoming a prisoner of war lose his position, he nevertheless thereby loses the power of exercising the rights connected with his position.<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> See Vattel, IV. § 13.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> See Vattel, IV. § 13.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Date of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 271. <a name="Unless_the_treaty271" id="Unless_the_treaty271"></a>Unless the treaty provides otherwise, peace +<p>§ 271. <a name="Unless_the_treaty271" id="Unless_the_treaty271"></a>Unless the treaty provides otherwise, peace commences with the signing of the peace treaty. Should the latter not be ratified, hostilities may be recommenced, and the unratified peace treaty is considered as @@ -18333,8 +18289,8 @@ which was captured by the French privateer months fixed by the Peace of Amiens for the termination of hostilities in these seas.<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> The details of this case are given by Hall, § 199; see - also Phillimore, III. § 521.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> The details of this case are given by Hall, § 199; see + also Phillimore, III. § 521.</p></div> @@ -18344,18 +18300,18 @@ of hostilities in these seas.<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></ </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 19-23—Hall, §§ 198-202—Lawrence, § 218—Phillimore, -III. §§ 518-528—Halleck, I. pp. 312-324—Taylor, §§ 581-583—Wheaton, -§§ 544-547—Bluntschli, §§ 708-723—Heffter, §§ 180-183, 184<span class="smcap">A</span>—Kirchenheim -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 804-817—Ullmann, § 199—Bonfils, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 19-23—Hall, §§ 198-202—Lawrence, § 218—Phillimore, +III. §§ 518-528—Halleck, I. pp. 312-324—Taylor, §§ 581-583—Wheaton, +§§ 544-547—Bluntschli, §§ 708-723—Heffter, §§ 180-183, 184<span class="smcap">A</span>—Kirchenheim +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 804-817—Ullmann, § 199—Bonfils, Nos. 1698-1702—Despagnet, No. 607—Rivier, II. pp. 454-461—Calvo, V. -§§ 3137-3163—Fiore, III. Nos. 1701-1703, and Code, Nos. 1942-1962—Martens, -II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, pp. 330-336—Pillet, +§§ 3137-3163—Fiore, III. Nos. 1701-1703, and Code, Nos. 1942-1962—Martens, +II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, pp. 330-336—Pillet, pp. 375-377.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Restoration of Condition of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 272. The chief and general effect of a peace treaty +<p>§ 272. The chief and general effect of a peace treaty is restoration of the condition of peace between the former belligerents. As soon as the treaty is ratified, all rights and duties which exist in time of peace between @@ -18377,7 +18333,7 @@ must be repaid.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> The <i>Mentor</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 179. Matters are, of course, different in -case a future date—see above, § <a href="#Unless_the_treaty271">271</a>—is +case a future date—see above, § <a href="#Unless_the_treaty271">271</a>—is stipulated for the termination of hostilities.</p></div> @@ -18392,7 +18348,7 @@ subjects of belligerents as have been suspended by the outbreak of war revive <i>ipso facto</i> by the conclusion of peace is not the outcome of a rule of International Law. But just as Municipal Law may suspend such contracts <i>ipso facto</i> by the outbreak of war, so it may revive them -<i>ipso facto</i> by the conclusion of peace. See above, § <a href="#Following101">101</a>.</p></div> +<i>ipso facto</i> by the conclusion of peace. See above, § <a href="#Following101">101</a>.</p></div> <p>Attention must be drawn to the fact that the condition of peace created by a peace treaty is legally @@ -18413,7 +18369,7 @@ its theoretical validity.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Principle of <i>Uti Possidetis</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 273. <a name="Un273" id="Un273"></a>Unless the parties stipulate otherwise, the +<p>§ 273. <a name="Un273" id="Un273"></a>Unless the parties stipulate otherwise, the effect of a treaty of peace is that conditions remain as at the conclusion of peace. Thus, all moveable State property, as munitions, provisions, arms, money, horses, @@ -18429,7 +18385,7 @@ such territory in the treaty of peace.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Amnesty.</p></div> -<p>§ 274. <a name="Since_a_treaty_of_peace274" id="Since_a_treaty_of_peace274"></a>Since a treaty of peace is considered a final +<p>§ 274. <a name="Since_a_treaty_of_peace274" id="Since_a_treaty_of_peace274"></a>Since a treaty of peace is considered a final settlement of the war, one of the effects of every peace treaty is the so-called amnesty—that is, an immunity for all wrongful acts done by the belligerents themselves, @@ -18466,23 +18422,23 @@ during war committed violations of the laws of war, <i>e.g.</i> killed wounded enemy soldiers and the like.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#In_contradistinction251">251</a>-257. Clause 4 of the "Terms of Surrender + above, §§ <a href="#In_contradistinction251">251</a>-257. Clause 4 of the "Terms of Surrender of the Boer Forces in the Field"—see <i>Parliamentary Papers</i>, South Africa, 1902, Cd. 1096—seems to contradict this assertion, as it expressly excludes from the amnesty "certain acts, contrary to usages of war, which have been notified by the Commander-in-Chief to the Boer Generals, and which shall be tried by court-martial immediately after the close of hostilities." But it will be remembered—see - above, § <a href="#Footnote_500_500">265, p. 327, note 1</a>—that the agreement embodying these terms of surrender + above, § <a href="#Footnote_500_500">265, p. 327, note 1</a>—that the agreement embodying these terms of surrender does not bear the character of a treaty of peace, the Boer War having been terminated through subjugation.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> This applies to such individuals only as have not yet been convicted. Those who are undergoing a term of imprisonment need not be -liberated at the conclusion of peace; see above, § <a href="#All_war_crimes257">257</a>.</p></div> +liberated at the conclusion of peace; see above, § <a href="#All_war_crimes257">257</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt259a">259<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt259a">259<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <p>But it is important to remember here again that the amnesty grants immunity only for wrongful acts done @@ -18502,7 +18458,7 @@ had compromised themselves during the war.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Release of Prisoners of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 275. <a name="A_very_important275" id="A_very_important275"></a>A very important effect of a treaty of peace +<p>§ 275. <a name="A_very_important275" id="A_very_important275"></a>A very important effect of a treaty of peace is termination of the captivity of prisoners of war.<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> This, however, does not mean that with the conclusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> of peace all prisoners of war must at once be released. @@ -18530,18 +18486,18 @@ against discipline. After the Franco-German War in after the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 released them.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Captivity_can_come132">132</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Captivity_can_come132">132</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> See, however, Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2839, who objects to +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> See, however, Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2839, who objects to it.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2840; Beinhauer, <i>Die +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, VII. No. 2840; Beinhauer, <i>Die Kriegsgefangenschaft</i> (1910), p. 79; Payrat, <i>Le prisonnier de Guerre</i> (1910), pp. 364-370.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Revival of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 276. The question how far a peace treaty has +<p>§ 276. The question how far a peace treaty has the effect of reviving treaties concluded between the parties before the outbreak of war is much controverted. The answer depends upon the other question, @@ -18559,7 +18515,7 @@ for the parties to make such special stipulations in the peace treaty as will settle the matter.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> See the very detailed discussion of the question in -Phillimore, III. §§ 529-538; see also above, § <a href="#The_doctrine_was99">99</a>.</p></div> +Phillimore, III. §§ 529-538; see also above, § <a href="#The_doctrine_was99">99</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -18568,12 +18524,12 @@ Phillimore, III. §§ 529-538; see also above, § <a href="#The_doctrine_was99">99< </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 24-34—Phillimore, III. § 597—Halleck, I. -pp. 322-324—Taylor, §§ 593-594—Wheaton, §§ 548-550—Bluntschli, §§ -724-726—Heffter, § 184—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 817-822—Ullmann, -§ 199—Bonfils, Nos. 1706-1709—Despagnet, Nos. 612 and 613—Rivier, -II. pp. 459-461—Calvo, V. §§ 3164-3168—Fiore, III. Nos. 1704-1705—Martens, -II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, pp. 336-337.</p> +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 20—Vattel, IV. §§ 24-34—Phillimore, III. § 597—Halleck, I. +pp. 322-324—Taylor, §§ 593-594—Wheaton, §§ 548-550—Bluntschli, §§ +724-726—Heffter, § 184—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 817-822—Ullmann, +§ 199—Bonfils, Nos. 1706-1709—Despagnet, Nos. 612 and 613—Rivier, +II. pp. 459-461—Calvo, V. §§ 3164-3168—Fiore, III. Nos. 1704-1705—Martens, +II. § 128—Longuet, §§ 156-164—Mérignhac, pp. 336-337.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Peace, @@ -18581,7 +18537,7 @@ how to be carried out.</p></div> -<p>§ 277. The general rule, that treaties must be +<p>§ 277. The general rule, that treaties must be performed in good faith, applies to peace treaties as well as to others. The great importance, however, of a treaty of peace and its special circumstances and @@ -18601,7 +18557,7 @@ which arbitration will settle if the parties cannot agree.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"> <span class="label">[519]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ne553">vol. I. §§ 553</a>-554. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ne553">vol. I. §§ 553</a>-554. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p></div> <p>Arrangements may have to be made for the case in which a part or the whole of the territory occupied @@ -18619,13 +18575,13 @@ out this treaty of peace.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"> <span class="label">[520]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Oc527">vol. I. § 527</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Oc527">vol. I. § 527</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Breach of Treaty of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 278. Just as is the performance, so is the breach +<p>§ 278. Just as is the performance, so is the breach of peace treaties of great importance. A peace treaty can be violated in its entirety or in one of its stipulations only. Violation by one of the parties does not @@ -18637,7 +18593,7 @@ that a distinction must be drawn between essential and non-essential stipulations, and that violation of essential stipulations only creates a right of cancelling the treaty of peace. It has been shown -above,<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Vi547"> Vol. I. § 547</a>, that the majority of publicists rightly oppose +above,<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Vi547"> Vol. I. § 547</a>, that the majority of publicists rightly oppose the distinction.</p> <p>But a distinction must be made between violation @@ -18664,7 +18620,7 @@ A mere protest neither constitutes a cancellation nor reserves the right of cancellation.<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Vi547">vol. I. § 547</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Vi547">vol. I. § 547</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -18674,16 +18630,16 @@ reserves the right of cancellation.<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_5 <p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 9—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 15 and 16—Vattel, -III. §§ 204-222—Hall, §§ 162-166—Manning, pp. 190-195—Phillimore, -III. §§ 568-590—Halleck, II. pp. 500-526—Taylor, § 595—Wheaton, § 398—Bluntschli, -§§ 727-741—Heffter, §§ 188-192—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, +III. §§ 204-222—Hall, §§ 162-166—Manning, pp. 190-195—Phillimore, +III. §§ 568-590—Halleck, II. pp. 500-526—Taylor, § 595—Wheaton, § 398—Bluntschli, +§§ 727-741—Heffter, §§ 188-192—Kirchenheim in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 822-836—Bonfils, No. 1710—Despagnet, No. 611—Nys, III. -pp. 738-739—Rivier, II. pp. 314-316—Calvo, V. §§ 3169-3226—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1706-1712—Martens, II. § 128—Pillet, p. 377.</p> +pp. 738-739—Rivier, II. pp. 314-316—Calvo, V. §§ 3169-3226—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1706-1712—Martens, II. § 128—Pillet, p. 377.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Postliminium.</p></div> -<p>§ 279. The term "postliminium" is originally one +<p>§ 279. The term "postliminium" is originally one of Roman Law derived from <i>post</i> and <i>limen</i> (<i>i.e.</i> boundary). According to Roman Law the relations of Rome with a foreign State depended upon the @@ -18722,12 +18678,12 @@ legal effects the postliminium has in regard to the territory, the individuals thereon, or the property concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#To40">vol. I. § 40</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#To40">vol. I. § 40</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Postliminium according to International Law, in contradistinction to Postliminium according to Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 280. Most writers confound the effects of postliminium +<p>§ 280. Most writers confound the effects of postliminium according to Municipal Law with those according to International Law. For instance: whether a private ship which is recaptured reverts @@ -18747,11 +18703,11 @@ things, validity of legitimate acts, invalidity of illegitimate acts.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#A_prize_is_lost196">196</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#A_prize_is_lost196">196</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Revival of the Former Condition of Things.</p></div> -<p>§ 281. Although a territory and the individuals +<p>§ 281. Although a territory and the individuals thereon come through military occupation in war under the actual sway of the enemy, neither such territory nor such individuals, according to the rules of @@ -18787,7 +18743,7 @@ takes the place of that of the previous occupant.</p> of Legitimate Acts.</p></div> -<p>§ 282. Postliminium has no effect upon such acts +<p>§ 282. Postliminium has no effect upon such acts of the former military occupant connected with the occupied territory and the individuals and property thereon as were legitimate acts of warfare. On the @@ -18807,11 +18763,11 @@ taken possession of the territory.</p> must be recognised which have occurred during the occupation. A case which illustrates this happened after the Franco-German War. In October 1870, -during occupation by German troops of the <i>Départements +during occupation by German troops of the <i>Départements de la Meuse</i> and <i>de la Meurthe</i>, a Berlin firm entered into a contract with the German Government to fell -15,000 oak trees in the State forests of these <i>départements</i>, -paying in advance £2250. The Berlin firm sold the +15,000 oak trees in the State forests of these <i>départements</i>, +paying in advance £2250. The Berlin firm sold the contract rights to others, who felled 9000 trees and sold, in March 1871, their right to fell the remaining 6000 trees to a third party. The last-named felled a part @@ -18832,7 +18788,7 @@ pay indemnities to the contractors concerned.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Invalidity of Illegitimate Acts.</p></div> -<p>§ 283. <a name="If_the_occupant283" id="If_the_occupant283"></a>If the occupant has performed acts which are +<p>§ 283. <a name="If_the_occupant283" id="If_the_occupant283"></a>If the occupant has performed acts which are not legitimate acts of warfare, postliminium makes their invalidity apparent. Therefore, if the occupant has sold immoveable State property, such property @@ -18848,7 +18804,7 @@ the acquirer without payment of damages.</p> after Interregnum.</p></div> -<p>§ 284. Cases of postliminium occur only when a conquered +<p>§ 284. Cases of postliminium occur only when a conquered territory comes either during or at the end of the war again into the possession of the legitimate Sovereign. No case of postliminium arises when a @@ -18896,9 +18852,9 @@ of the Elector cannot therefore be defended by appeal to International Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_in_the_case263">263</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_in_the_case263">263</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. §§ 568-574, and the literature there +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. §§ 568-574, and the literature there quoted.</p></div> @@ -18925,22 +18881,22 @@ quoted.</p></div> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 208-214—Lawrence, § 223—Westlake, II. pp. 169-177—Phillimore, -III. §§ 161-226—Twiss, II. §§ 208-212—Taylor, §§ 596-613—Walker, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 208-214—Lawrence, § 223—Westlake, II. pp. 169-177—Phillimore, +III. §§ 161-226—Twiss, II. §§ 208-212—Taylor, §§ 596-613—Walker, <i>History</i>, pp. 195-203, and <i>Science</i>, pp. 374-385—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 614-634—Ullmann, § 190—Bonfils, Nos. 1494-1521—Despagnet, +IV. pp. 614-634—Ullmann, § 190—Bonfils, Nos. 1494-1521—Despagnet, No. 687—Rivier, II. pp. 370-375—Nys, III. pp. 558-567—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2494-2591—Fiore, III. Nos. 1503-1535—Martens, II. § 130—Dupuis, -Nos. 302-307—Mérignhac, pp. 339-342—Boeck, Nos. 8-153—Kleen, +IV. §§ 2494-2591—Fiore, III. Nos. 1503-1535—Martens, II. § 130—Dupuis, +Nos. 302-307—Mérignhac, pp. 339-342—Boeck, Nos. 8-153—Kleen, I. pp. 1-70—Cauchy, <i>Le droit maritime international</i> (1862), vol. II. -pp. 325-430—Gessner, pp. 1-69—Bergbohm, <i>Die bewaffnete Neutralität -1780-1783</i> (1884)—Fauchille, <i>La diplomatie française et la ligue des +pp. 325-430—Gessner, pp. 1-69—Bergbohm, <i>Die bewaffnete Neutralität +1780-1783</i> (1884)—Fauchille, <i>La diplomatie française et la ligue des neutres 1780</i> (1893)—Schweizer, <i>Geschichte der schweizerischen Neutralitaet</i> (1895), I. pp. 10-72.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality not practised in Ancient Times.</p></div> -<p>§ 285. Since in antiquity there was no notion of +<p>§ 285. Since in antiquity there was no notion of an International Law,<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> it is not to be expected that neutrality as a legal institution should have existed among the nations of old. Neutrality did not exist @@ -18961,13 +18917,13 @@ impartiality, but belligerents never recognised such impartiality.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In37">vol. I. § 37</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In37">vol. I. § 37</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> See Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 614-615.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality during the Middle Ages.</p></div> -<p>§ 286. During the Middle Ages matters changed in +<p>§ 286. During the Middle Ages matters changed in so far only as, in the latter part of this period, belligerents did not exactly force third parties to a choice; but legal duties and rights connected with neutrality @@ -19012,11 +18968,11 @@ the eighteenth century until the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854.<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_is_evident176">176</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_is_evident176">176</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality during the Seventeenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 287. At the time of Grotius, neutrality was recognised +<p>§ 287. At the time of Grotius, neutrality was recognised as an institution of International Law, although such institution was in its infancy only and needed a long time to reach its present range. Grotius @@ -19024,7 +18980,7 @@ did not know, or at any rate did not make use of, the term neutrality.<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> He treats neutrality in the very short seventeenth chapter of the Third Book on the Law of War and Peace, under the head <i>De his, qui in bello -medii sunt</i>, and establishes in § 3 two doubtful rules +medii sunt</i>, and establishes in § 3 two doubtful rules only. The first is that neutrals shall do nothing which may strengthen a belligerent whose cause is unjust, or which may hinder the movements of a belligerent whose @@ -19036,7 +18992,7 @@ not rendering assistance to persons besieged.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> That the term was known at the time of Grotius may be inferred from the fact that Neumayr de Ramsla in 1620 published his work -<i>Von der Neutralität und Assistenz ... in Kriegszeiten</i>; see Nys in +<i>Von der Neutralität und Assistenz ... in Kriegszeiten</i>; see Nys in <i>R.I.</i> XVII. (1885), p. 78.</p></div> <p>The treatment of neutrality by Grotius shows, on @@ -19066,11 +19022,11 @@ out of Lisbon, and on being prevented by the guns of the place from carrying them off, burnt them in the river."<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> See Hall, § 209, p. 604.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> See Hall, § 209, p. 604.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Progress of Neutrality during the Eighteenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 288. <a name="It_was_not_until288" id="It_was_not_until288"></a>It was not until the eighteenth century +<p>§ 288. <a name="It_was_not_until288" id="It_was_not_until288"></a>It was not until the eighteenth century that theory and practice agreed upon the duty of neutrals to remain impartial, and the duty of belligerents to respect the territories of neutrals. Bynkershoek @@ -19080,7 +19036,7 @@ of neutrality. Bynkershoek<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a>< describes them as those who are of neither party—<i>qui neutrarum partium sunt</i>—in a war, and who do not, in accordance with a treaty, give assistance to either -party. Vattel (III. § 103), on the other hand, makes +party. Vattel (III. § 103), on the other hand, makes use of the term "neutrality," and gives the following definition:—"Neutral nations, during a war, are those who take no one's part, remaining friends common to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> @@ -19097,7 +19053,7 @@ between these parties, and, consequently, must not give or deny to one or other party more or less in accordance with their conviction as to the justice or injustice of the cause of each. Vattel, however, teaches -(III. § 135) that a neutral, although he may generally +(III. § 135) that a neutral, although he may generally allow the passage of troops of the belligerents through his territory, may refuse this passage to such belligerent as is making war for an unjust cause.</p> @@ -19126,7 +19082,7 @@ was not consistent with these and other indulgences. But this only led to the distinction between neutrality in the strict sense of the term and an imperfect neutrality.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> See examples in Hall, § 211.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> See examples in Hall, § 211.</p></div> <p>As regards the duty of belligerents to respect neutral territory, progress was also made in the eighteenth @@ -19137,11 +19093,11 @@ into neutral territory, and, likewise, for a fleet to pursue<a name="FNanchor_53 the defeated enemy fleet into neutral territorial waters.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> and <a href="#Asylum_can4of347">347 (4)</a>.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> and <a href="#Asylum_can4of347">347 (4)</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>First Armed Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 289. <a name="Whereas_on_the_whole289" id="Whereas_on_the_whole289"></a>Whereas, on the whole, the duty of neutrals +<p>§ 289. <a name="Whereas_on_the_whole289" id="Whereas_on_the_whole289"></a>Whereas, on the whole, the duty of neutrals to remain impartial and the duty of belligerents to respect neutral territory became generally recognised during the eighteenth century, the members of the @@ -19183,8 +19139,8 @@ and condemning captured neutral vessels for breach of blockade, although the blockades were by no means always effective.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. §§ 212-222; Hall, § 234; Manning, pp. -260-267; Westlake, II. p. 254; Moore, VII. § 1180; Boeck, No. 52: +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. §§ 212-222; Hall, § 234; Manning, pp. +260-267; Westlake, II. p. 254; Moore, VII. § 1180; Boeck, No. 52: Dupuis, Nos. 131-133. Stress must be laid on the fact that the original meaning of the rule of 1756 is different from the meaning it received by its extension in 1793. From that year onwards England not only @@ -19245,7 +19201,7 @@ of Paris of 1856.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The French Revolution and the Second Armed Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 290. <a name="The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290" id="The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290"></a>The wars of the French Revolution showed +<p>§ 290. <a name="The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290" id="The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290"></a>The wars of the French Revolution showed that the time was not yet ripe for the progress aimed at by the First Armed Neutrality. Russia, the very same Power which had initiated the Armed Neutrality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> @@ -19312,10 +19268,10 @@ and not by privateers, in case the neutral vessels concerned sailed under convoy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Sweden_in417">417</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Sweden_in417">417</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> Martens, <i>R.</i> VII. pp. 127-171. See also Martens, <i>Causes -Célèbres</i>, IV. pp. 218-302.</p></div> +Célèbres</i>, IV. pp. 218-302.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> Martens, <i>R.</i> VII. p. 260.</p></div> @@ -19358,14 +19314,14 @@ the half of their cargoes consisted of enemy goods.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality during the Nineteenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 291. <a name="The_development291" id="The_development291"></a>The development of the rules of neutrality +<p>§ 291. <a name="The_development291" id="The_development291"></a>The development of the rules of neutrality during the nineteenth century was due to four factors.</p> <p>(1) The most prominent and influential factor is the attitude of the United States of America towards neutrality from 1793 to 1818. When in 1793 England joined the war which had broken out in 1792 between -the so-called First Coalition and France, Genêt, the +the so-called First Coalition and France, Genêt, the French diplomatic envoy accredited to the United States, granted Letters of Marque to American merchantmen manned by American citizens in American @@ -19396,11 +19352,11 @@ out and arming on their territory of cruisers for belligerents, to prevent enlistment on their territory for belligerents, and the like.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> See Wharton, III. §§ 395-396.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> See Wharton, III. §§ 395-396.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> Concerning this trial, see Taylor, § 609.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> Concerning this trial, see Taylor, § 609.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 434-437; Taylor, § 610; Lawrence, § 223.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 434-437; Taylor, § 610; Lawrence, § 223.</p></div> <p>(2) Of great importance for the development of neutrality during the nineteenth century became the @@ -19443,7 +19399,7 @@ nineteenth century.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality in the Twentieth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 292. And this development has continued during +<p>§ 292. And this development has continued during the first decade of the twentieth century. The South African and Russo-Japanese wars produced several incidents which gave occasion for the Second Peace @@ -19498,10 +19454,10 @@ of the Declaration of London.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> As regards the literature in favour and against the ratification, on the part of Great Britain, of the Declaration of London, see -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568">vol. I. § 568<i>b</i>, p. 595, note 1</a>, and as regards the +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568">vol. I. § 568<i>b</i>, p. 595, note 1</a>, and as regards the value of the Report of the Drafting Committee of the Naval Conference of London, see -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In7of554">vol. I. § 554, No. 7</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In7of554">vol. I. § 554, No. 7</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -19510,26 +19466,26 @@ above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In7of55 </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 17, § 3—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 9—Vattel, III. -§§ 103-104—Hall, §§ 19-20—Lawrence, § 222—Westlake, II. pp. 161-169—Phillimore, -III. §§ 136-137—Halleck, II. p. 141—Taylor, § 614—Moore, -VII. §§ 1287-1291—Walker, § 54—Wheaton, § 412—Bluntschli, -§§ 742-744—Heffter, § 144—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 605-606—Gareis, -§ 87—Liszt, § 42—Ullmann, § 190—Bonfils, Nos. 1441 and 1443—Despagnet, -No. 686—Rivier, II. pp. 368-370—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. -3222-3224, 3232-3233—Nys, III. pp. 570-581—Calvo, IV. §§ 2491-2493—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 17, § 3—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 9—Vattel, III. +§§ 103-104—Hall, §§ 19-20—Lawrence, § 222—Westlake, II. pp. 161-169—Phillimore, +III. §§ 136-137—Halleck, II. p. 141—Taylor, § 614—Moore, +VII. §§ 1287-1291—Walker, § 54—Wheaton, § 412—Bluntschli, +§§ 742-744—Heffter, § 144—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 605-606—Gareis, +§ 87—Liszt, § 42—Ullmann, § 190—Bonfils, Nos. 1441 and 1443—Despagnet, +No. 686—Rivier, II. pp. 368-370—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. +3222-3224, 3232-3233—Nys, III. pp. 570-581—Calvo, IV. §§ 2491-2493—Fiore, III. Nos. 1536-1541, and Code, Nos. 1768-1775—Martens, II. -§ 129—Dupuis, No. 316—Mérignhac, pp. 349-351—Pillet, pp. 272-274—Heilborn, -<i>System</i>, pp. 336-351—Perels, § 38—Testa, pp. 167-172—Kleen, -I. §§ 1-4—Hautefeuille, I. pp. 195-200—Gessner, pp. 22-23—Schopfer, -<i>Le principe juridique de la neutralité et son évolution dans l'histoire de la +§ 129—Dupuis, No. 316—Mérignhac, pp. 349-351—Pillet, pp. 272-274—Heilborn, +<i>System</i>, pp. 336-351—Perels, § 38—Testa, pp. 167-172—Kleen, +I. §§ 1-4—Hautefeuille, I. pp. 195-200—Gessner, pp. 22-23—Schopfer, +<i>Le principe juridique de la neutralité et son évolution dans l'histoire de la guerre</i> (1894).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 293. <a name="Such_States293" id="Such_States293"></a>Such States as do not take part in a war +<p>§ 293. <a name="Such_States293" id="Such_States293"></a>Such States as do not take part in a war between other States are neutrals.<a name="FNanchor_550_550" id="FNanchor_550_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> The term "neutrality" is derived from the Latin <i>neuter</i>. Neutrality may be defined as <i>the attitude of impartiality @@ -19564,15 +19520,15 @@ their neutrality.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> Grotius (III. c. 17) calls them <i>medii in bello</i>; Bynkershoek (I. c. 9) <i>non hostes qui neutrarum partium sunt</i>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 106, and Bonfils, No. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> See, for instance, Vattel, III. § 106, and Bonfils, No. 1443.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Neutrality_being309">309</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Neutrality_being309">309</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality an Attitude of Impartiality.</p></div> -<p>§ 294. Since neutrality is an attitude of impartiality, +<p>§ 294. Since neutrality is an attitude of impartiality, it excludes such assistance and succour to one of the belligerents as is detrimental to the other, and, further, such injuries to the one as benefit the other. @@ -19605,12 +19561,12 @@ the wounded and the prisoners of one of the belligerents only.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> See, however, Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 656, and -Frankenbach, <i>Die Rechtsstellung von neutralen Staatsangehörigen in -kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910), p. 53, who assert the contrary.</p></div> +Frankenbach, <i>Die Rechtsstellung von neutralen Staatsangehörigen in +kriegführenden Staaten</i> (1910), p. 53, who assert the contrary.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality an Attitude creating Rights and Duties.</p></div> -<p>§ 295. Since neutrality is an attitude during the +<p>§ 295. Since neutrality is an attitude during the condition of war only, this attitude calls into existence special rights and duties which do not generally obtain. They come into existence by the fact that the @@ -19636,11 +19592,11 @@ the neutralised States from being drawn into war.<a name="FNanchor_555_555" id="FNanchor_555_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Without_thereby96">vol. I. § 96</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Without_thereby96">vol. I. § 96</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality an Attitude of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 296. <a name="As_International_Law296" id="As_International_Law296"></a>As International Law is a law between +<p>§ 296. <a name="As_International_Law296" id="As_International_Law296"></a>As International Law is a law between States only and exclusively, neutrality is an attitude of impartiality on the part of States, and not on the part of individuals.<a name="FNanchor_556_556" id="FNanchor_556_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> Individuals derive neither rights<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> @@ -19688,7 +19644,7 @@ territory frequently make enemy individuals who are not members of the armed forces of the enemy take a so-called oath of neutrality.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#As146">vol. I. § 146</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#As146">vol. I. § 146</a>.</p></div> <p>Moreover, apart from carriage of contraband, breach of blockade, and unneutral service to the enemy, which @@ -19702,7 +19658,7 @@ a belligerent, from enlisting in his forces, and the like.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No Cessation of Intercourse during Neutrality between Neutrals and Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 297. Neutrality as an attitude of impartiality +<p>§ 297. Neutrality as an attitude of impartiality involves the duty of abstaining from assisting either belligerent either actively or passively, but it does not include the duty of breaking off all intercourse with the @@ -19725,7 +19681,7 @@ capture blockade-runners and contraband of war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality an Attitude during War (Neutrality in Civil War).</p></div> -<p>§ 298. <a name="Since_neutrality298" id="Since_neutrality298"></a>Since neutrality is an attitude during war, +<p>§ 298. <a name="Since_neutrality298" id="Since_neutrality298"></a>Since neutrality is an attitude during war, the question arises as to the necessary attitude of foreign States during civil war. As civil war becomes real war through recognition<a name="FNanchor_558_558" id="FNanchor_558_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> of the insurgents as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> @@ -19767,15 +19723,15 @@ have the effect of causing the legitimate Government to grant its recognition also.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> See -above, §§ <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a> and <a href="#The_distinction76">76</a>, and Rougier, <i>Les guerres civiles et le droit des +above, §§ <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a> and <a href="#The_distinction76">76</a>, and Rougier, <i>Les guerres civiles et le droit des gens</i> (1903), pp. 414-447.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_characteristics59">59</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> See the body of nine rules regarding the position of foreign States in case of an insurrection, adopted by the Institute of -International Law at its meeting at Neuchâtel in 1900 (<i>Annuaire</i>, +International Law at its meeting at Neuchâtel in 1900 (<i>Annuaire</i>, XVIII. p. 227). The question as to whether, in case foreign States refuse recognition to insurgents, although the legitimate Government has granted it, the legitimate Government has a right of @@ -19784,7 +19740,7 @@ pp. 213-216.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality to be recognised by the Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 299. <a name="Just_as_third_States299" id="Just_as_third_States299"></a>Just as third States have no duty to remain +<p>§ 299. <a name="Just_as_third_States299" id="Just_as_third_States299"></a>Just as third States have no duty to remain neutral in a war, so they have no right<a name="FNanchor_561_561" id="FNanchor_561_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> to demand that they be allowed to remain neutral. History reports many cases in which States, although they @@ -19817,7 +19773,7 @@ war, on the one hand, and, on the other, on the part of the belligerents themselves.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> But many writers assert the existence of such a right; see, -for instance, Vattel, III. § 106; Wheaton, § 414; Kleen, I. § 2; +for instance, Vattel, III. § 106; Wheaton, § 414; Kleen, I. § 2; Bonfils, No. 1443.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> See Heilborn, <i>System</i>, pp. 347 and 350.</p></div> @@ -19830,17 +19786,17 @@ Bonfils, No. 1443.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 101, 105, 107, 110—Phillimore, III. §§ 138-139—Halleck, II. -p. 142—Taylor, § 618—Wheaton, §§ 413-425—Bluntschli, §§ 745-748—Geffcken -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 634-636—Ullmann, § 190—Despagnet, -No. 685—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3225-3231—Rivier, II. pp. 370-379—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2592-2642—Fiore, III. Nos. 1542-1545—Mérignhac, pp. -347-349—Pillet, pp. 277-284—Kleen, I. §§ 6-22.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 101, 105, 107, 110—Phillimore, III. §§ 138-139—Halleck, II. +p. 142—Taylor, § 618—Wheaton, §§ 413-425—Bluntschli, §§ 745-748—Geffcken +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 634-636—Ullmann, § 190—Despagnet, +No. 685—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3225-3231—Rivier, II. pp. 370-379—Calvo, +IV. §§ 2592-2642—Fiore, III. Nos. 1542-1545—Mérignhac, pp. +347-349—Pillet, pp. 277-284—Kleen, I. §§ 6-22.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Perpetual Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 300. The very first distinction to be made between +<p>§ 300. The very first distinction to be made between different kinds of neutrality is that between perpetual or other neutrality. Perpetual or permanent is the neutrality of States which are neutralised by @@ -19863,14 +19819,14 @@ crossing the Swiss frontier, and detained the members of this army until the conclusion of peace.<a name="FNanchor_563_563" id="FNanchor_563_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_occasions_during339">339</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_occasions_during339">339</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General and Partial Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 301. The distinction between general and partial +<p>§ 301. The distinction between general and partial neutrality derives from the fact that a part of the territory of a State may be neutralised,<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> as are, for instance, the Ionian Islands of Corfu and Paxo, which @@ -19882,11 +19838,11 @@ neutrality, general neutrality is the neutrality of States no part of whose territory is neutralised by treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Although_the_Open_Sea72">72</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_the_Open_Sea72">72</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Voluntary and Conventional Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 302. A third distinction is that between voluntary +<p>§ 302. A third distinction is that between voluntary and conventional neutrality. Voluntary (or simple or natural) is the neutrality of such State as is not bound by a general or special treaty to remain neutral in a @@ -19906,7 +19862,7 @@ take the part of one of the belligerents.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Armed Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 303. One speaks of an armed neutrality when a +<p>§ 303. One speaks of an armed neutrality when a neutral State takes military measures for the purpose of defending its neutrality against possible or probable attempts of either belligerent to make use of the neutral @@ -19921,12 +19877,12 @@ Armed Neutrality<a name="FNanchor_565_565" id="FNanchor_565_565"></a><a href="#F neutralities in the latter sense of the term.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> Se - above, §§ <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a> and <a href="#The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290">290</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a> and <a href="#The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290">290</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Benevolent Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 304. Treaties stipulating neutrality often stipulate +<p>§ 304. Treaties stipulating neutrality often stipulate a "benevolent" neutrality of the parties regarding a certain war. The term is likewise frequently used during diplomatic negotiations. However, at present @@ -19944,7 +19900,7 @@ called benevolent.</p> and Qualified Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 305. <a name="A_distinction_of305" id="A_distinction_of305"></a>A distinction of great practical importance +<p>§ 305. <a name="A_distinction_of305" id="A_distinction_of305"></a>A distinction of great practical importance was in former times that between perfect, or absolute, and qualified, or imperfect, neutrality. The neutrality of a State was qualified if it remained neutral on the @@ -19984,28 +19940,28 @@ categorically enacts that "belligerents are forbidden to move across the territory of a neutral Power troops or convoys either of munitions of war or of supplies." The principle at the back of this enactment no doubt is -that a qualified neutrality has no longer any <i>raison d'être</i>, +that a qualified neutrality has no longer any <i>raison d'être</i>, and that neutrality must in every case be perfect.<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> See, for instance, Ullmann, § 190; Despagnet, No. 685; -Rivier, II. p. 378; Calvo, IV. § 2594; Taylor, § 618; Fiore, III. No. -1541; Kleen, I. § 21; Hall, § 215 (see also Hall, § 219, concerning -passage of troops). Phillimore, III. § 138, goes with the majority of -publicists, but in § 139 he thinks that it would be too rigid to +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> See, for instance, Ullmann, § 190; Despagnet, No. 685; +Rivier, II. p. 378; Calvo, IV. § 2594; Taylor, § 618; Fiore, III. No. +1541; Kleen, I. § 21; Hall, § 215 (see also Hall, § 219, concerning +passage of troops). Phillimore, III. § 138, goes with the majority of +publicists, but in § 139 he thinks that it would be too rigid to consider acts of "minor" partiality which are the result of conventions previous to the war as violations of neutrality.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> See, for instance, Heffter, § 144; Manning, p. 225; -Wheaton, §§ 425-426; Bluntschli, § 746; Halleck, II. p. 142.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> See, for instance, Heffter, § 144; Manning, p. 225; +Wheaton, §§ 425-426; Bluntschli, § 746; Halleck, II. p. 142.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#War_occurs_usually77">77</a>, where it has been pointed out that a + above, § <a href="#War_occurs_usually77">77</a>, where it has been pointed out that a neutral who takes up an attitude of qualified neutrality may nowadays be considered as an accessory belligerent party to the war.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Some Historical Examples of Qualified Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 306. <a name="For_the_purpose_of306" id="For_the_purpose_of306"></a>For the purpose of illustration the following +<p>§ 306. <a name="For_the_purpose_of306" id="For_the_purpose_of306"></a>For the purpose of illustration the following instances of qualified neutrality may be mentioned:—</p> <p>(1) By a treaty of amity and commerce concluded @@ -20043,10 +19999,10 @@ British troops through Portuguese territory in South Africa, allowed such passage to an English force which had landed at Beira<a name="FNanchor_573_573" id="FNanchor_573_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> and was destined for Rhodesia.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> See Wheaton, § 425, and Phillimore, -III. § 139.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> See Wheaton, § 425, and Phillimore, +III. § 139.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 140.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 140.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> See Geffcken in Holtzendorff, VI. p. 610, and Rivier, II. p. 379.</p></div> @@ -20058,7 +20014,7 @@ influence in Africa. (Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XVIII. p. 185.)</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction323">323</a>; Baty, <i>International + below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction323">323</a>; Baty, <i>International Law in South Africa</i> (1900), p. 75; and <i>The Times' History of the War in South Africa</i>, vol. IV. p. 366.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p></div> @@ -20070,14 +20026,14 @@ War in South Africa</i>, vol. IV. p. 366.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373 </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 207—Phillimore, I. §§ 392-392<span class="smcap">A</span>, III. §§ 146-149—Taylor, §§ 610-611—Wheaton, -§§ 437-439, and Dana's note 215—Heffter, § 145—Bonfils, Nos. -1445-1446—Despagnet, No. 689—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3234-3237—Rivier, -II. pp. 379-381—Martens, II. § 138—Kleen, I. §§ 5, 36-42.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 207—Phillimore, I. §§ 392-392<span class="smcap">A</span>, III. §§ 146-149—Taylor, §§ 610-611—Wheaton, +§§ 437-439, and Dana's note 215—Heffter, § 145—Bonfils, Nos. +1445-1446—Despagnet, No. 689—Pradier-Fodéré, VIII. Nos. 3234-3237—Rivier, +II. pp. 379-381—Martens, II. § 138—Kleen, I. §§ 5, 36-42.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality commences with Knowledge of the War.</p></div> -<p>§ 307. <a name="Since_neutrality307" id="Since_neutrality307"></a>Since neutrality is an attitude of impartiality +<p>§ 307. <a name="Since_neutrality307" id="Since_neutrality307"></a>Since neutrality is an attitude of impartiality deliberately taken up by a State not implicated in a war, neutrality cannot begin before the outbreak of war becomes known. It is only then that third States @@ -20115,17 +20071,17 @@ of a notification, unless it be established beyond doubt that they were in fact aware of the outbreak of war.<a name="FNanchor_574_574" id="FNanchor_574_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_574_574" id="Footnote_574_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#According_to94">94</a> and <a href="#The_second_form95">95</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#According_to94">94</a> and <a href="#The_second_form95">95</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commencement of Neutrality in Civil War.</p></div> -<p>§ 308. As civil war becomes real war through recognition +<p>§ 308. As civil war becomes real war through recognition of the insurgents as a belligerent Power, neutrality during a civil war begins for every foreign State from the moment recognition is granted. That recognition might be granted or refused by foreign States independently of the attitude of the legitimate -Government has been stated above in § <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>, where +Government has been stated above in § <a href="#Since_neutrality298">298</a>, where also an explanation is given of the consequences of recognition granted either by foreign States alone or by the legitimate Government alone.</p> @@ -20135,7 +20091,7 @@ of Neutrality by Declarations.</p></div> -<p>§ 309. <a name="Neutrality_being309" id="Neutrality_being309"></a>Neutrality being an attitude of States +<p>§ 309. <a name="Neutrality_being309" id="Neutrality_being309"></a>Neutrality being an attitude of States creating rights and duties, active measures on the part of a neutral state are required for the purpose of preventing its officials and subjects from committing @@ -20154,13 +20110,13 @@ neutral, although these manifestoes and assertions are often also called declarations of neutrality.<a name="FNanchor_575_575" id="FNanchor_575_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_575_575" id="Footnote_575_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Such_States293">293</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#Such_States293">293</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Municipal Neutrality Laws.</p></div> -<p>§ 310. International Law leaves the provision of +<p>§ 310. International Law leaves the provision of necessary measures for the establishment of neutrality to the discretion of each State. Since in constitutional States the powers of Governments are frequently so @@ -20183,7 +20139,7 @@ Foreign Enlistment Act.</p></div> -<p>§ 311. After the United States of America had on +<p>§ 311. After the United States of America had on April 20, 1818, enacted<a name="FNanchor_576_576" id="FNanchor_576_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> a Neutrality Law, Great Britain followed the example in 1819 with her Foreign Enlistment Act,<a name="FNanchor_577_577" id="FNanchor_577_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> which was in force till 1870. As @@ -20223,7 +20179,7 @@ were prevented from doing the same by the Foreign Enlistment Act. And it was in application of this Act that the British Government ordered, in 1904, the detention of the German steamer <i>Captain W. Menzel</i>, which took in Welsh coal at Cardiff for the purpose of carrying it to the -Russian fleet <i>en route</i> to the Far East. See below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> +Russian fleet <i>en route</i> to the Far East. See below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> An interesting case which ought here to be mentioned occurred in October 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War. Messrs. Yarrow @@ -20240,7 +20196,7 @@ this case there is no doubt. But there is no doubt either that it is this Act, and not the rules of International Law, which required the prosecution of Messrs. Sinnet and Roche on the part of the British Government. For, if viewed from the basis of International Law, the case -is merely one of contraband. See below, §§ <a href="#If_a_State_remains321">321</a>, <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a>, and <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> +is merely one of contraband. See below, §§ <a href="#If_a_State_remains321">321</a>, <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a>, and <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that the British Foreign Enlistment Act goes beyond the requirements @@ -20266,7 +20222,7 @@ or fleet."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>End of Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 312. <a name="Neutrality_ends_with312" id="Neutrality_ends_with312"></a>Neutrality ends with the war, or through +<p>§ 312. <a name="Neutrality_ends_with312" id="Neutrality_ends_with312"></a>Neutrality ends with the war, or through the commencement of war by a hitherto neutral State against one of the belligerents, or through one of the belligerents commencing war against a hitherto neutral @@ -20284,13 +20240,13 @@ its neutrality, or by a belligerent beginning war against a hitherto neutral State. But the ending of neutrality must not be confounded with violation of neutrality. Such violation does not <i>ipso facto</i> bring neutrality to an -end, as will be shown below in § <a href="#Violation_of_neutrality358">358</a>.</p> +end, as will be shown below in § <a href="#Violation_of_neutrality358">358</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Such_States293">293</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Such_States293">293</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Just_as_third_States299">299</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Just_as_third_States299">299</a>.</p></div> <div class="box4"> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p> @@ -20310,17 +20266,17 @@ NEUTRALS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 104—Hall, § 214—Phillimore, III. §§ 136-138—Twiss, II. § 216—Heffter, -§ 146—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 656-657—Gareis, § -88—Liszt, § 42—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1441-1444—Despagnet, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 104—Hall, § 214—Phillimore, III. §§ 136-138—Twiss, II. § 216—Heffter, +§ 146—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 656-657—Gareis, § +88—Liszt, § 42—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1441-1444—Despagnet, Nos. 684 and 690—Rivier, II. pp. 381-385—Nys, III. pp. 582-639—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2491-2493—Fiore, III. Nos. 1501, 1536-1540, and Code, Nos. 1776-1778, -1784—Martens, II. § 131—Kleen, I. §§ 45-46—Mérignhac, pp. 339-342—Pillet, +IV. §§ 2491-2493—Fiore, III. Nos. 1501, 1536-1540, and Code, Nos. 1776-1778, +1784—Martens, II. § 131—Kleen, I. §§ 45-46—Mérignhac, pp. 339-342—Pillet, pp. 273-275.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conduct in General of Neutrals and Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 313. Neutrality can be carried out only if neutrals +<p>§ 313. Neutrality can be carried out only if neutrals as well as belligerents follow a certain line of conduct in their relations with one another. It is for this reason that from neutrality derive rights and duties, @@ -20334,7 +20290,7 @@ belligerent correspond to the rights of the neutrals.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>What Rights and Duties of Neutrals and of Belligerents there are.</p></div> -<p>§ 314. <a name="There_are_two_rights314" id="There_are_two_rights314"></a>There are two rights and two duties deriving +<p>§ 314. <a name="There_are_two_rights314" id="There_are_two_rights314"></a>There are two rights and two duties deriving from neutrality for neutrals, and likewise two for belligerents.</p> @@ -20374,7 +20330,7 @@ to visit, search, and capture neutral merchantmen.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rights and Duties of Neutrals contested.</p></div> -<p>§ 315. Some writers<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> maintain that no rights +<p>§ 315. Some writers<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> maintain that no rights derive from neutrality for neutrals, and, consequently, no duties for belligerents, because everything which must be left undone by a belligerent regarding his @@ -20409,7 +20365,7 @@ contain a violation of its duty of impartiality, because it would be favouring one belligerent to the detriment of the other.<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> Heffter, § 149; Gareis, § 88; Heilborn, <i>System</i>, p. 341.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> Heffter, § 149; Gareis, § 88; Heilborn, <i>System</i>, p. 341.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_585_585" id="Footnote_585_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a> See, for instance, article 3 of Convention XIII. of the Second Peace Conference, which enacts:—"When a ship has been captured @@ -20421,7 +20377,7 @@ the captor Government, on the demand of that Power, must liberate the prize with its officers and crew."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_entirely360">360</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_entirely360">360</a>.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, it has been asserted<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> that, apart from conventional neutrality, from which treaty @@ -20449,13 +20405,13 @@ so long as belligerents intend to recognise such neutrality of third States, duties derive from neutrality for both belligerents and neutrals.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> See Gareis, § 88.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> See Gareis, § 88.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contents of Duty of Impartiality.</p></div> -<p>§ 316. It has already been stated above, in § 294, that +<p>§ 316. It has already been stated above, in § 294, that impartiality <i>excludes</i> such assistance and succour to one of the belligerents as is detrimental to the other, and, further, such injuries to one of the belligerents as @@ -20513,7 +20469,7 @@ Peace Conference.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Duty of Impartiality continuously growing more intense.</p></div> -<p>§ 317. Although neutrality has already for centuries +<p>§ 317. Although neutrality has already for centuries been recognised as an attitude of impartiality, it has taken two hundred years for the duty of impartiality to attain its present range and intensity. Now this @@ -20531,7 +20487,7 @@ neutrals.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrality Conventions of the Second Peace Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 317<i>a</i>. The Second Peace Conference has produced +<p>§ 317<i>a</i>. The Second Peace Conference has produced two Conventions concerning neutrality:—</p> <p>(1) The Convention (V.) respecting the rights and @@ -20543,12 +20499,12 @@ later. Many Powers have already ratified. Great Britain entered a reservation<a name="FNanchor_590_590" id="FNanchor_590_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> against articles 16-18, and Argentina against article 18.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 407-425; Higgins, pp. 290-294; Boidin, pp. -121-134; Nippold, § 25; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 541-555; Bustamente in +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 407-425; Higgins, pp. 290-294; Boidin, pp. +121-134; Nippold, § 25; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 541-555; Bustamente in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 95-120.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_590_590" id="Footnote_590_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) The Convention (XIII.) respecting the rights and duties of neutral Powers in maritime war,<a name="FNanchor_591_591" id="FNanchor_591_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> which @@ -20561,8 +20517,8 @@ are a number of reservations; they will be dealt with in due course when the points concerned are being discussed.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 555-606; Higgins, pp. 459-483; Bernsten, § -13; Boidin, pp. 236-247; Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 277-330; Nippold, § 34; +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> See Lémonon, pp. 555-606; Higgins, pp. 459-483; Bernsten, § +13; Boidin, pp. 236-247; Dupuis, <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 277-330; Nippold, § 34; Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, pp. 620-648; Hyde in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 507-527.</p></div> @@ -20575,17 +20531,17 @@ of the several points concerned. The arrangement of topics in the sections of this chapter will, therefore, be independent of the arrangement of topics in the two Conventions, and will be as follows:—Neutrals and -Military Operations (§§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>-328); Neutrals and Military -Preparations (§§ <a href="#Although_according329">329</a>-335); Neutral Asylum to Soldiers -and War Materials (§§ <a href="#Neutral_territory336">336</a>-341); Neutral Asylum to -Naval Forces (§§ <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>-348); Supplies and Loans to -Belligerents (§§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality349">349</a>-352); Services to Belligerents -(§§ <a href="#Since_pilots_are353">353</a>-356).</p> +Military Operations (§§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>-328); Neutrals and Military +Preparations (§§ <a href="#Although_according329">329</a>-335); Neutral Asylum to Soldiers +and War Materials (§§ <a href="#Neutral_territory336">336</a>-341); Neutral Asylum to +Naval Forces (§§ <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>-348); Supplies and Loans to +Belligerents (§§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality349">349</a>-352); Services to Belligerents +(§§ <a href="#Since_pilots_are353">353</a>-356).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contents of Duty of Belligerents to treat Neutrals in accordance with their Impartiality.</p></div> -<p>§ 318. Whereas the relations between neutrals +<p>§ 318. Whereas the relations between neutrals and belligerents require detailed discussion with regard to the duty of impartiality incumbent upon neutrals, the contents of the duty of belligerents to treat neutrals @@ -20627,18 +20583,18 @@ regards details. But there is no doubt that a certain consideration is due to them, and that they must at least be granted the right to depart. -See above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh399">vol. I. § 399</a>.</p></div> +See above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh399">vol. I. § 399</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_596_596" id="Footnote_596_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Under_the364">364</a>-367.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Under_the364">364</a>-367.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contents of Duty not to suppress Intercourse between Neutrals and the Enemy.</p></div> -<p>§ 319. <a name="The_duty_of_either319" id="The_duty_of_either319"></a>The duty of either belligerent not to suppress +<p>§ 319. <a name="The_duty_of_either319" id="The_duty_of_either319"></a>The duty of either belligerent not to suppress intercourse of neutrals with the enemy requires no detailed discussion either. It is a duty which is in accordance with the development of the institution of @@ -20670,17 +20626,17 @@ visit, search, capture, and punish them.<a name="FNanchor_599_599" id="FNanchor_ <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> That not only goods owned by enemy individuals but also goods owned by the enemy State are exempt from appropriation when on -neutral vessels, has been pointed out above, § <a href="#Footnote_347_347">177, p. 220, note 2</a>.</p></div> +neutral vessels, has been pointed out above, § <a href="#Footnote_347_347">177, p. 220, note 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#No_general_rule191">191</a>, and - below, § <a href="#According_to411">411</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#No_general_rule191">191</a>, and + below, § <a href="#According_to411">411</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_599_599" id="Footnote_599_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a> That a subject of a neutral State who tries to break a blockade, or carries contraband to the enemy, or renders the enemy unneutral service, violates injunctions of the belligerents, but not -International Law, has been shown above in § <a href="#As_International_Law296">296</a>; see - also below, §§ <a href="#Breach_or_violation383">383</a> and <a href="#The_guaranteed_freedom398">398</a>.</p></div> +International Law, has been shown above in § <a href="#As_International_Law296">296</a>; see + also below, §§ <a href="#Breach_or_violation383">383</a> and <a href="#The_guaranteed_freedom398">398</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -20689,26 +20645,26 @@ International Law, has been shown above in § <a href="#As_International_Law296"> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 105, 118-135—Hall, §§ 215, 219, 220, 226—Westlake, II. pp. -179-183—Lawrence, §§ 229, 234-240—Manning, pp. 225-227, 245-250—Twiss, -II. §§ 217, 218, 228—Halleck, II. pp. 146, 165, 172—Taylor, §§ -618, 620, 632, 635—Walker, §§ 55, 57, 59-61—Wharton, III. §§ 397-400—Moore, -VII. §§ 1293-1303—Wheaton, §§ 426-429—Bluntschli, §§ 758, 759, -763, 765, 769-773—Heffter, §§ 146-150—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. -657-676—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1449-1457, 1460, 1469, 1470—Despagnet, -Nos. 690-692—Rivier, II. pp. 395-408—Calvo, IV. §§ 2644-2664, -2683—Fiore, III. Nos. 1546-1550, 1574-1575, 1582-1584—Martens, II. §§ -131-134—Kleen, I. §§ 70-75, 116-122—Mérignhac, pp. 352-380—Pillet, -pp. 284-289—Perels, § 39—Testa, pp. 173-180—Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 4-12—Dupuis, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 105, 118-135—Hall, §§ 215, 219, 220, 226—Westlake, II. pp. +179-183—Lawrence, §§ 229, 234-240—Manning, pp. 225-227, 245-250—Twiss, +II. §§ 217, 218, 228—Halleck, II. pp. 146, 165, 172—Taylor, §§ +618, 620, 632, 635—Walker, §§ 55, 57, 59-61—Wharton, III. §§ 397-400—Moore, +VII. §§ 1293-1303—Wheaton, §§ 426-429—Bluntschli, §§ 758, 759, +763, 765, 769-773—Heffter, §§ 146-150—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. +657-676—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1449-1457, 1460, 1469, 1470—Despagnet, +Nos. 690-692—Rivier, II. pp. 395-408—Calvo, IV. §§ 2644-2664, +2683—Fiore, III. Nos. 1546-1550, 1574-1575, 1582-1584—Martens, II. §§ +131-134—Kleen, I. §§ 70-75, 116-122—Mérignhac, pp. 352-380—Pillet, +pp. 284-289—Perels, § 39—Testa, pp. 173-180—Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 4-12—Dupuis, Nos. 308-310, 315-317, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 277-294—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 465-471.</p> +Warfare</i>, §§ 465-471.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Hostilities by and against Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 320. <a name="The_duty_of_impartiality320" id="The_duty_of_impartiality320"></a>The duty of impartiality incumbent upon a +<p>§ 320. <a name="The_duty_of_impartiality320" id="The_duty_of_impartiality320"></a>The duty of impartiality incumbent upon a neutral must obviously prevent him from committing hostilities against either belligerent. This would need no mention were it not for the purpose of distinction @@ -20740,7 +20696,7 @@ nevertheless, a belligerent do this, he must, if possible, be repulsed by the neutral.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_was_not_until288">288</a>, p. 352, and below, § <a href="#Asylum_can4of347">347 (4)</a>, p. 422.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_was_not_until288">288</a>, p. 352, and below, § <a href="#Asylum_can4of347">347 (4)</a>, p. 422.</p></div> <p>It is, on the other hand, likewise obvious that hostilities against a neutral on the part of either belligerent @@ -20806,8 +20762,8 @@ not belong to the part of China which fell within the region of war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_region_of_war71">71</a>, p. 87; Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 268-294; -Ariga, §§ 16-22.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_region_of_war71">71</a>, p. 87; Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 268-294; +Ariga, §§ 16-22.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_602_602" id="Footnote_602_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a> See Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 279-289, and Takahashi, pp. 462-466.</p></div> @@ -20816,12 +20772,12 @@ Ariga, §§ 16-22.</p></div> 437-444.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Some361">361</a>, where the case of the <i>General Armstrong</i> + below, § <a href="#Some361">361</a>, where the case of the <i>General Armstrong</i> is discussed.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Furnishing Troops and Men-of-War to Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 321. <a name="If_a_State_remains321" id="If_a_State_remains321"></a>If a State remains neutral, it violates its +<p>§ 321. <a name="If_a_State_remains321" id="If_a_State_remains321"></a>If a State remains neutral, it violates its impartiality by furnishing a belligerent with troops or men-of-war. And it matters not whether a neutral renders such assistance to one of the belligerents or to @@ -20845,12 +20801,12 @@ the nineteenth century, and there ought to be no doubt that nowadays the answer must be in the affirmative, since a qualified neutrality<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> is no longer admissible.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, § 759, and Heffter, § 144. - See above, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a> (2), where the case is quoted of Denmark furnishing +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, § 759, and Heffter, § 144. + See above, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a> (2), where the case is quoted of Denmark furnishing troops to Russia in 1788 during a Russo-Swedish war.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>.</p></div> <p>As regards furnishing men-of-war to belligerents,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> the question arose during the Russo-Japanese War as @@ -20861,7 +20817,7 @@ destined in case of war to be incorporated as cruisers in the national navy. The question was discussed on account of the sale to Russia of the <i>Augusta Victoria</i> and the <i>Kaiserin Maria Theresia</i> by the North German -Lloyd, and the <i>Fürst Bismarck</i> and the <i>Columbia</i> by the +Lloyd, and the <i>Fürst Bismarck</i> and the <i>Columbia</i> by the Hamburg-American Line, vessels which were at once enrolled in the Russian Navy as second-class cruisers, re-named as the <i>Kuban</i>, <i>Ural</i>, <i>Don</i>, and <i>Terek</i>. Had @@ -20878,11 +20834,11 @@ to the German Navy, their sale to Russia was a legitimate sale of articles of contraband.<a name="FNanchor_607_607" id="FNanchor_607_607"></a><a href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_607_607" id="Footnote_607_607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_607_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjects of Neutrals fighting among Belligerent Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 322. Although several States, as Great Britain<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> +<p>§ 322. Although several States, as Great Britain<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> and the United States of America, by their Municipal Law prohibit their subjects from enlisting in the military or naval service of belligerents, the duty of impartiality @@ -20917,7 +20873,7 @@ either belligerent.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Passage of Troops and War Material through Neutral Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 323. <a name="In_contradistinction323" id="In_contradistinction323"></a>In contradistinction to the practice of the +<p>§ 323. <a name="In_contradistinction323" id="In_contradistinction323"></a>In contradistinction to the practice of the eighteenth century,<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> it is now generally recognised that a violation of the duty of impartiality is involved when a neutral allows a belligerent the passage of troops or the @@ -20959,12 +20915,12 @@ but nevertheless allowed the troops of one of the belligerents passage through their territory, led to war between the neutral and the other belligerent.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> See Vattel, III. §§ 119-132.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> See Vattel, III. §§ 119-132.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> See Dumas in <i>R.G.</i> XVI. (1909), pp. 289-316.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 418-420.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 418-420.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.</i> II. p. 741.</p></div> @@ -20983,13 +20939,13 @@ since nowadays a qualified neutrality is no longer admissible, the question must be answered in the negative.<a name="FNanchor_615_615" id="FNanchor_615_615"></a><a href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_615_615" id="Footnote_615_615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_615_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a> and <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a>, and - also above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Si207">vol. I. § 207</a>. + above, §§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a> and <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a>, and + also above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Si207">vol. I. § 207</a>. Clauss, <i>Die Lehre von den Staatsdienstbarkeiten</i> (1894), pp. 212-217, must likewise be referred to. See also Dumas in <i>R.G.</i> XVI. (1909), pp. 286-316.</p></div> -<p>§ 324. The passage of wounded soldiers is different +<p>§ 324. The passage of wounded soldiers is different from that of troops. If a neutral allows the passage of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> wounded soldiers, he certainly does not render direct assistance to the belligerent concerned. But it may well @@ -21007,7 +20963,7 @@ of the German Army. Belgium, on the advice of Great Britain, did not grant the request made by Germany, but Luxemburg granted it.<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> See Hall, § 219, and Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 664.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> See Hall, § 219, and Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 664.</p></div> <p>According to article 14 of Convention V. a neutral Power <i>may</i> grant the passage of wounded or sick to a @@ -21030,7 +20986,7 @@ territory."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Passage of Men-of-War.</p></div> -<p>§ 325. In contradistinction to passage of troops +<p>§ 325. In contradistinction to passage of troops through his territory, the duty of impartiality incumbent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> upon a neutral does not require him to forbid the passage of belligerent men-of-war through the @@ -21039,7 +20995,7 @@ Article 10 of Convention XIII. categorically enacts that "the neutrality of a Power is not violated (<i>n'est pas compromise</i>) by the mere passage of belligerent men-of-war and their prizes." Since, as stated above in -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Although_the_maritime188">Vol. I. § 188</a>, every littoral State may even in time of +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Although_the_maritime188">Vol. I. § 188</a>, every littoral State may even in time of peace prohibit the passage of foreign men-of-war through its maritime belt provided such belt does not form a part of the highways for international traffic, it @@ -21058,11 +21014,11 @@ not use the neutral maritime belt and neutral ports as a basis for their operations against the enemy.<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_617_617" id="Footnote_617_617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_617_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_a_neutral333">333</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_a_neutral333">333</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occupation of Neutral Territory by Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 326. In contradistinction to the practice of the +<p>§ 326. In contradistinction to the practice of the eighteenth century,<a name="FNanchor_618_618" id="FNanchor_618_618"></a><a href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> the duty of impartiality must nowadays prevent a neutral from permitting belligerents to occupy a neutral fortress or any other part of neutral @@ -21080,21 +21036,21 @@ answered in the affirmative, since an extreme case of necessity in the interest of self-preservation must be considered as an excuse.<a name="FNanchor_620_620" id="FNanchor_620_620"></a><a href="#Footnote_620_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> See Kleen, I. § 116.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> See Kleen, I. § 116.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_619_619" id="Footnote_619_619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_619_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> See Klüber, § 281, who asserts the contrary.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_619_619" id="Footnote_619_619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_619_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> See Klüber, § 281, who asserts the contrary.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> See Vattel, III. § 122; Bluntschli, § 782; Calvo, IV. § -2642. Kleen, I. § 116, seems not to recognise an extreme necessity of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> See Vattel, III. § 122; Bluntschli, § 782; Calvo, IV. § +2642. Kleen, I. § 116, seems not to recognise an extreme necessity of the kind mentioned above as an excuse.—There is a difference between this case and the case which arose at the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, when both belligerents invaded Korea, for, as was explained above -in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>, Korea and Manchuria fell within the region and the theatre of +in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>, Korea and Manchuria fell within the region and the theatre of war.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Prize Courts on Neutral Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 327. <a name="It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327" id="It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327"></a>It has long been universally recognised that the +<p>§ 327. <a name="It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327" id="It_has_long_been_universally_recognised327"></a>It has long been universally recognised that the duty of impartiality must prevent a neutral from permitting a belligerent to set up Prize Courts on neutral territory. The intention of a belligerent in setting @@ -21105,24 +21061,24 @@ would, therefore, indirectly assist the belligerent in his naval operations. During the eighteenth century it was not considered illegitimate on the part of neutrals to allow the setting up of Prize Courts on their territory. -The <i>Règlement du Roi de France concernant les prises -qui seront conduites dans les ports étrangers, et des -formalités que doivent remplir les Consuls de S.M. qui y -sont établis</i> of 1779, furnishes a striking proof of it. +The <i>Règlement du Roi de France concernant les prises +qui seront conduites dans les ports étrangers, et des +formalités que doivent remplir les Consuls de S.M. qui y +sont établis</i> of 1779, furnishes a striking proof of it. But since in 1793 the United States of America disorganised the French Prize Courts set up by the French -envoy Genêt on her territory,<a name="FNanchor_621_621" id="FNanchor_621_621"></a><a href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> it became recognised +envoy Genêt on her territory,<a name="FNanchor_621_621" id="FNanchor_621_621"></a><a href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> it became recognised that such Prize Courts are inconsistent with the duty of impartiality incumbent upon a neutral, and article 4 of Convention XIII. enacts this formerly customary rule.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_621_621" id="Footnote_621_621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_621_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_development291">291</a> (1.)</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_development291">291</a> (1.)</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Belligerent's Prizes in Neutral Ports.</p></div> -<p>§ 328. <a name="It_would_no_doubt328" id="It_would_no_doubt328"></a>It would, no doubt, be an indirect assistance +<p>§ 328. <a name="It_would_no_doubt328" id="It_would_no_doubt328"></a>It would, no doubt, be an indirect assistance to the naval operations of a belligerent if a neutral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> allowed him to organise on neutral territory the safekeeping of prizes or their sale.</p> @@ -21158,7 +21114,7 @@ consequently, to be no objection to its sale in the neutral port, provided it has previously been condemned by the proper Prize Court.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> See Kleen, vol. I. § 115.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> See Kleen, vol. I. § 115.</p></div> <p>While the stipulation of article 21 cannot meet with any objection, the stipulation of article 23 of Convention @@ -21190,49 +21146,49 @@ proper Prize Court.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 217-218, 221-225—Lawrence, §§ 234-240—Westlake, II. pp. 181-198—Manning, -pp. 227-244—Phillimore, III. §§ 142-151<span class="smcap">B</span>—Twiss, II. §§ 223-225—Halleck, -II. pp. 152-163—Taylor, §§ 616, 619, 626-628—Walker, -§§ 62-66—Wharton, III. §§ 392, 395-396—Wheaton, §§ 436-439—Moore, -VII. §§ 1293-1305—Heffter, §§ 148-150—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. -pp. 658-660, 676-684—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1458-1459, 1464-1466—Despagnet, -Nos. 692-693—Rivier, II. pp. 395-408—Calvo, IV. §§ -2619-2627—Fiore, III. Nos. 1551-1570—Kleen, I. §§ 76-89, 114—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 217-218, 221-225—Lawrence, §§ 234-240—Westlake, II. pp. 181-198—Manning, +pp. 227-244—Phillimore, III. §§ 142-151<span class="smcap">B</span>—Twiss, II. §§ 223-225—Halleck, +II. pp. 152-163—Taylor, §§ 616, 619, 626-628—Walker, +§§ 62-66—Wharton, III. §§ 392, 395-396—Wheaton, §§ 436-439—Moore, +VII. §§ 1293-1305—Heffter, §§ 148-150—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. +pp. 658-660, 676-684—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1458-1459, 1464-1466—Despagnet, +Nos. 692-693—Rivier, II. pp. 395-408—Calvo, IV. §§ +2619-2627—Fiore, III. Nos. 1551-1570—Kleen, I. §§ 76-89, 114—Mérignhac, pp. 358-360—Pillet, pp. 288-290—Dupuis, Nos. 322-331, and -<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 290-294—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 472-476.</p> +<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 290-294—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 472-476.</p> -<div class="sidenote"><p>Depôts +<div class="sidenote"><p>Depôts and Factories on Neutral Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 329. <a name="Although_according329" id="Although_according329"></a>Although according to the present intense +<p>§ 329. <a name="Although_according329" id="Although_according329"></a>Although according to the present intense conception of the duty of impartiality neutrals need not<a name="FNanchor_623_623" id="FNanchor_623_623"></a><a href="#Footnote_623_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> prohibit their subjects from supplying belligerents with arms and the like in the ordinary way of trade, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> neutral must<a name="FNanchor_624_624" id="FNanchor_624_624"></a><a href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> prohibit belligerents from erecting and -maintaining on his territory depôts and factories of +maintaining on his territory depôts and factories of arms, ammunition, and military provisions. However, belligerents can easily evade this by not keeping -depôts and factories, but contracting with subjects of +depôts and factories, but contracting with subjects of the neutral concerned in the ordinary way of trade for any amount of arms, ammunition, and provisions.<a name="FNanchor_625_625" id="FNanchor_625_625"></a><a href="#Footnote_625_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_623_623" id="Footnote_623_623"></a><a href="#FNanchor_623_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 777, and Kleen, I. § 114.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 777, and Kleen, I. § 114.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_625_625" id="Footnote_625_625"></a><a href="#FNanchor_625_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a> The distinction made by some writers between an occasional supply on the one hand, and, on the other, an organised supply in large proportions by subjects of neutrals, and the assertion that the latter must be prohibited by the neutral concerned, is not justified. See -below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Levy of Troops, and the like.</p></div> -<p>§ 330. <a name="In_former_centuries330" id="In_former_centuries330"></a>In former centuries neutrals were not required +<p>§ 330. <a name="In_former_centuries330" id="In_former_centuries330"></a>In former centuries neutrals were not required to prevent belligerents from levying troops on their neutral territories, and a neutral often used to levy troops himself on his territory for belligerents without @@ -21257,7 +21213,7 @@ of combatants may not be formed, nor recruiting offices opened, on the territory of a neutral Power, and that neutral Powers must not allow these acts.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> See, for instance, Twiss, II. § 225, and Bluntschli, § +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> See, for instance, Twiss, II. § 225, and Bluntschli, § 762.</p></div> <p>The duty of impartiality must likewise prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> @@ -21267,8 +21223,8 @@ the exception of such few men as are absolutely necessary to navigate the vessel to the nearest home port.<a name="FNanchor_627_627" id="FNanchor_627_627"></a><a href="#Footnote_627_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> See article 18 of Convention XIII. and - below, §<a href="#A_neutral_must3of333"> 333 (3)</a>, -and § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>.</p></div> + below, §<a href="#A_neutral_must3of333"> 333 (3)</a>, +and § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>.</p></div> <p>A pendant to the levy of troops on neutral territory was the granting of Letters of Marque to vessels belonging @@ -21279,14 +21235,14 @@ from accepting Letters of Marque from a belligerent,<a name="FNanchor_628_628" i need not be discussed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Formerly_privateers83">83</a>. With the assertion of many writers that a + above, § <a href="#Formerly_privateers83">83</a>. With the assertion of many writers that a subject of a neutral who accepts Letters of Marque from a belligerent may be treated as a pirate, I cannot agree. See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Private_vessels273">vol. I. § 273</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Private_vessels273">vol. I. § 273</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Passage of Bodies of Men intending to Enlist.</p></div> -<p>§ 331. A neutral is not obliged by his duty of impartiality +<p>§ 331. A neutral is not obliged by his duty of impartiality to interdict passage through his territory to men either singly or in numbers who intend to enlist. Thus in 1870 Switzerland did not object to Frenchmen @@ -21303,13 +21259,13 @@ fact that this <i>official</i> organisation of the passage of whole bodies of volunteers through her neutral territory was more or less equal to a passage of troops.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 770.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 770.</p></div> <p>The Second Peace Conference has sanctioned this distinction, for article 6 of Convention V. enacts that "the responsibility of a neutral Power is not involved by the mere fact that persons cross the frontier individually -(<i>isolément</i>) in order to offer their services to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +(<i>isolément</i>) in order to offer their services to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> one of the belligerents." An <i>argumentum e contrario</i> justifies the conclusion that the responsibility of a neutral <i>is</i> involved in case it does allow men to cross @@ -21318,7 +21274,7 @@ of a belligerent.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Organisation of Hostile Expeditions.</p></div> -<p>§ 332. If the levy and passage of troops, and the +<p>§ 332. If the levy and passage of troops, and the forming of corps of combatants, must be prevented by a neutral, he is all the more required to prevent the organisation of a hostile expedition from his territory @@ -21338,11 +21294,11 @@ did not interfere, since the men were not organised in a body, and since, on the other hand, the arms and ammunition were carried in the way of ordinary commerce.<a name="FNanchor_630_630" id="FNanchor_630_630"></a><a href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> See Hall, § 222.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> See Hall, § 222.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Use of Neutral Territory as Base of Naval Operations.</p></div> -<p>§ 333. <a name="Although_a_neutral333" id="Although_a_neutral333"></a>Although a neutral is not required by his +<p>§ 333. <a name="Although_a_neutral333" id="Although_a_neutral333"></a>Although a neutral is not required by his duty of impartiality to prohibit<a name="FNanchor_631_631" id="FNanchor_631_631"></a><a href="#Footnote_631_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a> the passage of belligerent men of-war through his maritime belt, or the temporary stay of such vessels in his ports, it is universally @@ -21509,14 +21465,14 @@ of Convention XIII.).</p> (1907).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_belligerent1of347">347 (1)</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_belligerent1of347">347 (1)</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> See article 18 of Convention XIII. and above, § <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> See article 18 of Convention XIII. and above, § <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a> But Germany has entered a reservation against article 20.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_635_635" id="Footnote_635_635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_635_635"><span class="label">[635]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a> Germany, Domingo, Siam, and Persia have entered a reservation against article 12.</p></div> @@ -21526,7 +21482,7 @@ reservation against article 12.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Building and Fitting-out of Vessels intended for Naval Operations.</p></div> -<p>§ 334. <a name="Whereas_a_neutral334" id="Whereas_a_neutral334"></a>Whereas a neutral is in no<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> wise obliged by +<p>§ 334. <a name="Whereas_a_neutral334" id="Whereas_a_neutral334"></a>Whereas a neutral is in no<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a> wise obliged by his duty of impartiality to prevent his subjects from selling armed vessels to the belligerents, such armed vessels being merely contraband of war, a neutral is @@ -21556,15 +21512,15 @@ port or in a port of the belligerent. In the case of the <i>Meteor</i><a name="FNanchor_641_641" id="FNanchor_641_641"></a><a href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a> (1866), American courts have recognised this.<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_638_638" id="Footnote_638_638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_638_638"><span class="label">[638]</span></a> See -below, §§ <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a> and <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> +below, §§ <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a> and <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a> See article 8 of Convention XIII.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> 7 Wheaton, § 340.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a> 7 Wheaton, § 340.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 396, p. 561.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 396, p. 561.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 151<span class="smcap">B</span>, and Hall, § 224.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 151<span class="smcap">B</span>, and Hall, § 224.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, if a subject of a neutral builds armed ships to order of a belligerent, he prepares @@ -21590,11 +21546,11 @@ above distinction will probably continue to be drawn, in spite of its hair-splitting character.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The <i>Alabama</i> Case and the Three Rules of Washington.</p></div> -<p>§ 335. <a name="The_movement_for335" id="The_movement_for335"></a>The movement for recognition of the fact +<p>§ 335. <a name="The_movement_for335" id="The_movement_for335"></a>The movement for recognition of the fact that the duty of impartiality requires a neutral to prevent his subjects from building and fitting out to order of belligerents vessels intended for naval operations, @@ -21649,14 +21605,14 @@ duties."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a> See Mountague Bernard, <i>Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i> (1870), pp. 338-496; Geffcken, <i>Die Alabama -Frage</i> (1872); Pradier-Fodéré, <i>La Question de l'Alabama</i> (1872); Caleb -Cushing, <i>Le Traité de Washington</i> (1874); Bluntschli in <i>R.I.</i> II. -(1870), pp. 452-485; Balch, <i>L'Évolution de l'arbitrage international</i> +Frage</i> (1872); Pradier-Fodéré, <i>La Question de l'Alabama</i> (1872); Caleb +Cushing, <i>Le Traité de Washington</i> (1874); Bluntschli in <i>R.I.</i> II. +(1870), pp. 452-485; Balch, <i>L'Évolution de l'arbitrage international</i> (1908), pp. 43-70.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a> Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XX. p. 698.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1330.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1330.</p></div> <p>In consenting that these rules should be binding upon the arbitrators, Great Britain expressly declared @@ -21682,7 +21638,7 @@ States.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a> The award is printed in full in Moore, <i>Arbitrations</i>, I. pp. 653-659, -and in Phillimore, III. § 151.</p></div> +and in Phillimore, III. § 151.</p></div> <p>The arbitrators put a construction upon the term <i>due diligence</i><a name="FNanchor_649_649" id="FNanchor_649_649"></a><a href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> and asserted other opinions in their @@ -21715,7 +21671,7 @@ the employment of the means at the disposal of a neutral to prevent the acts concerned being a mere question of fact.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#Apart_from_intentional363">363</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#Apart_from_intentional363">363</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_650_650" id="Footnote_650_650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_650_650"><span class="label">[650]</span></a> As regards the seven rules adopted by the Institute of International Law, at its meeting at the Hague in 1875, as emanating @@ -21729,21 +21685,21 @@ from the Three Rules of Washington, see <i>Annuaire</i>, I. (1877), p. 139.</p>< </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 132-133—Hall, §§ 226 and 230—Halleck, II. p. 150—Taylor, § -621—Wharton, III. § 394—Moore, VII. §§ 1314-1318—Bluntschli, §§ 774, -776-776<span class="smcap">A</span>, 785—Heffter, § 149—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 662-665—Ullmann, -§ 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1461-1462—Rivier, II. pp. 395-398—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2668-2669—Fiore, III. Nos. 1576, 1582, 1583—Martens, II. -§ 133—Mérignhac, pp. 370-376—Pillet, pp. 286-287—Kleen, II. §§ 151-157—Holland, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 132-133—Hall, §§ 226 and 230—Halleck, II. p. 150—Taylor, § +621—Wharton, III. § 394—Moore, VII. §§ 1314-1318—Bluntschli, §§ 774, +776-776<span class="smcap">A</span>, 785—Heffter, § 149—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 662-665—Ullmann, +§ 191—Bonfils, Nos. 1461-1462—Rivier, II. pp. 395-398—Calvo, +IV. §§ 2668-2669—Fiore, III. Nos. 1576, 1582, 1583—Martens, II. +§ 133—Mérignhac, pp. 370-376—Pillet, pp. 286-287—Kleen, II. §§ 151-157—Holland, War, Nos. 131-133—Zorn, pp. 316-352—Heilborn, <i>Rechte -und Pflichten der neutralen Staaten in Bezug auf die während des Krieges -auf ihr Gebiet übertretenden Angehörigen einer Armee und das dorthingebrachte -Kriegsmaterial der kriegführenden Parteien</i> (1888), pp. 12-83—Rolin-Jaequemyns -in <i>R.I.</i> III. (1871), pp. 352-366—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 485-501.</p> +und Pflichten der neutralen Staaten in Bezug auf die während des Krieges +auf ihr Gebiet übertretenden Angehörigen einer Armee und das dorthingebrachte +Kriegsmaterial der kriegführenden Parteien</i> (1888), pp. 12-83—Rolin-Jaequemyns +in <i>R.I.</i> III. (1871), pp. 352-366—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 485-501.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>On Neutral Asylum in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 336. <a name="Neutral_territory336" id="Neutral_territory336"></a>Neutral territory, being outside the region +<p>§ 336. <a name="Neutral_territory336" id="Neutral_territory336"></a>Neutral territory, being outside the region of war,<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id="FNanchor_651_651"></a><a href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> offers an asylum to members of belligerent forces, to the subjects of the belligerents and their property, and to war material of the belligerents. @@ -21766,11 +21722,11 @@ asylum to take all such measures as are necessary to prevent his territory from being used as a base of hostile operations.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#Region_of_war70">70</a> and <a href="#The_region_of_war71">71</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#Region_of_war70">70</a> and <a href="#The_region_of_war71">71</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a> The generally recognised usage for a neutral to grant temporary hospitality in his ports to vessels in distress of either -belligerent is an exception to be discussed below in § 344.</p></div> +belligerent is an exception to be discussed below in § 344.</p></div> <p>Now, neutral territory may be an asylum, first, for private enemy property; secondly, for public enemy @@ -21788,8 +21744,8 @@ are safe on neutral territory even if they are claimed by a belligerent for the committal of war crimes.</p> <p>Only asylum to land forces and war material will -be discussed here in §§ <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>-341, asylum to naval forces -being reserved for separate discussion in §§ <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>-348. +be discussed here in §§ <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>-341, asylum to naval forces +being reserved for separate discussion in §§ <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>-348. As regards asylum to land forces, a distinction must be made between (1) prisoners of war, (2) single fugitive soldiers, and (3) troops or whole armies pursued by the @@ -21798,7 +21754,7 @@ territory.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Territory and Prisoners of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 337. <a name="Neutral_territory337" id="Neutral_territory337"></a>Neutral territory is an asylum to prisoners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> +<p>§ 337. <a name="Neutral_territory337" id="Neutral_territory337"></a>Neutral territory is an asylum to prisoners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> of war of either belligerent in so far as they become free <i>ipso facto</i> by their coming into neutral territory. And it matters not in which way they come there, @@ -21808,7 +21764,7 @@ brought as prisoners into such territory by enemy troops who themselves take refuge there.<a name="FNanchor_653_653" id="FNanchor_653_653"></a><a href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> The case of prisoners on board a belligerent man-of-war -which enters a neutral port is different; see below, § <a href="#The_exterritoriality345">345</a>.</p></div> +which enters a neutral port is different; see below, § <a href="#The_exterritoriality345">345</a>.</p></div> <p>The principle that prisoners of war regain their liberty by coming into neutral territory has been @@ -21845,10 +21801,10 @@ they must always be detained and that they must comply with such measures as the neutral considers necessary to prevent them from rejoining their forces.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a> See Hall, § 226, p. 641, note 1.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a> See Hall, § 226, p. 641, note 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_655_655" id="Footnote_655_655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_655_655"><span class="label">[655]</span></a> See Rolin-Jaequemyns in <i>R.I.</i> III. (1871), p. 556; -Bluntschli, § 776; Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 32-34.</p></div> +Bluntschli, § 776; Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 32-34.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_656_656" id="Footnote_656_656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_656_656"><span class="label">[656]</span></a> For instance, Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 51-52.</p></div> @@ -21885,11 +21841,11 @@ free, but they must, according to article 14 of Convention V., be guarded by the neutral so as to insure their not again taking part in military operations.<a name="FNanchor_657_657" id="FNanchor_657_657"></a><a href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> See also article 15 of Convention X. and below, § <a href="#Just_as_in_war348a">348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> See also article 15 of Convention X. and below, § <a href="#Just_as_in_war348a">348<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fugitive Soldiers on Neutral Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 338. A neutral may grant asylum to single soldiers +<p>§ 338. A neutral may grant asylum to single soldiers of belligerents who take refuge on his territory, although he need not do so, and may at once send them back to the place they came from. If he grants such asylum, @@ -21914,11 +21870,11 @@ Switzerland and Belgium, was unable to mobilise troops for the purpose of fulfilling her duty of impartiality.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th100">vol. I. § 100</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th100">vol. I. § 100</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Territory and Fugitive Troops.</p></div> -<p>§ 339. <a name="On_occasions_during339" id="On_occasions_during339"></a>On occasions during war large bodies of +<p>§ 339. <a name="On_occasions_during339" id="On_occasions_during339"></a>On occasions during war large bodies of troops, or even a whole army, are obliged to cross the neutral frontier for the purpose of escaping captivity. A neutral need not permit this, and may repulse @@ -21964,7 +21920,7 @@ and therefore under his disciplinary power, just as prisoners of war are under the disciplinary power of the State which keeps them in captivity. They do not enjoy the exterritoriality—see -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh445">Vol. I. § 445</a>—due +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Wh445">Vol. I. § 445</a>—due to armed forces abroad because they are disarmed. As the neutral is required to prevent them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> escaping, he must apply stern measures, and he may @@ -21988,7 +21944,7 @@ XIX. p. 639.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Territory and Non-combatant Members of Belligerent Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 340. The duty of impartiality incumbent upon a +<p>§ 340. The duty of impartiality incumbent upon a neutral obliges him to detain in the same way as soldiers such non-combatant<a name="FNanchor_660_660" id="FNanchor_660_660"></a><a href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> members of belligerent forces as cross his frontier. He may not, however, detain army @@ -22000,7 +21956,7 @@ mention any rule concerning this matter.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Territory and War Material of Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 341. It can happen during war that war material +<p>§ 341. It can happen during war that war material belonging to one of the belligerents is brought into neutral territory for the purpose of saving it from capture by the enemy. Such war material can be @@ -22039,17 +21995,17 @@ re-appropriates it, there is no reason for its reverting to its original owner upon transportation into neutral territory.<a name="FNanchor_663_663" id="FNanchor_663_663"></a><a href="#Footnote_663_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a> See Hall, § 226.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a> See Hall, § 226.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> See Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, p. 60, and -<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 492. The Dutch +<i>Land Warfare</i>, § 492. The Dutch Government at the Second Peace Conference proposed a rule according to which captured war material brought by the captor into neutral territory should be restored, after the war, to its original owner, but—see -<i>Deuxième Conférence, Actes</i>, vol. i. +<i>Deuxième Conférence, Actes</i>, vol. i. p. 145—this proposal was not accepted.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a> See Heilborn, <i>Rechte</i>, pp. 61-65, @@ -22068,13 +22024,13 @@ material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></sp </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 132—Hall, § 231—Twiss, II. § 222—Halleck, II. p. 151—Taylor, -§§ 635, 636, 640—Wharton, III. § 394—Wheaton, § 434—Moore, VII. §§ -1314-1318—Bluntschli, §§ 775-776<span class="smcap">B</span>—Heffter, § 149—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 665-667, 674—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, No. 1463—Despagnet, -No. 692 <i>ter</i>—Rivier, II. p. 405—Calvo, IV. §§ 2669-2684—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1576-1581, 1584, and Code, Nos. 1788-1792—Martens, II. § 133—Kleen, -II. § 155—Pillet, pp. 305-307—Perels, § 39, p. 231—Testa, pp. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 132—Hall, § 231—Twiss, II. § 222—Halleck, II. p. 151—Taylor, +§§ 635, 636, 640—Wharton, III. § 394—Wheaton, § 434—Moore, VII. §§ +1314-1318—Bluntschli, §§ 775-776<span class="smcap">B</span>—Heffter, § 149—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 665-667, 674—Ullmann, § 191—Bonfils, No. 1463—Despagnet, +No. 692 <i>ter</i>—Rivier, II. p. 405—Calvo, IV. §§ 2669-2684—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1576-1581, 1584, and Code, Nos. 1788-1792—Martens, II. § 133—Kleen, +II. § 155—Pillet, pp. 305-307—Perels, § 39, p. 231—Testa, pp. 173-187—Dupuis, Nos. 308-314, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 304-328—Ortolan, II. pp. 247-291—Hautefeuille, I. pp. 344-405—Takahashi, pp. 418-484—Bajer in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. II. (1900), pp. 242-244—Lapradelle in <i>R.G.</i> XI. @@ -22083,7 +22039,7 @@ in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. II. (1900), pp. 242-244—Lapradelle in <i>R.G.</i> <div class="sidenote"><p>Asylum to Naval Forces in contradistinction to Asylum to Land Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 342. <a name="Whereas_asylum342" id="Whereas_asylum342"></a>Whereas asylum granted by a neutral to land +<p>§ 342. <a name="Whereas_asylum342" id="Whereas_asylum342"></a>Whereas asylum granted by a neutral to land forces and single members of them is conditioned by the obligation of the neutral to disarm such forces and to detain them for the purpose of preventing them @@ -22105,12 +22061,12 @@ his territory as a base of operations of war, is nevertheless valid regarding asylum granted to their men-of-war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_664_664" id="Footnote_664_664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_664_664"><span class="label">[664]</span></a> See, however, - below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a>, concerning the abuse of asylum, which must + below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a>, concerning the abuse of asylum, which must be prohibited.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Asylum to Naval Forces optional.</p></div> -<p>§ 343. Although a neutral may grant asylum to +<p>§ 343. Although a neutral may grant asylum to belligerent men-of-war in his ports, he has no duty to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> do so. He may prohibit all belligerent men-of-war from entering any of his ports, whether these vessels are @@ -22142,7 +22098,7 @@ concerned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Asylum to Naval Forces in Distress.</p></div> -<p>§ 344. To the rule that a neutral need not admit +<p>§ 344. To the rule that a neutral need not admit men-of-war of the belligerents to neutral ports there is no exception in strict law. However, there is an international usage that belligerent men-of-war in @@ -22156,11 +22112,11 @@ and been granted asylum by the enemy in an enemy port.<a name="FNanchor_665_665" id="FNanchor_665_665"></a><a href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_665_665" id="Footnote_665_665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_665_665"><span class="label">[665]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Instances_have189">189</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Instances_have189">189</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exterritoriality of Men-of-War during Asylum.</p></div> -<p>§ 345. <a name="The_exterritoriality345" id="The_exterritoriality345"></a>The exterritoriality, which according to a +<p>§ 345. <a name="The_exterritoriality345" id="The_exterritoriality345"></a>The exterritoriality, which according to a universally recognised rule of International Law men-of-war must enjoy<a name="FNanchor_666_666" id="FNanchor_666_666"></a><a href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> in foreign ports, obtains even in time of war during their stay in neutral ports. Therefore, @@ -22179,9 +22135,9 @@ of force, for a neutral has the duty to prevent by all means at hand the abuse of the asylum granted.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th450">vol. I. § 450</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th450">vol. I. § 450</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Neutral_territory337">337</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_668_668" id="Footnote_668_668"></a><a href="#FNanchor_668_668"><span class="label">[668]</span></a> See articles 21-23 of Convention XIII.</p></div> @@ -22207,7 +22163,7 @@ liberty on giving their word not to quit neutral territory without permission."</p> <p>If a vessel is granted asylum for the whole time of -the war—see below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a> (3 and 4)—and is, therefore, +the war—see below, § <a href="#It_would_be_easy347">347</a> (3 and 4)—and is, therefore, dismantled, she loses the character of a man-of-war, no longer enjoys the privilege of exterritoriality due to men-of-war in foreign waters, and prisoners on board @@ -22219,7 +22175,7 @@ to Men-of-War during Asylum.</p></div> -<p>§ 346. <a name="A_belligerent346" id="A_belligerent346"></a>A belligerent man-of-war, to which asylum +<p>§ 346. <a name="A_belligerent346" id="A_belligerent346"></a>A belligerent man-of-war, to which asylum is granted in a neutral port, is not only not disarmed and detained, but facilities may even be rendered to her as regards slight repairs, and the supply of provisions @@ -22238,17 +22194,17 @@ a belligerent man-of-war in his ports to enrol only such a small number of sailors as is necessary to navigate her safely to the nearest port of her home State.<a name="FNanchor_671_671" id="FNanchor_671_671"></a><a href="#Footnote_671_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_669_669" id="Footnote_669_669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_669_669"><span class="label">[669]</span></a> See above, § 333 (5), and below, § <a href="#Asylum_can3of347">347 (3)</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_669_669" id="Footnote_669_669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_669_669"><span class="label">[669]</span></a> See above, § 333 (5), and below, § <a href="#Asylum_can3of347">347 (3)</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_670_670" id="Footnote_670_670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_670_670"><span class="label">[670]</span></a> See above, § 333 (4).</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_670_670" id="Footnote_670_670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_670_670"><span class="label">[670]</span></a> See above, § 333 (4).</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_671_671" id="Footnote_671_671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_671_671"><span class="label">[671]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a> and 333 (3).</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_671_671" id="Footnote_671_671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_671_671"><span class="label">[671]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#In_former_centuries330">330</a> and 333 (3).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Abuse of Asylum to be prohibited.</p></div> -<p>§ 347. <a name="It_would_be_easy347" id="It_would_be_easy347"></a>It would be easy for belligerent men-of-war +<p>§ 347. <a name="It_would_be_easy347" id="It_would_be_easy347"></a>It would be easy for belligerent men-of-war to which asylum is granted in neutral ports to abuse such asylum if neutrals were not required to prohibit such abuse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p> @@ -22336,28 +22292,28 @@ of Manila, the United States of America ordered them to be disarmed and, together with their crews, to be detained during the war.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_672_672" id="Footnote_672_672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_672_672"><span class="label">[672]</span></a> See above, § 333 (2), and Hall, § 231, p. 651.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_672_672" id="Footnote_672_672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_672_672"><span class="label">[672]</span></a> See above, § 333 (2), and Hall, § 231, p. 651.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_673_673" id="Footnote_673_673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_673_673"><span class="label">[673]</span></a> See Hall, § 231, p. 653.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_673_673" id="Footnote_673_673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_673_673"><span class="label">[673]</span></a> See Hall, § 231, p. 653.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a> See above, § 333 (6)—Germany, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a> See above, § 333 (6)—Germany, Domingo, Siam, and Persia have entered a reservation against article 12.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_675_675" id="Footnote_675_675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_675_675"><span class="label">[675]</span></a> See above, § 333 (5) and § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_675_675" id="Footnote_675_675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_675_675"><span class="label">[675]</span></a> See above, § 333 (5) and § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a> <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 8. See also above, § <a href="#It_was_not_until288">288</a>, p. -352, and § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>, p. 387.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a> <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 8. See also above, § <a href="#It_was_not_until288">288</a>, p. +352, and § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>, p. 387.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_677_677" id="Footnote_677_677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_677_677"><span class="label">[677]</span></a> It was only during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 that this became generally recognised, and article 24 of Convention XIII. places it beyond all doubt. Until the Russo-Japanese War it was still a controverted question whether a neutral is obliged either to dismiss or to disarm and detain such men-of war as had fled into his ports for the -purpose of escaping attack and capture. See Hall, § 231, p. 651, and -Perels, § 39, p. 213, in contradistinction to Fiore, III. No. 1578. The -"Règlement sur le régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans -les ports étrangers," adopted by the Institute of International Law in +purpose of escaping attack and capture. See Hall, § 231, p. 651, and +Perels, § 39, p. 213, in contradistinction to Fiore, III. No. 1578. The +"Règlement sur le régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans +les ports étrangers," adopted by the Institute of International Law in 1898 at its meeting at the Hague—see <i>Annuaire</i>, XVII. (1898), p. 273—answers (article 42) the question in the affirmative.</p></div> @@ -22365,15 +22321,15 @@ les ports étrangers," adopted by the Institute of International Law in neutrals as regards asylum to land and naval forces. Whereas land forces crossing neutral frontiers must either be at once repulsed or detained, men-of-war may be granted the right to stay for some limited time within -neutral harbours and to leave afterwards unhindered; see above, § <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>. +neutral harbours and to leave afterwards unhindered; see above, § <a href="#Whereas_asylum342">342</a>. The supply of a small quantity of coal to the <i>Novik</i> in Tsing-Tau was -criticised by writers in the Press, but unjustly. For—see above, § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>—a +criticised by writers in the Press, but unjustly. For—see above, § <a href="#A_belligerent346">346</a>—a neutral may allow a belligerent man-of-war in his port to take in so much coal as is necessary to navigate her to her nearest home port.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Men-of-War as an Asylum.</p></div> -<p>§ 348. <a name="It_can_happen348" id="It_can_happen348"></a>It can happen during war that neutral men-of-war +<p>§ 348. <a name="It_can_happen348" id="It_can_happen348"></a>It can happen during war that neutral men-of-war pick up and save from drowning soldiers and sailors of belligerent men-of-war sunk by the enemy, or that they take belligerent marines on board for @@ -22412,13 +22368,13 @@ under the condition that they should not take part in hostilities during the war.<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_679_679" id="Footnote_679_679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_679_679"><span class="label">[679]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Footnote_151_151">89, p. 114, note 1</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Footnote_151_151">89, p. 114, note 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_680_680" id="Footnote_680_680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_680_680"><span class="label">[680]</span></a> See Takahashi, <i>Cases on International Law during the Chino-Japanese War</i> (1899), pp. 36 and 51.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_681_681" id="Footnote_681_681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_681_681"><span class="label">[681]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (1).</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (1).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_682_682" id="Footnote_682_682"></a><a href="#FNanchor_682_682"><span class="label">[682]</span></a> See Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 63-75, and Takahashi, pp. 462-466.</p></div> @@ -22432,7 +22388,7 @@ operations of the war."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutral Territory and Shipwrecked Soldiers.</p></div> -<p>§ 348<i>a</i>. <a name="Just_as_in_war348a" id="Just_as_in_war348a"></a>Just as in war on land members of the +<p>§ 348<i>a</i>. <a name="Just_as_in_war348a" id="Just_as_in_war348a"></a>Just as in war on land members of the belligerent forces may find themselves on neutral territory, so in war on sea shipwrecked or wounded or sick belligerent soldiers can be brought into neutral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> @@ -22462,10 +22418,10 @@ brought into a neutral port, they need not be detained by the neutral concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_683_683" id="Footnote_683_683"></a><a href="#FNanchor_683_683"><span class="label">[683]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Soldiers_sailors205">205</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Soldiers_sailors205">205</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Neutral_merchantmen2of208">208 (2)</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#Neutral_merchantmen2of208">208 (2)</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -22473,21 +22429,21 @@ by the neutral concerned.</p> <span>SUPPLIES AND LOANS TO BELLIGERENTS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 110—Hall, §§ 216-217—Lawrence, § 235—Westlake, II. pp. 217-219—Phillimore, -III. § 151—Twiss, II. § 227—Halleck, II. p. 163—Taylor, -§§ 622-625—Walker, § 67—Wharton, III. §§ 390-391—Moore, -VII. §§ 1307-1312—Bluntschli, §§ 765-768—Heffter, § 148—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 687-700—Ullmann, §§ 191-192—Bonfils, Nos. 1471-1474—Despagnet, -Nos. 693-694—Rivier, II. pp. 385-411—Calvo, IV. §§ -2624-2630—Fiore, III. Nos. 1559-1563—Martens, II. § 134—Kleen, I. §§ -66-69, 96-97—Mérignhac, pp. 360-364—Pillet, pp. 289-293—Dupuis, -Nos. 317-319—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 477-480.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. § 110—Hall, §§ 216-217—Lawrence, § 235—Westlake, II. pp. 217-219—Phillimore, +III. § 151—Twiss, II. § 227—Halleck, II. p. 163—Taylor, +§§ 622-625—Walker, § 67—Wharton, III. §§ 390-391—Moore, +VII. §§ 1307-1312—Bluntschli, §§ 765-768—Heffter, § 148—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 687-700—Ullmann, §§ 191-192—Bonfils, Nos. 1471-1474—Despagnet, +Nos. 693-694—Rivier, II. pp. 385-411—Calvo, IV. §§ +2624-2630—Fiore, III. Nos. 1559-1563—Martens, II. § 134—Kleen, I. §§ +66-69, 96-97—Mérignhac, pp. 360-364—Pillet, pp. 289-293—Dupuis, +Nos. 317-319—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 477-480.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Supply on the part of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 349. <a name="The_duty_of_impartiality349" id="The_duty_of_impartiality349"></a>The duty of impartiality must prevent a +<p>§ 349. <a name="The_duty_of_impartiality349" id="The_duty_of_impartiality349"></a>The duty of impartiality must prevent a neutral from supplying belligerents with arms, ammunition, vessels, and military provisions.<a name="FNanchor_685_685" id="FNanchor_685_685"></a><a href="#Footnote_685_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a> And it matters not whether such supply takes place for money or @@ -22506,7 +22462,7 @@ such cases. Thus in 1825, during the War of Independence which the Spanish South American Colonies waged against their mother country, the Swedish Government sold three old men-of-war, the -<i>Försigtigheten</i>, <i>Euridice</i>, and <i>Camille</i> to two merchants, +<i>Försigtigheten</i>, <i>Euridice</i>, and <i>Camille</i> to two merchants, who on their part sold them to English merchants, representatives of the Government of the Mexican insurgents. When Spain complained, Sweden rescinded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> @@ -22532,17 +22488,17 @@ war material of any kind whatever.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a> See article 6 of Convention XIII.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a> See Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, V. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a> See Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, V. pp. 229-254.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a> See Lawrence, § 235.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a> See Lawrence, § 235.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 391, and -Moore, VII. § 1309.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a> See Wharton, III. § 391, and +Moore, VII. § 1309.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Supply on the part of Subjects of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 350. <a name="In_contradistinction350" id="In_contradistinction350"></a>In contradistinction to supply to belligerents +<p>§ 350. <a name="In_contradistinction350" id="In_contradistinction350"></a>In contradistinction to supply to belligerents by neutrals, such supply by subjects of neutrals is lawful, and neutrals are not, therefore, obliged according to their duty of impartiality to prevent such supply. @@ -22573,7 +22529,7 @@ by International Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a> That Great Britain has entered a reservation against article 18, and the portent of this reservation, has been pointed out -above, in § <a href="#Footnote_143_143">88, p. 109, note 1</a>.</p></div> +above, in § <a href="#Footnote_143_143">88, p. 109, note 1</a>.</p></div> <p>The endeavour to make a distinction between supply in single cases and on a small scale on the one @@ -22591,10 +22547,10 @@ coal, provisions, and even with armed ships,<a name="FNanchor_691_691" id="FNanc provided always that they deal with the belligerents in the ordinary way of commerce.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 766.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 766.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_691_691" id="Footnote_691_691"></a><a href="#FNanchor_691_691"><span class="label">[691]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a>, and below, § <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a>, and below, § <a href="#A_neutral_vessel397">397</a>.</p></div> <p>The case is different when there is no ordinary commerce with a belligerent Government and when subjects @@ -22619,10 +22575,10 @@ such supply does not take place in the neutral maritime belt.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_692_692" id="Footnote_692_692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_692_692"><span class="label">[692]</span></a> See - above, § 333 (4).</p></div> + above, § 333 (4).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_693_693" id="Footnote_693_693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_693_693"><span class="label">[693]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Footnote_579_579">311, p. 375, note 4</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Footnote_579_579">311, p. 375, note 4</a>.</p></div> <p>There is no doubt that, as the law stands at present, neutrals need not prevent their subjects from supplying @@ -22646,13 +22602,13 @@ to lengthen wars, the rule will appear that neutrals must prevent such supply.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th6of51">vol. I. § 51 (6)</a> p. 83.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th6of51">vol. I. § 51 (6)</a> p. 83.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Loans and Subsidies on the part of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 351. His duty of impartiality must prevent a +<p>§ 351. His duty of impartiality must prevent a neutral from granting a loan to either belligerent. -Vattel's (III. § 110) distinction between such loans as +Vattel's (III. § 110) distinction between such loans as are granted on interest and such as are not so granted, and his assertion that loans on the part of neutrals are lawful if they are granted on interest with the pure @@ -22668,11 +22624,11 @@ subsidies a neutral becomes as much the ally of the belligerent as he would by furnishing him with a number of troops.<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>, <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a>, <a href="#If_a_State_remains321">321</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#A_distinction_of305">305</a>, <a href="#For_the_purpose_of306">306</a>, <a href="#If_a_State_remains321">321</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Loans and Subsidies on the part of Subjects of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 352. <a name="It352" id="It352"></a>It was formerly a moot point in the theory +<p>§ 352. <a name="It352" id="It352"></a>It was formerly a moot point in the theory of International Law whether a neutral is obliged by his duty of impartiality to prevent his subjects from granting subsidies and loans to belligerents for the @@ -22705,8 +22661,8 @@ of use to an army or fleet, has indirectly recognised that a neutral need not prevent the subscription on his territory to loans for belligerents.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 151; Bluntschli, § 768; Heffter, § -148; Kleen, I. § 68. The case of <i>De Wütz</i> v. <i>Hendricks</i> (9 Moore, 586) +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 151; Bluntschli, § 768; Heffter, § +148; Kleen, I. § 68. The case of <i>De Wütz</i> v. <i>Hendricks</i> (9 Moore, 586) quoted by Phillimore in support of his assertion that neutrals must prevent their subjects from subscribing to a loan for belligerents, is not decisive, for Lord Chief Justice Best declared only "that it was @@ -22738,7 +22694,7 @@ is apt to lengthen wars. The Russo-Japanese War, for instance, would have come to an end much sooner if either belligerent could have been prevented from borrowing money from subjects of neutrals. Therefore, -what has been said above in § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a> with regard to the +what has been said above in § <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a> with regard to the supply of arms and ammunition on the part of subjects of neutrals applies likewise to loans: they will no longer be considered lawful when the standard of public @@ -22751,15 +22707,15 @@ morality rises.</p> </h4> <p class="indh1">Westlake, II. pp. 219-220—Despagnet, No. 696 <i>bis</i>—Bonfils, No. 1475[1]—Ullmann, -§ 192—Rivier, II. pp. 388-391—Calvo, IV. §§ 2640-2641—Martens, -II. § 134—Perels, § 43—Kleen, I. §§ 103-108—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, -pp. 83-92, 218-220—Scholz, <i>Drahtlose Telegraphie und Neutralität</i> (1905), -<i>passim</i>, and <i>Krieg und Seekabel</i> (1904), pp. 122-133—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ +§ 192—Rivier, II. pp. 388-391—Calvo, IV. §§ 2640-2641—Martens, +II. § 134—Perels, § 43—Kleen, I. §§ 103-108—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, +pp. 83-92, 218-220—Scholz, <i>Drahtlose Telegraphie und Neutralität</i> (1905), +<i>passim</i>, and <i>Krieg und Seekabel</i> (1904), pp. 122-133—<i>Land Warfare</i>, §§ 481-484—Kebedgy, in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. IV. (1904), pp. 445-451.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Pilotage.</p></div> -<p>§ 353. <a name="Since_pilots_are353" id="Since_pilots_are353"></a>Since pilots are in the service of littoral +<p>§ 353. <a name="Since_pilots_are353" id="Since_pilots_are353"></a>Since pilots are in the service of littoral States the question as to whether neutrals may permit their pilots to render services to belligerent men-of-war and transport vessels, is of importance. Article 11<a name="FNanchor_697_697" id="FNanchor_697_697"></a><a href="#Footnote_697_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> @@ -22789,7 +22745,7 @@ on the part of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 354. It is generally recognised that the duty +<p>§ 354. It is generally recognised that the duty of impartiality incumbent upon a neutral obliges him to prevent his men-of-war and other public vessels from rendering transport services to either belligerent. @@ -22824,12 +22780,12 @@ absolute necessity.<a name="FNanchor_699_699" id="FNanchor_699_699"></a><a href= <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_698_698" id="Footnote_698_698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_698_698"><span class="label">[698]</span></a> See Nowacki, <i>Die Eisenbahnen im Kriege</i> (1906), p. 126.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction365">365</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#In_contradistinction365">365</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Transport on the part of Neutral Merchantmen and by neutral rolling stock.</p></div> -<p>§ 355. Just as a neutral is not obliged to prevent +<p>§ 355. Just as a neutral is not obliged to prevent his merchantmen from carrying contraband, so he is not obliged to prevent them from rendering services to belligerents by carrying in the way of trade enemy @@ -22841,7 +22797,7 @@ belligerents, but for which the neutral State under whose flag such merchantmen sail bears no responsibility whatever.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a> See below, §§ <a href="#Before_the_Declaration407">407</a>-413.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a> See below, §§ <a href="#Before_the_Declaration407">407</a>-413.</p></div> <p>And the same is valid with regard to rolling stock belonging to private railway companies of a neutral @@ -22861,7 +22817,7 @@ though it were the property of the enemy State.<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FN <div class="sidenote"><p>Information regarding Military and Naval Operations.</p></div> -<p>§ 356. <a name="Information_regarding356" id="Information_regarding356"></a>Information regarding military and naval +<p>§ 356. <a name="Information_regarding356" id="Information_regarding356"></a>Information regarding military and naval operations may be given and obtained in so many various ways that several cases must be distinguished:—</p> @@ -22874,7 +22830,7 @@ vessels sailing under his flag which give such information. Such vessels run, however, the risk of being punished for rendering unneutral service.<a name="FNanchor_702_702" id="FNanchor_702_702"></a><a href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a> See below, §§ <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a> and <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>, and articles 45, Nos. 1 and 2, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a> See below, §§ <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a> and <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>, and articles 45, Nos. 1 and 2, and 46, No. 4, of the Declaration of London.</p></div> <p>(2) It is likewise obvious that his duty of impartiality @@ -22889,14 +22845,14 @@ couriers in the service of diplomatic envoys and such agents as carry despatches from a State to its head or to diplomatic envoys abroad are concerned. Since they enjoy—as stated - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#To405">Vol. I. §§ 405</a> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#To405">Vol. I. §§ 405</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In457">457</a>—inviolability for their persons and official papers, a neutral cannot interfere and find out whether these individuals carry information to the disadvantage of the enemy.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a> See Calvo, § 2640.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a> See Calvo, § 2640.</p></div> <p>(3) According to article 8 of Convention V. "a neutral Power is not bound to forbid or restrict the @@ -22987,13 +22943,13 @@ literature and cases there cited.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 227-229—Lawrence, §§ 233, 238, 239—Phillimore, III. §§ 151<span class="smcap">A</span>-151<span class="smcap">B</span>—Taylor, -§§ 630 and 642—Wharton, III. §§ 402, 402<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 429-433—Moore, -VII. §§ 1319-1328, 1334-1335—Bluntschli, §§ 778-782—Heffter, -§ 146—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 667-676, 700-709—Ullmann, -§ 191—Bonfils, No. 1476—Despagnet, No. 697—Pradier-Fodéré, -No. 3235—Rivier, II. pp. 394-395—Calvo, IV. §§ 2654-2666—Fiore, III. -Nos. 1567-1570—Martens, II. § 138—Kleen, I. § 25—Dupuis, Nos. 332-337.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 227-229—Lawrence, §§ 233, 238, 239—Phillimore, III. §§ 151<span class="smcap">A</span>-151<span class="smcap">B</span>—Taylor, +§§ 630 and 642—Wharton, III. §§ 402, 402<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 429-433—Moore, +VII. §§ 1319-1328, 1334-1335—Bluntschli, §§ 778-782—Heffter, +§ 146—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 667-676, 700-709—Ullmann, +§ 191—Bonfils, No. 1476—Despagnet, No. 697—Pradier-Fodéré, +No. 3235—Rivier, II. pp. 394-395—Calvo, IV. §§ 2654-2666—Fiore, III. +Nos. 1567-1570—Martens, II. § 138—Kleen, I. § 25—Dupuis, Nos. 332-337.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violation of @@ -23005,7 +22961,7 @@ the wider sense of the Term.</p></div> -<p>§ 357. <a name="Many_writers_who357" id="Many_writers_who357"></a>Many writers who speak of violation of +<p>§ 357. <a name="Many_writers_who357" id="Many_writers_who357"></a>Many writers who speak of violation of neutrality treat under this head only of violations of the duty of impartiality incumbent upon neutrals. And indeed such violations only are meant, if one @@ -23040,7 +22996,7 @@ to End of Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 358. <a name="Violation_of_neutrality358" id="Violation_of_neutrality358"></a>Violation of neutrality must not be confounded +<p>§ 358. <a name="Violation_of_neutrality358" id="Violation_of_neutrality358"></a>Violation of neutrality must not be confounded with the ending of neutrality,<a name="FNanchor_706_706" id="FNanchor_706_706"></a><a href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> for neither a violation on the part of a neutral<a name="FNanchor_707_707" id="FNanchor_707_707"></a><a href="#Footnote_707_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> nor a violation on the part of a belligerent brings <i>ipso facto</i> neutrality to @@ -23061,7 +23017,7 @@ the offended party to make war in answer to it, such party having always the choice whether it will keep up the condition of neutrality or not.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Neutrality_ends_with312">312</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Neutrality_ends_with312">312</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_707_707" id="Footnote_707_707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_707_707"><span class="label">[707]</span></a> But this is almost everywhere asserted, as the distinction between the violation of the duty of impartiality incumbent upon @@ -23072,14 +23028,14 @@ usually not made.</p></div> and not to hostilities. The latter are acts of war and bring neutrality to an end; they have been characterised in contradistinction to mere violations above in -§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>.</p> +§ <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Violations of Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 359. Violations of neutrality, whether committed +<p>§ 359. Violations of neutrality, whether committed by a neutral against a belligerent or by a belligerent against a neutral, are international delinquencies.<a name="FNanchor_708_708" id="FNanchor_708_708"></a><a href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> They may at once be repulsed, the offended party @@ -23097,10 +23053,10 @@ it considers the violation of so grave a character as to oblige it to regard itself at war with the offender.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_708_708" id="Footnote_708_708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_708_708"><span class="label">[708]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. § 151</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#International_delinquency151">vol. I. § 151</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th156">vol. I. § 156</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th156">vol. I. § 156</a>.</p></div> <p>That a violation of neutrality can only, like any other international delinquency, be committed by malice @@ -23126,15 +23082,15 @@ being authorised by his Government, allows forces of a belligerent to march through this neutral territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#An154">vol. I. § 154</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#An154">vol. I. § 154</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It150">vol. I. § 150</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It150">vol. I. § 150</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Neutrals not to acquiesce in Violations of Neutrality committed by a Belligerent.</p></div> -<p>§ 360. <a name="It_is_entirely360" id="It_is_entirely360"></a>It is entirely within the discretion of a belligerent +<p>§ 360. <a name="It_is_entirely360" id="It_is_entirely360"></a>It is entirely within the discretion of a belligerent whether he will acquiesce in a violation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> neutrality committed by a neutral in favour of the other belligerent. On the other hand, a neutral may not @@ -23175,14 +23131,14 @@ waters, was well recognised. That in spite of its recognition this rule was in the eighteenth century frequently infringed by commanders of belligerent fleets, may be illustrated by many cases. Thus, for instance, in 1793, the French frigate <i>Modeste</i> was captured in the -harbour of Genoa by two British men-of-war (see Hall, § 220). And in +harbour of Genoa by two British men-of-war (see Hall, § 220). And in 1801, during war against Sweden, a British frigate captured the <i>Freden</i> and three other Swedish vessels in the Norwegian harbour of Oster-Risoer (see Ortolan, II. pp. 413-418).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Case of the <i>General Armstrong</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 361. <a name="Some361" id="Some361"></a>Some writers<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> maintain that a neutral is +<p>§ 361. <a name="Some361" id="Some361"></a>Some writers<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a> maintain that a neutral is freed from responsibility for a violation of neutrality through a belligerent attacking enemy forces in neutral territory, in case the attacked forces, instead of trusting @@ -23210,22 +23166,22 @@ Portuguese authorities.<a name="FNanchor_714_714" id="FNanchor_714_714"></a><a h certain that the rule laid down in this award will find general recognition in theory and practice.<a name="FNanchor_715_715" id="FNanchor_715_715"></a><a href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 228, and Geffcken in +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 228, and Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 701.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> See Moore, <i>Arbitrations</i>, II. pp. 1071-1132; Calvo, IV. § -2662; and Dana's note 208 in Wheaton, § 429.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> See Moore, <i>Arbitrations</i>, II. pp. 1071-1132; Calvo, IV. § +2662; and Dana's note 208 in Wheaton, § 429.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> The case of the <i>Reshitelni</i>, which occurred in 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, and is somewhat similar to that of the -<i>General Armstrong</i>, is discussed above in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (2). That no violation +<i>General Armstrong</i>, is discussed above in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (2). That no violation of neutrality took place in the case of the <i>Variag</i> and <i>Korietz</i>, is -shown above in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (1).</p></div> +shown above in § <a href="#The_duty_of_impartiality320">320</a> (1).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode of exacting Reparation from Belligerents for Violations of Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 362. It is obvious that the duty of a neutral not +<p>§ 362. It is obvious that the duty of a neutral not to acquiesce in violations of neutrality committed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> one belligerent to the detriment of the other obliges him to repair, so far as he can, the result of such wrongful @@ -23245,7 +23201,7 @@ restore her to the other party. Thus in 1800, during war between Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia claimed before the British Prize Court the <i>Twee Gebroeders</i>,<a name="FNanchor_717_717" id="FNanchor_717_717"></a><a href="#Footnote_717_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> a Dutch vessel captured by the -British cruiser <i>L'Espiègle</i> in the neutral maritime belt +British cruiser <i>L'Espiègle</i> in the neutral maritime belt of Prussia. Sir William Scott ordered restoration of the vessel, yet he refused costs and damages, because the captor had not violated Prussian neutrality intentionally @@ -23273,16 +23229,16 @@ of delivering a solemn salute to the Brazilian flag.<a name="FNanchor_719_719" i <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_717_717" id="Footnote_717_717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_717_717"><span class="label">[717]</span></a> 3 C. Rob. 162.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_718_718" id="Footnote_718_718"></a><a href="#FNanchor_718_718"><span class="label">[718]</span></a> 5 C. Rob. 373. See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_same_and_other234">vol. I. § 234</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#The_same_and_other234">vol. I. § 234</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1334, p. 1090.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1334, p. 1090.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Negligence on the part of Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 363. <a name="Apart_from_intentional363" id="Apart_from_intentional363"></a>Apart from intentional violations of neutrality, +<p>§ 363. <a name="Apart_from_intentional363" id="Apart_from_intentional363"></a>Apart from intentional violations of neutrality, a neutral can be made responsible only for such acts favouring or damaging a belligerent as he could by due diligence have prevented, and which by culpable @@ -23311,7 +23267,7 @@ it has in Municipal Law. It means <i>such diligence as can reasonably be expected when all the circumstances and conditions of the case are taken into consideration</i>.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_movement_for335">335</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_movement_for335">335</a>.</p></div> <p>Be that as it may, the Second Peace Conference has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> taken a step which certainly excludes for the future @@ -23323,13 +23279,13 @@ the means at their disposal</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Laying of Submarine Contact Mines by Neutrals.</p></div> -<p>§ 363<i>a</i>. <a name="In_order_to_defend363a" id="In_order_to_defend363a"></a>In order to defend themselves against +<p>§ 363<i>a</i>. <a name="In_order_to_defend363a" id="In_order_to_defend363a"></a>In order to defend themselves against possible violations of their neutral territory, neutrals may lay automatic contact mines off their coasts. If they do this, they must, according to article 4 of Convention VIII., observe the same rules and take the same precautions as are imposed upon belligerents, -and as have been expounded above, § 182<i>a</i>. Moreover +and as have been expounded above, § 182<i>a</i>. Moreover they must, according to paragraph 2 of article 4 of Convention VIII., give notice in advance to mariners of the place where automatic contact mines have been @@ -23346,7 +23302,7 @@ article 4 of Convention VIII. speaks of the laying of contact mines on the part of neutral Powers <i>off their coasts</i>, without limiting the laying within the three-mile wide maritime belt as was proposed at the Second -Peace Conference, and as article 6<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> of the <i>Règlementation +Peace Conference, and as article 6<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> of the <i>Règlementation internationale de l'Usage des Mines sous-marines et torpilles</i> of the Institute of International Law likewise proposes.</p> @@ -23361,20 +23317,20 @@ proposes.</p> <span class="smaller">RIGHT OF ANGARY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 278—Lawrence, § 233—Westlake, II. p. 119—Phillimore, III. § 29—Halleck, -I. p. 485—Taylor, § 641—Walker, § 69—Bluntschli, § 795<span class="smcap">A</span>—Heffter, -§ 150—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 98-103—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 771-773—Ullmann, § 192—Bonfils, No. 1440—Despagnet, -No. 494—Rivier, II. pp. 327-329—Kleen, II. §§ 165 and 230—Perels, -§ 40—Hautefeuille, III. pp. 416-426—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 139-140—<i>Land -Warfare</i>, §§ 507-510—Albrecht, <i>Requisitionen von neutralem +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 278—Lawrence, § 233—Westlake, II. p. 119—Phillimore, III. § 29—Halleck, +I. p. 485—Taylor, § 641—Walker, § 69—Bluntschli, § 795<span class="smcap">A</span>—Heffter, +§ 150—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 98-103—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 771-773—Ullmann, § 192—Bonfils, No. 1440—Despagnet, +No. 494—Rivier, II. pp. 327-329—Kleen, II. §§ 165 and 230—Perels, +§ 40—Hautefeuille, III. pp. 416-426—Holland, <i>War</i>, Nos. 139-140—<i>Land +Warfare</i>, §§ 507-510—Albrecht, <i>Requisitionen von neutralem Privateigenthum, insbesondere von Schiffen</i> (1912), pp. 24-66.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Obsolete Right of Angary.</p></div> -<p>§ 364. <a name="Under_the364" id="Under_the364"></a>Under the term <i>jus angariae</i><a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> many writers +<p>§ 364. <a name="Under_the364" id="Under_the364"></a>Under the term <i>jus angariae</i><a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> many writers on International Law place the right, often claimed and practised in former times, of a belligerent deficient in vessels to lay an <i>embargo</i> on and seize neutral merchantmen @@ -23404,25 +23360,25 @@ station</i>, is a derivation from the Greek term ἄγγαρ messenger. <i>Jus angariae</i> would therefore literally mean a right of transport.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_kind_of_reprisal40">40</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_kind_of_reprisal40">40</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a> On the origin and development of the <i>jus angariae</i>, see Albrecht, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 24-37.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> See, for instance, Phillimore, III. § 29; Calvo, III. § -1277; Heffter, § 150; Perels, § 40.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> See, for instance, Phillimore, III. § 29; Calvo, III. § +1277; Heffter, § 150; Perels, § 40.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a> See Article 39 of the "Règlement sur le régime légal des -navires ... dans les ports étrangers" adopted by the Institute of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a> See Article 39 of the "Règlement sur le régime légal des +navires ... dans les ports étrangers" adopted by the Institute of International Law (<i>Annuaire</i>, XVII. 1898, p. 272): "Le droit d'angarie -est supprimé, soit en temps de paix, soit en temps de guerre, quant aux +est supprimé, soit en temps de paix, soit en temps de guerre, quant aux navires neutres."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_727_727" id="Footnote_727_727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_727_727"><span class="label">[727]</span></a> See Albrecht, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 34-37.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Modern Right of Angary.</p></div> -<p>§ 365. <a name="In_contradistinction365" id="In_contradistinction365"></a>In contradistinction to this probably obsolete +<p>§ 365. <a name="In_contradistinction365" id="In_contradistinction365"></a>In contradistinction to this probably obsolete right to compel neutral ships and their crews to render certain services, the modern right of angary consists in the right of belligerents to make use of, or destroy @@ -23447,7 +23403,7 @@ be exercised are the same as those under which private enemy property may be utilised or destroyed, but in every case the neutral owner must be fully indemnified.<a name="FNanchor_730_730" id="FNanchor_730_730"></a><a href="#Footnote_730_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_729_729" id="Footnote_729_729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_729_729"><span class="label">[729]</span></a> Thus in 1870, during the Franco-German War, the Germans seized hundreds of Swiss and Austrian railway carriages in France and @@ -23490,7 +23446,7 @@ enemy territory be recognised also.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Right of Angary concerning Neutral Rolling Stock.</p></div> -<p>§ 366. A special case of the right of angary has +<p>§ 366. A special case of the right of angary has found recognition by article 19 of Convention V. of the Second Peace Conference enacting that railway material coming from the territory of a neutral Power, @@ -23511,7 +23467,7 @@ territory of the belligerent concerned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Right of Angary not deriving from Neutrality.</p></div> -<p>§ 367. Whatever the extent of the right of angary +<p>§ 367. Whatever the extent of the right of angary may be, it does not derive from the law of neutrality. The correlative duty of a belligerent to indemnify the neutral owner of property appropriated or destroyed @@ -23543,31 +23499,31 @@ occupied enemy territory.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, § 5—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 2-15—Vattel, III. -§ 117—Hall, §§ 233, 237-266—Lawrence, §§ 246-252—Westlake, II. pp. -228-239—Maine, pp. 107-109—Manning, pp. 400-412—Phillimore, III. §§ -285-321—Twiss, II. §§ 98-120—Halleck, II. pp. 182-213—Taylor, §§ 674-684—Walker, -§§ 76-82—Wharton, III. §§ 359-365—Moore, VII. §§ 1266-1286—Wheaton, -§§ 509-523—Bluntschli, §§ 827-840—Heffter, §§ 154-157—Geffcken -in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 738-771—Ullmann, § 182—Bonfils, -Nos. 1608-1659—Despagnet, Nos. 620-640—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, § 5—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 2-15—Vattel, III. +§ 117—Hall, §§ 233, 237-266—Lawrence, §§ 246-252—Westlake, II. pp. +228-239—Maine, pp. 107-109—Manning, pp. 400-412—Phillimore, III. §§ +285-321—Twiss, II. §§ 98-120—Halleck, II. pp. 182-213—Taylor, §§ 674-684—Walker, +§§ 76-82—Wharton, III. §§ 359-365—Moore, VII. §§ 1266-1286—Wheaton, +§§ 509-523—Bluntschli, §§ 827-840—Heffter, §§ 154-157—Geffcken +in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 738-771—Ullmann, § 182—Bonfils, +Nos. 1608-1659—Despagnet, Nos. 620-640—Pradier-Fodéré, VI. Nos. 2676-2679, and VIII. Nos. 3109-3152—Nys, III. pp. 224-244, 693-694—Rivier, -II. pp. 288-298—Calvo, V. §§ 2827-2908—Fiore, III. Nos. 1606-1629—Martens, -II. § 124—Pillet, pp. 129-144—Kleen, I. §§ 124-139—Ortolan, +II. pp. 288-298—Calvo, V. §§ 2827-2908—Fiore, III. Nos. 1606-1629—Martens, +II. § 124—Pillet, pp. 129-144—Kleen, I. §§ 124-139—Ortolan, II. pp. 292-336—Hautefeuille, II. pp. 189-288—Gessner, pp. -145-227—Perels, §§ 48-51—Testa, pp. 221-229—Dupuis, Nos. 159-198, -and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 113-136—Boeck, Nos. 670-726—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ -106-140—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 37-43—Bernsten, § 10—Nippold, -II. § 32—Bargrave Deane, <i>The Law of Blockade</i> (1870)—Fauchille, <i>Du -blocus maritime</i> (1882)—Carnazza-Amari, <i>Del blocco maritimo</i> (1897)—Frémont, -<i>De la saisie des navires en cas de blocus</i> (1899)—Guynot-Boissière, -<i>Du blocus maritime</i> (1899)—§§ 35-44 of the "Règlement international des +145-227—Perels, §§ 48-51—Testa, pp. 221-229—Dupuis, Nos. 159-198, +and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 113-136—Boeck, Nos. 670-726—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ +106-140—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 37-43—Bernsten, § 10—Nippold, +II. § 32—Bargrave Deane, <i>The Law of Blockade</i> (1870)—Fauchille, <i>Du +blocus maritime</i> (1882)—Carnazza-Amari, <i>Del blocco maritimo</i> (1897)—Frémont, +<i>De la saisie des navires en cas de blocus</i> (1899)—Guynot-Boissière, +<i>Du blocus maritime</i> (1899)—§§ 35-44 of the "Règlement international des prises maritimes" (<i>Annuaire</i>, IX. 1887, p. 218), adopted by the Institute of -International Law—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906) pp. 92-252—Söderquist, +International Law—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906) pp. 92-252—Söderquist, <i>Le Blocus Maritime</i> (1908)—Hansemann, <i>Die Lehre von der -einheitlichen Reise im Rechte der Blockade und Kriegskonterbande</i> (1910)—Güldenagel, +einheitlichen Reise im Rechte der Blockade und Kriegskonterbande</i> (1910)—Güldenagel, <i>Verfolgung und Rechtsfolgen des Blockadebruches</i> (1911)—Hirschmann, -<i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912) §§ 17-23—Kennedy in +<i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912) §§ 17-23—Kennedy in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, IX. (1908), pp. 239-251—Myers in <i>A.J.</i> IV. pp. 571-595—General Report presented to the Naval Conference of London by its Drafting Committee, @@ -23577,7 +23533,7 @@ articles 1-21.</p> of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 368. <a name="Blockade_is_the_blocking368" id="Blockade_is_the_blocking368"></a>Blockade is the blocking by men-of-war<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> of +<p>§ 368. <a name="Blockade_is_the_blocking368" id="Blockade_is_the_blocking368"></a>Blockade is the blocking by men-of-war<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> of the approach to the enemy coast or a part of it for the purpose of preventing ingress and egress of vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> of all nations. Blockade must not be confounded @@ -23586,7 +23542,7 @@ siege. Whereas siege aims at the capture of the besieged place, blockade endeavours merely to intercept all intercourse, and especially commercial intercourse, by sea between the coast and the world at large. -Although blockade is, as shown above in §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a> and +Although blockade is, as shown above in §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a> and 174, a means of warfare against the enemy, it concerns neutrals as well, because the ingress and egress of neutral vessels are thereby interdicted and may be @@ -23595,14 +23551,14 @@ punished.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_733_733" id="Footnote_733_733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_733_733"><span class="label">[733]</span></a> When in 1861, during the American Civil War, the Federal Government blocked the harbour of Charleston by sinking ships laden with stone, the question arose whether a so-called stone-blockade is lawful. -There ought to be no doubt—see below, § <a href="#The_condition_of380">380</a>—that such a stone-blockade +There ought to be no doubt—see below, § <a href="#The_condition_of380">380</a>—that such a stone-blockade is not a blockade in the ordinary sense of the term, and that neutral ships may not be seized and confiscated for having attempted egress or ingress. But, on the other hand, there ought to be no doubt either that this mode of obstructing an enemy port is as lawful as any other means of sea warfare, provided the blocking of the harbour is made known so that neutral vessels can avoid the danger of being wrecked. See Wharton, -III. § 361<span class="smcap">A</span>; Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. 143-145; Perels, § 35, p. 187.</p></div> +III. § 361<span class="smcap">A</span>; Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. 143-145; Perels, § 35, p. 187.</p></div> <p>Blockade in the modern sense of the term is an institution which could not develop until neutrality @@ -23641,7 +23597,7 @@ maritime States.</p> Strategic and Commercial.</p></div> -<p>§ 369. A blockade is termed strategic if it forms +<p>§ 369. A blockade is termed strategic if it forms part of other military operations directed against the coast which is blockaded, or if it be declared in order to cut off supply to enemy forces on shore. In contradistinction @@ -23657,13 +23613,13 @@ blockades purely commercial ought to be abolished as not in accordance with the guaranteed freedom of neutral commerce during war.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a> See Hall, § 233.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a> See Hall, § 233.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Blockade to be Universal.</p></div> -<p>§ 370. <a name="A_blockade_is_really370" id="A_blockade_is_really370"></a>A blockade is really in being when vessels +<p>§ 370. <a name="A_blockade_is_really370" id="A_blockade_is_really370"></a>A blockade is really in being when vessels of all nations are interdicted and prevented from ingress or egress. Blockade as a means of warfare is admissible only in the form of a <i>universal</i> blockade, @@ -23674,7 +23630,7 @@ were to allow the ingress or egress of vessels of one nation, no blockade would exist.<a name="FNanchor_736_736" id="FNanchor_736_736"></a><a href="#Footnote_736_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_736_736" id="Footnote_736_736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_736_736"><span class="label">[736]</span></a> The <i>Rolla</i> (1807), 6 C. Rob. 364; the <i>Franciska</i> (1855), -Spinks, 287. See also below, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_effective382">382</a>.</p></div> +Spinks, 287. See also below, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_effective382">382</a>.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, provided a blockade is universal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> a special licence of ingress or egress may be @@ -23700,7 +23656,7 @@ Declaration of London.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Blockade, Outwards and Inwards.</p></div> -<p>§ 371. As a rule a blockade is declared for the +<p>§ 371. As a rule a blockade is declared for the purpose of preventing ingress as well as egress. But sometimes only ingress or only egress is prevented. In such cases one speaks of "Blockade inwards" and of @@ -23714,7 +23670,7 @@ reaching the Russian Army from the sea.<a name="FNanchor_739_739" id="FNanchor_7 <div class="sidenote"><p>What Places can be Blockaded.</p></div> -<p>§ 372. In former times it was sometimes asserted +<p>§ 372. In former times it was sometimes asserted that only ports, or even only fortified<a name="FNanchor_740_740" id="FNanchor_740_740"></a><a href="#Footnote_740_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> ports, could be blockaded, but the practice of the States has always shown that single ports and portions of an enemy coast as @@ -23726,26 +23682,26 @@ must be drawn to the fact, that such ports of a belligerent<span class="pagenum" as are in the hands of the enemy may be the object of a blockade. Thus during the Franco-German War the French blockaded<a name="FNanchor_741_741" id="FNanchor_741_741"></a><a href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> their own ports of Rouen, -Dieppe, and Fécamp, which were occupied by the +Dieppe, and Fécamp, which were occupied by the Germans. Article 1 of the Declaration of London indirectly sanctions the practice of the States by enacting that "a blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts belonging to or occupied by the enemy."</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a> Napoleon I. maintained in his Berlin Decrees: "Le droit de -blocus, d'après la raison et l'usage de tous les peuples policés, n'est +blocus, d'après la raison et l'usage de tous les peuples policés, n'est applicable qu'aux places fortes."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> See Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, p. 161.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Blockade of International Rivers.</p></div> -<p>§ 373. It is a moot question whether the mouth of +<p>§ 373. It is a moot question whether the mouth of a so-called international river may be the object of a blockade, in case the riparian States are not all belligerents. Thus, when in 1854, during the Crimean War, the allied fleets of Great Britain and France blockaded -the mouth of the Danube, Bavaria and Württemberg, +the mouth of the Danube, Bavaria and Württemberg, which remained neutral, protested. When in 1870 the French blockaded the whole of the German coast of the North Sea, they exempted the mouth of the river @@ -23759,7 +23715,7 @@ that trade with Mexico, which was neutral, could not be prohibited.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a> 5 Wallace, 49. See Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. 171-183; -Phillimore, III. § 293<span class="smcap">A</span>; Hall, § 266; Rivier, II. p. 291.</p></div> +Phillimore, III. § 293<span class="smcap">A</span>; Hall, § 266; Rivier, II. p. 291.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London would seem to settle the controversy only as regards one point. By enacting @@ -23780,7 +23736,7 @@ neutral.</p> of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 374. The question has been raised in what way +<p>§ 374. The question has been raised in what way blockade, which vests a belligerent with a certain jurisdiction over neutral vessels and which has detrimental consequences for neutral trade, could be justified.<a name="FNanchor_743_743" id="FNanchor_743_743"></a><a href="#Footnote_743_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a> @@ -23810,12 +23766,12 @@ legitimate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_743_743" id="Footnote_743_743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_743_743"><span class="label">[743]</span></a> The matter is thoroughly treated by Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. 13-36, and -Güldenagel, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 39-86.</p></div> +Güldenagel, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 39-86.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_744_744" id="Footnote_744_744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_744_744"><span class="label">[744]</span></a> See Hautefeuille, II. pp. 190-191.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_745_745" id="Footnote_745_745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_745_745"><span class="label">[745]</span></a> See Gessner, p. 151; Bluntschli, -§ 827; Martens, II. § 124.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p></div> +§ 827; Martens, II. § 124.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p></div> @@ -23825,14 +23781,14 @@ Güldenagel, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 39-86.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Competence to establish Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 375. A declaration of blockade being "a high<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> +<p>§ 375. A declaration of blockade being "a high<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> act of sovereignty" and having far-reaching consequences upon neutral trade, it is generally recognised not to be in the discretion of a commander of a naval @@ -23872,7 +23828,7 @@ Notification of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 376. <a name="A_blockade_is_not376" id="A_blockade_is_not376"></a>A blockade is not in being <i>ipso facto</i> by the +<p>§ 376. <a name="A_blockade_is_not376" id="A_blockade_is_not376"></a>A blockade is not in being <i>ipso facto</i> by the outbreak of war. And even the actual blocking of the approach to an enemy coast by belligerent men-of-war<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> need not by itself mean that the ingress and egress of @@ -23887,7 +23843,7 @@ they considered knowledge on the part of a neutral vessel of an existing blockade to be necessary for her condemnation for breach of blockade.<a name="FNanchor_749_749" id="FNanchor_749_749"></a><a href="#Footnote_749_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p></div> <p>But although Continental writers have always held notification to be essential for the establishment of @@ -23905,13 +23861,13 @@ special notification to every approaching neutral vessel is alone required, although they recommended diplomatic notification as a matter of courtesy.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a> See, for instance, Kleen, I. § 131.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a> See, for instance, Kleen, I. § 131.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_751_751" id="Footnote_751_751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_751_751"><span class="label">[751]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, 831-832; Martens, II. § 124, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_751_751" id="Footnote_751_751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_751_751"><span class="label">[751]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, 831-832; Martens, II. § 124, Gessner, p. 181.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_752_752" id="Footnote_752_752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_752_752"><span class="label">[752]</span></a> See, for instance, Hautefeuille, II. pp. 224 and 226; -Calvo, V. § 2846; Fauchille, pp. 219-221.</p></div> +Calvo, V. § 2846; Fauchille, pp. 219-221.</p></div> <p>As regards the practice of States, it has always been usual for the commander who established a blockade to @@ -23997,7 +23953,7 @@ after having been raised (article 12).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Length of Time for Egress of Neutral Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 377. As regards <i>ingress</i>, a blockade becomes valid +<p>§ 377. As regards <i>ingress</i>, a blockade becomes valid the moment it is established; even vessels in ballast have no right of ingress. As regards <i>egress</i>, it has always been usual for the blockading commander to @@ -24021,7 +23977,7 @@ are allowed "unless otherwise specially ordered."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>End of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 378. Apart from the conclusion of peace, a blockade +<p>§ 378. Apart from the conclusion of peace, a blockade can come to an end in three different ways.</p> <p>It may, firstly, be raised, or restricted in its limits, @@ -24049,7 +24005,7 @@ of London).</p> <p>The third ground for the ending of a blockade is its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> failure to be effective, a point which will be treated -below in § <a href="#A_blockade_is_effective382">382</a>.</p> +below in § <a href="#A_blockade_is_effective382">382</a>.</p> <h4> @@ -24058,7 +24014,7 @@ below in § <a href="#A_blockade_is_effective382">382</a>.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effective in contradistinction @@ -24066,7 +24022,7 @@ to Fictitious Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 379. The necessity for effectiveness in a blockade +<p>§ 379. The necessity for effectiveness in a blockade by means of the presence of a blockading squadron of sufficient strength to prevent egress and ingress of vessels became gradually recognised during the first @@ -24098,7 +24054,7 @@ of Effectiveness of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 380. <a name="The_condition_of380" id="The_condition_of380"></a>The condition of effectiveness of blockade, +<p>§ 380. <a name="The_condition_of380" id="The_condition_of380"></a>The condition of effectiveness of blockade, as defined by the Declaration of Paris, is its maintenance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> <i>by such a force as is sufficient really to prevent access to the coast</i>. But no unanimity exists respecting @@ -24118,9 +24074,9 @@ without obvious danger to the passing vessel.<a name="FNanchor_758_758" id="FNan corresponds to the practice hitherto followed by France.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> See Hautefeuille, II. p. 194; Gessner, p. 179; Kleen, I. § +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> See Hautefeuille, II. p. 194; Gessner, p. 179; Kleen, I. § 129; Boeck, Nos. 676-681; Dupuis, Nos. 173-174; Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. -110-142. Phillimore, III. § 293, takes up the same standpoint in so far +110-142. Phillimore, III. § 293, takes up the same standpoint in so far as a blockade <i>de facto</i> is concerned:—"A blockade <i>de facto</i> should be effected by stationing a number of ships, and forming as it were an arch of circumvallation round the mouth of the prohibited port, where, if the @@ -24153,7 +24109,7 @@ importance.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_759_759" id="Footnote_759_759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_759_759"><span class="label">[759]</span></a> In his judgment in the case of the <i>Franciska</i> (1855), Spinks, 287.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> See Perels, § 49; Bluntschli, § 829; Liszt, § 41, III.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> See Perels, § 49; Bluntschli, § 829; Liszt, § 41, III.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London has settled the controversy in so far as article 3 enacts that "the question @@ -24177,11 +24133,11 @@ blockade.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_761_761" id="Footnote_761_761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_761_761"><span class="label">[761]</span></a> The <i>Nancy</i> (1809), 1 Acton, 63; the <i>Circassian</i> (1864), 2 Wallace, 135; the <i>Olinde Rodrigues</i> (1898), 174, United States, 510. -See also Bluntschli, § 829; Perels, § 49; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. -p. 750; Walker, <i>Manual</i>, § 78.</p></div> +See also Bluntschli, § 829; Perels, § 49; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. +p. 750; Walker, <i>Manual</i>, § 78.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Footnote_733_733">368, p. 450, note 1</a>. It ought to be mentioned +above, § <a href="#Footnote_733_733">368, p. 450, note 1</a>. It ought to be mentioned here also that according to article 2 of Convention VIII. "it is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the ports and coasts of the enemy, with the sole object of intercepting commercial navigation."</p></div> @@ -24196,12 +24152,12 @@ blockaded by a man-of-war stationed at a distance of three miles wide forming the only approach to the gulf.<a name="FNanchor_763_763" id="FNanchor_763_763"></a><a href="#Footnote_763_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> The <i>Franciska</i> (1855), Spinks, 287. See Hall, § 260, and +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> The <i>Franciska</i> (1855), Spinks, 287. See Hall, § 260, and Holland, <i>Studies</i>, pp. 166-167.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Amount of Danger which creates Effectiveness.</p></div> -<p>§ 381. It is impossible to state exactly what degree +<p>§ 381. It is impossible to state exactly what degree of danger to a vessel attempting to pass is necessary to prove an effective blockade. It is recognised that a blockade does not cease to be effective in case now @@ -24235,7 +24191,7 @@ the <i>Franciska</i> (1855), Spinks, 287.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Cessation of Effectiveness.</p></div> -<p>§ 382. <a name="A_blockade_is_effective382" id="A_blockade_is_effective382"></a>A blockade is effective so long as the danger +<p>§ 382. <a name="A_blockade_is_effective382" id="A_blockade_is_effective382"></a>A blockade is effective so long as the danger lasts which makes probable the capture of such vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span> as attempt to pass the approach. A blockade, therefore, ceases <i>ipso facto</i> by the absence of such danger, @@ -24264,7 +24220,7 @@ of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i> (1870), pp. 237-239.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_766_766" id="Footnote_766_766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_766_766"><span class="label">[766]</span></a> Spinks, 287. See -above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_really370">370</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_really370">370</a>.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, practice<a name="FNanchor_767_767" id="FNanchor_767_767"></a><a href="#Footnote_767_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> and the majority of writers have always recognised the fact that a blockade @@ -24283,7 +24239,7 @@ recognise this.<a name="FNanchor_770_770" id="FNanchor_770_770"></a><a href="#Fo <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_767_767" id="Footnote_767_767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_767_767"><span class="label">[767]</span></a> The <i>Columbia</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 154.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a> See Twiss, II. § 103, p. 201, and Phillimore, III. § 294.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a> See Twiss, II. § 103, p. 201, and Phillimore, III. § 294.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a> See article 37 of U.S. Naval War Code.</p></div> @@ -24298,14 +24254,14 @@ the Declaration of London.</p></div> </h4> <p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement - of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> + of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Definition of Breach of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 383. <a name="Breach_or_violation383" id="Breach_or_violation383"></a>Breach or violation of blockade is the unallowed +<p>§ 383. <a name="Breach_or_violation383" id="Breach_or_violation383"></a>Breach or violation of blockade is the unallowed ingress or egress of a vessel in spite of the blockade. The attempted breach is, so far as punishment is concerned, treated in the same way as the @@ -24316,7 +24272,7 @@ commences.</p> <p>It must be specially observed that the blockade-runner violates International Law as little as the -contraband carrier. Both (see below, § <a href="#Page_398">398</a>) violate +contraband carrier. Both (see below, § <a href="#Page_398">398</a>) violate injunctions of the belligerent concerned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No Breach @@ -24324,7 +24280,7 @@ without Notice of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 384. <a name="Since_breach_of384" id="Since_breach_of384"></a>Since breach of blockade is, from the standpoint +<p>§ 384. <a name="Since_breach_of384" id="Since_breach_of384"></a>Since breach of blockade is, from the standpoint of the blockading belligerent, a criminal act, knowledge on the part of a vessel of the existence of a blockade is essential for making her egress or ingress @@ -24342,7 +24298,7 @@ ingress by one of the blockading cruisers stopping her and recording the warning upon her log-book.<a name="FNanchor_771_771" id="FNanchor_771_771"></a><a href="#Footnote_771_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_not376">376</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_not376">376</a>.</p></div> <p>British, American, and Japanese practice regarding the necessary knowledge of the existence of a blockade @@ -24367,7 +24323,7 @@ of the blockade, so that it could inform thereof all vessels sailing under its flag, whether or no they had actually received, or taken notice of, the information.<a name="FNanchor_773_773" id="FNanchor_773_773"></a><a href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 107, 114-127; U.S. Naval War +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 107, 114-127; U.S. Naval War Code, article 39; Japanese Prize Law, article 30.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_773_773" id="Footnote_773_773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_773_773"><span class="label">[773]</span></a> The <i>Vrouw Judith</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 150; the <i>Neptunus</i> @@ -24404,7 +24360,7 @@ might come out (article 16, second paragraph).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The former practice as to what constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 385. <a name="The_practice_of385" id="The_practice_of385"></a>The practice of States as well as the opinions +<p>§ 385. <a name="The_practice_of385" id="The_practice_of385"></a>The practice of States as well as the opinions of writers have hitherto differed much regarding such acts of a vessel as constitute an attempt to break blockade.</p> @@ -24479,29 +24435,29 @@ in favour of the British owners of the respective vessels and cargoes.<a name="FNanchor_783_783" id="FNanchor_783_783"></a><a href="#Footnote_783_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> See Hautefeuille, II. p. 134; -Kleen, I. § 137; Gessner, p. 202; +Kleen, I. § 137; Gessner, p. 202; Dupuis, No. 185; Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, p. 322.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 835; Perels, -§ 51; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> See Bluntschli, § 835; Perels, +§ 51; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 763; Rivier, II. p. 431. See also -§ 25 of the Prussian Regulations (1864) +§ 25 of the Prussian Regulations (1864) concerning Naval Prizes, and article 31 of the Japanese Naval Prize Law.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 133, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 133, and U.S. Naval War Code, article 42; the <i>Betsey</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 332.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_777_777" id="Footnote_777_777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_777_777"><span class="label">[777]</span></a> On this doctrine, see - below, § <a href="#Footnote_834_834">400, p. 499, note 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Footnote_834_834">400, p. 499, note 1</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 134, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 134, and the case of the <i>James Cook</i> (1810), Edwards, 261.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a> 3 Wallace, § 14.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a> 3 Wallace, § 14.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_780_780" id="Footnote_780_780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_780_780"><span class="label">[780]</span></a> 3 Wallace, 559.</p></div> @@ -24523,19 +24479,19 @@ of these judgments.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_784_784" id="Footnote_784_784"></a><a href="#FNanchor_784_784"><span class="label">[784]</span></a> See, for instance, Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, p. 38, note 2; Phillimore, III. -§ 298; Twiss, <i>Belligerent Right on the -High Seas</i> (1884), p. 19; Hall, § 263; -Gessner, <i>Kriegführende und neutrale -Mächte</i> (1877), pp. 95-100; Bluntschli, -§ 835; Perels, § 51; Fauchille, pp. -333-344; Martens, II. § 124. See -also Wharton, III. § 362, p. 401, and -Moore, VII. § 1276.</p></div> +§ 298; Twiss, <i>Belligerent Right on the +High Seas</i> (1884), p. 19; Hall, § 263; +Gessner, <i>Kriegführende und neutrale +Mächte</i> (1877), pp. 95-100; Bluntschli, +§ 835; Perels, § 51; Fauchille, pp. +333-344; Martens, II. § 124. See +also Wharton, III. § 362, p. 401, and +Moore, VII. § 1276.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>What constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade according to the Declaration of London.</p></div> -<p>§ 385<i>a</i>. The Declaration of London proposes a +<p>§ 385<i>a</i>. The Declaration of London proposes a settlement of this controversial matter by enacting in article 17 that "neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of blockade except within the area of operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> @@ -24597,11 +24553,11 @@ not considered Breach of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 386. <a name="Although_blockade386" id="Although_blockade386"></a>Although blockade inwards interdicts ingress +<p>§ 386. <a name="Although_blockade386" id="Although_blockade386"></a>Although blockade inwards interdicts ingress to all vessels, if not especially licensed,<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> necessity makes exceptions to the rule.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_really370">370</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#A_blockade_is_really370">370</a>.</p></div> <p>According to the practice which has hitherto been quite general, whenever a vessel either by need of repairs,<a name="FNanchor_788_788" id="FNanchor_788_788"></a><a href="#Footnote_788_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> @@ -24631,7 +24587,7 @@ to ascertain<a name="FNanchor_795_795" id="FNanchor_795_795"></a><a href="#Footn <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a> The <i>Spes</i> and <i>Irene</i> (1804), 5 C. Rob. 76.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 135-136.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 135-136.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London recognises that necessity makes exceptions to the rule that vessels may not enter @@ -24667,7 +24623,7 @@ the blockaded port.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>When Egress is not considered Breach of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 387. There are a few cases of egress which, according +<p>§ 387. There are a few cases of egress which, according to the hitherto prevailing practice of Great Britain and most other States, were not considered breaches of blockade outwards.<a name="FNanchor_798_798" id="FNanchor_798_798"></a><a href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> Thus, a vessel that was in @@ -24686,8 +24642,8 @@ State for the exclusive purpose of sending home from a blockaded port distressed seamen of his nationality was also allowed to pass unhindered.<a name="FNanchor_802_802" id="FNanchor_802_802"></a><a href="#Footnote_802_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 130; Twiss, II. § 113; -Phillimore, III. § 313.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 130; Twiss, II. § 113; +Phillimore, III. § 313.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_799_799" id="Footnote_799_799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_799_799"><span class="label">[799]</span></a> The <i>Frederick Moltke</i> (1798), 1 C. Rob. 86.</p></div> @@ -24698,11 +24654,11 @@ Phillimore, III. § 313.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> The <i>Rose in Bloom</i> (1811), 1 Dodson, 55.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London recognises by article 7—see -above, § <a href="#Although_blockade386">386</a>—that a vessel which, on account of +above, § <a href="#Although_blockade386">386</a>—that a vessel which, on account of distress, entered a blockaded port, must be allowed to leave it afterwards, provided she has neither discharged nor shipped cargo there. And article 16, -second paragraph—see above, § <a href="#Since_breach_of384">384</a>—enacts that a +second paragraph—see above, § <a href="#Since_breach_of384">384</a>—enacts that a vessel coming out of a blockaded port must be allowed to pass free, if, through the negligence of the commander of the blockading fleet, no declaration of blockade has @@ -24722,7 +24678,7 @@ Canal no Breach of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 388. A breach of blockade can only be committed +<p>§ 388. A breach of blockade can only be committed by passing through the blockaded approach. Therefore, if the maritime approach to a port is blockaded whilst an inland canal leads to another @@ -24732,7 +24688,7 @@ the ingress of a vessel passing such canal for the purpose of reaching the blockaded port.<a name="FNanchor_803_803" id="FNanchor_803_803"></a><a href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> The <i>Stert</i> (1801), 4 C. Rob. 65. -See Phillimore, III. § 314.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p></div> +See Phillimore, III. § 314.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p></div> <p>Although the Declaration of London does not mention this point, the International Prize Court would @@ -24748,13 +24704,13 @@ common sense.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Blockade_is_the_blocking368">368</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Capture of Blockade-running Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 389. It is universally recognised that a vessel +<p>§ 389. It is universally recognised that a vessel may be captured for a breach of blockade <i>in delicto</i> only, that means, during the time of an attempt to break it, or of the breach itself. But here again @@ -24763,7 +24719,7 @@ since there has been no unanimity with regard to the extent of time during which an attempt of breach and the breach itself could be said to be actually continuing.</p> -<p>It has already been stated above in § <a href="#The_practice_of385">385</a> that +<p>It has already been stated above in § <a href="#The_practice_of385">385</a> that it has been a moot point from what moment a breach of blockade could be said to have been attempted, and that according to the practice of Great Britain and the @@ -24820,7 +24776,7 @@ for Breach of Blockade.</p></div> -<p>§ 390. Capture being effected, the blockade-runner +<p>§ 390. Capture being effected, the blockade-runner must be sent to a port to be brought before a Prize Court. For this purpose the crew may be temporarily detained, as they will have to serve as witnesses. In @@ -24858,21 +24814,21 @@ destination of the goods.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_807_807" id="Footnote_807_807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_807_807"><span class="label">[807]</span></a> See Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. c. 11.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a> See Calvo, V. §§ 2897-2898. U.S. Naval War Code, article +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a> See Calvo, V. §§ 2897-2898. U.S. Naval War Code, article 45.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> See Fauchille, <i>Blocus</i>, pp. 357-394: Gessner, pp. 210-214; -Perels, § 51, pp. 276-278.</p></div> +Perels, § 51, pp. 276-278.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a> The <i>Mercurius</i> (1798), 1 C. Rob. 80; the <i>Columbia</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 154; the <i>Alexander</i> (1801), 4 C. Rob. 93; the <i>Adonis</i> (1804), 5 C. Rob. 256; the <i>Exchange</i> (1808), Edwards, 39; the -<i>Panaghia Rhomba</i> (1858), 12 Moore, P.C. 168—See Phillimore, III. §§ +<i>Panaghia Rhomba</i> (1858), 12 Moore, P.C. 168—See Phillimore, III. §§ 318-319.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a> The <i>Maria</i> (1805), 6 C Rob. 201.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">385 (4)</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">385 (4)</a>.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London settles the matter by a very simple rule, for according to article 21 the penalty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> @@ -24901,29 +24857,29 @@ article 21, but its condemnation is a matter of course.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, § 5—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. cc, IX-XII—Vattel, -III. §§ 111-113—Hall, §§ 236-247—Lawrence, §§ 253-259—Westlake, II. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, III. c. 1, § 5—Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. publ.</i> I. cc, IX-XII—Vattel, +III. §§ 111-113—Hall, §§ 236-247—Lawrence, §§ 253-259—Westlake, II. pp. 240-265—Maine, pp. 96-122—Manning, pp. 352-399—Phillimore, -III. §§ 226-284—Twiss, II. §§ 121-151—Halleck, II. pp. 214-238—Taylor, -§§ 653-666—Walker, §§ 73-75—Wharton, III. §§ 368-375—Moore, VII. §§ -1249—1263—Wheaton, §§ 476-508—Bluntschli, §§ 801-814—Heffter, §§ -158-161—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 713-731—Gareis, § 89—Liszt, -§ 42—Ullmann, §§ 193-194—Bonfils, No. 1537-1588<span class="topnum">15</span>—Despagnet, -Nos. 705-715 <i>ter</i>—Rivier, II pp. 416-423—Calvo, V. §§ 2708-2795—Fiore, -III. Nos. 1591-1601, and Code, Nos. 1827-1835—Martens, II. § -136—Kleen, I. §§ 70-102—Boeck, Nos. 606-659—Pillet, pp. 315-330—Gessner, -pp. 70-144—Perels, §§ 44-46—Testa, pp. 201-220—Lawrence, +III. §§ 226-284—Twiss, II. §§ 121-151—Halleck, II. pp. 214-238—Taylor, +§§ 653-666—Walker, §§ 73-75—Wharton, III. §§ 368-375—Moore, VII. §§ +1249—1263—Wheaton, §§ 476-508—Bluntschli, §§ 801-814—Heffter, §§ +158-161—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 713-731—Gareis, § 89—Liszt, +§ 42—Ullmann, §§ 193-194—Bonfils, No. 1537-1588<span class="topnum">15</span>—Despagnet, +Nos. 705-715 <i>ter</i>—Rivier, II pp. 416-423—Calvo, V. §§ 2708-2795—Fiore, +III. Nos. 1591-1601, and Code, Nos. 1827-1835—Martens, II. § +136—Kleen, I. §§ 70-102—Boeck, Nos. 606-659—Pillet, pp. 315-330—Gessner, +pp. 70-144—Perels, §§ 44-46—Testa, pp. 201-220—Lawrence, <i>War</i>, pp. 140-174—Ortolan, II. pp. 165-213—Hautefeuille, II. pp. 69-172—Dupuis, -Nos. 199-230, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 137-171—Bernsten, § 9—Nippold, -II. § 35—Takahashi, pp. 490-526—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 57-87—U.S. +Nos. 199-230, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 137-171—Bernsten, § 9—Nippold, +II. § 35—Takahashi, pp. 490-526—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 57-87—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 34-36—Heineccius, <i>De navibus ob vecturam vetitarum mercium commissis dissertatio</i> (1740)—Huebner, <i>De la -saisie des bâtiments neutres</i>, 2 vols. (1759)—Valin, <i>Traité des prises</i>, 2 vols. +saisie des bâtiments neutres</i>, 2 vols. (1759)—Valin, <i>Traité des prises</i>, 2 vols. (1763)—Martens, <i>Essai sur les armateurs, les prises, et surtout les reprises</i> (1795)—Lampredi, <i>Del commercio dei populi neutrali in tempo di guerra</i> -(1801)—Tetens, <i>Considérations sur les droits réciproques des puissances -belligérantes et des puissances neutres sur mer</i> (1805)—Pistoye et Duverdy, -<i>Traité des prises maritimes</i>, 2 vols. (1855)—Pratt, <i>The Law of Contraband of +(1801)—Tetens, <i>Considérations sur les droits réciproques des puissances +belligérantes et des puissances neutres sur mer</i> (1805)—Pistoye et Duverdy, +<i>Traité des prises maritimes</i>, 2 vols. (1855)—Pratt, <i>The Law of Contraband of War</i> (1856)—Moseley, <i>What is Contraband and what is not?</i> (1861)—Upton, <i>The Law of Nations affecting Commerce during War</i> (1863)—Lehmann, <i>Die Zufuhr von Kriegskonterbandewaren, etc.</i> (1877)—Kleen, <i>De @@ -24931,16 +24887,16 @@ contrebande de guerre et des transports interdits aux neutres</i> (1893)—V <i>Die Konterbande des Krieges</i> (1896)—Manceaux, <i>De la contrebande de guerre</i> (1899)—Brochet, <i>De la contrebande de guerre</i> (1900)—Hirsch, <i>Kriegskonterbande und verbotene Transporte in Kriegszeiten</i> (1901)—Pincitore, <i>Il contrabbando -di guerra</i> (1902)—Remy, <i>Théorie de la continuauté du voyage en -matière de blocus et de contrebande de guerre</i> (1902)—Knight, <i>Des états +di guerra</i> (1902)—Remy, <i>Théorie de la continuauté du voyage en +matière de blocus et de contrebande de guerre</i> (1902)—Knight, <i>Des états neutres au point de vue de la contrebande de guerre</i> (1903)—Wiegner, <i>Die Kriegskonterbande</i> (1904)—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906), pp. 1-91 and 253-283—Hold, <i>Die Kriegskonterbande</i> (1907)—Hansemann, <i>Die Lehre von der einheitlichen Reise im Rechte der Blockade und Kriegskonterbande</i> (1910)—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> -(1912), §§ 24-30—Westlake in <i>R.I.</i> II. (1870), pp. 614-655—Kleen in +(1912), §§ 24-30—Westlake in <i>R.I.</i> II. (1870), pp. 614-655—Kleen in <i>R.I.</i> XXV. (1893), pp. 7, 124, 209, 389, and XXVI. pp. 214-217 (1894)—Bar -in <i>R.I.</i> XXVI. (1894), pp. 401-414—Brocher de la Fléchère, in <i>R.I.</i> +in <i>R.I.</i> XXVI. (1894), pp. 401-414—Brocher de la Fléchère, in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. I. (1899), pp. 337-353—Fauchille in <i>R.G.</i> IV. (1897), pp. 297-323—Kleen in <i>R.G.</i> XI. (1904), pp. 353-362—Gover in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, new series, II. (1900), pp. 118-130—Kennedy @@ -24953,7 +24909,7 @@ of Contraband of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 391. <a name="The_term_contraband391" id="The_term_contraband391"></a>The term contraband is derived from the +<p>§ 391. <a name="The_term_contraband391" id="The_term_contraband391"></a>The term contraband is derived from the Italian "contrabbando," which, itself deriving from the Latin "contra" and "bannum" or "bandum," means "in defiance of an injunction." Contraband of war<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> @@ -24997,12 +24953,12 @@ kinds of articles that could be regarded as contraband failed, and the Declaration of Paris of 1856 uses the term contraband without any attempt to define it.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a> Although—see above, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>-174—prevention of carriage of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a> Although—see above, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a>-174—prevention of carriage of contraband is a means of sea warfare against the enemy, it chiefly concerns neutral commerce and is, therefore, more conveniently treated with neutrality.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a> See Grotius, III. c. I, § 5:—"Sunt res quae in bello +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a> See Grotius, III. c. I, § 5:—"Sunt res quae in bello tantum usum habent, ut arma: sunt quae in bello nullum habent usum, ut quae voluptati inserviunt: sunt quae et in bello et extra bellum usum habent, ut pecuniae, commeatus, naves, et quae navibus adsunt.... In @@ -25026,7 +24982,7 @@ concerning contraband.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Absolute and conditional Contraband, and free Articles.</p></div> -<p>§ 392. Apart from the distinction between articles +<p>§ 392. Apart from the distinction between articles which can be made use of only in war and those of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> ancipitous use, two different classes of contraband must be distinguished.</p> @@ -25064,9 +25020,9 @@ question whether or no an article was contraband, but also regarding the consequences of carrying contraband.<a name="FNanchor_817_817" id="FNanchor_817_817"></a><a href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_816_816" id="Footnote_816_816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_816_816"><span class="label">[816]</span></a> See, for instance, Hautefeuille, -II. p. 157, and Kleen, I. § 90.</p></div> +II. p. 157, and Kleen, I. § 90.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#In_former_times_neither405">405</a>, p. 510.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a> See below, § <a href="#In_former_times_neither405">405</a>, p. 510.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London has adopted (articles 22 and 24) the distinction between absolute and conditional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span> @@ -25080,11 +25036,11 @@ not susceptible of use in war. These articles are termed <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_818_818" id="Footnote_818_818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_818_818"><span class="label">[818]</span></a> But there are a number of other free articles, although they do not belong to the articles characterised above; see -below, § <a href="#Besides_the_seventeen396a">396<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> +below, § <a href="#Besides_the_seventeen396a">396<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Articles absolutely Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 393. That absolute contraband cannot and need +<p>§ 393. That absolute contraband cannot and need not be restricted to arms and ammunition only and exclusively becomes obvious, if the fact is taken into consideration that other articles, although of ancipitous @@ -25124,7 +25080,7 @@ angle-iron, round bars of from 3/4 to 5/8 of an inch diameter, rivets, strips of iron, sheet plate-iron exceeding 1/4 of an inch, and Low Moor and Bowling plates.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 62.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 62.</p></div> <p>By articles 22 and 23 of the Declaration of London an agreement has been reached according to which two @@ -25207,12 +25163,12 @@ conditional contraband.</p> conditionally Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 394. There are many articles which are not by +<p>§ 394. There are many articles which are not by their character destined to be made use of in war, but which are nevertheless of great value to belligerents for the continuance of war. Such articles are conditionally contraband, which means that they are contraband -when it is clearly apparent—see below, § <a href="#Whatever_may_be395">395</a>—that they +when it is clearly apparent—see below, § <a href="#Whatever_may_be395">395</a>—that they are intended to be made use of for military or naval purposes. This intention becomes apparent on considering either the destination of the vessel carrying @@ -25299,26 +25255,26 @@ cotton in general as contraband; Russia altered her standpoint and declared cotton conditional contraband only.<a name="FNanchor_826_826" id="FNanchor_826_826"></a><a href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a> See Perels, § 45, and Hall, §§ +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a> See Perels, § 45, and Hall, §§ 242-246, who give bird's-eye views of the controversy.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a> See, for instance, Bluntschli, -§ 807.</p></div> +§ 807.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> The <i>Jonge Margaretha</i> (1799), 1 C. Rob. 189.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a> See Hall, § 246, p. 690, note 2; -Taylor, § 662; Wharton, III. § 373.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a> See Hall, § 246, p. 690, note 2; +Taylor, § 662; Wharton, III. § 373.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1254, and +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a> See Moore, VII. § 1254, and Holland, <i>Letters to the "Times" upon War and Neutrality</i> (1909) pp. 108-112.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_826_826" id="Footnote_826_826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_826_826"><span class="label">[826]</span></a> According to the British practice which has hitherto prevailed—see -Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 64—the list of +Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 64—the list of conditional contraband comprises:—Provisions and liquors for the consumption of army and navy; money, @@ -25415,7 +25371,7 @@ Destination essential to Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 395. <a name="Whatever_may_be395" id="Whatever_may_be395"></a>Whatever may be the nature of articles, they +<p>§ 395. <a name="Whatever_may_be395" id="Whatever_may_be395"></a>Whatever may be the nature of articles, they are never contraband unless they are destined for the use of a belligerent in war. Arms and ammunition destined for a neutral are as little contraband as other @@ -25490,9 +25446,9 @@ armed forces or of a government department of the enemy State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_827_827" id="Footnote_827_827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_827_827"><span class="label">[827]</span></a> The French text of article 34 -contains the words <i>à un commerçant -établi en pays ennemi et lorsqu'il est -notoire que ce commerçant fournit à +contains the words <i>à un commerçant +établi en pays ennemi et lorsqu'il est +notoire que ce commerçant fournit à l'ennemi des objets et materiaux de cette nature</i>. The translation <i>to an enemy contractor</i> has been objected to by @@ -25518,13 +25474,13 @@ bases of supply or operations. This is surely erroneous, because the doctrine of continuous voyages is not—see article 35 in contradistinction -to article 30, and below, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of403a">403<i>a</i></a>—to +to article 30, and below, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of403a">403<i>a</i></a>—to be applied to conditional contraband.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Free Articles.</p></div> -<p>§ 396. It is obvious that such articles as are not +<p>§ 396. It is obvious that such articles as are not susceptible of use in war may never be declared contraband, whether their destination be hostile or not.</p> @@ -25596,7 +25552,7 @@ Vessel, or to aid the Wounded.</p></div> -<p>§ 396<i>a</i>. <a name="Besides_the_seventeen396a" id="Besides_the_seventeen396a"></a>Besides the seventeen groups of articles contained +<p>§ 396<i>a</i>. <a name="Besides_the_seventeen396a" id="Besides_the_seventeen396a"></a>Besides the seventeen groups of articles contained in the free list, there are two other groups of free articles.</p> @@ -25631,12 +25587,12 @@ such arms and ammunition are carried <i>bona fide</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Contraband Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 397. <a name="A_neutral_vessel397" id="A_neutral_vessel397"></a>A neutral vessel, whether carrying contraband +<p>§ 397. <a name="A_neutral_vessel397" id="A_neutral_vessel397"></a>A neutral vessel, whether carrying contraband or not, can herself be contraband. Such is the case when she has been built or fitted out for use in war and is on her way to the enemy. Although it is the duty of neutrals—see article 8 of Convention XIII., and above -§§ <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a> and <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>—to employ the means at their disposal +§§ <a href="#Whereas_a_neutral334">334</a> and <a href="#In_contradistinction350">350</a>—to employ the means at their disposal to prevent the fitting out, arming, or the departure of any vessel within their jurisdiction, which they have reason to believe is intended to cruise or to engage in @@ -25647,7 +25603,7 @@ for use in war except where the vessel concerned has been built or fitted out by order of a belligerent. Subjects of neutrals may therefore—unless prevented from so doing by Municipal Law, as, for instance, subjects -of the British Crown by §§ 8 and 9 of the Foreign Enlistment +of the British Crown by §§ 8 and 9 of the Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870—by way of trade supply belligerents with vessels of any kind, provided these vessels have not been built or fitted out by order of the belligerent concerned. @@ -25658,8 +25614,8 @@ made no difference whether or no they were fit for use as men-of-war, it sufficed that they were fit to be used for the transport of troops and the like.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_829_829" id="Footnote_829_829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_829_829"><span class="label">[829]</span></a> The <i>Richmond</i> (1804), 5 C. Rob. 325. See also Twiss, II. § 148, and -Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 86.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_829_829" id="Footnote_829_829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_829_829"><span class="label">[829]</span></a> The <i>Richmond</i> (1804), 5 C. Rob. 325. See also Twiss, II. § 148, and +Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 86.</p></div> <p>According to article 22, No. 10, article 24, No. 6, and article 34 of the Declaration of London the law @@ -25694,7 +25650,7 @@ are contraband.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Carriage of Contraband @@ -25703,7 +25659,7 @@ the Municipal Law of Belligerents.</p></div> -<p>§ 398. <a name="The_guaranteed_freedom398" id="The_guaranteed_freedom398"></a>The guaranteed freedom of commerce making +<p>§ 398. <a name="The_guaranteed_freedom398" id="The_guaranteed_freedom398"></a>The guaranteed freedom of commerce making the sale of articles of all kinds to belligerents by subjects of neutrals legitimate, articles of conditional as well as absolute contraband may be supplied by sale to either @@ -25738,7 +25694,7 @@ confiscate the contraband cargo, and eventually the vessel also, as a deterrent to other vessels.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_830_830" id="Footnote_830_830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_830_830"><span class="label">[830]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#As_International_Law296">296</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As_International_Law296">296</a>.</p></div> <p>The present condition of the matter of carriage of contraband<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> is therefore a compromise. In the @@ -25748,7 +25704,7 @@ neutrals, International Law does not require neutrals to prevent their subjects from carrying contraband; on the other hand, International Law empowers either belligerent to prohibit and punish carriage of contraband -just as it—see above, § <a href="#Breach_or_violation383">383</a>—empowers either +just as it—see above, § <a href="#Breach_or_violation383">383</a>—empowers either belligerent to prohibit and punish breach of blockade.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_831_831" id="Footnote_831_831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_831_831"><span class="label">[831]</span></a> The same applies to blockade-running @@ -25770,7 +25726,7 @@ need not—be treated as contraband.</p> Carriage of Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 399. Carriage of contraband commonly occurs +<p>§ 399. Carriage of contraband commonly occurs where a vessel is engaged in carrying to an enemy port such goods as are contraband when they have a hostile destination. In such cases it makes no @@ -25800,12 +25756,12 @@ to call at an enemy port, unless she proves that she has abandoned the intention of eventually calling there.<a name="FNanchor_833_833" id="FNanchor_833_833"></a><a href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 69.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 69.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> The <i>Imina</i> (1800), 3 C. Rob. 167; and the <i>Trende Sostre</i> (1800), cited in the <i>Lisette</i> (1806), 6 C. Rob. 391, note. -See also Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 70.</p></div> +See also Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 70.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London distinguishes between carriage of absolute and conditional contraband:—</p> @@ -25848,7 +25804,7 @@ the Report—<i>unless facts show their evidence to be false</i>.</p> Carriage of Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 400. On occasions a neutral vessel carrying such +<p>§ 400. On occasions a neutral vessel carrying such articles as are contraband if they have a hostile destination is, according to her papers, ostensibly bound for a neutral port, but is intended, after having called @@ -25878,7 +25834,7 @@ although indirectly only, be concluded that Great Britain considered the practice of the American Prize Courts correct and just, and that, when a belligerent, she intended to apply the same principles. This could -also be inferred from § 71 of Holland's <i>Manual of Naval +also be inferred from § 71 of Holland's <i>Manual of Naval Prize Law</i>, which established the rule: "The ostensible destination of a vessel is sometimes a neutral port, while she is in reality intended, after touching, and @@ -25897,7 +25853,7 @@ just, and adequate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a> The so-called doctrine of continuous voyages dates from the time of the Anglo-French wars at the end of the eighteenth century, and is connected with the application of the so-called rule of 1756. (See -above, § <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a>.) Neutral vessels engaged in French and Spanish colonial +above, § <a href="#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a>.) Neutral vessels engaged in French and Spanish colonial trade, thrown open to them during the war, sought to evade seizure by British cruisers and condemnation by British Prize Courts, according to the rule of 1756, by taking their cargo to a neutral port, landing it @@ -25911,20 +25867,20 @@ other goods, and sailed after a week for the Spanish port of Bilbao. In all such cases the British Prize Courts considered the voyages from the colonial port to the neutral port and from there to the enemy port as one continuous voyage and confirmed the seizure of the ships concerned. -See Remy, <i>Théorie de la continuauté du voyage en matière de blocus et +See Remy, <i>Théorie de la continuauté du voyage en matière de blocus et de contrebande</i> (1902); Hansemann, <i>Die Lehre von der einheitlichen Reise im Rechte der Blockade und Kriegskonterbande</i> (1910), and Fauchille in <i>R.G.</i> IV. (1897), pp. 297-323. The American Courts have applied the doctrine of continuous voyages not only to carriage of -contraband but also to blockade; see above, <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, where the cases +contraband but also to blockade; see above, <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, where the cases of the <i>Bermuda</i> and the <i>Stephen Hart</i> are quoted.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 247. But Phillimore, III. § 227, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 247. But Phillimore, III. § 227, p. 391, says of the judgments of the Supreme Court of the United States in the cases of the <i>Bermuda</i> and the <i>Peterhoff</i>, that they "contain very valuable and sound expositions of the law, professedly, and for the most part really, in harmony with the earlier decisions of English Prize -Courts." On the other hand, Phillimore, III. § 298, p. 490, disagrees +Courts." On the other hand, Phillimore, III. § 298, p. 490, disagrees with the American Courts regarding the application of the doctrine of continuous voyages to breach of blockade, and reprobates the decision in the case of the <i>Springbok</i>.</p></div> @@ -25932,7 +25888,7 @@ the case of the <i>Springbok</i>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Indirect Carriage of Contraband (Doctrine of Continuous Transports).</p></div> -<p>§ 401. It also happens in war that neutral vessels +<p>§ 401. It also happens in war that neutral vessels carry to neutral ports such articles as are contraband if bound for a hostile destination, the vessel being cognisant or not of the fact that arrangements have @@ -25941,7 +25897,7 @@ by land or sea into the hands of the enemy. And<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa the question has arisen whether such vessels on their voyage to the neutral port may be considered to be carrying contraband of war.<a name="FNanchor_836_836" id="FNanchor_836_836"></a><a href="#Footnote_836_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a> As early as 1855, during -the Crimean War, the French Conseil-Général des Prises, +the Crimean War, the French Conseil-Général des Prises, in condemning the cargo of saltpetre of the Hanoverian neutral vessel <i>Vrow Houwina</i>, answered the question in the affirmative;<a name="FNanchor_837_837" id="FNanchor_837_837"></a><a href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a> but it was not until the American @@ -25962,7 +25918,7 @@ concerned were destined to be transported by land or sea from the neutral port of landing into the enemy territory. The leading cases are those of the <i>Springbok</i> and <i>Peterhoff</i>, which have been mentioned above in -<a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, for the Courts found the seizure of these and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> +<a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, for the Courts found the seizure of these and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> other vessels justified on the ground of carriage of contraband as well as on the ground of breach of blockade. Thus, another application of the doctrine @@ -25982,7 +25938,7 @@ Dundas White) and "Contraband Goods and Neutral Ports" (Mr. E. L. de Hart). See also Baty, <i>International Law in South Africa</i> (1900), pp. 1-44.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> See Calvo, V. § 2767, p. 52. The case of the Swedish +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> See Calvo, V. § 2767, p. 52. The case of the Swedish neutral vessel <i>Commercen</i>, which occurred in 1814, and which is frequently quoted with that of the <i>Vrow Houwina</i> (1 Wheaton, 382), is not a case of indirect carriage of contraband. The <i>Commercen</i> was on @@ -25997,12 +25953,12 @@ sufficient to justify the seizure of the vessel.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Case of the <i>Bundesrath</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 402. This application of the doctrine of continuous +<p>§ 402. This application of the doctrine of continuous voyages under the new form of continuous transports has likewise been condemned by many British and foreign authorities; but Great Britain did not protest in this case either—on the contrary, as was mentioned -above in <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, she declined to interfere in favour of +above in <a href="#During_the_Civil_War4of385">§ 385 (4)</a>, she declined to interfere in favour of the British owners of the vessels and cargoes concerned. And that she really considered the practice of the American Courts just and sound became clearly apparent @@ -26030,7 +25986,7 @@ English<a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a><a href="#Footnote_8 the <i>Manual of Naval Prize Law</i>, edited by Professor Holland<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> in 1888, and "issued by authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty," reprobated -the American practice, for in § 72 it lays down the +the American practice, for in § 72 it lays down the following rule: "... If the destination of the vessel be neutral, then the destination of the goods on board should be considered neutral, notwithstanding it may @@ -26054,7 +26010,7 @@ it, is that the articles must be taken <i>in delicto</i>, in the actual prosecution of the voyage to an enemy port," said Sir William Scott.<a name="FNanchor_842_842" id="FNanchor_842_842"></a><a href="#Footnote_842_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 247, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> See, for instance, Hall, § 247, and Twiss in <i>The Law Magazine and Review</i>, XII. (1877), pp. 130-158.</p></div> @@ -26070,7 +26026,7 @@ justified; see Holland, <i>Letters to the <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> 3 C. Rob. 167.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a> It is frequently maintained—see Phillimore, III. § 227, +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a> It is frequently maintained—see Phillimore, III. § 227, pp. 397-403—that in 1864, in the case of <i>Hobbs</i> v. <i>Henning</i>, Lord Chief Justice Erle repudiated the doctrine of continuous transports, but Westlake shows that this is not the case. See Westlake's Introduction in @@ -26088,19 +26044,19 @@ Doctrine of Continuous Transports.</p></div> -<p>§ 403. Although the majority of Continental writers +<p>§ 403. Although the majority of Continental writers condemn the doctrine of continuous transports, several eminent Continental authorities support it. Thus, Gessner (p. 119) emphatically asserts that the destination of the carrying vessel is of no importance compared with the destination of the carried goods themselves. -Bluntschli, although he condemns in § 835 the American +Bluntschli, although he condemns in § 835 the American practice regarding breach of blockade committed by a vessel sailing from one neutral port to another, expressly -approves in § 813 of the American practice +approves in § 813 of the American practice regarding carriage of contraband by a vessel sailing between two neutral ports, yet carrying goods with a -hostile destination. Kleen (I. § 95, p. 388) condemns +hostile destination. Kleen (I. § 95, p. 388) condemns the rule that the neutral destination of the vessel makes the goods appear likewise neutral, and defends seizure in the case of a hostile destination of the goods on a @@ -26118,23 +26074,23 @@ admitting the application of the theory of continuous voyages to carriage of contraband, but reprobating its application to breach of blockade. And the Institute of International Law adopted the rule:<a name="FNanchor_843_843" id="FNanchor_843_843"></a><a href="#Footnote_843_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a> "<i>La destination -pour l'ennemi est présumée lorsque le transport va -à l'un de ses ports, ou bien à un port neutre qui, d'après</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> -<i>des preuves évidentes et de fait incontestable, n'est qu'une -étape pour l'ennemi, comme but final de la même opération +pour l'ennemi est présumée lorsque le transport va +à l'un de ses ports, ou bien à un port neutre qui, d'après</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> +<i>des preuves évidentes et de fait incontestable, n'est qu'une +étape pour l'ennemi, comme but final de la même opération commerciale.</i>" Thus this representative body of authorities of all nations has fully adopted the American application of the doctrine of continuous voyages to contraband, and thereby recognised the possibility of circuitous as well as indirect carriage of contraband.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a> See § 1 of the <i>Règlementation +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a> See § 1 of the <i>Règlementation internationale de la contrebande de guerre</i>, <i>Annuaire</i>, XV. (1896), p. 230.</p></div> <p>And it must be mentioned that the attitude of several Continental States has hitherto been in favour of -the American practice. Thus, according to §§ 4 and 6 +the American practice. Thus, according to §§ 4 and 6 of the Prussian Regulations of 1864 regarding Naval Prizes, it was the hostile destination of the goods or the destination of the vessel to an enemy port which made @@ -26151,12 +26107,12 @@ been landed at Djibouti.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> See Kleen, I. p. 389, note 2.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_845_845" id="Footnote_845_845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_845_845"><span class="label">[845]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> 2nd Ser. XXVIII. p. 66. See - also below, § <a href="#It_is_a_moot_question436">436</a>.</p></div> + also below, § <a href="#It_is_a_moot_question436">436</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Partial Recognition by the Declaration of London of the Doctrine of Continuous Voyages.</p></div> -<p>§ 403<i>a</i>. <a name="The_Declaration_of403a" id="The_Declaration_of403a"></a>The Declaration of London offers a compromise +<p>§ 403<i>a</i>. <a name="The_Declaration_of403a" id="The_Declaration_of403a"></a>The Declaration of London offers a compromise in order to settle the controversy respecting the application of the doctrine of continuous voyages to the carriage of contraband, whether circuitous or indirect @@ -26211,11 +26167,11 @@ Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Capture for Carriage of Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 404. <a name="It_has_always_been404" id="It_has_always_been404"></a>It has always been universally recognised by +<p>§ 404. <a name="It_has_always_been404" id="It_has_always_been404"></a>It has always been universally recognised by theory and practice that a vessel carrying contraband may be seized by the cruisers of the belligerent concerned. But seizure is allowed only so long as a vessel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span> @@ -26239,9 +26195,9 @@ interfered and succeeded in getting the vessel released.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_847_847" id="Footnote_847_847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_847_847"><span class="label">[847]</span></a> The <i>Nancy</i> (1800), 3 C. Rob. 122; the <i>Margaret</i> (1810), 1 -Acton, 333. See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 80. Wheaton, I. § 506, note 2, -condemns this practice; Hall, § 247, p. 696, calls it "undoubtedly -severe"; Halleck, II. p. 220, defends it. See also Calvo, V. §§ +Acton, 333. See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 80. Wheaton, I. § 506, note 2, +condemns this practice; Hall, § 247, p. 696, calls it "undoubtedly +severe"; Halleck, II. p. 220, defends it. See also Calvo, V. §§ 2756-2758.</p></div> <p>It must be specially observed that seizure for carriage @@ -26266,7 +26222,7 @@ at an end.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Penalty for Carriage of Contraband according to the Practice hitherto prevailing.</p></div> -<p>§ 405. <a name="In_former_times_neither405" id="In_former_times_neither405"></a>In former times neither in theory nor in +<p>§ 405. <a name="In_former_times_neither405" id="In_former_times_neither405"></a>In former times neither in theory nor in practice have similar rules been recognised with regard to the penalty of carriage of contraband. The penalty was frequently confiscation not only of the contraband @@ -26328,7 +26284,7 @@ goods to the seizing cruiser,<a name="FNanchor_852_852" id="FNanchor_852_852"></ other States insisted upon the vessel being brought before a Prize Court in every case.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a> See Wheaton, <i>Histoire des Progrès du Droit des gens en +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a> See Wheaton, <i>Histoire des Progrès du Droit des gens en Europe</i> (1841), p. 82.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_849_849" id="Footnote_849_849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_849_849"><span class="label">[849]</span></a> Martens, <i>R.</i> IV. p. 42. The stipulation was renewed by @@ -26346,13 +26302,13 @@ capture, or seizure, on the high seas or elsewhere, by the armed vessels or by the military forces of either party; it being understood that this exemption shall not extend to vessels and their cargoes which may attempt to enter a port blockaded by the naval forces of either party." -See above, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of_Paris178">178</a>.</p></div> +See above, § <a href="#The_Declaration_of_Paris178">178</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 82-87.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 82-87.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> See Calvo, V. § 2779.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> See Calvo, V. § 2779.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 81.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 81.</p></div> <p>As regards conditional contraband, those States which made any distinction at all between absolute @@ -26375,13 +26331,13 @@ as carried provisions and other goods with a hostile destination of which he might have made use and to seize such goods against payment of their full value.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 84. Great Britain likewise +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 84. Great Britain likewise exercised pre-emption instead of confiscation with regard to such absolute contraband as was in an unmanufactured condition and was at the same time the produce of the country exporting it.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_855_855" id="Footnote_855_855"></a><a href="#FNanchor_855_855"><span class="label">[855]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction365">365</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction365">365</a>.</p></div> <p>The Institute of International Law, whose rules regarding contraband, adopted at its meeting at Venice @@ -26395,58 +26351,58 @@ they nevertheless give the choice to a belligerent of<span class="pagenum"><a na either exercising pre-emption or seizing and temporarily retaining such articles against payment of indemnities.<a name="FNanchor_856_856" id="FNanchor_856_856"></a><a href="#Footnote_856_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a> It is of value to print here the <i>Règlementation +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a> It is of value to print here the <i>Règlementation internationale de la contrebande de guerre</i> adopted by the Institute of International Law (<i>Annuaire</i>, XV. [1896] p. 230):— </p><p> -§ 1. Sont articles de contrebande de guerre: (1) les armes de toute -nature; (2) les munitions de guerre et les explosifs; (3) le matériel -militaire (objets d'équipement, affûts, uniformes, etc.); (4) les -vaisseaux équipés pour la guerre; (5) les instruments spécialement faits -pour la fabrication immédiate des munitions de guerre; lorsque ces -divers objets sont transportés par mer pour le compte ou à la -destination d'un belligérant. +§ 1. Sont articles de contrebande de guerre: (1) les armes de toute +nature; (2) les munitions de guerre et les explosifs; (3) le matériel +militaire (objets d'équipement, affûts, uniformes, etc.); (4) les +vaisseaux équipés pour la guerre; (5) les instruments spécialement faits +pour la fabrication immédiate des munitions de guerre; lorsque ces +divers objets sont transportés par mer pour le compte ou à la +destination d'un belligérant. </p><p> -La destination pour l'ennemi est présumée lorsque le transport va à l'un -de ses ports, ou bien à un port neutre qui, d'après des preuves -évidentes et de fait incontestable, n'est qu'une étape pour l'ennemi, -comme but final de la même opération commerciale. +La destination pour l'ennemi est présumée lorsque le transport va à l'un +de ses ports, ou bien à un port neutre qui, d'après des preuves +évidentes et de fait incontestable, n'est qu'une étape pour l'ennemi, +comme but final de la même opération commerciale. </p><p> -§ 2. Sous la dénomination de <i>munitions de guerre</i> doivent être compris -les objets qui, pour servir immédiatement à la guerre, n'exigent qu'une -simple réunion ou juxtaposition. +§ 2. Sous la dénomination de <i>munitions de guerre</i> doivent être compris +les objets qui, pour servir immédiatement à la guerre, n'exigent qu'une +simple réunion ou juxtaposition. </p><p> -§ 3. Un objet ne saurait être qualifié de contrebande à raison de la -seule intention de l'employer à aider ou favoriser un ennemi, ni par -cela seul qu'il pourrait être, dans un but militaire, utile à un ennemi -ou utilisé par lui, ou qu'il est destiné à son usage. +§ 3. Un objet ne saurait être qualifié de contrebande à raison de la +seule intention de l'employer à aider ou favoriser un ennemi, ni par +cela seul qu'il pourrait être, dans un but militaire, utile à un ennemi +ou utilisé par lui, ou qu'il est destiné à son usage. </p><p> -§ 4. Sont et demeurent abolies les prétendues contrebandes désignées +§ 4. Sont et demeurent abolies les prétendues contrebandes désignées sous les noms soit de contrebande <i>relative</i>, concernant des articles -(<i>usus ancipitis</i>) susceptibles d'être utilisés par un belligérant dans +(<i>usus ancipitis</i>) susceptibles d'être utilisés par un belligérant dans un but militaire, mais dont l'usage est essentiellement pacifique, soit de contrebande <i>accidentelle</i>, quand lesdits articles ne servent -spécialement aux buts militaires que dans une circonstance particulière. +spécialement aux buts militaires que dans une circonstance particulière. </p><p> -§ 5. Néanmoins le belligérant a, à son choix et à charge d'une équitable -indemnité, le droit de séquestre ou de préemption quant aux objets qui, -en chemin vers un port de son adversaire, peuvent également servir à -l'usage de la guerre et à des usages pacifiques. +§ 5. Néanmoins le belligérant a, à son choix et à charge d'une équitable +indemnité, le droit de séquestre ou de préemption quant aux objets qui, +en chemin vers un port de son adversaire, peuvent également servir à +l'usage de la guerre et à des usages pacifiques. </p> <hr class="small" /> -<p>§ 9. En cas de saisies ou répressions non justifiées pour cause de -contrebande ou de transport, l'État du capteur sera tenu aux -dommages-intérêts et à la restitution des objets. +<p>§ 9. En cas de saisies ou répressions non justifiées pour cause de +contrebande ou de transport, l'État du capteur sera tenu aux +dommages-intérêts et à la restitution des objets. </p><p> -§ 10. Un transport parti avant la déclaration de la guerre et sans -connaissance obligée de son imminence n'est pas punissable.</p></div> +§ 10. Un transport parti avant la déclaration de la guerre et sans +connaissance obligée de son imminence n'est pas punissable.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Penalty according to the Declaration of London for Carriage of Contraband.</p></div> -<p>§ 406. The Declaration of London offers by articles +<p>§ 406. The Declaration of London offers by articles 39 to 44 a settlement of the controversy respecting the penalty for carriage of contraband which represents a fair compromise.</p> @@ -26507,8 +26463,8 @@ whether or no they will be inclined to do this.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Seizure of Contraband without Seizure of the Vessel.</p></div> -<p>§ 406<i>a</i>. Hitherto the practice of the several States -has differed—see above, § <a href="#In_former_times_neither405">405</a>—with regard to the +<p>§ 406<i>a</i>. Hitherto the practice of the several States +has differed—see above, § <a href="#In_former_times_neither405">405</a>—with regard to the question as to whether a vessel which was not herself liable to condemnation might be allowed to proceed on her voyage on condition that she handed over the contraband @@ -26535,7 +26491,7 @@ stopped, and the master of the latter must give duly certified copies of all relevant papers to the captor.</p> <p>(2) According to article 54, the captor may—see -below, § <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>—exceptionally, in case of necessity, demand +below, § <a href="#That_as_a_rule431">431</a>—exceptionally, in case of necessity, demand the handing over, or may proceed himself to the destruction, of any absolute or conditional contraband goods found on a vessel which is not herself liable to @@ -26573,17 +26529,17 @@ itself of the carrying vessel.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 248-253—Lawrence, §§ 260-262—Westlake, II. pp. 261-265—Phillimore, -III. §§ 271-274—Halleck, II. pp. 289-301—Taylor, §§ 667-673—Walker, -§ 72—Wharton, III. § 374—Wheaton, §§ 502-504 and Dana's -note No. 228—Moore, VII. §§ 1264-1265—Bluntschli, §§ 815-818—Heffter, -§ 161<span class="smcap">A</span>—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 731-738—Ullmann, § 192—Bonfils, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 248-253—Lawrence, §§ 260-262—Westlake, II. pp. 261-265—Phillimore, +III. §§ 271-274—Halleck, II. pp. 289-301—Taylor, §§ 667-673—Walker, +§ 72—Wharton, III. § 374—Wheaton, §§ 502-504 and Dana's +note No. 228—Moore, VII. §§ 1264-1265—Bluntschli, §§ 815-818—Heffter, +§ 161<span class="smcap">A</span>—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 731-738—Ullmann, § 192—Bonfils, Nos. 1584-1588—Despagnet, Nos. 716-716 <i>bis</i>—Rivier, II. pp. 388-391—Nys, -III. pp. 675-681—Calvo, V. §§ 2796-2820—Fiore, III. Nos. -1602-1605, and Code, Nos. 1836-1840—Martens, II. § 136—Kleen, I. §§ +III. pp. 675-681—Calvo, V. §§ 2796-2820—Fiore, III. Nos. +1602-1605, and Code, Nos. 1836-1840—Martens, II. § 136—Kleen, I. §§ 103-106—Boeck, Nos. 660-669—Pillet, p. 330—Gessner, pp. 99-111—Perels, -§ 47—Testa, p. 212—Dupuis, Nos. 231-238, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 172-188—Bernsten, -§ 9—Nippold, II. § 35—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 88-105—U.S. +§ 47—Testa, p. 212—Dupuis, Nos. 231-238, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 172-188—Bernsten, +§ 9—Nippold, II. § 35—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 88-105—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 16 and 20—Hautefeuille, II. pp. 173-188—Ortolan, II. pp. 209-213—Mountague Bernard, <i>Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i> (1870), pp. 187-205—Marquardsen, <i>Der @@ -26592,8 +26548,8 @@ Transporte in Kriegszeiten</i> (1897), pp. 42-55—Takahashi, <i>Internation Law during the Chino-Japanese War</i> (1899), pp. 52-72—Vetzel, <i>De la contrebande par analogie en droit maritime internationale</i> (1901)—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906), pp. 304-315—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale -Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 31-32—See also the monographs quoted -above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, and the General Report presented +Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 31-32—See also the monographs quoted +above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, and the General Report presented to the Naval Conference of London on behalf of the Drafting Committee, articles 45-47.</p> @@ -26601,7 +26557,7 @@ articles 45-47.</p> service in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 407. <a name="Before_the_Declaration407" id="Before_the_Declaration407"></a>Before the Declaration of London the term +<p>§ 407. <a name="Before_the_Declaration407" id="Before_the_Declaration407"></a>Before the Declaration of London the term <i>unneutral service</i> was used by several writers with reference to the carriage of certain persons and despatches for the enemy on the part of neutral vessels. @@ -26661,14 +26617,14 @@ in the interest of the enemy constitute the first kind, and four groups of acts creating enemy character for the vessel concerned constitute the second kind.<a name="FNanchor_860_860" id="FNanchor_860_860"></a><a href="#Footnote_860_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> Although—see above, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a> and <a href="#As_regards_means174">174</a>—prevention of +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> Although—see above, §§ <a href="#The_purpose_of_war173">173</a> and <a href="#As_regards_means174">174</a>—prevention of unneutral service to the enemy is a means of sea warfare, it chiefly concerns neutral commerce, and is, therefore, more conveniently treated with neutrality.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Carriage of Persons for the Enemy.</p></div> -<p>§ 408. Either belligerent may punish neutral vessels +<p>§ 408. Either belligerent may punish neutral vessels for carrying, in the service of the enemy, certain persons.</p> @@ -26750,9 +26706,9 @@ done or at least repeated," said Sir William Scott.<a name="FNanchor_865_865" id <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_863_863" id="Footnote_863_863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_863_863"><span class="label">[863]</span></a> 4 C. Rob. 256.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 274, and -Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 90-91. Hall, -§ 249, p. 700, note 2, reprobates the +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a> See Phillimore, III. § 274, and +Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 90-91. Hall, +§ 249, p. 700, note 2, reprobates the British practice. During the Russo-Japanese War only one case of condemnation of a neutral vessel for @@ -26821,9 +26777,9 @@ the same is valid regarding agents with a quasi-diplomatic character. See <i>Parliamentary Papers</i>, 1862, North America, N. 5; Marquardsen, <i>Der -Trent Fall</i> (1862); Wharton, § 374; -Moore, VII. § 1265; Phillimore, II. -§§ 130-130<span class="smcap">A</span>; Mountague Bernard, +Trent Fall</i> (1862); Wharton, § 374; +Moore, VII. § 1265; Phillimore, II. +§§ 130-130<span class="smcap">A</span>; Mountague Bernard, <i>Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i> (1870), pp. 187-205; Harris, <i>The Trent Affair</i> (1896).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span></p></div> @@ -26856,7 +26812,7 @@ individual members of the armed forces of the enemy.</p> exclusively intended at the time for the transport of enemy troops acquires thereby enemy character. This case will be considered with others of the same kind -below in § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p> +below in § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p> <p>(2) In case a vessel, although she is not exclusively therefor destined, and although she is not on a voyage @@ -26897,7 +26853,7 @@ a neutral vessel carrying members of the armed forces of the enemy while pursuing her ordinary course, may be stopped for the purpose of taking off such enemy persons and making them prisoners of war (see below, -§ <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>).</p> +§ <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Transmission of @@ -26906,7 +26862,7 @@ to the Enemy.</p></div> -<p>§ 409. <a name="Either_belligerent409" id="Either_belligerent409"></a>Either belligerent may punish neutral merchantmen +<p>§ 409. <a name="Either_belligerent409" id="Either_belligerent409"></a>Either belligerent may punish neutral merchantmen for transmission of intelligence to the enemy.</p> <p>According to customary rules hitherto in force, @@ -26955,8 +26911,8 @@ hidden in the trunk of a supercargo, was condemned.<a name="FNanchor_870_870" id <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_870_870" id="Footnote_870_870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_870_870"><span class="label">[870]</span></a> British practice seems unsettled on the question as to whether the vessel must know of the character of the despatch which she is carrying. In spite of the case of the <i>Rapid</i>, quoted above, Holland, -<i>Prize Law</i>, § 100, maintains that ignorance of the master of the vessel -is no excuse, and Phillimore, III. § 272, seems to be of the same +<i>Prize Law</i>, § 100, maintains that ignorance of the master of the vessel +is no excuse, and Phillimore, III. § 272, seems to be of the same opinion.</p></div> <p>According to the Declaration of London the carriage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span> @@ -26970,7 +26926,7 @@ distinguished:—</p> vessel exclusively intended for the transmission of intelligence to the enemy acquires thereby enemy character; this will be considered with other cases of -the same kind below in § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p> +the same kind below in § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a>.</p> <p>Secondly, according to article 45, No. 1, a neutral vessel may be seized for transmitting intelligence to the @@ -26988,7 +26944,7 @@ detaining such a liner for the purpose of preventing the intelligence from reaching the enemy.<a name="FNanchor_871_871" id="FNanchor_871_871"></a><a href="#Footnote_871_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_871_871" id="Footnote_871_871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_871_871"><span class="label">[871]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>.</p></div> <p>The conception "transmission of intelligence" is not defined by the Declaration of London. It certainly @@ -27014,7 +26970,7 @@ creating Enemy Character.</p></div> -<p>§ 410. <a name="In_contradistinction410" id="In_contradistinction410"></a>In contradistinction to cases of unneutral +<p>§ 410. <a name="In_contradistinction410" id="In_contradistinction410"></a>In contradistinction to cases of unneutral service which are similar to carriage of contraband, the Declaration of London enumerates in article 46 four cases of such kinds of unneutral service as vest neutral @@ -27030,7 +26986,7 @@ made between taking a direct part in the hostilities, for instance rendering assistance to the enemy fleet during battle, on the one hand, and, on the other, acts of a piratical character. If a neutral merchantman—see -above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>, 181, and <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>—without Letters of +above, §§ <a href="#In_a_sense_the_crews85">85</a>, 181, and <a href="#Since_International_Law254">254</a>—without Letters of Marque during war and from hatred of one of the belligerents, were to attack and sink merchantmen of such belligerent, she would have to be considered, and @@ -27084,7 +27040,7 @@ and paid for the transport of troops or the transmission of intelligence, or whether she renders the service<a name="FNanchor_874_874" id="FNanchor_874_874"></a><a href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> gratuitously.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a> (1), p. 113.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a> (1), p. 113.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_873_873" id="Footnote_873_873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_873_873"><span class="label">[873]</span></a> Two cases of interest occurred in 1905, during the Russo-Japanese War. The <i>Industrie</i>, a German vessel, and the @@ -27095,7 +27051,7 @@ Chefoo <i>Daily News</i>, and the latter pretended to be a cargo vessel plying between neutral ports. See Takahashi, pp. 732 and 735.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_874_874" id="Footnote_874_874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_874_874"><span class="label">[874]</span></a> As regards the meaning of the term transmission of -intelligence, see above, § <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a>.</p></div> +intelligence, see above, § <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a>.</p></div> @@ -27105,11 +27061,11 @@ intelligence, see above, § <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a>.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Before_the_Declaration407">407</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#Before_the_Declaration407">407</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Capture for Unneutral Service.</p></div> -<p>§ 411. <a name="According_to411" id="According_to411"></a>According to customary rules hitherto prevailing, +<p>§ 411. <a name="According_to411" id="According_to411"></a>According to customary rules hitherto prevailing, as well as according to the Declaration of London, a neutral vessel may be captured if visit or search establish the fact, or grave suspicion of the fact, @@ -27134,7 +27090,7 @@ A mail boat is, therefore, quite as much as any other<span class="pagenum"><a na merchantman, exposed to capture for rendering unneutral service.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#No_general_rule191">191</a> and <a href="#The_duty_of_either319">319</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a> See above, §§ <a href="#No_general_rule191">191</a> and <a href="#The_duty_of_either319">319</a>.</p></div> <p>However this may be, capture is allowed only so long as the vessel is <i>in delicto</i>, that is during the time @@ -27160,7 +27116,7 @@ which has disembarked the agent of the enemy Government under whose orders or control she was navigating.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_876_876" id="Footnote_876_876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_876_876"><span class="label">[876]</span></a> Provided she did not—see -above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a> (1)—commit acts of a piratical +above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction410">410</a> (1)—commit acts of a piratical character; for such acts she may always be punished.</p></div> @@ -27168,7 +27124,7 @@ always be punished.</p></div> for Unneutral Service.</p></div> -<p>§ 412. <a name="According_to412" id="According_to412"></a>According to the practice hitherto prevailing, +<p>§ 412. <a name="According_to412" id="According_to412"></a>According to the practice hitherto prevailing, a neutral vessel captured for carriage of persons or despatches in the service of the enemy could be confiscated. Moreover, according to British<a name="FNanchor_877_877" id="FNanchor_877_877"></a><a href="#Footnote_877_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a> practice, such @@ -27185,7 +27141,7 @@ to punishment for transporting them for the enemy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_877_877" id="Footnote_877_877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_877_877"><span class="label">[877]</span></a> The <i>Friendship</i> (1807), 6 C. Rob. 420; the <i>Atalanta</i> (1808), 6 C. Rob. -440. See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 95 +440. See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 95 and 105.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_878_878" id="Footnote_878_878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_878_878"><span class="label">[878]</span></a> See, however, the <i>Hope</i> (1808), 6 @@ -27204,7 +27160,7 @@ the armed forces of the enemy who were found on board the vessel. The case of despatches found on board is not mentioned by article 47, but there ought to be no doubt—see - below, § <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>—that the old customary rule + below, § <a href="#According_to_the413">413</a>—that the old customary rule that, although the vessel may not be condemned because there is no ground for capture, any despatches for the enemy found on board may, in analogy with article 47, @@ -27263,7 +27219,7 @@ for having rendered any of the four kinds of unneutral service enumerated in this article which, in a general way, is the same as that for a captured enemy merchantman.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span> This means that such vessel acquires enemy -character. Accordingly (see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>) all enemy +character. Accordingly (see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>) all enemy goods on the vessel may be seized, all goods on board will be presumed to be enemy goods, and the owners of neutral goods on board will have to prove the neutral @@ -27280,12 +27236,12 @@ of unneutral service.<a name="FNanchor_879_879" id="FNanchor_879_879"></a><a hre destroyed by the captor, the innocent owners of the neutral goods on board may claim compensation, has to be decided in the same way as the question as to whether the owners of neutral goods on a destroyed enemy -merchantman have a claim to compensation; see above, § <a href="#Since_through_adjudication194">194</a>.</p></div> +merchantman have a claim to compensation; see above, § <a href="#Since_through_adjudication194">194</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Seizure of Enemy Persons and Despatches without Seizure of Vessel.</p></div> -<p>§ 413. <a name="According_to_the413" id="According_to_the413"></a>According to the British<a name="FNanchor_880_880" id="FNanchor_880_880"></a><a href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a> and American +<p>§ 413. <a name="According_to_the413" id="According_to_the413"></a>According to the British<a name="FNanchor_880_880" id="FNanchor_880_880"></a><a href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a> and American practice, as well as that of some other States, which has hitherto prevailed, whenever a neutral vessel was stopped for carrying persons or despatches for the @@ -27315,10 +27271,10 @@ of the armed forces of the enemy on board may be seized, although the vessel herself may not be seized, as she is not rendering unneutral service.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 104.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a> See Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, § 104.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_881_881" id="Footnote_881_881"></a><a href="#FNanchor_881_881"><span class="label">[881]</span></a> See -above, § <a href="#Footnote_865_865">408, p. 519, note 3</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#Footnote_865_865">408, p. 519, note 3</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_882_882" id="Footnote_882_882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_882_882"><span class="label">[882]</span></a> Accordingly, in January 1912, during the Turco-Italian War, the Italian gunboat <i>Volturno</i>, after having overhauled, in the Red Sea, @@ -27347,7 +27303,7 @@ carrying a despatch of the enemy not in her mail bags but separately, the vessel may not, according to article 45, be seized. In this, and similar cases, may despatches be seized without the seizure of the vessel? It has -been pointed out above, § <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a>, that, in a case of necessity, +been pointed out above, § <a href="#Either_belligerent409">409</a>, that, in a case of necessity, self-preservation would justify a belligerent in temporarily detaining such a liner for the purpose of preventing the intelligence from reaching the enemy. @@ -27355,7 +27311,7 @@ This certainly fits the case of a vessel transmitting oral intelligence. But if a vessel carried despatches, the necessity of detaining her ceases through seizure of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span> despatches themselves. The question—see above, -§ <a href="#According_to412">412</a>—as to whether in such cases the despatches may +§ <a href="#According_to412">412</a>—as to whether in such cases the despatches may be seized without seizure of the vessel ought, therefore, in analogy with article 47 of the Declaration of London, to be answered in the affirmative.</p> @@ -27376,14 +27332,14 @@ the case where an Ambassador of the enemy on board a neutral vessel is on the way to submit to a neutral a draft treaty of alliance injurious to the other belligerent.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a> See Hall, § 253; Rivier, II. p. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a> See Hall, § 253; Rivier, II. p. 390.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_884_884" id="Footnote_884_884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_884_884"><span class="label">[884]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Fr129">vol. I. § 129</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Fr129">vol. I. § 129</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It130">vol. I. § 130</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#It130">vol. I. § 130</a>.</p></div> <div class="box4"> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span></p> @@ -27402,26 +27358,26 @@ NEUTRAL VESSELS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. pub.</i> I. c. 14—Vattel, III. § 114—Hall, §§ 270-276—Manning, -pp. 433-460—Phillimore, III. §§ 322-344—Twiss, II. §§ 91-97—Halleck, -II. pp. 255-271—Taylor, §§ 685-689—Wharton, III. §§ 325 and -346—Wheaton, §§ 524-537—Moore, VII. §§ 1199-1205—Bluntschli, §§ -819-826—Heffter, §§ 167-171—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 773-781—Klüber, -§§ 293-294—G. F. Martens, II. §§ 317 and 321—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, +<p class="indh1">Bynkershoek, <i>Quaest. jur. pub.</i> I. c. 14—Vattel, III. § 114—Hall, §§ 270-276—Manning, +pp. 433-460—Phillimore, III. §§ 322-344—Twiss, II. §§ 91-97—Halleck, +II. pp. 255-271—Taylor, §§ 685-689—Wharton, III. §§ 325 and +346—Wheaton, §§ 524-537—Moore, VII. §§ 1199-1205—Bluntschli, §§ +819-826—Heffter, §§ 167-171—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 773-781—Klüber, +§§ 293-294—G. F. Martens, II. §§ 317 and 321—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, Nos. 1674-1691—Despagnet, Nos. 717-721—Rivier, II. pp. 423-426—Nys, -III. pp. 682-692—Calvo, V. §§ 2939-2991—Fiore, III. Nos. -1630-1641, and Code, Nos. 1853-1877—Martens, II. § 137—Kleen, II. §§ +III. pp. 682-692—Calvo, V. §§ 2939-2991—Fiore, III. Nos. +1630-1641, and Code, Nos. 1853-1877—Martens, II. § 137—Kleen, II. §§ 185-199, 209—Gessner, pp. 278-332—Boeck, Nos. 767-769—Dupuis, Nos. -239-252, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 189-204—Bernsten, § 11—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, -§§ 52-55—Testa, pp. 230-242—Ortolan, II. pp. 214-245—Hautefeuille, -III. pp. 1-299—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 1-17, 155-230—U.S. +239-252, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 189-204—Bernsten, § 11—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, +§§ 52-55—Testa, pp. 230-242—Ortolan, II. pp. 214-245—Hautefeuille, +III. pp. 1-299—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 1-17, 155-230—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 30-33—Schlegel, <i>Sur la visite des vaisseaux -neutres sous convoi</i> (1800)—Mirbach, <i>Die völkerrechtlichen Grundsätze des +neutres sous convoi</i> (1800)—Mirbach, <i>Die völkerrechtlichen Grundsätze des Durchsuchungsrechts zur See</i> (1903)—Loewenthal, <i>Das Untersuchungsrecht des internationalen Seerechts im Krieg und Frieden</i> (1905)—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906), pp. 299-360—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale -Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 33-34—Duboc in <i>R.G.</i> IV. (1897), pp 382-403—See -also the monographs quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, +Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 33-34—Duboc in <i>R.G.</i> IV. (1897), pp 382-403—See +also the monographs quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, Bulmerincq's articles on <i>Le droit des prises maritimes</i> in <i>R.I.</i> X-XIII. (1878-1881), and the General Report presented to the Naval Conference of London on behalf of the Drafting Committee, article 63.</p> @@ -27431,7 +27387,7 @@ of Right of Visitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 414. Right of visitation<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> is the right of belligerents +<p>§ 414. Right of visitation<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> is the right of belligerents to visit and eventually search neutral merchantmen for the purpose of ascertaining whether these vessels really belong to the merchant marine of neutrals, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span> @@ -27440,7 +27396,7 @@ to break a blockade, or carry contraband, or render unneutral service to the enemy. The right of visit and search was already mentioned in the <i>Consolato del Mare</i>, and although it has often<a name="FNanchor_887_887" id="FNanchor_887_887"></a><a href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a> been contested, its -<i>raison d'être</i> is so obvious that it has long been universally +<i>raison d'être</i> is so obvious that it has long been universally recognised in practice. It is indeed the only means by which belligerents are able to ascertain whether neutral merchantmen intend to bring assistance to the enemy @@ -27448,26 +27404,26 @@ and to render him unneutral services.<a name="FNanchor_888_888" id="FNanchor_888 <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> It must be borne in mind that this right of visitation is not an independent right but is involved in the right of either -belligerent—see above, § <a href="#There_are_two_rights314">314</a>—to punish neutral vessels breaking +belligerent—see above, § <a href="#There_are_two_rights314">314</a>—to punish neutral vessels breaking blockade, carrying contraband, and rendering unneutral service.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> See, for instance, Hübner, <i>De la saisie des bâtiments +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> See, for instance, Hübner, <i>De la saisie des bâtiments neutres</i> (1759), I. p. 227.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a> Attention should be drawn to the <i>Règlement international +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a> Attention should be drawn to the <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>, adopted at Heidelberg in 1887 by the Institute of -International Law; §§ 1-29 regulate visit and search. See <i>Annuaire</i>, +International Law; §§ 1-29 regulate visit and search. See <i>Annuaire</i>, IX. (1888), p. 202.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Right of Visitation, by whom, when, and where exercised.</p></div> -<p>§ 415. The right of visit and search may be exercised +<p>§ 415. The right of visit and search may be exercised by all warships<a name="FNanchor_889_889" id="FNanchor_889_889"></a><a href="#Footnote_889_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> of belligerents. But since it is a belligerent right, it may, of course, only be exercised after the outbreak and before the end of war. The right of visitation on the part of men-of-war of all nations in time of peace in a case of suspicion of piracy—see -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ve2of266">vol. I. § 266 (2)</a>—has nothing to do with +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Ve2of266">vol. I. § 266 (2)</a>—has nothing to do with the right of visit and search on the part of belligerents. And since an armistice does not bring war to an end, and since, on the other hand, the exercise of the right of @@ -27494,17 +27450,17 @@ of Marque, such a case will no longer occur.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a> But this is not universally recognised. Thus, Hautefeuille, III. p. 91, maintains that during a general armistice the right of -visitation may not be exercised, and § 5 of the <i>Règlement international +visitation may not be exercised, and § 5 of the <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i> of the Institute of International Law takes up the same attitude. It ought, likewise, to be mentioned that in strict law the right of visit and search may be exercised even after the conclusion of peace before the treaty of peace is ratified. But the above-mentioned -§ 5 of the <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i> declares this -right to cease "avec les préliminaires de la paix." See below, § <a href="#It_is_a_moot_question436">436</a>.</p></div> +§ 5 of the <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i> declares this +right to cease "avec les préliminaires de la paix." See below, § <a href="#It_is_a_moot_question436">436</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Only Private Vessels may be Visited.</p></div> -<p>§ 416. During the nineteenth century it became +<p>§ 416. During the nineteenth century it became universally recognised that neutral men-of-war are not objects of the right of visit and search of belligerents.<a name="FNanchor_891_891" id="FNanchor_891_891"></a><a href="#Footnote_891_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a> And the same is valid regarding public neutral vessels @@ -27522,13 +27478,13 @@ absence of contraband and unneutral service.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a> In former times Great Britain tried to extend visitation to neutral men-of-war. See Manning, p. 455.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a> See, for instance, Gessner, p. 297, and Perels, § 52, IV.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a> See, for instance, Gessner, p. 297, and Perels, § 52, IV.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vessels under Convoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 417. <a name="Sweden_in417" id="Sweden_in417"></a>Sweden in 1653, during war between Great +<p>§ 417. <a name="Sweden_in417" id="Sweden_in417"></a>Sweden in 1653, during war between Great Britain and the Netherlands, claimed that the belligerents ought to waive their right of visitation over Swedish merchantmen if the latter sailed under the @@ -27603,7 +27559,7 @@ of diplomacy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No Universal Rules regarding Mode of Visitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 418. There are no rules of International Law +<p>§ 418. There are no rules of International Law which lay down all the details of the formalities of the mode of visitation. A great many treaties regulate them as between the parties, and all maritime nations @@ -27614,24 +27570,24 @@ others the practice of the several States differs. Article 17 of the Peace Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 has served as a model of many of the above-mentioned treaties regulating the formalities of visitation: "Les<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span> -navires d'Espagne, pour éviter tout désordre, n'approcheront -pas de plus près les Français que la portée +navires d'Espagne, pour éviter tout désordre, n'approcheront +pas de plus près les Français que la portée du canon, et pourront envoyer leur petite barque ou -chaloupe à bord des navires français et faire entrer -dedans deux ou trois hommes seulement, à qui seront -montrés les passeports par le maître du navire français, +chaloupe à bord des navires français et faire entrer +dedans deux ou trois hommes seulement, à qui seront +montrés les passeports par le maître du navire français, par lesquels il puisse apparoir, non seulement de la -charge, mais aussi du lieu de sa demeure et résidence, -et du nom tant du maître ou patron que du navire -même, afin que, par ces deux moyens, on puisse connaître, +charge, mais aussi du lieu de sa demeure et résidence, +et du nom tant du maître ou patron que du navire +même, afin que, par ces deux moyens, on puisse connaître, s'il porte des marchandises de contrebande; et qu'il -apparaisse suffisamment tant de la qualité du dit navire -que de son maître ou patron; auxquelles passeports on -devra donner entière foi et créance."</p> +apparaisse suffisamment tant de la qualité du dit navire +que de son maître ou patron; auxquelles passeports on +devra donner entière foi et créance."</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Stopping of Vessels for the Purpose of Visitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 419. A man-of-war which wishes to visit a neutral +<p>§ 419. A man-of-war which wishes to visit a neutral vessel must stop her or make her bring to. Although the chasing of vessels may take place under false colours, the right colours must be shown when vessels @@ -27649,17 +27605,17 @@ a cannon shot; but all this is totally impracticable.<a name="FNanchor_895_895" The distance must vary according to the requirements of the case, and according to wind and weather.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Ruses_are_customarily211">211</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Ruses_are_customarily211">211</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_894_894" id="Footnote_894_894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_894_894"><span class="label">[894]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th268">vol. I. § 268</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th268">vol. I. § 268</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_895_895" id="Footnote_895_895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_895_895"><span class="label">[895]</span></a> See Ortolan, II. p. 220, and -Perels, § 53, pp. 284, 285.</p></div> +Perels, § 53, pp. 284, 285.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Visit.</p></div> -<p>§ 420. The vessel, having been stopped or brought +<p>§ 420. The vessel, having been stopped or brought to, is visited<a name="FNanchor_896_896" id="FNanchor_896_896"></a><a href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a> by one or two officers sent in a boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span> from the man-of-war. These officers examine the papers of the vessel to ascertain her nationality, the @@ -27672,7 +27628,7 @@ with his papers on board the former and examining the papers there.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_896_896" id="Footnote_896_896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_896_896"><span class="label">[896]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th268">vol. I. § 268</a>, and Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th268">vol. I. § 268</a>, and Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 195-216.</p></div> <p>If everything is found in order and there is no @@ -27689,7 +27645,7 @@ searched.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Search.</p></div> -<p>§ 421. Search is effected<a name="FNanchor_897_897" id="FNanchor_897_897"></a><a href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> by one or two officers, +<p>§ 421. Search is effected<a name="FNanchor_897_897" id="FNanchor_897_897"></a><a href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> by one or two officers, and eventually a few men, in presence of the master of the vessel. Care must be taken not to damage the vessel or the cargo, and no force whatever must be @@ -27721,11 +27677,11 @@ light against the vessel, seizure should take place only in case of grave suspicion.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_897_897" id="Footnote_897_897"></a><a href="#FNanchor_897_897"><span class="label">[897]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Se269">vol. I. § 269</a>, and Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 217-230.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Se269">vol. I. § 269</a>, and Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, §§ 217-230.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Resistance to Visitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 422. <a name="If_a_neutral422" id="If_a_neutral422"></a>If a neutral merchantman resists visit or +<p>§ 422. <a name="If_a_neutral422" id="If_a_neutral422"></a>If a neutral merchantman resists visit or search, she is at once captured, and may be confiscated. The question as to whether the vessel only, or also her cargo, could be confiscated for resistance has hitherto @@ -27743,7 +27699,7 @@ that the vessel only was liable to confiscation.</p> resistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of visit, search, and capture involves in all cases the confiscation of the vessel, which by her forcible resistance has -acquired enemy character (see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>). For this +acquired enemy character (see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>). For this reason such goods on board as belong to the master or owner of the vessel are treated as enemy goods and may be confiscated. Enemy goods on board may now @@ -27767,7 +27723,7 @@ be guilty or innocent.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>What constitutes Resistance.</p></div> -<p>§ 423. <a name="According_to423" id="According_to423"></a>According to the practice hitherto prevailing,<a name="FNanchor_900_900" id="FNanchor_900_900"></a><a href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> +<p>§ 423. <a name="According_to423" id="According_to423"></a>According to the practice hitherto prevailing,<a name="FNanchor_900_900" id="FNanchor_900_900"></a><a href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> and also according to the Declaration of London, a mere attempt on the part of a neutral merchantman to escape visitation does not in itself constitute resistance. @@ -27797,7 +27753,7 @@ develop a practice which would decide these points.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Sailing under Enemy Convoy equivalent to Resistance.</p></div> -<p>§ 424. Wheaton excepted, all writers would seem +<p>§ 424. Wheaton excepted, all writers would seem to agree that the fact of neutral merchantmen sailing under a convoy of enemy men-of-war is equivalent to forcible resistance on their part, whether they themselves @@ -27823,10 +27779,10 @@ future."<a name="FNanchor_902_902" id="FNanchor_902_902"></a><a href="#Footnote_ <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_901_901" id="Footnote_901_901"></a><a href="#FNanchor_901_901"><span class="label">[901]</span></a> Martens, <i>N.R.</i> VIII. p. 350.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 530-537, and Taylor, § 693, p. 790. Wheaton +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a> See Wheaton, §§ 530-537, and Taylor, § 693, p. 790. Wheaton was the negotiator of this treaty on the part of the United States.—With the case of neutral merchantmen sailing under enemy -convoy, the other case—see above, § 185—in which neutral goods are +convoy, the other case—see above, § 185—in which neutral goods are placed on board an armed enemy vessel is frequently confused. In the case of the <i>Fanny</i> (1814), 1 Dodson, 443, Sir William Scott condemned neutral Portuguese property on the ground that placing neutral property @@ -27835,11 +27791,11 @@ the Supreme Court of the United States of America, in the of the <i>Nereide</i> (1815), 9 Cranch, 388, held the contrary view. The Court was composed of four judges, of whom Story was one, and the latter dissented from the majority and considered the British practice correct. See -Phillimore, III. § 341, and Wheaton, § 529.</p></div> +Phillimore, III. § 341, and Wheaton, § 529.</p></div> <p>Article 63 of the Declaration of London does not—as was pointed out - above in § <a href="#According_to423">423</a>—define the term + above in § <a href="#According_to423">423</a>—define the term forcible resistance, but it is to be expected that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span> practice of the International Prize Court would consider the sailing under enemy convoy equivalent to forcible @@ -27847,7 +27803,7 @@ resistance.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Resistance by Neutral Convoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 425. Since Great Britain did not, before agreeing +<p>§ 425. Since Great Britain did not, before agreeing to the Declaration of London, recognise the right of convoy and had always insisted upon the right of visitation to be exercised over neutral merchantmen @@ -27865,7 +27821,7 @@ convoy of a Swedish man-of-war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_904_904" id="Footnote_904_904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_904_904"><span class="label">[904]</span></a> The <i>Elsebe</i>, 5 C Rob. 173.</p></div> -<p>Since Great Britain—see above, § <a href="#Sweden_in417">417</a>—has abandoned +<p>Since Great Britain—see above, § <a href="#Sweden_in417">417</a>—has abandoned her opposition to the right of convoy and has agreed to articles 61 and 62 of the Declaration of London which lay down rules concerning the matter, @@ -27884,13 +27840,13 @@ under the Declaration of London arise.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Deficiency of Papers.</p></div> -<p>§ 426. <a name="Since_the_purpose426" id="Since_the_purpose426"></a>Since the purpose of visit is to ascertain +<p>§ 426. <a name="Since_the_purpose426" id="Since_the_purpose426"></a>Since the purpose of visit is to ascertain the nationality of a vessel, the character of her cargo and passengers, and the ports from and to which she is sailing, it is obvious that this purpose cannot be realised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span> in case the visited vessel is deficient in her papers. As stated - above in <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al262">Vol. I. § 262</a>, every merchantman ought + above in <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Al262">Vol. I. § 262</a>, every merchantman ought to carry the following papers: (1) A certificate of registry or a sea-letter (passport); (2) the muster-roll; (3) the log-book; (4) the manifest of cargo; (5) bills @@ -27917,7 +27873,7 @@ cases concerned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Spoliation, Defacement, and Concealment of Papers.</p></div> -<p>§ 427. Mere deficiency of papers does not arouse +<p>§ 427. Mere deficiency of papers does not arouse the same suspicion which a vessel incurs if she destroys<a name="FNanchor_905_905" id="FNanchor_905_905"></a><a href="#Footnote_905_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> or throws overboard any of her papers, defaces them or conceals them, and in especial in case the @@ -27934,7 +27890,7 @@ suspicion.<a name="FNanchor_906_906" id="FNanchor_906_906"></a><a href="#Footnot <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a> The <i>Hunter</i> (1815), 1 Dodson, 480.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a> See the case of the <i>Apollo</i> in Calvo, V. § 2989.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a> See the case of the <i>Apollo</i> in Calvo, V. § 2989.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London does not mention the case of spoliation of papers, and it would therefore be @@ -27943,7 +27899,7 @@ uniform practice concerning the subject.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Double and False Papers.</p></div> -<p>§ 428. The highest suspicion is aroused through the +<p>§ 428. The highest suspicion is aroused through the fact that a visited vessel carries double papers, or false<a name="FNanchor_907_907" id="FNanchor_907_907"></a><a href="#Footnote_907_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a> papers, and such vessel may certainly be seized. But the practice of the several States has hitherto differed @@ -27963,7 +27919,7 @@ whom the capture was made, but not in other cases.<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id= <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> The <i>St. Nicholas</i> (1816), 1 Wheaton, 417.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> See Halleck, II. p. 271; Hall, § 276; Taylor, § 690.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> See Halleck, II. p. 271; Hall, § 276; Taylor, § 690.</p></div> <p>Since the Declaration of London does not mention the case of double or false papers, it would likewise be @@ -27977,26 +27933,26 @@ uniform practice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546] </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 277—Lawrence, § 191—Phillimore, III. §§ 361-364—Twiss, II. §§ 166-184—Halleck, -II. pp. 362-391—Taylor, § 691—Moore, VII. §§ 1206-1214—Bluntschli, -§ 860—Heffter, §§ 171, 191, 192—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 777-780—Ullmann, § 196—Rivier, II. pp. 426-428—Nys, III. pp. -697-709—Calvo, V. §§ 3004-3034—Fiore, III. Nos. 1644-1657, and Code, -Nos. 1878-1889—Martens, II. §§ 126-137—Kleen, II. §§ 203-218—Gessner, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 277—Lawrence, § 191—Phillimore, III. §§ 361-364—Twiss, II. §§ 166-184—Halleck, +II. pp. 362-391—Taylor, § 691—Moore, VII. §§ 1206-1214—Bluntschli, +§ 860—Heffter, §§ 171, 191, 192—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 777-780—Ullmann, § 196—Rivier, II. pp. 426-428—Nys, III. pp. +697-709—Calvo, V. §§ 3004-3034—Fiore, III. Nos. 1644-1657, and Code, +Nos. 1878-1889—Martens, II. §§ 126-137—Kleen, II. §§ 203-218—Gessner, pp. 333-356—Boeck, Nos. 770-777—Dupuis, Nos. 253-281, and -<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 205-217—Bernsten, § 11—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, § 55—Testa, +<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 205-217—Bernsten, § 11—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, § 55—Testa, pp. 243-244—Hautefeuille, III. pp. 214-299—Holland, <i>Prize Law</i>, -§§ 231-314—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 46-50—Atherley-Jones, +§§ 231-314—U.S. Naval War Code, articles 46-50—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906), pp. 361-646—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale -Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 35-37—See also the monographs quoted above at -the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, Bulmerincq's articles on <i>Le droit des prises +Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 35-37—See also the monographs quoted above at +the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, Bulmerincq's articles on <i>Le droit des prises maritimes</i> in <i>R.I.</i> X-XIII. (1878-1881), and the General Report presented to the Naval Conference of London on behalf of its Drafting Committee, articles 48-54.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Grounds and Mode of Capture.</p></div> -<p>§ 429. From the statements given above in §§ +<p>§ 429. From the statements given above in §§ 368-428 regarding blockade, contraband, unneutral service, and visitation, it is obvious that capture may take place either because the vessel, or the cargo, or @@ -28009,17 +27965,17 @@ although no ground for confiscation of either vessel or cargo, or both, has been detected.</p> <p>The mode of capture is the same as described -above in § 184 regarding capture of enemy vessels.<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a></p> +above in § 184 regarding capture of enemy vessels.<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a> The <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>, adopted +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a> The <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>, adopted by the Institute of International Law at its meeting at Heidelberg in -1887, regulates capture in §§ 45-62; see <i>Annuaire</i>, IX. (1888), p. +1887, regulates capture in §§ 45-62; see <i>Annuaire</i>, IX. (1888), p. 204.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Capture of Neutral Vessels, and their Conduct to Port.</p></div> -<p>§ 430. The effect of capture of neutral vessels is in +<p>§ 430. The effect of capture of neutral vessels is in every way different from the effect of capture of enemy vessels,<a name="FNanchor_912_912" id="FNanchor_912_912"></a><a href="#Footnote_912_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a> since the purpose of capture differs in these two cases. Capture of enemy vessels is made for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span> @@ -28043,17 +27999,17 @@ regards passengers, if any, they have to be released as soon as possible, with the exception of those enemy persons who may be made prisoners of war.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_effect_of_seizure185">185</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#The_effect_of_seizure185">185</a>.</p></div> <p>Regarding the conduct of captured neutral vessels to a port of a Prize Court, the same is valid as regards conduct of captured enemy vessels<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> to such port.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#As_soon_as_a_vessel193">193</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#As_soon_as_a_vessel193">193</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Destruction of Neutral Prizes.</p></div> -<p>§ 431. <a name="That_as_a_rule431" id="That_as_a_rule431"></a>That as a rule captured neutral vessels +<p>§ 431. <a name="That_as_a_rule431" id="That_as_a_rule431"></a>That as a rule captured neutral vessels may not be sunk, burned, or otherwise destroyed has always been universally recognised just as that captured enemy merchantmen may not as a rule be destroyed. @@ -28089,8 +28045,8 @@ of the other vessels destroyed, because her Prize Courts considered them to have been justly captured.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_914_914" id="Footnote_914_914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_914_914"><span class="label">[914]</span></a> The <i>Actaeon</i> (1815), 2 Dodson, 48; the <i>Felicity</i> (1819), -2 Dodson, 381; the <i>Leucade</i> (1855), Spinks, 217. See Phillimore, III. § -333; Twiss, II. § 166; Hall, § 77; Holland, <i>Letters to the "Times" upon +2 Dodson, 381; the <i>Leucade</i> (1855), Spinks, 217. See Phillimore, III. § +333; Twiss, II. § 166; Hall, § 77; Holland, <i>Letters to the "Times" upon War and Neutrality</i> (1909), pp. 140-150.</p></div> <p>The Declaration of London proposes to settle the @@ -28154,11 +28110,11 @@ vessel are mentioned in the text as are in accordance with the Declaration of London. The practice of some States has hitherto admitted confiscation in other cases also, for instance, in case of deficiency, spoliation, or defacement of ship papers, and in case of double and -false papers; see above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_purpose426">426</a>-428. It will be the task of the +false papers; see above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_purpose426">426</a>-428. It will be the task of the International Prize Court to evolve a uniform practice with regard to such cases. Likewise the text does not enumerate the cases in which the sinking of a neutral vessel is permissible because she previously -acquired enemy character; concerning this, see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>.</p></div> +acquired enemy character; concerning this, see above, § <a href="#The_general_rule89">89</a>.</p></div> <p>However this may be, when the captor feels compelled to resort to the destruction of a neutral prize, he @@ -28194,15 +28150,15 @@ into a port of a Prize Court would involve danger to the captor or to the success of the operations in which he is at the time of capture engaged. Details concerning such destruction have been given above in -§ 406<i>a</i> (2).</p> +§ 406<i>a</i> (2).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ransom and Recapture of Neutral Prizes.</p></div> -<p>§ 432. Regarding ransom of captured neutral vessels, +<p>§ 432. Regarding ransom of captured neutral vessels, the same is valid as regards ransom of captured enemy vessels.<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_916_916" id="Footnote_916_916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_916_916"><span class="label">[916]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Although_prizes195">195</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_916_916" id="Footnote_916_916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_916_916"><span class="label">[916]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#Although_prizes195">195</a>.</p></div> <p>As regards recapture of neutral prizes,<a name="FNanchor_917_917" id="FNanchor_917_917"></a><a href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> the rule ought to be that <i>ipso facto</i> by recapture the vessel @@ -28215,8 +28171,8 @@ punishment of a neutral vessel by the enemy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_917_917" id="Footnote_917_917"></a><a href="#FNanchor_917_917"><span class="label">[917]</span></a> See Hautefeuille, III. pp. 366-406; Gessner, pp. 344-356; Kleen, -II. § 217; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -IV. pp. 778-780; Calvo, V. §§ 3210-3216.</p></div> +II. § 217; Geffcken in Holtzendorff, +IV. pp. 778-780; Calvo, V. §§ 3210-3216.</p></div> <p>But the matter of recapture of neutral prizes is not settled, no rule of International Law and no uniform @@ -28229,13 +28185,13 @@ salvage, in case the recaptured vessel would have been liable to condemnation if brought into an enemy port.</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_918_918" id="Footnote_918_918"></a><a href="#FNanchor_918_918"><span class="label">[918]</span></a> The <i>War Onskan</i> (1799), 2 C. Rob. 299. See Holland, <i>Prize -Law</i>, § 270.</p></div> +Law</i>, § 270.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Release after Capture.</p></div> -<p>§ 433. Besides the case in which captured vessels +<p>§ 433. Besides the case in which captured vessels must be abandoned, because they cannot for some reason or another be brought into a port, there are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span> cases in which they are released without a trial. The @@ -28274,19 +28230,19 @@ be settled through the diplomatic channel only.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 188-190—Maine, p. 96—Manning, pp. 472-483—Phillimore, III. -§§ 433-508—Twiss, II. §§ 169-170—Halleck, II. pp. 393-429—Taylor, §§ -563-567—Wharton, III. §§ 328-330—Moore, VII. §§ 1222-1248—Wheaton, -§§ 389-397—Bluntschli, §§ 841-862—Heffter, §§ 172-173—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 781-788—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, Nos. 1676-1691—Despagnet, +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 188-190—Maine, p. 96—Manning, pp. 472-483—Phillimore, III. +§§ 433-508—Twiss, II. §§ 169-170—Halleck, II. pp. 393-429—Taylor, §§ +563-567—Wharton, III. §§ 328-330—Moore, VII. §§ 1222-1248—Wheaton, +§§ 389-397—Bluntschli, §§ 841-862—Heffter, §§ 172-173—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 781-788—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, Nos. 1676-1691—Despagnet, Nos. 677-682 <i>bis</i>—Rivier, II. pp. 353-356—Nys, III. pp. -710-718—Calvo, V. §§ 3035-3087—Fiore, III. Nos. 1681-1691, and Code, -Nos. 1890-1929—Martens, II. §§ 125-126—Kleen, II. §§ 219-234—Gessner, +710-718—Calvo, V. §§ 3035-3087—Fiore, III. Nos. 1681-1691, and Code, +Nos. 1890-1929—Martens, II. §§ 125-126—Kleen, II. §§ 219-234—Gessner, pp. 357-427—Boeck, Nos. 740-800—Dupuis, Nos. 282-301, and <i>Guerre</i>, -Nos. 218-223—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, §§ 56-57—Testa, pp. 244-247—Hautefeuille, +Nos. 218-223—Nippold, II. § 35—Perels, §§ 56-57—Testa, pp. 244-247—Hautefeuille, III. pp. 299-365—Atherley-Jones, <i>Commerce in War</i> (1906), -pp. 361-594—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912), § 38—See -also the monographs quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, +pp. 361-594—Hirschmann, <i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912), § 38—See +also the monographs quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_term_contraband391">391</a>, and Bulmerincq's articles on <i>Le droit des prises maritimes</i> in <i>R.I.</i> X.-XIII. (1878-1881).</p> @@ -28296,7 +28252,7 @@ Vessels a Municipal Matter.</p></div> -<p>§ 434. <a name="Although_belligerents434" id="Although_belligerents434"></a>Although belligerents have, under certain +<p>§ 434. <a name="Although_belligerents434" id="Although_belligerents434"></a>Although belligerents have, under certain circumstances, according to International Law, the right to capture neutral vessels, and although they have the duty to bring these vessels for trial before a Prize @@ -28318,11 +28274,11 @@ blockade begins and when it ends, have hitherto been differently answered by the practice of different States.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_919_919" id="Footnote_919_919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_919_919"><span class="label">[919]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#It_has_already192">192</a>. The matter is regulated so far as Great +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_919_919" id="Footnote_919_919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_919_919"><span class="label">[919]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#It_has_already192">192</a>. The matter is regulated so far as Great Britain is concerned by the Naval Prize Act, 1864 (27 and 28 Vict. ch. 25) and the Prize Courts Act, 1894 (57 and 58 Vict. ch. 39). The -<i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>, adopted in 1887 at -Heidelberg by the Institute of International Law, provides in §§ 63-118 +<i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>, adopted in 1887 at +Heidelberg by the Institute of International Law, provides in §§ 63-118 detailed rules concerning the organisation of Prize Courts and the procedure before them; see <i>Annuaire</i>, IX. (1888), p. 208.</p></div> @@ -28334,7 +28290,7 @@ vast majority of English and American writers<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNan him. But it is to be expected that the recognition of the difference between Municipal and International Law, as expounded - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th20">Vol. I., §§ 20</a>-25, and of the + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Th20">Vol. I., §§ 20</a>-25, and of the fact that States only, and neither their Courts nor officials nor citizens, are subjects of International Law, will lead to the general recognition of the fact @@ -28345,7 +28301,7 @@ not and cannot be International Law.</p> C. Rob. 341; the <i>Fox and others</i> (1811), Edwards, 311.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_921_921" id="Footnote_921_921"></a><a href="#FNanchor_921_921"><span class="label">[921]</span></a> See, for instance, Halleck, II. p. 411; Maine, p. 96; -Manning, p. 472; Phillimore, III. §§ 433-436; Hall, § 277. On the other +Manning, p. 472; Phillimore, III. §§ 433-436; Hall, § 277. On the other hand, Holland, <i>Studies</i>, p. 199; Westlake, II. p. 289; and Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, p. 467, distinctly agree with me.</p></div> @@ -28371,7 +28327,7 @@ matter.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Result of Trial.</p></div> -<p>§ 435. The trial of a captured neutral ship can +<p>§ 435. The trial of a captured neutral ship can have one or more of five results:—vessel and cargo can be condemned,<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> or the vessel alone, or the cargo alone; and the vessel and cargo can be released @@ -28401,7 +28357,7 @@ involves the loss of the vessel at the date of capture; see <i>Andersen</i> v. <i>Marten</i>, L.R. (1907) 2 K.B. 248.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_924_924" id="Footnote_924_924"></a><a href="#FNanchor_924_924"><span class="label">[924]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In163">vol. I. § 163</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#In163">vol. I. § 163</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Trial after @@ -28409,7 +28365,7 @@ Conclusion of Peace.</p></div> -<p>§ 436. <a name="It_is_a_moot_question436" id="It_is_a_moot_question436"></a>It is a moot question whether neutral vessels +<p>§ 436. <a name="It_is_a_moot_question436" id="It_is_a_moot_question436"></a>It is a moot question whether neutral vessels captured before conclusion of peace may be tried after the conclusion of peace.<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a> I think that the answer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span> must be in the affirmative, even if a special clause is @@ -28430,8 +28386,8 @@ but pronounced that, peace having been concluded, confiscation of vessel and cargo would no longer be lawful.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a> See Perels, § 57, p. 309, in contradistinction to -Bluntschli, § 862. But there is, of course, no doubt that a belligerent +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a> See Perels, § 57, p. 309, in contradistinction to +Bluntschli, § 862. But there is, of course, no doubt that a belligerent can exercise an act of grace and release such prizes. Thus, in November 1905, at the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the Mikado proclaimed the unconditional release of all neutral prizes captured after the signing @@ -28465,7 +28421,7 @@ a uniform practice in the cases concerned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protests and Claims of Neutrals after Trial.</p></div> -<p>§ 437. <a name="Hitherto_if_a_trial437" id="Hitherto_if_a_trial437"></a>Hitherto, if a trial led to condemnation, and if +<p>§ 437. <a name="Hitherto_if_a_trial437" id="Hitherto_if_a_trial437"></a>Hitherto, if a trial led to condemnation, and if the latter was confirmed by the Court of Appeal, the matter as between the captor and the owner of the captured vessel and cargo was finally settled. But the @@ -28489,7 +28445,7 @@ captured during war between Great Britain and France in 1747 and 1748 as unjust, which made him in 1752 resort to reprisal and cease the payment of the interest of the Silesian Loan. The matter was settled<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> in 1756, -through the payment of £20,000 as indemnity by +through the payment of £20,000 as indemnity by Great Britain. Thus, further, after the American Civil War, articles 12-17 of the Treaty of Washington<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a> provided the appointment of three Commissioners for @@ -28501,17 +28457,17 @@ Peruvian Courts, Germany interposed and the vessel was released.<a name="FNanchor_931_931" id="FNanchor_931_931"></a><a href="#Footnote_931_931" class="fnanchor">[931]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_927_927" id="Footnote_927_927"></a><a href="#FNanchor_927_927"><span class="label">[927]</span></a> See -above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Although_aliens319">vol. I. § 319</a>.</p></div> +above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#Although_aliens319">vol. I. § 319</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_928_928" id="Footnote_928_928"></a><a href="#FNanchor_928_928"><span class="label">[928]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#An_act_of_reprisal37">37</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_928_928" id="Footnote_928_928"></a><a href="#FNanchor_928_928"><span class="label">[928]</span></a> See above, § <a href="#An_act_of_reprisal37">37</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> See Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, II. +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> See Martens, <i>Causes Célèbres</i>, II. p. 167.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_930_930" id="Footnote_930_930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_930_930"><span class="label">[930]</span></a> See Martens, <i>N.R.G.</i> XX. p. 698.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_931_931" id="Footnote_931_931"></a><a href="#FNanchor_931_931"><span class="label">[931]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_has_always_been404">404</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_has_always_been404">404</a>.</p></div> <p>The ratification of the Declaration of London and the establishment of the International Prize Court @@ -28536,21 +28492,21 @@ disputes.</p> <p class="indh1">Geffcken in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 785-788—Boeck, Nos. 743-764—Dupuis, -No. 289, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 224-231—Higgins, pp. 432-435—Lémonon, pp. -280-293—Nippold, I. § 15—Trendelenburg, <i>Lücken im Völkerrecht</i> (1870), -pp. 49-53—Gessner, <i>Kriegführende und neutrale Mächte</i> (1877), pp. 52-58—Bulmerincq +No. 289, and <i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 224-231—Higgins, pp. 432-435—Lémonon, pp. +280-293—Nippold, I. § 15—Trendelenburg, <i>Lücken im Völkerrecht</i> (1870), +pp. 49-53—Gessner, <i>Kriegführende und neutrale Mächte</i> (1877), pp. 52-58—Bulmerincq and Gessner in <i>R.I.</i> XI. (1879), pp. 173-191, and XIII. (1881), pp. 260-267.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Early Projects.</p></div> -<p>§ 438. Numerous inconveniences must naturally +<p>§ 438. Numerous inconveniences must naturally result from a condition of International Law which has hitherto prevailed and according to which the Courts of the belligerent whose forces had captured neutral vessels exercised jurisdiction without any control by -neutrals. Although, as shown above in § <a href="#Hitherto_if_a_trial437">437</a>, neutrals +neutrals. Although, as shown above in § <a href="#Hitherto_if_a_trial437">437</a>, neutrals frequently interfered after a trial and succeeded in obtaining recognition for their claims in face of the verdicts of Prize Courts, great dissatisfaction has long @@ -28559,19 +28515,19 @@ and proposals have been made for so-called mixed Prize Courts.</p> <p>The first proposal of this kind was made in 1759 by -Hübner,<a name="FNanchor_932_932" id="FNanchor_932_932"></a><a href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> who suggested a Prize Court composed of +Hübner,<a name="FNanchor_932_932" id="FNanchor_932_932"></a><a href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> who suggested a Prize Court composed of judges nominated by the belligerent and of consuls or councillors nominated by the home State of the captured neutral merchantmen.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_932_932" id="Footnote_932_932"></a><a href="#FNanchor_932_932"><span class="label">[932]</span></a> <i>De la saisie des bâtiments neutres</i> (1759), vol. II. p. 21.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_932_932" id="Footnote_932_932"></a><a href="#FNanchor_932_932"><span class="label">[932]</span></a> <i>De la saisie des bâtiments neutres</i> (1759), vol. II. p. 21.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span></p></div> <p>A somewhat similar proposal was made by Tetens<a name="FNanchor_933_933" id="FNanchor_933_933"></a><a href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> in 1805.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_933_933" id="Footnote_933_933"></a><a href="#FNanchor_933_933"><span class="label">[933]</span></a> <i>Considérations sur les droits réciproques des puissances -belligérantes et des puissances neutres sur mer, avec les principes du -droit de guerre en général</i> (1805), p. 163.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_933_933" id="Footnote_933_933"></a><a href="#FNanchor_933_933"><span class="label">[933]</span></a> <i>Considérations sur les droits réciproques des puissances +belligérantes et des puissances neutres sur mer, avec les principes du +droit de guerre en général</i> (1805), p. 163.</p></div> <p>Other proposals followed until the Institute of International Law took up the matter in 1875, appointing, @@ -28607,7 +28563,7 @@ neutral maritime Powers.</p> <p>Finally, the Institute agreed, at its meeting at Heidelberg in 1887, upon the following proposal, -which is embodied in §§ 100-109 of the <i>Règlement +which is embodied in §§ 100-109 of the <i>Règlement international des prises maritimes</i>:<a name="FNanchor_936_936" id="FNanchor_936_936"></a><a href="#Footnote_936_936" class="fnanchor">[936]</a>—At the beginning of a war each belligerent institutes a Court of Appeal consisting of five judges, the president and one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span> @@ -28631,7 +28587,7 @@ Prize Courts.</p> Project of 1907.</p></div> -<p>§ 439. The German project<a name="FNanchor_937_937" id="FNanchor_937_937"></a><a href="#Footnote_937_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a> was embodied in a +<p>§ 439. The German project<a name="FNanchor_937_937" id="FNanchor_937_937"></a><a href="#Footnote_937_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a> was embodied in a draft of thirty-one articles dealing in three chapters with "Competence in Prize Cases," "Organisation of the International Prize Court," and "Procedure before @@ -28664,13 +28620,13 @@ belligerent and the owners of the captured vessels or cargoes should have the right to bring an appeal before the International Prize Court.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_937_937" id="Footnote_937_937"></a><a href="#FNanchor_937_937"><span class="label">[937]</span></a> <i>Deuxième Conférence, Actes</i>, II. p. 1071.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_937_937" id="Footnote_937_937"></a><a href="#FNanchor_937_937"><span class="label">[937]</span></a> <i>Deuxième Conférence, Actes</i>, II. p. 1071.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>British Project of 1907.</p></div> -<p>§ 440. The British project<a name="FNanchor_938_938" id="FNanchor_938_938"></a><a href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a> was embodied in a draft +<p>§ 440. The British project<a name="FNanchor_938_938" id="FNanchor_938_938"></a><a href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a> was embodied in a draft of sixteen articles, and made the following proposals:—The International Prize Court should be competent in such cases only as directly concerned a neutral Power @@ -28700,7 +28656,7 @@ point of legal interest, the Court should base its decision thereon, otherwise the Court should decide according to the principles of International Law.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_938_938" id="Footnote_938_938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_938_938"><span class="label">[938]</span></a> <i>Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, Actes</i>, II. p. 1076.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_938_938" id="Footnote_938_938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_938_938"><span class="label">[938]</span></a> <i>Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, Actes</i>, II. p. 1076.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Convention XII. @@ -28709,7 +28665,7 @@ Second Peace Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 441. The Second Peace Conference, after having +<p>§ 441. The Second Peace Conference, after having studied and discussed the German and the British projects, produced the "Convention (XII.) respecting the establishment of an International Prize Court" @@ -28775,20 +28731,20 @@ PRIZE COURT</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Westlake, II. pp. 288-297—Lawrence, § 192—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, Nos. +<p class="indh1">Westlake, II. pp. 288-297—Lawrence, § 192—Ullmann, § 196—Bonfils, Nos. 1440<span class="topnum">1</span>-1440<span class="topnum">3</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 683-683 <i>bis</i>—Fiore, Code, Nos. 1897-1901—Dupuis, -<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 232-276—Bernsten, § 14—Lémonon, pp. 293-335—Higgins, +<i>Guerre</i>, Nos. 232-276—Bernsten, § 14—Lémonon, pp. 293-335—Higgins, pp. 435-444—Barclay, <i>Problems</i>, pp. 105-108—Scott, <i>Conferences</i>, -pp. 466-511—Nippold, I. §§ 16-19—Fried, <i>Die zweite Haager Konferenz</i> +pp. 466-511—Nippold, I. §§ 16-19—Fried, <i>Die zweite Haager Konferenz</i> (1908), pp. 121-130—Lawrence, <i>International Problems</i> (1908), pp. 132-159—Hirschmann, -<i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 39-41—Gregory, +<i>Das internationale Prisenrecht</i> (1912), §§ 39-41—Gregory, White, and Scott in <i>A.J.</i> II. (1908), pp. 458-475, and 490-506, and V. (1911), pp. 302-324—Donker Curtius in <i>R.I.</i> 2nd Ser. XI. (1909), pp. 5-36.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Personnel.</p></div> -<p>§ 442. <a name="The_International_Prize442" id="The_International_Prize442"></a>The International Prize Court consists of +<p>§ 442. <a name="The_International_Prize442" id="The_International_Prize442"></a>The International Prize Court consists of judges and deputy judges, a judge who is absent or prevented from sitting being replaced by a deputy (article 14). The judges and the deputies are appointed @@ -28825,7 +28781,7 @@ although in time of peace they will not sit.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Deciding Tribunal.</p></div> -<p>§ 443. The judges appointed by the contracting +<p>§ 443. The judges appointed by the contracting Powers do not, as a body, decide the appeal cases brought before the Court. From among the great number of judges appointed, a deciding tribunal is formed which @@ -29010,7 +28966,7 @@ and, in case the votes are equal, by lot (article 19).</p> <p>The judges—as well as the deputies when they sit—receive, while carrying out their duties, a salary of -one hundred Netherland florins (about £8, 4s.) <i>per diem</i>, +one hundred Netherland florins (about £8, 4s.) <i>per diem</i>, besides travelling expenses. The salaries and travelling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span> expenses are to be paid by the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the judges @@ -29037,7 +28993,7 @@ to a decision by a majority of votes, and its members must, of course, reside at the Hague while they fulfil their duties (article 48).</p> -<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_939_939" id="Footnote_939_939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_939_939"><span class="label">[939]</span></a> The working-order (<i>ordre intérieur</i>) of the International +<div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_939_939" id="Footnote_939_939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_939_939"><span class="label">[939]</span></a> The working-order (<i>ordre intérieur</i>) of the International Prize Court is to be drawn up by the Court itself; see details in article 49.</p></div> @@ -29063,7 +29019,7 @@ Council and International Bureau.</p></div> -<p>§ 444. The Administrative Council of the Permanent +<p>§ 444. The Administrative Council of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague serves at the same time as the Administrative Council of the International Prize Court, but only representatives of the Powers @@ -29087,7 +29043,7 @@ Advocates, and Attorneys.</p></div> -<p>§ 445. Belligerent as well as neutral Powers concerned +<p>§ 445. Belligerent as well as neutral Powers concerned in a case may appoint special Agents to act as intermediaries between themselves and the International Prize Court, and they may also engage Counsel or @@ -29103,7 +29059,7 @@ higher teaching centres of those countries (article 26).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Competence.</p></div> -<p>§ 446. The general principle underlying the rules of +<p>§ 446. The general principle underlying the rules of Convention XII. concerning the competence of the International Prize Court is that on the whole, <i>although not exclusively</i>, the Court is competent in cases where @@ -29140,7 +29096,7 @@ was wrong either in fact or in law (article 3).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_940_940" id="Footnote_940_940"></a><a href="#FNanchor_940_940"><span class="label">[940]</span></a> Since the question of enemy or neutral character of individuals—see -above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>—is for some parts controversial, +above, § <a href="#The_general_rule88">88</a>—is for some parts controversial, the International Prize Court would have to decide the controversy.</p></div> @@ -29187,13 +29143,13 @@ proceedings of the National Court or Courts concerned (article 5, second paragraph).</p> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_941_941" id="Footnote_941_941"></a><a href="#FNanchor_941_941"><span class="label">[941]</span></a> But note article 51 of Convention XII.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_942_942" id="Footnote_942_942"></a><a href="#FNanchor_942_942"><span class="label">[942]</span></a> See - above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No289">vol. I. § 289</a>, p. 365.</p></div> + above, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41046/41046-h/41046-h.htm#No289">vol. I. § 289</a>, p. 365.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>What Law to be applied.</p></div> -<p>§ 447. As regards the law to be applied by the +<p>§ 447. As regards the law to be applied by the International Prize Court, article 7 of Convention XII. contains the following provisions and distinctions:—</p> @@ -29236,12 +29192,12 @@ powers are still very wide.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_International_Prize442">442</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#The_International_Prize442">442</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Entering of Appeal.</p></div> -<p>§ 448. As a rule there are two ways of entering an +<p>§ 448. As a rule there are two ways of entering an appeal against the judgment of a National Prize Court, namely, either by a written declaration made in the National Court against whose judgment the appeal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[Pg 573]</a></span> @@ -29306,7 +29262,7 @@ expired (article 31).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Pleadings and Discussion.</p></div> -<p>§ 449. The procedure, which follows the entry of an +<p>§ 449. The procedure, which follows the entry of an appeal and the preliminary steps in consequence thereof, comprises two distinct phases, namely, written pleadings and oral discussion.</p> @@ -29359,7 +29315,7 @@ the parties all decisions or orders made in their absence <div class="sidenote"><p>Judgment.</p></div> -<p>§ 450. After the discussion follows the judgment of +<p>§ 450. After the discussion follows the judgment of the Court.</p> <p>The deliberation of the Court in order to agree upon @@ -29400,7 +29356,7 @@ to the owner of the captured vessel or cargo (article 8).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expenses and Costs.</p></div> -<p>§ 451. The <i>general expenses</i> of the International +<p>§ 451. The <i>general expenses</i> of the International Prize Court are borne by the contracting Powers in proportion to their share in the composition of the Court as laid down in article 15 of Convention XII.; @@ -29432,7 +29388,7 @@ article 48—by its delegation (article 46, third paragraph).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reason for Action in Damages instead of Appeal.</p></div> -<p>§ 452. According to the Constitution of the United +<p>§ 452. According to the Constitution of the United States of America, and probably that of some other States, no appeal may be brought against a judgment of their Highest Courts. These States could not, @@ -29490,7 +29446,7 @@ for Damages is brought.</p></div> -<p>§ 453. According to article 1 of the Protocol, those +<p>§ 453. According to article 1 of the Protocol, those signatory or acceding Powers of Convention XII. which are prevented by difficulties of a constitutional nature from accepting the Convention in its unaltered @@ -29500,7 +29456,7 @@ their National Courts have jurisdiction, recourse to the International Prize Court may only be had in the form of an action in damages for the injury caused by the capture. In consequence thereof the procedure in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span> -International Prize Court, as described above, §§ 448-451, +International Prize Court, as described above, §§ 448-451, takes place with the following modifications:—</p> <p>(1) The action for damages may only be brought @@ -29545,79 +29501,79 @@ the Government of the belligerent captor (article 7).</p> <span>DECLARATION OF PARIS OF 1856</span> </h3> -<p>Les Plénipotentiaires qui ont signé -le Traité de Paris du trente mars, mil -huit cent cinquante-six, réunis en Conférence,—</p> +<p>Les Plénipotentiaires qui ont signé +le Traité de Paris du trente mars, mil +huit cent cinquante-six, réunis en Conférence,—</p> -<p>Considérant:</p> +<p>Considérant:</p> <p>Que le droit maritime, en temps de -guerre, a été pendant longtemps l'objet +guerre, a été pendant longtemps l'objet de contestations regrettables;</p> <p>Que l'incertitude du droit et des devoirs -en pareille matière, donne lieu, -entre les neutres et les belligérants, à +en pareille matière, donne lieu, +entre les neutres et les belligérants, à des divergences d'opinion qui peuvent -faire naître des difficultés sérieuses et -même des conflits;</p> +faire naître des difficultés sérieuses et +même des conflits;</p> -<p>Qu'il y a avantage, par conséquent, à -établir une doctrine uniforme sur un +<p>Qu'il y a avantage, par conséquent, à +établir une doctrine uniforme sur un point aussi important;</p> -<p>Que les Plénipotentiaires assemblés -au Congrès de Paris ne sauraient mieux -répondre aux intentions, dont leurs -Gouvernements sont animés, qu'en -cherchant à introduire dans les rapports +<p>Que les Plénipotentiaires assemblés +au Congrès de Paris ne sauraient mieux +répondre aux intentions, dont leurs +Gouvernements sont animés, qu'en +cherchant à introduire dans les rapports internationaux des principes fixes -à cet égard;</p> +à cet égard;</p> -<p>Dûment autorisés, les susdits Plénipotentiaires +<p>Dûment autorisés, les susdits Plénipotentiaires sont convenus de se concerter sur les moyens d'atteindre ce -but; et étant tombés d'accord ont -arrêté la Déclaration solennelle ci-après:—</p> +but; et étant tombés d'accord ont +arrêté la Déclaration solennelle ci-après:—</p> <p>1. La course est et demeure abolie;</p> <p>2. Le pavillon neutre couvre la marchandise -ennemie, à l'exception de la +ennemie, à l'exception de la contrebande de guerre;</p> -<p>3. La marchandise neutre, à l'exception +<p>3. La marchandise neutre, à l'exception de la contrebande de guerre, n'est pas saisissable sous pavillon ennemi;</p> -<p>4. Les blocus, pour être obligatoires, -doivent être effectifs, c'est-à-dire, maintenus +<p>4. Les blocus, pour être obligatoires, +doivent être effectifs, c'est-à -dire, maintenus par une force suffisante pour interdire -réellement l'accès du littoral de +réellement l'accès du littoral de l'ennemi.</p> -<p>Les Gouvernements des Plénipotentiaires -soussignés s'engagent à porter -cette Déclaration à la connaissance des -États, qui n'ont pas été appelés à participer -au Congrès de Paris, et à les -inviter à y accéder.</p> +<p>Les Gouvernements des Plénipotentiaires +soussignés s'engagent à porter +cette Déclaration à la connaissance des +États, qui n'ont pas été appelés à participer +au Congrès de Paris, et à les +inviter à y accéder.</p> <p>Convaincus qui les maximes qu'ils viennent de proclamer ne sauraient -être accueillies qu'avec gratitude par -le monde entier, les Plénipotentiaires -soussignés ne doutent pas, que les +être accueillies qu'avec gratitude par +le monde entier, les Plénipotentiaires +soussignés ne doutent pas, que les efforts de leurs Gouvernements pour -en généraliser l'adoption ne soient -couronnés d'un plein succès.</p> +en généraliser l'adoption ne soient +couronnés d'un plein succès.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration n'est et ne +<p>La présente Déclaration n'est et ne sera obligatoire qu'entre les Puissances, -qui y ont, ou qui y auront accédé.</p> +qui y ont, ou qui y auront accédé.</p> -<p>Fait à Paris, le seize avril, mil huit +<p>Fait à Paris, le seize avril, mil huit cent cinquante-six.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span></p> @@ -29627,87 +29583,87 @@ cent cinquante-six.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 58 <span>DECLARATION OF ST. PETERSBURG OF 1868</span> </h3> -<p>Sur la proposition du Cabinet Impérial +<p>Sur la proposition du Cabinet Impérial de Russie, une Commission Militaire -Internationale ayant été réunie à -Saint-Pétersbourg, afin d'examiner la +Internationale ayant été réunie à +Saint-Pétersbourg, afin d'examiner la convenance d'interdire l'usage de certains projectiles en temps de guerre -entre les nations civilisées, et cette -Commission ayant fixé d'un commun -accord les limites techniques où les -nécessités de la guerre doivent s'arrêter -devant les exigences de l'humanité, les -Soussignés sont autorisés par les ordres -de leurs Gouvernements à déclarer ce +entre les nations civilisées, et cette +Commission ayant fixé d'un commun +accord les limites techniques où les +nécessités de la guerre doivent s'arrêter +devant les exigences de l'humanité, les +Soussignés sont autorisés par les ordres +de leurs Gouvernements à déclarer ce qui suit:</p> -<p>Considérant que les progrès de la +<p>Considérant que les progrès de la civilisation doivent avoir pour effet -d'atténuer autant que possible les -calamités de la guerre;</p> +d'atténuer autant que possible les +calamités de la guerre;</p> -<p>Que le seul but légitime que les États +<p>Que le seul but légitime que les États doivent se proposer durant la guerre est l'affaiblissement des forces militaires de l'ennemi;</p> -<p>Qu'à cet effet, il suffit de mettre hors +<p>Qu'à cet effet, il suffit de mettre hors de combat le plus grand nombre d'hommes possible;</p> -<p>Que ce but serait dépassé par l'emploi +<p>Que ce but serait dépassé par l'emploi d'armes qui aggraveraient inutilement les souffrances des hommes mis hors de -combat, ou rendraient leur mort inévitable;</p> +combat, ou rendraient leur mort inévitable;</p> <p>Que l'emploi de pareilles armes serait -dès lors contraire aux lois de l'humanité;</p> +dès lors contraire aux lois de l'humanité;</p> <p>Les Parties Contractantes s'engagent -à renoncer mutuellement, en cas de -guerre entre elles, à l'emploi par leurs +à renoncer mutuellement, en cas de +guerre entre elles, à l'emploi par leurs troupes de terre ou de mer, de tout -projectile d'un poids inférieur à 400 +projectile d'un poids inférieur à 400 grammes, qui serait ou explosible ou -chargé de matières fulminantes ou +chargé de matières fulminantes ou inflammables.</p> -<p>Elles inviteront tous les États, qui -n'ont pas participé par l'envoi de Délégués -aux délibérations de la Commission -Militaire Internationale réunie à -Saint-Pétersbourg, à accéder au présent +<p>Elles inviteront tous les États, qui +n'ont pas participé par l'envoi de Délégués +aux délibérations de la Commission +Militaire Internationale réunie à +Saint-Pétersbourg, à accéder au présent engagement.</p> <p>Cet engagement n'est obligatoire que pour les Parties Contractantes ou -Accédantes en cas de guerre entre +Accédantes en cas de guerre entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre elles: il -n'est pas applicable vis-à-vis de Parties +n'est pas applicable vis-à -vis de Parties non-Contractantes ou qui n'auraient -pas accédé.</p> +pas accédé.</p> -<p>Il cesserait également d'être obligatoire -du moment où, dans une guerre -entre Parties Contractantes ou Accédantes, +<p>Il cesserait également d'être obligatoire +du moment où, dans une guerre +entre Parties Contractantes ou Accédantes, une partie non-Contractante, -ou qui n'aurait pas accédé, se joindrait -à l'un des belligérants.</p> +ou qui n'aurait pas accédé, se joindrait +à l'un des belligérants.</p> -<p>Les Parties Contractantes ou Accédantes -se réservent de s'entendre ultérieurement +<p>Les Parties Contractantes ou Accédantes +se réservent de s'entendre ultérieurement toutes les fois qu'une proposition -précise serait formulée en vue -des perfectionnements à venir que la +précise serait formulée en vue +des perfectionnements à venir que la science pourrait apporter dans l'armement des troupes, afin de maintenir les -principes, qu'elles ont posés et de concilier -les nécessités de la guerre avec -les lois de l'humanité.</p> +principes, qu'elles ont posés et de concilier +les nécessités de la guerre avec +les lois de l'humanité.</p> -<p>Fait à Saint-Pétersbourg, le -vingt-neuf novembre onze décembre, mil huit cent soixante-huit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span></p> +<p>Fait à Saint-Pétersbourg, le +vingt-neuf novembre onze décembre, mil huit cent soixante-huit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span></p> @@ -29718,81 +29674,81 @@ vingt-neuf novembre onze décembre, mil huit cent soixante-huit.<span class="page <span class="smaller"><i>Signed at the Hague, July 29, 1899</i></span> </h3> -<p>Les Soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des -Puissances représentées à la Conférence -Internationale de la Paix à La -Haye, dûment autorisés à cet effet par +<p>Les Soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des +Puissances représentées à la Conférence +Internationale de la Paix à La +Haye, dûment autorisés à cet effet par leurs Gouvernements, s'inspirant des -sentiments qui ont trouvé leur expression -dans la Déclaration de Saint-Pétersbourg -du 29 novembre (11 décembre) +sentiments qui ont trouvé leur expression +dans la Déclaration de Saint-Pétersbourg +du 29 novembre (11 décembre) 1868,</p> -<p>Déclarent:</p> +<p>Déclarent:</p> <p>Les Puissances Contractantes s'interdisent -l'emploi de balles qui s'épanouissent +l'emploi de balles qui s'épanouissent ou s'aplatissent facilement dans le -corps humain, telles que les balles à +corps humain, telles que les balles à enveloppe dure dont l'enveloppe ne -couvrirait pas entièrement le noyau ou +couvrirait pas entièrement le noyau ou serait pourvue d'incisions.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire +<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire que pour les Puissances Contractantes, en cas de guerre entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre elles.</p> -<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du -moment où dans une guerre entre des +<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du +moment où dans une guerre entre des Puissances Contractantes, une Puissance -non-Contractante se joindrait à -l'un des belligérants.</p> +non-Contractante se joindrait à +l'un des belligérants.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée -dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> +<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée +dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque -ratification un procès-verbal, dont une -copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise -par la voie diplomatique à toutes les +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque +ratification un procès-verbal, dont une +copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise +par la voie diplomatique à toutes les Puissances Contractantes.</p> <p>Les Puissances non-Signataires pourront -adhérer à la présente Déclaration. -Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître -leur adhésion aux Puissances +adhérer à la présente Déclaration. +Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître +leur adhésion aux Puissances Contractantes, au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances Contractantes.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Hautes -Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente -Déclaration, cette dénonciation -ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après -la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -immédiatement par celui-ci à +Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente +Déclaration, cette dénonciation +ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après +la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +immédiatement par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances Contractantes.</p> -<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée.</p> +<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée.</p> -<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires -ont signé la présente Déclaration et -l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> +<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires +ont signé la présente Déclaration et +l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> -<p>Fait à La Haye, le 29 juillet 1899, -en un seul exemplaire, qui restera déposé +<p>Fait à La Haye, le 29 juillet 1899, +en un seul exemplaire, qui restera déposé dans les archives du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et dont des copies, -certifiées conformes, seront remises par +certifiées conformes, seront remises par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances Contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span></p> @@ -29806,78 +29762,78 @@ Contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a </h3> -<p>Les Soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des -Puissances représentées à la Conférence -Internationale de la Paix à La Haye, -dûment autorisés à cet effet par leurs +<p>Les Soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des +Puissances représentées à la Conférence +Internationale de la Paix à La Haye, +dûment autorisés à cet effet par leurs Gouvernements, s'inspirant des sentiments -qui ont trouvé leur expression -dans la Déclaration de Saint-Pétersbourg -du 29 novembre (11 décembre) +qui ont trouvé leur expression +dans la Déclaration de Saint-Pétersbourg +du 29 novembre (11 décembre) 1868,</p> -<p>Déclarent:</p> +<p>Déclarent:</p> <p>Les Puissances Contractantes s'interdisent l'emploi de projectiles qui ont -pour but unique de répandre des gaz -asphyxiants ou délétères.</p> +pour but unique de répandre des gaz +asphyxiants ou délétères.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire +<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire que pour les Puissances Contractantes, en cas de guerre entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre elles.</p> -<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du -moment où dans une guerre entre des +<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du +moment où dans une guerre entre des Puissances Contractantes une Puissance -non-Contractante se joindrait à -l'un des belligérants.</p> +non-Contractante se joindrait à +l'un des belligérants.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée -dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> +<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée +dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque -ratification un procès-verbal, dont une -copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise -par la voie diplomatique à toutes les +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque +ratification un procès-verbal, dont une +copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise +par la voie diplomatique à toutes les Puissances Contractantes.</p> <p>Les Puissances non-Signataires pourront -adhérer à la présente Déclaration. -Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître -leur adhésion aux Puissances +adhérer à la présente Déclaration. +Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître +leur adhésion aux Puissances Contractantes, au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances Contractantes.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Hautes -Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente -Déclaration, cette dénonciation -ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après -la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -immédiatement par celui-ci à +Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente +Déclaration, cette dénonciation +ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après +la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +immédiatement par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances Contractantes.</p> -<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée.</p> +<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée.</p> -<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires -ont signé la présente Déclaration et -l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> +<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires +ont signé la présente Déclaration et +l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> -<p>Fait à La Haye, le 29 juillet 1899, -en un seul exemplaire, qui restera déposé +<p>Fait à La Haye, le 29 juillet 1899, +en un seul exemplaire, qui restera déposé dans les archives du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et dont des copies, -certifiées conformes, seront remises par +certifiées conformes, seront remises par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances Contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span></p> @@ -29889,362 +29845,362 @@ Contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a <span>GENEVA CONVENTION OF 1906</span> </h3> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre Premier.</span>—<i>Des Blessés +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre Premier.</span>—<i>Des Blessés et Malades.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Les militaires et les autres personnes -officiellement attachées aux armées, -qui seront blessés ou malades, devront -être respectés et soignés, sans distinction -de nationalité, par le belligérant +officiellement attachées aux armées, +qui seront blessés ou malades, devront +être respectés et soignés, sans distinction +de nationalité, par le belligérant qui les aura en son pouvoir.</p> -<p>Toutefois, le belligérant, obligé d'abandonner -des malades ou des blessés -à son adversaire, laissera avec eux, +<p>Toutefois, le belligérant, obligé d'abandonner +des malades ou des blessés +à son adversaire, laissera avec eux, autant que les circonstances militaires le permettront, une partie de son personnel -et de son matériel sanitaires -pour contribuer à les soigner.</p> +et de son matériel sanitaires +pour contribuer à les soigner.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Sous réserve des soins à leur fournir -en vertu de l'article précédent, les -blessés ou malades d'une armée tombés -au pouvoir de l'autre belligérant sont -prisonniers de guerre et les règles -générales du droit des gens concernant +<p>Sous réserve des soins à leur fournir +en vertu de l'article précédent, les +blessés ou malades d'une armée tombés +au pouvoir de l'autre belligérant sont +prisonniers de guerre et les règles +générales du droit des gens concernant les prisonniers leur sont applicables.</p> -<p>Cependant, les belligérants restent -libres de stipuler entre eux, à l'égard -des prisonniers blessés ou malades, +<p>Cependant, les belligérants restent +libres de stipuler entre eux, à l'égard +des prisonniers blessés ou malades, telles clauses d'exception ou de faveur qu'ils jugeront utiles; ils auront, notamment, -la faculté de convenir:</p> +la faculté de convenir:</p> -<p>De se remettre réciproquement, après -un combat, les blessés laissés sur le +<p>De se remettre réciproquement, après +un combat, les blessés laissés sur le champ de bataille;</p> -<p>De renvoyer dans leur pays, après -les avoir mis en état d'être transportés -ou après guérison, les blessés ou +<p>De renvoyer dans leur pays, après +les avoir mis en état d'être transportés +ou après guérison, les blessés ou malades qu'ils ne voudront pas garder prisonniers;</p> -<p>De remettre à un État neutre, du -consentement de celui-ci, des blessés ou -malades de la partie adverse, à la -charge par l'État neutre de les interner -jusqu'à la fin des hostilités.</p> +<p>De remettre à un État neutre, du +consentement de celui-ci, des blessés ou +malades de la partie adverse, à la +charge par l'État neutre de les interner +jusqu'à la fin des hostilités.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Après chaque combat, l'occupant du +<p>Après chaque combat, l'occupant du champ de bataille prendra des mesures -pour rechercher les blessés et pour les -faire protéger, ainsi que les morts, +pour rechercher les blessés et pour les +faire protéger, ainsi que les morts, contre le pillage et les mauvais traitements.</p> -<p>Il veillera à ce que l'inhumation ou -l'incinération des morts soit précédée +<p>Il veillera à ce que l'inhumation ou +l'incinération des morts soit précédée d'un examen attentif de leurs cadavres.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Chaque belligérant enverra, dès qu'il -sera possible, aux autorités de leur pays -ou de leur armée les marques ou pièces -militaires d'identité trouvées sur les -morts et l'état nominatif des blessés ou +<p>Chaque belligérant enverra, dès qu'il +sera possible, aux autorités de leur pays +ou de leur armée les marques ou pièces +militaires d'identité trouvées sur les +morts et l'état nominatif des blessés ou malades recueillis par lui.</p> -<p>Les belligérants se tiendront réciproquement +<p>Les belligérants se tiendront réciproquement au courant des internements et des mutations, ainsi que -des entrées dans les hôpitaux et des -décès survenus parmi les blessés et +des entrées dans les hôpitaux et des +décès survenus parmi les blessés et malades en leur pouvoir. Ils recueilleront tous les objets d'un usage personnel, valeurs, lettres, etc., qui seront -trouvés sur les champs de bataille ou -délaissés par les blessés ou malades décédés -dans les établissements et formations +trouvés sur les champs de bataille ou +délaissés par les blessés ou malades décédés +dans les établissements et formations sanitaires, pour les faire transmettre -aux intéressés par les autorités +aux intéressés par les autorités de leur pays.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>L'autorité militaire pourra faire appel -au zèle charitable des habitants pour -recueillir et soigner, sous son contrôle, -des blessés ou malades des armées, en -accordant aux personnes ayant répondu -à cet appel une protection spéciale et -certaines immunités.</p> +<p>L'autorité militaire pourra faire appel +au zèle charitable des habitants pour +recueillir et soigner, sous son contrôle, +des blessés ou malades des armées, en +accordant aux personnes ayant répondu +à cet appel une protection spéciale et +certaines immunités.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Des Formations et -Établissements Sanitaires.</i></p> +Établissements Sanitaires.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p>Les formations sanitaires mobiles -(c'est-à-dire celles qui sont destinées à -accompagner les armées en campagne) -et les établissements fixes du service de -santé seront respectés et protégés par -les belligérants.</p> +(c'est-à -dire celles qui sont destinées à +accompagner les armées en campagne) +et les établissements fixes du service de +santé seront respectés et protégés par +les belligérants.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>La protection due aux formations -et établissements sanitaires cesse si +et établissements sanitaires cesse si l'on en use pour commettre des actes -nuisibles à l'ennemi.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span></p> +nuisibles à l'ennemi.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>Ne sont pas considérés comme étant -de nature à priver une formation ou -un établissement sanitaire de la protection -assurée par l'article 6:</p> +<p>Ne sont pas considérés comme étant +de nature à priver une formation ou +un établissement sanitaire de la protection +assurée par l'article 6:</p> <p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le fait que le personnel de la -formation ou de l'établissement est -armé et qu'il use de ses armes pour sa -propre défense ou celle de ses malades -et blessés;</p> - -<p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le fait qu'à défaut d'infirmiers -armés, la formation ou l'établissement -est gardé par un piquet ou des sentinelles -munis d'un mandat régulier;</p> - -<p>3<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le fait qu'il est trouvé dans la -formation ou l'établissement des armes -et cartouches retirées aux blessés et -n'ayant pas encore été versées au service -compétent.</p> +formation ou de l'établissement est +armé et qu'il use de ses armes pour sa +propre défense ou celle de ses malades +et blessés;</p> + +<p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le fait qu'à défaut d'infirmiers +armés, la formation ou l'établissement +est gardé par un piquet ou des sentinelles +munis d'un mandat régulier;</p> + +<p>3<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le fait qu'il est trouvé dans la +formation ou l'établissement des armes +et cartouches retirées aux blessés et +n'ayant pas encore été versées au service +compétent.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Du Personnel.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>Le personnel exclusivement affecté -à l'enlèvement, au transport et au -traitement des blessés et des malades, -ainsi qu'à l'administration des formations -et établissements sanitaires, les -aumôniers attachés aux armées, seront -respectés et protégés en toute circonstance; +<p>Le personnel exclusivement affecté +à l'enlèvement, au transport et au +traitement des blessés et des malades, +ainsi qu'à l'administration des formations +et établissements sanitaires, les +aumôniers attachés aux armées, seront +respectés et protégés en toute circonstance; s'ils tombent entre les mains -de l'ennemi, ils ne seront pas traités +de l'ennemi, ils ne seront pas traités comme prisonniers de guerre.</p> <p>Ces dispositions s'appliquent au personnel -de garde des formations et établissements -sanitaires dans le cas prévu -à l'article 8, n<span class="topnum">o</span> 2.</p> +de garde des formations et établissements +sanitaires dans le cas prévu +à l'article 8, n<span class="topnum">o</span> 2.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>Est assimilé au personnel visé à -l'article précédent le personnel des -Sociétés de secours volontaires dûment -reconnues et autorisées par leur Gouvernement, -qui sera employé dans les -formations et établissements sanitaires -des armées, sous la réserve que ledit -personnel sera soumis aux lois et règlements +<p>Est assimilé au personnel visé à +l'article précédent le personnel des +Sociétés de secours volontaires dûment +reconnues et autorisées par leur Gouvernement, +qui sera employé dans les +formations et établissements sanitaires +des armées, sous la réserve que ledit +personnel sera soumis aux lois et règlements militaires.</p> -<p>Chaque État doit notifier à l'autre -soit dès le temps de paix, soit à l'ouverture -ou au cours des hostilités, en tout +<p>Chaque État doit notifier à l'autre +soit dès le temps de paix, soit à l'ouverture +ou au cours des hostilités, en tout cas avant tout emploi effectif, les noms -des Sociétés qu'il a autorisées à prêter -leur concours, sous sa responsabilité, +des Sociétés qu'il a autorisées à prêter +leur concours, sous sa responsabilité, au service sanitaire officiel de ses -armées.</p> +armées.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Une Société reconnue d'un pays -neutre ne peut prêter le concours de +<p>Une Société reconnue d'un pays +neutre ne peut prêter le concours de ses personnels et formations sanitaires -à un belligérant qu'avec l'assentiment -préalable de son propre Gouvernement -et l'autorisation du belligérant lui-même.</p> +à un belligérant qu'avec l'assentiment +préalable de son propre Gouvernement +et l'autorisation du belligérant lui-même.</p> -<p>Le belligérant qui a accepté le secours +<p>Le belligérant qui a accepté le secours est tenu, avant tout emploi, d'en -faire la notification à son ennemi.</p> +faire la notification à son ennemi.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>Les personnes désignées dans les -articles 9, 10 et 11 continueront, après -qu'elles seront tombées au pouvoir de -l'ennemi, à remplir leurs fonctions sous +<p>Les personnes désignées dans les +articles 9, 10 et 11 continueront, après +qu'elles seront tombées au pouvoir de +l'ennemi, à remplir leurs fonctions sous sa direction.</p> <p>Lorsque leur concours ne sera plus -indispensable, elles seront renvoyées à -leur armée ou à leur pays dans les délais -et suivant l'itinéraire compatibles avec -les nécessités militaires.</p> +indispensable, elles seront renvoyées à +leur armée ou à leur pays dans les délais +et suivant l'itinéraire compatibles avec +les nécessités militaires.</p> <p>Elles emporteront, alors, les effets, les instruments, les armes et les chevaux -qui sont leur propriété particulière.</p> +qui sont leur propriété particulière.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>L'ennemi assurera au personnel visé +<p>L'ennemi assurera au personnel visé par l'article 9, pendant qu'il sera en -son pouvoir, les mêmes allocations et -la même solde qu'au personnel des -mêmes grades de son armée.</p> +son pouvoir, les mêmes allocations et +la même solde qu'au personnel des +mêmes grades de son armée.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>Du Matériel.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>Du Matériel.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> <p>Les formations sanitaires mobiles conserveront, si elles tombent au pouvoir -de l'ennemi, leur matériel, y compris +de l'ennemi, leur matériel, y compris les attelages, quels que soient les moyens de transport et le personnel conducteur.</p> -<p>Toutefois, l'autorité militaire compétente -aura la faculté de s'en servir -pour les soins des blessés et malades; -la restitution du matériel aura lieu -dans les conditions prévues pour le personnel +<p>Toutefois, l'autorité militaire compétente +aura la faculté de s'en servir +pour les soins des blessés et malades; +la restitution du matériel aura lieu +dans les conditions prévues pour le personnel sanitaire, et, autant que possible, -en même temps.</p> +en même temps.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments et le matériel des -établissements fixes demeurent soumis +<p>Les bâtiments et le matériel des +établissements fixes demeurent soumis aux lois de la guerre, mais ne pourront -être détournés de leur emploi, tant -qu'ils seront nécessaires aux blessés et +être détournés de leur emploi, tant +qu'ils seront nécessaires aux blessés et aux malades.</p> <p>Toutefois, les commandants des -troupes d'opérations pourront en disposer, -en cas de nécessités militaires -importantes, en assurant au préalable -le sort des blessés et malades qui s'y +troupes d'opérations pourront en disposer, +en cas de nécessités militaires +importantes, en assurant au préalable +le sort des blessés et malades qui s'y trouvent.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Le matériel des Sociétés de secours, -admises au bénéfice de la Convention -conformément aux conditions déterminées -par celle-ci, est considéré comme -propriété privée et, comme tel, respecté +<p>Le matériel des Sociétés de secours, +admises au bénéfice de la Convention +conformément aux conditions déterminées +par celle-ci, est considéré comme +propriété privée et, comme tel, respecté en toute circonstance, sauf le droit de -réquisition reconnu aux belligérants +réquisition reconnu aux belligérants selon les lois et usages de la guerre.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[Pg 589]</a></span></p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre V.</span>—<i>Des Convois -d'Évacuation.</i></p> +d'Évacuation.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> -<p>Les convois d'évacuation seront -traités comme les formations sanitaires -mobiles, sauf les dispositions spéciales +<p>Les convois d'évacuation seront +traités comme les formations sanitaires +mobiles, sauf les dispositions spéciales suivantes:</p> -<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le belligérant interceptant un -convoi pourra, si les nécessités militaires +<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. Le belligérant interceptant un +convoi pourra, si les nécessités militaires l'exigent, le disloquer en se -chargeant des malades et blessés qu'il +chargeant des malades et blessés qu'il contient.</p> <p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. Dans ce cas, l'obligation de renvoyer -le personnel sanitaire, prévue à -l'article 12, sera étendue à tout le personnel -militaire préposé au transport -ou à la garde du convoi et muni à cet -effet d'un mandat régulier.</p> - -<p>L'obligation de rendre le matériel -sanitaire, prévue à l'article 14, s'appliquera +le personnel sanitaire, prévue à +l'article 12, sera étendue à tout le personnel +militaire préposé au transport +ou à la garde du convoi et muni à cet +effet d'un mandat régulier.</p> + +<p>L'obligation de rendre le matériel +sanitaire, prévue à l'article 14, s'appliquera aux trains de chemins de fer et -bateaux de la navigation intérieure -spécialement organisés pour les évacuations, -ainsi qu'au matériel d'aménagement +bateaux de la navigation intérieure +spécialement organisés pour les évacuations, +ainsi qu'au matériel d'aménagement des voitures, trains et bateaux ordinaires appartenant au service de -santé.</p> +santé.</p> <p>Les voitures militaires, autres que -celles du service de santé, pourront -être capturées avec leurs attelages.</p> +celles du service de santé, pourront +être capturées avec leurs attelages.</p> <p>Le personnel civil et les divers moyens de transport provenant de la -réquisition, y compris matériel de -chemin de fer et les bateaux utilisés +réquisition, y compris matériel de +chemin de fer et les bateaux utilisés pour les convois, seront soumis aux -règles générales du droit des gens.</p> +règles générales du droit des gens.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VI.</span>—<i>Du Signe Distinctif.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> <p>Par hommage pour la Suisse, le signe -héraldique de la croix rouge sur fond -blanc, formé par interversion des couleurs -fédérales, est maintenu comme -emblème et signe distinctif du service -sanitaire des armées.</p> +héraldique de la croix rouge sur fond +blanc, formé par interversion des couleurs +fédérales, est maintenu comme +emblème et signe distinctif du service +sanitaire des armées.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>Cet emblème figure sur les drapeaux, -les brassards, ainsi que sur tout le matériel +<p>Cet emblème figure sur les drapeaux, +les brassards, ainsi que sur tout le matériel se rattachant au service sanitaire, -avec la permission de l'autorité militaire -compétente.</p> +avec la permission de l'autorité militaire +compétente.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> -<p>Le personnel protégé en vertu des -articles 9, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, 10 et 11 porte, -fixé au bras gauche, un brassard avec -croix rouge sur fond blanc, délivré et -timbré, par l'autorité militaire compétente, -accompagné d'un certificat -d'identité pour les personnes rattachées -au service de santé des armées et qui +<p>Le personnel protégé en vertu des +articles 9, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, 10 et 11 porte, +fixé au bras gauche, un brassard avec +croix rouge sur fond blanc, délivré et +timbré, par l'autorité militaire compétente, +accompagné d'un certificat +d'identité pour les personnes rattachées +au service de santé des armées et qui n'auraient pas d'uniforme militaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> <p>Le drapeau distinctif de la Convention -ne peut être arboré que sur les -formations et établissements sanitaires +ne peut être arboré que sur les +formations et établissements sanitaires qu'elle ordonne de respecter et avec le -consentement de l'autorité militaire. -Il devra être accompagné du drapeau -national du belligérant dont relève la -formation ou l'établissement.</p> +consentement de l'autorité militaire. +Il devra être accompagné du drapeau +national du belligérant dont relève la +formation ou l'établissement.</p> <p>Toutefois, les formations sanitaires -tombées au pouvoir de l'ennemi n'arboreront +tombées au pouvoir de l'ennemi n'arboreront pas d'autre drapeau que celui de la Croix-Rouge, aussi longtemps qu'elles se trouveront dans cette @@ -30253,202 +30209,202 @@ situation.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> <p>Les formations sanitaires des pays -neutres qui, dans les conditions prévues -par l'article 11, auraient été autorisées -à fournir leurs services, doivent arborer, +neutres qui, dans les conditions prévues +par l'article 11, auraient été autorisées +à fournir leurs services, doivent arborer, avec le drapeau de la Convention, le -drapeau national du belligérant dont -elles relèvent.</p> +drapeau national du belligérant dont +elles relèvent.</p> -<p>Les dispositions du deuxième alinéa -de l'article précédent leur sont applicables.</p> +<p>Les dispositions du deuxième alinéa +de l'article précédent leur sont applicables.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>L'emblème de la Croix-Rouge sur fond +<p>L'emblème de la Croix-Rouge sur fond blanc et les mots <i>Croix-Rouge</i> ou <i>Croix -de Genève</i> ne pourront être employés, +de Genève</i> ne pourront être employés, soit en temps de paix, soit en temps -de guerre, que pour protéger ou désigner -les formations et établissements -sanitaires, le personnel et le matériel -protégés par la Convention.</p> +de guerre, que pour protéger ou désigner +les formations et établissements +sanitaires, le personnel et le matériel +protégés par la Convention.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VII.</span>—<i>De l'Application et de -l'Exécution de la Convention.</i></p> +l'Exécution de la Convention.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont obligatoires que pour les Puissances contractantes, en cas de guerre entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre -elles. Ces dispositions cesseront d'être -obligatoires du moment où l'une des -Puissances belligérantes ne serait pas +elles. Ces dispositions cesseront d'être +obligatoires du moment où l'une des +Puissances belligérantes ne serait pas signataire de la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>Les commandants en chef des armées -belligérantes auront à pourvoir -aux détails d'exécution des articles -précédents, ainsi qu'aux cas non prévus, -d'après les instructions de leurs -Gouvernements respectifs et conformément -aux principes généraux de la -présente Convention.</p> +<p>Les commandants en chef des armées +belligérantes auront à pourvoir +aux détails d'exécution des articles +précédents, ainsi qu'aux cas non prévus, +d'après les instructions de leurs +Gouvernements respectifs et conformément +aux principes généraux de la +présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> <p>Les Gouvernements signataires prendront -les mesures nécessaires pour instruire -leurs troupes, et spécialement le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span> -personnel protégé, des dispositions de -la présente Convention et pour les -porter à la connaissance des populations.</p> +les mesures nécessaires pour instruire +leurs troupes, et spécialement le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span> +personnel protégé, des dispositions de +la présente Convention et pour les +porter à la connaissance des populations.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VII.</span>—<i>De la Répression des +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VII.</span>—<i>De la Répression des Abus et des Infractions.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> <p>Les Gouvernements signataires, dont -la législation ne serait pas dès à présent -suffisante, s'engagent à prendre ou à -proposer à leurs législatures les mesures -nécessaires pour empêcher en tout +la législation ne serait pas dès à présent +suffisante, s'engagent à prendre ou à +proposer à leurs législatures les mesures +nécessaires pour empêcher en tout temps l'emploi, par des particuliers ou -par des sociétés autres que celles y -ayant droit en vertu de la présente -Convention, de l'emblème ou de la -dénomination de <i>Croix-Rouge</i> ou <i>Croix -de Genève</i>, notamment, dans un but +par des sociétés autres que celles y +ayant droit en vertu de la présente +Convention, de l'emblème ou de la +dénomination de <i>Croix-Rouge</i> ou <i>Croix +de Genève</i>, notamment, dans un but commercial, par le moyen de marques de fabrique ou de commerce.</p> -<p>L'interdiction de l'emploi de l'emblème -ou de la dénomination dont il -s'agit produira son effet à partir de -l'époque déterminée par chaque législation -et, au plus tard, cinq ans après -la mise en vigueur de la présente Convention. -Dès cette mise en vigueur, +<p>L'interdiction de l'emploi de l'emblème +ou de la dénomination dont il +s'agit produira son effet à partir de +l'époque déterminée par chaque législation +et, au plus tard, cinq ans après +la mise en vigueur de la présente Convention. +Dès cette mise en vigueur, il ne sera plus licite de prendre une marque de fabrique ou de commerce -contraire à l'interdiction.</p> +contraire à l'interdiction.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> <p>Les Gouvernements signataires s'engagent -également à prendre ou à -proposer à leurs législatures, en cas -d'insuffisance de leurs lois pénales -militaires, les mesures nécessaires pour -réprimer, en temps de guerre, les actes +également à prendre ou à +proposer à leurs législatures, en cas +d'insuffisance de leurs lois pénales +militaires, les mesures nécessaires pour +réprimer, en temps de guerre, les actes individuels de pillage et de mauvais -traitements envers des blessés et malades -des armées, ainsi que pour punir, +traitements envers des blessés et malades +des armées, ainsi que pour punir, comme usurpation d'insignes militaires, l'usage abusif du drapeau et du brassard de la Croix-Rouge par des militaires -ou des particuliers non protégés -par la présente Convention.</p> +ou des particuliers non protégés +par la présente Convention.</p> -<p>Ils se communiqueront, par l'intermédiaire -du Conseil fédéral suisse, les -dispositions relatives à cette répression, +<p>Ils se communiqueront, par l'intermédiaire +du Conseil fédéral suisse, les +dispositions relatives à cette répression, au plus tard dans les cinq ans de la -ratification de la présente Convention.</p> +ratification de la présente Convention.</p> -<p class="center"><i>Dispositions Générales.</i></p> +<p class="center"><i>Dispositions Générales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à Berne.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque -ratification un procès-verbal dont une -copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise -par la voie diplomatique à toutes les +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque +ratification un procès-verbal dont une +copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise +par la voie diplomatique à toutes les Puissances contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> -<p>La présente Convention entrera en +<p>La présente Convention entrera en vigueur pour chaque Puissance six -mois après la date du dépôt de sa ratification.</p> +mois après la date du dépôt de sa ratification.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>La présente Convention, dûment -ratifiée, remplacera la Convention du -22 août 1864 dans les rapports entre -les États contractants.</p> +<p>La présente Convention, dûment +ratifiée, remplacera la Convention du +22 août 1864 dans les rapports entre +les États contractants.</p> <p>La Convention de 1864 reste en vigueur dans les rapports entre les -Parties qui l'ont signée et qui ne ratifieraient -pas également la présente +Parties qui l'ont signée et qui ne ratifieraient +pas également la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p>La présente Convention pourra, -jusqu'au 31 décembre prochain, être -signée par les Puissances représentées -à la Conférence qui s'est ouverte à -Genève le 11 juin 1906, ainsi que par -les Puissances non représentées à cette -Conférence qui ont signé la Convention +<p>La présente Convention pourra, +jusqu'au 31 décembre prochain, être +signée par les Puissances représentées +à la Conférence qui s'est ouverte à +Genève le 11 juin 1906, ainsi que par +les Puissances non représentées à cette +Conférence qui ont signé la Convention de 1864.</p> <p>Celles de ces Puissances qui, au 31 -décembre 1906, n'auront pas signé la -présente Convention, resteront libres -d'y adhérer par la suite. Elles auront -à faire connaître leur adhésion au -moyen d'une notification écrite adressée -au Conseil fédéral suisse et communiquée -par celui-ci à toutes les +décembre 1906, n'auront pas signé la +présente Convention, resteront libres +d'y adhérer par la suite. Elles auront +à faire connaître leur adhésion au +moyen d'une notification écrite adressée +au Conseil fédéral suisse et communiquée +par celui-ci à toutes les Puissances contractantes.</p> <p>Les autres Puissances pourront demander -à adhérer dans la même forme, +à adhérer dans la même forme, mais leur demande ne produira effet -que si, dans le délai d'un an à partir de -la notification au Conseil fédéral, celui-ci -n'a reçu d'opposition de la part d'aucune +que si, dans le délai d'un an à partir de +la notification au Conseil fédéral, celui-ci +n'a reçu d'opposition de la part d'aucune des Puissances contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> <p>Chacune des Parties contractantes -aura la faculté de dénoncer la présente -Convention. Cette dénonciation ne -produira ses effets qu'un an après la -notification faite par écrit au Conseil -fédéral suisse; celui-ci communiquera -immédiatement la notification à toutes +aura la faculté de dénoncer la présente +Convention. Cette dénonciation ne +produira ses effets qu'un an après la +notification faite par écrit au Conseil +fédéral suisse; celui-ci communiquera +immédiatement la notification à toutes les autres Parties contractantes.</p> -<p>Cette dénonciation ne vaudra qu'à -l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée.</p> +<p>Cette dénonciation ne vaudra qu'à +l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée.</p> -<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires -ont signé la présente Convention et -l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> +<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires +ont signé la présente Convention et +l'ont revêtue de leurs cachets.</p> -<p>Fait à Genève, le six juillet mil neuf +<p>Fait à Genève, le six juillet mil neuf cent six, en un seul exemplaire, qui -restera déposé dans les archives de la -Confédération suisse, et dont des copies, -certifiées conformes, seront remises par +restera déposé dans les archives de la +Confédération suisse, et dont des copies, +certifiées conformes, seront remises par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a></span></p> @@ -30461,49 +30417,49 @@ contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a </h3> -<p>La Deuxième Conférence Internationale -de la Paix, proposée d'abord -par Monsieur le Président des États-Unis -d'Amérique, ayant été, sur l'invitation -de Sa Majesté l'Empereur de -Toutes les Russies, convoquée par Sa -Majesté la Reine des Pays-Bas, s'est -réunie le 15 juin 1907 à La Haye, dans la +<p>La Deuxième Conférence Internationale +de la Paix, proposée d'abord +par Monsieur le Président des États-Unis +d'Amérique, ayant été, sur l'invitation +de Sa Majesté l'Empereur de +Toutes les Russies, convoquée par Sa +Majesté la Reine des Pays-Bas, s'est +réunie le 15 juin 1907 à La Haye, dans la Salle des Chevaliers, avec la mission de -donner un développement nouveau au +donner un développement nouveau au principes humanitaires qui ont servi de -base à l'œuvre de la Première Conférence +base à l'œuvre de la Première Conférence de 1899.</p> -<p>Les Puissances, dont l'énumeration -suit, ont pris part à la Conférence, pour -laquelle Elles avaient désigné les Délégués -nommés ci-après:</p> +<p>Les Puissances, dont l'énumeration +suit, ont pris part à la Conférence, pour +laquelle Elles avaient désigné les Délégués +nommés ci-après:</p> <p>[Here follow names.]</p> -<p>Dans une série de réunions, tenues -du 15 juin au 18 octobre 1907, où les -Délégués précités ont été constamment -animés du désir de réaliser, dans la +<p>Dans une série de réunions, tenues +du 15 juin au 18 octobre 1907, où les +Délégués précités ont été constamment +animés du désir de réaliser, dans la plus large mesure possible, les vues -généreuses de l'Auguste Initiateur de -la Conférence et les intentions de leurs -Gouvernements, la Conférence a arrêté, -pour être soumis à la signature des -Plénipotentiaires, le texte des Conventions -et de la Déclaration énumérées -ci-après et annexées au présent Acte:</p> - -<p>I. Convention pour le règlement +généreuses de l'Auguste Initiateur de +la Conférence et les intentions de leurs +Gouvernements, la Conférence a arrêté, +pour être soumis à la signature des +Plénipotentiaires, le texte des Conventions +et de la Déclaration énumérées +ci-après et annexées au présent Acte:</p> + +<p>I. Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux.</p> <p>II. Convention concernant la limitation de l'emploi de la force pour le recouvrement de dettes contractuelles.</p> -<p>III. Convention relative à l'ouverture -des hostilités.</p> +<p>III. Convention relative à l'ouverture +des hostilités.</p> <p>IV. Convention concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre.</p> @@ -30513,15 +30469,15 @@ et les devoirs des Puissances et des personnes neutres en cas de guerre sur terre.</p> -<p>VI. Convention relative au régime +<p>VI. Convention relative au régime des navires de commerce ennemis au -début des hostilités.</p> +début des hostilités.</p> -<p>VII. Convention relative à la transformation +<p>VII. Convention relative à la transformation des navires de commerce en -bâtiments de guerre.</p> +bâtiments de guerre.</p> -<p>VIII. Convention relative à la pose +<p>VIII. Convention relative à la pose de mines sous-marines automatiques de contact.</p> @@ -30529,15 +30485,15 @@ de contact.</p> par des forces navales en temps de guerre.</p> -<p>X. Convention pour l'adaptation à +<p>X. Convention pour l'adaptation à la guerre maritime des principes de la -Convention de Genève.</p> +Convention de Genève.</p> -<p>XI. Convention relative à certaines -restrictions à l'exercice du droit de +<p>XI. Convention relative à certaines +restrictions à l'exercice du droit de capture dans la guerre maritime.</p> -<p>XII. Convention relative à l'établissement +<p>XII. Convention relative à l'établissement d'une Cour internationale des prises.</p> @@ -30545,153 +30501,153 @@ prises.</p> droits et les devoirs des Puissances neutres en cas de guerre maritime.</p> -<p>XIV. Déclaration relative à l'interdiction +<p>XIV. Déclaration relative à l'interdiction de lancer des projectiles et des explosifs du haut de ballons.</p> -<p>Ces Conventions et cette Déclaration -formeront autant d'actes séparés. Ces +<p>Ces Conventions et cette Déclaration +formeront autant d'actes séparés. Ces actes porteront la date de ce jour et -pourront être signés jusqu'au 30 juin -1908 à La Haye par les Plénipotentiaires -des Puissances représentées à la -Deuxième Conférence de la Paix.</p> +pourront être signés jusqu'au 30 juin +1908 à La Haye par les Plénipotentiaires +des Puissances représentées à la +Deuxième Conférence de la Paix.</p> -<p>La Conférence, se conformant à +<p>La Conférence, se conformant à l'esprit d'entente et de concessions -réciproques qui est l'esprit même de -ses délibérations, a arrêté la déclaration -suivante qui, tout en réservant à -chacune des Puissances représentées le -bénéfice de ses votes, leur permet à +réciproques qui est l'esprit même de +ses délibérations, a arrêté la déclaration +suivante qui, tout en réservant à +chacune des Puissances représentées le +bénéfice de ses votes, leur permet à toutes d'affirmer les principes qu'Elles -considèrent comme unanimement reconnus:</p> +considèrent comme unanimement reconnus:</p> <p>Elle est unanime,</p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. A reconnaître le principe de +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. A reconnaître le principe de l'arbitrage obligatoire;</p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. A déclarer que certains différends, -et notamment ceux relatifs à -l'interprétation et à l'application des +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. A déclarer que certains différends, +et notamment ceux relatifs à +l'interprétation et à l'application des stipulations conventionnelles internationales, -sont susceptibles d'être -soumis à l'arbitrage obligatoire sans +sont susceptibles d'être +soumis à l'arbitrage obligatoire sans aucune restriction.</p> -<p>Elle est unanime enfin à proclamer -que, s'il n'a pas été donné de conclure -dès maintenant une Convention en ce +<p>Elle est unanime enfin à proclamer +que, s'il n'a pas été donné de conclure +dès maintenant une Convention en ce sens, les divergences d'opinion qui se -sont manifestées n'ont pas dépassé les +sont manifestées n'ont pas dépassé les limites d'une controverse juridique, et qu'en travaillant ici ensemble pendant quatre mois, toutes les Puissances du<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[Pg 592]</a></span> -monde, non seulement ont appris à se -comprendre et à se rapprocher davantage, -mais ont su dégager, au cours de +monde, non seulement ont appris à se +comprendre et à se rapprocher davantage, +mais ont su dégager, au cours de cette longue collaboration, un sentiment -très élevé du bien commun de -l'humanité.</p> +très élevé du bien commun de +l'humanité.</p> -<p>En outre, la Conférence a adopté à -l'unanimité la Résolution suivante:</p> +<p>En outre, la Conférence a adopté à +l'unanimité la Résolution suivante:</p> -<p>La Deuxième Conférence de la Paix -confirme la Résolution adoptée par la -Conférence de 1899 à l'égard de la +<p>La Deuxième Conférence de la Paix +confirme la Résolution adoptée par la +Conférence de 1899 à l'égard de la limitation des charges militaires; et, vu que les charges militaires se sont -considérablement accrues dans presque -tous les pays depuis ladite année, la -Conférence déclare qu'il est hautement -désirable de voir les Gouvernements -reprendre l'étude sérieuse de cette +considérablement accrues dans presque +tous les pays depuis ladite année, la +Conférence déclare qu'il est hautement +désirable de voir les Gouvernements +reprendre l'étude sérieuse de cette question.</p> -<p>Elle a, de plus, émis les Vœux +<p>Elle a, de plus, émis les Vœux suivants:</p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence recommande +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence recommande aux Puissances signataires l'adoption -du projet ci-annexé de Convention -pour l'établissement d'une Cour +du projet ci-annexé de Convention +pour l'établissement d'une Cour de Justice arbitrale, et sa mise en -vigueur dès qu'un accord sera intervenu +vigueur dès qu'un accord sera intervenu sur le choix des juges et la constitution de la Cour.</p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu -qu'en cas de guerre, les autorités -compétentes, civiles et militaires, se -fassent un devoir tout spécial d'assurer -et de protéger le maintien des +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu +qu'en cas de guerre, les autorités +compétentes, civiles et militaires, se +fassent un devoir tout spécial d'assurer +et de protéger le maintien des rapports pacifiques et notamment des relations commerciales et industrielles entre les populations des -États belligérants et les pays neutres.</p> +États belligérants et les pays neutres.</p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu -que les Puissances règlent, par des -Conventions particulières, la situation, +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu +que les Puissances règlent, par des +Conventions particulières, la situation, au point de vue des charges -militaires, des étrangers établis sur +militaires, des étrangers établis sur leurs territoires.</p> -<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu -que l'élaboration d'un règlement +<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span>. La Conférence émet le vœu +que l'élaboration d'un règlement relatif aux lois et coutumes de la guerre maritime figure au programme de la -prochaine Conférence et que, dans +prochaine Conférence et que, dans tous les cas, les Puissances appliquent, -autant que possible, à la +autant que possible, à la guerre sur mer, les principes de la Convention relative aux lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre.</p> -<p>Enfin, la Conférence recommande -aux Puissances la réunion d'une troisième -Conférence de la Paix qui pourrait -avoir lieu, dans une période analogue -à celle qui s'est écoulée depuis la -précédente Conférence, à une date à +<p>Enfin, la Conférence recommande +aux Puissances la réunion d'une troisième +Conférence de la Paix qui pourrait +avoir lieu, dans une période analogue +à celle qui s'est écoulée depuis la +précédente Conférence, à une date à fixer d'un commun accord entre les Puissances, et elle appelle leur attention -sur la nécessité de préparer les -travaux de cette troisième Conférence -assez longtemps à l'avance pour que -ses délibérations se poursuivent avec -l'autorité et la rapidité indispensables.</p> - -<p>Pour atteindre à ce but, la Conférence -estime qu'il serait très désirable -que environ deux ans avant l'époque -probable de la réunion, un Comité -préparatoire fût chargé par les Gouvernements +sur la nécessité de préparer les +travaux de cette troisième Conférence +assez longtemps à l'avance pour que +ses délibérations se poursuivent avec +l'autorité et la rapidité indispensables.</p> + +<p>Pour atteindre à ce but, la Conférence +estime qu'il serait très désirable +que environ deux ans avant l'époque +probable de la réunion, un Comité +préparatoire fût chargé par les Gouvernements de recueillir les diverses -propositions à soumettre à la Conférence, -de rechercher les matières -susceptibles d'un prochain règlement -international et de préparer un programme -que les Gouvernements arrêteraient -assez tôt pour qu'il pût être -sérieusement étudié dans chaque pays. -Ce Comité serait, en outre, chargé, de +propositions à soumettre à la Conférence, +de rechercher les matières +susceptibles d'un prochain règlement +international et de préparer un programme +que les Gouvernements arrêteraient +assez tôt pour qu'il pût être +sérieusement étudié dans chaque pays. +Ce Comité serait, en outre, chargé, de proposer un mode d'organisation et de -procédure pour la Conférence elle-même.</p> +procédure pour la Conférence elle-même.</p> -<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires -ont signé le présent acte et y ont -apposé leurs cachets.</p> +<p>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires +ont signé le présent acte et y ont +apposé leurs cachets.</p> -<p>Fait à La Haye, le dix-huit octobre +<p>Fait à La Haye, le dix-huit octobre mil neuf cent sept, en un seul exemplaire -qui sera déposé dans les archives +qui sera déposé dans les archives du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et -dont les copies, certifiées conformes, -seront délivrées à toutes les Puissances -représentées à la Conférence.</p> +dont les copies, certifiées conformes, +seront délivrées à toutes les Puissances +représentées à la Conférence.</p> <div class="box5"> @@ -30710,19 +30666,19 @@ and special declarations made in signing the Conventions are omitted.</p></div> <p class="center1"><i>Titre I.—Du maintien de la paix -générale.</i></p> +générale.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> -<p>En vue de prévenir autant que possible -le recours à la force dans les rapports -entre les États, les Puissances +<p>En vue de prévenir autant que possible +le recours à la force dans les rapports +entre les États, les Puissances contractantes conviennent d'employer -tous leurs efforts pour assurer le règlement -pacifique des différends internationaux.</p> +tous leurs efforts pour assurer le règlement +pacifique des différends internationaux.</p> <p class="center1"><i>Titre II.—Des bons offices et de la -médiation.</i></p> +médiation.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> @@ -30731,67 +30687,67 @@ conflit, avant d'en appeler aux armes, les Puissances contractantes conviennent d'avoir recours, en tant que les circonstances le permettront, aux bons -offices ou à la médiation d'une ou de +offices ou à la médiation d'une ou de plusieurs Puissances amies.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Indépendamment de ce recours, les +<p>Indépendamment de ce recours, les Puissances contractantes jugent utile -et désirable qu'une ou plusieurs Puissances -étrangères au conflit offrent de +et désirable qu'une ou plusieurs Puissances +étrangères au conflit offrent de leur propre initiative, en tant que les -circonstances s'y prêtent, leurs bons -offices ou leur médiation aux Etats en +circonstances s'y prêtent, leurs bons +offices ou leur médiation aux Etats en conflit.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[Pg 593]</a></span></p> <p>Le droit d'offrir les bons offices ou la -médiation appartient aux Puissances -étrangères au conflit, même pendant le -cours des hostilités.</p> +médiation appartient aux Puissances +étrangères au conflit, même pendant le +cours des hostilités.</p> <p>L'exercice de ce droit ne peut jamais -être considéré par l'une ou l'autre des +être considéré par l'une ou l'autre des Parties en litige comme un acte peu amical.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Le rôle du médiateur consiste à concilier -les prétentions opposées et à +<p>Le rôle du médiateur consiste à concilier +les prétentions opposées et à apaiser les ressentiments qui peuvent -s'être produits entre les États en conflit.</p> +s'être produits entre les États en conflit.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Les fonctions du médiateur cessent -du moment où il est constaté, soit +<p>Les fonctions du médiateur cessent +du moment où il est constaté, soit par l'une des Parties en litige, soit par -le médiateur lui-même, que les moyens -de conciliation proposés par lui ne -sont pas acceptés.</p> +le médiateur lui-même, que les moyens +de conciliation proposés par lui ne +sont pas acceptés.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Les bons offices et la médiation, soit +<p>Les bons offices et la médiation, soit sur le recours des Parties en conflit, soit sur l'initiative des Puissances -étrangères au conflit, ont exclusivement -le caractère de conseil et n'ont +étrangères au conflit, ont exclusivement +le caractère de conseil et n'ont jamais force obligatoire.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>L'acceptation de la médiation ne +<p>L'acceptation de la médiation ne peut avoir pour effet, sauf convention contraire, d'interrompre, de retarder ou d'entraver la mobilisation et autres -mesures préparatoires à la guerre.</p> +mesures préparatoires à la guerre.</p> -<p>Si elle intervient après l'ouverture -des hostilités, elle n'interrompt pas, -sauf convention contraire, les opérations +<p>Si elle intervient après l'ouverture +des hostilités, elle n'interrompt pas, +sauf convention contraire, les opérations militaires en cours.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> @@ -30799,201 +30755,201 @@ militaires en cours.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes sont d'accord pour recommander l'application, dans les circonstances qui le -permettent, d'une médiation spéciale +permettent, d'une médiation spéciale sous la forme suivante.</p> -<p>En cas de différend grave compromettant -la paix, les États en conflit +<p>En cas de différend grave compromettant +la paix, les États en conflit choisissent respectivement une Puissance -à laquelle ils confient la mission +à laquelle ils confient la mission d'entrer en rapport direct avec la -Puissance choisie d'autre part, à l'effet -de prévenir la rupture des relations +Puissance choisie d'autre part, à l'effet +de prévenir la rupture des relations pacifiques.</p> -<p>Pendant la durée de ce mandat dont +<p>Pendant la durée de ce mandat dont le terme, sauf stipulation contraire, -ne peut excéder trente jours, les États +ne peut excéder trente jours, les États en litige cessent tout rapport direct au -sujet du conflit, lequel est considéré -comme déféré exclusivement aux Puissances -médiatrices. Celles-ci doivent -appliquer tous leurs efforts à régler le -différend.</p> +sujet du conflit, lequel est considéré +comme déféré exclusivement aux Puissances +médiatrices. Celles-ci doivent +appliquer tous leurs efforts à régler le +différend.</p> <p>En cas de rupture effective des relations pacifiques, ces Puissances demeurent -chargées de la mission commune +chargées de la mission commune de profiter de toute occasion -pour rétablir la paix.</p> +pour rétablir la paix.</p> <p class="center1"><i>Titre III.—Des Commissions internationales -d'enquête.</i></p> +d'enquête.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Dans les litiges d'ordre international -n'engageant ni l'honneur ni des intérêts +n'engageant ni l'honneur ni des intérêts essentiels et provenant d'une -divergence d'appréciation sur des +divergence d'appréciation sur des points de fait, les Puissances contractantes -jugent utile et désirable que les +jugent utile et désirable que les Parties qui n'auraient pu se mettre d'accord par les voies diplomatiques instituent, en tant que les circonstances le permettront, une Commission -internationale d'enquête chargée de +internationale d'enquête chargée de faciliter la solution de ces litiges en -éclaircissant, par un examen impartial +éclaircissant, par un examen impartial et consciencieux, les questions de fait.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> <p>Les Commissions internationales -d'enquête sont constituées par convention -spéciale entre les Parties en +d'enquête sont constituées par convention +spéciale entre les Parties en litige.</p> -<p>La convention d'enquête précise les -faits à examiner; elle détermine le -mode et le délai de formation de la -Commission et l'étendue des pouvoirs +<p>La convention d'enquête précise les +faits à examiner; elle détermine le +mode et le délai de formation de la +Commission et l'étendue des pouvoirs des commissaires.</p> -<p>Elle détermine également, s'il y a -lieu, le siège de la Commission et la -faculté de se déplacer, la langue dont +<p>Elle détermine également, s'il y a +lieu, le siège de la Commission et la +faculté de se déplacer, la langue dont la Commission fera usage et celles dont -l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle, ainsi -que la date à laquelle chaque Partie -devra déposer son exposé des faits, -et généralement toutes les conditions +l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle, ainsi +que la date à laquelle chaque Partie +devra déposer son exposé des faits, +et généralement toutes les conditions dont les Parties sont convenues.</p> -<p>Si les Parties jugent nécessaire de +<p>Si les Parties jugent nécessaire de nommer des assesseurs, la convention -d'enquête détermine le mode de leur -désignation et l'étendue de leurs pouvoirs.</p> +d'enquête détermine le mode de leur +désignation et l'étendue de leurs pouvoirs.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Si la convention d'enquête n'a pas -désigné le siège de la Commission, -celle-ci siégera à La Haye.</p> +<p>Si la convention d'enquête n'a pas +désigné le siège de la Commission, +celle-ci siégera à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le siège une fois fixé ne peut être -changé par la Commission qu'avec +<p>Le siège une fois fixé ne peut être +changé par la Commission qu'avec l'assentiment des Parties.</p> -<p>Si la convention d'enquête n'a pas -déterminé les langues à employer, il -en est décidé par la Commission.</p> +<p>Si la convention d'enquête n'a pas +déterminé les langues à employer, il +en est décidé par la Commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> <p>Sauf stipulation contraire, les Commissions -d'enquête sont formées de la -manière déterminée par les articles 45 -et 57 de la présente Convention.</p> +d'enquête sont formées de la +manière déterminée par les articles 45 +et 57 de la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>En cas de décès, de démission ou -d'empêchement, pour quelque cause<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span> +<p>En cas de décès, de démission ou +d'empêchement, pour quelque cause<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span> que ce soit, de l'un des commissaires, -ou éventuellement de l'un des assesseurs, -il est pourvu à son remplacement -selon le mode fixé pour sa nomination.</p> +ou éventuellement de l'un des assesseurs, +il est pourvu à son remplacement +selon le mode fixé pour sa nomination.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> <p>Les Parties ont le droit de nommer -auprès de la Commission d'enquête des -agents spéciaux avec la mission de Les -représenter et de servir d'intermédiaires +auprès de la Commission d'enquête des +agents spéciaux avec la mission de Les +représenter et de servir d'intermédiaires entre Elles et la Commission.</p> -<p>Elles sont, en outre, autorisées à -charger des conseils ou avocats nommés +<p>Elles sont, en outre, autorisées à +charger des conseils ou avocats nommés par elles, d'exposer et de soutenir leurs -intérêts devant la Commission.</p> +intérêts devant la Commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> <p>Le Bureau International de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage sert de greffe -aux Commissions qui siègent à La +aux Commissions qui siègent à La Haye, et mettra ses locaux et son organisation -à la disposition des Puissances +à la disposition des Puissances contractantes pour le fonctionnement -de la Commission d'enquête.</p> +de la Commission d'enquête.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Si la Commission siège ailleurs qu'à -La Haye, elle nomme un Secrétaire -Général dont le bureau lui sert de greffe.</p> +<p>Si la Commission siège ailleurs qu'à +La Haye, elle nomme un Secrétaire +Général dont le bureau lui sert de greffe.</p> -<p>Le greffe est chargé, sous l'autorité -du Président, de l'organisation matérielle -des séances de la Commission, -de la rédaction des procès-verbaux et, -pendant le temps de l'enquête, de la +<p>Le greffe est chargé, sous l'autorité +du Président, de l'organisation matérielle +des séances de la Commission, +de la rédaction des procès-verbaux et, +pendant le temps de l'enquête, de la garde des archives qui seront ensuite -versées au Bureau International de La +versées au Bureau International de La Haye.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> <p>En vue de faciliter l'institution et le fonctionnement des Commissions -d'enquête, les Puissances contractantes -recommandent les règles suivantes -qui seront applicables à la -procédure d'enquête en tant que les +d'enquête, les Puissances contractantes +recommandent les règles suivantes +qui seront applicables à la +procédure d'enquête en tant que les Parties n'adopteront pas d'autres -règles.</p> +règles.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>La Commission réglera les détails de -la procédure non prévus dans la convention -spéciale d'enquête ou dans la -présente Convention, et procédera à -toutes les formalités que comporte +<p>La Commission réglera les détails de +la procédure non prévus dans la convention +spéciale d'enquête ou dans la +présente Convention, et procédera à +toutes les formalités que comporte l'administration des preuves.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>L'enquête a lieu contradictoirement.</p> +<p>L'enquête a lieu contradictoirement.</p> -<p>Aux dates prévues, chaque Partie -communique à la Commission et à -l'autre Partie les exposés des faits, s'il +<p>Aux dates prévues, chaque Partie +communique à la Commission et à +l'autre Partie les exposés des faits, s'il y a lieu, et, dans tous les cas, les actes, -pièces et documents qu'Elle juge utiles -à la découverte de la vérité, ainsi que -la liste des témoins et des experts -qu'elle désire faire entendre.</p> +pièces et documents qu'Elle juge utiles +à la découverte de la vérité, ainsi que +la liste des témoins et des experts +qu'elle désire faire entendre.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> -<p>La Commission a la faculté, avec +<p>La Commission a la faculté, avec l'assentiment des Parties, de se transporter -momentanément sur les lieux -où elle juge utile de recourir à ce moyen -d'information ou d'y déléguer un ou +momentanément sur les lieux +où elle juge utile de recourir à ce moyen +d'information ou d'y déléguer un ou plusieurs de ses membres. L'autorisation -de l'État sur le territoire duquel -il doit être procédé à cette information -devra être obtenue.</p> +de l'État sur le territoire duquel +il doit être procédé à cette information +devra être obtenue.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> -<p>Toutes constatations matérielles, et -toutes visites des lieux doivent être -faites en présence des agents et conseils -des Parties ou eux dûment appelés.</p> +<p>Toutes constatations matérielles, et +toutes visites des lieux doivent être +faites en présence des agents et conseils +des Parties ou eux dûment appelés.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> @@ -31004,181 +30960,181 @@ utiles.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>Les Parties s'engagent à fournir à la -Commission d'enquête, dans la plus +<p>Les Parties s'engagent à fournir à la +Commission d'enquête, dans la plus large mesure qu'Elles jugeront possible, -tous les moyens et toutes les facilités -nécessaires pour la connaissance complète -et l'appréciation exacte des faits +tous les moyens et toutes les facilités +nécessaires pour la connaissance complète +et l'appréciation exacte des faits en question.</p> -<p>Elles s'engagent à user des moyens -dont Elles disposent d'après leur législation -intérieure, pour assurer la comparution -des témoins ou des experts -se trouvant sur leur territoire et cités +<p>Elles s'engagent à user des moyens +dont Elles disposent d'après leur législation +intérieure, pour assurer la comparution +des témoins ou des experts +se trouvant sur leur territoire et cités devant la Commission.</p> -<p>Si ceux-ci ne peuvent comparaître +<p>Si ceux-ci ne peuvent comparaître devant la Commission, Elles feront -procéder à leur audition devant leurs -autorités compétentes.</p> +procéder à leur audition devant leurs +autorités compétentes.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> <p>Pour toutes les notifications que la -Commission aurait à faire sur le territoire +Commission aurait à faire sur le territoire d'une tierce Puissance contractante, la Commission s'adressera directement au Gouvernement de cette -Puissance. Il en sera de même s'il -s'agit de faire procéder sur place à -l'établissement de tous moyens de +Puissance. Il en sera de même s'il +s'agit de faire procéder sur place à +l'établissement de tous moyens de preuve.</p> -<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet -seront exécutées suivant les moyens +<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet +seront exécutées suivant les moyens dont la Puissance requise dispose -d'après Sa législation intérieure. Elles -ne peuvent être refusées que si cette -Puissance les juge de nature à porter -atteinte à Sa souveraineté ou à Sa -sécurité.</p> +d'après Sa législation intérieure. Elles +ne peuvent être refusées que si cette +Puissance les juge de nature à porter +atteinte à Sa souveraineté ou à Sa +sécurité.</p> <p>La Commission aura aussi toujours -la faculté de recourir à l'intermédiaire +la faculté de recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance sur le territoire de -laquelle elle a son siège.</p> +laquelle elle a son siège.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>Les témoins et les experts sont -appelés à la requête des Parties ou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span> +<p>Les témoins et les experts sont +appelés à la requête des Parties ou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span> d'office par la Commission, et, dans -tous les cas, par l'intermédiaire du -Gouvernement de l'État sur le territoire +tous les cas, par l'intermédiaire du +Gouvernement de l'État sur le territoire duquel ils se trouvent.</p> -<p>Les témoins sont entendus, successivement -et séparément, en présence +<p>Les témoins sont entendus, successivement +et séparément, en présence des agents et des conseils et dans un -ordre à fixer par la Commission.</p> +ordre à fixer par la Commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> -<p>L'interrogatoire des témoins est conduit -par le Président.</p> +<p>L'interrogatoire des témoins est conduit +par le Président.</p> <p>Les membres de la Commission -peuvent néanmoins poser à chaque -témoin les questions qu'ils croient -convenables pour éclaircir ou compléter -sa déposition, ou pour se renseigner +peuvent néanmoins poser à chaque +témoin les questions qu'ils croient +convenables pour éclaircir ou compléter +sa déposition, ou pour se renseigner sur tout ce qui concerne le -témoin dans les limites nécessaires à la -manifestation de la vérité.</p> +témoin dans les limites nécessaires à la +manifestation de la vérité.</p> <p>Les agents et les conseils des Parties -ne peuvent interrompre le témoin -dans sa déposition, ni lui faire aucune +ne peuvent interrompre le témoin +dans sa déposition, ni lui faire aucune interpellation directe, mais peuvent -demander au Président de poser au -témoin telles questions complémentaires +demander au Président de poser au +témoin telles questions complémentaires qu'ils jugent utiles.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> -<p>Le témoin doit déposer sans qu'il lui -soit permis de lire aucun projet écrit. -Toutefois, il peut être autorisé par le -Président à s'aider de notes ou documents -si la nature des faits rapportés -en nécessite l'emploi.</p> +<p>Le témoin doit déposer sans qu'il lui +soit permis de lire aucun projet écrit. +Toutefois, il peut être autorisé par le +Président à s'aider de notes ou documents +si la nature des faits rapportés +en nécessite l'emploi.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> -<p>Procès-verbal de la déposition du -témoin est dressé séance tenante et -lecture en est donnée au témoin. Le -témoin peut y faire tels changements +<p>Procès-verbal de la déposition du +témoin est dressé séance tenante et +lecture en est donnée au témoin. Le +témoin peut y faire tels changements et additions que bon lui semble et qui -seront consignés à la suite de sa déposition.</p> +seront consignés à la suite de sa déposition.</p> -<p>Lecture faite au témoin de l'ensemble -de sa déposition, le témoin est +<p>Lecture faite au témoin de l'ensemble +de sa déposition, le témoin est requis de signer.</p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p>Les agents sont autorisés, au cours -ou à la fin de l'enquête, à présenter par -écrit à la Commission et à l'autre Partie -tels dires, réquisitions ou résumés de -fait, qu'ils jugent utiles à la découverte -de la vérité.</p> +<p>Les agents sont autorisés, au cours +ou à la fin de l'enquête, à présenter par +écrit à la Commission et à l'autre Partie +tels dires, réquisitions ou résumés de +fait, qu'ils jugent utiles à la découverte +de la vérité.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> -<p>Les délibérations de la Commission -ont lieu à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> +<p>Les délibérations de la Commission +ont lieu à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> -<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité +<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité des membres de la Commission.</p> <p>Le refus d'un membre de prendre -part au vote doit être constaté dans le -procès-verbal.</p> +part au vote doit être constaté dans le +procès-verbal.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>Les séances de la Commission ne -sont publiques et les procès-verbaux et -documents de l'enquête ne sont rendus -publics qu'en vertu d'une décision de +<p>Les séances de la Commission ne +sont publiques et les procès-verbaux et +documents de l'enquête ne sont rendus +publics qu'en vertu d'une décision de la Commission, prise avec l'assentiment des Parties.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p>Les Parties ayant présenté tous les -éclaircissements et preuves, tous les -témoins ayant été entendus, le Président -prononce la clôture de l'enquête -et la Commission s'ajourne pour délibérer -et rédiger son rapport.</p> +<p>Les Parties ayant présenté tous les +éclaircissements et preuves, tous les +témoins ayant été entendus, le Président +prononce la clôture de l'enquête +et la Commission s'ajourne pour délibérer +et rédiger son rapport.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> -<p>Le rapport est signé par tous les +<p>Le rapport est signé par tous les membres de la Commission.</p> <p>Si un des membres refuse de signer, mention en est faite; le rapport reste -néanmoins valable.</p> +néanmoins valable.</p> <p class="center">Article 34.</p> <p>Le rapport de la Commission est lu -en séance publique, les agents et les -conseils des Parties présents ou dûment -appelés.</p> +en séance publique, les agents et les +conseils des Parties présents ou dûment +appelés.</p> <p>Un exemplaire du rapport est remis -à chaque Partie.</p> +à chaque Partie.</p> <p class="center">Article 35.</p> -<p>Le rapport de la Commission, limité -à la constatation des faits, n'a nullement -le caractère d'une sentence +<p>Le rapport de la Commission, limité +à la constatation des faits, n'a nullement +le caractère d'une sentence arbitrale. Il laisse aux Parties une -entière liberté pour la suite à donner à +entière liberté pour la suite à donner à cette constatation.</p> <p class="center">Article 36.</p> <p>Chaque Partie supporte ses propres -frais et une part égale des frais de la +frais et une part égale des frais de la Commission.</p> <p class="center1"><i>Titre IV.—De l'arbitrage international.</i></p> @@ -31188,53 +31144,53 @@ Commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 37.</p> <p>L'arbitrage international a pour -objet le règlement de litiges entre les -États par des juges de leur choix et +objet le règlement de litiges entre les +États par des juges de leur choix et sur la base du respect du droit.</p> -<p>Le recours à l'arbitrage implique +<p>Le recours à l'arbitrage implique l'engagement de se soumettre de bonne -foi à la sentence.</p> +foi à la sentence.</p> <p class="center">Article 38.</p> <p>Dans les questions d'ordre juridique, et en premier lieu, dans les questions -d'interprétation ou d'application des +d'interprétation ou d'application des Conventions internationales, l'arbitrage est reconnu par les Puissances contractantes comme le moyen le plus -efficace et en même temps le plus -équitable de régler les litiges qui n'ont -pas été résolus par les voies diplomatiques.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span></p> +efficace et en même temps le plus +équitable de régler les litiges qui n'ont +pas été résolus par les voies diplomatiques.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span></p> -<p>En conséquence, il serait désirable +<p>En conséquence, il serait désirable que, dans les litiges sur les questions -susmentionnées, les Puissances contractantes -eussent, le cas échéant, recours -à l'arbitrage, en tant que les +susmentionnées, les Puissances contractantes +eussent, le cas échéant, recours +à l'arbitrage, en tant que les circonstances le permettraient.</p> <p class="center">Article 39.</p> <p>La Convention d'arbitrage est conclue -pour des contestations déjà nées -ou pour des contestations éventuelles.</p> +pour des contestations déjà nées +ou pour des contestations éventuelles.</p> <p>Elle peut concerner tout litige ou -seulement les litiges d'une catégorie -déterminée.</p> +seulement les litiges d'une catégorie +déterminée.</p> <p class="center">Article 40.</p> -<p>Indépendamment des Traités généraux +<p>Indépendamment des Traités généraux ou particuliers qui stipulent -actuellement l'obligation du recours à +actuellement l'obligation du recours à l'arbitrage pour les Puissances contractantes, -ces Puissances se réservent +ces Puissances se réservent de conclure des accords nouveaux, -généraux ou particuliers, en vue -d'étendre l'arbitrage obligatoire à tous +généraux ou particuliers, en vue +d'étendre l'arbitrage obligatoire à tous les cas qu'Elles jugeront possible de lui soumettre.</p> @@ -31244,485 +31200,485 @@ d'arbitrage.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 41.</p> <p>Dans le but de faciliter le recours -immédiat à l'arbitrage pour les différends -internationaux qui n'ont pu être -réglés par la voie diplomatique, les -Puissances contractantes s'engagent à -maintenir, telle qu'elle a été établie par -la Première Conférence de la Paix, la +immédiat à l'arbitrage pour les différends +internationaux qui n'ont pu être +réglés par la voie diplomatique, les +Puissances contractantes s'engagent à +maintenir, telle qu'elle a été établie par +la Première Conférence de la Paix, la Cour permanente d'arbitrage, accessible en tout temps et fonctionnant, sauf stipulation contraire des Parties, -conformément aux règles de procédure -insérées dans la présente Convention.</p> +conformément aux règles de procédure +insérées dans la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 42.</p> -<p>La Cour permanente est compétente -pour tous les cas d'arbitrage, à moins +<p>La Cour permanente est compétente +pour tous les cas d'arbitrage, à moins qu'il n'y ait entente entre les Parties -pour l'établissement d'une juridiction -spéciale.</p> +pour l'établissement d'une juridiction +spéciale.</p> <p class="center">Article 43.</p> -<p>La cour permanente a son siège à +<p>La cour permanente a son siège à La Haye.</p> <p>Un Bureau International sert de -greffe à la Cour; il est l'intermédiaire -des communications relatives aux réunions +greffe à la Cour; il est l'intermédiaire +des communications relatives aux réunions de celle-ci; il a la garde des archives et la gestion de toutes les affaires administratives.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes s'engagent -à communiquer au Bureau, -aussitôt que possible, une copie certifiée +à communiquer au Bureau, +aussitôt que possible, une copie certifiée conforme de toute stipulation d'arbitrage intervenue entre Elles et de toute sentence arbitrale Les concernant -et rendue par des juridictions spéciales.</p> +et rendue par des juridictions spéciales.</p> -<p>Elles s'engagent à communiquer de -même au Bureau les lois, règlements et -documents constatant éventuellement -l'exécution des sentences rendues par +<p>Elles s'engagent à communiquer de +même au Bureau les lois, règlements et +documents constatant éventuellement +l'exécution des sentences rendues par la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 44.</p> -<p>Chaque Puissance contractante désigne +<p>Chaque Puissance contractante désigne quatre personnes au plus, d'une -compétence reconnue dans les questions +compétence reconnue dans les questions de droit international, jouissant -de la plus haute considération morale -et disposées à accepter les fonctions +de la plus haute considération morale +et disposées à accepter les fonctions d'arbitre.</p> -<p>Les personnes ainsi désignées sont +<p>Les personnes ainsi désignées sont inscrites, au titre de Membres de la -Cour, sur une liste qui sera notifiée à +Cour, sur une liste qui sera notifiée à toutes les Puissances contractantes par les soins du Bureau.</p> -<p>Toute modification à la liste des -arbitres est portée, par les soins du -Bureau, à la connaissance des Puissances +<p>Toute modification à la liste des +arbitres est portée, par les soins du +Bureau, à la connaissance des Puissances contractantes.</p> <p>Deux ou plusieurs Puissances peuvent -s'entendre pour la désignation en +s'entendre pour la désignation en commun d'un ou de plusieurs Membres.</p> -<p>La même personne peut être désignée -par des Puissances différentes.</p> +<p>La même personne peut être désignée +par des Puissances différentes.</p> <p>Les Membres de la Cour sont -nommés pour un terme de six ans. -Leur mandat peut être renouvelé.</p> +nommés pour un terme de six ans. +Leur mandat peut être renouvelé.</p> -<p>En cas de décès ou de retraite d'un -Membre de la Cour, il est pourvu à -son remplacement selon le mode fixé +<p>En cas de décès ou de retraite d'un +Membre de la Cour, il est pourvu à +son remplacement selon le mode fixé pour sa nomination, et pour une nouvelle -période de six ans.</p> +période de six ans.</p> <p class="center">Article 45.</p> <p>Lorsque les Puissances contractantes -veulent s'adresser à la Cour permanente -pour le règlement d'un différend +veulent s'adresser à la Cour permanente +pour le règlement d'un différend survenu entre Elles, le choix des -arbitres appelés à former le Tribunal -compétent pour statuer sur ce différend, -doit être fait dans la liste générale des +arbitres appelés à former le Tribunal +compétent pour statuer sur ce différend, +doit être fait dans la liste générale des Membres de la Cour.</p> -<p>A défaut de constitution du Tribunal +<p>A défaut de constitution du Tribunal arbitral par l'accord des Parties, il est -procédé de la manière suivante:</p> +procédé de la manière suivante:</p> <p>Chaque Partie nomme deux arbitres, -dont un seulement peut être son +dont un seulement peut être son national ou choisi parmi ceux qui ont -été désignés par Elle comme Membres +été désignés par Elle comme Membres de la Cour permanente. Ces arbitres choisissent ensemble un surarbitre.</p> <p>En cas de partage des voix, le choix -du surarbitre est confié à une Puissance -tierce, désignée de commun +du surarbitre est confié à une Puissance +tierce, désignée de commun accord par les Parties.</p> -<p>Si l'accord ne s'établit pas à ce sujet, -chaque Partie désigne une Puissance -différente et le choix du surarbitre est +<p>Si l'accord ne s'établit pas à ce sujet, +chaque Partie désigne une Puissance +différente et le choix du surarbitre est fait de concert par les Puissances ainsi -désignées.</p> +désignées.</p> -<p>Si, dans un délai de deux mois, ces +<p>Si, dans un délai de deux mois, ces deux Puissances n'ont pu tomber -d'accord, chacune d'Elles présente +d'accord, chacune d'Elles présente deux candidats pris sur la liste des Membres de la Cour permanente, en -dehors des Membres désignés par les<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span> -Parties et n'étant les nationaux d'aucune -d'Elles. Le sort détermine lequel -des candidats ainsi présentés sera le +dehors des Membres désignés par les<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span> +Parties et n'étant les nationaux d'aucune +d'Elles. Le sort détermine lequel +des candidats ainsi présentés sera le surarbitre.</p> <p class="center">Article 46.</p> -<p>Dès que le Tribunal est composé, les -Parties notifient au Bureau leur décision -de s'adresser à la Cour, le texte +<p>Dès que le Tribunal est composé, les +Parties notifient au Bureau leur décision +de s'adresser à la Cour, le texte de leur compromis, et les noms des arbitres.</p> -<p>Le Bureau communique sans délai -à chaque arbitre le compromis et les +<p>Le Bureau communique sans délai +à chaque arbitre le compromis et les noms des autres Membres du Tribunal.</p> -<p>Le Tribunal se réunit à la date fixée +<p>Le Tribunal se réunit à la date fixée par les Parties. Le Bureau pourvoit -à son installation.</p> +à son installation.</p> <p>Les Membres du Tribunal, dans l'exercice de leurs fonctions et en dehors -de leur pays, jouissent des privilèges -et immunités diplomatiques.</p> +de leur pays, jouissent des privilèges +et immunités diplomatiques.</p> <p class="center">Article 47.</p> -<p>Le Bureau est autorisé à mettre ses -locaux et son organisation à la disposition +<p>Le Bureau est autorisé à mettre ses +locaux et son organisation à la disposition des Puissances contractantes pour le fonctionnement de toute juridiction -spéciale d'arbitrage.</p> +spéciale d'arbitrage.</p> <p>La juridiction de la Cour permanente -peut être étendue, dans les conditions -prescrites par les règlements, aux litiges +peut être étendue, dans les conditions +prescrites par les règlements, aux litiges existant entre des Puissances non contractantes ou entre des Puissances contractantes et des Puissances non contractantes, si les Parties sont convenues -de recourir à cette juridiction.</p> +de recourir à cette juridiction.</p> <p class="center">Article 48.</p> -<p>Les Puissances contractantes considèrent +<p>Les Puissances contractantes considèrent comme un devoir, dans le cas -où un conflit aigu menacerait d'éclater +où un conflit aigu menacerait d'éclater entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre Elles, -de rappeler à celles-ci que la Cour permanente +de rappeler à celles-ci que la Cour permanente leur est ouverte.</p> -<p>En conséquence, Elles déclarent que +<p>En conséquence, Elles déclarent que le fait de rappeler aux Parties en conflit -les dispositions de la présente Convention, -et le conseil donné, dans l'intérêt -supérieur de la paix, de s'adresser à la -Cour permanente, ne peuvent être -considérés que comme actes de bons +les dispositions de la présente Convention, +et le conseil donné, dans l'intérêt +supérieur de la paix, de s'adresser à la +Cour permanente, ne peuvent être +considérés que comme actes de bons offices.</p> <p>En cas de conflit entre deux Puissances, l'une d'Elles pourra toujours adresser au Bureau International une -note contenant sa déclaration qu'Elle -serait disposée à soumettre le différend -à un arbitrage.</p> +note contenant sa déclaration qu'Elle +serait disposée à soumettre le différend +à un arbitrage.</p> -<p>Le Bureau devra porter aussitôt la -déclaration à la connaissance de l'autre +<p>Le Bureau devra porter aussitôt la +déclaration à la connaissance de l'autre Puissance.</p> <p class="center">Article 49.</p> <p>Le Conseil administratif permanent, -composé des Représentants diplomatiques +composé des Représentants diplomatiques des Puissances contractantes -accrédités à La Haye et du Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas, qui -remplit les fonctions de Président, a la -direction et le contrôle du Bureau +accrédités à La Haye et du Ministre des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas, qui +remplit les fonctions de Président, a la +direction et le contrôle du Bureau International.</p> -<p>Le Conseil arrête son règlement -d'ordre ainsi que tous autres règlements -nécessaires.</p> +<p>Le Conseil arrête son règlement +d'ordre ainsi que tous autres règlements +nécessaires.</p> -<p>Il décide toutes les questions administratives +<p>Il décide toutes les questions administratives qui pourraient surgir touchant le fonctionnement de la Cour.</p> -<p>Il a tout pouvoir quant à la nomination, -la suspension ou la révocation des -fonctionnaires et employés du Bureau.</p> +<p>Il a tout pouvoir quant à la nomination, +la suspension ou la révocation des +fonctionnaires et employés du Bureau.</p> <p>Il fixe les traitements et salaires, et -contrôle la dépense générale.</p> - -<p>La présence de neuf membres dans -les réunions dûment convoquées suffit -pour permettre au Conseil de délibérer -valablement. Les décisions -sont prises à la majorité des voix.</p> - -<p>Le Conseil communique sans délai -aux Puissances contractantes les règlements -adoptés par lui. Il Leur présente -chaque année un rapport sur les +contrôle la dépense générale.</p> + +<p>La présence de neuf membres dans +les réunions dûment convoquées suffit +pour permettre au Conseil de délibérer +valablement. Les décisions +sont prises à la majorité des voix.</p> + +<p>Le Conseil communique sans délai +aux Puissances contractantes les règlements +adoptés par lui. Il Leur présente +chaque année un rapport sur les travaux de la Cour, sur le fonctionnement des services administratifs et sur -les dépenses. Le rapport contient -également un résumé du contenu -essentiel des documents communiqués +les dépenses. Le rapport contient +également un résumé du contenu +essentiel des documents communiqués au Bureau par les Puissances en vertu -de l'article 43 alinéas 3 et 4.</p> +de l'article 43 alinéas 3 et 4.</p> <p class="center">Article 50.</p> -<p>Les frais du Bureau seront supportés +<p>Les frais du Bureau seront supportés par les Puissances contractantes dans -la proportion établie pour le Bureau +la proportion établie pour le Bureau international de l'Union postale universelle.</p> -<p>Les frais à la charge des Puissances -adhérentes seront comptés à partir du -jour où leur adhésion produit ses effets.</p> +<p>Les frais à la charge des Puissances +adhérentes seront comptés à partir du +jour où leur adhésion produit ses effets.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>De la procédure +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>De la procédure arbitrale.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 51.</p> -<p>En vue de favoriser le développement +<p>En vue de favoriser le développement de l'arbitrage, les Puissances -contractantes ont arrêté les règles -suivantes qui sont applicables à la -procédure arbitrale, en tant que les +contractantes ont arrêté les règles +suivantes qui sont applicables à la +procédure arbitrale, en tant que les Parties ne sont pas convenues d'autres -règles.</p> +règles.</p> <p class="center">Article 52.</p> -<p>Les Puissances qui recourent à +<p>Les Puissances qui recourent à l'arbitrage signent un compromis dans -lequel sont déterminés l'objet du litige, -le délai de nomination des arbitres, la -forme, l'ordre et les délais dans lesquels -la communication visée par l'article 63 -devra être faite, et le montant de la -somme que chaque Partie aura à déposer -à titre d'avance pour les frais.</p> - -<p>Le compromis détermine également, +lequel sont déterminés l'objet du litige, +le délai de nomination des arbitres, la +forme, l'ordre et les délais dans lesquels +la communication visée par l'article 63 +devra être faite, et le montant de la +somme que chaque Partie aura à déposer +à titre d'avance pour les frais.</p> + +<p>Le compromis détermine également, s'il y a lieu, le mode de nomination des -arbitres, tous pouvoirs spéciaux éventuels -du Tribunal, son siège, la langue +arbitres, tous pouvoirs spéciaux éventuels +du Tribunal, son siège, la langue dont il fera usage et celles dont l'emploi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span> -sera autorisé devant lui, et généralement +sera autorisé devant lui, et généralement toutes les conditions dont les Parties sont convenues.</p> <p class="center">Article 53.</p> -<p>La Cour permanente est compétente -pour l'établissement du compromis, si +<p>La Cour permanente est compétente +pour l'établissement du compromis, si les Parties sont d'accord pour s'en -remettre à elle.</p> - -<p>Elle est également compétente, -même si la demande est faite seulement -par l'une des Parties, après qu'un -accord par la voie diplomatique a été -vainement essayé, quand il s'agit:</p> - -<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend rentrant dans un -Traité d'arbitrage général conclu ou -renouvelé après la mise en vigueur de -cette Convention et qui prévoit pour -chaque différend un compromis et -n'exclut pour l'établissement de ce +remettre à elle.</p> + +<p>Elle est également compétente, +même si la demande est faite seulement +par l'une des Parties, après qu'un +accord par la voie diplomatique a été +vainement essayé, quand il s'agit:</p> + +<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend rentrant dans un +Traité d'arbitrage général conclu ou +renouvelé après la mise en vigueur de +cette Convention et qui prévoit pour +chaque différend un compromis et +n'exclut pour l'établissement de ce dernier ni explicitement ni implicitement -la compétence de la Cour. Toutefois, -le recours à la Cour n'a pas lieu -si l'autre Partie déclare qu'à son avis -le différend n'appartient pas à la catégorie -des différends à soumettre à un -arbitrage obligatoire, à moins que le -Traité d'arbitrage ne confère au Tribunal -arbitral le pouvoir de décider -cette question préalable;</p> - -<p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend provenant de -dettes contractuelles réclamées à une +la compétence de la Cour. Toutefois, +le recours à la Cour n'a pas lieu +si l'autre Partie déclare qu'à son avis +le différend n'appartient pas à la catégorie +des différends à soumettre à un +arbitrage obligatoire, à moins que le +Traité d'arbitrage ne confère au Tribunal +arbitral le pouvoir de décider +cette question préalable;</p> + +<p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend provenant de +dettes contractuelles réclamées à une Puissance par une autre Puissance -comme dues à ses nationaux, et pour la +comme dues à ses nationaux, et pour la solution duquel l'offre d'arbitrage a -été acceptée. Cette disposition n'est -pas applicable si l'acceptation a été -subordonnée à la condition que le -compromis soit établi selon un autre +été acceptée. Cette disposition n'est +pas applicable si l'acceptation a été +subordonnée à la condition que le +compromis soit établi selon un autre mode.</p> <p class="center">Article 54.</p> -<p>Dans les cas prévus par l'article précédent, -le compromis sera établi par -une commission composée de cinq -membres désignés de la manière prévue -à l'article 45 alinéas 3 à 6.</p> +<p>Dans les cas prévus par l'article précédent, +le compromis sera établi par +une commission composée de cinq +membres désignés de la manière prévue +à l'article 45 alinéas 3 à 6.</p> -<p>Le cinquième membre est de droit -Président de la commission.</p> +<p>Le cinquième membre est de droit +Président de la commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 55.</p> -<p>Les fonctions arbitrales peuvent être -conférées à un arbitre unique ou à -plusieurs arbitres désignés par les -Parties à leur gré, ou choisis par Elles +<p>Les fonctions arbitrales peuvent être +conférées à un arbitre unique ou à +plusieurs arbitres désignés par les +Parties à leur gré, ou choisis par Elles parmi les Membres de la Cour permanente -d'arbitrage établie par la présente +d'arbitrage établie par la présente Convention.</p> -<p>A défaut de constitution du Tribunal -par l'accord des Parties, il est procédé -de la manière indiquée à l'article 45 -alinéas 3 à 6.</p> +<p>A défaut de constitution du Tribunal +par l'accord des Parties, il est procédé +de la manière indiquée à l'article 45 +alinéas 3 à 6.</p> <p class="center">Article 56.</p> <p>Lorsqu'un Souverain ou un Chef -d'Etat est choisi pour arbitre, la procédure -arbitrale est réglée par Lui.</p> +d'Etat est choisi pour arbitre, la procédure +arbitrale est réglée par Lui.</p> <p class="center">Article 57.</p> -<p>Le surarbitre est de droit Président +<p>Le surarbitre est de droit Président du Tribunal.</p> <p>Lorsque le Tribunal ne comprend -pas de surarbitre, il nomme lui-même -son Président.</p> +pas de surarbitre, il nomme lui-même +son Président.</p> <p class="center">Article 58.</p> -<p>En cas d'établissement du compromis +<p>En cas d'établissement du compromis par une commission, telle qu'elle -est visée à l'article 54, et sauf stipulation -contraire, la commission elle-même +est visée à l'article 54, et sauf stipulation +contraire, la commission elle-même formera le Tribunal d'arbitrage.</p> <p class="center">Article 59.</p> -<p>En cas de décès, de démission ou -d'empêchement, pour quelque cause +<p>En cas de décès, de démission ou +d'empêchement, pour quelque cause que ce soit, de l'un des arbitres, il est -pourvu à son remplacement selon le -mode fixé pour sa nomination.</p> +pourvu à son remplacement selon le +mode fixé pour sa nomination.</p> <p class="center">Article 60.</p> -<p>A défaut de désignation par les -Parties, le Tribunal siège à La Haye.</p> +<p>A défaut de désignation par les +Parties, le Tribunal siège à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le Tribunal ne peut siéger sur le territoire +<p>Le Tribunal ne peut siéger sur le territoire d'une tierce Puissance qu'avec l'assentiment de celle-ci.</p> -<p>Le siège une fois fixé ne peut être -changé par le Tribunal qu'avec l'assentiment +<p>Le siège une fois fixé ne peut être +changé par le Tribunal qu'avec l'assentiment des Parties.</p> <p class="center">Article 61.</p> -<p>Si le compromis n'a pas déterminé -les langues à employer, il en est décidé +<p>Si le compromis n'a pas déterminé +les langues à employer, il en est décidé par le Tribunal.</p> <p class="center">Article 62.</p> <p>Les Parties ont le droit de nommer -auprès du Tribunal des agents spéciaux, -avec la mission de servir d'intermédiaires +auprès du Tribunal des agents spéciaux, +avec la mission de servir d'intermédiaires entre Elles et le Tribunal.</p> -<p>Elles sont en outre autorisées à -charger de la défense de leurs droits et -intérêts devant le Tribunal, des conseils -ou avocats nommés par Elles à cet effet.</p> +<p>Elles sont en outre autorisées à +charger de la défense de leurs droits et +intérêts devant le Tribunal, des conseils +ou avocats nommés par Elles à cet effet.</p> <p>Les Membres de la Cour permanente ne peuvent exercer les fonctions d'agents, conseils ou avocats, qu'en faveur de la Puissance qui les a -nommés Membres de la Cour.</p> +nommés Membres de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 63.</p> -<p>La procédure arbitrale comprend en -règle générale deux phases distinctes: -l'instruction écrite et les débats.</p> +<p>La procédure arbitrale comprend en +règle générale deux phases distinctes: +l'instruction écrite et les débats.</p> -<p>L'instruction écrite consiste dans la +<p>L'instruction écrite consiste dans la communication faite par les agents respectifs, aux membres du Tribunal -et à la Partie adverse, des mémoires, -des contre-mémoires et, au besoin, des -répliques; les Parties y joignent toutes -pièces et documents invoqués dans la +et à la Partie adverse, des mémoires, +des contre-mémoires et, au besoin, des +répliques; les Parties y joignent toutes +pièces et documents invoqués dans la cause. Cette communication aura lieu, -directement ou par l'intermédiaire du +directement ou par l'intermédiaire du Bureau International, dans l'ordre et -dans les délais déterminés par le compromis.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span></p> +dans les délais déterminés par le compromis.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span></p> -<p>Les délais fixés par le compromis -pourront être prolongés de commun +<p>Les délais fixés par le compromis +pourront être prolongés de commun accord par les Parties, ou par le Tribunal -quand il le juge nécessaire pour -arriver à une décision juste.</p> +quand il le juge nécessaire pour +arriver à une décision juste.</p> -<p>Les débats consistent dans le développement +<p>Les débats consistent dans le développement oral des moyens des Parties devant le Tribunal.</p> <p class="center">Article 64.</p> -<p>Toute pièce produite par l'une des -Parties doit être communiquée, en -copie certifiée conforme, à l'autre +<p>Toute pièce produite par l'une des +Parties doit être communiquée, en +copie certifiée conforme, à l'autre Partie.</p> <p class="center">Article 65.</p> -<p>A moins de circonstances spéciales, -le Tribunal ne se réunit qu'après la -clôture de l'instruction.</p> +<p>A moins de circonstances spéciales, +le Tribunal ne se réunit qu'après la +clôture de l'instruction.</p> <p class="center">Article 66.</p> -<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président.</p> +<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président.</p> <p>Ils ne sont publics qu'en vertu d'une -décision du Tribunal, prise avec l'assentiment +décision du Tribunal, prise avec l'assentiment des Parties.</p> -<p>Ils sont consignés dans des procès-verbaux -rédigés par des secrétaires que -nomme le Président. Ces procès-verbaux -sont signés par le Président et -par un des secrétaires; ils ont seuls -caractère authentique.</p> +<p>Ils sont consignés dans des procès-verbaux +rédigés par des secrétaires que +nomme le Président. Ces procès-verbaux +sont signés par le Président et +par un des secrétaires; ils ont seuls +caractère authentique.</p> <p class="center">Article 67.</p> -<p>L'instruction étant close, le Tribunal -a le droit d'écarter du débat +<p>L'instruction étant close, le Tribunal +a le droit d'écarter du débat tous actes ou documents nouveaux qu'une des Parties voudrait lui soumettre sans le consentement de l'autre.</p> @@ -31730,216 +31686,216 @@ sans le consentement de l'autre.</p> <p class="center">Article 68.</p> <p>Le Tribunal demeure libre de prendre -en considération les actes ou documents +en considération les actes ou documents nouveaux sur lesquels les agents ou conseils des Parties appelleraient son attention.</p> <p>En ce cas, le Tribunal a le droit de -requérir la production de ces actes ou +requérir la production de ces actes ou documents, sauf l'obligation d'en -donner connaissance à la Partie adverse.</p> +donner connaissance à la Partie adverse.</p> <p class="center">Article 69.</p> -<p>Le Tribunal peut, en outre, requérir +<p>Le Tribunal peut, en outre, requérir des agents des Parties la production de tous actes et demander toutes explications -nécessaires. En cas de refus, le +nécessaires. En cas de refus, le Tribunal en prend acte.</p> <p class="center">Article 70.</p> <p>Les agents et les conseils des Parties -sont autorisés à présenter oralement au +sont autorisés à présenter oralement au Tribunal tous les moyens qu'ils jugent -utiles à la défense de leur cause.</p> +utiles à la défense de leur cause.</p> <p class="center">Article 71.</p> <p>Ils ont le droit de soulever des exceptions -et des incidents. Les décisions +et des incidents. Les décisions du Tribunal sur ces points sont -définitives et ne peuvent donner lieu -à aucune discussion ultérieure.</p> +définitives et ne peuvent donner lieu +à aucune discussion ultérieure.</p> <p class="center">Article 72.</p> <p>Les membres du Tribunal ont le droit de poser des questions aux agents et aux conseils des Parties et de leur -demander des éclaircissements sur les +demander des éclaircissements sur les points douteux.</p> -<p>Ni les questions posées, ni les observations +<p>Ni les questions posées, ni les observations faites par les membres du -Tribunal pendant le cours des débats -ne peuvent être regardées comme l'expression +Tribunal pendant le cours des débats +ne peuvent être regardées comme l'expression des opinions du Tribunal en -général ou de ses membres en particulier.</p> +général ou de ses membres en particulier.</p> <p class="center">Article 73.</p> -<p>Le Tribunal est autorisé à déterminer -sa compétence en interprétant le -compromis ainsi que les autres Traités -qui peuvent être invoqués dans la -matière, et en appliquant les principes +<p>Le Tribunal est autorisé à déterminer +sa compétence en interprétant le +compromis ainsi que les autres Traités +qui peuvent être invoqués dans la +matière, et en appliquant les principes du droit.</p> <p class="center">Article 74.</p> <p>Le Tribunal a le droit de rendre des -ordonnances de procédure pour la -direction du procès, de déterminer les -formes, l'ordre et les délais dans +ordonnances de procédure pour la +direction du procès, de déterminer les +formes, l'ordre et les délais dans lesquels chaque Partie devra prendre -ses conclusions finales, et de procéder -à toutes les formalités que comporte +ses conclusions finales, et de procéder +à toutes les formalités que comporte l'administration des preuves.</p> <p class="center">Article 75.</p> -<p>Les Parties s'engagent à fournir au +<p>Les Parties s'engagent à fournir au Tribunal, dans la plus large mesure qu'Elles jugeront possible, tous les -moyens nécessaires pour la décision du +moyens nécessaires pour la décision du litige.</p> <p class="center">Article 76.</p> <p>Pour toutes les notifications que le -Tribunal aurait à faire sur le territoire +Tribunal aurait à faire sur le territoire d'une tierce Puissance contractante, le Tribunal s'adressera directement au Gouvernement de cette Puissance. Il -en sera de même s'il s'agit de faire -procéder sur place à l'établissement de +en sera de même s'il s'agit de faire +procéder sur place à l'établissement de tous moyens de preuve.</p> -<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet -seront exécutées suivant les moyens +<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet +seront exécutées suivant les moyens dont la Puissance requise dispose -d'après sa législation intérieure. Elles -ne peuvent être refusées que si cette -Puissance les juge de nature à porter -atteinte à sa souveraineté ou à sa -sécurité.</p> +d'après sa législation intérieure. Elles +ne peuvent être refusées que si cette +Puissance les juge de nature à porter +atteinte à sa souveraineté ou à sa +sécurité.</p> <p>Le Tribunal aura aussi toujours la -faculté de recourir à l'intermédiaire de +faculté de recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance sur le territoire de laquelle -il a son siège.</p> +il a son siège.</p> <p class="center">Article 77.</p> <p>Les agents et les conseils des Parties -ayant présenté tous les éclaircissements -et preuves à l'appui de leur cause, le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span> -Président prononce la clôture des -débats.</p> +ayant présenté tous les éclaircissements +et preuves à l'appui de leur cause, le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span> +Président prononce la clôture des +débats.</p> <p class="center">Article 78.</p> -<p>Les délibérations du Tribunal ont -lieu à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> +<p>Les délibérations du Tribunal ont +lieu à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> -<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité +<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité de ses membres.</p> <p class="center">Article 79.</p> -<p>La sentence arbitrale est motivée. +<p>La sentence arbitrale est motivée. Elle mentionne les noms des arbitres; -elle est signée par le Président et par -le greffier ou le secrétaire faisant fonctions +elle est signée par le Président et par +le greffier ou le secrétaire faisant fonctions de greffier.</p> <p class="center">Article 80.</p> -<p>La sentence est lue en séance publique, +<p>La sentence est lue en séance publique, les agents et les conseils des -Parties présents ou dûment appelés.</p> +Parties présents ou dûment appelés.</p> <p class="center">Article 81.</p> -<p>La sentence, dûment prononcée et -notifiée aux agents des Parties, décide -définitivement et sans appel la contestation.</p> +<p>La sentence, dûment prononcée et +notifiée aux agents des Parties, décide +définitivement et sans appel la contestation.</p> <p class="center">Article 82.</p> -<p>Tout différend qui pourrait surgir -entre les Parties, concernant l'interprétation -et l'exécution de la sentence, +<p>Tout différend qui pourrait surgir +entre les Parties, concernant l'interprétation +et l'exécution de la sentence, sera, sauf stipulation contraire, soumis au jugement du Tribunal qui l'a rendue.</p> <p class="center">Article 83.</p> -<p>Les Parties peuvent se réserver dans -le compromis de demander la révision +<p>Les Parties peuvent se réserver dans +le compromis de demander la révision de la sentence arbitrale.</p> <p>Dans ce cas, et sauf stipulation -contraire, la demande doit être adressée +contraire, la demande doit être adressée au Tribunal qui a rendu la sentence. -Elle ne peut être motivée que par la -découverte d'un fait nouveau qui eût -été de nature à exercer une influence -décisive sur la sentence et qui, lors de -la clôture des débats, était inconnu du -Tribunal lui-même et de la Partie qui -a demandé la révision.</p> - -<p>La procédure de révision ne peut -être ouverte que par une décision du -Tribunal constatant expressément l'existence +Elle ne peut être motivée que par la +découverte d'un fait nouveau qui eût +été de nature à exercer une influence +décisive sur la sentence et qui, lors de +la clôture des débats, était inconnu du +Tribunal lui-même et de la Partie qui +a demandé la révision.</p> + +<p>La procédure de révision ne peut +être ouverte que par une décision du +Tribunal constatant expressément l'existence du fait nouveau, lui reconnaissant -les caractères prévus par le paragraphe -précédent et déclarant à ce +les caractères prévus par le paragraphe +précédent et déclarant à ce titre la demande recevable.</p> -<p>Le compromis détermine le délai -dans lequel la demande de révision -doit être formée.</p> +<p>Le compromis détermine le délai +dans lequel la demande de révision +doit être formée.</p> <p class="center">Article 84.</p> <p>La sentence arbitrale n'est obligatoire que pour les Parties en litige.</p> -<p>Lorsqu'il s'agit de l'interprétation -d'une convention à laquelle ont participé +<p>Lorsqu'il s'agit de l'interprétation +d'une convention à laquelle ont participé d'autres Puissances que les Parties en litige, celles-ci avertissent en temps utile toutes les Puissances signataires. Chacune de ces Puissances -a le droit d'intervenir au procès. +a le droit d'intervenir au procès. Si une ou plusieurs d'entre Elles ont -profité de cette faculté, l'interprétation -contenue dans la sentence est également -obligatoire à leur égard.</p> +profité de cette faculté, l'interprétation +contenue dans la sentence est également +obligatoire à leur égard.</p> <p class="center">Article 85.</p> <p>Chaque Partie supporte ses propres -frais et une part égale des frais du +frais et une part égale des frais du Tribunal.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>De la procédure +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>De la procédure sommaire d'arbitrage.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 86.</p> <p>En vue de faciliter le fonctionnement de la justice arbitrale, lorsqu'il -s'agit de litiges de nature à comporter -une procédure sommaire, les Puissances -contractantes arrêtent les règles -ci-après qui seront suivies en l'absence -de stipulations différentes, et sous réserve, -le cas échéant, de l'application +s'agit de litiges de nature à comporter +une procédure sommaire, les Puissances +contractantes arrêtent les règles +ci-après qui seront suivies en l'absence +de stipulations différentes, et sous réserve, +le cas échéant, de l'application des dispositions du chapitre III. qui ne seraient pas contraires.</p> @@ -31947,171 +31903,171 @@ seraient pas contraires.</p> <p>Chacune des Parties en litige nomme un arbitre. Les deux arbitres ainsi -désignés choisissent un surarbitre. -S'ils ne tombent pas d'accord à ce -sujet, chacun présente deux candidats -pris sur la liste générale des Membres +désignés choisissent un surarbitre. +S'ils ne tombent pas d'accord à ce +sujet, chacun présente deux candidats +pris sur la liste générale des Membres de la Cour permanente, en dehors des -Membres indiqués par chacune des -Parties Elles-mêmes et n'étant les +Membres indiqués par chacune des +Parties Elles-mêmes et n'étant les nationaux d'aucune d'Elles; le sort -détermine lequel des candidats ainsi -présentés sera le surarbitre.</p> +détermine lequel des candidats ainsi +présentés sera le surarbitre.</p> -<p>Le surarbitre préside le Tribunal, qui -rend ses décisions à la majorité des +<p>Le surarbitre préside le Tribunal, qui +rend ses décisions à la majorité des voix.</p> <p class="center">Article 88.</p> -<p>A défaut d'accord préalable, le Tribunal -fixe, dès qu'il est constitué, le -délai dans lequel les deux Parties -devront lui soumettre leurs mémoires +<p>A défaut d'accord préalable, le Tribunal +fixe, dès qu'il est constitué, le +délai dans lequel les deux Parties +devront lui soumettre leurs mémoires respectifs.</p> <p class="center">Article 89.</p> -<p>Chaque Partie est représentée devant +<p>Chaque Partie est représentée devant le Tribunal par un agent qui sert -d'intermédiaire entre le Tribunal et le -Gouvernement qui l'a désigné.</p> +d'intermédiaire entre le Tribunal et le +Gouvernement qui l'a désigné.</p> <p class="center">Article 90.</p> -<p>La procédure a lieu exclusivement -par écrit. Toutefois, chaque Partie a +<p>La procédure a lieu exclusivement +par écrit. Toutefois, chaque Partie a le droit demander la comparution de -témoins et d'experts. Le Tribunal a, -de son côté, la faculté de demander des +témoins et d'experts. Le Tribunal a, +de son côté, la faculté de demander des explications orales aux agents des deux Parties, ainsi qu'aux experts et aux -témoins dont il juge la comparution +témoins dont il juge la comparution utile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[Pg 601]</a></span></p> <p class="center1"><i>Titre V.—Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 91.</p> -<p>La présente Convention dûment -ratifiée remplacera, dans les rapports +<p>La présente Convention dûment +ratifiée remplacera, dans les rapports entre les Puissances contractantes, la -Convention pour le règlement pacifique +Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux du 29 juillet 1899.</p> <p class="center">Article 92.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal -signé par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal +signé par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre -des Affaires Etrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +des Affaires Etrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise, par les soins +immédiatement remise, par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement Leur fera -connaître en même temps la date à -laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +connaître en même temps la date à +laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 93.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires qui -ont été conviées à la Deuxième Conférence -de la Paix pourront adhérer à la -présente Convention.</p> +ont été conviées à la Deuxième Conférence +de la Paix pourront adhérer à la +présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer notifie -par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer notifie +par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera déposé +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence -de la Paix copie certifiée conforme -de la notification ainsi que l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence +de la Paix copie certifiée conforme +de la notification ainsi que l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 94.</p> <p>Les conditions auxquelles les Puissances -qui n'ont pas été conviées à la -Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, pourront -adhérer à la présente Convention -formeront l'objet d'une entente ultérieure +qui n'ont pas été conviées à la +Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, pourront +adhérer à la présente Convention +formeront l'objet d'une entente ultérieure entre les Puissances contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 95.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été reçue +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 96.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et un an après que la notification +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 97.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 92 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle -auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 93 alinéa 2) ou -de dénonciation (article 96 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 92 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle +auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 93 alinéa 2) ou +de dénonciation (article 96 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -32128,137 +32084,137 @@ of the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts.</span> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes sont -convenues de ne pas avoir recours à -la force armée pour le recouvrement de -dettes contractuelles réclamées au +convenues de ne pas avoir recours à +la force armée pour le recouvrement de +dettes contractuelles réclamées au Gouvernement d'un pays par le Gouvernement d'un autre pays comme dues -à ses nationaux.</p> +à ses nationaux.</p> <p>Toutefois, cette stipulation ne pourra -être appliquée quand l'État débiteur -refuse ou laisse sans réponse une offre +être appliquée quand l'État débiteur +refuse ou laisse sans réponse une offre d'arbitrage, ou, en cas d'acceptation, -rend impossible l'établissement du -compromis, ou, après l'arbitrage, -manque de se conformer à la sentence +rend impossible l'établissement du +compromis, ou, après l'arbitrage, +manque de se conformer à la sentence rendue.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[Pg 602]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>Il est de plus convenu que l'arbitrage, -mentionné dans l'alinéa 2 de l'article -précédent, sera soumis à la procédure -prévue par le titre IV chapitre 3 de la -Convention de La Haye pour le règlement +mentionné dans l'alinéa 2 de l'article +précédent, sera soumis à la procédure +prévue par le titre IV chapitre 3 de la +Convention de La Haye pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux. -Le jugement arbitral détermine, +Le jugement arbitral détermine, sauf les arrangements particuliers -des Parties, le bien-fondé de -la réclamation, le montant de la dette, +des Parties, le bien-fondé de +la réclamation, le montant de la dette, le temps et le mode de paiement.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal signé -par les représentants des Puissances qui +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal signé +par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, -des notifications mentionnées à -l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments -de ratification, sera immédiatement +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, +des notifications mentionnées à +l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments +de ratification, sera immédiatement remise, par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie -diplomatique, aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, +diplomatique, aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances qui -auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans -les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans +les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer notifie -par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer notifie +par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant l'acte -d'adhésion qui sera déposé dans les +d'adhésion qui sera déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence -de la Paix copie certifiée conforme +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence +de la Paix copie certifiée conforme de la notification ainsi que de l'acte -d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à -laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à +laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et un an après que la notification +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 3 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à -laquelle auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 4 alinéa 2) ou -de dénonciation (article 6 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 3 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à +laquelle auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 4 alinéa 2) ou +de dénonciation (article 6 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -32273,139 +32229,139 @@ the Opening of Hostilities.</span> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes reconnaissent -que les hostilités entre +que les hostilités entre elles ne doivent pas commencer sans -un avertissement préalable et non -équivoque, qui aura, soit la forme d'une -déclaration de guerre motivée, soit -celle d'un ultimatum avec déclaration +un avertissement préalable et non +équivoque, qui aura, soit la forme d'une +déclaration de guerre motivée, soit +celle d'un ultimatum avec déclaration de guerre conditionnelle.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>L'état de guerre devra être notifié +<p>L'état de guerre devra être notifié sans retard aux Puissances neutres et -ne produira effet à leur égard qu'après -réception d'une notification qui pourra -être faite même par voie télégraphique. +ne produira effet à leur égard qu'après +réception d'une notification qui pourra +être faite même par voie télégraphique. Toutefois les Puissances neutres ne pourraient invoquer l'absence de notification, -s'il était établi d'une manière +s'il était établi d'une manière non douteuse qu'en fait elles connaissaient -l'état de guerre.</p> +l'état de guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>L'article 1 de la présente Convention +<p>L'article 1 de la présente Convention produira effet en cas de guerre entre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[Pg 603]</a></span> deux ou plusieurs des Puissances contractantes.</p> <p>L'article 2 est obligatoire dans les -rapports entre un belligérant contractant -et les Puissances neutres également +rapports entre un belligérant contractant +et les Puissances neutres également contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les représentants des Puissances qui y +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise par les soins du +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la -voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la +voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement leur fera -connaître en même temps la date à -laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +connaître en même temps la date à +laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle il -a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle il +a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Hautes -Parties contractantes voulût dénoncer -la présente Convention, la dénonciation -sera notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement +Parties contractantes voulût dénoncer +la présente Convention, la dénonciation +sera notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas qui communiquera -immédiatement copie certifiée -conforme de la notification à +immédiatement copie certifiée +conforme de la notification à toutes les autres Puissances en leur -faisant savoir la date à laquelle il l'a -reçue.</p> +faisant savoir la date à laquelle il l'a +reçue.</p> -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que la +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 4 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à -laquelle auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 5 alinéa 2) ou -de dénonciation (article 7 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 4 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à +laquelle auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 5 alinéa 2) ou +de dénonciation (article 7 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -32420,34 +32376,34 @@ certifiés conformes.</p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes donneront -à leurs forces armées de terre +à leurs forces armées de terre des instructions qui seront conformes -au Règlement concernant les lois et -coutumes de la guerre sur terre, annexé -à la présente Convention.</p> +au Règlement concernant les lois et +coutumes de la guerre sur terre, annexé +à la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>Les dispositions contenues dans le -Règlement visé à l'article 1<span class="topnum">er</span> ainsi que -dans la présente Convention, ne sont +Règlement visé à l'article 1<span class="topnum">er</span> ainsi que +dans la présente Convention, ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances -contractantes et seulement si les belligérants -sont tous parties à la Convention.</p> +contractantes et seulement si les belligérants +sont tous parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>La Partie belligérante qui violerait les -dispositions dudit Règlement sera tenue -à indemnité, s'il y a lieu. Elle sera +<p>La Partie belligérante qui violerait les +dispositions dudit Règlement sera tenue +à indemnité, s'il y a lieu. Elle sera responsable de tous actes commis par les personnes faisant partie de sa force -armée.</p> +armée.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>La présente Convention dûment -ratifiée remplacera, dans les rapports +<p>La présente Convention dûment +ratifiée remplacera, dans les rapports entre les Puissances contractantes, la Convention du 29 juillet 1899 concernant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[Pg 604]</a></span> les lois et coutumes de la guerre @@ -32455,164 +32411,164 @@ sur terre.</p> <p>La Convention de 1899 reste en vigueur dans les rapports entre les -Puissances qui l'ont signée et qui ne -ratifieraient pas également la présente +Puissances qui l'ont signée et qui ne +ratifieraient pas également la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal -signé par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal +signé par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le -Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des +Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise par les soins +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances qui -auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans -les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit -Gouvernement leur fera connaître en -même temps la date à laquelle il a reçu +auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans +les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit +Gouvernement leur fera connaître en +même temps la date à laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que la +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 5 alinéas 3 -et 4 ainsi que la date à laquelle auront -été reçues les notifications d'adhésion -(article 6 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation -(article 8 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 5 alinéas 3 +et 4 ainsi que la date à laquelle auront +été reçues les notifications d'adhésion +(article 6 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation +(article 8 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> -<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Annexe à la Convention.</span></p> +<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Annexe à la Convention.</span></p> -<p class="center"><i>Règlement concernant les lois et coutumes +<p class="center"><i>Règlement concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre.</i></p> -<p class="center1">SECTION I.—DES BELLIGÉRANTS.</p> +<p class="center1">SECTION I.—DES BELLIGÉRANTS.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre I.</span>—<i>De la qualité de -belligérant.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre I.</span>—<i>De la qualité de +belligérant.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Les lois, les droits et les devoirs de la -guerre ne s'appliquent pas seulement à -l'armée, mais encore aux milices et aux -corps de volontaires réunissant les conditions +guerre ne s'appliquent pas seulement à +l'armée, mais encore aux milices et aux +corps de volontaires réunissant les conditions suivantes:</p> -<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'avoir à leur tête une personne -responsable pour ses subordonnés;</p> +<p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'avoir à leur tête une personne +responsable pour ses subordonnés;</p> <p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'avoir un signe distinctif fixe et -reconnaissable à distance;</p> +reconnaissable à distance;</p> <p>3<span class="topnum">o</span>. de porter les armes ouvertement et</p> -<p>4<span class="topnum">o</span>. de se conformer dans leurs opérations +<p>4<span class="topnum">o</span>. de se conformer dans leurs opérations aux lois et coutumes de la guerre.</p> -<p>Dans les pays où les milices ou des -corps de volontaires constituent l'armée +<p>Dans les pays où les milices ou des +corps de volontaires constituent l'armée ou en font partie, ils sont compris sous -la dénomination d'<i>armée</i>.</p> +la dénomination d'<i>armée</i>.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>La population d'un territoire non -occupé qui, à l'approche de l'ennemi, -prend spontanément les armes pour +occupé qui, à l'approche de l'ennemi, +prend spontanément les armes pour combattre les troupes d'invasion sans -avoir eu le temps de s'organiser conformément -à l'article premier, sera -considérée comme belligérante si elle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span> +avoir eu le temps de s'organiser conformément +à l'article premier, sera +considérée comme belligérante si elle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span> porte les armes ouvertement et si elle respecte les lois et coutumes de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les forces armées des parties belligérantes +<p>Les forces armées des parties belligérantes peuvent se composer de combattants et de non-combattants. En cas de capture par l'ennemi, les uns et @@ -32627,217 +32583,217 @@ de guerre.</i></p> <p>Les prisonniers de guerre sont au pouvoir du Gouvernement ennemi, mais non des individus ou des corps -qui les ont capturés.</p> +qui les ont capturés.</p> -<p>Ils doivent être traités avec humanité.</p> +<p>Ils doivent être traités avec humanité.</p> <p>Tout ce qui leur appartient personnellement, -excepté les armes, les +excepté les armes, les chevaux et les papiers militaires, reste -leur propriété.</p> +leur propriété.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> <p>Les prisonniers de guerre peuvent -être assujettis à l'internement dans une -ville, forteresse, camp ou localité quelconque, +être assujettis à l'internement dans une +ville, forteresse, camp ou localité quelconque, avec obligation de ne pas s'en -éloigner au delà de certaines limites -déterminées; mais ils ne peuvent être -enfermés que par mesure de sûreté +éloigner au delà de certaines limites +déterminées; mais ils ne peuvent être +enfermés que par mesure de sûreté indispensable, et seulement pendant la -durée des circonstances qui nécessitent +durée des circonstances qui nécessitent cette mesure.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>L'État peut employer, comme travailleurs, +<p>L'État peut employer, comme travailleurs, les prisonniers de guerre, -selon leur grade et leurs aptitudes, à +selon leur grade et leurs aptitudes, à l'exception des officiers. Ces travaux ne seront pas excessifs et n'auront -aucun rapport avec les opérations de +aucun rapport avec les opérations de la guerre.</p> -<p>Les prisonniers peuvent être autorisés -à travailler pour le compte d'administrations +<p>Les prisonniers peuvent être autorisés +à travailler pour le compte d'administrations publiques ou de particuliers, ou pour leur propre compte.</p> -<p>Les travaux faits pour l'État sont -payés d'après les tarifs en vigueur pour -les militaires de l'armée nationale exécutant -les mêmes travaux, ou, s'il n'en -existe pas, d'après un tarif en rapport -avec les travaux exécutés.</p> +<p>Les travaux faits pour l'État sont +payés d'après les tarifs en vigueur pour +les militaires de l'armée nationale exécutant +les mêmes travaux, ou, s'il n'en +existe pas, d'après un tarif en rapport +avec les travaux exécutés.</p> <p>Lorsque les travaux ont lieu pour le compte d'autres administrations publiques ou pour des particuliers, les conditions -en sont réglées d'accord avec -l'autorité militaire.</p> +en sont réglées d'accord avec +l'autorité militaire.</p> <p>Le salaire des prisonniers contribuera -à adoucir leur position, et le surplus -leur sera compté au moment de leur -libération, sauf défalcation des frais +à adoucir leur position, et le surplus +leur sera compté au moment de leur +libération, sauf défalcation des frais d'entretien.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>Le Gouvernement au pouvoir duquel se trouvent les prisonniers de guerre -est chargé de leur entretien.</p> +est chargé de leur entretien.</p> -<p>A défaut d'une entente spéciale entre -les belligérants, les prisonniers de -guerre seront traités pour la nourriture, +<p>A défaut d'une entente spéciale entre +les belligérants, les prisonniers de +guerre seront traités pour la nourriture, le couchage et l'habillement, sur le -même pied que les troupes du Gouvernement -qui les aura capturés.</p> +même pied que les troupes du Gouvernement +qui les aura capturés.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>Les prisonniers de guerre seront -soumis aux lois, règlements et ordres en -vigueur dans l'armée de l'État au pouvoir +soumis aux lois, règlements et ordres en +vigueur dans l'armée de l'État au pouvoir duquel ils se trouvent. Tout acte -d'insubordination autorise, à leur égard, -les mesures de rigueur nécessaires.</p> +d'insubordination autorise, à leur égard, +les mesures de rigueur nécessaires.</p> -<p>Les prisonniers évadés, qui seraient +<p>Les prisonniers évadés, qui seraient repris avant d'avoir pu rejoindre leur -armée ou avant de quitter le territoire -occupé par l'armée qui les aura capturés, +armée ou avant de quitter le territoire +occupé par l'armée qui les aura capturés, sont passibles de peines disciplinaires.</p> -<p>Les prisonniers qui, après avoir -réussi à s'évader, sont de nouveau +<p>Les prisonniers qui, après avoir +réussi à s'évader, sont de nouveau faits prisonniers, ne sont passibles -d'aucune peine pour la fuite antérieure.</p> +d'aucune peine pour la fuite antérieure.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Chaque prisonnier de guerre est tenu -de déclarer, s'il est interrogé à ce sujet, -ses véritables noms et grade et, dans le -cas où il enfreindrait cette règle, il -s'exposerait à une restriction des avantages -accordés aux prisonniers de guerre -de sa catégorie.</p> +de déclarer, s'il est interrogé à ce sujet, +ses véritables noms et grade et, dans le +cas où il enfreindrait cette règle, il +s'exposerait à une restriction des avantages +accordés aux prisonniers de guerre +de sa catégorie.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> <p>Les prisonniers de guerre peuvent -être mis en liberté sur parole, si les lois +être mis en liberté sur parole, si les lois de leur pays les y autorisent, et, en pareil -cas, ils sont obligés, sous la garantie de +cas, ils sont obligés, sous la garantie de leur honneur personnel, de remplir -scrupuleusement, tant vis-à-vis de leur -propre Gouvernement que vis-à-vis de +scrupuleusement, tant vis-à -vis de leur +propre Gouvernement que vis-à -vis de celui qui les a faits prisonniers, les -engagements qu'ils auraient contractés.</p> +engagements qu'ils auraient contractés.</p> -<p>Dans le même cas, leur propre +<p>Dans le même cas, leur propre Gouvernement est tenu de n'exiger ni accepter d'eux aucun service contraire -à la parole donnée.</p> +à la parole donnée.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Un prisonnier de guerre ne peut être -contraint d'accepter sa liberté sur -parole; de même le Gouvernement -ennemi n'est pas obligé d'accéder à la -demande du prisonnier réclamant sa -mise en liberté sur parole.</p> +<p>Un prisonnier de guerre ne peut être +contraint d'accepter sa liberté sur +parole; de même le Gouvernement +ennemi n'est pas obligé d'accéder à la +demande du prisonnier réclamant sa +mise en liberté sur parole.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>Tout prisonnier de guerre, libéré +<p>Tout prisonnier de guerre, libéré sur parole et repris portant les armes contre le Gouvernement envers lequel -il s'était engagé d'honneur, ou contre -les alliés de celui-ci, perd le droit au<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span> +il s'était engagé d'honneur, ou contre +les alliés de celui-ci, perd le droit au<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span> traitement des prisonniers de guerre et -peut être traduit devant les tribunaux.</p> +peut être traduit devant les tribunaux.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Les individus qui suivent une armée +<p>Les individus qui suivent une armée sans en faire directement partie, tels que les correspondants et les reporters de journaux, les vivandiers, les fournisseurs, qui tombent au pouvoir de l'ennemi et que celui-ci juge utile de -détenir, ont droit au traitement des -prisonniers de guerre, à condition -qu'ils soient munis d'une légitimation -de l'autorité militaire de l'armée qu'ils +détenir, ont droit au traitement des +prisonniers de guerre, à condition +qu'ils soient munis d'une légitimation +de l'autorité militaire de l'armée qu'ils accompagnaient.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p>Il est constitué, dès le début des hostilités, -dans chacun des États belligérants, -et, le cas échéant, dans les pays -neutres qui auront recueilli des belligérants +<p>Il est constitué, dès le début des hostilités, +dans chacun des États belligérants, +et, le cas échéant, dans les pays +neutres qui auront recueilli des belligérants sur leur territoire, un bureau de renseignements sur les prisonniers de -guerre. Ce bureau, chargé de répondre -à toutes les demandes qui les -concernent, reçoit des divers services -compétents toutes les indications relatives +guerre. Ce bureau, chargé de répondre +à toutes les demandes qui les +concernent, reçoit des divers services +compétents toutes les indications relatives aux internements et aux mutations, -aux mises en liberté sur parole, -aux échanges, aux évasions, aux -entrées dans les hôpitaux, aux décès, +aux mises en liberté sur parole, +aux échanges, aux évasions, aux +entrées dans les hôpitaux, aux décès, ainsi que les autres renseignements -nécessaires pour établir et tenir à jour +nécessaires pour établir et tenir à jour une fiche individuelle pour chaque prisonnier de guerre. Le bureau devra -porter sur cette fiche le numéro matricule, -les nom et prénom, l'âge, le lieu +porter sur cette fiche le numéro matricule, +les nom et prénom, l'âge, le lieu d'origine, le grade, le corps de troupe, les blessures, la date et le lieu de la capture, de l'internement, des blessures et de la mort, ainsi que toutes les observations -particulières. La fiche individuelle +particulières. La fiche individuelle sera remise au Gouvernement -de l'autre belligérant après la conclusion +de l'autre belligérant après la conclusion de la paix.</p> <p>Le bureau de renseignements est -également chargé de recueillir et de +également chargé de recueillir et de centraliser tous les objets d'un usage personnel, valeurs, lettres, etc., qui -seront trouvés sur les champs de -bataille ou délaissés par des prisonniers -libérés sur parole, échangés, évadés ou -décédés dans les hôpitaux et ambulances, -et de les transmettre aux intéressés.</p> +seront trouvés sur les champs de +bataille ou délaissés par des prisonniers +libérés sur parole, échangés, évadés ou +décédés dans les hôpitaux et ambulances, +et de les transmettre aux intéressés.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>Les sociétés de secours pour les -prisonniers de guerre, régulièrement -constituées selon la loi de leur pays et -ayant pour objet d'être les intermédiaires +<p>Les sociétés de secours pour les +prisonniers de guerre, régulièrement +constituées selon la loi de leur pays et +ayant pour objet d'être les intermédiaires de l'action charitable, recevront, -de la part des belligérants, pour elles -et pour leurs agents dûment accrédités, -toute facilité, dans les limites tracées -par les nécessités militaires et les règles +de la part des belligérants, pour elles +et pour leurs agents dûment accrédités, +toute facilité, dans les limites tracées +par les nécessités militaires et les règles administratives, pour accomplir efficacement -leur tâche d'humanité. Les -délégués de ces sociétés pourront être -admis à distribuer des secours dans les -dépôts d'internement, ainsi qu'aux -lieux d'étape des prisonniers rapatriés, +leur tâche d'humanité. Les +délégués de ces sociétés pourront être +admis à distribuer des secours dans les +dépôts d'internement, ainsi qu'aux +lieux d'étape des prisonniers rapatriés, moyennant une permission personnelle -délivrée par l'autorité militaire, et en -prenant l'engagement par écrit de se -soumettre à toutes les mesures d'ordre +délivrée par l'autorité militaire, et en +prenant l'engagement par écrit de se +soumettre à toutes les mesures d'ordre et de police que celle-ci prescrirait.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> @@ -32845,243 +32801,243 @@ et de police que celle-ci prescrirait.</p> <p>Les bureaux de renseignements jouissent de la franchise de port. Les lettres, mandats et articles d'argent, -ainsi que les colis postaux destinés aux -prisonniers de guerre ou expédiés par +ainsi que les colis postaux destinés aux +prisonniers de guerre ou expédiés par eux, seront affranchis de toutes les taxes postales, aussi bien dans les pays d'origine et de destination que dans -les pays intermédiaires.</p> +les pays intermédiaires.</p> -<p>Les dons et secours en nature destinés +<p>Les dons et secours en nature destinés aux prisonniers de guerre seront admis en franchise de tous droits -d'entrée et autres, ainsi que des taxes +d'entrée et autres, ainsi que des taxes de transport sur les chemins de fer -exploités par l'État.</p> +exploités par l'État.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> <p>Les officiers prisonniers recevront la -solde à laquelle ont droit les officiers -de même grade du pays où ils sont -retenus, à charge de remboursement +solde à laquelle ont droit les officiers +de même grade du pays où ils sont +retenus, à charge de remboursement par leur Gouvernement.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>Toute latitude est laissée aux prisonniers +<p>Toute latitude est laissée aux prisonniers de guerre pour l'exercice de leur religion, y compris l'assistance aux -offices de leur culte, à la seule condition +offices de leur culte, à la seule condition de se conformer aux mesures d'ordre -et de police prescrites par l'autorité +et de police prescrites par l'autorité militaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> <p>Les testaments des prisonniers de -guerre sont reçus ou dressés dans les -mêmes conditions que pour les militaires -de l'armée nationale.</p> +guerre sont reçus ou dressés dans les +mêmes conditions que pour les militaires +de l'armée nationale.</p> -<p>On suivra également les mêmes -règles en ce qui concerne les pièces -relatives à la constatation des décès, +<p>On suivra également les mêmes +règles en ce qui concerne les pièces +relatives à la constatation des décès, ainsi que pour l'inhumation des prisonniers de guerre, en tenant compte de leur grade et de leur rang.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> -<p>Après la conclusion de la paix, le +<p>Après la conclusion de la paix, le rapatriement des prisonniers de guerre -s'effectuera dans le plus bref délai +s'effectuera dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Des malades et des -blessés.</i></p> +blessés.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> -<p>Les obligations des belligérants concernant +<p>Les obligations des belligérants concernant le service des malades et des -blessés sont régies par la Convention -de Genève.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span></p> +blessés sont régies par la Convention +de Genève.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span></p> -<p class="center1">SECTION II.—DES HOSTILITÉS.</p> +<p class="center1">SECTION II.—DES HOSTILITÉS.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre I.</span>—<i>Des moyens de nuire à -l'ennemi, des sièges et des bombardements.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre I.</span>—<i>Des moyens de nuire à +l'ennemi, des sièges et des bombardements.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> -<p>Les belligérants n'ont pas un droit -illimité quant au choix des moyens de -nuire à l'ennemi.</p> +<p>Les belligérants n'ont pas un droit +illimité quant au choix des moyens de +nuire à l'ennemi.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>Outre les prohibitions établies par -des conventions spéciales, il est notamment +<p>Outre les prohibitions établies par +des conventions spéciales, il est notamment interdit:</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) d'employer du poison ou des -armes empoisonnées;</p> +armes empoisonnées;</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) de tuer ou de blesser par trahison -des individus appartenant à la -nation ou à l'armée ennemie;</p> +des individus appartenant à la +nation ou à l'armée ennemie;</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>c</i>) de tuer ou de blesser un ennemi qui, ayant mis bas les armes ou -n'ayant plus les moyens de se défendre, -s'est rendu à discrétion;</p> +n'ayant plus les moyens de se défendre, +s'est rendu à discrétion;</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>d</i>) de déclarer qu'il ne sera pas +<p class="blockquot">(<i>d</i>) de déclarer qu'il ne sera pas fait de quartier;</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>e</i>) d'employer des armes, des projectiles -ou des matières propres à +ou des matières propres à causer des maux superflus;</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>f</i>) d'user indûment du pavillon +<p class="blockquot">(<i>f</i>) d'user indûment du pavillon parlementaire, du pavillon national ou des insignes militaires et de l'uniforme de l'ennemi, ainsi que des signes distinctifs de la Convention de -Genève;</p> +Genève;</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>g</i>) de détruire ou de saisir des -propriétés ennemies, sauf les cas où ces +<p class="blockquot">(<i>g</i>) de détruire ou de saisir des +propriétés ennemies, sauf les cas où ces destructions ou ces saisies seraient -impérieusement commandées par les -nécessités de la guerre;</p> +impérieusement commandées par les +nécessités de la guerre;</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>h</i>) de déclarer éteints, suspendus +<p class="blockquot">(<i>h</i>) de déclarer éteints, suspendus ou non recevables en justice, les droits et actions des nationaux de la Partie adverse.</p> -<p>Il est également interdit à un belligérant +<p>Il est également interdit à un belligérant de forcer les nationaux de la -Partie adverse à prendre part aux -opérations de guerre dirigées contre -leur pays, même dans le cas où ils -auraient été à son service avant le +Partie adverse à prendre part aux +opérations de guerre dirigées contre +leur pays, même dans le cas où ils +auraient été à son service avant le commencement de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> <p>Les ruses de guerre et l'emploi des -moyens nécessaires pour se procurer +moyens nécessaires pour se procurer des renseignements sur l'ennemi et sur -le terrain sont considérés comme licites.</p> +le terrain sont considérés comme licites.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> <p>Il est interdit d'attaquer ou de bombarder, par quelque moyen que ce soit des villes, villages, habitations ou -bâtiments qui ne sont pas défendus.</p> +bâtiments qui ne sont pas défendus.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> <p>Le commandant des troupes assaillantes, avant d'entreprendre le bombardement, et sauf le cas d'attaque de -vive force, devra faire tout ce qui dépend -de lui pour en avertir les autorités.</p> +vive force, devra faire tout ce qui dépend +de lui pour en avertir les autorités.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> -<p>Dans les sièges et bombardements, -toutes les mesures nécessaires doivent -être prises pour épargner, autant que -possible, les édifices consacrés aux -cultes, aux arts, aux sciences et à la +<p>Dans les sièges et bombardements, +toutes les mesures nécessaires doivent +être prises pour épargner, autant que +possible, les édifices consacrés aux +cultes, aux arts, aux sciences et à la bienfaisance, les monuments historiques, -les hôpitaux et les lieux de +les hôpitaux et les lieux de rassemblement de malades et de -blessés, à condition qu'ils ne soient pas -employés en même temps à un but +blessés, à condition qu'ils ne soient pas +employés en même temps à un but militaire.</p> -<p>Le devoir des assiégés est de désigner -ces édifices ou lieux de rassemblement -par des signes visibles spéciaux -qui seront notifiés d'avance à l'assiégeant.</p> +<p>Le devoir des assiégés est de désigner +ces édifices ou lieux de rassemblement +par des signes visibles spéciaux +qui seront notifiés d'avance à l'assiégeant.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> <p>Il est interdit de livrer au pillage -une ville ou localité même prise +une ville ou localité même prise d'assaut.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Des espions.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p>Ne peut être considéré comme +<p>Ne peut être considéré comme espion que l'individu qui, agissant -clandestinement ou sous de faux prétextes, -recueille ou cherche à recueillir -des informations dans la zone d'opérations -d'un belligérant, avec l'intention -de les communiquer à la partie adverse.</p> - -<p>Ainsi les militaires non déguisés qui -ont pénétré dans la zone d'opérations -de l'armée ennemie, à l'effet de recueillir +clandestinement ou sous de faux prétextes, +recueille ou cherche à recueillir +des informations dans la zone d'opérations +d'un belligérant, avec l'intention +de les communiquer à la partie adverse.</p> + +<p>Ainsi les militaires non déguisés qui +ont pénétré dans la zone d'opérations +de l'armée ennemie, à l'effet de recueillir des informations, ne sont pas -considérés comme espions. De même, -ne sont pas considérés comme espions: +considérés comme espions. De même, +ne sont pas considérés comme espions: les militaires et les non militaires, accomplissant ouvertement leur mission, -chargés de transmettre des dépêches -destinées, soit à leur propre armée, -soit à l'armée ennemie. A cette catégorie -appartiennent également les individus -envoyés en ballon pour transmettre -les dépêches, et, en général, +chargés de transmettre des dépêches +destinées, soit à leur propre armée, +soit à l'armée ennemie. A cette catégorie +appartiennent également les individus +envoyés en ballon pour transmettre +les dépêches, et, en général, pour entretenir les communications -entre les diverses parties d'une armée +entre les diverses parties d'une armée ou d'un territoire.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> <p>L'espion pris sur le fait ne pourra -être puni sans jugement préalable.</p> +être puni sans jugement préalable.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>L'espion qui, ayant rejoint l'armée à -laquelle il appartient, est capturé plus -tard par l'ennemi, est traité comme +<p>L'espion qui, ayant rejoint l'armée à +laquelle il appartient, est capturé plus +tard par l'ennemi, est traité comme prisonnier de guerre et n'encourt aucune -responsabilité pour ses actes -d'espionnage antérieurs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span></p> +responsabilité pour ses actes +d'espionnage antérieurs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span></p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Des parlementaires.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p>Est considéré comme parlementaire -l'individu autorisé par l'un des belligérants -à entrer en pourparlers avec -l'autre et se présentant avec le drapeau -blanc. Il a droit à l'inviolabilité ainsi +<p>Est considéré comme parlementaire +l'individu autorisé par l'un des belligérants +à entrer en pourparlers avec +l'autre et se présentant avec le drapeau +blanc. Il a droit à l'inviolabilité ainsi que le trompette, clairon ou tambour, -le porte-drapeau et l'interprète qui +le porte-drapeau et l'interprète qui l'accompagneraient.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> <p>Le chef auquel un parlementaire est -expédié n'est pas obligé de le recevoir +expédié n'est pas obligé de le recevoir en toutes circonstances.</p> <p>Il peut prendre toutes les mesures -nécessaires afin d'empêcher le parlementaire +nécessaires afin d'empêcher le parlementaire de profiter de sa mission pour se renseigner.</p> @@ -33091,9 +33047,9 @@ temporairement le parlementaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 34.</p> <p>Le parlementaire perd ses droits -d'inviolabilité, s'il est prouvé, d'une -manière positive et irrécusable, qu'il a -profité de sa position privilégiée pour +d'inviolabilité, s'il est prouvé, d'une +manière positive et irrécusable, qu'il a +profité de sa position privilégiée pour provoquer ou commettre un acte de trahison.</p> @@ -33101,59 +33057,59 @@ trahison.</p> <p class="center">Article 35.</p> -<p>Les capitulations arrêtées entre les +<p>Les capitulations arrêtées entre les parties contractantes doivent tenir -compte des règles de l'honneur militaire.</p> +compte des règles de l'honneur militaire.</p> -<p>Une fois fixées, elles doivent être -scrupuleusement observées par les +<p>Une fois fixées, elles doivent être +scrupuleusement observées par les deux parties.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre V.</span>—<i>De l'armistice.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 36.</p> -<p>L'armistice suspend les opérations +<p>L'armistice suspend les opérations de guerre par un accord mutuel des -parties belligérantes. Si la durée n'en -est pas déterminée, les parties belligérantes +parties belligérantes. Si la durée n'en +est pas déterminée, les parties belligérantes peuvent reprendre en tout temps -les opérations, pourvu toutefois que +les opérations, pourvu toutefois que l'ennemi soit averti en temps convenu, -conformément aux conditions de l'armistice.</p> +conformément aux conditions de l'armistice.</p> <p class="center">Article 37.</p> -<p>L'armistice peut être général ou +<p>L'armistice peut être général ou local. Le premier suspend partout les -opérations de guerre des États belligérants; +opérations de guerre des États belligérants; le second, seulement entre -certaines fractions des armées belligérantes -et dans un rayon déterminé.</p> +certaines fractions des armées belligérantes +et dans un rayon déterminé.</p> <p class="center">Article 38.</p> -<p>L'armistice doit être notifié officiellement -et en temps utile aux autorités -compétentes et aux troupes. Les hostilités -sont suspendues immédiatement -après la notification ou au terme fixé.</p> +<p>L'armistice doit être notifié officiellement +et en temps utile aux autorités +compétentes et aux troupes. Les hostilités +sont suspendues immédiatement +après la notification ou au terme fixé.</p> <p class="center">Article 39.</p> -<p>Il dépend des parties contractantes +<p>Il dépend des parties contractantes de fixer, dans les clauses de l'armistice, les rapports qui pourraient avoir lieu, -sur le théâtre de la guerre, avec les +sur le théâtre de la guerre, avec les populations et entre elles.</p> <p class="center">Article 40.</p> <p>Toute violation grave de l'armistice, -par l'une des parties, donne à l'autre le -droit de le dénoncer et même, en cas -d'urgence, de reprendre immédiatement -les hostilités.</p> +par l'une des parties, donne à l'autre le +droit de le dénoncer et même, en cas +d'urgence, de reprendre immédiatement +les hostilités.</p> <p class="center">Article 41.</p> @@ -33161,59 +33117,59 @@ les hostilités.</p> <p>La violation des clauses de l'armistice, par des particuliers agissant de leur propre initiative, donne droit -seulement à réclamer la punition des -coupables et, s'il y a lieu, une indemnité -pour les pertes éprouvées.</p> +seulement à réclamer la punition des +coupables et, s'il y a lieu, une indemnité +pour les pertes éprouvées.</p> -<p class="center1">SECTION III.—DE L'AUTORITÉ +<p class="center1">SECTION III.—DE L'AUTORITÉ MILITAIRE SUR LE TERRITOIRE -DE L'ÉTAT ENNEMI.</p> +DE L'ÉTAT ENNEMI.</p> <p class="center">Article 42.</p> -<p>Un territoire est considéré comme -occupé lorsqu'il se trouve placé de fait -sous l'autorité de l'armée ennemie.</p> +<p>Un territoire est considéré comme +occupé lorsqu'il se trouve placé de fait +sous l'autorité de l'armée ennemie.</p> -<p>L'occupation ne s'étend qu'aux territoires -où cette autorité est établie et +<p>L'occupation ne s'étend qu'aux territoires +où cette autorité est établie et en mesure de s'exercer.</p> <p class="center">Article 43.</p> -<p>L'autorité du pouvoir légal ayant -passé de fait entre les mains de l'occupant, +<p>L'autorité du pouvoir légal ayant +passé de fait entre les mains de l'occupant, celui-ci prendra toutes les mesures -qui dépendent de lui en vue de rétablir +qui dépendent de lui en vue de rétablir et d'assurer, autant qu'il est possible, l'ordre et la vie publics en respectant, -sauf empêchement absolu, les lois en +sauf empêchement absolu, les lois en vigueur dans le pays.</p> <p class="center">Article 44.</p> -<p>Il est interdit à un belligérant de forcer -la population d'un territoire occupé -à donner des renseignements sur -l'armée de l'autre belligérant ou sur -ses moyens de défense.</p> +<p>Il est interdit à un belligérant de forcer +la population d'un territoire occupé +à donner des renseignements sur +l'armée de l'autre belligérant ou sur +ses moyens de défense.</p> <p class="center">Article 45.</p> <p>Il est interdit de contraindre la -population d'un territoire occupé à -prêter serment à la Puissance ennemie.</p> +population d'un territoire occupé à +prêter serment à la Puissance ennemie.</p> <p class="center">Article 46.</p> <p>L'honneur et les droits de la famille, -la vie des individus et la propriété -privée, ainsi que les convictions religieuses +la vie des individus et la propriété +privée, ainsi que les convictions religieuses et l'exercice des cultes, doivent -être respectés.</p> +être respectés.</p> -<p>La propriété privée ne peut pas être -confisquée.</p> +<p>La propriété privée ne peut pas être +confisquée.</p> <p class="center">Article 47.</p> @@ -33221,130 +33177,130 @@ confisquée.</p> <p class="center">Article 48.</p> -<p>Si l'occupant prélève, dans le territoire -occupé, les impôts, droits et -péages établis au profit de l'État, il -le fera, autant que possible, d'après -les règles de l'assiette et de la répartition -en vigueur, et il en résultera pour +<p>Si l'occupant prélève, dans le territoire +occupé, les impôts, droits et +péages établis au profit de l'État, il +le fera, autant que possible, d'après +les règles de l'assiette et de la répartition +en vigueur, et il en résultera pour lui l'obligation de pourvoir aux frais -de l'administration du territoire occupé -dans la mesure où le Gouvernement -légal y était tenu.</p> +de l'administration du territoire occupé +dans la mesure où le Gouvernement +légal y était tenu.</p> <p class="center">Article 49.</p> -<p>Si, en dehors des impôts visés à -l'article précédent, l'occupant prélève +<p>Si, en dehors des impôts visés à +l'article précédent, l'occupant prélève d'autres contributions en argent dans -le territoire occupé, ce ne pourra être -que pour les besoins de l'armée ou de +le territoire occupé, ce ne pourra être +que pour les besoins de l'armée ou de l'administration de ce territoire.</p> <p class="center">Article 50.</p> -<p>Aucune peine collective, pécuniaire -ou autre, ne pourra être édictée contre -les populations à raison de faits individuels -dont elles ne pourraient être -considérées comme solidairement responsables.</p> +<p>Aucune peine collective, pécuniaire +ou autre, ne pourra être édictée contre +les populations à raison de faits individuels +dont elles ne pourraient être +considérées comme solidairement responsables.</p> <p class="center">Article 51.</p> -<p>Aucune contribution ne sera perçue -qu'en vertu d'un ordre écrit et sous la -responsabilité d'un général en chef.</p> +<p>Aucune contribution ne sera perçue +qu'en vertu d'un ordre écrit et sous la +responsabilité d'un général en chef.</p> -<p>Il ne sera procédé, autant que possible, -à cette perception que d'après -les règles de l'assiette et de la répartition -des impôts en vigueur.</p> +<p>Il ne sera procédé, autant que possible, +à cette perception que d'après +les règles de l'assiette et de la répartition +des impôts en vigueur.</p> -<p>Pour toute contribution, un reçu -sera délivré aux contribuables.</p> +<p>Pour toute contribution, un reçu +sera délivré aux contribuables.</p> <p class="center">Article 52.</p> -<p>Des réquisitions en nature et des -services ne pourront être réclamés des +<p>Des réquisitions en nature et des +services ne pourront être réclamés des communes ou des habitants, que pour -les besoins de l'armée d'occupation. +les besoins de l'armée d'occupation. Ils seront en rapport avec les ressources du pays et de telle nature qu'ils n'impliquent pas pour les populations -l'obligation de prendre part aux opérations +l'obligation de prendre part aux opérations de la guerre contre leur patrie.</p> -<p>Ces réquisitions et ces services ne -seront réclamés qu'avec l'autorisation -du commandant dans la localité -occupée.</p> +<p>Ces réquisitions et ces services ne +seront réclamés qu'avec l'autorisation +du commandant dans la localité +occupée.</p> <p>Les prestations en nature seront, -autant que possible, payées au comptant; -sinon, elles seront constatées par -des reçus, et le paiement des sommes -dues sera effectué le plus tôt possible.</p> +autant que possible, payées au comptant; +sinon, elles seront constatées par +des reçus, et le paiement des sommes +dues sera effectué le plus tôt possible.</p> <p class="center">Article 53.</p> -<p>L'armée qui occupe un territoire ne -pourra saisir que le numéraire, les +<p>L'armée qui occupe un territoire ne +pourra saisir que le numéraire, les fonds et les valeurs exigibles appartenant -en propre à l'État, les dépôts +en propre à l'État, les dépôts d'armes, moyens de transport, magasins et approvisionnements et, en -général, toute propriété mobilière de -l'État de nature à servir aux opérations +général, toute propriété mobilière de +l'État de nature à servir aux opérations de la guerre.</p> -<p>Tous les moyens affectés sur terre, -sur mer et dans les airs à la transmission +<p>Tous les moyens affectés sur terre, +sur mer et dans les airs à la transmission des nouvelles, au transport des personnes ou des choses, en dehors des -cas régis par le droit maritime, les -dépôts d'armes et, en général, toute -espèce de munitions de guerre, peuvent -être saisis, même s'ils appartiennent -à des personnes privées, mais -devront être restitués et les indemnités -seront réglées à la paix.</p> +cas régis par le droit maritime, les +dépôts d'armes et, en général, toute +espèce de munitions de guerre, peuvent +être saisis, même s'ils appartiennent +à des personnes privées, mais +devront être restitués et les indemnités +seront réglées à la paix.</p> <p class="center">Article 54.</p> -<p>Les câbles sous-marins reliant un -territoire occupé à un territoire neutre -ne seront saisis ou détruits que dans le -cas d'une nécessité absolue. Ils devront -également être restitués et les -indemnités seront réglées à la paix.</p> +<p>Les câbles sous-marins reliant un +territoire occupé à un territoire neutre +ne seront saisis ou détruits que dans le +cas d'une nécessité absolue. Ils devront +également être restitués et les +indemnités seront réglées à la paix.</p> <p class="center">Article 55.</p> -<p>L'État occupant ne se considérera +<p>L'État occupant ne se considérera que comme administrateur et usufruitier -des édifices publics, immeubles, -forêts et exploitations agricoles appartenant -à l'État ennemi et se trouvant -dans le pays occupé. Il devra -sauvegarder le fonds de ces propriétés -et les administrer conformément aux -règles de l'usufruit.</p> +des édifices publics, immeubles, +forêts et exploitations agricoles appartenant +à l'État ennemi et se trouvant +dans le pays occupé. Il devra +sauvegarder le fonds de ces propriétés +et les administrer conformément aux +règles de l'usufruit.</p> <p class="center">Article 56.</p> <p>Les biens des communes, ceux des -établissements consacrés aux cultes, à -la charité et à l'instruction, aux arts -et aux sciences, même appartenant à -l'État seront traités comme la propriété -privée.</p> +établissements consacrés aux cultes, à +la charité et à l'instruction, aux arts +et aux sciences, même appartenant à +l'État seront traités comme la propriété +privée.</p> -<p>Toute saisie, destruction ou dégradation +<p>Toute saisie, destruction ou dégradation intentionnelle de semblables -établissements, de monuments historiques, +établissements, de monuments historiques, d'œuvres d'art et de science, -est interdite et doit être poursuivie.</p> +est interdite et doit être poursuivie.</p> </div> @@ -33368,359 +33324,359 @@ est inviolable.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Il est interdit aux belligérants de -faire passer à travers le territoire d'une +<p>Il est interdit aux belligérants de +faire passer à travers le territoire d'une Puissance neutre des troupes ou des convois, soit de munitions, soit d'approvisionnements.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[Pg 610]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Il est également interdit aux belligérants:</p> +<p>Il est également interdit aux belligérants:</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) d'installer sur le territoire d'une Puissance neutre une station -radiotélégraphique ou tout appareil -destiné à servir comme moyen de -communication avec des forces belligérantes +radiotélégraphique ou tout appareil +destiné à servir comme moyen de +communication avec des forces belligérantes sur terre ou sur mer;</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) d'utiliser toute installation de -ce genre établie par eux avant la +ce genre établie par eux avant la guerre sur le territoire de la Puissance neutre dans un but exclusivement -militaire, et qui n'a pas été +militaire, et qui n'a pas été ouverte au service de la correspondance publique.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Des corps de combattants ne peuvent -être formés, ni des bureaux d'enrôlement +être formés, ni des bureaux d'enrôlement ouverts, sur le territoire d'une -Puissance neutre au profit des belligérants.</p> +Puissance neutre au profit des belligérants.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Une Puissance neutre ne doit tolérer -sur son territoire aucun des actes visés -par les articles 2 à 4.</p> +<p>Une Puissance neutre ne doit tolérer +sur son territoire aucun des actes visés +par les articles 2 à 4.</p> <p>Elle n'est tenue de punir des actes -contraires à la neutralité que si ces -actes ont été commis sur son propre +contraires à la neutralité que si ces +actes ont été commis sur son propre territoire.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>La responsabilité d'une Puissance -neutre n'est pas engagée par le fait que -des individus passent isolément la -frontière pour se mettre au service de -l'un des belligérants.</p> +<p>La responsabilité d'une Puissance +neutre n'est pas engagée par le fait que +des individus passent isolément la +frontière pour se mettre au service de +l'un des belligérants.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre n'est pas -tenue d'empêcher l'exportation ou le +tenue d'empêcher l'exportation ou le transit, pour le compte de l'un ou de -l'autre des belligérants, d'armes, de -munitions, et, en général, de tout ce -qui peut être utile à une armée ou à +l'autre des belligérants, d'armes, de +munitions, et, en général, de tout ce +qui peut être utile à une armée ou à une flotte.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre n'est pas tenue d'interdire ou de restreindre -l'usage, pour les belligérants, des câbles -télégraphiques ou téléphoniques, ainsi -que des appareils de télégraphie sans -fil, qui sont, soit sa propriété, soit celle +l'usage, pour les belligérants, des câbles +télégraphiques ou téléphoniques, ainsi +que des appareils de télégraphie sans +fil, qui sont, soit sa propriété, soit celle de compagnies ou de particuliers.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Toutes mesures restrictives ou prohibitives prises par une Puissance -neutre à l'égard des matières visées par -les articles 7 et 8 devront être uniformément -appliquées par elle aux -belligérants.</p> +neutre à l'égard des matières visées par +les articles 7 et 8 devront être uniformément +appliquées par elle aux +belligérants.</p> <p>La Puissance neutre veillera au respect -de la même obligation par les -compagnies ou particuliers propriétaires -de câbles télégraphiques ou téléphoniques -ou d'appareils de télégraphie +de la même obligation par les +compagnies ou particuliers propriétaires +de câbles télégraphiques ou téléphoniques +ou d'appareils de télégraphie sans fil.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>Ne peut être considéré comme un +<p>Ne peut être considéré comme un acte hostile le fait, par une Puissance -neutre, de repousser, même par la -force, les atteintes à sa neutralité.</p> +neutre, de repousser, même par la +force, les atteintes à sa neutralité.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Des belligérants internés -et des blessés soignés chez les neutres.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Des belligérants internés +et des blessés soignés chez les neutres.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>La Puissance neutre qui reçoit sur +<p>La Puissance neutre qui reçoit sur son territoire des troupes appartenant -aux armées belligérantes, les internera, -autant que possible, loin du théâtre de +aux armées belligérantes, les internera, +autant que possible, loin du théâtre de la guerre.</p> <p>Elle pourra les garder dans des -camps, et même les enfermer dans des -forteresses ou dans des lieux appropriés -à cet effet.</p> +camps, et même les enfermer dans des +forteresses ou dans des lieux appropriés +à cet effet.</p> -<p>Elle décidera si les officiers peuvent -être laissés libres en prenant l'engagement +<p>Elle décidera si les officiers peuvent +être laissés libres en prenant l'engagement sur parole de ne pas quitter le territoire neutre sans autorisation.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>A défaut de convention spéciale, la -Puissance neutre fournira aux internés +<p>A défaut de convention spéciale, la +Puissance neutre fournira aux internés les vivres, les habillements et les secours -commandés par l'humanité.</p> +commandés par l'humanité.</p> -<p>Bonification sera faite, à la paix, des -frais occasionnés par l'internement.</p> +<p>Bonification sera faite, à la paix, des +frais occasionnés par l'internement.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>La Puissance neutre qui reçoit des -prisonniers de guerre évadés les laissera -en liberté. Si elle tolère leur séjour +<p>La Puissance neutre qui reçoit des +prisonniers de guerre évadés les laissera +en liberté. Si elle tolère leur séjour sur son territoire, elle peut leur assigner -une résidence.</p> +une résidence.</p> -<p>La même disposition est applicable -aux prisonniers de guerre amenés par -des troupes se réfugiant sur le territoire +<p>La même disposition est applicable +aux prisonniers de guerre amenés par +des troupes se réfugiant sur le territoire de la Puissance neutre.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre pourra autoriser le passage sur son territoire des -blessés ou malades appartenant aux -armées belligérantes, sous la réserve -que les trains qui les amèneront ne -transporteront ni personnel, ni matériel +blessés ou malades appartenant aux +armées belligérantes, sous la réserve +que les trains qui les amèneront ne +transporteront ni personnel, ni matériel de guerre. En pareil cas, la Puissance neutre est tenue de prendre -les mesures de sûreté et de contrôle -nécessaires à cet effet.</p> +les mesures de sûreté et de contrôle +nécessaires à cet effet.</p> -<p>Les blessés ou malades amenés dans +<p>Les blessés ou malades amenés dans ces conditions sur le territoire neutre -par un des belligérants, et qui appartiendraient -à la partie adverse, devront -être gardés par la Puissance neutre de -manière qu'ils ne puissent de nouveau -prendre part aux opérations de la +par un des belligérants, et qui appartiendraient +à la partie adverse, devront +être gardés par la Puissance neutre de +manière qu'ils ne puissent de nouveau +prendre part aux opérations de la guerre. Cette Puissance aura les -mêmes devoirs quant aux blessés ou -malades de l'autre armée qui lui -seraient confiés.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span></p> +mêmes devoirs quant aux blessés ou +malades de l'autre armée qui lui +seraient confiés.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>La Convention de Genève s'applique -aux malades et aux blessés internés +<p>La Convention de Genève s'applique +aux malades et aux blessés internés sur territoire neutre.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Des personnes neutres.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Sont considérés comme neutres les -nationaux d'un État qui ne prend pas -part à la guerre.</p> +<p>Sont considérés comme neutres les +nationaux d'un État qui ne prend pas +part à la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> -<p>Un neutre ne peut pas se prévaloir -de sa neutralité:</p> +<p>Un neutre ne peut pas se prévaloir +de sa neutralité:</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) s'il commet des actes hostiles -contre un belligérant;</p> +contre un belligérant;</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) s'il commet des actes en faveur -d'un belligérant, notamment s'il +d'un belligérant, notamment s'il prend volontairement du service -dans les rangs de la force armée de +dans les rangs de la force armée de l'une des Parties.</p> <p>En pareil cas, le neutre ne sera pas -traité plus rigoureusement par le belligérant -contre lequel il s'est départi -de la neutralité que ne pourrait l'être, -à raison du même fait, un national de -l'autre État belligérant.</p> +traité plus rigoureusement par le belligérant +contre lequel il s'est départi +de la neutralité que ne pourrait l'être, +à raison du même fait, un national de +l'autre État belligérant.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>Ne seront pas considérés comme -actes commis en faveur d'un des belligérants, +<p>Ne seront pas considérés comme +actes commis en faveur d'un des belligérants, dans le sens de l'article 17, lettre b:</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) les fournitures faites ou les -emprunts consentis à l'un des belligérants, +emprunts consentis à l'un des belligérants, pourvu que le fournisseur ou -le prêteur n'habite ni le territoire de -l'autre Partie, ni le territoire occupé +le prêteur n'habite ni le territoire de +l'autre Partie, ni le territoire occupé par elle, et que les fournitures ne proviennent pas de ses territoires;</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) les services rendus en matière +<p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) les services rendus en matière de police ou d'administration civile.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>Du matériel des +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>Du matériel des chemins de fer.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>Le matériel des chemins de fer +<p>Le matériel des chemins de fer provenant du territoire de Puissances -neutres, qu'il appartienne à ces Puissances -ou à des sociétés ou personnes -privées, et reconnaisable comme tel, -ne pourra être réquisitionné et utilisé -par un belligérant que dans le cas et -la mesure où l'exige une impérieuse -nécessité. Il sera renvoyé aussitôt que +neutres, qu'il appartienne à ces Puissances +ou à des sociétés ou personnes +privées, et reconnaisable comme tel, +ne pourra être réquisitionné et utilisé +par un belligérant que dans le cas et +la mesure où l'exige une impérieuse +nécessité. Il sera renvoyé aussitôt que possible dans le pays d'origine.</p> <p>La Puissance neutre pourra de -même, en cas de nécessité, retenir et -utiliser, jusqu'à due concurrence, le -matériel provenant du territoire de la -Puissance belligérante.</p> +même, en cas de nécessité, retenir et +utiliser, jusqu'à due concurrence, le +matériel provenant du territoire de la +Puissance belligérante.</p> -<p>Une indemnité sera payée de part et -d'autre, en proportion du matériel -utilisé et de la durée de l'utilisation.</p> +<p>Une indemnité sera payée de part et +d'autre, en proportion du matériel +utilisé et de la durée de l'utilisation.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre V.</span>—<i>Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous -parties à la Convention.</p> +si les belligérants sont tous +parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal -signé par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal +signé par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le -Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des +Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification sera -immédiatement remise par les soins du +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante -jours après que la notification de leur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span> -ratification ou de leur adhésion aura -été reçue par le Gouvernement des +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante +jours après que la notification de leur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span> +ratification ou de leur adhésion aura +été reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification à toutes les autres Puissances, -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que la +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification à toutes les autres Puissances, +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt des ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 21 alinéas -3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront -été reçues les notifications d'adhésion -(article 22 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation -(article 24 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt des ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 21 alinéas +3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront +été reçues les notifications d'adhésion +(article 22 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation +(article 24 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -33737,187 +33693,187 @@ of Merchantmen at the Outbreak of Hostilities.</span> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Lorsqu'un navire de commerce relevant -d'une des Puissances belligérantes -se trouve, au début des hostilités, dans -un port ennemi, il est désirable qu'il -lui soit permis de sortir librement, immédiatement -ou après un délai de +d'une des Puissances belligérantes +se trouve, au début des hostilités, dans +un port ennemi, il est désirable qu'il +lui soit permis de sortir librement, immédiatement +ou après un délai de faveur suffisant, et de gagner directement, -après avoir été muni d'un +après avoir été muni d'un laissez-passer, son port de destination -ou tel autre port qui lui sera désigné.</p> +ou tel autre port qui lui sera désigné.</p> -<p>Il en est de même du navire ayant -quitté son dernier port de départ +<p>Il en est de même du navire ayant +quitté son dernier port de départ avant le commencement de la guerre et entrant dans un port ennemi sans -connaître les hostilités.</p> +connaître les hostilités.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>Le navire de commerce qui, par suite de circonstances de force majeure n'aurait pu quitter le port ennemi -pendant le délai visé à l'article précédent, +pendant le délai visé à l'article précédent, ou auquel la sortie n'aurait pas -été accordée, ne peut être confisqué.</p> +été accordée, ne peut être confisqué.</p> -<p>Le belligérant peut seulement le saisir +<p>Le belligérant peut seulement le saisir moyennant l'obligation de le restituer -après la guerre sans indemnité, ou le -réquisitionner moyennant indemnité.</p> +après la guerre sans indemnité, ou le +réquisitionner moyennant indemnité.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> <p>Les navires de commerce ennemis, -qui ont quitté leur dernier port de départ, +qui ont quitté leur dernier port de départ, avant le commencement de la -guerre et qui sont rencontrés en mer -ignorants des hostilités, ne peuvent -être confisqués. Ils sont seulement -sujets à être saisis, moyennant l'obligation -de les restituer après la guerre -sans indemnité, ou à être réquisitionnés, -ou même à être détruits, à charge d'indemnité +guerre et qui sont rencontrés en mer +ignorants des hostilités, ne peuvent +être confisqués. Ils sont seulement +sujets à être saisis, moyennant l'obligation +de les restituer après la guerre +sans indemnité, ou à être réquisitionnés, +ou même à être détruits, à charge d'indemnité et sous l'obligation de pourvoir -à la sécurité des personnes ainsi qu'à +à la sécurité des personnes ainsi qu'à la conservation des papiers de bord.</p> -<p>Après avoir touché à un port de leur -pays ou à un port neutre, ces navires +<p>Après avoir touché à un port de leur +pays ou à un port neutre, ces navires sont soumis aux lois et coutumes de la guerre maritime.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Les marchandises ennemies se trouvant -à bord des navires visés aux articles -1 et 2 sont également sujettes à être -saisies et restituées après la guerre sans -indemnité, ou à être réquisitionnées -moyennant indemnité, conjointement -avec le navire ou séparément.</p> - -<p>Il en est de même des marchandises -se trouvant à bord des navires visés à +à bord des navires visés aux articles +1 et 2 sont également sujettes à être +saisies et restituées après la guerre sans +indemnité, ou à être réquisitionnées +moyennant indemnité, conjointement +avec le navire ou séparément.</p> + +<p>Il en est de même des marchandises +se trouvant à bord des navires visés à l'article 3.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>La présente Convention ne vise pas +<p>La présente Convention ne vise pas les navires de commerce dont la construction -indique qu'ils sont destinés -à être transformés en bâtiments de +indique qu'ils sont destinés +à être transformés en bâtiments de guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous parties à la +si les belligérants sont tous parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les représentants des Puissances qui y +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, -des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments -de ratifications, sera immédiatement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span> +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, +des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments +de ratifications, sera immédiatement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span> remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie -diplomatique aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, +diplomatique aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances qui -auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans -les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans +les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui -transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 7 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à -laquelle auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 8 alinéa 2) ou -de dénonciation (article 10 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 7 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à +laquelle auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 8 alinéa 2) ou +de dénonciation (article 10 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -33931,159 +33887,159 @@ certifiés conformes.</p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> -<p>Aucun navire de commerce transformé -en bâtiment de guerre ne peut +<p>Aucun navire de commerce transformé +en bâtiment de guerre ne peut avoir les droits et les obligations -attachés à cette qualité, s'il n'est -placé sous l'autorité directe, le contrôle -immédiat et la responsabilité de +attachés à cette qualité, s'il n'est +placé sous l'autorité directe, le contrôle +immédiat et la responsabilité de la Puissance dont il porte le pavillon.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Les navires de commerce transformés -en bâtiments de guerre doivent porter -les signes extérieurs distinctifs des -bâtiments de guerre de leur nationalité.</p> +<p>Les navires de commerce transformés +en bâtiments de guerre doivent porter +les signes extérieurs distinctifs des +bâtiments de guerre de leur nationalité.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Le commandant doit être au service -de l'État et dûment commissionné par -les autorités compétentes. Son nom +<p>Le commandant doit être au service +de l'État et dûment commissionné par +les autorités compétentes. Son nom doit figurer sur la liste des officiers de la flotte militaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>L'équipage doit être soumis aux -règles de la discipline militaire.</p> +<p>L'équipage doit être soumis aux +règles de la discipline militaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Tout navire de commerce transformé -en bâtiment de guerre est tenu d'observer -dans ses opérations, les lois et +<p>Tout navire de commerce transformé +en bâtiment de guerre est tenu d'observer +dans ses opérations, les lois et coutumes de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Le belligérant, qui transforme un -navire de commerce en bâtiment de -guerre, doit, le plus tôt possible, +<p>Le belligérant, qui transforme un +navire de commerce en bâtiment de +guerre, doit, le plus tôt possible, mentionner cette transformation sur -la liste des bâtiments de sa flotte +la liste des bâtiments de sa flotte militaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous -parties à la Convention.</p> +si les belligérants sont tous +parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span> -signé par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span> +signé par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le -Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des +Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, -sera immédiatement remise, par les +sera immédiatement remise, par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas, et par la voie diplomatique, aux -Puissances conviées à la Deuxième -Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux -autres Puissances qui auront adhéré à -la Convention. Dans les cas visés par -l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement -leur fera connaître en même temps la -date à laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +Puissances conviées à la Deuxième +Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux +autres Puissances qui auront adhéré à +la Convention. Dans les cas visés par +l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement +leur fera connaître en même temps la +date à laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui -transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au première dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au première dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et un an après que la notification +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 8 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle -auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 9 alinéa 2) ou de -dénonciation (article 11 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 8 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle +auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 9 alinéa 2) ou de +dénonciation (article 11 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -34100,229 +34056,229 @@ certifiés conformes.</p> <p>Il est interdit:</p> <p>1<span class="topnum">o</span>. de placer des mines automatiques -de contact non amarrées, à moins -qu'elles ne soient construites de manière -à devenir inoffensives une heure -au maximum après que celui qui les a -placées en aura perdu le contrôle;</p> +de contact non amarrées, à moins +qu'elles ne soient construites de manière +à devenir inoffensives une heure +au maximum après que celui qui les a +placées en aura perdu le contrôle;</p> <p>2<span class="topnum">o</span>. de placer des mines automatiques -de contact amarrées, qui ne deviennent -pas inoffensives dès qu'elles auront +de contact amarrées, qui ne deviennent +pas inoffensives dès qu'elles auront rompu leurs amarres;</p> <p>3<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'employer des torpilles, qui ne deviennent pas inoffensives lorsqu'elles -auront manqué leur but.</p> +auront manqué leur but.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>Il est interdit de placer des mines automatiques de contact devant les -côtes et les ports de l'adversaire, dans +côtes et les ports de l'adversaire, dans le seul but d'intercepter la navigation de commerce.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> <p>Lorsque les mines automatiques de -contact amarrées sont employées, -toutes les précautions possibles doivent -être prises pour la sécurité de la navigation +contact amarrées sont employées, +toutes les précautions possibles doivent +être prises pour la sécurité de la navigation pacifique.</p> -<p>Les belligérants s'engagent à pourvoir, -dans la mesure du possible, à ce +<p>Les belligérants s'engagent à pourvoir, +dans la mesure du possible, à ce que ces mines deviennent inoffensives -après un laps de temps limité, et, dans -le cas où elles cesseraient d'être surveillées, -à signaler les régions dangereuses, -aussitôt que les exigences +après un laps de temps limité, et, dans +le cas où elles cesseraient d'être surveillées, +à signaler les régions dangereuses, +aussitôt que les exigences militaires le permettront, par un avis -à la navigation, qui devra être aussi -communiqué aux Gouvernements par +à la navigation, qui devra être aussi +communiqué aux Gouvernements par la voie diplomatique.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Toute Puissance neutre qui place des mines automatiques de contact devant -ses côtes, doit observer les mêmes -règles et prendre les mêmes précautions -que celles qui sont imposées aux belligérants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span></p> +ses côtes, doit observer les mêmes +règles et prendre les mêmes précautions +que celles qui sont imposées aux belligérants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span></p> -<p>La Puissance neutre doit faire connaître -à la navigation, par un avis -préalable, les régions où seront mouillées +<p>La Puissance neutre doit faire connaître +à la navigation, par un avis +préalable, les régions où seront mouillées des mines automatiques de contact. -Cet avis devra être communiqué +Cet avis devra être communiqué d'urgence aux Gouvernements par voie diplomatique.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> <p>A la fin de la guerre, les Puissances -contractantes s'engagent à faire tout -ce qui dépend d'elles pour enlever, -chacune de son côté, les mines qu'elles -ont placées.</p> +contractantes s'engagent à faire tout +ce qui dépend d'elles pour enlever, +chacune de son côté, les mines qu'elles +ont placées.</p> <p>Quant aux mines automatiques de -contact amarrées, que l'un des belligérants -aurait posées le long des côtes de -l'autre, l'emplacement en sera notifié à +contact amarrées, que l'un des belligérants +aurait posées le long des côtes de +l'autre, l'emplacement en sera notifié à l'autre partie par la Puissance qui les -a posées et chaque Puissance devra -procéder dans le plus bref délai à -l'enlèvement des mines qui se trouvent +a posées et chaque Puissance devra +procéder dans le plus bref délai à +l'enlèvement des mines qui se trouvent dans ses eaux.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes, qui ne disposent pas encore de mines -perfectionnées telles qu'elles sont prévues -dans la présente Convention, et -qui, par conséquent, ne sauraient -actuellement se conformer aux règles -établies dans les articles 1 et 3, s'engagent -à transformer, aussitôt que -possible, leur matériel de mines, afin -qu'il réponde aux prescriptions susmentionnées.</p> +perfectionnées telles qu'elles sont prévues +dans la présente Convention, et +qui, par conséquent, ne sauraient +actuellement se conformer aux règles +établies dans les articles 1 et 3, s'engagent +à transformer, aussitôt que +possible, leur matériel de mines, afin +qu'il réponde aux prescriptions susmentionnées.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous -parties à la Convention.</p> +si les belligérants sont tous +parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les représentants des Puissances qui y +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise, par les soins +immédiatement remise, par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie diplomatique, aux Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres -Puissances copie certifiée conforme de +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres +Puissances copie certifiée conforme de la notification ainsi que de l'acte -d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à -laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à +laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>La présente Convention aura une -durée de sept ans à partir du soixantième -jour après la date du premier -dépôt de ratifications.</p> - -<p>Sauf dénonciation, elle continuera -d'être en vigueur après l'expiration de -ce délai.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation sera notifiée par -écrit au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas -qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de la notification -à toutes les Puissances, en leur -faisant savoir la date à laquelle il l'a -reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et six mois après que la notification +<p>La présente Convention aura une +durée de sept ans à partir du soixantième +jour après la date du premier +dépôt de ratifications.</p> + +<p>Sauf dénonciation, elle continuera +d'être en vigueur après l'expiration de +ce délai.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation sera notifiée par +écrit au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas +qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de la notification +à toutes les Puissances, en leur +faisant savoir la date à laquelle il l'a +reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et six mois après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes s'engagent -à reprendre la question de +à reprendre la question de l'emploi des mines automatiques de contact six mois avant l'expiration du -terme prévu par l'alinéa premier de -l'article précédent, au cas où elle -n'aurait pas été reprise et résolue à -une date antérieure par la troisième -Conférence de la Paix.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span></p> +terme prévu par l'alinéa premier de +l'article précédent, au cas où elle +n'aurait pas été reprise et résolue à +une date antérieure par la troisième +Conférence de la Paix.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span></p> <p>Si les Puissances contractantes concluent une nouvelle Convention relative -à l'emploi des mines, dès son -entrée en vigueur, la présente Convention -cessera d'être applicable.</p> +à l'emploi des mines, dès son +entrée en vigueur, la présente Convention +cessera d'être applicable.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 8 alinéas 3 -et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront -été reçues les notifications d'adhésion -(article 9 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation -(article 11 alinéa 3).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 8 alinéas 3 +et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront +été reçues les notifications d'adhésion +(article 9 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation +(article 11 alinéa 3).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -34336,18 +34292,18 @@ by Naval Forces in Time of War.</span> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre I</span><span class="topnum">er</span>.—<i>Du bombardement des ports, villes, villages, habitations ou -bâtiments non défendus.</i></p> +bâtiments non défendus.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>Il est interdit de bombarder, par des forces navales, des ports, villes, villages, -habitations ou bâtiments, qui ne sont -pas défendus.</p> +habitations ou bâtiments, qui ne sont +pas défendus.</p> -<p>Une localité ne peut pas être bombardée -à raison du seul fait que, devant -son port, se trouvent mouillées des +<p>Une localité ne peut pas être bombardée +à raison du seul fait que, devant +son port, se trouvent mouillées des mines sous-marines automatiques de contact.</p> @@ -34355,215 +34311,215 @@ contact.</p> <p>Toutefois, ne sont pas compris dans cette interdiction les ouvrages militaires, -établissements militaires ou -navals, dépôts d'armes ou de matériel +établissements militaires ou +navals, dépôts d'armes ou de matériel de guerre, ateliers et installations -propres à être utilisés pour les besoins -de la flotte ou de l'armée ennemie, et +propres à être utilisés pour les besoins +de la flotte ou de l'armée ennemie, et les navires de guerre se trouvant dans le port. Le commandant d'une force -navale pourra, après sommation avec -délai raisonnable, les détruire par +navale pourra, après sommation avec +délai raisonnable, les détruire par le canon, si tout autre moyen est -impossible et lorsque les autorités -locales n'auront pas procédé à cette -destruction dans le délai fixé.</p> +impossible et lorsque les autorités +locales n'auront pas procédé à cette +destruction dans le délai fixé.</p> -<p>Il n'encourt aucune responsabilité +<p>Il n'encourt aucune responsabilité dans ce cas pour les dommages involontaires, -qui pourraient être occasionnés +qui pourraient être occasionnés par le bombardement.</p> -<p>Si des nécessités militaires, exigeant -une action immédiate, ne permettaient -pas d'accorder de délai, il reste entendu +<p>Si des nécessités militaires, exigeant +une action immédiate, ne permettaient +pas d'accorder de délai, il reste entendu que l'interdiction de bombarder la -ville non défendue subsiste comme dans -le cas énoncé dans l'alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span> et que le +ville non défendue subsiste comme dans +le cas énoncé dans l'alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span> et que le commandant prendra toutes les dispositions -voulues pour qu'il en résulte -pour cette ville le moins d'inconvénients +voulues pour qu'il en résulte +pour cette ville le moins d'inconvénients possible.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Il peut, après notification expresse, -être procédé au bombardement des +<p>Il peut, après notification expresse, +être procédé au bombardement des ports, villes, villages, habitations ou -bâtiments non défendus, si les autorités +bâtiments non défendus, si les autorités locales, mises en demeure par une -sommation formelle, refusent d'obtempérer -à des réquisitions de vivres -ou d'approvisionnements nécessaires au -besoin présent de la force navale qui se -trouve devant la localité.</p> - -<p>Ces réquisitions seront en rapport -avec les ressources de la localité. Elles -ne seront réclamées qu'avec l'autorisation +sommation formelle, refusent d'obtempérer +à des réquisitions de vivres +ou d'approvisionnements nécessaires au +besoin présent de la force navale qui se +trouve devant la localité.</p> + +<p>Ces réquisitions seront en rapport +avec les ressources de la localité. Elles +ne seront réclamées qu'avec l'autorisation du commandant de ladite force navale et elles seront, autant que -possible, payées au comptant; sinon -elles seront constatées par des reçus.</p> +possible, payées au comptant; sinon +elles seront constatées par des reçus.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Est interdit le bombardement, pour le non paiement des contributions en argent, des ports, villes, villages, habitations -ou bâtiments, non défendus.</p> +ou bâtiments, non défendus.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Dispositions générales.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>Dispositions générales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> <p>Dans le bombardement par des forces navales, toutes les mesures -nécessaires doivent être prises par le -commandant pour épargner, autant -que possible, les édifices consacrés aux -cultes, aux arts, aux sciences et à la +nécessaires doivent être prises par le +commandant pour épargner, autant +que possible, les édifices consacrés aux +cultes, aux arts, aux sciences et à la bienfaisance, les monuments historiques, -les hôpitaux et les lieux de +les hôpitaux et les lieux de rassemblement de malades ou de -blessés, à condition qu'ils ne soient pas -employés en même temps à un but +blessés, à condition qu'ils ne soient pas +employés en même temps à un but militaire.</p> -<p>Le devoir des habitants est de désigner -ces monuments, ces édifices ou +<p>Le devoir des habitants est de désigner +ces monuments, ces édifices ou lieux de rassemblement, par des signes visibles, qui consisteront en grands -panneaux rectangulaires rigides, partagés, +panneaux rectangulaires rigides, partagés, suivant une des diagonales, en deux triangles de couleur, noire en haut et blanche en bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Sauf le cas où les exigences militaires +<p>Sauf le cas où les exigences militaires ne le permettraient pas, le commandant de la force navale assaillante doit, avant d'entreprendre le -bombardement, faire tout ce qui dépend -de lui pour avertir les autorités.</p> +bombardement, faire tout ce qui dépend +de lui pour avertir les autorités.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>Il est interdit de livrer au pillage -une ville ou localité même prise +une ville ou localité même prise d'assaut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[Pg 617]</a></span></p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous parties -à la Convention.</p> +si les belligérants sont tous parties +à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les représentants des Puissances qui y +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications, mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications, mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise, par les soins +immédiatement remise, par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la voie diplomatique, aux Puissances -conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de +conviées à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui -transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -Contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que la +Contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 9 alinéas 3 -et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront -été reçues les notifications d'adhésion -(article 10 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation -(article 12 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 9 alinéas 3 +et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront +été reçues les notifications d'adhésion +(article 10 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation +(article 12 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -34578,515 +34534,515 @@ the Principles of the Geneva Convention to Maritime Warfare.</span> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires, -c'est-à-dire les bâtiments construits ou -aménagés par les États spécialement +<p>Les bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires, +c'est-à -dire les bâtiments construits ou +aménagés par les États spécialement et uniquement en vue de porter secours -aux blessés, malades et naufragés, et -dont les noms auront été communiqués, -à l'ouverture ou au cours des hostilités, +aux blessés, malades et naufragés, et +dont les noms auront été communiqués, +à l'ouverture ou au cours des hostilités, en tout cas avant toute mise en usage, -aux Puissances belligérantes, sont respectés -et ne peuvent être capturés -pendant la durée des hostilités.</p> +aux Puissances belligérantes, sont respectés +et ne peuvent être capturés +pendant la durée des hostilités.</p> -<p>Ces bâtiments ne sont pas non plus -assimilés aux navires de guerre au -point de vue de leur séjour dans un +<p>Ces bâtiments ne sont pas non plus +assimilés aux navires de guerre au +point de vue de leur séjour dans un port neutre.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers, équipés -en totalité ou en partie aux frais des -particuliers ou des sociétés de secours -officiellement reconnues, sont également -respectés et exempts de capture, -si la Puissance belligérante dont ils -dépendent, leur a donné une commission -officielle et en a notifié les noms à -la Puissance adverse à l'ouverture ou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span> -au cours des hostilités, en tout cas +<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers, équipés +en totalité ou en partie aux frais des +particuliers ou des sociétés de secours +officiellement reconnues, sont également +respectés et exempts de capture, +si la Puissance belligérante dont ils +dépendent, leur a donné une commission +officielle et en a notifié les noms à +la Puissance adverse à l'ouverture ou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span> +au cours des hostilités, en tout cas avant toute mise en usage.</p> -<p>Ces navires doivent être porteurs -d'un document de l'autorité compétente -déclarant qu'ils ont été soumis à -son contrôle pendant leur armement et -à leur départ final.</p> +<p>Ces navires doivent être porteurs +d'un document de l'autorité compétente +déclarant qu'ils ont été soumis à +son contrôle pendant leur armement et +à leur départ final.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers, équipés -en totalité ou en partie aux frais des -particuliers ou des sociétés officiellement +<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers, équipés +en totalité ou en partie aux frais des +particuliers ou des sociétés officiellement reconnues de pays neutres, sont -respectés et exempts de capture, à +respectés et exempts de capture, à condition qu'ils se soient mis sous la -direction de l'un des belligérants, avec -l'assentiment préalable de leur propre +direction de l'un des belligérants, avec +l'assentiment préalable de leur propre Gouvernement et avec l'autorisation -du belligérant lui-même et que ce -dernier en ait notifié le nom à son -adversaire dès l'ouverture ou dans le -cours des hostilités, en tout cas, avant +du belligérant lui-même et que ce +dernier en ait notifié le nom à son +adversaire dès l'ouverture ou dans le +cours des hostilités, en tout cas, avant tout emploi.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments qui sont mentionnés +<p>Les bâtiments qui sont mentionnés dans les articles 1, 2 et 3, porteront -secours et assistance aux blessés, -malades et naufragés des belligérants -sans distinction de nationalité.</p> +secours et assistance aux blessés, +malades et naufragés des belligérants +sans distinction de nationalité.</p> -<p>Les Gouvernements s'engagent à -n'utiliser ces bâtiments pour aucun but +<p>Les Gouvernements s'engagent à +n'utiliser ces bâtiments pour aucun but militaire.</p> -<p>Ces bâtiments ne devront gêner en -aucune manière les mouvements des +<p>Ces bâtiments ne devront gêner en +aucune manière les mouvements des combattants.</p> -<p>Pendant et après le combat, ils -agiront à leurs risques et périls.</p> +<p>Pendant et après le combat, ils +agiront à leurs risques et périls.</p> -<p>Les belligérants auront sur eux le -droit de contrôle et de visite; ils +<p>Les belligérants auront sur eux le +droit de contrôle et de visite; ils pourront refuser leur concours, leur -enjoindre de s'éloigner, leur imposer -une direction déterminée et mettre à -bord un commissaire, même les détenir, -si la gravité des circonstances l'exigeait.</p> +enjoindre de s'éloigner, leur imposer +une direction déterminée et mettre à +bord un commissaire, même les détenir, +si la gravité des circonstances l'exigeait.</p> -<p>Autant que possible, les belligérants +<p>Autant que possible, les belligérants inscriront sur le journal de bord des -bâtiments hospitaliers les ordres qu'ils +bâtiments hospitaliers les ordres qu'ils leur donneront.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires -seront distingués par une peinture -extérieure blanche avec une bande -horizontale verte d'un mètre et demi +<p>Les bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires +seront distingués par une peinture +extérieure blanche avec une bande +horizontale verte d'un mètre et demi de largeur environ.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments qui sont mentionnés -dans les articles 2 et 3, seront distingués -par une peinture extérieure +<p>Les bâtiments qui sont mentionnés +dans les articles 2 et 3, seront distingués +par une peinture extérieure blanche avec une bande horizontale -rouge d'un mètre et demi de largeur +rouge d'un mètre et demi de largeur environ.</p> -<p>Les embarcations des bâtiments qui -viennent d'être mentionnés, comme les -petits bâtiments qui pourront être -affectés au service hospitalier, se distingueront +<p>Les embarcations des bâtiments qui +viennent d'être mentionnés, comme les +petits bâtiments qui pourront être +affectés au service hospitalier, se distingueront par une peinture analogue.</p> -<p>Tous les bâtiments hospitaliers se -feront reconnaître en hissant, avec leur -pavillon national, le pavillon blanc à -croix-rouge prévu par la Convention de -Genève et, en outre, s'ils ressortissent -à un État neutre, en arborant au -grand mât le pavillon national du belligérant +<p>Tous les bâtiments hospitaliers se +feront reconnaître en hissant, avec leur +pavillon national, le pavillon blanc à +croix-rouge prévu par la Convention de +Genève et, en outre, s'ils ressortissent +à un État neutre, en arborant au +grand mât le pavillon national du belligérant sous la direction duquel ils se -sont placés.</p> +sont placés.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers qui, dans -les termes de l'article 4, sont détenus -par l'ennemi, auront à rentrer le -pavillon national du belligérant dont -ils relèvent.</p> +<p>Les bâtiments hospitaliers qui, dans +les termes de l'article 4, sont détenus +par l'ennemi, auront à rentrer le +pavillon national du belligérant dont +ils relèvent.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments et embarcations ci-dessus -mentionnés, qui veulent s'assurer +<p>Les bâtiments et embarcations ci-dessus +mentionnés, qui veulent s'assurer la nuit le respect auquel ils ont droit, -ont, avec l'assentiment du belligérant -qu'ils accompagnent, à prendre les -mesures nécessaires pour que la peinture -qui les caractérise soit suffisamment +ont, avec l'assentiment du belligérant +qu'ils accompagnent, à prendre les +mesures nécessaires pour que la peinture +qui les caractérise soit suffisamment apparente.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Les signes distinctifs prévus à article -5 ne pourront être employés, soit en +<p>Les signes distinctifs prévus à article +5 ne pourront être employés, soit en temps de paix, soit en temps de guerre, -que pour protéger ou désigner les bâtiments -qui y sont mentionnés.</p> +que pour protéger ou désigner les bâtiments +qui y sont mentionnés.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Dans le cas d'un combat à bord d'un +<p>Dans le cas d'un combat à bord d'un vaisseau de guerre, les infirmeries -seront respectées et ménagées autant +seront respectées et ménagées autant que faire se pourra.</p> -<p>Ces infirmeries et leur matériel demeurent +<p>Ces infirmeries et leur matériel demeurent soumis aux lois de la guerre, -mais ne pourront être détournés de -leur emploi, tant qu'ils seront nécessaires -aux blessés et malades.</p> +mais ne pourront être détournés de +leur emploi, tant qu'ils seront nécessaires +aux blessés et malades.</p> <p>Toutefois le commandant, qui les a -en son pouvoir, a la faculté d'en disposer, -en cas de nécessité militaire -importante, en assurant au préalable le -sort des blessés et malades qui s'y +en son pouvoir, a la faculté d'en disposer, +en cas de nécessité militaire +importante, en assurant au préalable le +sort des blessés et malades qui s'y trouvent.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>La protection due aux bâtiments +<p>La protection due aux bâtiments hospitaliers et aux infirmeries des vaisseaux cesse si l'on en use pour -commettre des actes nuisibles à l'ennemi.</p> +commettre des actes nuisibles à l'ennemi.</p> -<p>N'est pas considéré comme étant de -nature à justifier le retrait de la protection +<p>N'est pas considéré comme étant de +nature à justifier le retrait de la protection le fait que le personnel de ces -bâtiments et infirmeries est armé pour -le maintien de l'ordre et pour la défense -des blessés ou malades, ainsi que -le fait de la présence à bord d'une -installation radio-télégraphique.</p> +bâtiments et infirmeries est armé pour +le maintien de l'ordre et pour la défense +des blessés ou malades, ainsi que +le fait de la présence à bord d'une +installation radio-télégraphique.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>Les belligérants pourront faire appel -au zèle charitable des commandants de -bâtiments de commerce, yachts ou -embarcations neutres, pour prendre à -bord et soigner des blessés ou des +<p>Les belligérants pourront faire appel +au zèle charitable des commandants de +bâtiments de commerce, yachts ou +embarcations neutres, pour prendre à +bord et soigner des blessés ou des malades.</p> -<p>Les bâtiments qui auront répondu à<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span> -cet appel ainsi que ceux qui spontanément -auront recueilli des blessés, des -malades ou des naufragés, jouiront -d'une protection spéciale et de certaines -immunités. En aucun cas, ils -ne pourront être capturés pour le fait +<p>Les bâtiments qui auront répondu à <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span> +cet appel ainsi que ceux qui spontanément +auront recueilli des blessés, des +malades ou des naufragés, jouiront +d'une protection spéciale et de certaines +immunités. En aucun cas, ils +ne pourront être capturés pour le fait d'un tel transport; mais, sauf les -promesses qui leur auraient été faites, -ils restent exposés à la capture pour les -violations de neutralité qu'ils pourraient +promesses qui leur auraient été faites, +ils restent exposés à la capture pour les +violations de neutralité qu'ils pourraient avoir commises.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>Le personnel religieux, médical et -hospitalier de tout bâtiment capturé -est inviolable et ne peut être fait +<p>Le personnel religieux, médical et +hospitalier de tout bâtiment capturé +est inviolable et ne peut être fait prisonnier de guerre. Il emporte, en quittant le navire, les objets et les instruments de chirurgie qui sont sa -propriété particulière.</p> +propriété particulière.</p> -<p>Ce personnel continuera à remplir -ses fonctions tant que cela sera nécessaire +<p>Ce personnel continuera à remplir +ses fonctions tant que cela sera nécessaire et il pourra ensuite se retirer, lorsque le commandant en chef le jugera possible.</p> -<p>Les belligérants doivent assurer à -ce personnel tombé entre leurs mains, -les mêmes allocations et la même solde -qu'au personnel des mêmes grades de +<p>Les belligérants doivent assurer à +ce personnel tombé entre leurs mains, +les mêmes allocations et la même solde +qu'au personnel des mêmes grades de leur propre marine.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Les marins et les militaires embarqués, +<p>Les marins et les militaires embarqués, et les autres personnes officiellement -attachées aux marines ou -aux armées, blessés ou malades, à +attachées aux marines ou +aux armées, blessés ou malades, à quelque nation qu'ils appartiennent, -seront respectés et soignés par les +seront respectés et soignés par les capteurs.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> <p>Tout vaisseau de guerre d'une partie -belligérante peut réclamer la remise des -blessés, malades ou naufragés, qui sont -à bord de bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires, -de bâtiments hospitaliers de -société de secours ou de particuliers, +belligérante peut réclamer la remise des +blessés, malades ou naufragés, qui sont +à bord de bâtiments-hôpitaux militaires, +de bâtiments hospitaliers de +société de secours ou de particuliers, de navires de commerce, yachts et -embarcations, quelle que soit la nationalité -de ces bâtiments.</p> +embarcations, quelle que soit la nationalité +de ces bâtiments.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Si des blessés, malades ou naufragés -sont recueillis à bord d'un vaisseau de -guerre neutre, il devra être pourvu, -dans la mesure du possible, à ce qu'ils +<p>Si des blessés, malades ou naufragés +sont recueillis à bord d'un vaisseau de +guerre neutre, il devra être pourvu, +dans la mesure du possible, à ce qu'ils ne puissent pas de nouveau prendre -part aux opérations de la guerre.</p> +part aux opérations de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p>Sont prisonniers de guerre les naufragés, -blessés ou malades d'un belligérant, +<p>Sont prisonniers de guerre les naufragés, +blessés ou malades d'un belligérant, qui tombent au pouvoir de -l'autre. Il appartient à celui-ci de -décider, suivant les circonstances, s'il +l'autre. Il appartient à celui-ci de +décider, suivant les circonstances, s'il convient de les garder, de les diriger sur un port de sa nation, sur un port -neutre ou même sur un port de l'adversaire. +neutre ou même sur un port de l'adversaire. Dans ce dernier cas, les -prisonniers ainsi rendus à leur pays ne -pourront servir pendant la durée de la +prisonniers ainsi rendus à leur pays ne +pourront servir pendant la durée de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>Les naufragés, blessés ou malades, -qui sont débarqués dans un port -neutre, du consentement de l'autorité -locale, devront, à moins d'un arrangement -contraire de l'État neutre avec -les États belligérants, être gardés par -l'État neutre de manière qu'ils ne +<p>Les naufragés, blessés ou malades, +qui sont débarqués dans un port +neutre, du consentement de l'autorité +locale, devront, à moins d'un arrangement +contraire de l'État neutre avec +les États belligérants, être gardés par +l'État neutre de manière qu'ils ne puissent pas de nouveau prendre part -aux opérations de la guerre.</p> +aux opérations de la guerre.</p> <p>Les frais d'hospitalisation et d'internement -seront supportés par l'État -dont relèvent les naufragés, blessés ou +seront supportés par l'État +dont relèvent les naufragés, blessés ou malades.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Après chaque combat, les deux -Parties belligérantes, en tant que les -intérêts militaires le comportent, prendront +<p>Après chaque combat, les deux +Parties belligérantes, en tant que les +intérêts militaires le comportent, prendront des mesures pour rechercher les -naufragés, les blessés et les malades et -pour les faire protéger, ainsi que les +naufragés, les blessés et les malades et +pour les faire protéger, ainsi que les morts, contre le pillage et les mauvais traitements.</p> -<p>Elles veilleront à ce que l'inhumation, -l'immersion ou l'incinération des morts -soit précédée d'un examen attentif de +<p>Elles veilleront à ce que l'inhumation, +l'immersion ou l'incinération des morts +soit précédée d'un examen attentif de leurs cadavres.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> -<p>Chaque belligérant enverra, dès qu'il -sera possible, aux autorités de leur -pays, de leur marine ou de leur armée, -les marques ou pièces militaires d'identité -trouvées sur les morts et l'état -nominatif des blessés ou malades recueillis +<p>Chaque belligérant enverra, dès qu'il +sera possible, aux autorités de leur +pays, de leur marine ou de leur armée, +les marques ou pièces militaires d'identité +trouvées sur les morts et l'état +nominatif des blessés ou malades recueillis par lui.</p> -<p>Les belligérants se tiendront réciproquement +<p>Les belligérants se tiendront réciproquement au courant des internements -et des mutations, ainsi que des entrées -dans les hôpitaux et des décès survenus -parmi les blessés et malades en leur +et des mutations, ainsi que des entrées +dans les hôpitaux et des décès survenus +parmi les blessés et malades en leur pouvoir. Ils recueilleront tous les objets d'un usage personnel, valeurs, -lettres, etc. qui seront trouvés dans les -vaisseaux capturés, ou délaissés par les -blessés ou malades décédés dans les -hôpitaux, pour les faire transmettre -aux intéressés par les autorités de leur +lettres, etc. qui seront trouvés dans les +vaisseaux capturés, ou délaissés par les +blessés ou malades décédés dans les +hôpitaux, pour les faire transmettre +aux intéressés par les autorités de leur pays.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous parties à +si les belligérants sont tous parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> <p>Les commandants en chef des flottes -des belligérants auront à pourvoir aux -détails d'exécution des articles précédents, -ainsi qu'aux cas non prévus, -d'après les instructions de leurs Gouvernements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span> -respectifs et conformément -aux principes généraux de la -présente Convention.</p> +des belligérants auront à pourvoir aux +détails d'exécution des articles précédents, +ainsi qu'aux cas non prévus, +d'après les instructions de leurs Gouvernements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span> +respectifs et conformément +aux principes généraux de la +présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> <p>Les Puissances signataires prendront -les mesures nécessaires pour instruire -leurs marines, et spécialement le personnel -protégé, des dispositions de la -présente Convention et pour les porter -à la connaissance des populations.</p> +les mesures nécessaires pour instruire +leurs marines, et spécialement le personnel +protégé, des dispositions de la +présente Convention et pour les porter +à la connaissance des populations.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> <p>Les Puissances signataires s'engagent -également à prendre ou à proposer à -leurs législatures, en cas d'insuffisance -de leurs lois pénales, les mesures nécessaires -pour réprimer en temps de guerre, +également à prendre ou à proposer à +leurs législatures, en cas d'insuffisance +de leurs lois pénales, les mesures nécessaires +pour réprimer en temps de guerre, les actes individuels de pillage et de -mauvais traitements envers des blessés +mauvais traitements envers des blessés et malades des marines, ainsi que pour punir, comme usurpation d'insignes militaires, l'usage abusif des signes -distinctifs désignés à l'article 5 par des -bâtiments non protégés par la présente +distinctifs désignés à l'article 5 par des +bâtiments non protégés par la présente Convention.</p> -<p>Ils se communiqueront, par l'intermédiaire +<p>Ils se communiqueront, par l'intermédiaire du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas, -les dispositions relatives à cette -répression, au plus tard dans les cinq -ans de la ratification de la présente +les dispositions relatives à cette +répression, au plus tard dans les cinq +ans de la ratification de la présente convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> -<p>En cas d'opérations de guerre entre -les forces de terre et de mer des belligérants, -les dispositions de la présente +<p>En cas d'opérations de guerre entre +les forces de terre et de mer des belligérants, +les dispositions de la présente Convention ne seront applicables -qu'aux forces embarquées.</p> +qu'aux forces embarquées.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal -signé par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal +signé par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le -Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des +Ministre des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise par les soins du +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la -voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la +voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires qui -auront accepté la Convention de -Genève du 6 juillet 1906, sont admises -à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +auront accepté la Convention de +Genève du 6 juillet 1906, sont admises +à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer, -notifie par écrit son intention au +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer, +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui -transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +transmettant l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>La présente Convention, dûment -ratifiée, remplacera dans les rapports +<p>La présente Convention, dûment +ratifiée, remplacera dans les rapports entre les Puissances contractantes, la Convention du 29 juillet 1899 pour -l'adaptation à la guerre maritime des -principes de la Convention de Genève.</p> +l'adaptation à la guerre maritime des +principes de la Convention de Genève.</p> <p>La Convention de 1899 reste en vigueur dans les rapports entre les -Puissances qui l'ont signée et qui ne -ratifieraient pas également la présente +Puissances qui l'ont signée et qui ne +ratifieraient pas également la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt, et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la -présente Convention, la dénonciation -sera notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas, qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme -de la notification à toutes les autres +contractantes voulût dénoncer la +présente Convention, la dénonciation +sera notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas, qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme +de la notification à toutes les autres Puissances en leur faisant savoir la date -à laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> +à laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et un an après que la notification +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt des ratifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span> -effectué en vertu de l'article 23 alinéas -3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront -été reçues les notifications d'adhésion -(article 24 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation -(article 27 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt des ratifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span> +effectué en vertu de l'article 23 alinéas +3 et 4, ainsi que la date à laquelle auront +été reçues les notifications d'adhésion +(article 24 alinéa 2) ou de dénonciation +(article 27 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -35104,30 +35060,30 @@ postale.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> <p>La correspondance postale des -neutres ou des belligérants, quel que -soit son caractère officiel ou privé, -trouvée en mer sur un navire neutre +neutres ou des belligérants, quel que +soit son caractère officiel ou privé, +trouvée en mer sur un navire neutre ou ennemi, est inviolable. S'il y a -saisie du navire, elle est expédiée avec +saisie du navire, elle est expédiée avec le moins de retard possible par le capteur.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de l'alinéa précédent +<p>Les dispositions de l'alinéa précédent ne s'appliquent pas, en cas de violation -de blocus, à la correspondance qui est -à destination ou en provenance du port -bloqué.</p> +de blocus, à la correspondance qui est +à destination ou en provenance du port +bloqué.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>L'inviolabilité de la correspondance +<p>L'inviolabilité de la correspondance postale ne soustrait pas les paquebots-poste neutres aux lois et coutumes de la guerre sur mer concernant les navires -de commerce neutres en général. -Toutefois, la visite n'en doit être effectuée -qu'en cas de nécessité, avec tous -les ménagements et toute la célérité +de commerce neutres en général. +Toutefois, la visite n'en doit être effectuée +qu'en cas de nécessité, avec tous +les ménagements et toute la célérité possibles.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>De l'exemption de @@ -35135,184 +35091,184 @@ capture pour certains bateaux.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les bateaux exclusivement affectés -à la pêche côtière ou à des services de +<p>Les bateaux exclusivement affectés +à la pêche côtière ou à des services de petite navigation locale sont exempts de capture, ainsi que leurs engins, -agrès, apparaux et chargement.</p> +agrès, apparaux et chargement.</p> -<p>Cette exemption cesse de leur être -applicable dès qu'ils participent d'une -façon quelconque aux hostilités.</p> +<p>Cette exemption cesse de leur être +applicable dès qu'ils participent d'une +façon quelconque aux hostilités.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes s'interdisent -de profiter du caractère inoffensif +de profiter du caractère inoffensif desdits bateaux pour les employer dans un but militaire en leur conservant leur apparence pacifique.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Sont également exempts de capture -les navires chargés de missions religieuses, +<p>Sont également exempts de capture +les navires chargés de missions religieuses, scientifiques ou philanthropiques.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Du régime des équipages +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>Du régime des équipages des navires de commerce ennemis -capturés par un belligérant.</i></p> +capturés par un belligérant.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> <p>Lorsqu'un navire de commerce ennemi -est capturé par un belligérant, les -hommes de son équipage, nationaux -d'un État neutre, ne sont pas faits +est capturé par un belligérant, les +hommes de son équipage, nationaux +d'un État neutre, ne sont pas faits prisonniers de guerre.</p> -<p>Il en est de même du capitaine et des -officiers, également nationaux d'un -État neutre, s'ils promettent formellement -par écrit de ne pas servir sur un -navire ennemi pendant la durée de la +<p>Il en est de même du capitaine et des +officiers, également nationaux d'un +État neutre, s'ils promettent formellement +par écrit de ne pas servir sur un +navire ennemi pendant la durée de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p>Le capitaine, les officiers et les -membres de l'équipage, nationaux de -l'État ennemi, ne sont pas faits prisonniers -de guerre, à condition qu'ils +membres de l'équipage, nationaux de +l'État ennemi, ne sont pas faits prisonniers +de guerre, à condition qu'ils s'engagent, sous la foi d'une promesse -formelle écrite, à ne prendre, pendant -la durée des hostilités, aucun service -ayant rapport avec les opérations de la +formelle écrite, à ne prendre, pendant +la durée des hostilités, aucun service +ayant rapport avec les opérations de la guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Les noms des individus laissés libres -dans les conditions visées à l'article 5 -alinéa 2 et à l'article 6, sont notifiés par -le belligérant capteur à l'autre belligérant. -Il est interdit à ce dernier d'employer +<p>Les noms des individus laissés libres +dans les conditions visées à l'article 5 +alinéa 2 et à l'article 6, sont notifiés par +le belligérant capteur à l'autre belligérant. +Il est interdit à ce dernier d'employer sciemment lesdits individus.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>Les dispositions des trois articles -précédents ne s'appliquent pas aux -navires qui prennent part aux hostilités.</p> +précédents ne s'appliquent pas aux +navires qui prennent part aux hostilités.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous Parties à +si les belligérants sont tous Parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications -sera constaté par un procès-verbal signé -par les représentants des Puissances +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications +sera constaté par un procès-verbal signé +par les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre -des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span></p> +des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span></p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise par les soins du +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la -voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la +voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances -qui auront adhéré à la Convention. -Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, -ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître -en même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +qui auront adhéré à la Convention. +Dans les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, +ledit Gouvernement leur fera connaître +en même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres -Puissances copie certifiée conforme de +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres +Puissances copie certifiée conforme de la notification ainsi que de l'acte -d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à -laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> +d'adhésion, en indiquant la date à +laquelle il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée et un an après que la notification +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère -des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas -indiquera la date du dépôt des ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 10 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à -laquelle auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 11 alinéa 2) -ou de dénonciation (article 13 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère +des Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas +indiquera la date du dépôt des ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 10 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à +laquelle auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 11 alinéa 2) +ou de dénonciation (article 13 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -35326,197 +35282,197 @@ an International Prize Court.</span> </h4> -<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre I.</span>—<i>Dispositions générales.</i></p> +<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre I.</span>—<i>Dispositions générales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> -<p>La validité de la capture d'un navire +<p>La validité de la capture d'un navire de commerce ou de sa cargaison est, -s'il s'agit de propriétés neutres ou ennemies, -établie devant une juridiction -des prises conformément à la présente +s'il s'agit de propriétés neutres ou ennemies, +établie devant une juridiction +des prises conformément à la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>La juridiction des prises est exercée +<p>La juridiction des prises est exercée d'abord par les tribunaux de prises du -belligérant capteur.</p> +belligérant capteur.</p> -<p>Les décisions de ces tribunaux sont -prononcées en séance publique ou -notifiées d'office aux parties neutres ou +<p>Les décisions de ces tribunaux sont +prononcées en séance publique ou +notifiées d'office aux parties neutres ou ennemies.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les décisions des tribunaux de prises -nationaux peuvent être l'objet d'un +<p>Les décisions des tribunaux de prises +nationaux peuvent être l'objet d'un recours devant la Cour internationale des prises:</p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. lorsque la décision des tribunaux -nationaux concerne les propriétés +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. lorsque la décision des tribunaux +nationaux concerne les propriétés d'une Puissance ou d'un particulier neutres;</p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. lorsque ladite décision concerne -des propriétés ennemies et qu'il +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. lorsque ladite décision concerne +des propriétés ennemies et qu'il s'agit:</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) de marchandises chargées sur +<p class="blockquot">(<i>a</i>) de marchandises chargées sur un navire neutre,</p> <p class="blockquot">(<i>b</i>) d'un navire ennemi, qui -aurait été capturé dans les eaux +aurait été capturé dans les eaux territoriales d'une Puissance -neutre, dans le cas où cette Puissance +neutre, dans le cas où cette Puissance n'aurait pas fait de cette -capture l'objet d'une réclamation +capture l'objet d'une réclamation diplomatique,</p> -<p class="blockquot">(<i>c</i>) d'une réclamation fondée -sur l'allégation que la capture -aurait été effectuée en violation, +<p class="blockquot">(<i>c</i>) d'une réclamation fondée +sur l'allégation que la capture +aurait été effectuée en violation, soit d'une disposition conventionnelle en vigueur entre les Puissances -belligérantes, soit d'une -disposition légale édictée par le -belligérant capteur.</p> +belligérantes, soit d'une +disposition légale édictée par le +belligérant capteur.</p> -<p>Le recours contre la décision des -tribunaux nationaux peut être fondé -sur ce que cette décision ne serait pas -justifiée, soit en fait, soit en droit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span></p> +<p>Le recours contre la décision des +tribunaux nationaux peut être fondé +sur ce que cette décision ne serait pas +justifiée, soit en fait, soit en droit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Le recours peut être exercé:</p> +<p>Le recours peut être exercé:</p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. par une Puissance neutre, si -la décision des tribunaux nationaux -a porté atteinte à ses propriétés ou -à celles de ses ressortissants (article -3—1<span class="topnum">o</span>) ou s'il est allégué que la capture +la décision des tribunaux nationaux +a porté atteinte à ses propriétés ou +à celles de ses ressortissants (article +3—1<span class="topnum">o</span>) ou s'il est allégué que la capture d'un navire ennemi a eu lieu dans les eaux territoriales de cette Puissance (article 3—2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>b</i>);</p> <p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. par un particulier neutre, si la -décision des tribunaux nationaux a -porté atteinte à ses propriétés (article -3—1<span class="topnum">o</span>), sous réserve toutefois du -droit de la Puissance dont il relève, -de lui interdire l'accès de la Cour ou -d'y agir elle-même en ses lieu et +décision des tribunaux nationaux a +porté atteinte à ses propriétés (article +3—1<span class="topnum">o</span>), sous réserve toutefois du +droit de la Puissance dont il relève, +de lui interdire l'accès de la Cour ou +d'y agir elle-même en ses lieu et place;</p> <p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span>. par un particulier relevant de -la Puissance ennemie, si la décision -des tribunaux nationaux a porté -atteinte à ses propriétés dans les -conditions visées à l'article 3—2<span class="topnum">o</span>, à -l'exception du cas prévu par -l'alinéa <i>b</i>.</p> +la Puissance ennemie, si la décision +des tribunaux nationaux a porté +atteinte à ses propriétés dans les +conditions visées à l'article 3—2<span class="topnum">o</span>, à +l'exception du cas prévu par +l'alinéa <i>b</i>.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Le recours peut aussi être exercé, -dans les mêmes conditions qu'à l'article -précédent, par les ayants-droit, neutres +<p>Le recours peut aussi être exercé, +dans les mêmes conditions qu'à l'article +précédent, par les ayants-droit, neutres ou ennemis, du particulier auquel le -recours est accordé, et qui sont intervenus +recours est accordé, et qui sont intervenus devant la juridiction nationale. Ces ayants-droit peuvent exercer individuellement le recours dans la -mesure de leur intérêt.</p> +mesure de leur intérêt.</p> -<p>Il en est de même des ayants-droit, +<p>Il en est de même des ayants-droit, neutres ou ennemis, de la Puissance -neutre dont la propriété est en cause.</p> +neutre dont la propriété est en cause.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Lorsque, conformément à l'article 3 +<p>Lorsque, conformément à l'article 3 ci-dessus, la Cour internationale est -compétente, le droit de juridiction des -tribunaux nationaux ne peut être -exercé à plus de deux degrés. Il appartient -à la législation du belligérant -capteur de décider si le recours est -ouvert après la décision rendue en -premier ressort ou seulement après la -décision rendue en appel ou en cassation.</p> +compétente, le droit de juridiction des +tribunaux nationaux ne peut être +exercé à plus de deux degrés. Il appartient +à la législation du belligérant +capteur de décider si le recours est +ouvert après la décision rendue en +premier ressort ou seulement après la +décision rendue en appel ou en cassation.</p> <p>Faute par les tribunaux nationaux -d'avoir rendu une décision définitive -dans les deux ans à compter du jour -de la capture, la Cour peut être saisie +d'avoir rendu une décision définitive +dans les deux ans à compter du jour +de la capture, la Cour peut être saisie directement.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Si la question de droit à résoudre est -prévue par une Convention en vigueur -entre le belligérant capteur et la Puissance -qui est elle-même partie au litige +<p>Si la question de droit à résoudre est +prévue par une Convention en vigueur +entre le belligérant capteur et la Puissance +qui est elle-même partie au litige ou dont le ressortissant est partie au litige, la Cour se conforme aux stipulations de ladite Convention.</p> -<p>A défaut de telles stipulations, la -Cour applique les règles du droit international. -Si des règles généralement +<p>A défaut de telles stipulations, la +Cour applique les règles du droit international. +Si des règles généralement reconnues n'existent pas, la Cour statue -d'après les principes généraux de la -justice et de l'équité.</p> +d'après les principes généraux de la +justice et de l'équité.</p> -<p>Les dispositions ci-dessus sont également +<p>Les dispositions ci-dessus sont également applicables en ce qui concerne l'ordre des preuves ainsi que les moyens -qui peuvent être employés.</p> +qui peuvent être employés.</p> -<p>Si, conformément à l'article 3—2<span class="topnum">o</span> c, -le recours est fondé sur la violation -d'une disposition légale édictée par le -belligérant capteur, la Cour applique +<p>Si, conformément à l'article 3—2<span class="topnum">o</span> c, +le recours est fondé sur la violation +d'une disposition légale édictée par le +belligérant capteur, la Cour applique cette disposition.</p> <p>La Cour peut ne pas tenir compte -des déchéances de procédure édictées -par la législation du belligérant capteur, -dans les cas où elle estime que les -conséquences en sont contraires à la -justice et à l'équité.</p> +des déchéances de procédure édictées +par la législation du belligérant capteur, +dans les cas où elle estime que les +conséquences en sont contraires à la +justice et à l'équité.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>Si la Cour prononce la validité de +<p>Si la Cour prononce la validité de la capture du navire ou de la cargaison, -il en sera disposé conformément aux -lois du belligérant capteur.</p> +il en sera disposé conformément aux +lois du belligérant capteur.</p> -<p>Si la nullité de la capture est prononcée, +<p>Si la nullité de la capture est prononcée, la Cour ordonne la restitution du navire ou de la cargaison et fixe, -s'il y a lieu, le montant des dommages-intérêts. +s'il y a lieu, le montant des dommages-intérêts. Si le navire ou la cargaison -ont été vendus ou détruits, la Cour -détermine l'indemnité à accorder de ce -chef au propriétaire.</p> +ont été vendus ou détruits, la Cour +détermine l'indemnité à accorder de ce +chef au propriétaire.</p> -<p>Si la nullité de la capture avait été -prononcée par la juridiction nationale, -la Cour n'est appelée à statuer que sur -les dommages et intérêts.</p> +<p>Si la nullité de la capture avait été +prononcée par la juridiction nationale, +la Cour n'est appelée à statuer que sur +les dommages et intérêts.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes s'engagent -à se soumettre de bonne foi aux -décisions de la Cour internationale des -prises et à les exécuter dans le plus bref -délai possible.</p> +à se soumettre de bonne foi aux +décisions de la Cour internationale des +prises et à les exécuter dans le plus bref +délai possible.</p> <p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre II.</span>—<i>Organisation de la Cour internationale des prises.</i></p> @@ -35524,778 +35480,778 @@ internationale des prises.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> <p>La Cour internationale des prises se -compose de juges et de juges suppléants -nommés par les Puissances contractantes -et qui tous devront être des -jurisconsultes d'une compétence reconnue +compose de juges et de juges suppléants +nommés par les Puissances contractantes +et qui tous devront être des +jurisconsultes d'une compétence reconnue dans les questions de droit international maritime et jouissant de -la plus haute considération morale.</p> +la plus haute considération morale.</p> <p>La nomination de ces juges et juges -suppléants sera faite dans les six mois -qui suivront la ratification de la présente +suppléants sera faite dans les six mois +qui suivront la ratification de la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p>Les juges et juges suppléants sont -nommés pour une période de six ans, -à compter de la date où la notification -de leur nomination aura été reçue par -le Conseil administratif institué par la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span> -Convention pour le règlement pacifique +<p>Les juges et juges suppléants sont +nommés pour une période de six ans, +à compter de la date où la notification +de leur nomination aura été reçue par +le Conseil administratif institué par la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span> +Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux du 29 juillet 1899. Leur mandat peut -être renouvelé.</p> +être renouvelé.</p> -<p>En cas de décès ou de démission -d'un juge ou d'un juge suppléant, il -est pourvu à son remplacement selon -le mode fixé pour sa nomination. Dans +<p>En cas de décès ou de démission +d'un juge ou d'un juge suppléant, il +est pourvu à son remplacement selon +le mode fixé pour sa nomination. Dans ce cas, la nomination est faite pour une -nouvelle période de six ans.</p> +nouvelle période de six ans.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> <p>Les juges de la Cour internationale -des prises sont égaux entre eux et -prennent rang d'après la date où la +des prises sont égaux entre eux et +prennent rang d'après la date où la notification de leur nomination aura -été reçue (article 11 alinéa 1), et, s'ils -siègent à tour de rôle (article 15 alinéa -2), d'après la date de leur entrée en -fonctions. La préséance appartient au -plus âgé, au cas où la date est la même.</p> - -<p>Les juges suppléants sont, dans -l'exercice de leurs fonctions, assimilés +été reçue (article 11 alinéa 1), et, s'ils +siègent à tour de rôle (article 15 alinéa +2), d'après la date de leur entrée en +fonctions. La préséance appartient au +plus âgé, au cas où la date est la même.</p> + +<p>Les juges suppléants sont, dans +l'exercice de leurs fonctions, assimilés aux juges titulaires. Toutefois ils -prennent rang après ceux-ci.</p> +prennent rang après ceux-ci.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Les juges jouissent des privilèges et -immunités diplomatiques dans l'exercice +<p>Les juges jouissent des privilèges et +immunités diplomatiques dans l'exercice de leurs fonctions et en dehors de leur pays.</p> <p>Avant de prendre possession de leur -siège, les juges doivent, devant le -Conseil administratif, prêter serment +siège, les juges doivent, devant le +Conseil administratif, prêter serment ou faire une affirmation solennelle -d'exercer leurs fonctions avec impartialité +d'exercer leurs fonctions avec impartialité et en toute conscience.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> <p>La Cour fonctionne au nombre de quinze juges; neuf juges constituent -le quorum nécessaire.</p> +le quorum nécessaire.</p> -<p>Le juge absent ou empêché est -remplacé par le suppléant.</p> +<p>Le juge absent ou empêché est +remplacé par le suppléant.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>Les juges nommés par les Puissances +<p>Les juges nommés par les Puissances contractantes dont les noms suivent: -l'Allemagne, les États-Unis d'Amérique, +l'Allemagne, les États-Unis d'Amérique, l'Autriche-Hongrie, la France, la Grande-Bretagne, l'Italie, le Japon et la -Russie sont toujours appelés à siéger.</p> +Russie sont toujours appelés à siéger.</p> -<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants -nommés par les autres Puissances contractantes -siègent à tour de rôle d'après -le tableau annexé à la présente Convention; -leurs fonctions peuvent être -exercées successivement par la même -personne. Le même juge peut être -nommé par plusieurs desdites Puissances.</p> +<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants +nommés par les autres Puissances contractantes +siègent à tour de rôle d'après +le tableau annexé à la présente Convention; +leurs fonctions peuvent être +exercées successivement par la même +personne. Le même juge peut être +nommé par plusieurs desdites Puissances.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Si une Puissance belligérante n'a -pas, d'après le tour de rôle, un juge -siégeant dans la Cour, elle peut demander -que le juge nommé par elle +<p>Si une Puissance belligérante n'a +pas, d'après le tour de rôle, un juge +siégeant dans la Cour, elle peut demander +que le juge nommé par elle prenne part au jugement de toutes les affaires provenant de la guerre. Dans -ce cas, le sort détermine lequel des -juges siégeant en vertu du tour de rôle +ce cas, le sort détermine lequel des +juges siégeant en vertu du tour de rôle doit s'abstenir. Cette exclusion ne -saurait s'appliquer au juge nommé -par l'autre belligérant.</p> +saurait s'appliquer au juge nommé +par l'autre belligérant.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> -<p>Ne peut siéger le juge qui, à un titre -quelconque, aura concouru à la décision +<p>Ne peut siéger le juge qui, à un titre +quelconque, aura concouru à la décision des tribunaux nationaux ou -aura figuré dans l'instance comme +aura figuré dans l'instance comme conseil ou avocat d'une partie.</p> -<p>Aucun juge, titulaire ou suppléant, +<p>Aucun juge, titulaire ou suppléant, ne peut intervenir comme agent ou comme avocat devant la Cour internationale des prises ni y agir pour une -partie en quelque qualité que ce soit, -pendant toute la durée de ses fonctions.</p> +partie en quelque qualité que ce soit, +pendant toute la durée de ses fonctions.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>Le belligérant capteur a le droit de -désigner un officier de marine d'un -grade élevé qui siégera en qualité +<p>Le belligérant capteur a le droit de +désigner un officier de marine d'un +grade élevé qui siégera en qualité d'assesseur avec voix consultative. -La même faculté appartient à la Puissance -neutre, qui est elle-même partie -au litige, ou à la Puissance dont le ressortissant +La même faculté appartient à la Puissance +neutre, qui est elle-même partie +au litige, ou à la Puissance dont le ressortissant est partie au litige; s'il y a, -par application de cette dernière disposition, -plusieurs Puissances intéressées, +par application de cette dernière disposition, +plusieurs Puissances intéressées, elles doivent se concerter, au besoin -par le sort, sur l'officier à désigner.</p> +par le sort, sur l'officier à désigner.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>La Cour élit son Président et son -Vice-Président à la majorité absolue -des suffrages exprimés. Après deux -tours de scrutin, l'élection se fait à la -majorité relative et, en cas de partage -des voix, le sort décide.</p> +<p>La Cour élit son Président et son +Vice-Président à la majorité absolue +des suffrages exprimés. Après deux +tours de scrutin, l'élection se fait à la +majorité relative et, en cas de partage +des voix, le sort décide.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> <p>Les juges de la Cour internationale -des prises touchent une indemnité de -voyage fixée d'après les règlements de -leur pays et reçoivent, en outre, pendant +des prises touchent une indemnité de +voyage fixée d'après les règlements de +leur pays et reçoivent, en outre, pendant la session ou pendant l'exercice -de fonctions conférées par la Cour, une -somme de cent florins néerlandais par +de fonctions conférées par la Cour, une +somme de cent florins néerlandais par jour.</p> <p>Ces allocations, comprises dans les -frais généraux de la Cour prévus par -l'article 47, sont versées par l'entremise -du Bureau international institué par la +frais généraux de la Cour prévus par +l'article 47, sont versées par l'entremise +du Bureau international institué par la Convention du 29 juillet 1899.</p> <p>Les juges ne peuvent recevoir de leur propre Gouvernement ou de celui -d'une autre Puissance aucune rémunération +d'une autre Puissance aucune rémunération comme membres de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> <p>La Cour internationale des prises a -son siège à La Haye et ne peut, sauf le +son siège à La Haye et ne peut, sauf le cas de force majeure, le transporter ailleurs qu'avec l'assentiment des -parties belligérantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span></p> +parties belligérantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> <p>Le Conseil administratif, dans lequel -ne figurent que les représentants des -Puissances contractantes, remplit, à -l'égard de la Cour internationale des -prises, les fonctions qu'il remplit à -l'égard de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage.</p> +ne figurent que les représentants des +Puissances contractantes, remplit, à +l'égard de la Cour internationale des +prises, les fonctions qu'il remplit à +l'égard de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> <p>Le Bureau international sert de -greffe à la Cour internationale des +greffe à la Cour internationale des prises et doit mettre ses locaux et son -organisation à la disposition de la +organisation à la disposition de la Cour. Il a la garde des archives et la gestion des affaires administratives.</p> -<p>Le secrétaire général du Bureau +<p>Le secrétaire général du Bureau international remplit les fonctions de greffier.</p> -<p>Les secrétaires adjoints au greffier, -les traducteurs et les sténographes -nécessaires sont désignés et assermentés +<p>Les secrétaires adjoints au greffier, +les traducteurs et les sténographes +nécessaires sont désignés et assermentés par la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> -<p>La Cour décide du choix de la langue +<p>La Cour décide du choix de la langue dont elle fera usage et des langues -dont l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle.</p> +dont l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle.</p> <p>Dans tous les cas, la langue officielle des tribunaux nationaux, qui ont -connu de l'affaire, peut être employée +connu de l'affaire, peut être employée devant la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>Les Puissances intéressées ont le droit -de nommer des agents spéciaux ayant -mission de servir d'intermédiaires entre +<p>Les Puissances intéressées ont le droit +de nommer des agents spéciaux ayant +mission de servir d'intermédiaires entre Elles et la Cour. Elles sont, en outre, -autorisées à charger des conseils ou -avocats de la défense de leurs droits et -intérêts.</p> +autorisées à charger des conseils ou +avocats de la défense de leurs droits et +intérêts.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> -<p>Le particulier intéressé sera représenté +<p>Le particulier intéressé sera représenté devant la Cour par un mandataire -qui doit être soit un avocat autorisé à +qui doit être soit un avocat autorisé à plaider devant une Cour d'appel ou -une Cour suprême de l'un des Pays -contractants, soit un avoué exerçant -sa profession auprès d'une telle Cour, -soit enfin un professeur de droit à une -école d'enseignement supérieur d'un +une Cour suprême de l'un des Pays +contractants, soit un avoué exerçant +sa profession auprès d'une telle Cour, +soit enfin un professeur de droit à une +école d'enseignement supérieur d'un de ces pays.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> -<p>Pour toutes les notifications à faire, -notamment aux parties, aux témoins +<p>Pour toutes les notifications à faire, +notamment aux parties, aux témoins et aux experts, la Cour peut s'adresser directement au Gouvernement de la Puissance sur le territoire de laquelle -la notification doit être effectuée. Il -en est de même s'il s'agit de faire procéder -à l'établissement de tout moyen +la notification doit être effectuée. Il +en est de même s'il s'agit de faire procéder +à l'établissement de tout moyen de preuve.</p> -<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet -seront exécutées suivant les moyens dont -la Puissance requise dispose d'après sa -législation intérieure. Elles ne peuvent -être refusées que si cette Puissance -les juge de nature à porter atteinte à -sa souveraineté ou à sa sécurité. S'il -est donné suite à la requête, les frais ne -comprennent que les dépenses d'exécution -réellement effectuées.</p> - -<p>La Cour a également la faculté de -recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance +<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet +seront exécutées suivant les moyens dont +la Puissance requise dispose d'après sa +législation intérieure. Elles ne peuvent +être refusées que si cette Puissance +les juge de nature à porter atteinte à +sa souveraineté ou à sa sécurité. S'il +est donné suite à la requête, les frais ne +comprennent que les dépenses d'exécution +réellement effectuées.</p> + +<p>La Cour a également la faculté de +recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance sur le territoire de laquelle elle -a son siège.</p> +a son siège.</p> -<p>Les notifications à faire aux parties -dans le lieu où siège la Cour peuvent -être exécutées par le Bureau international.</p> +<p>Les notifications à faire aux parties +dans le lieu où siège la Cour peuvent +être exécutées par le Bureau international.</p> -<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre III.</span>—<i>Procédure devant la Cour +<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre III.</span>—<i>Procédure devant la Cour internationale des prises.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> <p>Le recours devant la Cour internationale -des prises est formé au -moyen d'une déclaration écrite, faite -devant le tribunal national qui a statué, -ou adressée au Bureau international; -celui-ci peut être saisi même par télégramme.</p> +des prises est formé au +moyen d'une déclaration écrite, faite +devant le tribunal national qui a statué, +ou adressée au Bureau international; +celui-ci peut être saisi même par télégramme.</p> -<p>Le délai du recours est fixé à cent -vingt jours à dater du jour où la décision -a été prononcée ou notifiée -(article 2 alinéa 2).</p> +<p>Le délai du recours est fixé à cent +vingt jours à dater du jour où la décision +a été prononcée ou notifiée +(article 2 alinéa 2).</p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p>Si la déclaration de recours est faite +<p>Si la déclaration de recours est faite devant le tribunal national, celui-ci, -sans examiner si le délai a été observé, +sans examiner si le délai a été observé, fait, dans les sept jours qui suivent, -expédier le dossier de l'affaire au +expédier le dossier de l'affaire au Bureau international.</p> -<p>Si la déclaration de recours est adressée +<p>Si la déclaration de recours est adressée au Bureau international, celui-ci -en prévient directement le tribunal -national, par télégramme s'il est possible. +en prévient directement le tribunal +national, par télégramme s'il est possible. Le tribunal transmettra le -dossier comme il est dit à l'alinéa -précédent.</p> +dossier comme il est dit à l'alinéa +précédent.</p> -<p>Lorsque le recours est formé par un +<p>Lorsque le recours est formé par un particulier neutre, le Bureau international -en avise immédiatement par -télégramme la Puissance dont relève -le particulier, pour permettre à cette +en avise immédiatement par +télégramme la Puissance dont relève +le particulier, pour permettre à cette Puissance de faire valoir le droit que -lui reconnaît l'article 4—2<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> +lui reconnaît l'article 4—2<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> -<p>Dans le cas prévu à l'article 6 alinéa -2, le recours ne peut être adressé qu'au -Bureau international. Il doit être introduit +<p>Dans le cas prévu à l'article 6 alinéa +2, le recours ne peut être adressé qu'au +Bureau international. Il doit être introduit dans les trente jours qui suivent -l'expiration du délai de deux ans.</p> +l'expiration du délai de deux ans.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>Faute d'avoir formé son recours dans -le délai fixé à l'article 28 ou à l'article -30, la partie sera, sans débats, déclarée +<p>Faute d'avoir formé son recours dans +le délai fixé à l'article 28 ou à l'article +30, la partie sera, sans débats, déclarée non recevable.</p> -<p>Toutefois, si elle justifie d'un empêchement +<p>Toutefois, si elle justifie d'un empêchement de force majeure et si elle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[Pg 626]</a></span> -a formé son recours dans les soixante +a formé son recours dans les soixante jours qui ont suivi la cessation de cet -empêchement, elle peut être relevée de -la déchéance encourue, la partie adverse -ayant été dûment entendue.</p> +empêchement, elle peut être relevée de +la déchéance encourue, la partie adverse +ayant été dûment entendue.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p>Si le recours a été formé en temps +<p>Si le recours a été formé en temps utile, la Cour notifie d'office et sans -délai à la partie adverse une copie -certifiée conforme de la déclaration.</p> +délai à la partie adverse une copie +certifiée conforme de la déclaration.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> <p>Si, en dehors des parties qui se sont pourvues devant la Cour, il y a d'autres -intéressés ayant le droit d'exercer le -recours, ou si, dans le cas prévu à -l'article 29 alinéa 3, la Puissance qui -a été avisée, n'a pas fait connaître sa -résolution, la Cour attend, pour se saisir -de l'affaire, que les délais prévus à -l'article 28 ou à l'article 30 soient -expirés.</p> +intéressés ayant le droit d'exercer le +recours, ou si, dans le cas prévu à +l'article 29 alinéa 3, la Puissance qui +a été avisée, n'a pas fait connaître sa +résolution, la Cour attend, pour se saisir +de l'affaire, que les délais prévus à +l'article 28 ou à l'article 30 soient +expirés.</p> <p class="center">Article 34.</p> -<p>La procédure devant la Cour internationale +<p>La procédure devant la Cour internationale comprend deux phases distinctes: -l'instruction écrite et les -débats oraux.</p> +l'instruction écrite et les +débats oraux.</p> -<p>L'instruction écrite consiste dans le -dépôt et l'échange d'exposés, de contre-exposés -et, au besoin, de répliques dont -l'ordre et les délais sont fixés par la +<p>L'instruction écrite consiste dans le +dépôt et l'échange d'exposés, de contre-exposés +et, au besoin, de répliques dont +l'ordre et les délais sont fixés par la Cour. Les parties y joignent toutes -pièces et documents dont elles comptent +pièces et documents dont elles comptent se servir.</p> -<p>Toute pièce, produite par une partie, -doit être communiquée en copie certifiée -conforme à l'autre partie par -l'intermédiaire de la Cour.</p> +<p>Toute pièce, produite par une partie, +doit être communiquée en copie certifiée +conforme à l'autre partie par +l'intermédiaire de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 35.</p> -<p>L'instruction écrite étant terminée, -il y a lieu à une audience publique, -dont le jour est fixé par la Cour.</p> +<p>L'instruction écrite étant terminée, +il y a lieu à une audience publique, +dont le jour est fixé par la Cour.</p> <p>Dans cette audience, les parties exposent -l'état de l'affaire en fait et en +l'état de l'affaire en fait et en droit.</p> -<p>La Cour peut, en tout état de cause, -suspendre les plaidoiries, soit à la demande +<p>La Cour peut, en tout état de cause, +suspendre les plaidoiries, soit à la demande d'une des parties, soit d'office, -pour procéder à une information complémentaire.</p> +pour procéder à une information complémentaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 36.</p> <p>La Cour internationale peut ordonner -que l'information complémentaire aura -lieu, soit conformément aux dispositions +que l'information complémentaire aura +lieu, soit conformément aux dispositions de l'article 27, soit directement devant elle ou devant un ou plusieurs de ses membres en tant que cela peut se faire sans moyen coercitif ou comminatoire.</p> <p>Si des mesures d'information doivent -être prises par des membres de la Cour -en dehors du territoire où elle a son -siège, l'assentiment du Gouvernement -étranger doit être obtenu.</p> +être prises par des membres de la Cour +en dehors du territoire où elle a son +siège, l'assentiment du Gouvernement +étranger doit être obtenu.</p> <p class="center">Article 37.</p> -<p>Les parties sont appelées à assister -à toutes mesures d'instruction. Elles -reçoivent une copie certifiée conforme -des procès-verbaux.</p> +<p>Les parties sont appelées à assister +à toutes mesures d'instruction. Elles +reçoivent une copie certifiée conforme +des procès-verbaux.</p> <p class="center">Article 38.</p> -<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président -ou le Vice-Président et, en cas -d'absence ou d'empêchement de l'un +<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président +ou le Vice-Président et, en cas +d'absence ou d'empêchement de l'un et de l'autre, par le plus ancien des -juges présents.</p> +juges présents.</p> -<p>Le juge nommé par une partie belligérante -ne peut siéger comme Président.</p> +<p>Le juge nommé par une partie belligérante +ne peut siéger comme Président.</p> <p class="center">Article 39.</p> -<p>Les débats sont publics sauf le droit +<p>Les débats sont publics sauf le droit pour une Puissance en litige de demander -qu'il y soit procédé à huis clos.</p> +qu'il y soit procédé à huis clos.</p> -<p>Ils sont consignés dans des procès-verbaux, -que signent le Président et le -greffier et qui seuls ont caractère +<p>Ils sont consignés dans des procès-verbaux, +que signent le Président et le +greffier et qui seuls ont caractère authentique.</p> <p class="center">Article 40.</p> <p>En cas de non comparution d'une -des parties, bien que régulièrement -citée, ou faute par elle d'agir dans les -délais fixés par la Cour, il est procédé -sans elle et la Cour décide d'après les -éléments d'appréciation qu'elle a à sa +des parties, bien que régulièrement +citée, ou faute par elle d'agir dans les +délais fixés par la Cour, il est procédé +sans elle et la Cour décide d'après les +éléments d'appréciation qu'elle a à sa disposition.</p> <p class="center">Article 41.</p> <p>La Cour notifie d'office aux parties -toutes décisions ou ordonnances prises +toutes décisions ou ordonnances prises en leur absence.</p> <p class="center">Article 42.</p> -<p>La Cour apprécie librement l'ensemble -des actes, preuves et déclarations +<p>La Cour apprécie librement l'ensemble +des actes, preuves et déclarations orales.</p> <p class="center">Article 43.</p> -<p>Les délibérations de la Cour ont lieu -à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> +<p>Les délibérations de la Cour ont lieu +à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> -<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité -des juges présents. Si la Cour siège en +<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité +des juges présents. Si la Cour siège en nombre pair et qu'il y ait partage des voix, la voix du dernier des juges dans -l'ordre de préséance établi d'après -l'article 12 alinéa 1 n'est pas comptée.</p> +l'ordre de préséance établi d'après +l'article 12 alinéa 1 n'est pas comptée.</p> <p class="center">Article 44.</p> -<p>L'arrêt de la Cour doit être motivé. +<p>L'arrêt de la Cour doit être motivé. Il mentionne les noms des juges qui y -ont participé, ainsi que les noms des -assesseurs, s'il y a lieu; il est signé par -le Président et par le greffier.</p> +ont participé, ainsi que les noms des +assesseurs, s'il y a lieu; il est signé par +le Président et par le greffier.</p> <p class="center">Article 45.</p> -<p>L'arrêt est prononcé en séance publique, -les parties présentes ou dûment -appelées; il est notifié d'office aux +<p>L'arrêt est prononcé en séance publique, +les parties présentes ou dûment +appelées; il est notifié d'office aux parties.</p> <p>Cette notification une fois faite,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[Pg 627]</a></span> la Cour fait parvenir au tribunal national des prises le dossier de -l'affaire en y joignant une expédition -des diverses décisions intervenues ainsi -qu'une copie des procès-verbaux de +l'affaire en y joignant une expédition +des diverses décisions intervenues ainsi +qu'une copie des procès-verbaux de l'instruction.</p> <p class="center">Article 46.</p> <p>Chaque partie supporte les frais -occasionnés par sa propre défense.</p> +occasionnés par sa propre défense.</p> <p>La partie qui succombe supporte, en -outre, les frais causés par la procédure. -Elle doit, de plus, verser un centième -de la valeur de l'objet litigieux à titre -de contribution aux frais généraux de +outre, les frais causés par la procédure. +Elle doit, de plus, verser un centième +de la valeur de l'objet litigieux à titre +de contribution aux frais généraux de la Cour internationale. Le montant -de ces versements est déterminé par -l'arrêt de la Cour.</p> +de ces versements est déterminé par +l'arrêt de la Cour.</p> -<p>Si le recours est exercé par un particulier, +<p>Si le recours est exercé par un particulier, celui-ci fournit au Bureau international un cautionnement dont -le montant est fixé par la Cour et qui -est destiné à garantir l'exécution éventuelle -des deux obligations mentionnées -dans l'alinéa précédent. La Cour peut -subordonner l'ouverture de la procédure +le montant est fixé par la Cour et qui +est destiné à garantir l'exécution éventuelle +des deux obligations mentionnées +dans l'alinéa précédent. La Cour peut +subordonner l'ouverture de la procédure au versement du cautionnement.</p> <p class="center">Article 47.</p> -<p>Les frais généraux de la Cour internationale -des prises sont supportés par +<p>Les frais généraux de la Cour internationale +des prises sont supportés par les Puissances contractantes dans la proportion de leur participation au fonctionnement de la Cour telle qu'elle -est prévue par l'article 15 et par le -tableau y annexé. La désignation des -juges suppléants ne donne pas lieu à +est prévue par l'article 15 et par le +tableau y annexé. La désignation des +juges suppléants ne donne pas lieu à contribution.</p> <p>Le Conseil administratif s'adresse aux Puissances pour obtenir les fonds -nécessaires au fonctionnement de la +nécessaires au fonctionnement de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 48.</p> <p>Quand la Cour n'est pas en session, -les fonctions qui lui sont conférées par -l'article 32, l'article 34 alinéas 2 et 3, -l'article 35 alinéa 1 et l'article 46 -alinéa 3, sont exercées par une Délégation -de trois juges désignés par la -Cour. Cette Délégation décide à la -majorité des voix.</p> +les fonctions qui lui sont conférées par +l'article 32, l'article 34 alinéas 2 et 3, +l'article 35 alinéa 1 et l'article 46 +alinéa 3, sont exercées par une Délégation +de trois juges désignés par la +Cour. Cette Délégation décide à la +majorité des voix.</p> <p class="center">Article 49.</p> -<p>La Cour fait elle-même son règlement -d'ordre intérieur qui doit être communiqué +<p>La Cour fait elle-même son règlement +d'ordre intérieur qui doit être communiqué aux Puissances contractantes.</p> -<p>Dans l'année de la ratification de la -présente Convention, elle se réunira -pour élaborer ce règlement.</p> +<p>Dans l'année de la ratification de la +présente Convention, elle se réunira +pour élaborer ce règlement.</p> <p class="center">Article 50.</p> <p>La Cour peut proposer des modifications -à apporter aux dispositions de la -présente Convention qui concernent la -procédure. Ces propositions sont communiquées, -par l'intermédiaire du +à apporter aux dispositions de la +présente Convention qui concernent la +procédure. Ces propositions sont communiquées, +par l'intermédiaire du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas, aux Puissances contractantes qui se concerteront -sur la suite à y donner.</p> +sur la suite à y donner.</p> <p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre IV.</span>—<i>Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 51.</p> -<p>La présente Convention ne s'applique -de plein droit que si les Puissances belligérantes -sont toutes parties à la Convention.</p> +<p>La présente Convention ne s'applique +de plein droit que si les Puissances belligérantes +sont toutes parties à la Convention.</p> <p>Il est entendu, en outre, que le recours devant la Cour internationale -des prises ne peut être exercé que par +des prises ne peut être exercé que par une Puissance contractante ou le ressortissant d'une Puissance contractante.</p> <p>Dans les cas de l'article 5, le recours -n'est admis que si le propriétaire et -l'ayant-droit sont également des Puissances +n'est admis que si le propriétaire et +l'ayant-droit sont également des Puissances contractantes ou des ressortissants de Puissances contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 52.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -et les ratifications en seront déposées -à La Haye dès que toutes les Puissances -désignées à l'article 15 et dans son +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +et les ratifications en seront déposées +à La Haye dès que toutes les Puissances +désignées à l'article 15 et dans son annexe seront en mesure de le faire.</p> -<p>Le dépôt des ratifications aura lieu +<p>Le dépôt des ratifications aura lieu en tout cas, le 30 juin 1909, si les -Puissances prêtes à ratifier peuvent -fournir à la Cour neuf juges et neuf -juges suppléants, aptes à siéger effectivement. +Puissances prêtes à ratifier peuvent +fournir à la Cour neuf juges et neuf +juges suppléants, aptes à siéger effectivement. Dans le cas contraire, le -dépôt sera ajourné jusqu'au moment -où cette condition sera remplie.</p> +dépôt sera ajourné jusqu'au moment +où cette condition sera remplie.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt des ratifications -un procès-verbal dont une copie, -certifiée conforme, sera remise par la -voie diplomatique à chacune des Puissances -désignées à l'alinéa premier.</p> +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt des ratifications +un procès-verbal dont une copie, +certifiée conforme, sera remise par la +voie diplomatique à chacune des Puissances +désignées à l'alinéa premier.</p> <p class="center">Article 53.</p> -<p>Les Puissances désignées à l'article 15 -et dans son annexe sont admises à -signer la présente Convention jusqu'au -dépôt des ratifications prévu par -l'alinéa 2 de l'article précédent.</p> +<p>Les Puissances désignées à l'article 15 +et dans son annexe sont admises à +signer la présente Convention jusqu'au +dépôt des ratifications prévu par +l'alinéa 2 de l'article précédent.</p> -<p>Après ce dépôt, elles seront toujours -admises à y adhérer, purement et simplement. -La Puissance qui désire -adhérer notifie par écrit son intention +<p>Après ce dépôt, elles seront toujours +admises à y adhérer, purement et simplement. +La Puissance qui désire +adhérer notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui -transmettant, en même temps, l'acte -d'adhésion qui sera déposé dans les +transmettant, en même temps, l'acte +d'adhésion qui sera déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement. Celui-ci enverra, par la voie diplomatique, -une copie certifiée conforme de la notification -et de l'acte d'adhésion à toutes -les Puissances désignées à l'alinéa précédent, -en leur faisant savoir la date où -il a reçu la notification.</p> +une copie certifiée conforme de la notification +et de l'acte d'adhésion à toutes +les Puissances désignées à l'alinéa précédent, +en leur faisant savoir la date où +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 54.</p> -<p>La présente Convention entrera en -vigueur six mois à partir du dépôt des<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span> -ratifications prévu par l'article 52 -alinéas 1 et 2.</p> +<p>La présente Convention entrera en +vigueur six mois à partir du dépôt des<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span> +ratifications prévu par l'article 52 +alinéas 1 et 2.</p> -<p>Les adhésions produiront effet soixante -jours après que la notification en -aura été reçue par le Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et, au plus tôt, à l'expiration -du délai prévu par l'alinéa -précédent.</p> +<p>Les adhésions produiront effet soixante +jours après que la notification en +aura été reçue par le Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et, au plus tôt, à l'expiration +du délai prévu par l'alinéa +précédent.</p> <p>Toutefois, la Cour internationale aura -qualité pour juger les affaires de prises -décidées par la juridiction nationale à -partir du dépôt des ratifications ou de -la réception de la notification des adhésions. -Pour ces décisions, le délai -fixé à l'article 28 alinéa 2, ne sera -compté que de la date de la mise en +qualité pour juger les affaires de prises +décidées par la juridiction nationale à +partir du dépôt des ratifications ou de +la réception de la notification des adhésions. +Pour ces décisions, le délai +fixé à l'article 28 alinéa 2, ne sera +compté que de la date de la mise en vigueur de la Convention pour les -Puissances ayant ratifié ou adhéré.</p> +Puissances ayant ratifié ou adhéré.</p> <p class="center">Article 55.</p> -<p>La présente Convention aura une -durée de douze ans à partir de sa mise -en vigueur, telle qu'elle est déterminée -par l'article 54 alinéa 1, même pour les -Puissances ayant adhéré postérieurement.</p> +<p>La présente Convention aura une +durée de douze ans à partir de sa mise +en vigueur, telle qu'elle est déterminée +par l'article 54 alinéa 1, même pour les +Puissances ayant adhéré postérieurement.</p> -<p>Elle sera renouvelée tacitement de -six ans en six ans sauf dénonciation.</p> +<p>Elle sera renouvelée tacitement de +six ans en six ans sauf dénonciation.</p> -<p>La dénonciation devra être, au moins +<p>La dénonciation devra être, au moins un an avant l'expiration de chacune -des périodes prévues par les deux -alinéas précédents, notifiée par écrit +des périodes prévues par les deux +alinéas précédents, notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas qui -en donnera connaissance à toutes les +en donnera connaissance à toutes les autres Parties contractantes.</p> -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée. La Convention subsistera +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses effets +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée. La Convention subsistera pour les autres Puissances contractantes, -pourvu que leur participation à -la désignation des juges soit suffisante +pourvu que leur participation à +la désignation des juges soit suffisante pour permettre le fonctionnement de la Cour avec neuf juges et neuf juges -suppléants.</p> +suppléants.</p> <p class="center">Article 56.</p> -<p>Dans le cas où la présente Convention +<p>Dans le cas où la présente Convention n'est pas en vigueur pour toutes -les Puissances désignées dans l'article +les Puissances désignées dans l'article 15 et le tableau qui s'y rattache, le -Conseil administratif dresse, conformément +Conseil administratif dresse, conformément aux dispositions de cet article et de ce tableau, la liste des juges et des juges -suppléants pour lesquels les Puissances +suppléants pour lesquels les Puissances contractantes participent au fonctionnement -de la Cour. Les juges appelés -à siéger à tour de rôle seront, pour le -temps qui leur est attribué par le -tableau susmentionné, répartis entre les -différentes années de la période de six -ans, de manière que, dans la mesure du +de la Cour. Les juges appelés +à siéger à tour de rôle seront, pour le +temps qui leur est attribué par le +tableau susmentionné, répartis entre les +différentes années de la période de six +ans, de manière que, dans la mesure du possible, la Cour fonctionne chaque -année en nombre égal. Si le nombre -des juges suppléants dépasse celui des +année en nombre égal. Si le nombre +des juges suppléants dépasse celui des juges, le nombre de ces derniers pourra -être complété par des juges suppléants -désignés par le sort parmi celles des +être complété par des juges suppléants +désignés par le sort parmi celles des Puissances qui ne nomment pas de juge titulaire.</p> -<p>La liste ainsi dressée par le Conseil -administratif sera notifiée aux Puissances -contractantes. Elle sera révisée +<p>La liste ainsi dressée par le Conseil +administratif sera notifiée aux Puissances +contractantes. Elle sera révisée quand le nombre de celles-ci sera -modifié par suite d'adhésions ou de -dénonciations.</p> - -<p>Le changement à opérer par suite -d'une adhésion ne se produira qu'à -partir du 1<span class="topnum">er</span> janvier qui suit la date à -laquelle l'adhésion a son effet, à moins -que la Puissance adhérente ne soit une -Puissance belligérante, cas auquel elle -peut demander d'être aussitôt représentée +modifié par suite d'adhésions ou de +dénonciations.</p> + +<p>Le changement à opérer par suite +d'une adhésion ne se produira qu'à +partir du 1<span class="topnum">er</span> janvier qui suit la date à +laquelle l'adhésion a son effet, à moins +que la Puissance adhérente ne soit une +Puissance belligérante, cas auquel elle +peut demander d'être aussitôt représentée dans la Cour, la disposition de -l'article 16 étant du reste applicable, +l'article 16 étant du reste applicable, s'il y a lieu.</p> <p>Quand le nombre total des juges est -inférieur à onze, sept juges constituent -le quorum nécessaire.</p> +inférieur à onze, sept juges constituent +le quorum nécessaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 57.</p> <p>Deux ans avant l'expiration de -chaque période visée par les alinéas +chaque période visée par les alinéas 1 et 2 de l'article 55, chaque Puissance contractante pourra demander une modification des dispositions de l'article -15 et du tableau y annexé, relativement -à sa participation au fonctionnement +15 et du tableau y annexé, relativement +à sa participation au fonctionnement de la Cour. La demande sera -adressée au Conseil administratif qui -l'examinera et soumettra à toutes les +adressée au Conseil administratif qui +l'examinera et soumettra à toutes les Puissances des propositions sur la suite -à y donner. Les Puissances feront, -dans le plus bref délai possible, connaître -leur résolution au Conseil administratif. -Le résultat sera immédiatement, +à y donner. Les Puissances feront, +dans le plus bref délai possible, connaître +leur résolution au Conseil administratif. +Le résultat sera immédiatement, et au moins un an et trente -jours avant l'expiration dudit délai de -deux ans, communiqué à la Puissance +jours avant l'expiration dudit délai de +deux ans, communiqué à la Puissance qui a fait la demande.</p> -<p>Le cas échéant, les modifications -adoptées par les Puissances entreront -en vigueur dès le commencement de -la nouvelle période.</p> +<p>Le cas échéant, les modifications +adoptées par les Puissances entreront +en vigueur dès le commencement de +la nouvelle période.</p> <p class="center"><i>Annexe de l'article 15.</i></p> <p class="indhc"><span class="smcap">Distribution des Juges et Juges -Suppléants par Pays pour chaque année de la période +Suppléants par Pays pour chaque année de la période de six ans.</span></p> -<table class="table1" summary="Juges et Juges Suppléants"> +<table class="table1" summary="Juges et Juges Suppléants"> <tr> <th class="tdleft"><span class="smcap">Juges.</span></th> -<th class="tdleft"><span class="smcap">Juges Suppléants.</span></th> +<th class="tdleft"><span class="smcap">Juges Suppléants.</span></th> </tr> <tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Première Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Première Année.</i></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -36308,11 +36264,11 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">3 Espagne </td> <td class="tdleft"> Espagne </td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">4 Grèce </td> +<td class="tdleft">4 Grèce </td> <td class="tdleft"> Roumanie</td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">5 Norvège </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Suède</td> +<td class="tdleft">5 Norvège </td> +<td class="tdleft"> Suède</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">6 Pays-Bas </td> <td class="tdleft"> Belgique</td> @@ -36320,7 +36276,7 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">7 Turquie</td> <td class="tdleft">Perse</td> </tr><tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Deuxième Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Deuxième Année.</i></td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">1 Argentine </td> <td class="tdleft">Panama</td> @@ -36328,11 +36284,11 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">2 Espagne </td> <td class="tdleft">Espagne</td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">3 Grèce </td> +<td class="tdleft">3 Grèce </td> <td class="tdleft"> Roumanie </td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">4 Norvège </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Suède</td> +<td class="tdleft">4 Norvège </td> +<td class="tdleft"> Suède</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">5 Pays-Bas </td> <td class="tdleft"> Belgique</td> @@ -36343,9 +36299,9 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">7 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[Pg 629]</a></span>7 Uruguay </td> <td class="tdleft">Costa Rica</td> </tr><tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Troisième Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Troisième Année.</i></td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">1 Brésil </td> +<td class="tdleft">1 Brésil </td> <td class="tdleft">Dominicaine</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">2 Chine </td> @@ -36358,18 +36314,18 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft"> Suisse</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">5 Roumanie </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Grèce</td> +<td class="tdleft"> Grèce</td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">6 Suède </td> +<td class="tdleft">6 Suède </td> <td class="tdleft"> Danemark</td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">7 Vénézuéla </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Haïti</td> +<td class="tdleft">7 Vénézuéla </td> +<td class="tdleft"> Haïti</td> </tr><tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Quatrième Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Quatrième Année.</i></td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">1 Brésil </td> -<td class="tdleft">Guatémala</td> +<td class="tdleft">1 Brésil </td> +<td class="tdleft">Guatémala</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">2 Chine </td> <td class="tdleft"> Turquie</td> @@ -36377,31 +36333,31 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">3 Espagne </td> <td class="tdleft"> Portugal </td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">4 Pérou </td> +<td class="tdleft">4 Pérou </td> <td class="tdleft"> Honduras</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">5 Roumanie </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Grèce</td> +<td class="tdleft"> Grèce</td> </tr><tr> -<td class="tdleft">6 Suède </td> +<td class="tdleft">6 Suède </td> <td class="tdleft"> Danemark</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">7 Suisse </td> <td class="tdleft">Pays-Bas</td> </tr><tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Cinquième Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Cinquième Année.</i></td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">1 Belgique </td> <td class="tdleft">Pays-Bas</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">2 Bulgarie </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Monténégro</td> +<td class="tdleft"> Monténégro</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">3 Chili </td> <td class="tdleft"> Nicaragua </td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">4 Danemark </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Norvège</td> +<td class="tdleft"> Norvège</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">5 Mexique </td> <td class="tdleft"> Cuba</td> @@ -36412,7 +36368,7 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft">7 Portugal </td> <td class="tdleft">Espagne</td> </tr><tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Sixième Année.</i></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdleft1"><i>Sixième Année.</i></td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">1 Belgique </td> <td class="tdleft">Pays-Bas</td> @@ -36421,7 +36377,7 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <td class="tdleft"> Salvador</td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">3 Danemark </td> -<td class="tdleft"> Norvège </td> +<td class="tdleft"> Norvège </td> </tr><tr> <td class="tdleft">4 Mexique </td> <td class="tdleft">Equateur</td> @@ -36450,326 +36406,326 @@ de six ans.</span></p> <p class="center">Article premier.</p> -<p>Les belligérants sont tenus de respecter +<p>Les belligérants sont tenus de respecter les droits souverains des Puissances neutres et de s'abstenir, dans le territoire ou les eaux neutres, de tous actes qui constitueraient de la part -des Puissances qui les toléreraient un -manquement à leur neutralité.</p> +des Puissances qui les toléreraient un +manquement à leur neutralité.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Tous actes d'hostilité, y compris la +<p>Tous actes d'hostilité, y compris la capture et l'exercice du droit de visite, commis par des vaisseaux de guerre -belligérants dans les eaux territoriales +belligérants dans les eaux territoriales d'une Puissance neutre, constituent -une violation de la neutralité et sont +une violation de la neutralité et sont strictement interdits.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Quand un navire a été capturé dans +<p>Quand un navire a été capturé dans les eaux territoriales d'une Puissance neutre, cette Puissance doit, si la prise est encore dans sa juridiction, user des moyens dont elle dispose pour que la -prise soit relâchée avec ses officiers et -son équipage, et pour que l'équipage -mis à bord par le capteur soit interné.</p> +prise soit relâchée avec ses officiers et +son équipage, et pour que l'équipage +mis à bord par le capteur soit interné.</p> <p>Si la prise est hors de la juridiction de la Puissance neutre, le Gouvernement capteur, sur la demande de celle-ci, -doit relâcher la prise avec ses officiers -et son équipage.</p> +doit relâcher la prise avec ses officiers +et son équipage.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Aucun tribunal des prises ne peut -être constitué par un belligérant sur +être constitué par un belligérant sur un territoire neutre ou sur un navire dans des eaux neutres.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Il est interdit aux belligérants de +<p>Il est interdit aux belligérants de faire des ports et des eaux neutres la -base d'opérations navales contre leurs +base d'opérations navales contre leurs adversaires, notamment d'y installer -des stations radio-télégraphiques ou -tout appareil destiné à servir comme +des stations radio-télégraphiques ou +tout appareil destiné à servir comme moyen de communication avec des -forces belligérantes sur terre ou sur mer.</p> +forces belligérantes sur terre ou sur mer.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>La remise à quelque titre que ce soit, +<p>La remise à quelque titre que ce soit, faite directement ou indirectement par -une Puissance neutre à une Puissance -belligérante, de vaisseaux de guerre, -de munitions, ou d'un matériel de +une Puissance neutre à une Puissance +belligérante, de vaisseaux de guerre, +de munitions, ou d'un matériel de guerre quelconque, est interdite.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre n'est pas tenue -d'empêcher l'exportation ou le transit, +d'empêcher l'exportation ou le transit, pour le compte de l'un ou de l'autre des -belligérants, d'armes, de munitions, et, -en général, de tout ce qui peut être -utile à une armée ou à une flotte.</p> +belligérants, d'armes, de munitions, et, +en général, de tout ce qui peut être +utile à une armée ou à une flotte.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> <p>Un Gouvernement neutre est tenu d'user des moyens dont il dispose pour -empêcher dans sa juridiction l'équipement +empêcher dans sa juridiction l'équipement ou l'armement de tout navire, qu'il a des motifs raisonnables de -croire destiné à croiser ou à concourir -à des opérations hostiles contre une +croire destiné à croiser ou à concourir +à des opérations hostiles contre une Puissance avec laquelle il est en paix. -Il est aussi tenu d'user de la même -surveillance pour empêcher le départ +Il est aussi tenu d'user de la même +surveillance pour empêcher le départ hors de sa juridiction de tout navire -destiné à croiser ou à concourir à des -opérations hostiles, et qui aurait été, -dans ladite juridiction, adapté en tout -ou en partie à des usages de guerre.</p> +destiné à croiser ou à concourir à des +opérations hostiles, et qui aurait été, +dans ladite juridiction, adapté en tout +ou en partie à des usages de guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre doit appliquer -également aux deux belligérants les +également aux deux belligérants les conditions, restrictions ou interdictions, -édictées par elle pour ce qui concerne +édictées par elle pour ce qui concerne l'admission dans ses ports, rades ou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[Pg 630]</a></span> eaux territoriales, des navires de guerre -belligérants ou de leurs prises.</p> +belligérants ou de leurs prises.</p> <p>Toutefois, une Puissance neutre peut -interdire l'accès de ses ports et de ses -rades au navire belligérant qui aurait -négligé de se conformer aux ordres et -prescriptions édictés par elle ou qui -aurait violé la neutralité.</p> +interdire l'accès de ses ports et de ses +rades au navire belligérant qui aurait +négligé de se conformer aux ordres et +prescriptions édictés par elle ou qui +aurait violé la neutralité.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p>La neutralité d'une Puissance n'est +<p>La neutralité d'une Puissance n'est pas compromise par le simple passage dans ses eaux territoriales de navires -de guerre et des prises des belligérants.</p> +de guerre et des prises des belligérants.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre peut laisser les -navires de guerre des belligérants se -servir de ses pilotes brevetés.</p> +navires de guerre des belligérants se +servir de ses pilotes brevetés.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>A défaut d'autres dispositions spéciales -de la législation de la Puissance +<p>A défaut d'autres dispositions spéciales +de la législation de la Puissance neutre, il est interdit aux navires de -guerre des belligérants de demeurer +guerre des belligérants de demeurer dans les ports et rades ou dans les eaux territoriales de ladite Puissance, pendant plus de 24 heures, sauf dans les -cas prévus par la présente Convention.</p> +cas prévus par la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p>Si une Puissance avisée de l'ouverture -des hostilités apprend qu'un -navire de guerre d'un belligérant se +<p>Si une Puissance avisée de l'ouverture +des hostilités apprend qu'un +navire de guerre d'un belligérant se trouve dans un de ses ports et rades ou dans ses eaux territoriales, elle doit notifier audit navire qu'il devra partir -dans les 24 heures ou dans le délai +dans les 24 heures ou dans le délai prescrit par la loi locale.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p>Un navire de guerre belligérant ne -peut prolonger son séjour dans un port -neutre au delà de la durée légale que -pour cause d'avaries ou à raison de -l'état de la mer. Il devra partir dès -que la cause du retard aura cessé.</p> +<p>Un navire de guerre belligérant ne +peut prolonger son séjour dans un port +neutre au delà de la durée légale que +pour cause d'avaries ou à raison de +l'état de la mer. Il devra partir dès +que la cause du retard aura cessé.</p> -<p>Les règles sur la limitation du séjour +<p>Les règles sur la limitation du séjour dans les ports, rades et eaux neutres, ne s'appliquent pas aux navires de -guerre exclusivement affectés à une +guerre exclusivement affectés à une mission religieuse, scientifique ou philanthropique.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> -<p>A défaut d'autres dispositions spéciales -de la législation de la Puissance +<p>A défaut d'autres dispositions spéciales +de la législation de la Puissance neutre, le nombre maximum des navires -de guerre d'un belligérant qui pourront -se trouver en même temps dans un de +de guerre d'un belligérant qui pourront +se trouver en même temps dans un de ses ports ou rades, sera de trois.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> <p>Lorsque des navires de guerre des -deux parties belligérantes se trouvent -simultanément dans un port ou une -rade neutres, il doit s'écouler au moins -24 heures entre le départ du navire -d'un belligérant et le départ du navire +deux parties belligérantes se trouvent +simultanément dans un port ou une +rade neutres, il doit s'écouler au moins +24 heures entre le départ du navire +d'un belligérant et le départ du navire de l'autre.</p> -<p>L'ordre des départs est déterminé -par l'ordre des arrivées, à moins que -le navire arrivé le premier ne soit dans -le cas où la prolongation de la durée -légale du séjour est admise.</p> +<p>L'ordre des départs est déterminé +par l'ordre des arrivées, à moins que +le navire arrivé le premier ne soit dans +le cas où la prolongation de la durée +légale du séjour est admise.</p> -<p>Un navire de guerre belligérant ne +<p>Un navire de guerre belligérant ne peut quitter un port ou une rade -neutres moins de 24 heures après le -départ d'un navire de commerce portant +neutres moins de 24 heures après le +départ d'un navire de commerce portant le pavillon de son adversaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> <p>Dans les ports et rades neutres, les -navires de guerre belligérants ne peuvent -réparer leurs avaries que dans la -mesure indispensable à la sécurité de -leur navigation et non pas accroître, -d'une manière quelconque, leur force -militaire. L'autorité neutre constatera -la nature des réparations à effectuer qui -devront être exécutées le plus rapidement +navires de guerre belligérants ne peuvent +réparer leurs avaries que dans la +mesure indispensable à la sécurité de +leur navigation et non pas accroître, +d'une manière quelconque, leur force +militaire. L'autorité neutre constatera +la nature des réparations à effectuer qui +devront être exécutées le plus rapidement possible.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants ne +<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants ne peuvent pas se servir des ports, rades et eaux territoriales neutres, pour renouveler ou augmenter leurs approvisionnements militaires ou leur armement -ainsi que pour compléter leurs -équipages.</p> +ainsi que pour compléter leurs +équipages.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants ne +<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants ne peuvent se ravitailler dans les ports et -rades neutres que pour compléter leur +rades neutres que pour compléter leur approvisionnement normal du temps de paix.</p> -<p>Ces navires ne peuvent, de même, +<p>Ces navires ne peuvent, de même, prendre du combustible que pour gagner le port le plus proche de leur propre pays. Ils peuvent, d'ailleurs, prendre -le combustible nécessaire pour compléter +le combustible nécessaire pour compléter le plein de leurs soutes proprement dites, quand ils se trouvent dans -les pays neutres qui ont adopté ce mode -de détermination du combustible à +les pays neutres qui ont adopté ce mode +de détermination du combustible à fournir.</p> -<p>Si, d'après la loi de la Puissance -neutre, les navires ne reçoivent du -charbon que 24 heures après leur arrivée, -la durée légale de leur séjour est -prolongée de 24 heures.</p> +<p>Si, d'après la loi de la Puissance +neutre, les navires ne reçoivent du +charbon que 24 heures après leur arrivée, +la durée légale de leur séjour est +prolongée de 24 heures.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> -<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants, +<p>Les navires de guerre belligérants, qui ont pris du combustible dans le port d'une Puissance neutre, ne peuvent renouveler leur approvisionnement -qu'après trois mois dans un port -de la même Puissance.</p> +qu'après trois mois dans un port +de la même Puissance.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> -<p>Une prise ne peut être amenée dans -un port neutre que pour cause d'innavigabilité,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span> -de mauvais état de la +<p>Une prise ne peut être amenée dans +un port neutre que pour cause d'innavigabilité,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span> +de mauvais état de la mer, de manque de combustible ou de provisions.</p> -<p>Elle doit repartir aussitôt que la -cause qui en a justifié l'entrée a cessé. +<p>Elle doit repartir aussitôt que la +cause qui en a justifié l'entrée a cessé. Si elle ne le fait pas, la Puissance neutre doit lui notifier l'ordre de partir -immédiatement; au cas où elle ne s'y +immédiatement; au cas où elle ne s'y conformerait pas, la Puissance neutre doit user des moyens dont elle dispose -pour la relâcher avec ses officiers et son -équipage et interner l'équipage mis à +pour la relâcher avec ses officiers et son +équipage et interner l'équipage mis à bord par le capteur.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> -<p>La Puissance neutre doit, de même, -relâcher la prise qui aurait été amenée -en dehors des conditions prévues par +<p>La Puissance neutre doit, de même, +relâcher la prise qui aurait été amenée +en dehors des conditions prévues par l'article 21.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre peut permettre -l'accès de ses ports et rades aux prises -escortées ou non, lorsqu'elles y sont -amenées pour être laissées sous séquestre -en attendant la décision du +l'accès de ses ports et rades aux prises +escortées ou non, lorsqu'elles y sont +amenées pour être laissées sous séquestre +en attendant la décision du tribunal des prises. Elle peut faire conduire la prise dans un autre de ses ports.</p> -<p>Si la prise est escortée par un navire +<p>Si la prise est escortée par un navire de guerre, les officiers et les hommes -mis à bord par le capteur sont autorisés -à passer sur le navire d'escorte.</p> +mis à bord par le capteur sont autorisés +à passer sur le navire d'escorte.</p> <p>Si la prise voyage seule, le personnel -placé à son bord par le capteur est -laissé en liberté.</p> +placé à son bord par le capteur est +laissé en liberté.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> -<p>Si, malgré la notification de l'autorité -neutre, un navire de guerre belligérant +<p>Si, malgré la notification de l'autorité +neutre, un navire de guerre belligérant ne quitte pas un port dans lequel il n'a pas le droit de rester, la Puissance neutre a le droit de prendre les mesures -qu'elle pourra juger nécessaires pour +qu'elle pourra juger nécessaires pour rendre le navire incapable de prendre la -mer pendant la durée de la guerre et +mer pendant la durée de la guerre et le commandant du navire doit faciliter -l'exécution de ces mesures.</p> +l'exécution de ces mesures.</p> -<p>Lorsqu'un navire belligérant est retenu +<p>Lorsqu'un navire belligérant est retenu par une Puissance neutre, les -officiers et l'équipage sont également +officiers et l'équipage sont également retenus.</p> -<p>Les officiers et l'équipage ainsi retenus -peuvent être laissés dans le navire -ou logés, soit sur un autre navire, soit -à terre, et ils peuvent être assujettis -aux mesures restrictives qu'il paraîtrait -nécessaire de leur imposer. Toutefois, +<p>Les officiers et l'équipage ainsi retenus +peuvent être laissés dans le navire +ou logés, soit sur un autre navire, soit +à terre, et ils peuvent être assujettis +aux mesures restrictives qu'il paraîtrait +nécessaire de leur imposer. Toutefois, on devra toujours laisser sur le navire -les hommes nécessaires à son entretien.</p> +les hommes nécessaires à son entretien.</p> -<p>Les officiers peuvent être laissés +<p>Les officiers peuvent être laissés libres en prenant l'engagement sur parole de ne pas quitter le territoire neutre sans autorisation.</p> @@ -36779,140 +36735,140 @@ neutre sans autorisation.</p> <p>Une Puissance neutre est tenue d'exercer la surveillance, que comportent les moyens dont elle dispose, pour -empêcher dans ses ports ou rades et +empêcher dans ses ports ou rades et dans ses eaux toute violation des dispositions -qui précèdent.</p> +qui précèdent.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> <p>L'exercice par une Puissance neutre -des droits définis par la présente Convention -ne peut jamais être considéré +des droits définis par la présente Convention +ne peut jamais être considéré comme un acte peu amical par l'un ou -par l'autre belligérant qui a accepté les -articles qui s'y réfèrent.</p> +par l'autre belligérant qui a accepté les +articles qui s'y réfèrent.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes se communiqueront -réciproquement, en temps +réciproquement, en temps utile, toutes les lois, ordonnances et -autres dispositions réglant chez elles le -régime des navires de guerre belligérants +autres dispositions réglant chez elles le +régime des navires de guerre belligérants dans leurs ports et leurs eaux, au -moyen d'une notification adressée au +moyen d'une notification adressée au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et transmise -immédiatement par celui-ci aux +immédiatement par celui-ci aux autres Puissances contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> -<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention +<p>Les dispositions de la présente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement -si les belligérants sont tous parties à la +si les belligérants sont tous parties à la Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les représentants des Puissances qui +<p>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les représentants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas.</p> -<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications +<p>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se feront au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</p> -<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de -ratifications, des notifications mentionnées -à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que +<p>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de +ratifications, des notifications mentionnées +à l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification, sera -immédiatement remise par les soins du +immédiatement remise par les soins du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas et par la -voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées -à la Deuxième Conférence de la +voie diplomatique aux Puissances conviées +à la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ainsi qu'aux autres Puissances qui -auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans -les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit -Gouvernement leur fera connaître en -même temps la date à laquelle il a -reçu la notification.</p> +auront adhéré à la Convention. Dans +les cas visés par l'alinéa précédent, ledit +Gouvernement leur fera connaître en +même temps la date à laquelle il a +reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires sont -admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> +admises à adhérer à la présente Convention.</p> -<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span> -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p>La Puissance qui désire adhérer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span> +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion qui sera -déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> +l'acte d'adhésion qui sera +déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</p> -<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la -notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle -il a reçu la notification.</p> +<p>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la +notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle +il a reçu la notification.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>La présente Convention produira +<p>La présente Convention produira effet pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt des ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement -ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours -après que la notification de leur ratification -ou de leur adhésion aura été -reçue par la Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> +participé au premier dépôt des ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement +ou qui adhéreront, soixante jours +après que la notification de leur ratification +ou de leur adhésion aura été +reçue par la Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente -Convention, la dénonciation sera -notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement -copie certifiée conforme de -la notification à toutes les autres Puissances -en leur faisant savoir la date à -laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> - -<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée et un an après que la +contractantes voulût dénoncer la présente +Convention, la dénonciation sera +notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement des +Pays-Bas qui communiquera immédiatement +copie certifiée conforme de +la notification à toutes les autres Puissances +en leur faisant savoir la date à +laquelle il l'a reçue.</p> + +<p>La dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée et un an après que la notification en sera parvenue au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> -<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des -Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera -la date du dépôt de ratifications -effectué en vertu de l'article 29 -alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à -laquelle auront été reçues les notifications -d'adhésion (article 30 alinéa 2) ou -de dénonciation (article 32 alinéa 1).</p> +<p>Un registre tenu par le Ministère des +Affaires Étrangères des Pays-Bas indiquera +la date du dépôt de ratifications +effectué en vertu de l'article 29 +alinéas 3 et 4, ainsi que la date à +laquelle auront été reçues les notifications +d'adhésion (article 30 alinéa 2) ou +de dénonciation (article 32 alinéa 1).</p> <p>Chaque Puissance contractante est -admise à prendre connaissance de ce -registre et à en demander des extraits -certifiés conformes.</p> +admise à prendre connaissance de ce +registre et à en demander des extraits +certifiés conformes.</p> </div> @@ -36924,74 +36880,74 @@ certifiés conformes.</p> Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons.</span> </h4> -<p>Les soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des -Puissances conviées à la Deuxième -Conférence Internationale de la Paix -à La Haye, dûment autorisés à cet effet +<p>Les soussignés, Plénipotentiaires des +Puissances conviées à la Deuxième +Conférence Internationale de la Paix +à La Haye, dûment autorisés à cet effet par leurs Gouvernements,</p> <p>s'inspirant des sentiments qui ont -trouvé leur expression dans la Déclaration -de St. Pétersbourg du 29 novembre/11 décembre -1868, et désirant renouveler la déclaration +trouvé leur expression dans la Déclaration +de St. Pétersbourg du 29 novembre/11 décembre +1868, et désirant renouveler la déclaration de La Haye du 29 juillet 1899, -arrivée à expiration,</p> +arrivée à expiration,</p> -<p>Déclarent:</p> +<p>Déclarent:</p> <p>Les Puissances contractantes consentent, -pour une période allant jusqu'à -la fin de la troisième Conférence de la -Paix, à l'interdiction de lancer des +pour une période allant jusqu'à +la fin de la troisième Conférence de la +Paix, à l'interdiction de lancer des projectiles et des explosifs du haut de ballons ou par d'autres modes analogues nouveaux.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire +<p>La présente Déclaration n'est obligatoire que pour les Puissances contractantes, en cas de guerre entre deux ou plusieurs d'entre elles.</p> -<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du -moment où, dans une guerre entre des +<p>Elle cessera d'être obligatoire du +moment où, dans une guerre entre des Puissances contractantes, une Puissance -non contractante se joindrait à -l'un des belligérants.</p> +non contractante se joindrait à +l'un des belligérants.</p> -<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée -dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> +<p>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée +dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt des ratifications -un procès-verbal, dont une -copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise -par la voie diplomatique à toutes les +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt des ratifications +un procès-verbal, dont une +copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise +par la voie diplomatique à toutes les Puissances contractantes.</p> <p>Les Puissances non signataires pourront -adhérer à la présente Déclaration. -Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître -leur adhésion aux Puissances +adhérer à la présente Déclaration. +Elles auront, à cet effet, à faire connaître +leur adhésion aux Puissances contractantes, au moyen d'une notification -écrite, adressée au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances +écrite, adressée au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances contractantes.</p> <p>S'il arrivait qu'une des Hautes -Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente -Déclaration, cette dénonciation -ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après -la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement -des Pays-Bas et communiquée -immédiatement par celui-ci à +Parties Contractantes dénonçât la présente +Déclaration, cette dénonciation +ne produirait ses effets qu'un an après +la notification faite par écrit au Gouvernement +des Pays-Bas et communiquée +immédiatement par celui-ci à toutes les autres Puissances contractantes.</p> -<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses -effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui -l'aura notifiée.</p> +<p>Cette dénonciation ne produira ses +effets qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui +l'aura notifiée.</p> </div> @@ -37011,170 +36967,170 @@ de justice arbitrale.</i></p> <p>Dans le but de faire progresser la cause de l'arbitrage, les Puissances contractantes conviennent d'organiser, sans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[Pg 633]</a></span> -porter atteinte à la Cour permanente +porter atteinte à la Cour permanente d'arbitrage, une Cour de justice arbitrale, -d'un accès libre et facile, basée sur -l'égalité juridique des États, réunissant -des juges représentant les divers systèmes +d'un accès libre et facile, basée sur +l'égalité juridique des États, réunissant +des juges représentant les divers systèmes juridiques du monde, et capable -d'assurer la continuité de la jurisprudence +d'assurer la continuité de la jurisprudence arbitrale.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> <p>La Cour de justice arbitrale se compose -de juges et de juges suppléants +de juges et de juges suppléants choisis parmi les personnes jouissant -de la plus haute considération morale +de la plus haute considération morale et qui tous devront remplir les conditions requises, dans leurs pays respectifs, pour l'admission dans la haute -magistrature ou être des jurisconsultes -d'une compétence notoire en matière +magistrature ou être des jurisconsultes +d'une compétence notoire en matière de droit international.</p> -<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants de +<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants de la Cour sont choisis, autant que possible, parmi les membres de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage. Le choix sera fait dans les six mois qui suivront -la ratification de la présente Convention.</p> +la ratification de la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants sont -nommés pour une période de douze ans -à compter de la date où la nomination -aura été notifiée au Conseil administratif -institué par la Convention pour -le règlement pacifique des conflits +<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants sont +nommés pour une période de douze ans +à compter de la date où la nomination +aura été notifiée au Conseil administratif +institué par la Convention pour +le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux. Leur mandat peut -être renouvelé.</p> +être renouvelé.</p> -<p>En cas de décès ou de démission d'un -juge ou d'un juge suppléant, il est -pourvu à son remplacement selon le -mode fixé pour sa nomination. Dans +<p>En cas de décès ou de démission d'un +juge ou d'un juge suppléant, il est +pourvu à son remplacement selon le +mode fixé pour sa nomination. Dans ce cas, la nomination est faite pour une -nouvelle période de douze ans.</p> +nouvelle période de douze ans.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> <p>Les juges de la Cour de justice arbitrale -sont égaux entre eux et prennent -rang d'après la date de la notification -de leur nomination. La préséance appartient -au plus âgé, au cas où la date -est la même.</p> - -<p>Les juges suppléants sont, dans -l'exercice de leurs fonctions, assimilés +sont égaux entre eux et prennent +rang d'après la date de la notification +de leur nomination. La préséance appartient +au plus âgé, au cas où la date +est la même.</p> + +<p>Les juges suppléants sont, dans +l'exercice de leurs fonctions, assimilés aux juges titulaires. Toutefois, ils -prennent rang après ceux-ci.</p> +prennent rang après ceux-ci.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Les juges jouissent des privilèges et -immunités diplomatiques dans l'exercice +<p>Les juges jouissent des privilèges et +immunités diplomatiques dans l'exercice de leurs fonctions et en dehors de leurs pays.</p> <p>Avant de prendre possession de leur -siège, les juges et les juges suppléants +siège, les juges et les juges suppléants doivent, devant le Conseil administratif, -prêter serment ou faire une +prêter serment ou faire une affirmation solennelle d'exercer leurs -fonctions avec impartialité et en toute +fonctions avec impartialité et en toute conscience.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>La Cour désigne annuellement trois -juges qui forment une Délégation -spéciale et trois autres destinés à les -remplacer en cas d'empêchement. Ils -peuvent être réélus. L'élection se fait -au scrutin de liste. Sont considérés -comme élus ceux qui réunissent le -plus grand nombre de voix. La Délégation -élit elle-même son Président, -qui, à défaut d'une majorité, est désigné +<p>La Cour désigne annuellement trois +juges qui forment une Délégation +spéciale et trois autres destinés à les +remplacer en cas d'empêchement. Ils +peuvent être réélus. L'élection se fait +au scrutin de liste. Sont considérés +comme élus ceux qui réunissent le +plus grand nombre de voix. La Délégation +élit elle-même son Président, +qui, à défaut d'une majorité, est désigné par le sort.</p> -<p>Un membre de la Délégation ne peut +<p>Un membre de la Délégation ne peut exercer ses fonctions quand la Puissance -qui l'a nommé, ou dont il est le +qui l'a nommé, ou dont il est le national, est une des Parties.</p> -<p>Les membres de la Délégation terminent -les affaires qui leur ont été -soumises, même au cas où la période -pour laquelle ils ont été nommés juges -serait expirée.</p> +<p>Les membres de la Délégation terminent +les affaires qui leur ont été +soumises, même au cas où la période +pour laquelle ils ont été nommés juges +serait expirée.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> <p>L'exercice des fonctions judiciaires est interdit au juge dans les affaires au -sujet desquelles il aura, à un titre -quelconque, concouru à la décision d'un +sujet desquelles il aura, à un titre +quelconque, concouru à la décision d'un Tribunal national, d'un Tribunal d'arbitrage -ou d'une Commission d'enquête, -ou figuré dans l'instance comme +ou d'une Commission d'enquête, +ou figuré dans l'instance comme conseil ou avocat d'une Partie.</p> <p>Aucun juge ne peut intervenir comme agent ou comme avocat devant la Cour de justice arbitrale ou la Cour permanente d'arbitrage, devant un -Tribunal spécial d'arbitrage ou une -Commission d'enquête, ni y agir pour -une Partie en quelque qualité que ce -soit, pendant toute la durée de son +Tribunal spécial d'arbitrage ou une +Commission d'enquête, ni y agir pour +une Partie en quelque qualité que ce +soit, pendant toute la durée de son mandat.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>La Cour élit son Président et son -Vice-Président à la majorité absolue -des suffrages exprimés. Après deux -tours de scrutin, l'élection se fait à la -majorité relative et, en cas de partage -des voix, le sort décide.</p> +<p>La Cour élit son Président et son +Vice-Président à la majorité absolue +des suffrages exprimés. Après deux +tours de scrutin, l'élection se fait à la +majorité relative et, en cas de partage +des voix, le sort décide.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> <p>Les juges de la Cour de justice arbitrale -reçoivent une indemnité annuelle -de six mille florins néerlandais. Cette -indemnité est payée à l'expiration de -chaque semestre à dater du jour de la -première réunion de la Cour.</p> +reçoivent une indemnité annuelle +de six mille florins néerlandais. Cette +indemnité est payée à l'expiration de +chaque semestre à dater du jour de la +première réunion de la Cour.</p> <p>Pendant l'exercice de leurs fonctions au cours des sessions ou dans les cas -spéciaux prévus par la présente Convention, +spéciaux prévus par la présente Convention, ils touchent une somme de -cent florins par jour. Il leur est alloué, -en outre, une indemnité de voyage -fixée d'après les règlements de leur -pays. Les dispositions du présent -alinéa s'appliquent aussi aux juges -suppléants remplaçant les juges.</p> +cent florins par jour. Il leur est alloué, +en outre, une indemnité de voyage +fixée d'après les règlements de leur +pays. Les dispositions du présent +alinéa s'appliquent aussi aux juges +suppléants remplaçant les juges.</p> <p>Ces allocations, comprises dans les -frais généraux de la Cour, prévus par<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span> -l'article 33, sont versées par l'entremise -du Bureau international institué -par la Convention pour le règlement +frais généraux de la Cour, prévus par<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span> +l'article 33, sont versées par l'entremise +du Bureau international institué +par la Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux.</p> @@ -37182,7 +37138,7 @@ pacifique des conflits internationaux.</p> <p>Les juges ne peuvent recevoir de leur propre Gouvernement ou de celui d'une -autre Puissance aucune rémunération +autre Puissance aucune rémunération pour des services rentrant dans leurs devoirs comme membres de la Cour.</p> @@ -37190,59 +37146,59 @@ devoirs comme membres de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> <p>La Cour de justice arbitrale a son -siège à La Haye et ne peut, sauf le cas +siège à La Haye et ne peut, sauf le cas de force majeure, le transporter ailleurs.</p> -<p>La Délégation peut, avec l'assentiment +<p>La Délégation peut, avec l'assentiment des Parties, choisir un autre lieu -pour ses réunions si des circonstances -particulières l'exigent.</p> +pour ses réunions si des circonstances +particulières l'exigent.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p>Le Conseil administratif remplit à -l'égard de la Cour de justice arbitrale -les fonctions qu'il remplit à l'égard de +<p>Le Conseil administratif remplit à +l'égard de la Cour de justice arbitrale +les fonctions qu'il remplit à l'égard de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> <p>Le Bureau international sert de -greffe à la Cour de justice arbitrale et +greffe à la Cour de justice arbitrale et doit mettre ses locaux et son organisation -à la disposition de la Cour. Il a +à la disposition de la Cour. Il a la garde des archives et la gestion des affaires administratives.</p> -<p>Le Secrétaire Général du Bureau +<p>Le Secrétaire Général du Bureau remplit les fonctions de greffier.</p> -<p>Les secrétaires adjoints au greffier, -les traducteurs et les sténographes -nécessaires sont désignés et assermentés +<p>Les secrétaires adjoints au greffier, +les traducteurs et les sténographes +nécessaires sont désignés et assermentés par la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p>La Cour se réunit en session une fois -par an. La session commence le troisième +<p>La Cour se réunit en session une fois +par an. La session commence le troisième mercredi de juin et dure tant -que l'ordre du jour n'aura pas été -épuisé.</p> +que l'ordre du jour n'aura pas été +épuisé.</p> -<p>La Cour ne se réunit pas en -session, si la Délégation estime que -cette réunion n'est pas nécessaire. +<p>La Cour ne se réunit pas en +session, si la Délégation estime que +cette réunion n'est pas nécessaire. Toutefois, si une Puissance est partie -à un litige actuellement pendant devant +à un litige actuellement pendant devant la Cour et dont l'instruction est -terminée ou va être terminée, elle a le +terminée ou va être terminée, elle a le droit d'exiger que la session ait lieu.</p> -<p>En cas de nécessité, la Délégation +<p>En cas de nécessité, la Délégation peut convoquer la Cour en session extraordinaire.</p> @@ -37250,130 +37206,130 @@ extraordinaire.</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> <p>Un compte-rendu des travaux de la -Cour sera dressé chaque année par -la Délégation. Ce compte-rendu sera +Cour sera dressé chaque année par +la Délégation. Ce compte-rendu sera transmis aux Puissances contractantes -par l'intermédiaire du Bureau international. -Il sera communiqué aussi à -tous les juges et juges suppléants de +par l'intermédiaire du Bureau international. +Il sera communiqué aussi à +tous les juges et juges suppléants de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> -<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants, +<p>Les juges et les juges suppléants, membres de la Cour de justice arbitrale, -peuvent aussi être nommés aux -fonctions de juge et de juge suppléant +peuvent aussi être nommés aux +fonctions de juge et de juge suppléant dans la Cour internationale des prises.</p> -<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre II.</span>—<i>Compétence et procédure.</i></p> +<p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre II.</span>—<i>Compétence et procédure.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> <p>La Cour de justice arbitrale est -compétente pour tous les cas qui sont -portés devant elle, en vertu d'une -stipulation générale d'arbitrage ou d'un -accord spécial.</p> +compétente pour tous les cas qui sont +portés devant elle, en vertu d'une +stipulation générale d'arbitrage ou d'un +accord spécial.</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> -<p>La Délégation est compétente:</p> +<p>La Délégation est compétente:</p> <p class="blockquot">1. pour juger les cas d'arbitrage -visés à l'article précédent, si les -Parties sont d'accord pour réclamer -l'application de la procédure sommaire, -réglée au Titre IV Chapitre 4 -de la Convention pour le règlement +visés à l'article précédent, si les +Parties sont d'accord pour réclamer +l'application de la procédure sommaire, +réglée au Titre IV Chapitre 4 +de la Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux;</p> -<p class="blockquot">2. pour procéder à une enquête en -vertu et en conformité du Titre III +<p class="blockquot">2. pour procéder à une enquête en +vertu et en conformité du Titre III de ladite Convention en tant que la -Délégation en est chargée par les +Délégation en est chargée par les Parties agissant d'un commun accord. Avec l'assentiment des Parties -et par dérogation à l'article 7 -alinéa 1, les membres de la Délégation -ayant pris part à l'enquête -peuvent siéger comme juges, si le -litige est soumis à l'arbitrage de la -Cour ou de la Délégation elle-même.</p> +et par dérogation à l'article 7 +alinéa 1, les membres de la Délégation +ayant pris part à l'enquête +peuvent siéger comme juges, si le +litige est soumis à l'arbitrage de la +Cour ou de la Délégation elle-même.</p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> -<p>La Délégation est, en outre, compétente -pour l'établissement du compromis -visé par l'article 52 de la Convention -pour le règlement pacifique des +<p>La Délégation est, en outre, compétente +pour l'établissement du compromis +visé par l'article 52 de la Convention +pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux, si les Parties -sont d'accord pour s'en remettre à la +sont d'accord pour s'en remettre à la Cour.</p> -<p>Elle est également compétente, -même si la demande est faite seulement -par l'une des Parties, après qu'un -accord par la voie diplomatique a été -vainement essayé, quand il s'agit:</p> - -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend rentrant dans -un traité d'arbitrage général conclu -ou renouvelé après la mise en vigueur -de cette Convention et qui prévoit -pour chaque différend un compromis, -et n'exclut pour l'établissement +<p>Elle est également compétente, +même si la demande est faite seulement +par l'une des Parties, après qu'un +accord par la voie diplomatique a été +vainement essayé, quand il s'agit:</p> + +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend rentrant dans +un traité d'arbitrage général conclu +ou renouvelé après la mise en vigueur +de cette Convention et qui prévoit +pour chaque différend un compromis, +et n'exclut pour l'établissement de ce dernier ni explicitement -ni implicitement la compétence de la -Délégation. Toutefois, le recours à +ni implicitement la compétence de la +Délégation. Toutefois, le recours à la Cour n'a pas lieu si l'autre Partie -déclare qu'à son avis le différend -n'appartient pas à la catégorie des -questions à soumettre à un arbitrage -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span>obligatoire, à moins que le traité -d'arbitrage ne confère au tribunal -arbitral le pouvoir de décider cette -question préalable.</p> - -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend provenant de -dettes contractuelles réclamées à une +déclare qu'à son avis le différend +n'appartient pas à la catégorie des +questions à soumettre à un arbitrage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span>obligatoire, à moins que le traité +d'arbitrage ne confère au tribunal +arbitral le pouvoir de décider cette +question préalable.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span>. d'un différend provenant de +dettes contractuelles réclamées à une Puissance par une autre Puissance -comme dues à ses nationaux, et pour +comme dues à ses nationaux, et pour la solution duquel l'offre d'arbitrage -a été acceptée. Cette disposition +a été acceptée. Cette disposition n'est pas applicable si l'acceptation -a été subordonnée à la condition que -le compromis soit établi selon un +a été subordonnée à la condition que +le compromis soit établi selon un autre mode.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> <p>Chacune des Parties a le droit de -désigner un juge de la Cour pour -prendre part, avec voix délibérative, -à l'examen de l'affaire soumise à la -Délégation.</p> - -<p>Si la Délégation fonctionne en qualité -de Commission d'enquête, ce mandat -peut être confié à des personnes +désigner un juge de la Cour pour +prendre part, avec voix délibérative, +à l'examen de l'affaire soumise à la +Délégation.</p> + +<p>Si la Délégation fonctionne en qualité +de Commission d'enquête, ce mandat +peut être confié à des personnes prises en dehors des juges de la Cour. -Les frais de déplacement et la rétribution -à allouer auxdites personnes sont -fixés et supportés par les Puissances -qui les ont nommées.</p> +Les frais de déplacement et la rétribution +à allouer auxdites personnes sont +fixés et supportés par les Puissances +qui les ont nommées.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> -<p>L'accès de la Cour de justice arbitrale, -instituée par la présente Convention, +<p>L'accès de la Cour de justice arbitrale, +instituée par la présente Convention, n'est ouvert qu'aux Puissances contractantes.</p> @@ -37381,175 +37337,175 @@ contractantes.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> <p>La Cour de justice arbitrale suit les -règles de procédure édictées par la -Convention pour le règlement pacifique +règles de procédure édictées par la +Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux, sauf ce qui -est prescrit par la présente Convention.</p> +est prescrit par la présente Convention.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p>La Cour décide du choix de la langue +<p>La Cour décide du choix de la langue dont elle fera usage, et des langues dont -l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle.</p> +l'emploi sera autorisé devant elle.</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> -<p>Le Bureau international sert d'intermédiaire +<p>Le Bureau international sert d'intermédiaire pour toutes les communications -à faire aux juges au cours de -l'instruction prévue à l'article 63 alinéa -2 de la Convention pour le règlement +à faire aux juges au cours de +l'instruction prévue à l'article 63 alinéa +2 de la Convention pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p>Pour toutes les notifications à faire, -notamment aux Parties, aux témoins +<p>Pour toutes les notifications à faire, +notamment aux Parties, aux témoins et aux experts, la Cour peut s'adresser directement au Gouvernement de la Puissance sur le territoire de laquelle -la notification doit être effectuée. Il -en est de même s'il s'agit de faire -procéder à l'établissement de tout +la notification doit être effectuée. Il +en est de même s'il s'agit de faire +procéder à l'établissement de tout moyen de preuve.</p> -<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet ne -peuvent être refusées que si la Puissance -requise le juge de nature à -porter atteinte à sa souveraineté ou à -sa sécurité. S'il est donné suite à la -requête, les frais ne comprennent que -les dépenses d'exécution réellement -effectuées.</p> - -<p>La Cour a également la faculté de -recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance +<p>Les requêtes adressées à cet effet ne +peuvent être refusées que si la Puissance +requise le juge de nature à +porter atteinte à sa souveraineté ou à +sa sécurité. S'il est donné suite à la +requête, les frais ne comprennent que +les dépenses d'exécution réellement +effectuées.</p> + +<p>La Cour a également la faculté de +recourir à l'intermédiaire de la Puissance sur la territoire de laquelle elle a -son siège.</p> +son siège.</p> -<p>Les notifications à faire aux Parties -dans le lieu où siège la Cour peuvent -être exécutées par le Bureau international.</p> +<p>Les notifications à faire aux Parties +dans le lieu où siège la Cour peuvent +être exécutées par le Bureau international.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> -<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président -ou le Vice-Président et, en cas -d'absence ou d'empêchement de l'un +<p>Les débats sont dirigés par le Président +ou le Vice-Président et, en cas +d'absence ou d'empêchement de l'un et de l'autre, par le plus ancien des -juges présents.</p> +juges présents.</p> -<p>Le juge nommé par une des Parties -ne peut siéger comme Président.</p> +<p>Le juge nommé par une des Parties +ne peut siéger comme Président.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> -<p>Les délibérations de la Cour ont lieu -à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> +<p>Les délibérations de la Cour ont lieu +à huis clos et restent secrètes.</p> -<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité -des juges présents. Si la Cour siège en +<p>Toute décision est prise à la majorité +des juges présents. Si la Cour siège en nombre pair et qu'il y ait partage des voix, la voix du dernier des juges, dans -l'ordre de préséance établi d'après -l'article 4 alinéa 1, ne sera pas comptée.</p> +l'ordre de préséance établi d'après +l'article 4 alinéa 1, ne sera pas comptée.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> -<p>Les arrêts de la Cour doivent être -motivés. Ils mentionnent les noms -des juges qui y ont participé; ils sont -signés par le Président et par le greffier.</p> +<p>Les arrêts de la Cour doivent être +motivés. Ils mentionnent les noms +des juges qui y ont participé; ils sont +signés par le Président et par le greffier.</p> <p class="center">Article 29.</p> <p>Chaque Partie supporte ses propres -frais et une part égale des frais spéciaux +frais et une part égale des frais spéciaux de l'instance.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> -<p>Les dispositions des articles 21 à 29 -sont appliquées par analogie dans la -procédure devant la Délégation.</p> +<p>Les dispositions des articles 21 à 29 +sont appliquées par analogie dans la +procédure devant la Délégation.</p> <p>Lorsque le droit d'adjoindre un -membre à la Délégation n'a été exercé +membre à la Délégation n'a été exercé que par une seule Partie, la voix du -membre adjoint n'est pas comptée, s'il +membre adjoint n'est pas comptée, s'il y a partage de voix.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p>Les frais généraux de la Cour sont -supportés par les Puissances contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span></p> +<p>Les frais généraux de la Cour sont +supportés par les Puissances contractantes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span></p> <p>Le Conseil administratif s'adresse aux Puissances pour obtenir les fonds -nécessaires au fonctionnement de la +nécessaires au fonctionnement de la Cour.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p>La Cour fait elle-même son règlement -d'ordre intérieur qui doit être -communiqué aux Puissances contractantes.</p> +<p>La Cour fait elle-même son règlement +d'ordre intérieur qui doit être +communiqué aux Puissances contractantes.</p> -<p>Après la ratification de la présente -Convention, la Cour se réunira aussitôt -que possible, pour élaborer ce règlement, -pour élire le Président et le Vice-Président -ainsi que pour désigner les -membres de la Délégation.</p> +<p>Après la ratification de la présente +Convention, la Cour se réunira aussitôt +que possible, pour élaborer ce règlement, +pour élire le Président et le Vice-Président +ainsi que pour désigner les +membres de la Délégation.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> <p>La Cour peut proposer des modifications -à apporter aux dispositions de la -présente Convention qui concernent la -procédure. Ces propositions sont communiquées -par l'intermédiaire du Gouvernement +à apporter aux dispositions de la +présente Convention qui concernent la +procédure. Ces propositions sont communiquées +par l'intermédiaire du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas aux Puissances contractantes qui se concerteront -sur la suite à y donner.</p> +sur la suite à y donner.</p> <p class="center1"><span class="smcap">Titre III.</span>—<i>Dispositions finales.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 34.</p> -<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée -dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> +<p>La présente Convention sera ratifiée +dans le plus bref délai possible.</p> -<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p>Les ratifications seront déposées à La Haye.</p> -<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque -ratification un procès-verbal, dont une -copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise -par la voie diplomatique à toutes les +<p>Il sera dressé du dépôt de chaque +ratification un procès-verbal, dont une +copie, certifiée conforme, sera remise +par la voie diplomatique à toutes les Puissances signataires.</p> <p class="center">Article 35.</p> <p>La Convention entrera en vigueur -six mois après sa ratification.</p> +six mois après sa ratification.</p> -<p>Elle aura une durée de douze ans, -et sera renouvelée tacitement de douze -ans en douze ans, sauf dénonciation.</p> +<p>Elle aura une durée de douze ans, +et sera renouvelée tacitement de douze +ans en douze ans, sauf dénonciation.</p> -<p>La dénonciation devra être notifiée, +<p>La dénonciation devra être notifiée, au moins deux ans avant l'expiration -de chaque période, au Gouvernement +de chaque période, au Gouvernement des Pays-Bas qui en donnera connaissance aux autres Puissances.</p> -<p>La dénonciation ne produira effet -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée. La Convention restera exécutoire +<p>La dénonciation ne produira effet +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée. La Convention restera exécutoire dans les rapports entre les autres Puissances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[Pg 637]</a></span></p> @@ -37570,61 +37526,61 @@ the Report of the Drafting Committee on each article is printed in roman type.</p></div> -<p>Disposition Préliminaire.</p> +<p>Disposition Préliminaire.</p> <p><i>Les Puissances Signataires sont d'accord -pour constater que les règles contenues -dans les Chapitres suivants répondent, +pour constater que les règles contenues +dans les Chapitres suivants répondent, en substance, aux principes -généralement reconnus du droit international.</i></p> +généralement reconnus du droit international.</i></p> <p>Cette disposition domine toutes les -règles qui suivent. L'esprit en a été -indiqué dans les considérations générales -placées en tête de ce Rapport. -La Conférence a eu surtout en vue de -constater, de préciser, de compléter au -besoin, ce qui pouvait être considéré +règles qui suivent. L'esprit en a été +indiqué dans les considérations générales +placées en tête de ce Rapport. +La Conférence a eu surtout en vue de +constater, de préciser, de compléter au +besoin, ce qui pouvait être considéré comme un droit coutumier.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre Premier.</span>—<i>Du blocus en temps de guerre.</i></p> -<p>Le blocus est envisagé ici uniquement -comme opération de guerre, et -l'on n'a entendu en rien toucher à ce +<p>Le blocus est envisagé ici uniquement +comme opération de guerre, et +l'on n'a entendu en rien toucher à ce qu'on appelle le <i>blocus pacifique</i>.</p> <p class="center">Article 1.</p> -<p><i>Le blocus doit être limité aux ports et -aux côtes de l'ennemi ou occupés par lui.</i></p> +<p><i>Le blocus doit être limité aux ports et +aux côtes de l'ennemi ou occupés par lui.</i></p> -<p>Le blocus, opération de guerre, ne -peut être dirigé par un belligérant que -contre son adversaire. C'est la règle -très simple qui est posée tout d'abord. -Elle n'a toute sa portée que si on la +<p>Le blocus, opération de guerre, ne +peut être dirigé par un belligérant que +contre son adversaire. C'est la règle +très simple qui est posée tout d'abord. +Elle n'a toute sa portée que si on la rapproche de l'article 18.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p><i>Conformément à la Déclaration de -Paris de 1856, le blocus, pour être obligatoire, -doit être effectif, c'est-à-dire +<p><i>Conformément à la Déclaration de +Paris de 1856, le blocus, pour être obligatoire, +doit être effectif, c'est-à -dire maintenu par une force suffisante pour -interdire réellement l'accès du littoral ennemi.</i></p> +interdire réellement l'accès du littoral ennemi.</i></p> -<p>La première condition pour qu'un +<p>La première condition pour qu'un blocus soit obligatoire est qu'il soit effectif. Il y a longtemps que tout le -monde est d'accord à ce sujet. Quant -à la définition du blocus effectif, nous -avons pensé que nous n'avions qu'à +monde est d'accord à ce sujet. Quant +à la définition du blocus effectif, nous +avons pensé que nous n'avions qu'à nous approprier celle qui se trouve dans -la Déclaration de Paris du 16 avril +la Déclaration de Paris du 16 avril 1856, qui lie conventionnellement un -grand nombre d'États et qui est acceptée +grand nombre d'États et qui est acceptée de fait par les autres.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> @@ -37632,1239 +37588,1239 @@ de fait par les autres.</p> <p><i>La question de savoir si le blocus est effectif est une question de fait.</i></p> -<p>On comprend que souvent des difficultés -s'élèvent sur le point de savoir +<p>On comprend que souvent des difficultés +s'élèvent sur le point de savoir si un blocus est ou non effectif; -il y a en jeu des intérêts opposés. Le -belligérant bloquant veut limiter son -effort, et les neutres désirent que leur -commerce soit le moins gêné possible. -Des protestations diplomatiques ont été -parfois formulées à ce sujet. L'appréciation -peut être délicate, parce qu'il -n'y a pas de règle absolue à poser sur +il y a en jeu des intérêts opposés. Le +belligérant bloquant veut limiter son +effort, et les neutres désirent que leur +commerce soit le moins gêné possible. +Des protestations diplomatiques ont été +parfois formulées à ce sujet. L'appréciation +peut être délicate, parce qu'il +n'y a pas de règle absolue à poser sur le nombre et la situation des navires -de blocus. Tout dépend des circonstances -de fait, des conditions géographiques. +de blocus. Tout dépend des circonstances +de fait, des conditions géographiques. Suivant les cas, un navire suffira pour bloquer un port aussi efficacement que possible, alors qu'une -flotte pourra être insuffisante pour empêcher -réellement l'accès d'un ou de -plusieurs ports déclarés bloqués. C'est +flotte pourra être insuffisante pour empêcher +réellement l'accès d'un ou de +plusieurs ports déclarés bloqués. C'est donc essentiellement une <i>question de -fait</i>, à trancher dans chaque espèce, -et non d'après une formule arrêtée à -l'avance. Qui la tranchera? L'autorité +fait</i>, à trancher dans chaque espèce, +et non d'après une formule arrêtée à +l'avance. Qui la tranchera? L'autorité judiciaire. Ce sera d'abord le tribunal -national appelé à statuer sur la validité -de la prise, et auquel le navire capturé +national appelé à statuer sur la validité +de la prise, et auquel le navire capturé pour violation de blocus pourra demander -de déclarer la nullité de la prise, -parce que le blocus, n'ayant pas été effectif, -n'était pas obligatoire. Ce recours -a toujours existé; il pouvait ne pas +de déclarer la nullité de la prise, +parce que le blocus, n'ayant pas été effectif, +n'était pas obligatoire. Ce recours +a toujours existé; il pouvait ne pas donner une satisfaction suffisante aux -Puissances intéressées, parce qu'elles +Puissances intéressées, parce qu'elles pouvaient estimer que le tribunal national -était assez naturellement porté -à considérer comme effectif le blocus déclaré +était assez naturellement porté +à considérer comme effectif le blocus déclaré tel par son Gouvernement. Mais, quand la Convention sur la Cour Internationale des Prises entrera en vigueur,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[Pg 638]</a></span> il y aura une juridiction absolument -impartiale à laquelle les neutres pourront -s'adresser et qui décidera si, dans -tel cas, le blocus était effectif ou -non. La possibilité de ce recours, -outre qu'elle permettra de réparer certaines +impartiale à laquelle les neutres pourront +s'adresser et qui décidera si, dans +tel cas, le blocus était effectif ou +non. La possibilité de ce recours, +outre qu'elle permettra de réparer certaines injustices, aura vraisemblablement -un effet préventif, en ce qu'un -Gouvernement se préoccupera d'établir -ses blocus de telle façon que l'effet ne -puisse pas en être annulé par des décisions -qui lui causeraient un grand préjudice. +un effet préventif, en ce qu'un +Gouvernement se préoccupera d'établir +ses blocus de telle façon que l'effet ne +puisse pas en être annulé par des décisions +qui lui causeraient un grand préjudice. L'article 3 a donc toute sa -portée, si on l'entend en ce sens que la -question prévue doit être tranchée judiciairement. -C'est pour écarter toute -équivoque que l'explication précédente -est insérée dans le Rapport à la demande +portée, si on l'entend en ce sens que la +question prévue doit être tranchée judiciairement. +C'est pour écarter toute +équivoque que l'explication précédente +est insérée dans le Rapport à la demande de la Commission.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p><i>Le blocus n'est pas considéré comme -levé si, par suite du mauvais temps, les -forces bloquantes se sont momentanément -éloignées.</i></p> +<p><i>Le blocus n'est pas considéré comme +levé si, par suite du mauvais temps, les +forces bloquantes se sont momentanément +éloignées.</i></p> <p>Il ne suffit pas que le blocus soit -établi; il faut qu'il soit maintenu. -S'il vient à être levé, il pourra être -repris, mais alors il exigera les mêmes -formalités que s'il était établi pour la -première fois. Traditionnellement, on -ne considère pas le blocus comme levé, +établi; il faut qu'il soit maintenu. +S'il vient à être levé, il pourra être +repris, mais alors il exigera les mêmes +formalités que s'il était établi pour la +première fois. Traditionnellement, on +ne considère pas le blocus comme levé, lorsque c'est par suite du mauvais temps que les forces bloquantes se sont -momentanément éloignées. C'est ce -que dit l'article 4. Il doit être tenu +momentanément éloignées. C'est ce +que dit l'article 4. Il doit être tenu pour limitatif en ce sens que le mauvais temps est le seul cas de force majeure -qui puisse être allégué. Si les forces -bloquantes s'éloignaient pour toute -autre cause, le blocus serait considéré -comme levé, et, au cas où il viendrait à -être repris, les articles 12 <i>in fine</i> et 13 +qui puisse être allégué. Si les forces +bloquantes s'éloignaient pour toute +autre cause, le blocus serait considéré +comme levé, et, au cas où il viendrait à +être repris, les articles 12 <i>in fine</i> et 13 seraient applicables.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p><i>Le blocus doit être impartialement appliqué +<p><i>Le blocus doit être impartialement appliqué aux divers pavillons.</i></p> -<p>Le blocus, opération de guerre légitime, -doit être respecté par les neutres -en tant qu'il reste vraiment une opération +<p>Le blocus, opération de guerre légitime, +doit être respecté par les neutres +en tant qu'il reste vraiment une opération de guerre ayant pour but d'interrompre toutes les relations commerciales -du port bloqué. Ce ne peut être un -moyen pour un belligérant de favoriser +du port bloqué. Ce ne peut être un +moyen pour un belligérant de favoriser certains pavillons en les laissant passer. C'est ce qu'indique l'article 5.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> <p><i>Le commandant de la force bloquante -peut accorder à des navires de guerre la -permission d'entrer dans le port bloqué -et d'en sortir ultérieurement.</i></p> +peut accorder à des navires de guerre la +permission d'entrer dans le port bloqué +et d'en sortir ultérieurement.</i></p> -<p>L'interdiction qui s'applique à tous +<p>L'interdiction qui s'applique à tous les navires de commerce, s'applique-t-elle aussi aux navires de guerre? Il -n'y a pas de réponse absolue à faire. +n'y a pas de réponse absolue à faire. Le commandant des forces de blocus -peut estimer qu'il a avantage à intercepter +peut estimer qu'il a avantage à intercepter toute communication de la place -bloquée, et refuser l'accès aux navires -de guerre neutres; rien ne lui est imposé. -S'il accorde l'entrée, c'est affaire -de courtoisie. Si on a consacré une -règle pour dire simplement cela, c'est -pour qu'on ne puisse pas prétendre que -le blocus a cessé d'être effectif par suite -de la permission accordée à tels et tels +bloquée, et refuser l'accès aux navires +de guerre neutres; rien ne lui est imposé. +S'il accorde l'entrée, c'est affaire +de courtoisie. Si on a consacré une +règle pour dire simplement cela, c'est +pour qu'on ne puisse pas prétendre que +le blocus a cessé d'être effectif par suite +de la permission accordée à tels et tels navires de guerre neutres.</p> <p>Le commandant du blocus doit agir impartialement, comme il est dit dans l'article 5. Toutefois, par cela seul -qu'il a laissé entrer un navire de guerre, -il ne peut être obligé de laisser passer +qu'il a laissé entrer un navire de guerre, +il ne peut être obligé de laisser passer tous les navires de guerre neutres qui -se présenteront. C'est une question -d'appréciation. La présence d'un navire +se présenteront. C'est une question +d'appréciation. La présence d'un navire de guerre neutre dans un port -bloqué peut ne pas avoir les mêmes -conséquences à toutes les phases du -blocus, et le commandant doit être -laissé maître de juger s'il peut être -courtois sans rien sacrifier de ses intérêts +bloqué peut ne pas avoir les mêmes +conséquences à toutes les phases du +blocus, et le commandant doit être +laissé maître de juger s'il peut être +courtois sans rien sacrifier de ses intérêts militaires.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p><i>Un navire neutre, en cas de détresse -constatée par une autorité des forces bloquantes, -peut pénétrer dans la localité -bloquée et en sortir ultérieurement à la -condition de n'y avoir laissé ni pris aucun +<p><i>Un navire neutre, en cas de détresse +constatée par une autorité des forces bloquantes, +peut pénétrer dans la localité +bloquée et en sortir ultérieurement à la +condition de n'y avoir laissé ni pris aucun chargement.</i></p> -<p>La détresse peut expliquer l'entrée -d'un navire neutre dans la localité -bloquée. C'est, par exemple, un navire +<p>La détresse peut expliquer l'entrée +d'un navire neutre dans la localité +bloquée. C'est, par exemple, un navire qui manque de vivres ou d'eau, qui -a besoin d'une réparation immédiate. -Sa détresse une fois constatée par une -autorité de la force bloquante, il <i>peut</i> +a besoin d'une réparation immédiate. +Sa détresse une fois constatée par une +autorité de la force bloquante, il <i>peut</i> franchir la ligne de blocus; ce n'est pas -une faveur qu'il ait à solliciter de l'humanité -ou de la courtoisie de l'autorité +une faveur qu'il ait à solliciter de l'humanité +ou de la courtoisie de l'autorité bloquante. Celle-ci peut contester -l'état de détresse, mais, l'état une fois -vérifié, la conséquence suit d'elle-même. -Le navire qui aura ainsi pénétré dans le -port bloqué ne sera pas obligé d'y rester +l'état de détresse, mais, l'état une fois +vérifié, la conséquence suit d'elle-même. +Le navire qui aura ainsi pénétré dans le +port bloqué ne sera pas obligé d'y rester tout le temps que durera le blocus; il -pourra en sortir quand il sera en état -de le faire, quand il se sera procuré les -vivres ou l'eau qui lui sont nécessaires, -quand il aura été réparé. Mais la permission -qui lui a été accordée n'a pu -servir de prétexte à des opérations commerciales; +pourra en sortir quand il sera en état +de le faire, quand il se sera procuré les +vivres ou l'eau qui lui sont nécessaires, +quand il aura été réparé. Mais la permission +qui lui a été accordée n'a pu +servir de prétexte à des opérations commerciales; c'est pour cela qu'on exige -qu'il n'ait laissé ou pris aucun chargement.</p> +qu'il n'ait laissé ou pris aucun chargement.</p> <p>Il va sans dire que l'escadre de blocus, -qui voudrait absolument empêcher de +qui voudrait absolument empêcher de passer, pourrait le faire, si elle mettait -à la disposition du navire en détresse +à la disposition du navire en détresse les secours dont il a besoin.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p><i>Le blocus, pour être obligatoire, doit -être déclaré conformément à l'article 9 et -notifié conformément aux articles 11 et 16.</i></p> +<p><i>Le blocus, pour être obligatoire, doit +être déclaré conformément à l'article 9 et +notifié conformément aux articles 11 et 16.</i></p> -<p>Indépendamment de la condition -d'effectivité formulée par la Déclaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span> -de Paris, un blocus, pour être obligatoire, -doit être <i>déclaré</i> et <i>notifié</i>. -L'article 8 se borne à poser le principe qui -est appliqué par les articles suivants.</p> +<p>Indépendamment de la condition +d'effectivité formulée par la Déclaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span> +de Paris, un blocus, pour être obligatoire, +doit être <i>déclaré</i> et <i>notifié</i>. +L'article 8 se borne à poser le principe qui +est appliqué par les articles suivants.</p> -<p>Il suffit, pour éviter toute équivoque, +<p>Il suffit, pour éviter toute équivoque, d'indiquer nettement le sens des deux -expressions qui vont être fréquemment -employées. La <i>déclaration de blocus</i> est -l'acte de l'autorité compétente (Gouvernement +expressions qui vont être fréquemment +employées. La <i>déclaration de blocus</i> est +l'acte de l'autorité compétente (Gouvernement ou chef d'escadre), constatant -qu'un blocus est établi ou va -l'être dans des conditions qui doivent -être précisées (article 9). La <i>notification</i> -est le fait de porter à la connaissance +qu'un blocus est établi ou va +l'être dans des conditions qui doivent +être précisées (article 9). La <i>notification</i> +est le fait de porter à la connaissance des Puissances neutres ou de -certaines autorités la déclaration de +certaines autorités la déclaration de blocus (article 11).</p> <p>Le plus souvent, ces deux choses—la -déclaration et la notification—auront -lieu préalablement à l'application des -règles du blocus, c'est-à-dire, à l'interdiction -réelle du passage. Toutefois, +déclaration et la notification—auront +lieu préalablement à l'application des +règles du blocus, c'est-à -dire, à l'interdiction +réelle du passage. Toutefois, comme on le verra plus loin, il est parfois possible que le passage soit interdit -à raison du fait même du blocus qui est -porté à la connaissance d'un navire approchant -d'un port bloqué, au moyen -d'une <i>notification</i> qui est <i>spéciale</i>, tandis -que la notification qui vient d'être définie, -et dont il est parlé à l'article 11, -a un caractère général.</p> +à raison du fait même du blocus qui est +porté à la connaissance d'un navire approchant +d'un port bloqué, au moyen +d'une <i>notification</i> qui est <i>spéciale</i>, tandis +que la notification qui vient d'être définie, +et dont il est parlé à l'article 11, +a un caractère général.</p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p><i>La déclaration de blocus est faite, soit +<p><i>La déclaration de blocus est faite, soit par la Puissance bloquante, soit par les -autorités navales agissant en son nom.</i></p> +autorités navales agissant en son nom.</i></p> -<p><i>Elle précise:</i></p> +<p><i>Elle précise:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>La date du commencement du blocus;</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les limites géographiques du -littoral bloqué;</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les limites géographiques du +littoral bloqué;</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le délai de sortie à accorder aux +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le délai de sortie à accorder aux navires neutres.</i></p> -<p>La déclaration de blocus émane le plus -souvent du Gouvernement belligérant -lui-même. Le Gouvernement peut -avoir laissé au commandant de ses -forces navales la faculté de déclarer lui-même +<p>La déclaration de blocus émane le plus +souvent du Gouvernement belligérant +lui-même. Le Gouvernement peut +avoir laissé au commandant de ses +forces navales la faculté de déclarer lui-même un blocus selon les circonstances. -Cette latitude aura peut-être lieu de +Cette latitude aura peut-être lieu de s'appliquer moins souvent qu'autrefois -à raison de la facilité et de la rapidité +à raison de la facilité et de la rapidité des communications. Cela importe -peu: il y a là une question d'ordre -intérieur.</p> +peu: il y a là une question d'ordre +intérieur.</p> -<p>La déclaration de blocus doit préciser -certains points que les neutres ont intérêt -à connaître pour se rendre compte -de l'étendue de leurs obligations. Il +<p>La déclaration de blocus doit préciser +certains points que les neutres ont intérêt +à connaître pour se rendre compte +de l'étendue de leurs obligations. Il faut que l'on sache exactement quand commence l'interdiction de communiquer -avec la localité bloquée. Il importe, +avec la localité bloquée. Il importe, pour l'obligation du bloquant comme pour l'obligation des neutres, qu'il n'y ait pas d'incertitude sur les -points réellement bloqués. Enfin, depuis -longtemps, s'est établi l'usage de +points réellement bloqués. Enfin, depuis +longtemps, s'est établi l'usage de laisser sortir les navires neutres qui -sont dans le port bloqué. On confirme +sont dans le port bloqué. On confirme ici cet usage en ce sens que le bloquant -<i>doit accorder</i> un délai de sortie; on ne -fixe pas la durée de ce délai, parce que -cette durée est évidemment subordonnée -aux circonstances très variables. -Il a été seulement entendu qu'il y aurait -un délai <i>raisonnable</i>.</p> +<i>doit accorder</i> un délai de sortie; on ne +fixe pas la durée de ce délai, parce que +cette durée est évidemment subordonnée +aux circonstances très variables. +Il a été seulement entendu qu'il y aurait +un délai <i>raisonnable</i>.</p> <p class="center">Article 10.</p> -<p><i>Si la Puissance bloquante ou les autorités +<p><i>Si la Puissance bloquante ou les autorités navales agissant en son nom ne se -conforment pas aux mentions qu'en exécution -de l'article 9—1<span class="topnum">o</span> et 2<span class="topnum">o</span>, elles ont dû -inscrire dans la déclaration de blocus, -cette déclaration est nulle, et une nouvelle -déclaration est nécessaire pour que le +conforment pas aux mentions qu'en exécution +de l'article 9—1<span class="topnum">o</span> et 2<span class="topnum">o</span>, elles ont dû +inscrire dans la déclaration de blocus, +cette déclaration est nulle, et une nouvelle +déclaration est nécessaire pour que le blocus produise ses effets.</i></p> <p>Cet article a pour but d'assurer l'observation -de l'article 9. La déclaration +de l'article 9. La déclaration de blocus contient des mentions -qui ne correspondent pas à la réalité +qui ne correspondent pas à la réalité des faits; elle indique que le blocus a -commencé ou commencera tel jour, et, -en fait, il n'a commencé que plusieurs -jours après. Les limites géographiques -sont exactement tracées; elles sont -plus étendues que celles dans lesquelles -opèrent les forces de blocus. Quelle -sera la sanction? La nullité de la déclaration +commencé ou commencera tel jour, et, +en fait, il n'a commencé que plusieurs +jours après. Les limites géographiques +sont exactement tracées; elles sont +plus étendues que celles dans lesquelles +opèrent les forces de blocus. Quelle +sera la sanction? La nullité de la déclaration de blocus, ce qui fait que cette -déclaration ne produira aucun effet. Si, +déclaration ne produira aucun effet. Si, donc, en pareil cas, un navire neutre est saisi pour violation de blocus, il pourra -opposer la nullité de la saisie en se fondant -sur la nullité de la déclaration de -blocus; si son moyen est repoussé par +opposer la nullité de la saisie en se fondant +sur la nullité de la déclaration de +blocus; si son moyen est repoussé par le tribunal national, il pourra se pourvoir devant la Cour Internationale.</p> -<p>Il faut remarquer la portée de la +<p>Il faut remarquer la portée de la disposition pour qu'il n'y ait pas de -surprise. La déclaration porte que le -blocus commence le 1<span class="topnum">er</span> février; en fait, -il n'a commencé que le 8. Il va sans -dire que la déclaration n'a produit -aucun effet du 1<span class="topnum">er</span> au 8, puisqu'à ce -moment-là, il n'y avait pas de blocus -du tout; la déclaration constate un -fait, mais n'en tient pas lieu. La règle -va plus loin: la déclaration ne produira -pas même effet à partir du 8; -elle est nulle définitivement, et il faut +surprise. La déclaration porte que le +blocus commence le 1<span class="topnum">er</span> février; en fait, +il n'a commencé que le 8. Il va sans +dire que la déclaration n'a produit +aucun effet du 1<span class="topnum">er</span> au 8, puisqu'à ce +moment-là , il n'y avait pas de blocus +du tout; la déclaration constate un +fait, mais n'en tient pas lieu. La règle +va plus loin: la déclaration ne produira +pas même effet à partir du 8; +elle est nulle définitivement, et il faut en faire une autre.</p> -<p>Il n'est pas parlé ici du cas où -l'article 9 aurait été méconnu, en ce -qu'aucun délai de sortie n'aurait été -accordé aux navires neutres se trouvant -dans le port bloqué. La sanction -ne saurait être la même. Il n'y a pas -de raison d'annuler la déclaration en ce -qui touche les bâtiments neutres voulant -pénétrer dans le porte bloqué. Il -faut une sanction spéciale, qui est indiquée -dans l'article 16, alinéa 2.</p> +<p>Il n'est pas parlé ici du cas où +l'article 9 aurait été méconnu, en ce +qu'aucun délai de sortie n'aurait été +accordé aux navires neutres se trouvant +dans le port bloqué. La sanction +ne saurait être la même. Il n'y a pas +de raison d'annuler la déclaration en ce +qui touche les bâtiments neutres voulant +pénétrer dans le porte bloqué. Il +faut une sanction spéciale, qui est indiquée +dans l'article 16, alinéa 2.</p> <p class="center">Article 11.</p> -<p><i>La déclaration de blocus est notifiée</i>:</p> +<p><i>La déclaration de blocus est notifiée</i>:</p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Aux Puissances neutres, par la Puissance bloquante, au moyen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[Pg 640]</a></span> -d'une communication adressée aux Gouvernements -eux-mêmes ou à leurs représentants -accrédités auprès d'elle;</i></p> +d'une communication adressée aux Gouvernements +eux-mêmes ou à leurs représentants +accrédités auprès d'elle;</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Aux autorités locales, par le commandant +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Aux autorités locales, par le commandant de la force bloquante. Ces -autorités, de leur côté, en informeront, -aussitôt que possible, les consuls -étrangers qui exercent leurs fonctions -dans le port ou sur le littoral bloqués.</i></p> +autorités, de leur côté, en informeront, +aussitôt que possible, les consuls +étrangers qui exercent leurs fonctions +dans le port ou sur le littoral bloqués.</i></p> -<p>La déclaration de blocus ne vaut que -si elle est notifiée. On ne peut exiger -l'observation d'une règle que de ceux -qui ont été en mesure de la connaître.</p> +<p>La déclaration de blocus ne vaut que +si elle est notifiée. On ne peut exiger +l'observation d'une règle que de ceux +qui ont été en mesure de la connaître.</p> -<p>Il y a deux notifications à faire:</p> +<p>Il y a deux notifications à faire:</p> -<p class="blockquot">1. La première est adressée aux +<p class="blockquot">1. La première est adressée aux Puissances neutres par la Puissance -belligérante, qui la communique aux -Gouvernements eux-mêmes ou à -leurs représentants accrédités auprès +belligérante, qui la communique aux +Gouvernements eux-mêmes ou à +leurs représentants accrédités auprès d'elle. La communication aux Gouvernements se fera le plus souvent au moyen des agents diplomatiques: il -pourrait arriver qu'un belligérant ne -fût pas en rapports diplomatiques +pourrait arriver qu'un belligérant ne +fût pas en rapports diplomatiques avec un pays neutre; il s'adressera directement au Gouvernement de ce -pays, ordinairement par la voie télégraphique. +pays, ordinairement par la voie télégraphique. C'est aux Gouvernements -neutres avisés de la déclaration -de blocus à prendre les mesures -nécessaires pour en faire parvenir la +neutres avisés de la déclaration +de blocus à prendre les mesures +nécessaires pour en faire parvenir la nouvelle sur les divers points de leur -territoire, spécialement dans leurs +territoire, spécialement dans leurs ports.</p> <p class="blockquot">2. La seconde notification est faite par le commandant de la force bloquante -aux autorités locales. Celles-ci -doivent informer, aussitôt que possible, -les consuls étrangers qui résident +aux autorités locales. Celles-ci +doivent informer, aussitôt que possible, +les consuls étrangers qui résident dans la place ou sur le littoral -bloqués. Ces autorités engageraient -leur responsabilité en ne s'acquittant +bloqués. Ces autorités engageraient +leur responsabilité en ne s'acquittant pas de cette obligation. Les neutres -pourraient éprouver un préjudice du -fait de n'avoir pas été prévenus du +pourraient éprouver un préjudice du +fait de n'avoir pas été prévenus du blocus en temps utile.</p> <p class="center">Article 12.</p> -<p><i>Les règles relatives à la déclaration et -à la notification de blocus sont applicables -dans le cas où le blocus serait étendu ou -viendrait à être repris après avoir été levé.</i></p> +<p><i>Les règles relatives à la déclaration et +à la notification de blocus sont applicables +dans le cas où le blocus serait étendu ou +viendrait à être repris après avoir été levé.</i></p> -<p>Un blocus est étendu au-delà de ses +<p>Un blocus est étendu au-delà de ses limites primitives; c'est, pour la partie nouvelle, un blocus nouveau et, par -suite, les règles de la déclaration et de +suite, les règles de la déclaration et de la notification doivent s'y appliquer. -Il en est de même dans le cas où, après -avoir été levé, un blocus est repris; il -n'y a pas à tenir compte du fait qu'un -blocus a déjà existé pour la même -localité.</p> +Il en est de même dans le cas où, après +avoir été levé, un blocus est repris; il +n'y a pas à tenir compte du fait qu'un +blocus a déjà existé pour la même +localité.</p> <p class="center">Article 13.</p> -<p><i>La levée volontaire du blocus, ainsi que -toute restriction qui y serait apportée, doit -être notifiée dans la forme prescrite par +<p><i>La levée volontaire du blocus, ainsi que +toute restriction qui y serait apportée, doit +être notifiée dans la forme prescrite par l'article 11.</i></p> -<p>S'il est indispensable de connaître -l'établissement d'un blocus, il serait -utile que le public fût renseigné sur la -levée du blocus, puisqu'elle fait cesser -l'entrave apportée aux relations des -neutres avec le port bloqué. Aussi -a-t-on jugé à propos de demander à la -Puissance qui lève un blocus de le faire -savoir dans la forme où elle a notifié -l'établissement du blocus (article 11). +<p>S'il est indispensable de connaître +l'établissement d'un blocus, il serait +utile que le public fût renseigné sur la +levée du blocus, puisqu'elle fait cesser +l'entrave apportée aux relations des +neutres avec le port bloqué. Aussi +a-t-on jugé à propos de demander à la +Puissance qui lève un blocus de le faire +savoir dans la forme où elle a notifié +l'établissement du blocus (article 11). Seulement, il y a lieu de remarquer que -la sanction ne saurait être la même dans +la sanction ne saurait être la même dans les deux cas. Pour la notification de -la déclaration de blocus, il y a une -sanction directe, adéquate: le blocus -non notifié n'est pas obligatoire. Pour -la levée, il ne saurait y avoir rien d'analogue. +la déclaration de blocus, il y a une +sanction directe, adéquate: le blocus +non notifié n'est pas obligatoire. Pour +la levée, il ne saurait y avoir rien d'analogue. Le public profitera, en fait, de -cette levée, quand même on ne la lui -aurait pas fait connaître officiellement. +cette levée, quand même on ne la lui +aurait pas fait connaître officiellement. La Puissance bloquante qui n'aurait -pas notifié la levée s'exposerait à des -réclamations diplomatiques motivées +pas notifié la levée s'exposerait à des +réclamations diplomatiques motivées par l'inaccomplissement d'un devoir international. Cet inaccomplissement -aura des conséquences plus ou moins +aura des conséquences plus ou moins graves suivant les circonstances. Parfois, -la levée du blocus aura été, en fait, -immédiatement connue, et la notification -officielle n'ajouterait rien à cette -publicité effective.</p> +la levée du blocus aura été, en fait, +immédiatement connue, et la notification +officielle n'ajouterait rien à cette +publicité effective.</p> <p>Il va sans dire qu'il ne s'agit que -de la levée <i>volontaire</i> du blocus; si le -bloquant a été chassé par l'arrivée de -forces ennemies, il ne peut être tenu de -faire connaître sa défaite, que son adversaire +de la levée <i>volontaire</i> du blocus; si le +bloquant a été chassé par l'arrivée de +forces ennemies, il ne peut être tenu de +faire connaître sa défaite, que son adversaire se chargera d'annoncer sans retard. Au lieu de lever un blocus, un -belligérant peut se contenter de le restreindre; +belligérant peut se contenter de le restreindre; il ne bloque plus qu'un port au lieu de deux. Pour le port qui cesse -d'être compris dans le blocus, c'est -comme s'il y avait levée volontaire; en -conséquence, la même règle s'applique.</p> +d'être compris dans le blocus, c'est +comme s'il y avait levée volontaire; en +conséquence, la même règle s'applique.</p> <p class="center">Article 14.</p> -<p><i>La saisissabilité d'un navire neutre -pour violation de blocus est subordonnée à -la connaissance réelle ou présumée du +<p><i>La saisissabilité d'un navire neutre +pour violation de blocus est subordonnée à +la connaissance réelle ou présumée du blocus.</i></p> <p>Pour qu'un navire soit saisissable -pour violation de blocus, la première +pour violation de blocus, la première condition est qu'il ait eu connaissance du blocus, parce qu'il n'est pas juste de punir quelqu'un pour inobservation -d'une règle qu'il aurait ignorée. Toutefois, -il est des circonstances où, même -en l'absence d'une connaissance réelle -prouvée, on peut présumer cette connaissance, -sauf à réserver à l'intéressé -la faculté de démentir la présomption +d'une règle qu'il aurait ignorée. Toutefois, +il est des circonstances où, même +en l'absence d'une connaissance réelle +prouvée, on peut présumer cette connaissance, +sauf à réserver à l'intéressé +la faculté de démentir la présomption (article 15).</p> <p class="center">Article 15.</p> <p><i>La connaissance du blocus est, sauf -preuve contraire, présumée, lorsque le -navire a quitté un port neutre postérieurement -à la notification, en temps utile, du -blocus à la Puissance dont relève ce port.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span></p> - -<p>Un navire a quitté un port neutre -postérieurement à la notification du -blocus faite à la Puissance dont relève +preuve contraire, présumée, lorsque le +navire a quitté un port neutre postérieurement +à la notification, en temps utile, du +blocus à la Puissance dont relève ce port.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span></p> + +<p>Un navire a quitté un port neutre +postérieurement à la notification du +blocus faite à la Puissance dont relève le port. Cette notification avait-elle -été faite en temps utile, c'est-à-dire de -manière à parvenir dans le port même -où elle a dû être divulguée par les autorités +été faite en temps utile, c'est-à -dire de +manière à parvenir dans le port même +où elle a dû être divulguée par les autorités du port? C'est une question -de fait à examiner. Si elle est résolue +de fait à examiner. Si elle est résolue affirmativement, il est naturel de supposer que le navire avait eu, lors de son -départ, connaissance du blocus. Cette -présomption n'est pourtant pas absolue -et la preuve contraire est réservée. Ce -sera au navire inculpé à la fournir, en +départ, connaissance du blocus. Cette +présomption n'est pourtant pas absolue +et la preuve contraire est réservée. Ce +sera au navire inculpé à la fournir, en justifiant de l'existence de circonstances qui expliquent son ignorance.</p> <p class="center">Article 16.</p> <p><i>Si le navire qui approche du port -bloqué n'a pas connu ou ne peut être présumé +bloqué n'a pas connu ou ne peut être présumé avoir connu l'existence du blocus, -la notification doit être faite au navire -même par un officier de l'un des bâtiments +la notification doit être faite au navire +même par un officier de l'un des bâtiments de la force bloquante. Cette notification -doit être portée sur le livre de bord +doit être portée sur le livre de bord avec indication de la date et de l'heure, -ainsi que de la position géographique du -navire à ce moment.</i></p> +ainsi que de la position géographique du +navire à ce moment.</i></p> -<p><i>Le navire neutre qui sort du port bloqué, -alors que, par la négligence du commandant -de la force bloquante, aucune déclaration -de blocus n'a été notifiée aux autorités -locales ou qu'un délai n'a pas été indiqué -dans la déclaration notifiée, doit être -laissé libre de passer.</i></p> +<p><i>Le navire neutre qui sort du port bloqué, +alors que, par la négligence du commandant +de la force bloquante, aucune déclaration +de blocus n'a été notifiée aux autorités +locales ou qu'un délai n'a pas été indiqué +dans la déclaration notifiée, doit être +laissé libre de passer.</i></p> <p>On suppose un navire approchant du -port bloqué sans qu'on puisse dire qu'il -connaît ou qu'il est présumé connaître -l'existence du blocus; il n'a été touché +port bloqué sans qu'on puisse dire qu'il +connaît ou qu'il est présumé connaître +l'existence du blocus; il n'a été touché par aucune notification dans le sens de l'article 11. Dans ce cas, une notification -spéciale est nécessaire pour faire -connaître régulièrement le fait du +spéciale est nécessaire pour faire +connaître régulièrement le fait du blocus au navire. Cette notification -est faite au navire même par un officier -de l'un des bâtiments de la force bloquante -et portée sur le livre de bord; -elle peut être faite aux navires d'une -flotte convoyée par un vaisseau de -guerre neutre, grâce à l'intermédiaire +est faite au navire même par un officier +de l'un des bâtiments de la force bloquante +et portée sur le livre de bord; +elle peut être faite aux navires d'une +flotte convoyée par un vaisseau de +guerre neutre, grâce à l'intermédiaire du commandant du convoi qui en donne -reçu et qui prend les mesures nécessaires +reçu et qui prend les mesures nécessaires pour l'inscription de la notification sur le livre de bord de chaque navire. Elle mentionne les circonstances de temps et de lieu dans lesquelles elle est faite, ainsi que les lieux -bloqués. Le navire est empêché de +bloqués. Le navire est empêché de passer, ce qui fait que le blocus est <i>obligatoire</i> pour lui, bien que n'ayant -pas été <i>préalablement</i> notifié; c'est -pour cela que cet adverbe a été omis +pas été <i>préalablement</i> notifié; c'est +pour cela que cet adverbe a été omis dans l'article 8. Il n'est pas admissible qu'un navire de commerce ait la -prétention de ne pas tenir compte d'un -blocus réel et de forcer le blocus, par +prétention de ne pas tenir compte d'un +blocus réel et de forcer le blocus, par cette seule raison qu'il n'en avait pas personnellement connaissance. Seulement, -s'il peut être empêché de passer -il ne peut être saisi que lorsqu'il essaie -de forcer le blocus après avoir reçu la +s'il peut être empêché de passer +il ne peut être saisi que lorsqu'il essaie +de forcer le blocus après avoir reçu la notification. Comme on le voit, cette -notification spéciale joue un rôle très -restreint, et ne doit pas être confondue -avec la notification spéciale exigée -d'une manière absolue dans la pratique +notification spéciale joue un rôle très +restreint, et ne doit pas être confondue +avec la notification spéciale exigée +d'une manière absolue dans la pratique de certaines marines.</p> -<p>Ce qui vient d'être dit se réfère au +<p>Ce qui vient d'être dit se réfère au navire venant du large. Il faut aussi s'occuper du navire sortant du port -bloqué. Si une notification régulière -du blocus a été faite aux autorités +bloqué. Si une notification régulière +du blocus a été faite aux autorités locales (article 11—2<span class="topnum">o</span>), la situation est -simple: le navire connaît, ou est présumé -connaître, le blocus, et s'expose -donc à la saisie dans le cas où il n'a pas -observé le délai donné par le bloquant. -Mais il peut arriver qu'aucune déclaration -de blocus n'ait été notifiée aux -autorités locales ou que cette déclaration -ait été muette au sujet du délai de -sortie, malgré la prescription de l'article +simple: le navire connaît, ou est présumé +connaître, le blocus, et s'expose +donc à la saisie dans le cas où il n'a pas +observé le délai donné par le bloquant. +Mais il peut arriver qu'aucune déclaration +de blocus n'ait été notifiée aux +autorités locales ou que cette déclaration +ait été muette au sujet du délai de +sortie, malgré la prescription de l'article 9—3<span class="topnum">o</span>. La sanction de la faute du bloquant -est que le navire doit être laissé +est que le navire doit être laissé libre de passer. C'est une sanction -énergique qui correspond exactement à +énergique qui correspond exactement à la nature de la faute commise, et sera -le meilleur moyen d'empêcher de la +le meilleur moyen d'empêcher de la commettre.</p> <p>Il va sans dire que cette disposition ne concerne que les navires auxquels le -délai de sortie avait dû profiter—c'est-à-dire, -les navires neutres qui étaient -dans le port au moment de l'établissement +délai de sortie avait dû profiter—c'est-à -dire, +les navires neutres qui étaient +dans le port au moment de l'établissement du blocus; elle est absolument -étrangère aux navires qui seraient -dans le port après avoir forcé le +étrangère aux navires qui seraient +dans le port après avoir forcé le blocus.</p> <p>Le commandant de l'escadre de -blocus est toujours à même de réparer +blocus est toujours à même de réparer son omission ou son erreur, de faire une -notification du blocus aux autorités -locales ou de compléter celle qu'il aurait -déjà faite.</p> +notification du blocus aux autorités +locales ou de compléter celle qu'il aurait +déjà faite.</p> <p>Comme on le voit par ces explications, on suppose le cas le plus ordinaire, -celui où l'absence de notification implique -une négligence du commandant +celui où l'absence de notification implique +une négligence du commandant des forces de blocus. La situation se -trouve évidemment tout à fait changée, -si le commandant a fait tout ce qui dépendait +trouve évidemment tout à fait changée, +si le commandant a fait tout ce qui dépendait de lui pour faire la notification -et s'il en a été empêché par le mauvais -vouloir des autorités locales qui ont intercepté +et s'il en a été empêché par le mauvais +vouloir des autorités locales qui ont intercepté toute communication avec le -dehors. Dans ce cas, il ne peut être -forcé de laisser passer les navires qui +dehors. Dans ce cas, il ne peut être +forcé de laisser passer les navires qui veulent sortir et qui, en l'absence de la -notification exigée et de la connaissance -présumée du blocus, sont dans une situation -analogue à celle qui est prévue par -l'article 16, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>.</p> +notification exigée et de la connaissance +présumée du blocus, sont dans une situation +analogue à celle qui est prévue par +l'article 16, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>.</p> <p class="center">Article 17.</p> <p><i>La saisie des navires neutres pour violation -de blocus ne peut être effectuée que -dans le rayon d'action des bâtiments de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span> -guerre chargés d'assurer l'effectivité du +de blocus ne peut être effectuée que +dans le rayon d'action des bâtiments de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span> +guerre chargés d'assurer l'effectivité du blocus.</i></p> -<p>L'autre condition de la saisissabilité +<p>L'autre condition de la saisissabilité du navire est que celui-ci se trouve dans -le rayon d'action des bâtiments de -guerre chargés d'assurer l'effectivité du +le rayon d'action des bâtiments de +guerre chargés d'assurer l'effectivité du blocus: il ne suffit pas qu'il soit en -route pour le port bloqué.</p> +route pour le port bloqué.</p> -<p>Quant à ce qui constitue le <i>rayon -d'action</i>, il a été fourni une explication -qui a été universellement acceptée, et qui +<p>Quant à ce qui constitue le <i>rayon +d'action</i>, il a été fourni une explication +qui a été universellement acceptée, et qui est reproduite ici comme le meilleur -commentaire de la règle de l'article 17:</p> +commentaire de la règle de l'article 17:</p> -<p class="blockquot">"Lorsqu'un Gouvernement décide -d'entreprendre une opération de +<p class="blockquot">"Lorsqu'un Gouvernement décide +d'entreprendre une opération de blocus contre une partie quelconque -de côte ennemie, il désigne un certain +de côte ennemie, il désigne un certain nombre de navires de guerre qui devront participer au blocus, et il en -confie le commandement à un officier +confie le commandement à un officier qui aura pour mission d'assurer par -leur moyen l'effectivité du blocus. Le +leur moyen l'effectivité du blocus. Le commandant de la force navale ainsi -constituée repartit les navires mis à +constituée repartit les navires mis à sa disposition suivant la configuration -de la côte et la situation géographique -des points bloqués, et -donne à chacun d'eux des instructions -sur le rôle qu'il aura à remplir, -et en particulier sur la zone confiée à +de la côte et la situation géographique +des points bloqués, et +donne à chacun d'eux des instructions +sur le rôle qu'il aura à remplir, +et en particulier sur la zone confiée à sa surveillance. C'est l'ensemble de -ces zones de surveillance, organisées -de telle manière que le blocus soit +ces zones de surveillance, organisées +de telle manière que le blocus soit effectif, qui forme le rayon d'action de la force navale bloquante.</p> <p>"Le rayon d'action ainsi compris -est étroitement lié à l'effectivité du -blocus et aussi au nombre des bâtiments -qui y sont affectés.</p> +est étroitement lié à l'effectivité du +blocus et aussi au nombre des bâtiments +qui y sont affectés.</p> -<p>"Il peut se présenter des cas où +<p>"Il peut se présenter des cas où un seul navire suffira pour maintenir -un blocus effectif—par exemple, à -l'entrée d'un port ou à l'embouchure +un blocus effectif—par exemple, à +l'entrée d'un port ou à l'embouchure d'un fleuve dont l'estuaire est peu -étendu—à la condition que les circonstances +étendu—à la condition que les circonstances permettent au bloqueur -de se tenir suffisamment rapproché -de l'entrée. Dans ce cas, le rayon -d'action est lui-même rapproché de -la côte. Mais, si les circonstances le -forcent, au contraire, à se tenir -éloigné, il pourra se faire que le navire -soit insuffisant pour assurer l'effectivité, -et il deviendra alors nécessaire +de se tenir suffisamment rapproché +de l'entrée. Dans ce cas, le rayon +d'action est lui-même rapproché de +la côte. Mais, si les circonstances le +forcent, au contraire, à se tenir +éloigné, il pourra se faire que le navire +soit insuffisant pour assurer l'effectivité, +et il deviendra alors nécessaire de lui adjoindre d'autres navires pour la maintenir. De ce fait le -rayon d'action devient plus étendu -et plus éloigné de la côte. Il pourra +rayon d'action devient plus étendu +et plus éloigné de la côte. Il pourra donc varier suivant les circonstances et suivant le nombre des navires -bloqueurs, mais sera toujours limité -par la condition que l'effectivité soit -assurée.</p> +bloqueurs, mais sera toujours limité +par la condition que l'effectivité soit +assurée.</p> <p>"Il ne semble pas possible d'assigner au rayon d'action des limites en chiffres fixes et invariables, pas -plus qu'il n'est possible de fixer à +plus qu'il n'est possible de fixer à l'avance et invariablement le nombre -des bâtiments nécessaires pour assurer -l'effectivité de tout blocus. -Ces éléments doivent être déterminés, +des bâtiments nécessaires pour assurer +l'effectivité de tout blocus. +Ces éléments doivent être déterminés, suivant les circonstances, pour chaque cas particulier de blocus; -peut-être pourrait-on le faire au -moment de la déclaration.</p> - -<p>"Il est évident qu'un blocus ne -sera pas établi de la même façon pour -une côte sans défense et pour une -côte possédant tous les moyens modernes -de défense. Il ne saurait être +peut-être pourrait-on le faire au +moment de la déclaration.</p> + +<p>"Il est évident qu'un blocus ne +sera pas établi de la même façon pour +une côte sans défense et pour une +côte possédant tous les moyens modernes +de défense. Il ne saurait être question dans ce dernier cas d'appliquer -une règle telle que celle qui -exigeait autrefois des vaisseaux arrêtés +une règle telle que celle qui +exigeait autrefois des vaisseaux arrêtés et suffisamment proches des -points bloqués; la situation serait +points bloqués; la situation serait trop dangereuse pour les navires de la force bloquante qui, par ailleurs, -possèdent aujourd'hui des moyens +possèdent aujourd'hui des moyens plus puissants leur permettant de surveiller -d'une façon effective une zone -beaucoup plus étendue que jadis.</p> +d'une façon effective une zone +beaucoup plus étendue que jadis.</p> <p>"Le rayon d'action d'une force -navale bloquante pourra s'étendre -assez loin, mais, comme il dépend du -nombre des bâtiments concourant à -l'effectivité du blocus, et comme il -reste toujours limité par la condition -d'effectivité, il n'atteindra jamais des -mers éloignées sur lesquelles naviguent -des navires de commerce, peut-être -destinés aux ports bloqués, mais -dont la destination est subordonnée +navale bloquante pourra s'étendre +assez loin, mais, comme il dépend du +nombre des bâtiments concourant à +l'effectivité du blocus, et comme il +reste toujours limité par la condition +d'effectivité, il n'atteindra jamais des +mers éloignées sur lesquelles naviguent +des navires de commerce, peut-être +destinés aux ports bloqués, mais +dont la destination est subordonnée aux modifications que les circonstances sont susceptibles d'apporter au blocus au cours du voyage. En -résumé, l'idée de rayon d'action liée -à celle d'effectivité telle que nous -avons essayé de la définir, c'est-à-dire, -comprenant la zone d'opérations +résumé, l'idée de rayon d'action liée +à celle d'effectivité telle que nous +avons essayé de la définir, c'est-à -dire, +comprenant la zone d'opérations des forces bloquantes, permet -au belligérant d'exercer d'une manière +au belligérant d'exercer d'une manière efficace le droit de blocus qui lui -est reconnu, et, d'un autre côté, elle -évite aux neutres d'être exposés à -grande distance aux inconvénients +est reconnu, et, d'un autre côté, elle +évite aux neutres d'être exposés à +grande distance aux inconvénients du blocus, tout en leur laissant courir les dangers auxquels ils s'exposent sciemment en s'approchant des -points dont l'accès est interdit par le -belligérant."</p> +points dont l'accès est interdit par le +belligérant."</p> <p class="center">Article 18.</p> <p><i>Les forces bloquantes ne doivent pas -barrer l'accès aux ports et aux côtes +barrer l'accès aux ports et aux côtes neutres.</i></p> -<p>Cette règle a été jugée nécessaire -pour mieux sauvegarder les intérêts +<p>Cette règle a été jugée nécessaire +pour mieux sauvegarder les intérêts commerciaux des pays neutres; elle -complète l'article 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, d'après lequel un -blocus doit être limité aux ports et -côtes de l'ennemi, ce qui implique que, -puisque c'est une opération de guerre, -il ne saurait être dirigé contre un port -neutre, malgré l'intérêt que pourrait y -avoir un belligérant à raison du rôle de +complète l'article 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, d'après lequel un +blocus doit être limité aux ports et +côtes de l'ennemi, ce qui implique que, +puisque c'est une opération de guerre, +il ne saurait être dirigé contre un port +neutre, malgré l'intérêt que pourrait y +avoir un belligérant à raison du rôle de ce port neutre pour le ravitaillement de son adversaire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[Pg 643]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 19.</p> <p><i>La violation du blocus est insuffisamment -caractérisée pour autoriser la saisie +caractérisée pour autoriser la saisie du navire, lorsque celui-ci est actuellement -dirigé vers un port non bloqué, quelle -que soit la destination ultérieure du navire +dirigé vers un port non bloqué, quelle +que soit la destination ultérieure du navire ou de son chargement.</i></p> -<p>C'est la destination réelle du navire -qui doit être envisagée, quand il s'agit +<p>C'est la destination réelle du navire +qui doit être envisagée, quand il s'agit de violation de blocus, et non la destination -ultérieure de la cargaison. -Cette destination prouvée ou présumée -ne peut donc suffire à autoriser la saisie, +ultérieure de la cargaison. +Cette destination prouvée ou présumée +ne peut donc suffire à autoriser la saisie, pour violation de blocus, d'un navire -actuellement destiné à un port non -bloqué. Mais le croiseur pourrait toujours -établir que cette destination à -un port non bloqué est apparente et -qu'en réalité, la destination immédiate -du navire est bien le port bloqué.</p> +actuellement destiné à un port non +bloqué. Mais le croiseur pourrait toujours +établir que cette destination à +un port non bloqué est apparente et +qu'en réalité, la destination immédiate +du navire est bien le port bloqué.</p> <p class="center">Article 20.</p> <p><i>Le navire qui, en violation du blocus, -est sorti du port bloqué ou a tenté d'y +est sorti du port bloqué ou a tenté d'y entrer, reste saisissable tant qu'il est -poursuivi par un bâtiment de la force -bloquante. Si la chasse en est abandonnée -ou si le blocus est levé, la saisie -n'en peut plus être pratiquée.</i></p> +poursuivi par un bâtiment de la force +bloquante. Si la chasse en est abandonnée +ou si le blocus est levé, la saisie +n'en peut plus être pratiquée.</i></p> -<p>Un navire est sorti du port bloqué -ou a tenté d'y entrer. Sera-t-il indéfiniment +<p>Un navire est sorti du port bloqué +ou a tenté d'y entrer. Sera-t-il indéfiniment saisissable? L'affirmative absolue serait excessive. Ce navire doit rester saisissable tant qu'il est -poursuivi par un bâtiment de la force -bloquante; il ne suffirait pas qu'il fût -rencontré par un croiseur de l'ennemi +poursuivi par un bâtiment de la force +bloquante; il ne suffirait pas qu'il fût +rencontré par un croiseur de l'ennemi bloquant qui ne ferait pas partie de l'escadre de blocus. La question de -savoir si la chasse est ou non abandonnée +savoir si la chasse est ou non abandonnée est une question de fait; il ne -suffit pas que le navire se soit réfugié +suffit pas que le navire se soit réfugié dans un port neutre. Le navire qui le poursuit peut attendre sa sortie, de -telle sorte que la chasse est forcément -suspendue, mais non abandonnée. La +telle sorte que la chasse est forcément +suspendue, mais non abandonnée. La saisie n'est plus possible quand le blocus -a été levé.</p> +a été levé.</p> <p class="center">Article 21.</p> <p><i>Le navire reconnu coupable de violation -de blocus est confisqué. Le chargement -est également confisqué, à moins -qu'il soit prouvé qu'au moment où la -marchandise a été embarquée, le chargeur -n'a ni connu ni pu connaître l'intention +de blocus est confisqué. Le chargement +est également confisqué, à moins +qu'il soit prouvé qu'au moment où la +marchandise a été embarquée, le chargeur +n'a ni connu ni pu connaître l'intention de violer le blocus.</i></p> -<p>Le navire est confisqué dans tous les -cas. Le chargement est aussi confisqué -en principe, mais on laisse à l'intéressé -la possibilité d'exciper de sa bonne foi, -c'est-à-dire, de prouver que, lors de +<p>Le navire est confisqué dans tous les +cas. Le chargement est aussi confisqué +en principe, mais on laisse à l'intéressé +la possibilité d'exciper de sa bonne foi, +c'est-à -dire, de prouver que, lors de l'embarquement de la marchandise, le chargeur ne connaissait pas et ne pouvait -connaître l'intention de violer le blocus.</p> +connaître l'intention de violer le blocus.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre II.</span>—<i>De la contrebande de guerre.</i></p> <p>Ce chapitre est l'un des plus importants, sinon le plus important, de la -Déclaration. Il traite d'une matière -qui a parfois provoqué de graves conflits -entre les belligérants et les neutres. -Aussi a-t-on souvent réclamé d'une -manière pressante un règlement qui -établirait d'une manière précise les +Déclaration. Il traite d'une matière +qui a parfois provoqué de graves conflits +entre les belligérants et les neutres. +Aussi a-t-on souvent réclamé d'une +manière pressante un règlement qui +établirait d'une manière précise les droits et devoirs de chacun. Le commerce -pacifique pourra être reconnaissant -de la précision qui, pour la première -fois, est apportée à ce sujet, qui -l'intéresse au plus haut point.</p> +pacifique pourra être reconnaissant +de la précision qui, pour la première +fois, est apportée à ce sujet, qui +l'intéresse au plus haut point.</p> <p>La notion de contrebande de guerre -comporte deux éléments: il s'agit -d'objets d'une certaine espèce et d'une +comporte deux éléments: il s'agit +d'objets d'une certaine espèce et d'une certaine destination. Des canons, par -exemple, sont transportés sur un navire +exemple, sont transportés sur un navire neutre. Sont-ils de la contrebande? -Cela dépend: non, s'ils sont destinés à +Cela dépend: non, s'ils sont destinés à un Gouvernement neutre; oui, s'ils -sont destinés à un Gouvernement ennemi. +sont destinés à un Gouvernement ennemi. Le commerce de certains objets -n'est nullement interdit d'une manière -générale pendant la guerre; c'est le +n'est nullement interdit d'une manière +générale pendant la guerre; c'est le commerce de ces objets avec l'ennemi -qui est illicite et contre lequel le belligérant, -au détriment duquel il se fait, -peut se protéger par les mesures qu'admet +qui est illicite et contre lequel le belligérant, +au détriment duquel il se fait, +peut se protéger par les mesures qu'admet le droit des gens.</p> -<p>Les articles 22 et 24 énumèrent les -objets et matériaux qui sont susceptibles +<p>Les articles 22 et 24 énumèrent les +objets et matériaux qui sont susceptibles de constituer de la contrebande de guerre et qui en constituent effectivement, quand ils ont une certaine -destination, qui est déterminée par les +destination, qui est déterminée par les articles 30 et 33. La distinction traditionnelle de la contrebande <i>absolue</i> et de la contrebande <i>conditionnelle</i> est -maintenue: à la première se réfèrent -les articles 22 et 30, à la seconde les +maintenue: à la première se réfèrent +les articles 22 et 30, à la seconde les articles 24 et 33.</p> <p class="center">Article 22.</p> -<p><i>Sont de plein droit considérés comme -contrebande de guerre les objets et matériaux +<p><i>Sont de plein droit considérés comme +contrebande de guerre les objets et matériaux suivants, compris sous le nom de contrebande absolue, savoir:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les armes de toute nature, y compris les armes de chasse, et les -pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> +pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les projectiles, gargousses, et -cartouches de toute nature, et les pièces -détachées caractérisées.</i></p> +cartouches de toute nature, et les pièces +détachées caractérisées.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les poudres et les explosifs spécialement -affectés à la guerre.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les poudres et les explosifs spécialement +affectés à la guerre.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les affûts, caissons, avant-trains, +<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les affûts, caissons, avant-trains, fourgons, forges de campagne, et les -pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> +pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">5<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les effets d'habillement et d'équipement -militaires caractérisés.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">5<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les effets d'habillement et d'équipement +militaires caractérisés.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">6<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les harnachements militaires caractérisés +<p class="blockquot">6<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les harnachements militaires caractérisés de toute nature.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">7<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les animaux de selle, de trait et -de bât, utilisables pour la guerre.</i></p> +de bât, utilisables pour la guerre.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">8<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le matériel de campement et les -pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">8<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le matériel de campement et les +pièces détachées caractérisées.</i></p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[Pg 644]</a></span></p> <p class="blockquot">9<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les plaques de blindage.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">10<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les bâtiments et embarcations -de guerre et les pièces détachées spécialement -caractérisées comme ne -pouvant être utilisées que sur un +<p class="blockquot">10<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les bâtiments et embarcations +de guerre et les pièces détachées spécialement +caractérisées comme ne +pouvant être utilisées que sur un navire de guerre.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">11<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les instruments et appareils exclusivement faits pour la fabrication des munitions de guerre, pour la fabrication -et la réparation des armes et du -matériel militaire, terrestre ou naval.</i></p> - -<p>Cette liste est celle qui avait été arrêtée -à la Deuxième Conférence de la -Paix par le Comité chargé d'étudier -spécialement la question de la contrebande. -Elle était le résultat de concessions +et la réparation des armes et du +matériel militaire, terrestre ou naval.</i></p> + +<p>Cette liste est celle qui avait été arrêtée +à la Deuxième Conférence de la +Paix par le Comité chargé d'étudier +spécialement la question de la contrebande. +Elle était le résultat de concessions mutuelles, et il n'a pas paru -sage de rouvrir les discussions à ce +sage de rouvrir les discussions à ce sujet, soit pour retrancher, soit pour ajouter des articles.</p> <p>Les mots <i>sont de plein droit</i> veulent dire que la disposition produit son effet, -par le fait même de la guerre, et qu'aucune -déclaration des belligérants n'est -nécessaire. Le commerce est averti -dès le temps de paix.</p> +par le fait même de la guerre, et qu'aucune +déclaration des belligérants n'est +nécessaire. Le commerce est averti +dès le temps de paix.</p> <p class="center">Article 23.</p> -<p><i>Les objets et matériaux qui sont exclusivement -employés à la guerre peuvent -être ajoutés à la liste de contrebande absolue -au moyen d'une déclaration notifiée.</i></p> - -<p><i>La notification est adressée aux Gouvernements -des autres Puissances ou à -leurs représentants accrédités auprès de -la Puissance qui fait la déclaration. La -notification faite après l'ouverture des -hostilités n'est adressée qu'aux Puissances +<p><i>Les objets et matériaux qui sont exclusivement +employés à la guerre peuvent +être ajoutés à la liste de contrebande absolue +au moyen d'une déclaration notifiée.</i></p> + +<p><i>La notification est adressée aux Gouvernements +des autres Puissances ou à +leurs représentants accrédités auprès de +la Puissance qui fait la déclaration. La +notification faite après l'ouverture des +hostilités n'est adressée qu'aux Puissances neutres.</i></p> -<p>Certaines découvertes ou inventions +<p>Certaines découvertes ou inventions pourraient rendre insuffisante la liste de l'article 22. Une addition pourra y -être faite à condition qu'il s'agisse -d'objets et matériaux <i>qui sont exclusivement -employés à la guerre</i>. Cette addition -doit être notifiée aux autres +être faite à condition qu'il s'agisse +d'objets et matériaux <i>qui sont exclusivement +employés à la guerre</i>. Cette addition +doit être notifiée aux autres Puissances, qui prendront les mesures -nécessaires pour la faire connaître à -leurs nationaux. Théoriquement, la +nécessaires pour la faire connaître à +leurs nationaux. Théoriquement, la notification peut se faire en temps de paix ou en temps de guerre. Sans -doute, le premier cas se présentera rarement, -parce qu'un État faisant une -pareille notification pourrait être soupçonné -de songer à une guerre; cela aurait -néanmoins l'avantage de renseigner -le commerce à l'avance. Il n'y avait -pas de raison d'en exclure la possibilité.</p> - -<p>On a trouvé excessive la faculté accordée -à une Puissance de faire une -addition à la liste en vertu de sa simple -déclaration. Il est à remarquer que -cette faculté ne présente pas les dangers +doute, le premier cas se présentera rarement, +parce qu'un État faisant une +pareille notification pourrait être soupçonné +de songer à une guerre; cela aurait +néanmoins l'avantage de renseigner +le commerce à l'avance. Il n'y avait +pas de raison d'en exclure la possibilité.</p> + +<p>On a trouvé excessive la faculté accordée +à une Puissance de faire une +addition à la liste en vertu de sa simple +déclaration. Il est à remarquer que +cette faculté ne présente pas les dangers qu'on lui suppose. D'abord, bien entendu, -la déclaration ne produit d'effet +la déclaration ne produit d'effet que pour celui qui la fait, en ce sens -que l'article ajouté ne sera de la contrebande -que pour lui, en tant que belligérant; -les autres États pourront -d'ailleurs faire une déclaration analogue. +que l'article ajouté ne sera de la contrebande +que pour lui, en tant que belligérant; +les autres États pourront +d'ailleurs faire une déclaration analogue. L'addition ne peut concerner -que des objets <i>exclusivement employés à +que des objets <i>exclusivement employés à la guerre</i>; actuellement il serait difficile d'indiquer de tels objets ne rentrant -pas dans la liste. L'avenir est réservé. -Si une Puissance avait la prétention -d'ajouter à la liste de contrebande absolue +pas dans la liste. L'avenir est réservé. +Si une Puissance avait la prétention +d'ajouter à la liste de contrebande absolue des articles non exclusivement -employés à la guerre, elle pourrait -s'attirer des réclamations diplomatiques, -puisqu'elle méconnaîtrait une -règle acceptée. De plus, il y aurait un -recours éventuel devant la Cour Internationale +employés à la guerre, elle pourrait +s'attirer des réclamations diplomatiques, +puisqu'elle méconnaîtrait une +règle acceptée. De plus, il y aurait un +recours éventuel devant la Cour Internationale des Prises. On peut supposer que la Cour estime que l'objet -mentionné dans la déclaration de contrebande -absolue y figure à tort, parce -qu'il n'est pas exclusivement employé -à la guerre, mais qu'il aurait pu rentrer -dans une déclaration de contrebande +mentionné dans la déclaration de contrebande +absolue y figure à tort, parce +qu'il n'est pas exclusivement employé +à la guerre, mais qu'il aurait pu rentrer +dans une déclaration de contrebande conditionnelle. La confiscation pourra -se justifier si la saisie a été faite dans les -conditions prévues pour cette espèce de -contrebande (articles 33 à 35), qui -diffèrent de celles qu'on applique à la +se justifier si la saisie a été faite dans les +conditions prévues pour cette espèce de +contrebande (articles 33 à 35), qui +diffèrent de celles qu'on applique à la contrebande absolue (article 30).</p> -<p>Il avait été suggéré que, dans l'intérêt -du commerce neutre, un délai devrait -s'écouler entre la notification et son application. -Mais cela aurait été très -préjudiciable au belligérant qui veut -précisément se protéger, puisque, pendant -le délai, le commerce des articles -jugés par lui dangereux aurait été libre, -et que l'effet de sa mesure aurait été -manqué. Il a été tenu compte, sous une -autre forme, des considérations d'équité -qui avaient été invoquées (voir article +<p>Il avait été suggéré que, dans l'intérêt +du commerce neutre, un délai devrait +s'écouler entre la notification et son application. +Mais cela aurait été très +préjudiciable au belligérant qui veut +précisément se protéger, puisque, pendant +le délai, le commerce des articles +jugés par lui dangereux aurait été libre, +et que l'effet de sa mesure aurait été +manqué. Il a été tenu compte, sous une +autre forme, des considérations d'équité +qui avaient été invoquées (voir article 43).</p> <p class="center">Article 24.</p> -<p><i>Sont de plein droit considérés comme +<p><i>Sont de plein droit considérés comme contrebande de guerre les objets et -matériaux susceptibles de servir aux -usages de la guerre comme à des usages +matériaux susceptibles de servir aux +usages de la guerre comme à des usages pacifiques, et compris sous le nom de contrebande conditionnelle, savoir:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les vivres.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les fourrages et les graines -propres à la nourriture des animaux.</i></p> +propres à la nourriture des animaux.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les vêtements et les tissus d'habillement, -les chaussures, propres à des +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les vêtements et les tissus d'habillement, +les chaussures, propres à des usages militaires.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>L'or et l'argent monnayés et en -lingots, les papiers représentatifs de la +<p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>L'or et l'argent monnayés et en +lingots, les papiers représentatifs de la monnaie.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">5<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les véhicules de toute nature -pouvant servir à la guerre, ainsi que -les pièces détachées.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">5<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les véhicules de toute nature +pouvant servir à la guerre, ainsi que +les pièces détachées.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">6<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les navires, bateaux et embarcations de tout genre, les docks flottants, -parties de bassins, ainsi que les pièces -détachées.</i></p> +parties de bassins, ainsi que les pièces +détachées.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">7<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le matériel fixe ou roulant des -chemins de fer, le matériel des télégraphes, -radiotélégraphes et téléphones.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">7<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le matériel fixe ou roulant des +chemins de fer, le matériel des télégraphes, +radiotélégraphes et téléphones.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">8<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les aérostats et les appareils -d'aviation, les pièces détachées caractérisées +<p class="blockquot">8<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les aérostats et les appareils +d'aviation, les pièces détachées caractérisées ainsi que les accessoires, objets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[Pg 645]</a></span> -et matériaux caractérisés comme devant -servir à l'aérostation ou à l'aviation.</i></p> +et matériaux caractérisés comme devant +servir à l'aérostation ou à l'aviation.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">9<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les combustibles; les matières +<p class="blockquot">9<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les combustibles; les matières lubrifiantes.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">10<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les poudres et les explosifs qui -ne sont pas spécialement affectés à la +ne sont pas spécialement affectés à la guerre.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">11<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les fils de fer barbelés, ainsi -que les instruments servant à les fixer -ou à les couper.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">11<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les fils de fer barbelés, ainsi +que les instruments servant à les fixer +ou à les couper.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">12<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les fers à cheval et le matériel -de maréchalerie.</i></p> +<p class="blockquot">12<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les fers à cheval et le matériel +de maréchalerie.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">13<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les objets de harnachement et de sellerie.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">14<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les jumelles, les télescopes, les -chronomètres et les divers instruments +<p class="blockquot">14<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les jumelles, les télescopes, les +chronomètres et les divers instruments nautiques.</i></p> <p>Sur l'expression <i>sont de plein droit</i>, il -faut faire la même observation qu'à -propos de l'article 22. Les objets énumérés +faut faire la même observation qu'à +propos de l'article 22. Les objets énumérés ne constituent de la contrebande conditionnelle que s'ils ont la destination -prévue par l'article 33.</p> +prévue par l'article 33.</p> <p>Les <i>vivres</i> comprennent les produits -nécessaires ou utiles à l'alimentation de +nécessaires ou utiles à l'alimentation de l'homme, solides ou liquides.</p> -<p>Les <i>papiers représentatifs de la monnaie</i> +<p>Les <i>papiers représentatifs de la monnaie</i> ne comprennent que le papier-monnaie, les billets de banque ayant ou -non cours légal. Les lettres de change -et les chèques n'y rentrent pas.</p> +non cours légal. Les lettres de change +et les chèques n'y rentrent pas.</p> -<p>Les machines et chaudières rentrent -dans l'énumération du 6<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> +<p>Les machines et chaudières rentrent +dans l'énumération du 6<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> -<p>Le matériel des chemins de fer comprend -le matériel fixe, comme les rails, +<p>Le matériel des chemins de fer comprend +le matériel fixe, comme les rails, les traverses, les plaques tournantes, les -pièces destinées à la construction des -ponts, et le matériel roulant, comme les +pièces destinées à la construction des +ponts, et le matériel roulant, comme les locomotives, les wagons.</p> <p class="center">Article 25.</p> -<p><i>Les objets et matériaux susceptibles de -servir aux usages de la guerre comme à +<p><i>Les objets et matériaux susceptibles de +servir aux usages de la guerre comme à des usages pacifiques, et autres que ceux -visés aux articles 22 et 24, peuvent être -ajoutés à la liste de contrebande conditionnelle -au moyen d'une déclaration qui -sera notifiée de la manière prévue à -l'article 23, deuxième alinéa.</i></p> +visés aux articles 22 et 24, peuvent être +ajoutés à la liste de contrebande conditionnelle +au moyen d'une déclaration qui +sera notifiée de la manière prévue à +l'article 23, deuxième alinéa.</i></p> <p>Cette disposition correspond, pour la -contrebande conditionnelle, à la disposition +contrebande conditionnelle, à la disposition de l'article 23 pour la contrebande absolue.</p> <p class="center">Article 26.</p> <p><i>Si une Puissance renonce, en ce qui la -concerne, à considérer comme contrebande -de guerre des objets et matériaux qui -rentrent dans une des catégories énumérées -aux articles 22 et 24, elle fera connaître -son intention par une déclaration -notifiée de la manière prévue à l'article -23, deuxième alinéa.</i></p> - -<p>Un belligérant peut vouloir ne pas -user du droit de considérer comme contrebande +concerne, à considérer comme contrebande +de guerre des objets et matériaux qui +rentrent dans une des catégories énumérées +aux articles 22 et 24, elle fera connaître +son intention par une déclaration +notifiée de la manière prévue à l'article +23, deuxième alinéa.</i></p> + +<p>Un belligérant peut vouloir ne pas +user du droit de considérer comme contrebande de guerre les articles rentrant dans les listes ci-dessus. Il peut lui convenir ou de faire rentrer dans la contrebande conditionnelle un article compris dans la contrebande absolue -ou de déclarer libre, en ce qui le concerne, +ou de déclarer libre, en ce qui le concerne, le commerce de tel article rentrant -dans l'une ou dans l'autre catégorie. -Il est à désirer qu'il fasse connaître -son intention à ce sujet, et il est +dans l'une ou dans l'autre catégorie. +Il est à désirer qu'il fasse connaître +son intention à ce sujet, et il est probable qu'il le fera pour avoir le -mérite de la mesure. S'il ne le fait pas, +mérite de la mesure. S'il ne le fait pas, et s'il se contente de donner des instructions -à ses croiseurs, les navires visités -seront agréablement surpris si le visiteur +à ses croiseurs, les navires visités +seront agréablement surpris si le visiteur ne leur reproche pas de transporter -ce qu'eux-mêmes considéraient comme -de contrebande. Rien n'empêche une -Puissance de faire une pareille déclaration +ce qu'eux-mêmes considéraient comme +de contrebande. Rien n'empêche une +Puissance de faire une pareille déclaration en temps de paix. Voir ce qui est -dit à propos de l'article 23.</p> +dit à propos de l'article 23.</p> <p class="center">Article 27.</p> -<p><i>Les objets et matériaux qui ne sont pas +<p><i>Les objets et matériaux qui ne sont pas susceptibles de servir aux usages de la -guerre, ne peuvent pas être déclarés contrebande +guerre, ne peuvent pas être déclarés contrebande de guerre.</i></p> <p>L'existence d'une liste dite <i>libre</i> (article 28) rend utile cette affirmation que les objets qui ne sont pas susceptibles de servir aux usages de la guerre -ne peuvent être déclarés contrebande +ne peuvent être déclarés contrebande de guerre. On aurait pu croire que les objets ne rentrant pas dans cette liste -peuvent être déclarés au moins de +peuvent être déclarés au moins de contrebande conditionnelle.</p> <p class="center">Article 28.</p> -<p><i>Ne peuvent pas être déclarés contrebande +<p><i>Ne peuvent pas être déclarés contrebande de guerre les articles suivants, savoir:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le coton brut, les laines, soies, jutes, lins, chanvres bruts, et les autres -matières premières des industries textiles, -ainsi que leurs filés.</i></p> +matières premières des industries textiles, +ainsi que leurs filés.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les noix et graines oléagineuses; +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les noix et graines oléagineuses; le coprah.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les caoutchoucs, résines, gommes +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les caoutchoucs, résines, gommes et laques; le houblon.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les peaux brutes, les cornes, os @@ -38872,7 +38828,7 @@ et ivoires.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">5<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les engrais naturels et artificiels, y compris les nitrates et phosphates -pouvant servir à l'agriculture.</i></p> +pouvant servir à l'agriculture.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">6<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les minerais.</i></p> @@ -38882,11 +38838,11 @@ les briques, ardoises et tuiles.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">8<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les porcelaines et verreries.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">9<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le papier et les matières préparées +<p class="blockquot">9<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Le papier et les matières préparées pour sa fabrication.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">10<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les savons, couleurs, y compris -les matières exclusivement destinées à +les matières exclusivement destinées à les produire, et les vernis.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">11<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>L'hypochlorite de chaux, les @@ -38895,14 +38851,14 @@ sulfate de soude en pains, l'ammoniaque, le sulfate d'ammoniaque et le sulfate de cuivre.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">12<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les machines servant à l'agriculture, -aux mines, aux industries textiles et à l'imprimerie.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span></p> +<p class="blockquot">12<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les machines servant à l'agriculture, +aux mines, aux industries textiles et à l'imprimerie.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span></p> -<p class="blockquot">13<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les pierres précieuses, les pierres +<p class="blockquot">13<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les pierres précieuses, les pierres fines, les perles, la nacre et les coraux.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">14<span class="topnum">o </span><i>Les horloges, pendules, et -montres autres que les chronomètres.</i></p> +montres autres que les chronomètres.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">15<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les articles de mode et les objets de fantaisie.</i></p> @@ -38914,26 +38870,26 @@ crins et soies.</i></p> d'ornement; les meubles et accessoires de bureau.</i></p> -<p>C'est pour diminuer les inconvénients +<p>C'est pour diminuer les inconvénients de la guerre pour le commerce qu'il a -été jugé utile de dresser cette <i>liste</i> dite +été jugé utile de dresser cette <i>liste</i> dite <i>libre</i>, ce qui ne veut pas dire, comme il -a été expliqué plus haut, que tous les -objets restés en dehors pourraient être -déclarés contrebande de guerre.</p> +a été expliqué plus haut, que tous les +objets restés en dehors pourraient être +déclarés contrebande de guerre.</p> <p>Les <i>minerais</i> sont les produits des -mines servant à obtenir des métaux +mines servant à obtenir des métaux (<i>metallic ores</i>).</p> -<p>On avait demandé de faire rentrer +<p>On avait demandé de faire rentrer dans le 10<span class="topnum">o</span> les <i>produits tinctoriaux</i>; -cela a paru trop général; il y a des matières -d'où on tire des couleurs, comme -le charbon, mais qui servent aussi à +cela a paru trop général; il y a des matières +d'où on tire des couleurs, comme +le charbon, mais qui servent aussi à d'autres usages. Les produits qui ne -sont utilisés que pour obtenir des couleurs -bénéficient de l'exemption.</p> +sont utilisés que pour obtenir des couleurs +bénéficient de l'exemption.</p> <p>Les "articles de Paris" dont tout le monde comprend la signification rentrent @@ -38949,127 +38905,127 @@ les objets d'ameublement et d'ornement <p class="center">Article 29.</p> -<p><i>Ne peuvent non plus être considérés +<p><i>Ne peuvent non plus être considérés comme contrebande de guerre:</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les objets et matériaux servant -exclusivement à soigner les malades et -les blessés. Toutefois, ils peuvent, en -cas de nécessité militaire importante, -être réquisitionnés, moyennant une indemnité, +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les objets et matériaux servant +exclusivement à soigner les malades et +les blessés. Toutefois, ils peuvent, en +cas de nécessité militaire importante, +être réquisitionnés, moyennant une indemnité, lorsqu'ils ont la destination -prévue à l'article 30.</i></p> +prévue à l'article 30.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les objets et matériaux destinés -à l'usage du navire où ils sont trouvés, -ainsi qu'à l'usage de l'équipage et des +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Les objets et matériaux destinés +à l'usage du navire où ils sont trouvés, +ainsi qu'à l'usage de l'équipage et des passagers de ce navire pendant la -traversée.</i></p> +traversée.</i></p> -<p>Si les objets énumérés dans l'article -29 ne sont pas non plus considérés +<p>Si les objets énumérés dans l'article +29 ne sont pas non plus considérés comme contrebande de guerre, c'est pour des motifs autres que ceux qui ont fait admettre la liste de l'article 28.</p> -<p>Des raisons d'humanité ont fait -écarter les objets et matériaux servant -exclusivement à soigner les malades et -les blessés, ce qui comprend naturellement -les drogues et les divers médicaments. +<p>Des raisons d'humanité ont fait +écarter les objets et matériaux servant +exclusivement à soigner les malades et +les blessés, ce qui comprend naturellement +les drogues et les divers médicaments. Il ne s'agit pas des bateaux -hospitaliers, pour lesquels une immunité -spéciale est assurée par la Convention +hospitaliers, pour lesquels une immunité +spéciale est assurée par la Convention de La Haye du 18 octobre 1907, mais de navires de commerce ordinaires dont le chargement comprendrait des -objets de la nature indiquée. Le croiseur +objets de la nature indiquée. Le croiseur a toutefois le droit, en cas de -nécessité importante, de réquisitionner -ces objets pour les besoins de son équipage -ou de sa flotte; cette réquisition -ne peut être faite que moyennant indemnité. +nécessité importante, de réquisitionner +ces objets pour les besoins de son équipage +ou de sa flotte; cette réquisition +ne peut être faite que moyennant indemnité. Mais il faut remarquer que -ce droit de réquisition ne peut s'exercer +ce droit de réquisition ne peut s'exercer dans tous les cas. Les objets dont il s'agit doivent avoir la destination -prévue à l'article 30, c'est-à-dire, la +prévue à l'article 30, c'est-à -dire, la destination ennemie. Autrement le droit commun reprend son empire: -un belligérant ne saurait avoir le droit -de réquisition à l'égard des navires +un belligérant ne saurait avoir le droit +de réquisition à l'égard des navires neutres en pleine mer.</p> -<p>On ne peut non plus considérer -comme contrebande les objets et matériaux -destinés à l'usage du navire et -qui pourraient, en eux-mêmes et par +<p>On ne peut non plus considérer +comme contrebande les objets et matériaux +destinés à l'usage du navire et +qui pourraient, en eux-mêmes et par leur nature, constituer de la contrebande de guerre, par exemple les armes -destinées à défendre le navire contre -les pirates ou à faire des signaux. Il -en est de même de ce qui est destiné à -l'usage de l'équipage et des passagers -pendant la traversée; l'équipage comprend +destinées à défendre le navire contre +les pirates ou à faire des signaux. Il +en est de même de ce qui est destiné à +l'usage de l'équipage et des passagers +pendant la traversée; l'équipage comprend ici tout le personnel du navire en -général.</p> +général.</p> <p><i>De la destination de la contrebande.</i>—Comme -il a été dit, le deuxième élément +il a été dit, le deuxième élément de la notion de contrebande est <i>la destination</i>. -De grandes difficultés se sont -produites à ce sujet et se symbolisent -dans la <i>théorie du voyage continu</i>, souvent -combattue ou invoquée sans que +De grandes difficultés se sont +produites à ce sujet et se symbolisent +dans la <i>théorie du voyage continu</i>, souvent +combattue ou invoquée sans que l'on se rende bien compte de son exacte signification. Il faut envisager simplement -les situations en elles-mêmes et -voir comment elles doivent être réglées -de manière à ne pas tracasser inutilement -les neutres et à ne pas sacrifier -les droits légitimes des belligérants.</p> +les situations en elles-mêmes et +voir comment elles doivent être réglées +de manière à ne pas tracasser inutilement +les neutres et à ne pas sacrifier +les droits légitimes des belligérants.</p> <p>Pour amener un rapprochement entre -des théories et des pratiques contraires, -on a séparé, à ce point de vue, la contrebande +des théories et des pratiques contraires, +on a séparé, à ce point de vue, la contrebande absolue de la contrebande conditionnelle.</p> <p>A la contrebande absolue se rapportent -les articles 30 à 32, à la contrebande -conditionnelle les articles 33 à 36.</p> +les articles 30 à 32, à la contrebande +conditionnelle les articles 33 à 36.</p> <p class="center">Article 30.</p> <p><i>Les articles de contrebande absolue sont -saisissables, s'il est établi qu'ils sont destinés -au territoire de l'ennemi ou à un -territoire occupé par lui ou à ses forces -armées. Peu importe que le transport de +saisissables, s'il est établi qu'ils sont destinés +au territoire de l'ennemi ou à un +territoire occupé par lui ou à ses forces +armées. Peu importe que le transport de ces objets se fasse directement ou exige, soit un transbordement, soit un trajet par terre.</i></p> <p>Les objets compris dans la liste de l'article 22 constituent de la contrebande -absolue, quand ils sont destinés -à un territoire de l'ennemi ou à un -territoire occupé par lui ou à ses forces -armées de terre ou de mer. Ces objets +absolue, quand ils sont destinés +à un territoire de l'ennemi ou à un +territoire occupé par lui ou à ses forces +armées de terre ou de mer. Ces objets sont saisissables, du moment qu'une<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[Pg 647]</a></span> -pareille destination finale peut être -établie par le capteur. Ce n'est donc +pareille destination finale peut être +établie par le capteur. Ce n'est donc pas la destination du navire qui est -décisive, c'est la destination de la marchandise. -Celle-ci a beau être à bord -d'un navire qui doit la débarquer dans +décisive, c'est la destination de la marchandise. +Celle-ci a beau être à bord +d'un navire qui doit la débarquer dans un port neutre; du moment que le -capteur est à même d'établir que cette -marchandise doit, de là, être transportée +capteur est à même d'établir que cette +marchandise doit, de là , être transportée en pays ennemi par voie maritime ou terrestre, cela suffit pour justifier la saisie et ensuite la confiscation de -la cargaison. C'est le principe même -du voyage continu qui est ainsi consacré, +la cargaison. C'est le principe même +du voyage continu qui est ainsi consacré, pour la contrebande absolue, par l'article 30. On regarde comme ne faisant qu'un tout le trajet suivi par @@ -39077,427 +39033,427 @@ la marchandise.</p> <p class="center">Article 31.</p> -<p><i>La destination prévue à l'article 30 -est définitivement prouvée dans les cas +<p><i>La destination prévue à l'article 30 +est définitivement prouvée dans les cas suivants:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsque la marchandise est -documentée pour être débarquée dans -un port de l'ennemi ou pour être livrée -à ses forces armées.</i></p> +documentée pour être débarquée dans +un port de l'ennemi ou pour être livrée +à ses forces armées.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsque le navire ne doit aborder -qu'à des ports ennemis, ou lorsqu'il -doit toucher à un port de l'ennemi ou -rejoindre ses forces armées, avant +qu'à des ports ennemis, ou lorsqu'il +doit toucher à un port de l'ennemi ou +rejoindre ses forces armées, avant d'arriver au port neutre pour lequel la -marchandise est documentée.</i></p> +marchandise est documentée.</i></p> -<p>Comme il a été dit, c'est au capteur +<p>Comme il a été dit, c'est au capteur qu'incombe l'obligation de prouver que la marchandise de contrebande a bien -la destination prévue par l'article 30. -Dans certains cas prévus par l'article -31, cette destination est <i>définitivement</i> -prouvée, c'est-à-dire que la preuve +la destination prévue par l'article 30. +Dans certains cas prévus par l'article +31, cette destination est <i>définitivement</i> +prouvée, c'est-à -dire que la preuve contraire n'est pas admise.</p> <p><i>Premier Cas.</i>—La marchandise est -<i>documentée</i> pour être débarquée dans -un port ennemi, c'est-à-dire que, -d'après les papiers de bord qui se réfèrent -à cette marchandise, elle doit bien -y être débarquée. Il y a alors un véritable -aveu, de la part des intéressés eux-mêmes, +<i>documentée</i> pour être débarquée dans +un port ennemi, c'est-à -dire que, +d'après les papiers de bord qui se réfèrent +à cette marchandise, elle doit bien +y être débarquée. Il y a alors un véritable +aveu, de la part des intéressés eux-mêmes, de la destination ennemie.</p> -<p><i>Deuxième Cas.</i>—Le navire ne doit -aborder qu'à des ports ennemis ou bien -il doit toucher à un port ennemi avant +<p><i>Deuxième Cas.</i>—Le navire ne doit +aborder qu'à des ports ennemis ou bien +il doit toucher à un port ennemi avant d'arriver au port neutre pour lequel la -marchandise est documentée. Ainsi -cette marchandise doit bien, d'après -les papiers qui la concernent, être débarquée +marchandise est documentée. Ainsi +cette marchandise doit bien, d'après +les papiers qui la concernent, être débarquée dans un port neutre, mais le navire qui la porte doit, avant d'arriver -à ce port, toucher à un port +à ce port, toucher à un port ennemi. Elle sera saisissable et on -ne réserve pas la possibilité de prouver -que la destination neutre est réelle -et conforme aux intentions des intéressés. +ne réserve pas la possibilité de prouver +que la destination neutre est réelle +et conforme aux intentions des intéressés. La circonstance que, avant -de parvenir à cette destination, le navire -touchera à un port ennemi, ferait -naître un trop grand risque pour le belligérant +de parvenir à cette destination, le navire +touchera à un port ennemi, ferait +naître un trop grand risque pour le belligérant dont le croiseur visite le navire. -Sans supposer même une fraude préméditée, +Sans supposer même une fraude préméditée, il pourrait y avoir, pour le capitaine du navire de commerce, une -forte tentation de débarquer la contrebande +forte tentation de débarquer la contrebande dont il trouverait un prix avantageux, -et, pour l'autorité locale, la -tentation de réquisitionner cette marchandise.</p> +et, pour l'autorité locale, la +tentation de réquisitionner cette marchandise.</p> -<p>Le cas où le navire, avant d'arriver +<p>Le cas où le navire, avant d'arriver au port neutre, doit rejoindre les forces -armées de l'ennemi, est identique.</p> +armées de l'ennemi, est identique.</p> <p>Pour simplifier, la disposition ne parle que d'un <i>port ennemi</i>; il va de soi qu'il -faut lui assimiler le <i>port occupé par -l'ennemi</i>, comme cela résulte de la -règle générale de l'article 30.</p> +faut lui assimiler le <i>port occupé par +l'ennemi</i>, comme cela résulte de la +règle générale de l'article 30.</p> <p class="center">Article 32.</p> -<p><i>Les papiers de bord font preuve complète -de l'itinéraire du navire transportant -de la contrebande absolue, à moins que -le navire soit rencontré ayant manifestement -dévié de la route qu'il devrait suivre -d'après ses papiers de bord et sans pouvoir +<p><i>Les papiers de bord font preuve complète +de l'itinéraire du navire transportant +de la contrebande absolue, à moins que +le navire soit rencontré ayant manifestement +dévié de la route qu'il devrait suivre +d'après ses papiers de bord et sans pouvoir justifier d'une cause suffisante de -cette déviation.</i></p> +cette déviation.</i></p> <p>Les papiers de bord font donc preuve -complète de l'itinéraire du navire, à -moins que ce navire soit rencontré dans +complète de l'itinéraire du navire, à +moins que ce navire soit rencontré dans des circonstances qui montrent que l'on -ne peut se fier à leurs allégations. Voir, -d'ailleurs, les explications données à +ne peut se fier à leurs allégations. Voir, +d'ailleurs, les explications données à propos de l'article 35.</p> <p class="center">Article 33.</p> <p><i>Les articles de contrebande conditionnelle -sont saisissables, s'il est établi qu'ils -sont destinés à l'usage des forces armées -ou des administrations de l'État ennemi, -à moins, dans ce dernier cas, que les circonstances -établissent qu'en fait ces -articles ne peuvent être utilisés pour la -guerre en cours; cette dernière réserve -ne s'applique pas aux envois visés par +sont saisissables, s'il est établi qu'ils +sont destinés à l'usage des forces armées +ou des administrations de l'État ennemi, +à moins, dans ce dernier cas, que les circonstances +établissent qu'en fait ces +articles ne peuvent être utilisés pour la +guerre en cours; cette dernière réserve +ne s'applique pas aux envois visés par l'article 24—4<span class="topnum">o</span>.</i></p> -<p>Les règles qui concernent la contrebande -conditionnelle diffèrent de celles -qui ont été posées pour la contrebande -absolue, à un double point de vue: 1<span class="topnum">o</span> -il ne s'agit pas d'une destination à -l'ennemi en général, mais d'une destination -à l'usage de ses forces armées +<p>Les règles qui concernent la contrebande +conditionnelle diffèrent de celles +qui ont été posées pour la contrebande +absolue, à un double point de vue: 1<span class="topnum">o</span> +il ne s'agit pas d'une destination à +l'ennemi en général, mais d'une destination +à l'usage de ses forces armées ou de ses administrations; 2<span class="topnum">o</span> la doctrine -du voyage continu est écartée. -A la première idée correspondent les -articles 33 et 34; à la seconde correspond +du voyage continu est écartée. +A la première idée correspondent les +articles 33 et 34; à la seconde correspond l'article 35.</p> <p>Les objets compris dans la liste de la contrebande conditionnelle peuvent -servir à des usages pacifiques comme à -des emplois hostiles. Si, d'après les +servir à des usages pacifiques comme à +des emplois hostiles. Si, d'après les circonstances, l'emploi pacifique est certain, la saisie ne se justifie pas; il en est autrement si l'emploi hostile doit se supposer, ce qui arrive, par exemple, -s'il s'agit de vivres destinés à une armée -ou à une flotte de l'ennemi, de charbon -destiné à une flotte ennemie. En cas -pareil, il n'y a évidemment pas de -doute. Mais que faut-il décider quand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span> -c'est à l'usage des administrations -civiles d'État ennemi que les objets -sont destinés? C'est de l'argent qui -est envoyé à une administration civile -et qui doit être employé au paiement +s'il s'agit de vivres destinés à une armée +ou à une flotte de l'ennemi, de charbon +destiné à une flotte ennemie. En cas +pareil, il n'y a évidemment pas de +doute. Mais que faut-il décider quand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span> +c'est à l'usage des administrations +civiles d'État ennemi que les objets +sont destinés? C'est de l'argent qui +est envoyé à une administration civile +et qui doit être employé au paiement du salaire de ses agents, des rails de -chemin de fer qui sont expédiés à une +chemin de fer qui sont expédiés à une administration des travaux publics. Il y aura, dans ces cas, <i>destination ennemie</i> rendant la marchandise saisissable d'abord et confiscable ensuite. Cela -s'explique pour des raisons à la fois -juridiques et pratiques. L'État est un, -quoique les fonctions nécessaires à son -action soient confiées à diverses administrations. +s'explique pour des raisons à la fois +juridiques et pratiques. L'État est un, +quoique les fonctions nécessaires à son +action soient confiées à diverses administrations. Si une administration civile peut recevoir librement des vivres -ou de l'argent, cela ne profite pas à elle -seule, mais à l'État tout entier, y compris +ou de l'argent, cela ne profite pas à elle +seule, mais à l'État tout entier, y compris l'administration militaire, puisque -les ressources générales de l'État augmentent +les ressources générales de l'État augmentent ainsi. Il y a plus: ce que -reçoit une administration civile peut -être jugé plus nécessaire à l'administration -militaire et attribué directement -à celle-ci. L'argent ou les vivres -réellement destinés à une administration +reçoit une administration civile peut +être jugé plus nécessaire à l'administration +militaire et attribué directement +à celle-ci. L'argent ou les vivres +réellement destinés à une administration civile peuvent se trouver ainsi -directement employés aux besoins de -l'armée. Cette possibilité, qui existe +directement employés aux besoins de +l'armée. Cette possibilité, qui existe toujours, explique pourquoi la destination -aux administrations de l'État -ennemi est assimilée à la destination -aux forces armées.</p> +aux administrations de l'État +ennemi est assimilée à la destination +aux forces armées.</p> -<p>Il s'agit des <i>administrations de l'État</i>, -qui sont des dépendances du pouvoir +<p>Il s'agit des <i>administrations de l'État</i>, +qui sont des dépendances du pouvoir central, et non de toutes les administrations -qui peuvent exister dans l'État +qui peuvent exister dans l'État ennemi; les administrations locales, municipales, par exemple, n'y rentrent -pas, et ce qui serait destiné à leur usage +pas, et ce qui serait destiné à leur usage ne constituerait pas de la contrebande.</p> <p>La guerre peut se poursuivre dans des circonstances telles que la destination -à l'usage d'une administration civile ne -puisse être suspectée et ne puisse, par -conséquent, donner à la marchandise -le caractère de contrebande. Par exemple, +à l'usage d'une administration civile ne +puisse être suspectée et ne puisse, par +conséquent, donner à la marchandise +le caractère de contrebande. Par exemple, une guerre existe en Europe et -les colonies des pays belligérants ne +les colonies des pays belligérants ne sont pas, en fait, atteintes par la guerre. Les vivres ou autres objets de la liste de contrebande conditionnelle qui seraient -destinés à l'usage d'une administration -civile coloniale ne seraient pas réputés +destinés à l'usage d'une administration +civile coloniale ne seraient pas réputés contrebande de guerre, parce que les -considérations invoquées plus haut ne -s'appliquent pas dans l'espèce; il ne +considérations invoquées plus haut ne +s'appliquent pas dans l'espèce; il ne peut y avoir emprunt pour les besoins de la guerre des ressources de l'administration civile. Exception est faite pour l'or et l'argent ou les papiers -représentatifs de la monnaie, parce +représentatifs de la monnaie, parce qu'une somme d'argent peut facilement -se transmettre d'un bout du monde à +se transmettre d'un bout du monde à l'autre.</p> <p class="center">Article 34.</p> -<p><i>Il y a présomption de la destination -prévue à l'article 33, si l'envoi est adressé -aux autorités ennemies, ou à un commerçant -établi en pays ennemi et lorsqu'il est -notoire que ce commerçant fournit à l'ennemi -des objets et matériaux de cette -nature. Il en est de même si l'envoi est -à destination d'une place fortifiée ennemie, +<p><i>Il y a présomption de la destination +prévue à l'article 33, si l'envoi est adressé +aux autorités ennemies, ou à un commerçant +établi en pays ennemi et lorsqu'il est +notoire que ce commerçant fournit à l'ennemi +des objets et matériaux de cette +nature. Il en est de même si l'envoi est +à destination d'une place fortifiée ennemie, ou d'une autre place servant de -base aux forces armées ennemies; toutefois, -cette présomption ne s'applique point -au navire de commerce lui-même faisant +base aux forces armées ennemies; toutefois, +cette présomption ne s'applique point +au navire de commerce lui-même faisant route vers une de ces places et dont on -entend établir le caractère de contrebande.</i></p> +entend établir le caractère de contrebande.</i></p> -<p><i>A défaut des présomptions ci-dessus, -la destination est présumée innocente.</i></p> +<p><i>A défaut des présomptions ci-dessus, +la destination est présumée innocente.</i></p> -<p><i>Les présomptions établies dans le présent +<p><i>Les présomptions établies dans le présent article admettent la preuve contraire.</i></p> <p>Ordinairement les articles de contrebande -ne seront pas expressément adressés -aux autorités militaires ou aux -administrations de l'État ennemi. On +ne seront pas expressément adressés +aux autorités militaires ou aux +administrations de l'État ennemi. On dissimulera plus ou moins la destination -véritable; c'est au capteur à -l'établir pour justifier la saisie. Mais -on a cru raisonnable d'établir des présomptions, -soit à raison de la qualité -du destinataire, soit à raison du caractère -de la place à laquelle sont destinés -les objets. C'est une autorité ennemie -ou un commerçant établi en pays ennemi, +véritable; c'est au capteur à +l'établir pour justifier la saisie. Mais +on a cru raisonnable d'établir des présomptions, +soit à raison de la qualité +du destinataire, soit à raison du caractère +de la place à laquelle sont destinés +les objets. C'est une autorité ennemie +ou un commerçant établi en pays ennemi, qui est le fournisseur notoire du Gouvernement ennemi pour les articles -dont il s'agit. C'est une place fortifiée +dont il s'agit. C'est une place fortifiée ennemie ou une place servant de base -aux forces armées ennemies, que ce -soit une base d'opérations ou une base +aux forces armées ennemies, que ce +soit une base d'opérations ou une base de ravitaillement.</p> -<p>Cette présomption générale ne saurait -s'appliquer au navire de commerce lui-même +<p>Cette présomption générale ne saurait +s'appliquer au navire de commerce lui-même qui se dirigerait vers une place -fortifiée et qui peut bien, par lui-même, +fortifiée et qui peut bien, par lui-même, constituer de la contrebande relative, -mais à la condition que sa destination -à l'usage des forces armées ou des administrations -de l'État ennemi soit -directement prouvée.</p> +mais à la condition que sa destination +à l'usage des forces armées ou des administrations +de l'État ennemi soit +directement prouvée.</p> -<p>A défaut des présomptions précédentes, -la destination est présumée +<p>A défaut des présomptions précédentes, +la destination est présumée innocente. C'est le droit commun, -d'après lequel le capteur doit prouver -le caractère illicite de la marchandise -qu'il prétend saisir.</p> +d'après lequel le capteur doit prouver +le caractère illicite de la marchandise +qu'il prétend saisir.</p> -<p>Enfin, toutes les présomptions ainsi -établies dans l'intérêt du capteur ou +<p>Enfin, toutes les présomptions ainsi +établies dans l'intérêt du capteur ou contre lui admettent la preuve contraire. Les tribunaux nationaux d'abord, -la Cour Internationale ensuite, apprécieront.</p> +la Cour Internationale ensuite, apprécieront.</p> <p class="center">Article 35.</p> <p><i>Les articles de contrebande conditionnelle ne sont saisissables que sur le navire qui fait route vers le territoire de l'ennemi -ou vers un territoire occupé par lui ou vers -ses forces armées et que ne doit pas les décharger -dans un port intermédiaire neutre.</i></p> - -<p><i>Les papiers de bord font preuve complète -de l'itinéraire du navire ainsi que -du lieu de déchargement des marchandises, -à moins que ce navire soit rencontré -ayant manifestement dévié de la route<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span> -qu'il devrait suivre d'après ses papiers +ou vers un territoire occupé par lui ou vers +ses forces armées et que ne doit pas les décharger +dans un port intermédiaire neutre.</i></p> + +<p><i>Les papiers de bord font preuve complète +de l'itinéraire du navire ainsi que +du lieu de déchargement des marchandises, +à moins que ce navire soit rencontré +ayant manifestement dévié de la route<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span> +qu'il devrait suivre d'après ses papiers de bord et sans pouvoir justifier d'une -cause suffisante de cette déviation.</i></p> +cause suffisante de cette déviation.</i></p> -<p>Comme il a été dit plus haut, la doctrine -du voyage continu a été écartée +<p>Comme il a été dit plus haut, la doctrine +du voyage continu a été écartée pour la contrebande conditionnelle. Celle-ci n'est donc saisissable que si -elle doit être débarquée dans un port +elle doit être débarquée dans un port ennemi. Du moment que la marchandise -est documentée pour être débarquée +est documentée pour être débarquée dans un port neutre, elle ne peut constituer de la contrebande, et il -n'y a pas à rechercher si, de ce port -neutre, elle doit être expédiée à l'ennemi +n'y a pas à rechercher si, de ce port +neutre, elle doit être expédiée à l'ennemi par mer ou par terre. C'est la -différence essentielle avec la contrebande +différence essentielle avec la contrebande absolue.</p> <p>Les papiers de bord font preuve -complète de l'itinéraire du navire et du -lieu de déchargement de la cargaison; -il en serait autrement si le navire était -rencontré ayant manifestement dévié -de la route qu'il devrait suivre d'après +complète de l'itinéraire du navire et du +lieu de déchargement de la cargaison; +il en serait autrement si le navire était +rencontré ayant manifestement dévié +de la route qu'il devrait suivre d'après ses papiers et sans pouvoir justifier -d'une cause suffisante de cette déviation.</p> - -<p>Cette règle sur la preuve fournie par -les papiers de bord a pour but d'écarter -des prétentions élevées à la légère par un -croiseur et amenant des saisies injustifiées. -Elle ne doit pas être entendue -d'une manière trop absolue qui faciliterait +d'une cause suffisante de cette déviation.</p> + +<p>Cette règle sur la preuve fournie par +les papiers de bord a pour but d'écarter +des prétentions élevées à la légère par un +croiseur et amenant des saisies injustifiées. +Elle ne doit pas être entendue +d'une manière trop absolue qui faciliterait toutes les fraudes. Ainsi elle n'est pas maintenue quand le navire -est rencontré en mer ayant manifestement -dévié de la route qu'il aurait dû +est rencontré en mer ayant manifestement +dévié de la route qu'il aurait dû suivre et sans pouvoir justifier de cette -déviation. Les papiers de bord sont -alors contredits par la réalité des faits +déviation. Les papiers de bord sont +alors contredits par la réalité des faits et perdent toute force probante; le -croiseur se décidera librement suivant -les cas. De même, la visite du navire +croiseur se décidera librement suivant +les cas. De même, la visite du navire peut permettre de constater des faits -qui prouvent d'une manière irréfutable +qui prouvent d'une manière irréfutable que la destination du navire ou le lieu -de déchargement de la marchandise -sont faussement indiqués dans les -papiers de bord. Le croiseur apprécie +de déchargement de la marchandise +sont faussement indiqués dans les +papiers de bord. Le croiseur apprécie alors librement les circonstances et saisit ou non le navire suivant cette -appréciation. En résumé, les papiers -de bord font preuve, à moins que la -fausseté de leurs indications ne soit -démontrée par les faits. Cette restriction +appréciation. En résumé, les papiers +de bord font preuve, à moins que la +fausseté de leurs indications ne soit +démontrée par les faits. Cette restriction de la force probante des papiers de bord a paru aller de soi et ne pas avoir -besoin d'être expressément mentionnée. +besoin d'être expressément mentionnée. On n'a pas voulu avoir l'air de diminuer -la force de la règle générale, qui est une +la force de la règle générale, qui est une garantie pour le commerce neutre.</p> <p>De ce qu'une indication est reconnue -fausse, il ne résulte pas que la force probante -des papiers de bord soit infirmée +fausse, il ne résulte pas que la force probante +des papiers de bord soit infirmée dans son ensemble. Les indications pour -lesquelles aucune allégation de fausseté -ne peut être vérifiée conservent leur +lesquelles aucune allégation de fausseté +ne peut être vérifiée conservent leur valeur.</p> <p class="center">Article 36.</p> -<p><i>Par dérogation à l'article 35, si le -territoire de l'ennemi n'a pas de frontière +<p><i>Par dérogation à l'article 35, si le +territoire de l'ennemi n'a pas de frontière maritime, les articles de contrebande conditionnelle sont saisissables, lorsqu'il est -établi qu'ils ont la destination prévue à +établi qu'ils ont la destination prévue à l'article 33.</i></p> -<p>Le cas prévu est assurément rare, -mais cependant il s'est présenté dans -des guerres récentes. Pour la contrebande -absolue, il n'y a pas de difficulté, -puisque la destination à l'ennemi peut -toujours être prouvée, quel que soit -l'itinéraire à suivre par la marchandise +<p>Le cas prévu est assurément rare, +mais cependant il s'est présenté dans +des guerres récentes. Pour la contrebande +absolue, il n'y a pas de difficulté, +puisque la destination à l'ennemi peut +toujours être prouvée, quel que soit +l'itinéraire à suivre par la marchandise (article 30). Il en est autrement pour la contrebande conditionnelle, et une -dérogation doit être apportée à la règle -générale de l'article 35, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, de -manière à permettre au capteur -d'établir que la marchandise suspecte -a bien la destination spéciale prévue à +dérogation doit être apportée à la règle +générale de l'article 35, alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, de +manière à permettre au capteur +d'établir que la marchandise suspecte +a bien la destination spéciale prévue à l'article 33, sans qu'on puisse objecter -le fait du déchargement dans un port +le fait du déchargement dans un port neutre.</p> <p class="center">Article 37.</p> <p><i>Le navire transportant des articles, qui sont saisissables comme contrebande absolue -ou conditionnelle, peut être saisi, -en haute mer ou dans les eaux des belligérants, +ou conditionnelle, peut être saisi, +en haute mer ou dans les eaux des belligérants, pendant tout le cours de son voyage, -même s'il a l'intention de toucher à un +même s'il a l'intention de toucher à un port d'escale avant d'atteindre la destination ennemie.</i></p> -<p>Le navire peut être saisi pour cause +<p>Le navire peut être saisi pour cause de contrebande pendant tout le cours de son voyage, pourvu qu'il soit dans -des eaux où un acte de guerre est licite. +des eaux où un acte de guerre est licite. Le fait qu'il aurait l'intention de -toucher à un port d'escale avant d'atteindre -la destination ennemie n'empêche +toucher à un port d'escale avant d'atteindre +la destination ennemie n'empêche pas la saisie, du moment que, -dans l'espèce, la destination ennemie -est établie conformément aux règles -établies par les articles 30 à 32 pour la +dans l'espèce, la destination ennemie +est établie conformément aux règles +établies par les articles 30 à 32 pour la contrebande absolue, par les articles -33 à 35 pour la contrebande conditionnelle, -et sous la réserve de l'exception +33 à 35 pour la contrebande conditionnelle, +et sous la réserve de l'exception de l'article 36.</p> <p class="center">Article 38.</p> -<p><i>Une saisie ne peut être pratiquée en +<p><i>Une saisie ne peut être pratiquée en raison d'un transport de contrebande -antérieurement effectué et actuellement -achevé.</i></p> +antérieurement effectué et actuellement +achevé.</i></p> <p>Un navire est saisissable quand il transporte de la contrebande, mais non -pour en avoir transporté.</p> +pour en avoir transporté.</p> <p class="center">Article 39.</p> <p><i>Les articles de contrebande sont sujets -à confiscation.</i></p> +à confiscation.</i></p> -<p>Cela ne présente aucune difficulté.</p> +<p>Cela ne présente aucune difficulté.</p> <p class="center">Article 40.</p> @@ -39505,395 +39461,395 @@ pour en avoir transporté.</p> de la contrebande est permise, si cette contrebande forme, soit par sa valeur, soit par son poids, soit par son volume, soit -par son fret, plus de la moitié de la cargaison.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span></p> +par son fret, plus de la moitié de la cargaison.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span></p> <p>Tout le monde admettait bien que, dans certains cas, la confiscation de la contrebande ne suffit pas et que la confiscation -doit atteindre le navire lui-même, -mais les opinions différaient sur -la détermination de ces cas. On s'est -arrêté à une certaine proportion à -établir entre la contrebande et l'ensemble +doit atteindre le navire lui-même, +mais les opinions différaient sur +la détermination de ces cas. On s'est +arrêté à une certaine proportion à +établir entre la contrebande et l'ensemble de la cargaison. Mais la question se subdivise: 1<span class="topnum">o</span> Quelle sera cette -proportion? La solution adoptée tient -le milieu entre les solutions proposées, +proportion? La solution adoptée tient +le milieu entre les solutions proposées, qui allaient du quart aux trois quarts. -2<span class="topnum">o</span> Comment sera calculée cette proportion? +2<span class="topnum">o</span> Comment sera calculée cette proportion? La contrebande devra-t-elle -former plus de la moitié de la cargaison +former plus de la moitié de la cargaison en volume, en poids, en valeur, en fret? -L'adoption d'un critérium déterminé -prête à des objections théoriques et facilite -aussi des pratiques destinées à éviter -la confiscation du navire malgré l'importance +L'adoption d'un critérium déterminé +prête à des objections théoriques et facilite +aussi des pratiques destinées à éviter +la confiscation du navire malgré l'importance de la cargaison. Si on prend le volume ou le poids, le capitaine prendra des marchandises licites assez volumineuses ou pesantes pour que le volume ou le poids de la contrebande -soit inférieur. Une observation analogue -peut être faite en ce qui concerne -la valeur ou le fret. La conséquence +soit inférieur. Une observation analogue +peut être faite en ce qui concerne +la valeur ou le fret. La conséquence est qu'il suffit, pour justifier la confiscation, que la contrebande forme plus -de la moitié de la cargaison à l'un quelconque -des points de vue indiqués. -Cela peut paraître sévère; mais, d'une -part, en procédant autrement, on faciliterait +de la moitié de la cargaison à l'un quelconque +des points de vue indiqués. +Cela peut paraître sévère; mais, d'une +part, en procédant autrement, on faciliterait des calculs frauduleux, et d'autre part, il est permis de dire que -la confiscation du navire est justifiée, +la confiscation du navire est justifiée, lorsque le transport de la contrebande -était une partie notable de son trafic, +était une partie notable de son trafic, ce qui est vrai pour chacun des cas -prévus.</p> +prévus.</p> <p class="center">Article 41.</p> <p><i>Si le navire transportant de la contrebande -est relâché, les frais occasionnés au -capteur par la procédure devant la juridiction +est relâché, les frais occasionnés au +capteur par la procédure devant la juridiction nationale des prises ainsi que par la conservation du navire et de sa cargaison -pendant l'instruction sont à la +pendant l'instruction sont à la charge du navire.</i></p> <p>Il n'est pas juste que, d'une part, le -transport de contrebande au-delà d'une -certaine proportion entraîne la confiscation +transport de contrebande au-delà d'une +certaine proportion entraîne la confiscation du navire, tandis qu'au-dessous de cette proportion, il n'y a que la confiscation de la contrebande, ce qui souvent n'est pas une perte pour le capitaine, le fret de cette contrebande -ayant été payé à l'avance. N'y a-t-il -pas là un encouragement à la contrebande, +ayant été payé à l'avance. N'y a-t-il +pas là un encouragement à la contrebande, et ne conviendrait-il pas de faire subir une certaine peine pour le transport -inférieur à la proportion requise -pour la confiscation? On avait proposé -une espèce d'amende qui aurait -pu être en rapport avec la valeur des +inférieur à la proportion requise +pour la confiscation? On avait proposé +une espèce d'amende qui aurait +pu être en rapport avec la valeur des articles de contrebande. Des objections -d'ordre divers ont été formulées +d'ordre divers ont été formulées contre cette proposition, bien que le -principe d'une perte pécuniaire infligée -à raison du transport de la contrebande -eût paru justifié. On est arrivé au -même but d'une autre façon en disposant -que les frais occasionnés au capteur -par la procédure devant la juridiction +principe d'une perte pécuniaire infligée +à raison du transport de la contrebande +eût paru justifié. On est arrivé au +même but d'une autre façon en disposant +que les frais occasionnés au capteur +par la procédure devant la juridiction nationale des prises, comme par la conservation du navire et de sa cargaison -pendant l'instruction, sont à la charge +pendant l'instruction, sont à la charge du navire; les frais de conservation du -navire comprennent, le cas échéant, les +navire comprennent, le cas échéant, les frais d'entretien du personnel du navire -capturé. Il convient d'ajouter que le -dommage causé au navire par sa conduite -et son séjour dans un port de -prise est de nature à produire l'effet -préventif le plus sérieux en ce qui concerne +capturé. Il convient d'ajouter que le +dommage causé au navire par sa conduite +et son séjour dans un port de +prise est de nature à produire l'effet +préventif le plus sérieux en ce qui concerne le transport de la contrebande.</p> <p class="center">Article 42.</p> <p><i>Les marchandises qui appartiennent -au propriétaire de la contrebande et qui -se trouvent à bord du même navire sont -sujettes à confiscation.</i></p> +au propriétaire de la contrebande et qui +se trouvent à bord du même navire sont +sujettes à confiscation.</i></p> -<p>Le propriétaire de la contrebande est +<p>Le propriétaire de la contrebande est puni d'abord par la confiscation de sa -propriété illicite; il l'est ensuite par la -confiscation des marchandises, même -licites, qu'il peut avoir sur le même +propriété illicite; il l'est ensuite par la +confiscation des marchandises, même +licites, qu'il peut avoir sur le même navire.</p> <p class="center">Article 43.</p> -<p><i>Si un navire est rencontré en mer naviguant -dans l'ignorance des hostilités ou de -la déclaration de contrebande applicable -à son chargement, les articles de contrebande -ne peuvent être confisqués que -moyennant indemnité; le navire et le +<p><i>Si un navire est rencontré en mer naviguant +dans l'ignorance des hostilités ou de +la déclaration de contrebande applicable +à son chargement, les articles de contrebande +ne peuvent être confisqués que +moyennant indemnité; le navire et le surplus de la cargaison sont exempts de -la confiscation et des frais prévus par -l'article 41. Il en est de même si le -capitaine, après avoir eu connaissance de -l'ouverture des hostilités ou de la déclaration -de contrebande, n'a pu encore décharger +la confiscation et des frais prévus par +l'article 41. Il en est de même si le +capitaine, après avoir eu connaissance de +l'ouverture des hostilités ou de la déclaration +de contrebande, n'a pu encore décharger les articles de contrebande.</i></p> -<p><i>Le navire est réputé connaître l'état de -guerre ou la déclaration de contrebande, -lorsqu'il a quitté un port neutre, après -que la notification de l'ouverture des hostilités -ou de la déclaration de contrebande -a été faite, en temps utile, à la Puissance -dont relève ce port. L'état de guerre est, -en outre, réputé connu par le navire -lorsqu'il a quitté un port ennemi après -l'ouverture des hostilités.</i></p> - -<p>La disposition a pour but de ménager +<p><i>Le navire est réputé connaître l'état de +guerre ou la déclaration de contrebande, +lorsqu'il a quitté un port neutre, après +que la notification de l'ouverture des hostilités +ou de la déclaration de contrebande +a été faite, en temps utile, à la Puissance +dont relève ce port. L'état de guerre est, +en outre, réputé connu par le navire +lorsqu'il a quitté un port ennemi après +l'ouverture des hostilités.</i></p> + +<p>La disposition a pour but de ménager les neutres qui, en fait, transporteraient de la contrebande, mais auxquels on ne pourrait rien reprocher, ce qui peut se -présenter dans deux cas. Le premier -est celui où ils ne connaissent pas l'ouverture -des hostilités; le second est -celui où, tout en connaissant cette -ouverture, ils ignorent la déclaration -de contrebande qu'a faite un belligérant -conformément aux articles 23 et -25, et qui est précisément applicable à +présenter dans deux cas. Le premier +est celui où ils ne connaissent pas l'ouverture +des hostilités; le second est +celui où, tout en connaissant cette +ouverture, ils ignorent la déclaration +de contrebande qu'a faite un belligérant +conformément aux articles 23 et +25, et qui est précisément applicable à tout ou partie du chargement. Il serait injuste de saisir le navire et de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[Pg 651]</a></span> confisquer la contrebande; d'autre -part, le croiseur ne peut être obligé de -laisser aller à l'ennemi des produits -propres à la guerre et dont celui-ci peut -avoir grand besoin. Les intérêts en -présence sont conciliés en ce sens +part, le croiseur ne peut être obligé de +laisser aller à l'ennemi des produits +propres à la guerre et dont celui-ci peut +avoir grand besoin. Les intérêts en +présence sont conciliés en ce sens qu'alors la confiscation ne peut avoir -lieu que moyennant indemnité (voir, -dans un ordre d'idées analogue, la +lieu que moyennant indemnité (voir, +dans un ordre d'idées analogue, la Convention du 18 octobre 1907, sur le -régime des navires de commerce ennemis -au début des hostilités).</p> +régime des navires de commerce ennemis +au début des hostilités).</p> <p class="center">Article 44.</p> -<p><i>Le navire arrêté pour cause de contrebande -et non susceptible de confiscation à +<p><i>Le navire arrêté pour cause de contrebande +et non susceptible de confiscation à raison de la proportion de la contrebande -peut être autorisé, suivant les circonstances, -à continuer sa route, si le capitaine -est prêt à livrer la contrebande au -bâtiment belligérant.</i></p> +peut être autorisé, suivant les circonstances, +à continuer sa route, si le capitaine +est prêt à livrer la contrebande au +bâtiment belligérant.</i></p> -<p><i>La remise de la contrebande est mentionnée +<p><i>La remise de la contrebande est mentionnée par le capteur sur le livre de bord -du navire arrêté, et le capitaine de ce +du navire arrêté, et le capitaine de ce navire doit remettre au capteur copie -certifiée conforme de tous papiers utiles.</i></p> +certifiée conforme de tous papiers utiles.</i></p> -<p><i>Le capteur a la faculté de détruire la -contrebande qui lui est ainsi livrée.</i></p> +<p><i>Le capteur a la faculté de détruire la +contrebande qui lui est ainsi livrée.</i></p> -<p>Un navire neutre est arrêté pour +<p>Un navire neutre est arrêté pour cause de contrebande. Il n'est pas susceptible de confiscation, parce que la contrebande n'atteint pas la proportion -prévue par l'article 40. Il peut -néanmoins être conduit dans un port +prévue par l'article 40. Il peut +néanmoins être conduit dans un port de prise pour qu'il y ait un jugement -relatif à la contrebande. Ce droit du -capteur paraît excessif dans certains +relatif à la contrebande. Ce droit du +capteur paraît excessif dans certains cas, si on compare le peu d'importance que peut avoir la contrebande (une caisse de fusils ou de revolvers, par -exemple) et le grave préjudice qu'entraînent -pour le navire ce détournement +exemple) et le grave préjudice qu'entraînent +pour le navire ce détournement de sa route et sa retenue pendant le temps de l'instruction. Aussi s'est-on -demandé s'il n'était pas possible de -reconnaître au navire neutre le droit de +demandé s'il n'était pas possible de +reconnaître au navire neutre le droit de continuer sa route moyennant la remise des objets de contrebande au -capteur qui, de son côté, n'aurait pu +capteur qui, de son côté, n'aurait pu les refuser que pour des motifs suffisants, -par exemple, le mauvais état de +par exemple, le mauvais état de la mer, qui rend le transbordement impossible -ou difficile, des soupçons fondés -au sujet de la quantité véritable de contrebande +ou difficile, des soupçons fondés +au sujet de la quantité véritable de contrebande que porte le navire de commerce, -la difficulté de loger les objets à +la difficulté de loger les objets à bord du navire de guerre, etc. Cette -proposition n'a pas réuni les suffrages -suffisants. On a prétendu qu'il était +proposition n'a pas réuni les suffrages +suffisants. On a prétendu qu'il était impossible d'imposer une pareille obligation au croiseur pour lequel cette remise -présenterait presque toujours des -inconvénients. Si, par hasard, il n'y +présenterait presque toujours des +inconvénients. Si, par hasard, il n'y en a pas, le croiseur ne la refusera pas, -parce qu'il aura lui-même avantage à -ne pas être détourné de sa route par la -nécessité de conduire le navire dans un -port. Le système de l'obligation étant -ainsi écarté, on a décidé de réglementer -la remise facultative qui, espère-t-on, -sera pratiquée toutes les fois que ce sera +parce qu'il aura lui-même avantage à +ne pas être détourné de sa route par la +nécessité de conduire le navire dans un +port. Le système de l'obligation étant +ainsi écarté, on a décidé de réglementer +la remise facultative qui, espère-t-on, +sera pratiquée toutes les fois que ce sera possible, au grand avantage des deux -parties. Les formalités prévues sont -très simples et n'exigent pas d'explication.</p> +parties. Les formalités prévues sont +très simples et n'exigent pas d'explication.</p> <p>Un jugement du tribunal des prises devra intervenir au sujet de la marchandise ainsi remise. C'est pour cela que le capteur doit se munir des papiers -nécessaires. On pourrait concevoir -qu'il y eût doute sur le caractère de -certains objets que le croiseur prétend -être de contrebande; le capitaine du +nécessaires. On pourrait concevoir +qu'il y eût doute sur le caractère de +certains objets que le croiseur prétend +être de contrebande; le capitaine du navire de commerce conteste, mais il -préfère les livrer pour avoir la faculté -de continuer sa route. Il n'y a là -qu'une saisie devant être confirmée par +préfère les livrer pour avoir la faculté +de continuer sa route. Il n'y a là +qu'une saisie devant être confirmée par la juridiction des prises.</p> -<p>La contrebande livrée par le navire +<p>La contrebande livrée par le navire de commerce peut embarrasser le croiseur -qui doit être laissé libre de la détruire -au moment même de la remise -ou postérieurement.</p> +qui doit être laissé libre de la détruire +au moment même de la remise +ou postérieurement.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre III.</span>—<i>De l'assistance hostile.</i></p> -<p>D'une manière générale, on peut dire +<p>D'une manière générale, on peut dire que le navire de commerce qui manque -à la neutralité, soit en transportant de +à la neutralité, soit en transportant de la contrebande de guerre, soit en violant -un blocus, fournit une assistance à -l'ennemi, et c'est à ce titre que le belligérant -au préjudice duquel il agit peut +un blocus, fournit une assistance à +l'ennemi, et c'est à ce titre que le belligérant +au préjudice duquel il agit peut lui faire subir certaines pertes. Mais -il y a des cas où cette assistance hostile -est particulièrement caractérisée et -qu'on a jugé nécessaire de prévoir -spécialement. On en a fait deux catégories -d'après la gravité du fait reproché +il y a des cas où cette assistance hostile +est particulièrement caractérisée et +qu'on a jugé nécessaire de prévoir +spécialement. On en a fait deux catégories +d'après la gravité du fait reproché au navire neutre.</p> <p>Dans les cas qui rentrent dans la -première catégorie (article 45), le navire -est confisqué, et on lui applique le -traitement du navire sujet à confiscation +première catégorie (article 45), le navire +est confisqué, et on lui applique le +traitement du navire sujet à confiscation pour transport de contrebande. Cela signifie que le navire ne perd pas -sa qualité de neutre et a droit aux +sa qualité de neutre et a droit aux garanties admises pour les navires neutres; par exemple, il ne pourrait -être détruit par le capteur que dans les -conditions établies pour les navires +être détruit par le capteur que dans les +conditions établies pour les navires neutres (articles 48 et suivants); la -règle <i>le pavillon couvre la marchandise</i> +règle <i>le pavillon couvre la marchandise</i> s'applique en ce qui concerne la marchandise -qui se trouve à bord.</p> +qui se trouve à bord.</p> <p>Dans les cas plus graves qui appartiennent -à la seconde catégorie (article -46), le navire est encore confisqué; de -plus, il n'est pas traité seulement +à la seconde catégorie (article +46), le navire est encore confisqué; de +plus, il n'est pas traité seulement comme un navire confiscable comme porteur de contrebande, mais comme un navire de commerce ennemi, ce qui -entraîne certaines conséquences. Le -règlement sur la destruction des prises +entraîne certaines conséquences. Le +règlement sur la destruction des prises neutres ne s'applique pas au navire, et, celui-ci devenant navire ennemi, ce n'est plus la seconde, mais c'est la -troisième règle de la Déclaration de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span> +troisième règle de la Déclaration de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span> Paris qui est applicable. La marchandise -qui sera à bord sera présumée +qui sera à bord sera présumée ennemie; les neutres auront le droit de -réclamer leur propriété en justifiant de -leur neutralité (article 59). Il ne faut -cependant pas exagérer jusqu'à penser -que le caractère neutre originaire du -navire est complètement effacé, de telle -sorte qu'il doive être traité comme s'il -avait toujours été ennemi. Le navire -peut soutenir que la prétention élevée -contre lui n'est pas fondée, que l'acte -qui lui est reproché n'a pas le caractère +réclamer leur propriété en justifiant de +leur neutralité (article 59). Il ne faut +cependant pas exagérer jusqu'à penser +que le caractère neutre originaire du +navire est complètement effacé, de telle +sorte qu'il doive être traité comme s'il +avait toujours été ennemi. Le navire +peut soutenir que la prétention élevée +contre lui n'est pas fondée, que l'acte +qui lui est reproché n'a pas le caractère d'une assistance hostile. Il a donc le -droit de recourir à la juridiction internationale +droit de recourir à la juridiction internationale en vertu des dispositions qui -protègent les propriétés neutres.</p> +protègent les propriétés neutres.</p> <p class="center">Article 45.</p> -<p><i>Un navire neutre est confisqué et, d'une -manière générale, passible du traitement -que subirait un navire neutre sujet à confiscation +<p><i>Un navire neutre est confisqué et, d'une +manière générale, passible du traitement +que subirait un navire neutre sujet à confiscation pour contrebande de guerre:</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il voyage spécialement en +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il voyage spécialement en vue du transport de passagers individuels -incorporés dans la force armée +incorporés dans la force armée de l'ennemi, ou en vue de la transmission -de nouvelles dans l'intérêt de +de nouvelles dans l'intérêt de l'ennemi.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'à la connaissance soit du -propriétaire, soit de celui qui a affrété -le navire en totalité, soit du capitaine, -il transporte un détachement militaire +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'à la connaissance soit du +propriétaire, soit de celui qui a affrété +le navire en totalité, soit du capitaine, +il transporte un détachement militaire de l'ennemi ou une ou plusieurs personnes -qui, pendant le voyage, prêtent -une assistance directe aux opérations +qui, pendant le voyage, prêtent +une assistance directe aux opérations de l'ennemi.</i></p> -<p><i>Dans les cas visés aux numéros précédents, +<p><i>Dans les cas visés aux numéros précédents, les marchandises appartenant au -propriétaire du navire sont également -sujettes à confiscation.</i></p> +propriétaire du navire sont également +sujettes à confiscation.</i></p> -<p><i>Les dispositions du présent article ne +<p><i>Les dispositions du présent article ne s'appliquent pas si, lorsque le navire est -rencontré en mer, il ignore les hostilités, ou -si le capitaine, après avoir appris l'ouverture -des hostilités, n'a pu encore débarquer -les personnes transportées. Le -navire est réputé connaître l'état de guerre -lorsqu'il a quitté un port ennemi après -l'ouverture des hostilités ou un port neutre -postérieurement à la notification en temps -utile de l'ouverture des hostilités à la -Puissance dont relève ce port.</i></p> +rencontré en mer, il ignore les hostilités, ou +si le capitaine, après avoir appris l'ouverture +des hostilités, n'a pu encore débarquer +les personnes transportées. Le +navire est réputé connaître l'état de guerre +lorsqu'il a quitté un port ennemi après +l'ouverture des hostilités ou un port neutre +postérieurement à la notification en temps +utile de l'ouverture des hostilités à la +Puissance dont relève ce port.</i></p> <p>Le premier cas suppose des passagers voyageant <i>individuellement</i>; le cas -d'un <i>détachement militaire</i> est visé ci-après. -Il s'agit d'individus <i>incorporés</i> -dans la force armée de terre ou de mer -de l'ennemi. Il y a eu quelque hésitation +d'un <i>détachement militaire</i> est visé ci-après. +Il s'agit d'individus <i>incorporés</i> +dans la force armée de terre ou de mer +de l'ennemi. Il y a eu quelque hésitation sur le sens de l'<i>incorporation</i> qui -est prévue. Comprend-elle seulement -les individus qui, appelés à servir en +est prévue. Comprend-elle seulement +les individus qui, appelés à servir en vertu de la loi de leur pays, ont effectivement rejoint le corps dont ils doivent faire partie? ou comprend-elle -même ces individus dès qu'ils sont -appelés et avant qu'ils aient rejoint leur +même ces individus dès qu'ils sont +appelés et avant qu'ils aient rejoint leur corps? La question a une grande importance pratique. Que l'on suppose des individus originaires d'un pays de -l'Europe continentale et établis en -Amérique; ces individus sont tenus à +l'Europe continentale et établis en +Amérique; ces individus sont tenus à des obligations militaires envers leur pays d'origine; ils doivent, par exemple, -faire partie de la réserve de -l'armée active de ce pays. Leur patrie -étant en guerre, ils s'embarquent pour -aller faire leur service. Seront-ils considérés -comme <i>incorporés</i> pour l'application +faire partie de la réserve de +l'armée active de ce pays. Leur patrie +étant en guerre, ils s'embarquent pour +aller faire leur service. Seront-ils considérés +comme <i>incorporés</i> pour l'application de la disposition dont nous nous -occupons? Si on s'attachait à la -législation intérieure de certains pays, -l'affirmation pourrait être soutenue. -Mais, indépendamment des raisons +occupons? Si on s'attachait à la +législation intérieure de certains pays, +l'affirmation pourrait être soutenue. +Mais, indépendamment des raisons purement juridiques, l'opinion contraire -a paru plus conforme aux nécessités +a paru plus conforme aux nécessités pratiques et, dans un esprit de -conciliation, elle a été acceptée par -tous. Il serait difficile, ou peut-être -même impossible, de distinguer, sans +conciliation, elle a été acceptée par +tous. Il serait difficile, ou peut-être +même impossible, de distinguer, sans des mesures vexatoires que les Gouvernements neutres n'accepteraient pas, entre les passagers d'un navire, @@ -39901,1703 +39857,1703 @@ ceux qui sont tenus d'un service militaire, et qui voyagent pour y satisfaire.</p> <p>La transmission de nouvelles dans -l'intérêt de l'ennemi est assimilée au -transport de passagers incorporés dans -sa force armée. On parle du navire -qui voyage <i>spécialement</i> pour indiquer +l'intérêt de l'ennemi est assimilée au +transport de passagers incorporés dans +sa force armée. On parle du navire +qui voyage <i>spécialement</i> pour indiquer qu'il ne s'agit pas du service normal du -navire. Il s'est détourné de sa route; -il a relâché dans un port où il ne s'arrête +navire. Il s'est détourné de sa route; +il a relâché dans un port où il ne s'arrête pas ordinairement, pour effectuer le transport en question. Il n'est pas -nécessaire qu'il soit <i>exclusivement</i> -affecté au service de l'ennemi; ce +nécessaire qu'il soit <i>exclusivement</i> +affecté au service de l'ennemi; ce dernier cas rentrerait dans la seconde -catégorie, article 56, 4<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> +catégorie, article 56, 4<span class="topnum">o</span>.</p> -<p>Dans les deux hypothèses dont il -vient d'être parlé, il s'agit d'une opération -isolée faite par le navire; il a -été chargé d'effectuer tel transport ou +<p>Dans les deux hypothèses dont il +vient d'être parlé, il s'agit d'une opération +isolée faite par le navire; il a +été chargé d'effectuer tel transport ou de transmettre telles nouvelles; il -n'est pas attaché d'une manière continue +n'est pas attaché d'une manière continue au service de l'ennemi. Il en -résulte qu'il peut bien être saisi pendant -le voyage où il se livre à l'opération -qui lui est confiée; ce voyage -terminé, tout est fini en ce sens qu'il -ne pourrait être saisi pour avoir fait -l'opération prévue; c'est analogue à -ce qui est admis en matière de contrebande +résulte qu'il peut bien être saisi pendant +le voyage où il se livre à l'opération +qui lui est confiée; ce voyage +terminé, tout est fini en ce sens qu'il +ne pourrait être saisi pour avoir fait +l'opération prévue; c'est analogue à +ce qui est admis en matière de contrebande (article 38).</p> -<p>Le deuxième cas se subdivise également.</p> +<p>Le deuxième cas se subdivise également.</p> -<p>Transport d'un détachement militaire +<p>Transport d'un détachement militaire de l'ennemi ou transport d'une ou de plusieurs personnes qui, pendant -le voyage, prêtent une assistance directe -aux opérations de l'ennemi, par exemple +le voyage, prêtent une assistance directe +aux opérations de l'ennemi, par exemple en faisant des signaux. S'il s'agit de militaires ou de marins en -uniforme, il n'y a pas de difficulté: le -navire est évidemment confiscable. +uniforme, il n'y a pas de difficulté: le +navire est évidemment confiscable. S'il s'agit de militaires ou de marins en -costume civil pouvant être pris pour +costume civil pouvant être pris pour des passagers ordinaires, on exige la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[Pg 653]</a></span> -connaissance du capitaine ou du propriétaire, -celui qui a affrété le navire -en totalité étant assimilé au propriétaire. -La règle est la même pour -l'hypothèse des personnes prêtant une -assistance directe à l'ennemi pendant +connaissance du capitaine ou du propriétaire, +celui qui a affrété le navire +en totalité étant assimilé au propriétaire. +La règle est la même pour +l'hypothèse des personnes prêtant une +assistance directe à l'ennemi pendant le voyage.</p> -<p>Dans ces cas, si le navire est confisqué -à raison de son assistance hostile, l'on -doit confisquer également les marchandises -appartenant au propriétaire du +<p>Dans ces cas, si le navire est confisqué +à raison de son assistance hostile, l'on +doit confisquer également les marchandises +appartenant au propriétaire du navire.</p> -<p>Ces dispositions supposent que l'état -de guerre était connu du navire qui se -livre aux opérations prévues; cette +<p>Ces dispositions supposent que l'état +de guerre était connu du navire qui se +livre aux opérations prévues; cette connaissance motive et justifie la confiscation. La situation est tout autre lorsque le navire ignore l'ouverture des -hostilités, de telle sorte qu'il s'est -chargé de l'opération en temps normal. +hostilités, de telle sorte qu'il s'est +chargé de l'opération en temps normal. Il a pu apprendre en mer l'ouverture -des hostilités, mais sans pouvoir débarquer -les personnes transportées. +des hostilités, mais sans pouvoir débarquer +les personnes transportées. La confiscation serait alors injuste, et -la règle équitable qui a été adoptée est -d'accord avec les dispositions déjà acceptées -dans d'autres matières. Si le -navire a quitté un port ennemi après -l'ouverture des hostilités, ou un port -neutre après que l'ouverture des hostilités -avait été notifiée à la Puissance -d'où relève ce port, la connaissance de -l'état de guerre sera présumée.</p> - -<p>Il n'est question ici que d'empêcher +la règle équitable qui a été adoptée est +d'accord avec les dispositions déjà acceptées +dans d'autres matières. Si le +navire a quitté un port ennemi après +l'ouverture des hostilités, ou un port +neutre après que l'ouverture des hostilités +avait été notifiée à la Puissance +d'où relève ce port, la connaissance de +l'état de guerre sera présumée.</p> + +<p>Il n'est question ici que d'empêcher la confiscation du navire. Les personnes -trouvées à bord et qui font -partie des forces armées de l'ennemi -pourront être prises par le croiseur +trouvées à bord et qui font +partie des forces armées de l'ennemi +pourront être prises par le croiseur comme prisonniers de guerre.</p> <p class="center">Article 46.</p> -<p><i>Un navire neutre est confisqué et, d'une -manière générale, passible du traitement -qu'il subirait s'il était un navire de commerce +<p><i>Un navire neutre est confisqué et, d'une +manière générale, passible du traitement +qu'il subirait s'il était un navire de commerce ennemi:</i></p> <p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il prend une part directe -aux hostilités.</i></p> +aux hostilités.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il se trouve sous les ordres -ou sous le contrôle d'un agent placé à +ou sous le contrôle d'un agent placé à bord par le Gouvernement ennemi.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il est affrété en totalité par +<p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il est affrété en totalité par le Gouvernement ennemi.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">4<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Lorsqu'il est actuellement et exclusivement -affecté, soit au transport de -troupes ennemies, soit à la transmission -de nouvelles dans l'intérêt de +affecté, soit au transport de +troupes ennemies, soit à la transmission +de nouvelles dans l'intérêt de l'ennemi.</i></p> -<p><i>Dans les cas visés par le présent article, -les marchandises appartenant au propriétaire -du navire sont également sujettes à +<p><i>Dans les cas visés par le présent article, +les marchandises appartenant au propriétaire +du navire sont également sujettes à confiscation.</i></p> -<p>Les cas prévus ici sont plus graves +<p>Les cas prévus ici sont plus graves que ceux de l'article 45, ce qui justifie -le traitement plus sévère infligé au -navire, ainsi qu'il a été expliqué plus +le traitement plus sévère infligé au +navire, ainsi qu'il a été expliqué plus haut.</p> <p><i>Premier cas.</i>—Le navire prend une -part directe aux hostilités. Cela peut -se présenter sous diverses formes. Il -va sans dire que, s'il y a lutte armée, -le navire est exposé à tous les risques +part directe aux hostilités. Cela peut +se présenter sous diverses formes. Il +va sans dire que, s'il y a lutte armée, +le navire est exposé à tous les risques d'une pareille lutte. On suppose qu'il -est tombé au pouvoir de l'ennemi qu'il -combattait, et qui est autorisé à le +est tombé au pouvoir de l'ennemi qu'il +combattait, et qui est autorisé à le traiter comme un navire de commerce ennemi.</p> -<p><i>Deuxième cas.</i>—Le navire est sous les -ordres ou sous le contrôle d'un agent -placé à bord par le Gouvernement ennemi. -Cette présence caractérise le +<p><i>Deuxième cas.</i>—Le navire est sous les +ordres ou sous le contrôle d'un agent +placé à bord par le Gouvernement ennemi. +Cette présence caractérise le lien qui existe entre l'ennemi et le navire. Dans d'autres circonstances, le navire peut bien avoir un lien avec -l'ennemi; mais pour être sujet à la +l'ennemi; mais pour être sujet à la confiscation, il faudrait alors qu'il -rentrât dans le troisième cas.</p> +rentrât dans le troisième cas.</p> -<p><i>Troisième cas.</i>—Le navire est affrété -en totalité par le Gouvernement ennemi. -Il est donc complètement à la +<p><i>Troisième cas.</i>—Le navire est affrété +en totalité par le Gouvernement ennemi. +Il est donc complètement à la disposition de ce Gouvernement, qui peut s'en servir pour des buts divers se rattachant plus ou moins directement -à la guerre, notamment pour effectuer +à la guerre, notamment pour effectuer des transports; c'est la situation de navires charbonniers qui accompagnent -une flotte belligérante. Souvent +une flotte belligérante. Souvent il y aura une charte-partie entre le -Gouvernement belligérant et le propriétaire +Gouvernement belligérant et le propriétaire ou le capitaine du navire; -mais il n'y a là qu'une question de -preuve. Le fait de l'affrètement en -totalité suffit, de quelque façon qu'il -soit établi.</p> +mais il n'y a là qu'une question de +preuve. Le fait de l'affrètement en +totalité suffit, de quelque façon qu'il +soit établi.</p> -<p><i>Quatrième cas.</i>—Le navire est actuellement -et exclusivement affecté, soit +<p><i>Quatrième cas.</i>—Le navire est actuellement +et exclusivement affecté, soit au transport de troupes ennemies, soit -à la transmission de nouvelles dans -l'intérêt de l'ennemi. A la différence -des cas visés dans l'article 45, il s'agit +à la transmission de nouvelles dans +l'intérêt de l'ennemi. A la différence +des cas visés dans l'article 45, il s'agit ici d'un service permanent auquel est -affecté le navire. Aussi faut-il décider +affecté le navire. Aussi faut-il décider que, tant que l'affectation dure, le navire est saisissable, encore qu'au moment -où un croiseur ennemi visite le +où un croiseur ennemi visite le navire, celui-ci ne transporte pas de -troupes ou ne serve pas à la transmission +troupes ou ne serve pas à la transmission de nouvelles.</p> <p>Comme pour les cas de l'article 45, -et par les mêmes raisons, les marchandises -appartenant au propriétaire du -navire, et qui pourraient se trouver à -bord, sont également sujettes à confiscation.</p> +et par les mêmes raisons, les marchandises +appartenant au propriétaire du +navire, et qui pourraient se trouver à +bord, sont également sujettes à confiscation.</p> -<p>On avait proposé de considérer +<p>On avait proposé de considérer comme navire de commerce ennemi le navire neutre faisant actuellement et avec l'autorisation du Gouvernement -ennemi un trajet auquel il n'a été -autorisé qu'après l'ouverture des hostilités +ennemi un trajet auquel il n'a été +autorisé qu'après l'ouverture des hostilités ou dans les deux mois qui l'ont -précédée. Cela se serait appliqué notamment +précédée. Cela se serait appliqué notamment aux navires de commerce -neutres qui seraient admis par un belligérant -à une navigation réservée en -temps de paix à la marine nationale de -ce belligérant—par exemple, au cabotage. -Plusieurs Délégations ont repoussé<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span> +neutres qui seraient admis par un belligérant +à une navigation réservée en +temps de paix à la marine nationale de +ce belligérant—par exemple, au cabotage. +Plusieurs Délégations ont repoussé<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span> formellement cette proposition, -de sorte que la question ainsi soulevée -est restée entière.</p> +de sorte que la question ainsi soulevée +est restée entière.</p> <p class="center">Article 47.</p> -<p><i>Tout individu incorporé dans la force -armée de l'ennemi et qui sera trouvé à +<p><i>Tout individu incorporé dans la force +armée de l'ennemi et qui sera trouvé à bord d'un navire de commerce neutre, -pourra être fait prisonnier de guerre, -quand même il n'y aurait pas lieu de +pourra être fait prisonnier de guerre, +quand même il n'y aurait pas lieu de saisir ce navire.</i></p> -<p>Des individus incorporés dans les -forces armées de terre ou de mer d'un -belligérant peuvent se trouver à bord -d'un navire de commerce neutre visité. -Si le navire est sujet à confiscation, le +<p>Des individus incorporés dans les +forces armées de terre ou de mer d'un +belligérant peuvent se trouver à bord +d'un navire de commerce neutre visité. +Si le navire est sujet à confiscation, le croiseur le saisira et le conduira dans un de ses ports avec les personnes qui -se trouvent à bord. Évidemment les -militaires ou marins de l'État ennemi -ne seront pas laissés libres, mais seront -considérés comme prisonniers de guerre. +se trouvent à bord. Évidemment les +militaires ou marins de l'État ennemi +ne seront pas laissés libres, mais seront +considérés comme prisonniers de guerre. Il peut arriver que l'on ne soit pas dans le cas de saisir le navire—par exemple, parce que le capitaine ne connaissait -pas la qualité d'un individu qui s'était -présenté comme un simple passager. +pas la qualité d'un individu qui s'était +présenté comme un simple passager. Faut-il alors laisser libre le ou les militaires qui sont sur le navire? Cela n'a -pas paru admissible. Le croiseur belligérant -ne peut être contraint de laisser -libres des ennemis actifs qui sont matériellement +pas paru admissible. Le croiseur belligérant +ne peut être contraint de laisser +libres des ennemis actifs qui sont matériellement en son pouvoir et qui sont plus dangereux que tels et tels articles de contrebande; naturellement il doit -agir avec une grande discrétion, et c'est -sous sa responsabilité qu'il exige la remise +agir avec une grande discrétion, et c'est +sous sa responsabilité qu'il exige la remise de ces individus, mais son droit -existe; aussi a-t-il été jugé nécessaire +existe; aussi a-t-il été jugé nécessaire de s'expliquer sur ce point.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IV.</span>—<i>De la destruction des prises neutres.</i></p> -<p>La destruction des prises neutres était -à l'ordre du jour de la Deuxième Conférence -de la Paix et n'a pu y être réglée. -Elle se retrouve à l'ordre du jour de la -présente Conférence et, cette fois, un -accord a été possible. Il y a lieu de -s'applaudir d'un pareil résultat qui témoigne -d'un sincère désir d'entente de -la part de tous. On a constaté ici, une +<p>La destruction des prises neutres était +à l'ordre du jour de la Deuxième Conférence +de la Paix et n'a pu y être réglée. +Elle se retrouve à l'ordre du jour de la +présente Conférence et, cette fois, un +accord a été possible. Il y a lieu de +s'applaudir d'un pareil résultat qui témoigne +d'un sincère désir d'entente de +la part de tous. On a constaté ici, une fois de plus, que des formules tranchantes -et opposées ne répondent pas -toujours à la réalité et que, si on veut -descendre dans le détail et arriver aux -applications précises, on aura souvent -à peu près la même manière de faire, -quoiqu'on ait paru se réclamer d'opinions -tout à fait contraires. Pour s'accorder, +et opposées ne répondent pas +toujours à la réalité et que, si on veut +descendre dans le détail et arriver aux +applications précises, on aura souvent +à peu près la même manière de faire, +quoiqu'on ait paru se réclamer d'opinions +tout à fait contraires. Pour s'accorder, il faut d'abord se bien comprendre, ce qui n'est pas toujours le -cas. Ainsi, on a constaté que ceux qui -proclamaient le droit de détruire les -prises neutres, ne prétendaient pas -user de ce droit capricieusement et à +cas. Ainsi, on a constaté que ceux qui +proclamaient le droit de détruire les +prises neutres, ne prétendaient pas +user de ce droit capricieusement et à tout propos, mais seulement d'une -manière exceptionnelle, et qu'à l'inverse, +manière exceptionnelle, et qu'à l'inverse, ceux qui affirmaient le principe de l'interdiction de la destruction, admettaient -que ce principe devait céder +que ce principe devait céder dans des cas exceptionnels. Il s'agissait donc de s'entendre sur ces cas exceptionnels auxquels, dans les deux opinions, devait se borner le droit de destruction. -Ce n'était pas tout: il +Ce n'était pas tout: il fallait aussi une garantie contre les abus dans l'exercice de ce droit; l'arbitraire -dans l'appréciation des cas exceptionnels -devait être diminué au moyen -d'une responsabilité effective imposée +dans l'appréciation des cas exceptionnels +devait être diminué au moyen +d'une responsabilité effective imposée au capteur. C'est ici qu'est intervenu, -dans le règlement de l'affaire, un élément -nouveau, grâce auquel l'accord a +dans le règlement de l'affaire, un élément +nouveau, grâce auquel l'accord a pu se faire. L'intervention possible de -la justice fera réfléchir le capteur en -même temps qu'elle assurera une réparation +la justice fera réfléchir le capteur en +même temps qu'elle assurera une réparation dans le cas d'une destruction sans motif.</p> -<p>Tel est l'esprit général des dispositions +<p>Tel est l'esprit général des dispositions de ce chapitre.</p> <p class="center">Article 48.</p> -<p><i>Un navire neutre saisi ne peut être détruit -par le capteur, mais il doit être conduit +<p><i>Un navire neutre saisi ne peut être détruit +par le capteur, mais il doit être conduit dans tel port qu'il appartiendra pour -y être statué ce que de droit sur la validité +y être statué ce que de droit sur la validité de la capture.</i></p> -<p>Le principe général est très simple. -Un navire neutre saisi ne peut être -détruit par le capteur; cela peut être +<p>Le principe général est très simple. +Un navire neutre saisi ne peut être +détruit par le capteur; cela peut être admis par tout le monde, quelle que -soit la manière dont on envisage l'effet -de la saisie. Le navire doit être conduit -dans un port pour y être statué -sur la validité de la prise. Il sera ou -non amariné suivant les cas.</p> +soit la manière dont on envisage l'effet +de la saisie. Le navire doit être conduit +dans un port pour y être statué +sur la validité de la prise. Il sera ou +non amariné suivant les cas.</p> <p class="center">Article 49.</p> <p><i>Par exception, un navire neutre, saisi -par un bâtiment belligérant et qui serait -sujet à confiscation, peut être détruit, si +par un bâtiment belligérant et qui serait +sujet à confiscation, peut être détruit, si l'observation de l'article 48 peut compromettre -la sécurité du bâtiment de -guerre ou le succès des opérations dans -lesquelles celui-ci est actuellement engagé.</i></p> +la sécurité du bâtiment de +guerre ou le succès des opérations dans +lesquelles celui-ci est actuellement engagé.</i></p> -<p>La première condition pour que le -navire saisi puisse être détruit est qu'il -soit susceptible de confiscation d'après +<p>La première condition pour que le +navire saisi puisse être détruit est qu'il +soit susceptible de confiscation d'après les circonstances. Si le capteur ne -peut pas même songer à obtenir la +peut pas même songer à obtenir la confiscation du navire, comment pourrait-il -avoir la prétention de le détruire?</p> +avoir la prétention de le détruire?</p> <p>La seconde est que l'observation du -principe général soit de nature à compromettre -la sécurité du bâtiment de -guerre ou le succès des opérations dans -lesquelles il est actuellement engagé. -C'est la formule à laquelle on s'est -arrêté après quelques tâtonnements. -Il a été entendu que <i>compromettre la -sécurité</i> était synonyme de mettre en -danger la navire, et pourrait être +principe général soit de nature à compromettre +la sécurité du bâtiment de +guerre ou le succès des opérations dans +lesquelles il est actuellement engagé. +C'est la formule à laquelle on s'est +arrêté après quelques tâtonnements. +Il a été entendu que <i>compromettre la +sécurité</i> était synonyme de mettre en +danger la navire, et pourrait être traduit en anglais par <i>involve danger</i>. -C'est naturellement au moment où a +C'est naturellement au moment où a lieu la destruction qu'il faut se placer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[Pg 655]</a></span> pour voir si les conditions sont ou non remplies. Le danger qui n'existait -pas au moment même de la saisie peut -s'être manifesté quelque temps après.</p> +pas au moment même de la saisie peut +s'être manifesté quelque temps après.</p> <p class="center">Article 50.</p> <p><i>Avant la destruction, les personnes qui -se trouvent à bord devront être mises en -sûreté, et tous les papiers de bord et autres -pièces, que les intéressés estimeront utiles -pour le jugement sur la validité de la -capture, devront être transbordés sur le -bâtiment de guerre.</i></p> - -<p>La disposition prévoit des précautions -à prendre dans l'intérêt des personnes +se trouvent à bord devront être mises en +sûreté, et tous les papiers de bord et autres +pièces, que les intéressés estimeront utiles +pour le jugement sur la validité de la +capture, devront être transbordés sur le +bâtiment de guerre.</i></p> + +<p>La disposition prévoit des précautions +à prendre dans l'intérêt des personnes et dans celui de l'administration de la justice.</p> <p class="center">Article 51.</p> -<p><i>Le capteur qui a détruit un navire -neutre doit, préalablement à tout jugement -sur la validité de la capture, justifier -en fait n'avoir agi qu'en présence d'une -nécessité exceptionnelle, comme elle est -prévue à l'article 49. Faute par lui de -ce faire, il est tenu à indemnité vis-à-vis -des intéressés, sans qu'il y ait à rechercher -si la capture était valable ou non.</i></p> +<p><i>Le capteur qui a détruit un navire +neutre doit, préalablement à tout jugement +sur la validité de la capture, justifier +en fait n'avoir agi qu'en présence d'une +nécessité exceptionnelle, comme elle est +prévue à l'article 49. Faute par lui de +ce faire, il est tenu à indemnité vis-à -vis +des intéressés, sans qu'il y ait à rechercher +si la capture était valable ou non.</i></p> <p>Ce texte donne une garantie contre la destruction arbitraire des prises par -l'établissement d'une responsabilité -effective du capteur qui a opéré la destruction. +l'établissement d'une responsabilité +effective du capteur qui a opéré la destruction. Ce capteur doit, en effet, -avant tout jugement sur la validité de -la prise, justifier en fait qu'il était bien +avant tout jugement sur la validité de +la prise, justifier en fait qu'il était bien dans un des cas exceptionnels qui sont -prévus. La justification sera faite contradictoirement +prévus. La justification sera faite contradictoirement avec le neutre qui, s'il -n'est pas content de la décision du +n'est pas content de la décision du tribunal national des prises, pourra se pourvoir devant la juridiction internationale. Cette justification est donc -une condition préalable à remplir par +une condition préalable à remplir par le capteur. S'il ne le fait pas, il doit -indemniser les intéressés au navire et -au chargement, sans qu'il y ait à rechercher -si la prise était valable ou -nulle. Il y a donc là une sanction -sérieuse de l'obligation de ne détruire -la prise que dans des cas déterminés, -c'est une peine pécuniaire qui frappe +indemniser les intéressés au navire et +au chargement, sans qu'il y ait à rechercher +si la prise était valable ou +nulle. Il y a donc là une sanction +sérieuse de l'obligation de ne détruire +la prise que dans des cas déterminés, +c'est une peine pécuniaire qui frappe le capteur. Si, au contraire, la justification -est faite, le procès de prise se -suit comme à l'ordinaire; lorsque la -prise est déclarée valable, aucune indemnité -n'est due; quand elle est déclarée -nulle, les intéressés ont droit à -être indemnisés. Le recours devant la -Cour Internationale ne peut être formé -que quand la décision du tribunal des +est faite, le procès de prise se +suit comme à l'ordinaire; lorsque la +prise est déclarée valable, aucune indemnité +n'est due; quand elle est déclarée +nulle, les intéressés ont droit à +être indemnisés. Le recours devant la +Cour Internationale ne peut être formé +que quand la décision du tribunal des prises est intervenue sur le fond et non -pas aussitôt après que la question préalable -a été jugée.</p> +pas aussitôt après que la question préalable +a été jugée.</p> <p class="center">Article 52.</p> <p><i>Si la capture d'un navire neutre, dont -la destruction a été justifiée, est ensuite -déclarée nulle, le capteur doit indemniser -les intéressés en remplacement de la restitution -à laquelle ils auraient droit.</i></p> +la destruction a été justifiée, est ensuite +déclarée nulle, le capteur doit indemniser +les intéressés en remplacement de la restitution +à laquelle ils auraient droit.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 53.</p> <p><i>Si des marchandises neutres qui -n'étaient pas susceptibles de confiscation -ont été détruites avec le navire, le propriétaire -de ces marchandises a droit à -une indemnité.</i></p> +n'étaient pas susceptibles de confiscation +ont été détruites avec le navire, le propriétaire +de ces marchandises a droit à +une indemnité.</i></p> -<p>Le navire détruit contenait des marchandises +<p>Le navire détruit contenait des marchandises neutres non susceptibles de -confiscation; le propriétaire de ces -marchandises a, en tout cas, droit à -une indemnité, c'est-à-dire sans qu'il -y ait à distinguer suivant que la destruction -était ou non justifiée. C'est -équitable et c'est une garantie de plus +confiscation; le propriétaire de ces +marchandises a, en tout cas, droit à +une indemnité, c'est-à -dire sans qu'il +y ait à distinguer suivant que la destruction +était ou non justifiée. C'est +équitable et c'est une garantie de plus contre une destruction arbitraire.</p> <p class="center">Article 54.</p> -<p><i>Le capteur a la faculté d'exiger la remise -ou de procéder à la destruction des -marchandises confiscables trouvées à bord -d'un navire qui lui-même n'est pas sujet -à confiscation, lorsque les circonstances -sont telles que, d'après l'article 49, elles +<p><i>Le capteur a la faculté d'exiger la remise +ou de procéder à la destruction des +marchandises confiscables trouvées à bord +d'un navire qui lui-même n'est pas sujet +à confiscation, lorsque les circonstances +sont telles que, d'après l'article 49, elles justifieraient la destruction d'un navire passible de confiscation. Il mentionne -les objets livrés ou détruits sur le livre de -bord du navire arrêté et se fait remettre -par le capitaine copie certifiée conforme +les objets livrés ou détruits sur le livre de +bord du navire arrêté et se fait remettre +par le capitaine copie certifiée conforme de tous papiers utiles. Lorsque la remise -ou la destruction a été effectuée et -que les formalités ont été remplies, le -capitaine doit être autorisé à continuer +ou la destruction a été effectuée et +que les formalités ont été remplies, le +capitaine doit être autorisé à continuer sa route.</i></p> <p><i>Les dispositions des articles 51 et 52 -concernant la responsabilité du capteur -qui a détruit un navire neutre sont +concernant la responsabilité du capteur +qui a détruit un navire neutre sont applicables.</i></p> <p>Un croiseur rencontre un navire de commerce neutre portant de la contrebande -dans une proportion inférieure à -celle qui est prévue par l'article 40. Il +dans une proportion inférieure à +celle qui est prévue par l'article 40. Il peut amariner le navire et le conduire -dans un port pour y être jugé. Il peut, -conformément à ce qui est réglé par +dans un port pour y être jugé. Il peut, +conformément à ce qui est réglé par l'article 44, accepter la remise de la contrebande qui lui est offerte par le -navire arrêté. Mais, qu'arrivera-t-il si +navire arrêté. Mais, qu'arrivera-t-il si aucune de ces solutions n'intervient? -Le navire arrêté n'offre pas de remettre +Le navire arrêté n'offre pas de remettre la contrebande et le croiseur n'est pas en situation de conduire le navire dans un de ses ports. Le croiseur est-il -obligé de laisser aller un navire neutre +obligé de laisser aller un navire neutre avec la contrebande qu'il porte? Cela a paru excessif, au moins dans certaines circonstances exceptionnelles. Ce sont -celles-là mêmes qui justifieraient la destruction -du navire, s'il était susceptible +celles-là mêmes qui justifieraient la destruction +du navire, s'il était susceptible de confiscation. En pareil cas, le croiseur pourra exiger la remise ou -procéder à la destruction des marchandises +procéder à la destruction des marchandises confiscables. Les raisons qui ont fait admettre la destruction du navire pourront justifier la destruction des marchandises de contrebande, d'autant -plus que les considérations d'humanité -qui peuvent être invoquées en cas de -destruction du navire sont écartées ici. +plus que les considérations d'humanité +qui peuvent être invoquées en cas de +destruction du navire sont écartées ici. Contre une exigence arbitraire du croiseur,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_656" id="Page_656">[Pg 656]</a></span> -il y a les mêmes garanties qui ont -permis de reconnaître la faculté de -détruire le navire. Le croiseur doit -préalablement justifier qu'il se trouvait +il y a les mêmes garanties qui ont +permis de reconnaître la faculté de +détruire le navire. Le croiseur doit +préalablement justifier qu'il se trouvait bien dans les circonstances exceptionnelles -prévues; sinon, il est -condamné à la valeur des marchandises -livrées ou détruites, sans qu'il y -ait à rechercher si elles constituaient +prévues; sinon, il est +condamné à la valeur des marchandises +livrées ou détruites, sans qu'il y +ait à rechercher si elles constituaient ou non de la contrebande de guerre.</p> -<p>La disposition prescrit des formalités -qui sont nécessaires pour constater le -fait même et pour mettre la juridiction -des prises à même de statuer.</p> +<p>La disposition prescrit des formalités +qui sont nécessaires pour constater le +fait même et pour mettre la juridiction +des prises à même de statuer.</p> <p>Naturellement, une fois que la remise -a été effectuée ou que la destruction -a été opérée et que les formalités -ont été remplies, le navire arrêté doit -être laissé libre de continuer sa route.</p> +a été effectuée ou que la destruction +a été opérée et que les formalités +ont été remplies, le navire arrêté doit +être laissé libre de continuer sa route.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre V.</span>—<i>Du transfert de pavillon.</i></p> <p>Un navire de commerce ennemi est -sujet à capture, tandis qu'un navire de -commerce neutre est respecté. On -comprend, dès lors, qu'un croiseur belligérant, +sujet à capture, tandis qu'un navire de +commerce neutre est respecté. On +comprend, dès lors, qu'un croiseur belligérant, rencontrant un navire de commerce -qui se réclame d'une nationalité -neutre, ait à rechercher si cette nationalité -a été légitimement acquise ou si +qui se réclame d'une nationalité +neutre, ait à rechercher si cette nationalité +a été légitimement acquise ou si elle n'a pas eu pour but de soustraire le navire aux risques auxquels il aurait -été exposé s'il avait gardé son ancienne -nationalité. La question se présente +été exposé s'il avait gardé son ancienne +nationalité. La question se présente naturellement quand le transfert est de -date relativement récente, au moment -où a lieu la visite, que ce transfert soit, -du reste, antérieur ou postérieur à l'ouverture -des hostilités. Elle est résolue -différemment suivant qu'on se place -plutôt au point de vue de l'intérêt du -commerce ou plutôt au point de vue -de l'intérêt des belligérants. Il est +date relativement récente, au moment +où a lieu la visite, que ce transfert soit, +du reste, antérieur ou postérieur à l'ouverture +des hostilités. Elle est résolue +différemment suivant qu'on se place +plutôt au point de vue de l'intérêt du +commerce ou plutôt au point de vue +de l'intérêt des belligérants. Il est heureux que l'on se soit entendu sur -un règlement qui concilie les deux -intérêts dans la mesure du possible et -qui renseigne les belligérants et le +un règlement qui concilie les deux +intérêts dans la mesure du possible et +qui renseigne les belligérants et le commerce neutre.</p> <p class="center">Article 55.</p> <p><i>La transfert sous pavillon neutre d'un -navire ennemi, effectué avant l'ouverture -des hostilités, est valable à moins qu'il -soit établi que ce transfert a été effectué -en vue d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne -le caractère de navire ennemi. Il -y a néanmoins présomption de nullité si -l'acte de transfert ne se trouve pas à bord, -alors que le navire a perdu la nationalité -belligérante moins de soixante jours -avant l'ouverture des hostilités; la preuve +navire ennemi, effectué avant l'ouverture +des hostilités, est valable à moins qu'il +soit établi que ce transfert a été effectué +en vue d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne +le caractère de navire ennemi. Il +y a néanmoins présomption de nullité si +l'acte de transfert ne se trouve pas à bord, +alors que le navire a perdu la nationalité +belligérante moins de soixante jours +avant l'ouverture des hostilités; la preuve contraire est admise.</i></p> -<p><i>Il y a présomption absolue de validité -d'un transfert effectué plus de trente jours -avant l'ouverture des hostilités, s'il est -absolu, complet, conforme à la législation -des pays intéressés, et s'il a cet effet que -le contrôle du navire et le bénéfice de son -emploi ne restent pas entre les mêmes +<p><i>Il y a présomption absolue de validité +d'un transfert effectué plus de trente jours +avant l'ouverture des hostilités, s'il est +absolu, complet, conforme à la législation +des pays intéressés, et s'il a cet effet que +le contrôle du navire et le bénéfice de son +emploi ne restent pas entre les mêmes mains qu'avant le transfert. Toutefois, -si le navire a perdu la nationalité belligérante +si le navire a perdu la nationalité belligérante moins de soixante jours avant -l'ouverture des hostilités et si l'acte de -transfert ne se trouve pas à bord, la saisie -du navire ne pourra donner lieu à des -dommages et intérêts.</i></p> +l'ouverture des hostilités et si l'acte de +transfert ne se trouve pas à bord, la saisie +du navire ne pourra donner lieu à des +dommages et intérêts.</i></p> -<p>La règle générale, posée par l'alinéa +<p>La règle générale, posée par l'alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span>, est que le transfert sous pavillon neutre d'un navire ennemi est valable, en supposant, bien entendu, que les -conditions juridiques ordinaires de validité -ont été remplies. C'est au capteur, -s'il veut faire annuler ce transfert, à -établir que le transfert a eu pour but -d'éluder les conséquences de la guerre -que l'on prévoyait. Il y a un cas considéré +conditions juridiques ordinaires de validité +ont été remplies. C'est au capteur, +s'il veut faire annuler ce transfert, à +établir que le transfert a eu pour but +d'éluder les conséquences de la guerre +que l'on prévoyait. Il y a un cas considéré comme suspect, celui dans lequel -l'acte de transfert ne se trouve pas à -bord, alors que le navire a changé de -nationalité moins de soixante jours -avant l'ouverture des hostilités. La -présomption de validité établie au -profit du navire par l'alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span> est -renversée au profit du capteur. Il y -a présomption de nullité du transfert, +l'acte de transfert ne se trouve pas à +bord, alors que le navire a changé de +nationalité moins de soixante jours +avant l'ouverture des hostilités. La +présomption de validité établie au +profit du navire par l'alinéa 1<span class="topnum">er</span> est +renversée au profit du capteur. Il y +a présomption de nullité du transfert, mais la preuve contraire est admise. -Il peut être prouvé, pour l'écarter, que -le transfert n'a pas été opéré en vue -d'éluder les conséquences de la guerre; +Il peut être prouvé, pour l'écarter, que +le transfert n'a pas été opéré en vue +d'éluder les conséquences de la guerre; il va sans dire que les conditions juridiques -ordinaires de validité doivent -avoir été remplies.</p> +ordinaires de validité doivent +avoir été remplies.</p> <p>On a voulu donner au commerce -cette garantie que le droit de faire considérer +cette garantie que le droit de faire considérer un transfert comme nul pour ce -motif qu'il aurait eu pour but d'éluder -les conséquences de la guerre ne s'étendrait +motif qu'il aurait eu pour but d'éluder +les conséquences de la guerre ne s'étendrait pas trop loin et ne comprendrait -pas une période trop étendue. En -conséquence, si le transfert a été -effectué plus de trente jours avant l'ouverture -des hostilités, il ne peut être -attaqué pour cette seule cause, et il est -considéré comme absolument valable, -s'il a été fait dans des conditions qui -en démontrent le caractère sérieux et -définitif et qui sont les suivantes: le -transfert doit être absolu, complet, et -conforme à la législation des pays intéressés +pas une période trop étendue. En +conséquence, si le transfert a été +effectué plus de trente jours avant l'ouverture +des hostilités, il ne peut être +attaqué pour cette seule cause, et il est +considéré comme absolument valable, +s'il a été fait dans des conditions qui +en démontrent le caractère sérieux et +définitif et qui sont les suivantes: le +transfert doit être absolu, complet, et +conforme à la législation des pays intéressés et il a pour effet de mettre le -contrôle et les bénéfices du navire entre -d'autres mains. Ces conditions établies, -le capteur n'est pas admis à prétendre -que le vendeur prévoyait la +contrôle et les bénéfices du navire entre +d'autres mains. Ces conditions établies, +le capteur n'est pas admis à prétendre +que le vendeur prévoyait la guerre dans laquelle son pays allait -être engagé et voulait, par la vente, se +être engagé et voulait, par la vente, se soustraire aux risques qu'elle lui aurait fait courir pour les navires dont il -opérait le transfert. Si, même dans -cette hypothèse, le navire est rencontré +opérait le transfert. Si, même dans +cette hypothèse, le navire est rencontré par un croiseur et qu'il n'ait pas l'acte -de transfert à bord, il pourra être saisi -lorsque le changement de nationalité +de transfert à bord, il pourra être saisi +lorsque le changement de nationalité a eu lieu moins de soixante jours avant -l'ouverture des hostilités; cette circonstance +l'ouverture des hostilités; cette circonstance le rend suspect. Mais si,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657">[Pg 657]</a></span> devant la juridiction des prises, il fait -les justifications prévues par l'alinéa 2, -il doit être relâché; seulement il ne -pourra obtenir des dommages et intérêts, +les justifications prévues par l'alinéa 2, +il doit être relâché; seulement il ne +pourra obtenir des dommages et intérêts, attendu qu'il y avait eu motif suffisant pour saisir le navire.</p> <p class="center">Article 56.</p> <p><i>Le transfert sous pavillon neutre d'un -navire ennemi, effectué après l'ouverture -des hostilités, est nul, à moins qu'il soit -établi que ce transfert n'a pas été effectué -en vue d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne -le caractère de navire ennemi.</i></p> +navire ennemi, effectué après l'ouverture +des hostilités, est nul, à moins qu'il soit +établi que ce transfert n'a pas été effectué +en vue d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne +le caractère de navire ennemi.</i></p> -<p><i>Toutefois, il y a présomption absolue -de nullité:</i></p> +<p><i>Toutefois, il y a présomption absolue +de nullité:</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Si le transfert a été effectué pendant +<p class="blockquot">1<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Si le transfert a été effectué pendant que le navire est en voyage ou dans -un port bloqué.</i></p> +un port bloqué.</i></p> -<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>S'il y a faculté de réméré ou de +<p class="blockquot">2<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>S'il y a faculté de réméré ou de retour.</i></p> <p class="blockquot">3<span class="topnum">o</span> <i>Si les conditions, auxquelles est -soumis le droit de pavillon d'après la -législation du pavillon arboré, n'ont -pas été observées.</i></p> +soumis le droit de pavillon d'après la +législation du pavillon arboré, n'ont +pas été observées.</i></p> -<p>Pour le <i>transfert postérieur à l'ouverture -des hostilités</i>, la règle est plus +<p>Pour le <i>transfert postérieur à l'ouverture +des hostilités</i>, la règle est plus simple: le transfert n'est valable que -s'il est établi qu'il n'a pas eu pour but -d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne le -caractère de navire ennemi. C'est la +s'il est établi qu'il n'a pas eu pour but +d'éluder les conséquences qu'entraîne le +caractère de navire ennemi. C'est la solution inverse de celle qui est admise -pour le transfert antérieur à l'ouverture -des hostilités; présomption de -validité dans ce dernier, présomption -de nullité dans celui dont il s'agit -maintenant, sauf la possibilité de faire -la preuve contraire. Il pourrait être -établi, par exemple, que le transfert est -la suite d'une transmission héréditaire.</p> +pour le transfert antérieur à l'ouverture +des hostilités; présomption de +validité dans ce dernier, présomption +de nullité dans celui dont il s'agit +maintenant, sauf la possibilité de faire +la preuve contraire. Il pourrait être +établi, par exemple, que le transfert est +la suite d'une transmission héréditaire.</p> <p>L'article 56 indique des cas dans -lesquels la présomption de nullité est +lesquels la présomption de nullité est absolue pour des motifs qui se comprennent -aisément: dans le premier, le +aisément: dans le premier, le lien entre le transfert et le risque de -guerre couru par le navire apparaît -clairement; dans le second, l'acquéreur -se présente comme un prête-nom devant -être considéré comme propriétaire -du navire pendant une période dangereuse, -après laquelle le vendeur reprendra -son navire; enfin, le troisième cas -aurait pu à la rigueur être sous-entendu, -le navire qui se réclame d'une nationalité +guerre couru par le navire apparaît +clairement; dans le second, l'acquéreur +se présente comme un prête-nom devant +être considéré comme propriétaire +du navire pendant une période dangereuse, +après laquelle le vendeur reprendra +son navire; enfin, le troisième cas +aurait pu à la rigueur être sous-entendu, +le navire qui se réclame d'une nationalité neutre devant naturellement justifier -qu'il a droit à cette nationalité.</p> +qu'il a droit à cette nationalité.</p> -<p>On avait d'abord prévu le cas où le -navire est, après le transfert, maintenu -dans le service auquel il était affecté -auparavant. Il y a là une circonstance +<p>On avait d'abord prévu le cas où le +navire est, après le transfert, maintenu +dans le service auquel il était affecté +auparavant. Il y a là une circonstance suspecte au plus haut point; le transfert -paraît fictif, puisque rien n'est -changé dans le service du navire. Cela +paraît fictif, puisque rien n'est +changé dans le service du navire. Cela s'applique, par exemple, au cas d'une -même ligne de navigation desservie par -le navire après et avant le transfert. -On a objecté que, parfois, la présomption +même ligne de navigation desservie par +le navire après et avant le transfert. +On a objecté que, parfois, la présomption absolue serait trop rigoureuse, que certains navires, comme les navires -pétroliers, ne pouvaient, à raison de -leur construction, être affectés qu'à un -service déterminé. Pour tenir compte +pétroliers, ne pouvaient, à raison de +leur construction, être affectés qu'à un +service déterminé. Pour tenir compte de cette observation, le mot <i>trajet</i> avait -été ajouté, de sorte qu'il aurait fallu -que le navire eût été maintenu <i>dans les -mêmes service et trajet</i>; il semblait que -l'on donnait, de cette façon, une satisfaction -suffisante à la réclamation. -Néanmoins, sur une insistance en vue -de la suppression du cas dans l'énumération, -cette suppression a été admise. -Il en résulte que le transfert rentre -alors dans l'application de la règle -générale; il est bien présumé nul, mais +été ajouté, de sorte qu'il aurait fallu +que le navire eût été maintenu <i>dans les +mêmes service et trajet</i>; il semblait que +l'on donnait, de cette façon, une satisfaction +suffisante à la réclamation. +Néanmoins, sur une insistance en vue +de la suppression du cas dans l'énumération, +cette suppression a été admise. +Il en résulte que le transfert rentre +alors dans l'application de la règle +générale; il est bien présumé nul, mais la preuve contraire est admise.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VI.</span>—<i>Du caractère ennemi.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VI.</span>—<i>Du caractère ennemi.</i></p> -<p>La règle inscrite dans la Déclaration +<p>La règle inscrite dans la Déclaration de Paris, "le pavillon neutre couvre la -marchandise ennemie, à l'exception de -la contrebande de guerre," répond trop -au progrès des mœurs, a trop pénétré -l'opinion publique pour qu'en présence -d'une application si générale, on n'y +marchandise ennemie, à l'exception de +la contrebande de guerre," répond trop +au progrès des mœurs, a trop pénétré +l'opinion publique pour qu'en présence +d'une application si générale, on n'y voie pas un principe de droit commun, -qu'il n'est plus même question de discuter. -Aussi le caractère neutre ou +qu'il n'est plus même question de discuter. +Aussi le caractère neutre ou ennemi des navires de commerce n'a-t-il -pas seulement pour conséquence de -décider de la validité de leur capture, +pas seulement pour conséquence de +décider de la validité de leur capture, mais encore du sort des marchandises, autres que la contrebande, qui sont -trouvées à leur bord. Une remarque -générale analogue peut être faite au -sujet du caractère neutre ou ennemi de -la marchandise. Personne ne songe à -contester aujourd'hui le principe d'après -lequel, "la marchandise neutre, à l'exception +trouvées à leur bord. Une remarque +générale analogue peut être faite au +sujet du caractère neutre ou ennemi de +la marchandise. Personne ne songe à +contester aujourd'hui le principe d'après +lequel, "la marchandise neutre, à l'exception de la contrebande de guerre, n'est pas saisissable sous pavillon ennemi." -Ce n'est donc que dans le cas où elle -est trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi, +Ce n'est donc que dans le cas où elle +est trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi, que se pose la question de savoir si une marchandise est neutre ou ennemie.</p> -<p>La détermination du caractère neutre -ou ennemi apparaît ainsi comme le développement -des deux principes consacrés +<p>La détermination du caractère neutre +ou ennemi apparaît ainsi comme le développement +des deux principes consacrés en 1856, ou mieux comme le moyen d'en assurer la juste application pratique.</p> -<p>L'utilité de dégager, à cet égard, des -pratiques des différents pays des règles +<p>L'utilité de dégager, à cet égard, des +pratiques des différents pays des règles claires et simples n'a, pour ainsi dire, -pas besoin d'être démontrée. Pour le +pas besoin d'être démontrée. Pour le commerce, l'incertitude des risques de capture, si elle n'est pas une cause -d'arrêt total, est tout au moins la pire -des entraves. Le commerçant doit +d'arrêt total, est tout au moins la pire +des entraves. Le commerçant doit savoir les risques qu'il court en chargeant sur tel ou tel navire; l'assureur, -s'il ignore la gravité de ces risques, est -forcé d'exiger des primes de guerre souvent +s'il ignore la gravité de ces risques, est +forcé d'exiger des primes de guerre souvent exorbitantes ou insuffisantes.</p> -<p>Les règles qui forment ce chapitre ne -sont malheureusement pas complètes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[Pg 658]</a></span> -quelques points importants ont dû -être laissés de côté, comme on l'a déjà -vu par ce qui a été dit dans les explications -préliminaires et comme cela sera -précisé plus loin.</p> +<p>Les règles qui forment ce chapitre ne +sont malheureusement pas complètes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[Pg 658]</a></span> +quelques points importants ont dû +être laissés de côté, comme on l'a déjà +vu par ce qui a été dit dans les explications +préliminaires et comme cela sera +précisé plus loin.</p> <p class="center">Article 57.</p> -<p><i>Sous réserve des dispositions relatives -au transfert de pavillon, le caractère -neutre ou ennemi du navire est déterminé +<p><i>Sous réserve des dispositions relatives +au transfert de pavillon, le caractère +neutre ou ennemi du navire est déterminé par le pavillon qu'il a le droit de porter.</i></p> -<p><i>Le cas où le navire neutre se livre à -une navigation réservée en temps de paix -reste hors de cause et n'est nullement visé -par cette règle.</i></p> +<p><i>Le cas où le navire neutre se livre à +une navigation réservée en temps de paix +reste hors de cause et n'est nullement visé +par cette règle.</i></p> -<p>Le principe est donc que <i>le caractère -neutre ou ennemi du navire est déterminé +<p>Le principe est donc que <i>le caractère +neutre ou ennemi du navire est déterminé par le pavillon qu'il a le droit de porter</i>. -C'est une règle simple qui paraît bien -répondre à la situation spéciale des +C'est une règle simple qui paraît bien +répondre à la situation spéciale des navires, si on les compare aux autres biens meubles et notamment aux marchandises. A plus d'un point de vue, -ils ont une sorte d'individualité; notamment -ils ont une nationalité, un -<i>caractère</i> national. Cette nationalité -est manifestée par le droit de pavillon; +ils ont une sorte d'individualité; notamment +ils ont une nationalité, un +<i>caractère</i> national. Cette nationalité +est manifestée par le droit de pavillon; elle place les navires sous la protection -et le contrôle de l'État dont ils relèvent; -elle les soumet à la souveraineté -et aux lois de cet État et, le cas échéant, -à ses réquisitions. C'est là le critérium -le plus sûr que le navire est bien un des -éléments de la force maritime marchande -d'un pays et, par conséquent, -le meilleur critérium pour déterminer +et le contrôle de l'État dont ils relèvent; +elle les soumet à la souveraineté +et aux lois de cet État et, le cas échéant, +à ses réquisitions. C'est là le critérium +le plus sûr que le navire est bien un des +éléments de la force maritime marchande +d'un pays et, par conséquent, +le meilleur critérium pour déterminer s'il est neutre ou ennemi. Aussi convient-il de s'y attacher exclusivement -et d'écarter ce qui se rattache à la personnalité -du propriétaire.</p> +et d'écarter ce qui se rattache à la personnalité +du propriétaire.</p> <p>Le texte dit: le pavillon que le navire a le <i>droit de porter</i>; cela s'entend naturellement du pavillon que le navire est, s'il ne l'a fait, en droit d'arborer, -conformément aux lois qui régissent le +conformément aux lois qui régissent le port de ce pavillon.</p> -<p>L'article 57 réserve les dispositions +<p>L'article 57 réserve les dispositions relatives au transfert de pavillon pour lesquelles il suffit de renvoyer aux articles 55 et 56; il pourra se faire qu'un navire ait bien le droit de porter un pavillon neutre, au point de vue de la -législation du pays dont il se réclame, -mais soit considéré comme ennemi par -un belligérant, parce que le transfert à -la suite duquel il a porté le pavillon +législation du pays dont il se réclame, +mais soit considéré comme ennemi par +un belligérant, parce que le transfert à +la suite duquel il a porté le pavillon neutre tombe sous le coup de l'article 55 ou de l'article 56.</p> <p>Enfin, la question de savoir si un -navire perd son caractère neutre, lorsqu'il +navire perd son caractère neutre, lorsqu'il effectue une navigation que l'ennemi -réservait avant la guerre aux seuls -navires nationaux a été soulevée. Une +réservait avant la guerre aux seuls +navires nationaux a été soulevée. Une entente n'a pu avoir lieu, comme cela -a été expliqué plus haut à propos du +a été expliqué plus haut à propos du chapitre sur <i>l'Assistance hostile</i>, et la -question est restée absolument entière, -comme l'alinéa 2 de l'article 57 prend +question est restée absolument entière, +comme l'alinéa 2 de l'article 57 prend soin de le dire.</p> <p class="center">Article 58.</p> -<p><i>Le caractère neutre ou ennemi des -marchandises trouvées à bord d'un navire -ennemi est déterminé par le caractère -neutre ou ennemi de leur propriétaire.</i></p> - -<p>A la différence des navires, les marchandises -n'ont pas une individualité -propre; on fait dépendre leur caractère -neutre ou ennemi de la personnalité -de leur propriétaire. C'est ce -qui a prévalu après un examen approfondi -de diverses opinions tendant à -s'attacher à l'origine des marchandises, -à la personne du porteur de risques, du -réclamateur ou de l'expéditeur. Le -critérium adopté par l'article 58 paraît, +<p><i>Le caractère neutre ou ennemi des +marchandises trouvées à bord d'un navire +ennemi est déterminé par le caractère +neutre ou ennemi de leur propriétaire.</i></p> + +<p>A la différence des navires, les marchandises +n'ont pas une individualité +propre; on fait dépendre leur caractère +neutre ou ennemi de la personnalité +de leur propriétaire. C'est ce +qui a prévalu après un examen approfondi +de diverses opinions tendant à +s'attacher à l'origine des marchandises, +à la personne du porteur de risques, du +réclamateur ou de l'expéditeur. Le +critérium adopté par l'article 58 paraît, d'ailleurs, conforme aux termes de la -Déclaration de Paris comme à ceux de +Déclaration de Paris comme à ceux de la Convention de La Haye du 18 -octobre 1907, sur l'établissement d'une -Cour Internationale des prises, où il est -parlé des <i>propriétés neutres ou ennemies</i> +octobre 1907, sur l'établissement d'une +Cour Internationale des prises, où il est +parlé des <i>propriétés neutres ou ennemies</i> (articles 1, 3, 4 et 8).</p> <p>Mais il ne faut pas se dissimuler que -l'article 58 ne résout qu'une partie du -problème, la plus simple; c'est le -caractère neutre ou ennemi du propriétaire -qui détermine le caractère des -marchandises, mais à quoi s'attachera-t-on -pour déterminer le caractère neutre -ou ennemi du propriétaire? On ne le -dit pas, parce qu'il a été impossible -d'arriver à une entente sur ce point. -Les opinions ont été partagées entre le -<i>domicile</i> et la <i>nationalité</i>; il est inutile de -reproduire ici les arguments invoqués -dans les deux sens. On avait pensé à -une sorte de transaction ainsi formulée:</p> - -<p class="blockquot">"Le caractère neutre ou ennemi -des marchandises trouvées à bord -d'un navire ennemi est déterminé par -la nationalité neutre ou ennemie de -leur propriétaire et, en cas d'absence -de nationalité ou en cas de double -nationalité neutre et ennemie de leur -propriétaire, par le domicile de celui-ci +l'article 58 ne résout qu'une partie du +problème, la plus simple; c'est le +caractère neutre ou ennemi du propriétaire +qui détermine le caractère des +marchandises, mais à quoi s'attachera-t-on +pour déterminer le caractère neutre +ou ennemi du propriétaire? On ne le +dit pas, parce qu'il a été impossible +d'arriver à une entente sur ce point. +Les opinions ont été partagées entre le +<i>domicile</i> et la <i>nationalité</i>; il est inutile de +reproduire ici les arguments invoqués +dans les deux sens. On avait pensé à +une sorte de transaction ainsi formulée:</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Le caractère neutre ou ennemi +des marchandises trouvées à bord +d'un navire ennemi est déterminé par +la nationalité neutre ou ennemie de +leur propriétaire et, en cas d'absence +de nationalité ou en cas de double +nationalité neutre et ennemie de leur +propriétaire, par le domicile de celui-ci en pays neutre ou ennemi."</p> <p class="blockquot">"Toutefois, les marchandises appartenant -à une société anonyme ou -par actions sont considérées comme +à une société anonyme ou +par actions sont considérées comme neutres ou ennemies selon que la -société a son siège social en pays +société a son siège social en pays neutre ou ennemi."</p> -<p>L'unanimité n'a pu être obtenue.</p> +<p>L'unanimité n'a pu être obtenue.</p> <p class="center">Article 59.</p> -<p><i>Si le caractère neutre de la marchandise -trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi -n'est pas établi, la marchandise est présumée +<p><i>Si le caractère neutre de la marchandise +trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi +n'est pas établi, la marchandise est présumée ennemie.</i></p> -<p>L'article 59 formule la règle traditionnelle -d'après laquelle la marchandise -trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi est -présumée ennemie sauf la preuve contraire;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[Pg 659]</a></span> -ce n'est qu'une présomption +<p>L'article 59 formule la règle traditionnelle +d'après laquelle la marchandise +trouvée à bord d'un navire ennemi est +présumée ennemie sauf la preuve contraire;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[Pg 659]</a></span> +ce n'est qu'une présomption simple laissant au revendiquant le droit, mais la charge de prouver ses droits.</p> <p class="center">Article 60.</p> -<p><i>Le caractère ennemi de la marchandise -chargée à bord d'un navire ennemi subsiste -jusqu'à l'arrivée à destination, nonobstant +<p><i>Le caractère ennemi de la marchandise +chargée à bord d'un navire ennemi subsiste +jusqu'à l'arrivée à destination, nonobstant un transfert intervenu pendant le -cours de l'expédition, après l'ouverture -des hostilités.</i></p> +cours de l'expédition, après l'ouverture +des hostilités.</i></p> -<p><i>Toutefois, si, antérieurement à la capture, -un précédent propriétaire neutre -exerce, en cas de faillite du propriétaire +<p><i>Toutefois, si, antérieurement à la capture, +un précédent propriétaire neutre +exerce, en cas de faillite du propriétaire ennemi actuel, un droit de revendication -légale sur la marchandise, celle-ci reprend -le caractère neutre.</i></p> +légale sur la marchandise, celle-ci reprend +le caractère neutre.</i></p> -<p>Cette disposition envisage le cas où -une marchandise, étant propriété ennemie -au moment de son départ, a été +<p>Cette disposition envisage le cas où +une marchandise, étant propriété ennemie +au moment de son départ, a été l'objet d'une vente ou d'un transfert pendant le cours du voyage. La -facilité qu'il y aurait à garantir, au +facilité qu'il y aurait à garantir, au moyen d'une vente, la marchandise ennemie contre l'exercice du droit de -capture, sauf à s'en faire rétrocéder la -propriété à l'arrivée, a toujours conduit -à ne pas tenir compte de ces transferts; -le caractère ennemi subsiste.</p> +capture, sauf à s'en faire rétrocéder la +propriété à l'arrivée, a toujours conduit +à ne pas tenir compte de ces transferts; +le caractère ennemi subsiste.</p> -<p>Au point de vue du moment à partir -duquel une marchandise doit être considérée +<p>Au point de vue du moment à partir +duquel une marchandise doit être considérée comme devant prendre et conserver -le caractère ennemi de son propriétaire, -le texte est inspiré du même -esprit d'équité qui a présidé à la Convention -de La Haye sur le régime des -bâtiments de commerce au début des -hostilités, et du même désir de garantir -les opérations entreprises dans la confiance +le caractère ennemi de son propriétaire, +le texte est inspiré du même +esprit d'équité qui a présidé à la Convention +de La Haye sur le régime des +bâtiments de commerce au début des +hostilités, et du même désir de garantir +les opérations entreprises dans la confiance du temps de paix. C'est seulement -lorsque le transfert a lieu après -l'ouverture des hostilités qu'il est, -jusqu'à l'arrivée, inopérant au point de -vue de la perte du caractère ennemi. -Ce qu'on considère ici, c'est la date du -transfert, et non la date du départ du +lorsque le transfert a lieu après +l'ouverture des hostilités qu'il est, +jusqu'à l'arrivée, inopérant au point de +vue de la perte du caractère ennemi. +Ce qu'on considère ici, c'est la date du +transfert, et non la date du départ du navire. Car, bien que le navire parti -avant la guerre, et resté peut-être dans -l'ignorance de l'ouverture des hostilités, +avant la guerre, et resté peut-être dans +l'ignorance de l'ouverture des hostilités, jouisse de ce chef d'une certaine exemption, la marchandise peut cependant -avoir le caractère ennemi; le propriétaire +avoir le caractère ennemi; le propriétaire ennemi de cette marchandise est -à même de connaître la guerre, et c'est -précisément pour cela qu'il cherchera -à échapper à ses conséquences.</p> +à même de connaître la guerre, et c'est +précisément pour cela qu'il cherchera +à échapper à ses conséquences.</p> <p>On a cru, toutefois, devoir ajouter sinon une restriction, du moins un -complément jugé nécessaire. Dans un +complément jugé nécessaire. Dans un grand nombre de pays, le vendeur non -payé a, en cas de faillite de l'acheteur, un -droit de revendication légale (<i>stoppage -in transitu</i>) sur les marchandises déjà -devenues la propriété de l'acheteur, -mais non encore parvenues jusqu'à lui. -En pareil cas la vente est résolue, et, +payé a, en cas de faillite de l'acheteur, un +droit de revendication légale (<i>stoppage +in transitu</i>) sur les marchandises déjà +devenues la propriété de l'acheteur, +mais non encore parvenues jusqu'à lui. +En pareil cas la vente est résolue, et, par l'effet de sa revendication, le vendeur -reprend sa marchandise, sans être -réputé avoir jamais cessé d'être propriétaire. -Il y a là pour le commerce -neutre, en cas de faillite non simulée, -une garantie trop précieuse pour être -sacrifiée, et le deuxième alinéa de +reprend sa marchandise, sans être +réputé avoir jamais cessé d'être propriétaire. +Il y a là pour le commerce +neutre, en cas de faillite non simulée, +une garantie trop précieuse pour être +sacrifiée, et le deuxième alinéa de l'article 60 a pour but de la sauvegarder.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VII.</span>—<i>Du convoi.</i></p> <p>La pratique du convoi a, dans le -passé, soulevé parfois de graves difficultés -et même des conflits. Aussi +passé, soulevé parfois de graves difficultés +et même des conflits. Aussi peut-on constater avec satisfaction l'accord -intervenu pour la régler.</p> +intervenu pour la régler.</p> <p class="center">Article 61.</p> <p><i>Les navires neutres sous convoi de leur pavillon sont exempts de visite. Le commandant -du convoi donne par écrit, à la -demande du commandant d'un bâtiment -de guerre belligérant, sur le caractère des +du convoi donne par écrit, à la +demande du commandant d'un bâtiment +de guerre belligérant, sur le caractère des navires et sur leur chargement, toutes informations -que la visite servirait à obtenir.</i></p> +que la visite servirait à obtenir.</i></p> -<p>Le principe posé est simple: un -navire neutre convoyé par un navire de +<p>Le principe posé est simple: un +navire neutre convoyé par un navire de guerre de sa nation est exempt de visite. -Le motif en est que le croiseur belligérant +Le motif en est que le croiseur belligérant doit trouver dans les affirmations du commandant du convoi la garantie -que lui procurerait l'exercice même du +que lui procurerait l'exercice même du droit de visite; il ne peut, en effet, -révoquer en doute ces affirmations, -données par l'agent officiel d'un Gouvernement -neutre, sans manquer à la +révoquer en doute ces affirmations, +données par l'agent officiel d'un Gouvernement +neutre, sans manquer à la courtoisie internationale. Si les Gouvernements -neutres laissent les belligérants +neutres laissent les belligérants visiter les navires portant leur pavillon, c'est qu'ils ne veulent pas prendre la charge de la surveillance de ces navires, et qu'alors ils permettent -aux belligérants de se protéger eux-mêmes. +aux belligérants de se protéger eux-mêmes. La situation change quand un Gouvernement neutre entend prendre cette charge; le droit de visite n'a plus -la même raison d'être.</p> - -<p>Mais il résulte de l'explication de la -règle donnée pour le convoi que le Gouvernement -neutre s'engage à donner -aux belligérants toute garantie que les -navires convoyés ne profitent pas de la -protection qui leur est assurée pour agir -contrairement à la neutralité—par exemple, +la même raison d'être.</p> + +<p>Mais il résulte de l'explication de la +règle donnée pour le convoi que le Gouvernement +neutre s'engage à donner +aux belligérants toute garantie que les +navires convoyés ne profitent pas de la +protection qui leur est assurée pour agir +contrairement à la neutralité—par exemple, pour transporter de la contrebande -de guerre, pour fournir à un belligérant +de guerre, pour fournir à un belligérant une assistance hostile, pour tenter de violer un blocus. Il faudra -donc une surveillance sérieuse exercée -au départ sur les navires devant être -convoyés, et cette surveillance devra se +donc une surveillance sérieuse exercée +au départ sur les navires devant être +convoyés, et cette surveillance devra se poursuivre au cours du voyage. Le -Gouvernement devra procéder avec -vigilance pour empêcher tout abus du +Gouvernement devra procéder avec +vigilance pour empêcher tout abus du convoi, et il donnera en ce sens des -instructions précises à l'officier chargé +instructions précises à l'officier chargé de commander un convoi.</p> -<p>Un croiseur belligérant rencontre un +<p>Un croiseur belligérant rencontre un convoi: il s'adresse au commandant de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660">[Pg 660]</a></span> ce convoi, qui doit, sur sa demande, lui -donner par écrit toutes les informations +donner par écrit toutes les informations utiles sur les navires qui sont sous sa -protection. On exige une déclaration -écrite, parce qu'elle empêche les équivoques +protection. On exige une déclaration +écrite, parce qu'elle empêche les équivoques et les malentendus, qu'elle engage -plus la responsabilité du commandant. -Cette déclaration a pour but de -rendre la visite inutile par le fait même +plus la responsabilité du commandant. +Cette déclaration a pour but de +rendre la visite inutile par le fait même qu'elle procure au croiseur les renseignements -que la visite elle-même +que la visite elle-même lui aurait fournis.</p> <p class="center">Article 62.</p> -<p><i>Si le commandant du bâtiment de -guerre belligérant a lieu de soupçonner +<p><i>Si le commandant du bâtiment de +guerre belligérant a lieu de soupçonner que la religion du commandant du convoi -a été surprise, il lui communique ses -soupçons. C'est au commandant du +a été surprise, il lui communique ses +soupçons. C'est au commandant du convoi seul qu'il appartient en ce cas de -procéder à une vérification. Il doit constater -le résultat de cette vérification par -un procès-verbal dont une copie est remise -à l'officier du bâtiment de guerre. Si -des faits ainsi constatés justifient, dans +procéder à une vérification. Il doit constater +le résultat de cette vérification par +un procès-verbal dont une copie est remise +à l'officier du bâtiment de guerre. Si +des faits ainsi constatés justifient, dans l'opinion du commandant du convoi, la saisie d'un ou de plusieurs navires, la -protection du convoi doit leur être retirée.</i></p> +protection du convoi doit leur être retirée.</i></p> <p>Le plus souvent le croiseur s'en -tiendra à la déclaration que lui aura -donnée le commandant du convoi, mais -il peut avoir de sérieuses raisons de +tiendra à la déclaration que lui aura +donnée le commandant du convoi, mais +il peut avoir de sérieuses raisons de croire que la religion de ce commandant -a été surprise, qu'un navire convoyé +a été surprise, qu'un navire convoyé dont les papiers paraissent en -règle, et ne présentent rien de suspect, +règle, et ne présentent rien de suspect, transporte, en fait, de la contrebande -adroitement dissimulée. Le croiseur -peut communiquer ses soupçons au -commandant du convoi. Une vérification -peut être jugée nécessaire. Elle +adroitement dissimulée. Le croiseur +peut communiquer ses soupçons au +commandant du convoi. Une vérification +peut être jugée nécessaire. Elle est faite par le commandant du convoi; -c'est lui seul qui exerce l'autorité sur -les navires placés sous sa protection. -Il a paru toutefois que l'on éviterait -souvent bien des difficultés, s'il était -permis au belligérant d'assister à cette -vérification; autrement il lui serait +c'est lui seul qui exerce l'autorité sur +les navires placés sous sa protection. +Il a paru toutefois que l'on éviterait +souvent bien des difficultés, s'il était +permis au belligérant d'assister à cette +vérification; autrement il lui serait toujours possible de suspecter, sinon la bonne foi, du moins la vigilance ou -la perspicacité du visiteur. Mais on +la perspicacité du visiteur. Mais on n'a pas cru devoir imposer au commandant du convoi l'obligation de -laisser l'officier du croiseur assister à -la vérification. Il agira comme il le +laisser l'officier du croiseur assister à +la vérification. Il agira comme il le jugera bon: s'il accepte l'assistance d'un officier du croiseur, ce sera un acte de courtoisie ou de bonne politique. Il devra, dans tous les cas, -dresser un procès-verbal de la vérification -et en donner une copie à l'officier +dresser un procès-verbal de la vérification +et en donner une copie à l'officier du croiseur.</p> -<p>Des divergences peuvent s'élever -entre les deux officiers, spécialement à +<p>Des divergences peuvent s'élever +entre les deux officiers, spécialement à propos de la contrebande conditionnelle. -Le caractère du port auquel -sont destinés des blés peut être contesté; +Le caractère du port auquel +sont destinés des blés peut être contesté; est-ce un port de commerce ordinaire? est-ce un port qui sert de base de ravitaillement pour les forces -armées? La situation de fait produite -par le convoi doit être, en ce cas, maintenue. +armées? La situation de fait produite +par le convoi doit être, en ce cas, maintenue. Il pourra seulement y avoir une protestation de la part de l'officier -du croiseur, et la difficulté sera réglée +du croiseur, et la difficulté sera réglée par la voie diplomatique.</p> <p>La situation est tout autre si un -navire convoyé est trouvé porteur de +navire convoyé est trouvé porteur de contrebande sans qu'une contestation -puisse s'élever. Le navire n'a plus -droit à la protection, parce que la condition -à laquelle cette protection était -subordonnée n'a pas été remplie. Il -a trompé son propre Gouvernement -d'abord et essayé de tromper un belligérant. -Il doit alors être traité comme +puisse s'élever. Le navire n'a plus +droit à la protection, parce que la condition +à laquelle cette protection était +subordonnée n'a pas été remplie. Il +a trompé son propre Gouvernement +d'abord et essayé de tromper un belligérant. +Il doit alors être traité comme un navire de commerce neutre qui, dans les circonstances ordinaires, rencontre -un croiseur belligérant et est visité par -lui. Il ne peut se plaindre d'être ainsi -traité rigoureusement, parce qu'il y a +un croiseur belligérant et est visité par +lui. Il ne peut se plaindre d'être ainsi +traité rigoureusement, parce qu'il y a dans son cas une aggravation de la faute commise par un transporteur de contrebande.</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VIII.</span>—<i>De la résistance -à la visite.</i></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre VIII.</span>—<i>De la résistance +à la visite.</i></p> -<p>Le sujet traité dans ce chapitre n'est -pas mentionné dans le programme -soumis en février 1908 par le Gouvernement +<p>Le sujet traité dans ce chapitre n'est +pas mentionné dans le programme +soumis en février 1908 par le Gouvernement Britannique; il se rattache -étroitement à plusieurs des questions +étroitement à plusieurs des questions de ce programme, aussi s'est-il naturellement -présenté à l'esprit au cours -des discussions, et il a paru nécessaire -de poser une règle sur laquelle on s'est -facilement accordé.</p> +présenté à l'esprit au cours +des discussions, et il a paru nécessaire +de poser une règle sur laquelle on s'est +facilement accordé.</p> -<p>Un croiseur belligérant rencontre un +<p>Un croiseur belligérant rencontre un navire de commerce et le somme de -s'arrêter pour qu'il soit procédé à la -visite. Le navire sommé ne s'arrête -pas et essaie de se soustraire à la visite +s'arrêter pour qu'il soit procédé à la +visite. Le navire sommé ne s'arrête +pas et essaie de se soustraire à la visite par la fuite. Le croiseur peut employer -la force pour l'arrêter, et le navire de -commerce, s'il est avarié ou coulé, n'a +la force pour l'arrêter, et le navire de +commerce, s'il est avarié ou coulé, n'a pas le droit de se plaindre, puisqu'il a -contrevenu à une obligation imposée -par le droit des gens. S'il est arrêté -et s'il est établi que c'est seulement -pour éviter les ennuis de la visite qu'il -avait recouru à la fuite, qu'il n'avait +contrevenu à une obligation imposée +par le droit des gens. S'il est arrêté +et s'il est établi que c'est seulement +pour éviter les ennuis de la visite qu'il +avait recouru à la fuite, qu'il n'avait d'ailleurs commis aucun acte contraire -à la neutralité, il ne sera pas puni pour -sa tentative. S'il est constaté, au +à la neutralité, il ne sera pas puni pour +sa tentative. S'il est constaté, au contraire, que le navire a de la contrebande -à bord ou qu'il a, d'une façon -quelconque, violé ses devoirs de neutre, -il subira les conséquences de son infraction -à la neutralité, mais il ne +à bord ou qu'il a, d'une façon +quelconque, violé ses devoirs de neutre, +il subira les conséquences de son infraction +à la neutralité, mais il ne subira non plus aucune peine pour -avoir tenté la fuite. Certains pensaient, +avoir tenté la fuite. Certains pensaient, au contraire, que le navire -devrait être puni pour une tentative -de fuite caractérisée comme pour une -résistance violente. La possibilité de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[Pg 661]</a></span> +devrait être puni pour une tentative +de fuite caractérisée comme pour une +résistance violente. La possibilité de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[Pg 661]</a></span> la confiscation engagerait, disait-on, le -croiseur à ménager, dans la mesure du +croiseur à ménager, dans la mesure du possible, le navire en fuite. Mais cette -idée n'a pas prévalu.</p> +idée n'a pas prévalu.</p> <p class="center">Article 63.</p> -<p><i>La résistance opposée par la force à -l'exercice légitime du droit d'arrêt, de -visite et de saisie, entraîne, dans tous +<p><i>La résistance opposée par la force à +l'exercice légitime du droit d'arrêt, de +visite et de saisie, entraîne, dans tous les cas, la confiscation du navire. Le -chargement est passible du même traitement +chargement est passible du même traitement que subirait le chargement d'un navire ennemi; les marchandises appartenant -au capitaine ou au propriétaire du -navire sont considérées comme marchandises +au capitaine ou au propriétaire du +navire sont considérées comme marchandises ennemies.</i></p> -<p>La situation est différente s'il y a -résistance violente à l'action légitime +<p>La situation est différente s'il y a +résistance violente à l'action légitime du croiseur. Le navire commet un -acte d'hostilité et doit, dès lors, être -traité en ennemi; il sera donc soumis -à confiscation, quand même la visite ne -révélerait aucun fait contraire à la neutralité, +acte d'hostilité et doit, dès lors, être +traité en ennemi; il sera donc soumis +à confiscation, quand même la visite ne +révélerait aucun fait contraire à la neutralité, et cela semble ne pouvoir soulever -aucune difficulté.</p> +aucune difficulté.</p> -<p>Que faut-il décider du chargement? -La formule qui a semblé la meilleure -est celle d'après laquelle ce chargement -sera traité comme celui qui serait à +<p>Que faut-il décider du chargement? +La formule qui a semblé la meilleure +est celle d'après laquelle ce chargement +sera traité comme celui qui serait à bord d'un navire ennemi. Cette assimilation -entraîne les conséquences -suivantes: le navire neutre qui a résisté +entraîne les conséquences +suivantes: le navire neutre qui a résisté devenant navire ennemi, la marchandise -se trouvant à bord est présumée -ennemie. Les neutres intéressés -pourront réclamer leur propriété, conformément -à la 3<span class="topnum">e</span> règle de la Déclaration +se trouvant à bord est présumée +ennemie. Les neutres intéressés +pourront réclamer leur propriété, conformément +à la 3<span class="topnum">e</span> règle de la Déclaration de Paris, mais la marchandise ennemie -sera confisquée parce que la règle +sera confisquée parce que la règle <i>le pavillon couvre la marchandise</i> ne peut -plus être invoquée, le navire saisi sur -lequel elle se trouve étant considéré +plus être invoquée, le navire saisi sur +lequel elle se trouve étant considéré comme ennemi. On remarquera que -le droit de réclamer la marchandise est -reconnu à tous les neutres, même à -ceux qui ont la nationalité du navire -saisi; il paraîtrait excessif de les faire +le droit de réclamer la marchandise est +reconnu à tous les neutres, même à +ceux qui ont la nationalité du navire +saisi; il paraîtrait excessif de les faire souffrir de l'acte du capitaine. Il y a -toutefois une exception à l'égard des -marchandises appartenant au propriétaire +toutefois une exception à l'égard des +marchandises appartenant au propriétaire du navire. Il semble naturel qu'il -supporte les conséquences des actes de -son agent. Sa propriété à bord du -navire sera donc traitée en marchandise +supporte les conséquences des actes de +son agent. Sa propriété à bord du +navire sera donc traitée en marchandise ennemie. A plus forte raison, en -est-il de même de la marchandise appartenant +est-il de même de la marchandise appartenant au capitaine.</p> <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chapitre IX.</span>—<i>Des dommages -et intérêts.</i></p> +et intérêts.</i></p> -<p>Ce chapitre a une portée très générale, +<p>Ce chapitre a une portée très générale, puisque la disposition qu'il contient trouve son application dans les -cas nombreux où un croiseur peut +cas nombreux où un croiseur peut saisir un navire ou des marchandises.</p> <p class="center">Article 64.</p> <p><i>Si la saisie du navire ou des marchandises -n'est pas validée par la juridiction +n'est pas validée par la juridiction des prises ou si, sans qu'il y ait eu de mise en jugement, la saisie n'est pas -maintenue, les intéressés ont droit à des -dommages et intérêts, à moins qu'il y ait +maintenue, les intéressés ont droit à des +dommages et intérêts, à moins qu'il y ait eu des motifs suffisants de saisir le navire ou les marchandises.</i></p> <p>Un croiseur a saisi un navire neutre, par exemple, pour transport de contrebande ou violation de blocus. Le tribunal -des prises relâche le navire en -annulant la saisie. Cela ne suffit évidemment -pas à dédommager les intéressés -de la perte éprouvée par suite -de la saisie, et cette perte a pu être -considérable, puisque le navire a été, -pendant un temps souvent très long, -empêché de se livrer à son trafic ordinaire. -Peuvent-ils demander à être indemnisés -de ce préjudice? Rationnellement +des prises relâche le navire en +annulant la saisie. Cela ne suffit évidemment +pas à dédommager les intéressés +de la perte éprouvée par suite +de la saisie, et cette perte a pu être +considérable, puisque le navire a été, +pendant un temps souvent très long, +empêché de se livrer à son trafic ordinaire. +Peuvent-ils demander à être indemnisés +de ce préjudice? Rationnellement il faut admettre l'affirmative, si -ce préjudice est immérité, c'est-à-dire -si la saisie n'a pas été amenée par leur +ce préjudice est immérité, c'est-à -dire +si la saisie n'a pas été amenée par leur faute. Il peut arriver, en effet, que la -saisie ait été motivée, parce que le -capitaine du navire visité n'a pas produit +saisie ait été motivée, parce que le +capitaine du navire visité n'a pas produit des justifications qui devaient se -trouver normalement à sa disposition -et qui ont été fournies plus tard. Dans +trouver normalement à sa disposition +et qui ont été fournies plus tard. Dans ce cas, il serait injuste que des dommages -et intérêts fussent accordés. A +et intérêts fussent accordés. A l'inverse, s'il y a eu vraiment faute du -croiseur, s'il a saisi dans un cas où il +croiseur, s'il a saisi dans un cas où il n'y avait pas de motifs suffisants de le faire, il est juste que des dommages et -intérêts soient alloués.</p> +intérêts soient alloués.</p> <p>Il peut arriver aussi qu'un navire -saisi et conduit dans un port ait été -relaxé par voie administrative sans intervention +saisi et conduit dans un port ait été +relaxé par voie administrative sans intervention d'un tribunal de prises. En pareil cas, la pratique varie: dans certains pays, la juridiction des prises n'intervient que dans le cas d'une capture et ne pourrait statuer sur une demande -de dommages-intérêts fondée -sur ce que la saisie aurait été injustifiée; +de dommages-intérêts fondée +sur ce que la saisie aurait été injustifiée; dans d'autres, la juridiction des prises -serait compétente pour une demande -de ce genre. Il y a là une inégalité peu -équitable et il convient d'établir une -règle qui produise le même effet dans +serait compétente pour une demande +de ce genre. Il y a là une inégalité peu +équitable et il convient d'établir une +règle qui produise le même effet dans tous les pays. Il est raisonnable que -toute saisie pratiquée sans motifs suffisants -donne droit à des dommages-intérêts -au profit des intéressés, sans -qu'il y ait à distinguer suivant que la -saisie a été ou non suivie d'une décision +toute saisie pratiquée sans motifs suffisants +donne droit à des dommages-intérêts +au profit des intéressés, sans +qu'il y ait à distinguer suivant que la +saisie a été ou non suivie d'une décision du tribunal des prises, et d'autant plus -que c'est quand la saisie aura été le -moins justifiée, que le navire pourra -être relaxé par voie administrative. On -a donc employé une formule générale +que c'est quand la saisie aura été le +moins justifiée, que le navire pourra +être relaxé par voie administrative. On +a donc employé une formule générale pouvant comprendre tous les cas de saisie.</p> <p>Il convient de remarquer que la question de savoir si les tribunaux<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662">[Pg 662]</a></span> -nationaux de prises sont compétents -pour statuer sur les dommages-intérêts -n'est pas visée dans le texte. En tant -qu'il y a un procès sur les propriétés +nationaux de prises sont compétents +pour statuer sur les dommages-intérêts +n'est pas visée dans le texte. En tant +qu'il y a un procès sur les propriétés saisies, aucun doute n'est possible. -Dans la procédure engagée sur la validité -de la capture, les intéressés auront -l'occasion de faire valoir leur droit à -une indemnité, et, si la décision du +Dans la procédure engagée sur la validité +de la capture, les intéressés auront +l'occasion de faire valoir leur droit à +une indemnité, et, si la décision du tribunal national ne leur donne pas satisfaction, ils pourront se pourvoir devant la Cour Internationale des prises. Si, au contraire, l'action du -belligérant s'est bornée à une saisie, -la législation du belligérant capteur décide -si des tribunaux sont compétents -pour connaître d'une demande en indemnité +belligérant s'est bornée à une saisie, +la législation du belligérant capteur décide +si des tribunaux sont compétents +pour connaître d'une demande en indemnité et, en cas d'affirmative, quels -tribunaux sont compétents dans l'espèce; +tribunaux sont compétents dans l'espèce; la Cour Internationale n'a, dans -ce cas, aucune compétence d'après la +ce cas, aucune compétence d'après la Convention de La Haye. Au point de vue international, la voie diplomatique est la seule ouverte pour faire valoir la -réclamation, qu'il s'agisse de se plaindre -d'une décision effectivement rendue ou -de suppléer à l'absence de juridiction.</p> +réclamation, qu'il s'agisse de se plaindre +d'une décision effectivement rendue ou +de suppléer à l'absence de juridiction.</p> -<p>On a posé la question de savoir s'il +<p>On a posé la question de savoir s'il y avait lieu de distinguer les dommages directs et les dommages indirects subis par le navire ou la marchandise. Il a -semblé qu'il valait mieux laisser la -juridiction des prises libre d'apprécier -le dédommagement dû, qui variera +semblé qu'il valait mieux laisser la +juridiction des prises libre d'apprécier +le dédommagement dû, qui variera suivant les circonstances et dont le -montant ne peut être déterminé à -l'avance par des règles trop minutieuses.</p> - -<p>Il n'a été parlé que du navire pour -simplifier; mais ce qui a été dit s'applique -naturellement à la cargaison -saisie, puis relâchée. Ainsi la marchandise -innocente, se trouvant à bord du -navire saisi, subit tous les inconvénients +montant ne peut être déterminé à +l'avance par des règles trop minutieuses.</p> + +<p>Il n'a été parlé que du navire pour +simplifier; mais ce qui a été dit s'applique +naturellement à la cargaison +saisie, puis relâchée. Ainsi la marchandise +innocente, se trouvant à bord du +navire saisi, subit tous les inconvénients de la saisie du navire. S'il y a eu des motifs suffisants de saisir le navire, que cette saisie soit maintenue -ou non, les propriétaires de la cargaison -n'ont aucun droit à des dommages -et intérêts.</p> +ou non, les propriétaires de la cargaison +n'ont aucun droit à des dommages +et intérêts.</p> -<p>Il peut être utile d'indiquer certains +<p>Il peut être utile d'indiquer certains cas dans lesquels la saisie du navire -serait justifiée, quelle que pût être la -décision du tribunal des prises. C'est +serait justifiée, quelle que pût être la +décision du tribunal des prises. C'est notamment celui de jet, de suppression ou de destruction volontaire de tout ou partie des papiers de bord, provenant du fait du capitaine, de -quelqu'un de l'équipage ou des passagers. -Il y a là quelque chose qui -justifie tous les soupçons et qui explique +quelqu'un de l'équipage ou des passagers. +Il y a là quelque chose qui +justifie tous les soupçons et qui explique que le navire soit saisi, sauf au -capitaine à rendre compte de sa conduite +capitaine à rendre compte de sa conduite devant le tribunal des prises. -Même si ce tribunal acceptait les explications -données et ne trouvait pas de +Même si ce tribunal acceptait les explications +données et ne trouvait pas de causes suffisantes de confiscation, les -intéressés ne pourraient songer à réclamer -des dommages-intérêts.</p> - -<p>Un cas analogue serait celui où l'on -trouverait à bord des papiers doubles, -faux, ou falsifiés, alors que cette irrégularité -se rattache à des circonstances -de nature à influer sur la saisie +intéressés ne pourraient songer à réclamer +des dommages-intérêts.</p> + +<p>Un cas analogue serait celui où l'on +trouverait à bord des papiers doubles, +faux, ou falsifiés, alors que cette irrégularité +se rattache à des circonstances +de nature à influer sur la saisie du navire.</p> -<p>Il a semblé suffisant que ces cas où +<p>Il a semblé suffisant que ces cas où la saisie s'expliquerait raisonnablement -fussent mentionnés dans le +fussent mentionnés dans le Rapport sans faire l'objet d'une disposition expresse, et cela parce que l'indication de deux cas particuliers -aurait pu faire croire que c'étaient les +aurait pu faire croire que c'étaient les seuls dans lesquels la saisie se justifierait.</p> <p>Tels sont les principes de droit international -que la Conférence Navale -s'est efforcée de reconnaître comme -propres à régir pratiquement les rapports +que la Conférence Navale +s'est efforcée de reconnaître comme +propres à régir pratiquement les rapports des peuples dans d'importantes -matières pour lesquelles des règles précises -faisaient jusqu'à présent défaut. -Elle a continué ainsi l'œuvre de codification -commencée par la Déclaration -de Paris de 1856. Elle a travaillé dans -le même esprit que la Deuxième Conférence +matières pour lesquelles des règles précises +faisaient jusqu'à présent défaut. +Elle a continué ainsi l'œuvre de codification +commencée par la Déclaration +de Paris de 1856. Elle a travaillé dans +le même esprit que la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix et, profitant des -travaux faits à La Haye, elle a pu résoudre -un certain nombre de problèmes -que, faute de temps, cette Conférence -avait dû laisser sans solution. Souhaitons +travaux faits à La Haye, elle a pu résoudre +un certain nombre de problèmes +que, faute de temps, cette Conférence +avait dû laisser sans solution. Souhaitons que l'on puisse dire que ceux -qui ont élaboré la Déclaration de -Londres de 1909 n'ont pas été trop -indignes de leurs prédécesseurs de +qui ont élaboré la Déclaration de +Londres de 1909 n'ont pas été trop +indignes de leurs prédécesseurs de 1856 et de 1907.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Dispositions Finales.</span></p> -<p>Ces dispositions ont trait à diverses -questions qui touchent à l'effet de la -Déclaration, à sa ratification, à sa -mise en vigueur, à sa dénonciation, à -l'adhésion des Puissances non représentées.</p> +<p>Ces dispositions ont trait à diverses +questions qui touchent à l'effet de la +Déclaration, à sa ratification, à sa +mise en vigueur, à sa dénonciation, à +l'adhésion des Puissances non représentées.</p> <p class="center">Article 65.</p> -<p><i>Les dispositions de la présente Déclaration +<p><i>Les dispositions de la présente Déclaration forment un ensemble indivisible.</i></p> -<p>Cet article est très important et conforme -à ce qui avait été admis pour la -Déclaration de Paris.</p> +<p>Cet article est très important et conforme +à ce qui avait été admis pour la +Déclaration de Paris.</p> -<p>Les règles contenues dans la présente -Déclaration touchent à des points très -importants et très différents. Elles -n'ont pas toutes été acceptées avec le -même empressement par toutes les -Délégations; des concessions ont été +<p>Les règles contenues dans la présente +Déclaration touchent à des points très +importants et très différents. Elles +n'ont pas toutes été acceptées avec le +même empressement par toutes les +Délégations; des concessions ont été faites sur un point en vue de concessions obtenues sur un autre. L'ensemble -a été, tout balancé, reconnu -satisfaisant. Une attente légitime serait -trompée, si une Puissance pouvait -faire des réserves à propos d'une règle -à laquelle une autre Puissance attache -une importance particulière.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[Pg 663]</a></span></p> +a été, tout balancé, reconnu +satisfaisant. Une attente légitime serait +trompée, si une Puissance pouvait +faire des réserves à propos d'une règle +à laquelle une autre Puissance attache +une importance particulière.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[Pg 663]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 66.</p> <p><i>Les Puissances Signataires s'engagent -à s'assurer, dans le cas d'une guerre -où les belligérants seraient tous parties à -la présente Déclaration, l'observation réciproque -des règles contenues dans cette -Déclaration. Elles donneront, en conséquence, -à leurs autorités et à leurs -forces armées les instructions nécessaires +à s'assurer, dans le cas d'une guerre +où les belligérants seraient tous parties à +la présente Déclaration, l'observation réciproque +des règles contenues dans cette +Déclaration. Elles donneront, en conséquence, +à leurs autorités et à leurs +forces armées les instructions nécessaires et prendront les mesures qu'il conviendra pour en garantir l'application par leurs -tribunaux, spécialement par leurs tribunaux +tribunaux, spécialement par leurs tribunaux de prises.</i></p> -<p>D'après l'engagement qui résulte de -cet article, la Déclaration s'applique +<p>D'après l'engagement qui résulte de +cet article, la Déclaration s'applique dans les rapports entre les Puissances -Signataires, quand les belligérants sont -également parties à la Déclaration.</p> +Signataires, quand les belligérants sont +également parties à la Déclaration.</p> -<p>Ce sera à chaque Puissance à prendre -les mesures nécessaires pour assurer -l'observation de la Déclaration. Ces +<p>Ce sera à chaque Puissance à prendre +les mesures nécessaires pour assurer +l'observation de la Déclaration. Ces mesures pourront varier suivant les pays, exiger ou non l'intervention du -pouvoir législatif. C'est une affaire -d'ordre intérieur.</p> +pouvoir législatif. C'est une affaire +d'ordre intérieur.</p> <p>Il faut remarquer que les Puissances -neutres peuvent être aussi dans le cas -de donner des instructions à leurs -autorités, spécialement aux commandants +neutres peuvent être aussi dans le cas +de donner des instructions à leurs +autorités, spécialement aux commandants des convois, comme on l'a vu plus haut.</p> <p class="center">Article 67.</p> -<p><i>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée -aussitôt que possible.</i></p> +<p><i>La présente Déclaration sera ratifiée +aussitôt que possible.</i></p> -<p><i>Les ratifications seront déposées à +<p><i>Les ratifications seront déposées à Londres.</i></p> -<p><i>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera -constaté par un procès-verbal signé par -les Représentants des Puissances qui y -prennent part, et par le Principal Secrétaire -d'État de Sa Majesté Britannique -au Département des Affaires Étrangères.</i></p> - -<p><i>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se -feront au moyen d'une notification écrite -adressée au Gouvernement Britannique -et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</i></p> - -<p><i>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal -relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, -des notifications mentionnées à -l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments +<p><i>Le premier dépôt de ratifications sera +constaté par un procès-verbal signé par +les Représentants des Puissances qui y +prennent part, et par le Principal Secrétaire +d'État de Sa Majesté Britannique +au Département des Affaires Étrangères.</i></p> + +<p><i>Les dépôts ultérieurs de ratifications se +feront au moyen d'une notification écrite +adressée au Gouvernement Britannique +et accompagnée de l'instrument de ratification.</i></p> + +<p><i>Copie certifiée conforme du procès-verbal +relatif au premier dépôt de ratifications, +des notifications mentionnées à +l'alinéa précédent, ainsi que des instruments de ratification qui les accompagnent, -sera immédiatement, par les soins +sera immédiatement, par les soins du Gouvernement Britannique et par la voie diplomatique, remise aux Puissances -Signataires. Dans les cas visés -par l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement -leur fera connaître en même temps -la date à laquelle il a reçu la notification.</i></p> +Signataires. Dans les cas visés +par l'alinéa précédent, ledit Gouvernement +leur fera connaître en même temps +la date à laquelle il a reçu la notification.</i></p> <p>Cette disposition toute de protocole n'a pas besoin d'explication. On a -emprunté la formule admise à La Haye -par la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix.</p> +emprunté la formule admise à La Haye +par la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix.</p> <p class="center">Article 68.</p> -<p><i>La présente Déclaration produira +<p><i>La présente Déclaration produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront -participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, -soixante jours après la date du -procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les -Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement, -soixante jours après que la notification -de leur ratification aura été reçue par le +participé au premier dépôt de ratifications, +soixante jours après la date du +procès-verbal de ce dépôt et, pour les +Puissances qui ratifieront ultérieurement, +soixante jours après que la notification +de leur ratification aura été reçue par le Gouvernement Britannique.</i></p> <p class="center">Article 69.</p> <p><i>S'il arrivait qu'une des Puissances -Signataires voulût dénoncer la présente -Déclaration, elle ne pourra le faire que -pour la fin d'une période de douze ans -commençant à courir soixante jours après -le premier dépôt de ratifications et, ensuite, -pour la fin de périodes successives -de six ans, dont la première commencera -à l'expiration de la période de douze ans.</i></p> - -<p><i>La dénonciation devra être, au moins -un an à l'avance, notifiée par écrit au +Signataires voulût dénoncer la présente +Déclaration, elle ne pourra le faire que +pour la fin d'une période de douze ans +commençant à courir soixante jours après +le premier dépôt de ratifications et, ensuite, +pour la fin de périodes successives +de six ans, dont la première commencera +à l'expiration de la période de douze ans.</i></p> + +<p><i>La dénonciation devra être, au moins +un an à l'avance, notifiée par écrit au Gouvernement Britannique, qui en donnera -connaissance à toutes les autres +connaissance à toutes les autres Puissances. Elle ne produira ses effets -qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura -notifiée.</i></p> - -<p>Il résulte implicitement de l'article -69 que la Déclaration à une durée indéfinie. -Les périodes après lesquelles -la dénonciation peut se faire ont été -fixées par analogie de ce qui est admis -dans la Convention pour l'établissement +qu'à l'égard de la Puissance qui l'aura +notifiée.</i></p> + +<p>Il résulte implicitement de l'article +69 que la Déclaration à une durée indéfinie. +Les périodes après lesquelles +la dénonciation peut se faire ont été +fixées par analogie de ce qui est admis +dans la Convention pour l'établissement d'une Cour Internationale des prises.</p> <p class="center">Article 70.</p> -<p><i>Les Puissances représentées à la Conférence +<p><i>Les Puissances représentées à la Conférence Navale de Londres, attachant un -prix particulier à la reconnaissance -générale des règles adoptées par elles, +prix particulier à la reconnaissance +générale des règles adoptées par elles, expriment l'espoir que les Puissances qui -n'y étaient pas représentées adhéreront à -la présente Déclaration. Elles prient le +n'y étaient pas représentées adhéreront à +la présente Déclaration. Elles prient le Gouvernement Britannique de vouloir -bien les inviter à le faire.</i></p> +bien les inviter à le faire.</i></p> -<p><i>La Puissance qui désire adhérer -notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement +<p><i>La Puissance qui désire adhérer +notifie par écrit son intention au Gouvernement Britannique en lui transmettant -l'acte d'adhésion, qui sera déposé +l'acte d'adhésion, qui sera déposé dans les archives dudit Gouvernement.</i></p> -<p><i>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement -à toutes les autres Puissances -copie certifiée conforme de la notification, -ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, -en indiquant la date à laquelle il a reçu -la notification. L'adhésion produira -effet soixante jours après cette date.</i></p> +<p><i>Ce Gouvernement transmettra immédiatement +à toutes les autres Puissances +copie certifiée conforme de la notification, +ainsi que de l'acte d'adhésion, +en indiquant la date à laquelle il a reçu +la notification. L'adhésion produira +effet soixante jours après cette date.</i></p> -<p><i>La situation des Puissances adhérentes +<p><i>La situation des Puissances adhérentes sera, en tout ce qui concerne cette -Déclaration, assimilée à la situation des +Déclaration, assimilée à la situation des Puissances Signataires.</i></p> -<p>La Déclaration de Paris contenait -déjà une invitation adressée aux Puissances -non représentées, à l'effet d'adhérer -à la Déclaration. L'invitation officielle, -au lieu d'être faite individuellement -par chacune des Puissances représentées -à la Conférence, sera plus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[Pg 664]</a></span> -aisément faite par la Grande-Bretagne +<p>La Déclaration de Paris contenait +déjà une invitation adressée aux Puissances +non représentées, à l'effet d'adhérer +à la Déclaration. L'invitation officielle, +au lieu d'être faite individuellement +par chacune des Puissances représentées +à la Conférence, sera plus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[Pg 664]</a></span> +aisément faite par la Grande-Bretagne agissant au nom de toutes.</p> -<p>Les formes de l'adhésion sont très +<p>Les formes de l'adhésion sont très simples. L'assimilation des Puissances -adhérentes aux Puissances Signataires -entraîne naturellement pour les premières +adhérentes aux Puissances Signataires +entraîne naturellement pour les premières l'observation de l'article 65; -on ne peut adhérer à une partie de la -Déclaration, mais seulement à l'ensemble.</p> +on ne peut adhérer à une partie de la +Déclaration, mais seulement à l'ensemble.</p> <p class="center">Article 71.</p> -<p><i>La présente Déclaration, qui portera -la date du 26 février 1909, pourra être -signée à Londres, jusqu'au 30 juin 1909, -par les Plénipotentiaires des Puissances -représentées à la Conférence Navale.</i></p> +<p><i>La présente Déclaration, qui portera +la date du 26 février 1909, pourra être +signée à Londres, jusqu'au 30 juin 1909, +par les Plénipotentiaires des Puissances +représentées à la Conférence Navale.</i></p> -<p>Comme à La Haye, on a tenu compte +<p>Comme à La Haye, on a tenu compte des convenances de certaines Puissances -dont les Représentants peuvent -ne pas être en situation de signer dès -à présent la Déclaration et qui cependant -veulent être considérées comme des +dont les Représentants peuvent +ne pas être en situation de signer dès +à présent la Déclaration et qui cependant +veulent être considérées comme des Puissances Signataires, non comme des -Puissances adhérentes.</p> +Puissances adhérentes.</p> -<p>Il va sans dire que les <i>Plénipotentiaires -des Puissances</i> dont il est parlé -à l'article 71 ne sont pas nécessairement -ceux qui avaient été délégués -comme tels à la Conférence Navale.</p> +<p>Il va sans dire que les <i>Plénipotentiaires +des Puissances</i> dont il est parlé +à l'article 71 ne sont pas nécessairement +ceux qui avaient été délégués +comme tels à la Conférence Navale.</p> -<p><i>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires -ont revêtu la présente Déclaration de leurs -signatures et y ont apposé leurs cachets.</i></p> +<p><i>En foi de quoi, les Plénipotentiaires +ont revêtu la présente Déclaration de leurs +signatures et y ont apposé leurs cachets.</i></p> -<p><i>Fait à Londres, le vingt-six février mil +<p><i>Fait à Londres, le vingt-six février mil neuf cent neuf, en un seul exemplaire, -qui restera déposé dans les archives du +qui restera déposé dans les archives du Gouvernement Britannique et dont des -copies, certifiées conformes, seront remises +copies, certifiées conformes, seront remises par la voie diplomatique aux Puissances -représentées à la Conférence +représentées à la Conférence Navale.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[Pg 665]</a></span></p> @@ -41613,127 +41569,127 @@ Navale.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[Pg 665]</a></ <p>Les puissances signataires de la convention de La Haye du 18 octobre 1907, -relative à l'établissement d'une Cour -Internationale des prises ou y adhérant, -pour lesquelles des difficultés d'ordre -constitutionnel s'opposent à l'acceptation, +relative à l'établissement d'une Cour +Internationale des prises ou y adhérant, +pour lesquelles des difficultés d'ordre +constitutionnel s'opposent à l'acceptation, sous sa forme actuelle, de ladite -convention, ont la faculté de déclarer, -dans l'acte de ratification ou d'adhésion, +convention, ont la faculté de déclarer, +dans l'acte de ratification ou d'adhésion, que, dans les affaires de prises -rentrant dans la compétence de leurs +rentrant dans la compétence de leurs tribunaux nationaux, le recours devant la Cour Internationale des prises -ne pourra être exercé contre elles que -sous la forme d'une action en indemnité -du préjudice causé par la capture.</p> +ne pourra être exercé contre elles que +sous la forme d'une action en indemnité +du préjudice causé par la capture.</p> <p class="center">Article 2.</p> -<p>Dans le cas de recours exercé devant +<p>Dans le cas de recours exercé devant la Cour Internationale des prises sous -la forme d'une action en indemnité, +la forme d'une action en indemnité, l'article 8 de la convention est sans -application; la Cour n'a pas à prononcer -la validité ou la nullité de la capture, -non plus qu'à infirmer ou confirmer la -décision des tribunaux nationaux.</p> +application; la Cour n'a pas à prononcer +la validité ou la nullité de la capture, +non plus qu'à infirmer ou confirmer la +décision des tribunaux nationaux.</p> <p class="center">Article 3.</p> -<p>Les conditions auxquelles est subordonné +<p>Les conditions auxquelles est subordonné par la convention l'exercice du recours devant la Cour Internationale -des prises sont applicables à l'exercice -de l'action en indemnité.</p> +des prises sont applicables à l'exercice +de l'action en indemnité.</p> <p class="center">Article 4.</p> -<p>Sous réserve des dispositions ci-après, -les règles de procédure établies +<p>Sous réserve des dispositions ci-après, +les règles de procédure établies par la convention pour le recours devant la Cour Internationale des prises -seront observées pour l'action en indemnité.</p> +seront observées pour l'action en indemnité.</p> <p class="center">Article 5.</p> -<p>Par dérogation à l'article 28, § 1, de -la convention, l'instance en indemnité -ne peut être introduite devant la Cour +<p>Par dérogation à l'article 28, § 1, de +la convention, l'instance en indemnité +ne peut être introduite devant la Cour Internationale des prises qu'au moyen -d'une déclaration écrite, adressée au +d'une déclaration écrite, adressée au Bureau International de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage. Le Bureau peut -être saisi même par télégramme.</p> +être saisi même par télégramme.</p> <p class="center">Article 6.</p> -<p>Par dérogation à l'article 29 de la +<p>Par dérogation à l'article 29 de la convention, le Bureau International -notifie directement et par télégramme, +notifie directement et par télégramme, s'il est possible, au Gouvernement du -belligérant capteur la déclaration d'instance +belligérant capteur la déclaration d'instance dont il est saisi. Le Gouvernement -du belligérant capteur, sans examiner -si les délais prescrits ont été -observés, fait, dans les sept jours de la -réception de la notification, transmettre +du belligérant capteur, sans examiner +si les délais prescrits ont été +observés, fait, dans les sept jours de la +réception de la notification, transmettre au Bureau International le dossier de -l'affaire en y joignant, le cas échéant, -une copie certifiée conforme de la décision +l'affaire en y joignant, le cas échéant, +une copie certifiée conforme de la décision rendue par le tribunal national.</p> <p class="center">Article 7.</p> -<p>Par dérogation à l'article 45, § 2, de -la convention, la Cour, après le prononcé -et la notification de son arrêt +<p>Par dérogation à l'article 45, § 2, de +la convention, la Cour, après le prononcé +et la notification de son arrêt aux parties en cause, fait parvenir -directement au Gouvernement du belligérant +directement au Gouvernement du belligérant capteur le dossier de l'affaire -qui lui a été soumise, en y joignant l'expédition -des diverses décisions intervenues -ainsi que la copie des procès-verbaux +qui lui a été soumise, en y joignant l'expédition +des diverses décisions intervenues +ainsi que la copie des procès-verbaux de l'instruction.</p> <p class="center">Article 8.</p> -<p>Le présent protocole additionnel sera -considéré comme faisant partie intégrante -de la convention et sera ratifié -en même temps que celle-ci. Si la déclaration -prévue à l'article 1 ci-dessus +<p>Le présent protocole additionnel sera +considéré comme faisant partie intégrante +de la convention et sera ratifié +en même temps que celle-ci. Si la déclaration +prévue à l'article 1 ci-dessus est faite dans l'acte de ratification, une -copie certifiée conforme en sera insérée -dans le procès-verbal de dépôt des ratifications -visé à l'article 52, § 3, de la +copie certifiée conforme en sera insérée +dans le procès-verbal de dépôt des ratifications +visé à l'article 52, § 3, de la convention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_666" id="Page_666">[Pg 666]</a></span></p> <p class="center">Article 9.</p> -<p>L'adhésion à la convention est subordonnée -à l'adhésion au présent +<p>L'adhésion à la convention est subordonnée +à l'adhésion au présent protocole additionnel.</p> -<p>En foi de quoi les Plénipotentiaires -ont signé le présent protocole additionnel.</p> +<p>En foi de quoi les Plénipotentiaires +ont signé le présent protocole additionnel.</p> -<p>Fait à La Haye le 19 septembre 1910, -en un seul exemplaire qui sera déposé +<p>Fait à La Haye le 19 septembre 1910, +en un seul exemplaire qui sera déposé dans les archives du Gouvernement des -Pays-Bas et dont des copies, certifiées +Pays-Bas et dont des copies, certifiées conformes, seront remises, par la voie -diplomatique, aux Puissances désignées +diplomatique, aux Puissances désignées dans l'article 15 de la convention relative -à l'établissement d'une Cour Internationale +à l'établissement d'une Cour Internationale des prises du 18 octobre 1907 et dans son Annexe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_667" id="Page_667">[Pg 667]</a></span></p> @@ -45995,7 +45951,7 @@ Geneva Convention Act, 1911.</p> <p class="indh">Andersen <i>v.</i> Marten, case of, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></p> -<p class="indh">André, Major, case of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p> +<p class="indh">André, Major, case of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p> <p class="indh">Angary:</p> <p class="indh4">derivation of right of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></p> @@ -46067,7 +46023,7 @@ Geneva Convention Act, 1911.</p> <p class="indh">Arnold, General, at West Point, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p> -<p class="indh">Arrêt de prince, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p> +<p class="indh">Arrêt de prince, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p> <p class="indh">Aryol (or Orel), case of the, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p> @@ -46596,7 +46552,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">Devastation, general, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></p> -<p class="indh">De Wütz <i>v.</i> Hendricks, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></p> +<p class="indh">De Wütz <i>v.</i> Hendricks, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></p> <p class="indh">Diana, case of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> @@ -46751,7 +46707,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">Faucigny, neutralisation of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p> -<p class="indh">Fécamp, blockade of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></p> +<p class="indh">Fécamp, blockade of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></p> <p class="indh">Federal States, wars by members of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></p> @@ -46856,7 +46812,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">Friendship and Commerce, treaties of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></p> -<p class="indh">Fürst Bismarck, case of the, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></p> +<p class="indh">Fürst Bismarck, case of the, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></p> </div> @@ -46864,7 +46820,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">G</p> -<p class="indh">Gaëta, blockade of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> +<p class="indh">Gaëta, blockade of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> <p class="indh">Gelderland, case of the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p> @@ -46872,10 +46828,10 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">General Armstrong, case of the, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> -<p class="indh">Genêt, letters of marque granted by, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p> +<p class="indh">Genêt, letters of marque granted by, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p> <p class="indh">Geneva: Court of Arbitration, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></p> -<p class="indh4">Société d'utilité publique, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p> +<p class="indh4">Société d'utilité publique, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></p> <p class="indh">Geneva Convention:</p> <p class="indh4">adaptation of the principles of, to naval warfare, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-262</p> @@ -47055,7 +47011,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh4">effect of simple cessation of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></p> <p class="indh4">instances of simple cessation of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hübner, proposal regarding Prize Courts, <a href="#Page_559">559</a></p> +<p class="indh">Hübner, proposal regarding Prize Courts, <a href="#Page_559">559</a></p> <p class="indh">Huddy, Joshua, case of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></p> @@ -47203,7 +47159,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">Keith, Lord, and capitulation of El Arish, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></p> -<p class="indh">Kléber, General, and capitulation of El Arish, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> +<p class="indh">Kléber, General, and capitulation of El Arish, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> <p class="indh">Kleen, on carriage of contraband, <a href="#Page_504">504</a></p> @@ -47269,7 +47225,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh4">wounded, treatment of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-165</p> <p class="indh4">wounding of combatants, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></p> -<p class="indh">Lapérouse, Count, granted safe-conduct, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> +<p class="indh">Lapérouse, Count, granted safe-conduct, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></p> <p class="indh"><a name="Laws_of_war" id="Laws_of_war"></a>Laws of war:</p> <p class="indh4">binding force of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></p> @@ -47283,7 +47239,7 @@ expanding and explosive, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a <p class="indh">Lena, case of the, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p> -<p class="indh">L'Espiègle, case of the, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> +<p class="indh">L'Espiègle, case of the, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p> <p class="indh">Letters of marque, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></p> @@ -47597,7 +47553,7 @@ General Armstrong, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh4">asylum. <i>See</i> <a href="#Neutral_asylum">Neutral asylum</a></p> <p class="indh4">belligerents occupying territory of, 394</p> <p class="indh4">conduct in general of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></p> -<p class="indh4">depôts and factories of belligerents on territory of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p> +<p class="indh4">depôts and factories of belligerents on territory of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p> <p class="indh4">fugitive soldiers in custody of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>-415</p> <p class="indh4">hostilities by and against, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>-389</p> <p class="indh4">impartiality of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>-383, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></p> @@ -47791,7 +47747,7 @@ General Armstrong, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh4">Pyrenees (1659), <a href="#Page_537">537</a></p> <p class="indh4">San Stefano (1878), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></p> <p class="indh4">Westminster (1654), <a href="#Page_535">535</a></p> -<p class="indh4">Zürich (1859), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></p> +<p class="indh4">Zürich (1859), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></p> <p class="indh">Perfidy, instances of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p> @@ -47850,7 +47806,7 @@ General Armstrong, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Preliminaries of peace, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></p> -<p class="indh">Prévost, General, reprisal by, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></p> +<p class="indh">Prévost, General, reprisal by, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></p> <p class="indh">Princesse Marie, case of the, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></p> @@ -48526,7 +48482,7 @@ General Armstrong, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Volunteer fleet, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-104</p> -<p class="indh">Vorwärts, case of the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> +<p class="indh">Vorwärts, case of the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p> <p class="indh">Vrow Houwina, case of the, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> @@ -48628,7 +48584,7 @@ General Armstrong, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Zouche, on contraband, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></p> -<p class="indh">Zürich, Peace of (1859), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></p> +<p class="indh">Zürich, Peace of (1859), <a href="#Page_329">329</a></p> </div> @@ -48648,389 +48604,7 @@ Edinburgh & London</p> </div> - - - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Law. 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