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diff --git a/41046-h/41046-h.htm b/41046-h/41046-h.htm index f4c34e7..5679233 100644 --- a/41046-h/41046-h.htm +++ b/41046-h/41046-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of International Law Vol. I, by Oppenheim, Lassa</title> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> @@ -71,48 +71,7 @@ hr.small { width: 15%;margin-top:2.5%;margin-bottom:3%; } <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Law. A Treatise. Volume I (of -2), by Lassa Francis Oppenheim - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: International Law. A Treatise. Volume I (of 2) - Peace. Second Edition - -Author: Lassa Francis Oppenheim - -Release Date: October 16, 2012 [EBook #41046] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LAW, A TREATISE, VOL I *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41046 ***</div> <div class="box"> @@ -204,20 +163,20 @@ disturbing the arrangement of topics, these new sections have been inserted between the old ones, and numbered as the sections preceding them, but with the addition of the letters <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, &c. The more important of these new sections are the following: - § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a> (concerning + § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a> (concerning the Utilisation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> the -Flow of Rivers); §§ <a href="#To287a">287<i>a</i></a> and <a href="#To_secure_radio287b">287<i>b</i></a> (concerning Wireless -Telegraphy on the Open Sea); §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> and <a href="#Since_there_is287d">287<i>d</i></a> (concerning Mines and -Tunnels in the Subsoil of the Sea bed); § <a href="#Another_interesting446a">446<i>a</i></a> (concerning the Casa -Blanca incident); §§ <a href="#The_International_Prize476a">476<i>a</i></a> and <a href="#Va476b">476<i>b</i></a> (concerning the International -Prize Court and the suggested International Court of Justice); §§ <a href="#The_Final_Act568a">568<i>a</i></a> +Flow of Rivers); §§ <a href="#To287a">287<i>a</i></a> and <a href="#To_secure_radio287b">287<i>b</i></a> (concerning Wireless +Telegraphy on the Open Sea); §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> and <a href="#Since_there_is287d">287<i>d</i></a> (concerning Mines and +Tunnels in the Subsoil of the Sea bed); § <a href="#Another_interesting446a">446<i>a</i></a> (concerning the Casa +Blanca incident); §§ <a href="#The_International_Prize476a">476<i>a</i></a> and <a href="#Va476b">476<i>b</i></a> (concerning the International +Prize Court and the suggested International Court of Justice); §§ <a href="#The_Final_Act568a">568<i>a</i></a> and <a href="#The_Declaration568b">568<i>b</i></a> (concerning the Conventions of the Second Hague Peace -Conference, and the Declaration of London); § <a href="#Different_from_real576a">576<i>a</i></a> (concerning +Conference, and the Declaration of London); § <a href="#Different_from_real576a">576<i>a</i></a> (concerning Pseudo-Guarantees). Only towards the end of the volume has this mode of dealing with the new topics been departed from. As the chapter treating of Unions, the last of the volume, had to be entirely rearranged and rewritten, and a new chapter on Commercial Treaties inserted, the old -arrangement comes to an end with § <a href="#Different_from_guarantee577">577</a>; and §§ <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a> to <a href="#In_the_interest_of596">596</a> of this new +arrangement comes to an end with § <a href="#Different_from_guarantee577">577</a>; and §§ <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a> to <a href="#In_the_interest_of596">596</a> of this new edition present an arrangement of topics which differs from that of the former edition.</p> @@ -292,14 +251,14 @@ form, as follows:—</p> <p class="indh">Annuaire = Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International.</p> -<p class="indh">Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der +<p class="indh">Bluntschli = Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 3rd ed. (1878).</p> <p class="indh">Bonfils = Bonfils, Manuel De Droit International Public, 5th ed. by Fauchille (1908).</p> -<p class="indh">Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887).</p> +<p class="indh">Bulmerincq = Bulmerincq, Das Völkerrecht (1887).</p> <p class="indh">Calvo = Calvo, Le Droit International etc., 5th ed. 6 vols. (1896).</p> @@ -311,14 +270,14 @@ Public, 4th ed. by de Boeck (1910).</p> (1872).</p> <p class="indh">Fiore = Fiore, Nouveau Droit International Public, -deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien et -annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885).</p> +deuxième édition, traduite de l'Italien et +annotée par Antoine, 3 vols. (1885).</p> -<p class="indh">Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, nouvelle -édition, traduite de l'Italien par +<p class="indh">Fiore, Code = Fiore, Le Droit International Codifié, nouvelle +édition, traduite de l'Italien par Antoine (1911).</p> -<p class="indh">Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 2nd +<p class="indh">Gareis = Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 2nd ed. (1910).</p> <p class="indh">Grotius = Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625).</p> @@ -330,12 +289,12 @@ ed. (1895).</p> by Sir Sherston Baker, 2 vols. (1893).</p> <p class="indh">Hartmann = Hartmann, Institutionen des praktischen -Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh">Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der +Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1874).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Heffter = Heffter, Das Europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart, 8th ed. by Geffcken (1888).</p> -<p class="indh">Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts -entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896).</p> +<p class="indh">Heilborn, System = Heilborn, Das System des Völkerrechts +entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896).</p> <p class="indh">Holland, Studies = Holland, Studies in International Law (1898).</p> @@ -343,10 +302,10 @@ entwickelt aus den völkerrechtlichen Begriffen (1896).</p> <p class="indh">Holland, Jurisprudence = Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence, 6th ed. (1893).</p> -<p class="indh">Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, +<p class="indh">Holtzendorff = Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. (1885-1889).</p> -<p class="indh">Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. +<p class="indh">Klüber = Klüber, Europäisches Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. by Morstadt (1851).</p> <p class="indh">Lawrence = Lawrence, The Principles of International @@ -355,7 +314,7 @@ Law, 4th ed. (1910).</p> <p class="indh">Lawrence, Essays = Lawrence, Essays on some Disputed Questions of Modern International Law (1884).</p> -<p class="indh">Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910).</p> +<p class="indh">Liszt = Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, 6th ed. (1910).</p> <p class="indh">Lorimer = Lorimer, The Institutes of International Law, 2 vols. (1883-1884).</p> @@ -365,12 +324,12 @@ Law, 2 vols. (1883-1884).</p> <p class="indh">Manning = Manning, Commentaries on the Law of Nations, new ed. by Sheldon Amos (1875).</p> -<p class="indh">Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation +<p class="indh">Martens = Martens, Völkerrecht, German translation of the Russian original in 2 vols. (1883).</p> -<p class="indh">Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens -Moderne De L'Europe, nouvelle éd. par -Vergé, 2 vols. (1858)</p> +<p class="indh">Martens, G. F. = G. F. Martens, Précis Du Droit Des Gens +Moderne De L'Europe, nouvelle éd. par +Vergé, 2 vols. (1858)</p> <p class="indh">Martens, R. }</p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R. } </p> @@ -378,12 +337,12 @@ Vergé, 2 vols. (1858)</p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R.G. }</p> <p class="indh">Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. }</p> <p class="indh11">Martens. N.R.G. 3rd Ser. } These are the abbreviated quotations of the different -parts of Martens, Recueil de Traités (see p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a> of this volume), which are in common use.</p> +parts of Martens, Recueil de Traités (see p. <a href="#Page_102">102</a> of this volume), which are in common use.</p> -<p class="indh">Martens, Causes Célèbres = Martens, Causes Célèbres Du Droit Des Gens, +<p class="indh">Martens, Causes Célèbres = Martens, Causes Célèbres Du Droit Des Gens, 5 vols., 2nd ed. (1858-1861).</p> -<p class="indh">Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Traité De Droit Public International, +<p class="indh">Mérignhac = Mérignhac, Traité De Droit Public International, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1907).</p> <p class="indh">Moore = Moore, A Digest of International Law, 8 @@ -391,16 +350,16 @@ vols., Washington (1906).</p> <p class="indh">Nys = Nys, Le Droit International, 3 vols. (1904-1906).</p> -<p class="indh">Perels = Perels, Das internationale öffentliche Seerecht +<p class="indh">Perels = Perels, Das internationale öffentliche Seerecht der Gegenwart, 2nd ed. (1903).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> <p class="indh">Phillimore = Phillimore, Commentaries upon International Law, 4 vols. 3rd ed. (1879-1888).</p> -<p class="indh">Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International +<p class="indh">Piedelièvre = Piedelièvre, Précis De Droit International Public, 2 vols. (1894-1895).</p> -<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International +<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré = Pradier-Fodéré, Traité De Droit International Public, 8 vols. (1885-1906).</p> <p class="indh">Pufendorf = Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium @@ -409,10 +368,10 @@ Public, 8 vols. (1885-1906).</p> <p class="indh">Rivier = Rivier, Principes Du Droit Des Gens, 2 vols. (1896).</p> -<p class="indh">R.I. = Revue De Droit International Et De Législation -Comparée.</p> +<p class="indh">R.I. = Revue De Droit International Et De Législation +Comparée.</p> -<p class="indh">R.G. = Revue Général De Droit International +<p class="indh">R.G. = Revue Général De Droit International Public.</p> <p class="indh">Taylor = Taylor, A Treatise on International Public @@ -425,10 +384,10 @@ traduction du Portugais par Boutiron <p class="indh">Twiss = Twiss, The Law of Nations, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1884, 1875).</p> -<p class="indh">Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908).</p> +<p class="indh">Ullmann = Ullmann, Völkerrecht, 2nd ed. (1908).</p> <p class="indh">Vattel = Vattel, Le Droit Des Gens, 4 books in 2 vols., -nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773).</p> +nouvelle éd. (Neuchâtel, 1773).</p> <p class="indh">Walker = Walker, A Manual of Public International Law (1895).</p> @@ -450,7 +409,7 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <p class="indh">Wheaton = Wheaton, Elements of International Law, 8th American ed. by Dana (1866).</p> -<p class="indh">Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh">Z.V. = Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> </div> @@ -464,167 +423,167 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Aegi, § 437, p. <a href="#Page_496">496</a></p> +<p class="indh">Aegi, § 437, p. <a href="#Page_496">496</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ambrose Light, the, § 273 note 2; § 276, p. <a href="#Page_345">345</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Ambrose Light, the, § 273 note 2; § 276, p. <a href="#Page_345">345</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Amelia Island, § 132, p. <a href="#Page_186">186</a></p> +<p class="indh">Amelia Island, § 132, p. <a href="#Page_186">186</a></p> -<p class="indh">Anderson, John, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Anderson, John, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Anna, the, § 234, p. <a href="#Page_301">301</a></p> +<p class="indh">Anna, the, § 234, p. <a href="#Page_301">301</a></p> -<p class="indh"><a name="Aub" id="Aub"></a>Aubespine, L', § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> +<p class="indh"><a name="Aub" id="Aub"></a>Aubespine, L', § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Bartram <i>v.</i> Robertson, § 580, p. <a href="#Page_611">611</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Bartram <i>v.</i> Robertson, § 580, p. <a href="#Page_611">611</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Bass, de, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> +<p class="indh">Bass, de, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> -<p class="indh">Beckert, Wilhelm, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a></p> +<p class="indh">Beckert, Wilhelm, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a></p> -<p class="indh">Belgenland, the, § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Belgenland, the, § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Belle-Isle, Maréchal de, § 398, p. <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> +<p class="indh">Belle-Isle, Maréchal de, § 398, p. <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> -<p class="indh">Boisset, M., § 163, p. <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p> +<p class="indh">Boisset, M., § 163, p. <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p> -<p class="indh">Botiller <i>v.</i> Dominguez, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Botiller <i>v.</i> Dominguez, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Brooke, Sir James, § 209, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Brooke, Sir James, § 209, p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Brunswick, Duke of, <i>v.</i> King of Hanover, § 353, p. <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p> +<p class="indh">Brunswick, Duke of, <i>v.</i> King of Hanover, § 353, p. <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Canning, George, and the Russian Ambassador, § 481, p. <a href="#Page_532">532</a></p> +<p class="indh">Canning, George, and the Russian Ambassador, § 481, p. <a href="#Page_532">532</a></p> -<p class="indh">Canning, Sir Stratford, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_451">451</a></p> +<p class="indh">Canning, Sir Stratford, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_451">451</a></p> -<p class="indh">Caroline, the, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; § 444, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a>; § 446, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> +<p class="indh">Caroline, the, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; § 444, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a>; § 446, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> -<p class="indh">Casa Blanca, § 446<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> +<p class="indh">Casa Blanca, § 446<i>a</i>, p. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> -<p class="indh">Castioni, <i>Ex parte</i>, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_415">415</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Castioni, <i>Ex parte</i>, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_415">415</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Cellamare, Prince, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> +<p class="indh">Cellamare, Prince, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> -<p class="indh">Cespedes, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Cespedes, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Charkieh, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_144">144</a> note 1; § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Charkieh, the, § 91, p. <a href="#Page_144">144</a> note 1; § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Charlton, Porter, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_408">408</a></p> +<p class="indh">Charlton, Porter, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_408">408</a></p> -<p class="indh">Chartered Mercantile Bank of India <i>v.</i> Netherlands India Steam Navigation Co., § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Chartered Mercantile Bank of India <i>v.</i> Netherlands India Steam Navigation Co., § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Cherokee Tobacco, the, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Cherokee Tobacco, the, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Constitution, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Constitution, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Cook <i>v.</i> Sprigg, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Cook <i>v.</i> Sprigg, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Costa Rica Packet, the, § 162, p. <a href="#Page_217">217</a></p> +<p class="indh">Costa Rica Packet, the, § 162, p. <a href="#Page_217">217</a></p> -<p class="indh">Cutting, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a></p> +<p class="indh">Cutting, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Danish Fleet, the, § 131, p. <a href="#Page_186">186</a></p> +<p class="indh">Danish Fleet, the, § 131, p. <a href="#Page_186">186</a></p> -<p class="indh">De <a name="Jag" id="Jag"></a>Jager <i>v.</i> The Attorney-General for Natal, § 317, p. <a href="#Page_394">394</a></p> +<p class="indh">De <a name="Jag" id="Jag"></a>Jager <i>v.</i> The Attorney-General for Natal, § 317, p. <a href="#Page_394">394</a></p> -<p class="indh">De Haber <i>v.</i> Queen of Portugal, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">De Haber <i>v.</i> Queen of Portugal, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Delagoa Bay, § 247, p. <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p> +<p class="indh">Delagoa Bay, § 247, p. <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p> -<p class="indh">Dogger Bank, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Dogger Bank, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Dubois, § 392, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> +<p class="indh">Dubois, § 392, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Exchange, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Exchange, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Fonds pieux des Californias, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> +<p class="indh">Fonds pieux des Californias, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> -<p class="indh"><a name="Fra" id="Fra"></a>Franconia, the, § 25, p. <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> +<p class="indh"><a name="Fra" id="Fra"></a>Franconia, the, § 25, p. <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Gallatin, § 403, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Gallatin, § 403, p. <a href="#Page_474">474</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Germany, Great Britain, and Italy <i>v.</i> Venezuela, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> +<p class="indh">Germany, Great Britain, and Italy <i>v.</i> Venezuela, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> -<p class="indh">Germany, France, and Great Britain <i>v.</i> Japan, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> +<p class="indh">Germany, France, and Great Britain <i>v.</i> Japan, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> -<p class="indh">Gore and Pinkney, § 458, p. <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> +<p class="indh">Gore and Pinkney, § 458, p. <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> -<p class="indh">Guébriant, Madame de, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> +<p class="indh">Guébriant, Madame de, § 370, p. <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> -<p class="indh">Gurney, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Gurney, § 402, p. <a href="#Page_473">473</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Gyllenburg, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> +<p class="indh">Gyllenburg, § 388, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Haggerty, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_489">489</a></p> +<p class="indh">Haggerty, § 427, p. <a href="#Page_489">489</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hall <i>v.</i> Campbell, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Hall <i>v.</i> Campbell, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Hellfeld <i>v.</i> Russian Government, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">Hellfeld <i>v.</i> Russian Government, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">Huascar, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_342">342</a></p> +<p class="indh">Huascar, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_342">342</a></p> -<p class="indh">Huus <i>v.</i> New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., § 579, p. <a href="#Page_609">609</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Huus <i>v.</i> New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., § 579, p. <a href="#Page_609">609</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Indian Chief, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_494">494</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Indian Chief, the, § 434, p. <a href="#Page_494">494</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Ionian Ships, § 93, p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Ionian Ships, § 93, p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Isabella, Queen of Spain, § 351, p. <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p> +<p class="indh">Isabella, Queen of Spain, § 351, p. <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Jacquin, § 335, p. <a href="#Page_416">416</a></p> +<p class="indh">Jacquin, § 335, p. <a href="#Page_416">416</a></p> <p class="indh">Jager. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jag">De Jager</a></p> -<p class="indh">Jassy, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Jassy, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Johann Friederich, the, § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 2; § 271, p. <a href="#Page_339">339</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Johann Friederich, the, § 265, p. <a href="#Page_335">335</a> note 2; § 271, p. <a href="#Page_339">339</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Kalkstein, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p> +<p class="indh">Kalkstein, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p> -<p class="indh">Keiley, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_450">450</a></p> +<p class="indh">Keiley, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_450">450</a></p> -<p class="indh">Koszta, Martin, § 313, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Koszta, Martin, § 313, p. <a href="#Page_388">388</a> note 1</p> </div> @@ -638,170 +597,170 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">McLeod, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a> note 2; § 446, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> +<p class="indh">McLeod, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a> note 2; § 446, p. <a href="#Page_501">501</a></p> -<p class="indh">Macartney <i>v.</i> Garbutt, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_450">450</a> note 2; § 394, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Macartney <i>v.</i> Garbutt, § 375, p. <a href="#Page_450">450</a> note 2; § 394, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Magdalena Steam Navigation Co. <i>v.</i> Martin, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Magdalena Steam Navigation Co. <i>v.</i> Martin, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Maori King, the, § 261, p. <a href="#Page_331">331</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Maori King, the, § 261, p. <a href="#Page_331">331</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Mendoza, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> +<p class="indh">Mendoza, § 387, p. <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> -<p class="indh">Meunier, <i>In re</i>, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_415">415</a> note 4; § 338, p. <a href="#Page_418">418</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Meunier, <i>In re</i>, § 334, p. <a href="#Page_415">415</a> note 4; § 338, p. <a href="#Page_418">418</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">Monaldeschi, § 348, p. <a href="#Page_431">431</a> note 1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> </p> +<p class="indh">Monaldeschi, § 348, p. <a href="#Page_431">431</a> note 1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> </p> -<p class="indh">Montagnini, § 106, p. <a href="#Page_160">160</a> note 1; § 386, p. <a href="#Page_458">458</a> note 1; § 411, p. <a href="#Page_478">478</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Montagnini, § 106, p. <a href="#Page_160">160</a> note 1; § 386, p. <a href="#Page_458">458</a> note 1; § 411, p. <a href="#Page_478">478</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Montezuma, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Montezuma, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Monti, Marquis de, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p> +<p class="indh">Monti, Marquis de, § 400, p. <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p> -<p class="indh">Moray Firth, § 191, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a> note 3. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Mor">Mortensen <i>v.</i> Peters</a></p> +<p class="indh">Moray Firth, § 191, p. <a href="#Page_263">263</a> note 3. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Mor">Mortensen <i>v.</i> Peters</a></p> -<p class="indh"><a name="Mor" id="Mor"></a>Mortensen <i>v.</i> Peters, § 22, p. <a href="#Page_28">28</a> note 1; § 192, p. <a href="#Page_264">264</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh"><a name="Mor" id="Mor"></a>Mortensen <i>v.</i> Peters, § 22, p. <a href="#Page_28">28</a> note 1; § 192, p. <a href="#Page_264">264</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Muscat Dhows, the, § 295, p. <a href="#Page_372">372</a> note 2; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> +<p class="indh">Muscat Dhows, the, § 295, p. <a href="#Page_372">372</a> note 2; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_521">521</a></p> -<p class="indh">Musgrove <i>v.</i> Chun Teeong Toy, § 141, p. <a href="#Page_200">200</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Musgrove <i>v.</i> Chun Teeong Toy, § 141, p. <a href="#Page_200">200</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Nereide, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Nereide, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Nikitschenkow, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a></p> +<p class="indh">Nikitschenkow, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_463">463</a></p> -<p class="indh">Nillins, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_407">407</a></p> +<p class="indh">Nillins, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_407">407</a></p> -<p class="indh">North Atlantic Coast Fisheries, § 191, p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a> note 1; § 205, p. <a href="#Page_276">276</a> note 2; § 458, p. <a href="#Page_513">513</a> note 1; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">North Atlantic Coast Fisheries, § 191, p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a> note 1; § 205, p. <a href="#Page_276">276</a> note 2; § 458, p. <a href="#Page_513">513</a> note 1; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> -<p class="indh">Norway <i>v.</i> Sweden, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">Norway <i>v.</i> Sweden, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Orinoco Steamship Co., § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">Orinoco Steamship Co., § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Paladini, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_408">408</a></p> +<p class="indh">Paladini, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_408">408</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Panther</i>, the, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Panther</i>, the, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p> -<p class="indh">Paquette Habana, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Paquette Habana, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Parkinson <i>v.</i> Potter, § 394, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Parkinson <i>v.</i> Potter, § 394, p. <a href="#Page_467">467</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Parlement Belge, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note</p> +<p class="indh">Parlement Belge, the, § 450, p. <a href="#Page_507">507</a> note</p> -<p class="indh">Platen-Hallermund, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a></p> +<p class="indh">Platen-Hallermund, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a></p> -<p class="indh">Porteña, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Porteña, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Pouble, Cirilo, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Pouble, Cirilo, § 147, p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Prioleau <i>v.</i> United States, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 1; § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">Prioleau <i>v.</i> United States, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 1; § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 3</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Reg. <i>v.</i> Cunningham, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_266">266</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Reg. <i>v.</i> Cunningham, § 194, p. <a href="#Page_266">266</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Republic of Bolivia <i>v.</i> The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Co., § 272, p. <a href="#Page_341">341</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Republic of Bolivia <i>v.</i> The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Co., § 272, p. <a href="#Page_341">341</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Republic of Mexico <i>v.</i> Francisco de Arrangoiz, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Republic of Mexico <i>v.</i> Francisco de Arrangoiz, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Ripperda, Duke of, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> +<p class="indh">Ripperda, Duke of, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ross, Bishop, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Ross, Bishop, § 362, p. <a href="#Page_443">443</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Sà, Don Pantaleon, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sà , Don Pantaleon, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> -<p class="indh">Sackville, Lord, § 383, p. <a href="#Page_455">455</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Sackville, Lord, § 383, p. <a href="#Page_455">455</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Santa Lucia, § 247, p. <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p> +<p class="indh">Santa Lucia, § 247, p. <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p> -<p class="indh">Sapphire, the, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Sapphire, the, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Savarkar, § 332, p. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">Savarkar, § 332, p. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> -<p class="indh">Schnaebélé, § 456, p. <a href="#Page_511">511</a></p> +<p class="indh">Schnaebélé, § 456, p. <a href="#Page_511">511</a></p> -<p class="indh">Scotia, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Scotia, the, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Shenandoah, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a></p> +<p class="indh">Shenandoah, the, § 273, p. <a href="#Page_343">343</a></p> -<p class="indh">Soulé, § 398, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a></p> +<p class="indh">Soulé, § 398, p. <a href="#Page_470">470</a></p> -<p class="indh">Springer, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> +<p class="indh">Springer, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> <p class="indh">Strathclyde, the. <i>See</i> <a href="#Fra">Franconia</a>, the</p> -<p class="indh">Sully, § 396, p. <a href="#Page_468">468</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sully, § 396, p. <a href="#Page_468">468</a></p> -<p class="indh">Sun Yat Sen, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sun Yat Sen, § 390, p. <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Taylor <i>v.</i> Best, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Taylor <i>v.</i> Best, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Tourville, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_407">407</a></p> +<p class="indh">Tourville, § 330, p. <a href="#Page_407">407</a></p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Repentigny, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Repentigny, § 240, p. <a href="#Page_306">306</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Prioleau, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 1; § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 3</p> +<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Prioleau, § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 1; § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 3</p> -<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Smith, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Smith, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Venezuela, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> +<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Venezuela, § 476, p. <a href="#Page_522">522</a></p> -<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Wagner, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">United States <i>v.</i> Wagner, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 1</p> </div> <div class="box"> <p class="indh"><a name="Vad" id="Vad"></a>Vaderland, - the, §<a href="#To_secure_radio287b"> 287<i>b</i></a>, p. <a href="#Page_357">357</a></p> + the, §<a href="#To_secure_radio287b"> 287<i>b</i></a>, p. <a href="#Page_357">357</a></p> -<p class="indh">Vavasseur <i>v.</i> Krupp, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Vavasseur <i>v.</i> Krupp, § 115, p. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> note 2</p> -<p class="indh">Vexaincourt, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p> +<p class="indh">Vexaincourt, § 163, p. <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p> -<p class="indh">Virginius, the, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a> note 2</p> +<p class="indh">Virginius, the, § 133, p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a> note 2</p> </div> <div class="box"> -<p class="indh">Waddington, Carlo, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> +<p class="indh">Waddington, Carlo, § 404, p. <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> -<p class="indh">Washburne, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> +<p class="indh">Washburne, § 399, p. <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> -<p class="indh">West Rand Central Mining Co. <i>v.</i> The King, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2; § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 4</p> +<p class="indh">West Rand Central Mining Co. <i>v.</i> The King, § 21, p. <a href="#Page_26">26</a> note 2; § 82, p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a> note 4</p> -<p class="indh">William, King of Holland, § 350, p. <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p> +<p class="indh">William, King of Holland, § 350, p. <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p> -<p class="indh">Whitney <i>v.</i> Robertson, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2; § 580, p. <a href="#Page_611">611</a> note 1</p> +<p class="indh">Whitney <i>v.</i> Robertson, § 546, p. <a href="#Page_578">578</a> note 2; § 580, p. <a href="#Page_611">611</a> note 1</p> -<p class="indh">Wrech, Baron de, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> +<p class="indh">Wrech, Baron de, § 391, p. <a href="#Page_465">465</a></p> </div> @@ -1831,7 +1790,7 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <p class="indh">284. Seal Fisheries in Behring Sea <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> -<p class="indh">285. Fisheries around the Faröe Islands and Iceland <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> +<p class="indh">285. Fisheries around the Faröe Islands and Iceland <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> </div> @@ -1898,7 +1857,7 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <p class="indh">294. Function of Nationality <a href="#Page_370">370</a></p> -<p class="indh">295. So-called <i>Protégés</i> and <i>de facto</i> Subjects <a href="#Page_371">371</a></p> +<p class="indh">295. So-called <i>Protégés</i> and <i>de facto</i> Subjects <a href="#Page_371">371</a></p> <p class="indh">296. Nationality and Emigration <a href="#Page_373">373</a></p> @@ -2162,7 +2121,7 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <p class="indh">367. Ministers Resident <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> -<p class="indh">368. Chargés d'Affaires <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> +<p class="indh">368. Chargés d'Affaires <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> <p class="indh">369. The Diplomatic Corps <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p> @@ -2509,7 +2468,7 @@ of the United States, 3 vols. (1886).</p> <p class="indh">467<i>a</i>. The Pan-American Union <a href="#Page_517">517</a></p> -<p class="indh">468. Maritime Office at Zanzibar and Bureau Spécial at Brussels <a href="#Page_517">517</a></p> +<p class="indh">468. Maritime Office at Zanzibar and Bureau Spécial at Brussels <a href="#Page_517">517</a></p> <p class="indh">469. International Office of Customs Tariffs <a href="#Page_517">517</a></p> @@ -2987,12 +2946,12 @@ of the Second Hague Peace </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, pp. 14-16—Maine, pp. 50-53—Lawrence, §§ 1-3, and Essays, pp. 1-36—Phillimore, -I. §§ 1-12—Twiss, I. §§ 104-5—Taylor, § 2—Moore, I. §§ 1-2—Westlake, -I. pp. 1-13—Walker, History, I. §§ 1-8—Halleck, I. pp. -46-55—Ullmann, §§ 2-4—Heffter, §§ 1-5—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, -I. pp. 19-26—Nys, I. pp. 133-43—Rivier, I. § 1—Bonfils, Nos. 26-31—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 1-24—Mérignhac, I. pp. 5-28—Martens, I. §§ 1-5—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Hall, pp. 14-16—Maine, pp. 50-53—Lawrence, §§ 1-3, and Essays, pp. 1-36—Phillimore, +I. §§ 1-12—Twiss, I. §§ 104-5—Taylor, § 2—Moore, I. §§ 1-2—Westlake, +I. pp. 1-13—Walker, History, I. §§ 1-8—Halleck, I. pp. +46-55—Ullmann, §§ 2-4—Heffter, §§ 1-5—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, +I. pp. 19-26—Nys, I. pp. 133-43—Rivier, I. § 1—Bonfils, Nos. 26-31—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 1-24—Mérignhac, I. pp. 5-28—Martens, I. §§ 1-5—Fiore, I. Nos. 186-208, and Code, Nos. 1-26—Higgins, "The Binding Force of International Law" (1910)—Pollock in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XVIII. (1902), pp. 418-428—Scott in A.J. I. (1907), pp. 831-865—Willoughby @@ -3003,8 +2962,8 @@ of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 1. Law of Nations or International Law (<i>Droit des -gen</i>s, <i>Völkerrecht</i>) is the name for the body of customary +<p>§ 1. Law of Nations or International Law (<i>Droit des +gen</i>s, <i>Völkerrecht</i>) is the name for the body of customary and conventional rules which are considered legally<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> binding by civilised States in their intercourse with each other. Such part of these rules as is binding upon @@ -3022,7 +2981,7 @@ Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In contradistinction to mere usages and to rules of so-called International Comity, see - below §§ <a href="#But_how9">9</a> + below §§ <a href="#But_how9">9</a> and <a href="#Thus_custom19">19</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The best example of universal @@ -3067,7 +3026,7 @@ the Law of Nations contested.</p></div> -<p>§ 2. Almost from the beginning of the science of the +<p>§ 2. Almost from the beginning of the science of the Law of Nations the question has been discussed whether the rules of International Law are <i>legally</i> binding. Hobbes<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> already and Pufendorf<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> had answered the @@ -3110,7 +3069,7 @@ justice do so.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> De Cive, XIV. 4.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> De Jure Naturæ et Gentium, II. c. iii. § 22.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> De Jure Naturæ et Gentium, II. c. iii. § 22.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Lectures on Jurisprudence, VI.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p></div> @@ -3119,7 +3078,7 @@ of Rules of Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 3. For the purpose of finding a correct definition +<p>§ 3. For the purpose of finding a correct definition of law it is indispensable to compare morality and law with each other, for both lay down rules, and to a great extent the same rules, for human conduct. Now the @@ -3151,12 +3110,12 @@ pay, the bailiff will come into your house, will do so.</p> seems to make the same distinction between rules of law and of morality, -and Twiss, I. § 105, adopts it <i>expressis +and Twiss, I. § 105, adopts it <i>expressis verbis</i>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Law-giving Authority not essential for the Existence of Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 4. If these are the characteristic signs of morality +<p>§ 4. If these are the characteristic signs of morality and of law, we are justified in stating the principle: A rule is a rule of morality, if by common consent of the community it applies to conscience and to conscience @@ -3220,7 +3179,7 @@ Conditions of Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 5. <a name="On_the_basis_of5" id="On_the_basis_of5"></a>On the basis of the results of these previous +<p>§ 5. <a name="On_the_basis_of5" id="On_the_basis_of5"></a>On the basis of the results of these previous investigations we are now able to give a definition of law. We may say that <i>law is a body of rules for human conduct within a community which by common consent of @@ -3262,7 +3221,7 @@ with Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 6. But it must be emphasised that, if there is law +<p>§ 6. But it must be emphasised that, if there is law to be found in every community, law in this meaning must not be identified with the law of States, the so-called Municipal Law,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> just as the conception of State @@ -3293,7 +3252,7 @@ of Nations" a Community.</p></div> -<p>§ 7. As the first condition is the existence of a community, +<p>§ 7. As the first condition is the existence of a community, the question arises, whether an international community exists whose law could be the Law of Nations. Before this question can be answered, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> @@ -3373,7 +3332,7 @@ many hundreds of years this community has been called <div class="sidenote"><p>The "Family of Nations" a Community with Rules of Conduct.</p></div> -<p>§ 8. Thus the first essential condition for the existence +<p>§ 8. Thus the first essential condition for the existence of law is a reality. The single States make altogether a body of States, a community of individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> States. But the second condition cannot be denied @@ -3416,7 +3375,7 @@ the ultimate characteristic features of which cannot at present be foreseen.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See -Oppenheim, "Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts" (1911), +Oppenheim, "Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts" (1911), <i>passim</i>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>External @@ -3426,7 +3385,7 @@ of Rules of International Conduct.</p></div> -<p>§ 9. <a name="But_how9" id="But_how9"></a>But how do matters stand concerning the third +<p>§ 9. <a name="But_how9" id="But_how9"></a>But how do matters stand concerning the third essential condition for the existence of law? Is there a common consent of the community of States that the rules of international conduct shall be enforced by @@ -3467,7 +3426,7 @@ still law, and the Law of Nations is by no means so weak a law as it sometimes seems to be.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_apparent135">135</a>, concerning intervention by right.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_apparent135">135</a>, concerning intervention by right.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Those who deny to International Law the character of law because they identify the conception of law in general with that of @@ -3483,7 +3442,7 @@ Law of Nations as Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 10. The fact is that theorists only are divided +<p>§ 10. The fact is that theorists only are divided concerning the character of the Law of Nations as real law. In practice International Law is constantly recognised as law. The Governments and Parliaments of @@ -3548,7 +3507,7 @@ Consent the Basis of Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 11. If law is, as defined above (§ 5), a body of +<p>§ 11. If law is, as defined above (§ 5), a body of rules for human conduct within a community which by common consent of this community shall be enforced through external power, common consent is the basis @@ -3592,7 +3551,7 @@ the Basis of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 12. <a name="Wh12" id="Wh12"></a>What has been stated with regard to law pure +<p>§ 12. <a name="Wh12" id="Wh12"></a>What has been stated with regard to law pure and simple applies also to the Law of Nations. However, the community for which this Law of Nations is authoritative consists not of individual human beings, @@ -3689,7 +3648,7 @@ of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 13. <a name="Since_the_Law_of13" id="Since_the_Law_of13"></a>Since the Law of Nations is based on the +<p>§ 13. <a name="Since_the_Law_of13" id="Since_the_Law_of13"></a>Since the Law of Nations is based on the common consent of individual States, and not of individual human beings, States solely and exclusively are the subjects of International Law. This means that @@ -3724,7 +3683,7 @@ citizens.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_ <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The importance of the fact that subjects of the Law of Nations are States exclusively is so great that I consider it necessary to emphasise it again and again throughout this work. See, for instance, - below, §§ <a href="#No289">289</a>, <a href="#Heads_of_States344">344</a>, <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>. It should, however, already be mentioned here + below, §§ <a href="#No289">289</a>, <a href="#Heads_of_States344">344</a>, <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>. It should, however, already be mentioned here that this assertion is even nowadays still sometimes contradicted; see, for instance, Kaufmann, "Die Rechtskraft des Internationalen Rechts" (1899), <i>passim</i>; Rehm in Z.V. I. (1907), p. 53; and Diena in R.G. XVI. @@ -3737,7 +3696,7 @@ the Basis of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 14. <a name="Since_the_Law14" id="Since_the_Law14"></a>Since the Law of Nations is based on the +<p>§ 14. <a name="Since_the_Law14" id="Since_the_Law14"></a>Since the Law of Nations is based on the common consent of States as sovereign communities, the member States of the Family of Nations are equal to each other as subjects of International Law. States @@ -3750,7 +3709,7 @@ fact that the Law of Nations is a law between, not above, the States.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>-116, where the + below, §§ <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>-116, where the legal equality of States in contradistinction to their political inequality is discussed, and where it will also @@ -3766,15 +3725,15 @@ States.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, pp. 5-14—Maine, pp. 1-25—Lawrence, §§ 61-66—Phillimore, I. -§§ 17-33—Twiss, I. §§ 82-103—Taylor, §§ 30-36—Westlake, I. pp. 14-19—Wheaton, -§ 15—Halleck, I. pp. 55-64—Ullmann, §§ 8-9—Heffter, § 3—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, I. pp. 79-158—Rivier, I. § 2—Nys, I. pp. -144-165—Bonfils, Nos. 45-63—Despagnet, Nos. 58-63—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 24-35—Mérignhac, I. pp. 79-113—Martens, I. § 43—Fiore, I. Nos. -224-238—Calvo, I. §§ 27-38—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge und Gesetze -als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877)—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur -der Staatsverträge" (1880)—Cavaglieri, "La consuetudine giuridica +<p class="indh1">Hall, pp. 5-14—Maine, pp. 1-25—Lawrence, §§ 61-66—Phillimore, I. +§§ 17-33—Twiss, I. §§ 82-103—Taylor, §§ 30-36—Westlake, I. pp. 14-19—Wheaton, +§ 15—Halleck, I. pp. 55-64—Ullmann, §§ 8-9—Heffter, § 3—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, I. pp. 79-158—Rivier, I. § 2—Nys, I. pp. +144-165—Bonfils, Nos. 45-63—Despagnet, Nos. 58-63—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 24-35—Mérignhac, I. pp. 79-113—Martens, I. § 43—Fiore, I. Nos. +224-238—Calvo, I. §§ 27-38—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge und Gesetze +als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877)—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur +der Staatsverträge" (1880)—Cavaglieri, "La consuetudine giuridica internazionale" (1907).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Source in @@ -3782,7 +3741,7 @@ Contradistinction to Cause.</p></div> -<p>§ 15. The different writers on the Law of Nations +<p>§ 15. The different writers on the Law of Nations disagree widely with regard to kinds and numbers of sources of this law. The fact is that the term "source of law" is made use of in different meanings by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> @@ -3824,7 +3783,7 @@ and legal force.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The two Sources of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 16. As the basis of the Law of Nations is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +<p>§ 16. As the basis of the Law of Nations is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> common consent of the member States of the Family of Nations, it is evident that there must exist, and can only exist, as many sources of International Law as @@ -3848,14 +3807,14 @@ Contradistinction to Usage.</p></div> -<p>§ 17. <a name="Cu17" id="Cu17"></a>Custom is the older and the original source of +<p>§ 17. <a name="Cu17" id="Cu17"></a>Custom is the older and the original source of International Law in particular as well as of law in general. Custom must not be confounded with usage. In everyday life and language both terms are used synonymously, but in the language of the jurist they have two distinctly different meanings. Jurists speak of a custom, when a clear and continuous habit of -doing certain actions has grown up under the ægis of +doing certain actions has grown up under the ægis of the conviction that these actions are legally necessary or legally right. On the other hand, jurists speak of a usage, when a habit of doing certain actions has grown @@ -3881,7 +3840,7 @@ as Source of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 18. <a name="Treaties_are18" id="Treaties_are18"></a>Treaties are the second source of International +<p>§ 18. <a name="Treaties_are18" id="Treaties_are18"></a>Treaties are the second source of International Law, and a source which has of late become of the greatest importance. As treaties may be concluded for innumerable purposes,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> it is necessary to emphasise that @@ -3920,19 +3879,19 @@ customary rule of the Law of Nations, that treaties are binding upon the contracting parties.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#These_important_functions492">492</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#These_important_functions492">492</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Law-making treaties of world-wide importance are enumerated -below, §§ <a href="#The_Final_Act556">556</a>-568b.</p></div> +below, §§ <a href="#The_Final_Act556">556</a>-568b.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_question_as_to493">493</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_question_as_to493">493</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Factors influencing the Growth of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 19. <a name="Thus_custom19" id="Thus_custom19"></a>Thus custom and treaties are the two exclusive +<p>§ 19. <a name="Thus_custom19" id="Thus_custom19"></a>Thus custom and treaties are the two exclusive sources of the Law of Nations. When writers on International Law frequently enumerate other sources besides custom and treaties, they confound the term @@ -3980,7 +3939,7 @@ this development will go on in future also, and that thereby many a rule of present International Comity will in future become one of International Law.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The matter is ably discussed in Stoerk, "Völkerrecht und Völkercourtoisie" +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The matter is ably discussed in Stoerk, "Völkerrecht und Völkercourtoisie" (1908).</p></div> <p>Not to be confounded with the rules of Comity are @@ -3995,8 +3954,8 @@ individuals.</p> </h4> <p class="indh1">Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, I. pp. 49-53, 117-120—Nys, I. pp. 185-189—Taylor, -§ 103—Holland, Studies, pp. 176-200—Kaufmann, "Die -Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechts" (1899)—Triepel, "Völkerrecht +§ 103—Holland, Studies, pp. 176-200—Kaufmann, "Die +Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechts" (1899)—Triepel, "Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899)—Anzilotti, "Il diritto internazionale nei giudizi interni" (1905)—Kohler in Z.V. II. (1908), pp. 209-230.</p> @@ -4007,7 +3966,7 @@ International and Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 20. <a name="Th20" id="Th20"></a>The Law of Nations and the Municipal Law +<p>§ 20. <a name="Th20" id="Th20"></a>The Law of Nations and the Municipal Law of the single States are essentially different from each other. They differ, first, as regards their sources. Sources of Municipal Law are custom grown up within @@ -4034,7 +3993,7 @@ is a law not above, but between Sovereign States, and therefore a weaker law.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#But_how9">9</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#But_how9">9</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Law of @@ -4043,7 +4002,7 @@ never <i>per se</i> Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 21. <a name="If_the_Law21" id="If_the_Law21"></a>If the Law of Nations and Municipal Law +<p>§ 21. <a name="If_the_Law21" id="If_the_Law21"></a>If the Law of Nations and Municipal Law differ as demonstrated, the Law of Nations can neither as a body nor in parts be <i>per se</i> a part of Municipal Law. Just as Municipal Law lacks the power of altering @@ -4074,7 +4033,7 @@ States. See The Nereide, 9 Cranch, Wheaton, 153; The Scotia, 14 Wallace, 170; The Paquette Habana, 175 United States, 677. See also -Taylor, § 103, and Scott in A.J.I. +Taylor, § 103, and Scott in A.J.I. (1908), pp. 852-865. As regards Great Britain, see Blackstone, IV. ch. 5, and Westlake in <i>The Law Quarterly @@ -4086,16 +4045,16 @@ Central Mining Co. <i>v.</i> The King <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This ought to be generally recognised, but, in fact, is not; says, for instance, Kohler in Z.V. II.(1908), p. 210:—"<i>... -das Völkerrecht ist ein überstaatliches +das Völkerrecht ist ein überstaatliches Recht, das der Gesetzgebung des einzelnen Staates nicht unterworfen ist und von den Richtern ohne weiteres -respectirt werden muss: das Völkerrecht -steht über dem staatlichen Recht</i>."</p></div> +respectirt werden muss: das Völkerrecht +steht über dem staatlichen Recht</i>."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Certain Rules of Municipal Law necessitated or interdicted.</p></div> -<p>§ 22. If Municipal Courts cannot apply unadopted +<p>§ 22. If Municipal Courts cannot apply unadopted rules of the Law of Nations, and must apply even such rules of Municipal Law as conflict with the Law of Nations, it is evident that the several States, in order @@ -4130,13 +4089,13 @@ Nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> This became quite apparent in the Moray Firth case (Mortensen <i>v.</i> Peters)—see - below, § <a href="#Gulfs_and_bays192">192</a>—in which the Court had to + below, § <a href="#Gulfs_and_bays192">192</a>—in which the Court had to apply British Municipal Law.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Presumption against conflicts between International and Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 23. However, although Municipal Courts must apply Municipal Law even +<p>§ 23. However, although Municipal Courts must apply Municipal Law even if conflicting with the Law of Nations, there is a presumption against the existence of such a conflict. As the Law of Nations is based upon the common consent of the different States, it is improbable that a @@ -4153,7 +4112,7 @@ necessary Municipal Rules.</p></div> -<p>§ 24. In case of a gap in the statutes of a civilised +<p>§ 24. In case of a gap in the statutes of a civilised State regarding certain rules necessitated by the Law of Nations, such rules ought to be presumed by the Courts to have been tacitly adopted by such Municipal @@ -4168,7 +4127,7 @@ that such privileges are tacitly granted.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Presumption of the Existence of certain Municipal Rules in Conformity with Rights granted by the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 25. <a name="There_is_no_doubt25" id="There_is_no_doubt25"></a>There is no doubt that a State need not make +<p>§ 25. <a name="There_is_no_doubt25" id="There_is_no_doubt25"></a>There is no doubt that a State need not make use of all the rights it has by the Law of Nations, and that, consequently, every State can by its laws expressly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> renounce the whole or partial use of such rights, @@ -4205,9 +4164,9 @@ Jurisdiction Act."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Foo <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> L.R. 2 Ex. Div. 63. See Phillimore, -I. § 198 B; Maine, pp. 39-45. +I. § 198 B; Maine, pp. 39-45. See also - below, § <a href="#That_the_littoral189">189</a>, where the + below, § <a href="#That_the_littoral189">189</a>, where the controversy is discussed whether a littoral State has jurisdiction over foreign vessels that merely pass @@ -4223,11 +4182,11 @@ through its maritime belt.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 44—Phillimore, I. §§ 27-33—Twiss, I. § 62—Taylor, §§ 61-64—Westlake, -I. p. 40—Bluntschli, §§ 1-16—Heffter, § 7—Holtzendorff in -Holtzendorff, I. pp. 13-18—Nys, I. pp. 116-132—Rivier, I. § 1—Bonfils, -Nos. 40-45—Despagnet, Nos. 51-53—Martens, I. § 41—Fiore, Code, Nos. -38-43—Ullmann, § 10—Nippold in Z.V. II. (1908), pp. 441-443—Cavaglieri +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 44—Phillimore, I. §§ 27-33—Twiss, I. § 62—Taylor, §§ 61-64—Westlake, +I. p. 40—Bluntschli, §§ 1-16—Heffter, § 7—Holtzendorff in +Holtzendorff, I. pp. 13-18—Nys, I. pp. 116-132—Rivier, I. § 1—Bonfils, +Nos. 40-45—Despagnet, Nos. 51-53—Martens, I. § 41—Fiore, Code, Nos. +38-43—Ullmann, § 10—Nippold in Z.V. II. (1908), pp. 441-443—Cavaglieri in R.G. XVIII. (1911), pp. 259-292.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Range of @@ -4235,7 +4194,7 @@ Dominion of International Law controversial.</p></div> -<p>§ 26. Dominion of the Law of Nations is the name +<p>§ 26. Dominion of the Law of Nations is the name given to the area within which International Law is applicable—that is, those States between which International Law finds validity. The range of the dominion @@ -4268,15 +4227,15 @@ interests, which knit Christian States together, knit likewise some non-Christian and Christian States.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> See, - for instance, Bluntschli, § 8, + for instance, Bluntschli, § 8, and Fiore, Code, No. 38.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See, - for instance, Martens, § 41.</p></div> + for instance, Martens, § 41.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Three Conditions of Membership of the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 27. <a name="Thus_the_membership27" id="Thus_the_membership27"></a>Thus the membership of the Family of Nations +<p>§ 27. <a name="Thus_the_membership27" id="Thus_the_membership27"></a>Thus the membership of the Family of Nations has of late necessarily been increased, and the range of the dominion of the Law of Nations has extended beyond its original limits. This extension has taken @@ -4313,7 +4272,7 @@ States which are subjects of International Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Present range of Dominion of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 28. <a name="The_present_range28" id="The_present_range28"></a>The present range of the dominion of International +<p>§ 28. <a name="The_present_range28" id="The_present_range28"></a>The present range of the dominion of International Law is a product of historical development within which epochs are distinguishable marked by successive entrances of various States into the Family @@ -4344,7 +4303,7 @@ belong to this group.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> But it ought not to be maintained that there is—in contradistinction to the European—an American International Law in -existence; see, however, Alvarez, "Le Droit International Américain" +existence; see, however, Alvarez, "Le Droit International Américain" (1910), and again Alvarez in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 269-353.</p></div> <p>(3) With the reception of the Turkish Empire into @@ -4355,9 +4314,9 @@ Peace Treaty of Paris of 1856, in which the five Great<span class="pagenum"><a n European Powers of the time, namely, France, Austria, England, Prussia, and Russia, and besides those Sardinia, the nucleus of the future Great Power Italy, -expressly "déclarent la Sublime Porte admise à participer +expressly "déclarent la Sublime Porte admise à participer aux avantages du droit public et du concert -européens." Since that time Turkey has on the whole +européens." Since that time Turkey has on the whole endeavoured in time of peace and war to act in conformity with the rules of International Law, and she has, on the other hand, been treated<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> accordingly by @@ -4405,7 +4364,7 @@ respect in the near future. But as yet they have not accomplished this task, and consequently they are not yet able to be received into the Family of Nations as full members. Although they are, as will be shown - below (§ <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>), for some parts within the circle of the + below (§ <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>), for some parts within the circle of the Family of Nations, they remain for other parts outside. But the example of Japan can show them that it depends entirely upon their own efforts to be received @@ -4419,11 +4378,11 @@ membership in 1908 when it merged in Belgium by cession.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatment of States outside the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 29. The Law of Nations as a law between States +<p>§ 29. The Law of Nations as a law between States based on the common consent of the members of the Family of Nations naturally does not contain any rules concerning the intercourse with and treatment of such @@ -4447,18 +4406,18 @@ to their relations with the Red Indians.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, I. pp. 136-152—Ullmann, § 11—Despagnet, -Nos. 67-68—Bonfils, Nos. 1713-1727—Mérignhac, I. pp. 26-28—Nys, I. -pp. 166-183—Rivier, I. § 2—Fiore, I. Nos. 124-127—Martens, I. § 44—Holland, -Studies, pp. 78-95—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge und Gesetze -als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877), pp. 44-77—Bulmerincq, "Praxis, -Theorie, und Codification des Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 167-192—Roszkowski +<p class="indh1">Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, I. pp. 136-152—Ullmann, § 11—Despagnet, +Nos. 67-68—Bonfils, Nos. 1713-1727—Mérignhac, I. pp. 26-28—Nys, I. +pp. 166-183—Rivier, I. § 2—Fiore, I. Nos. 124-127—Martens, I. § 44—Holland, +Studies, pp. 78-95—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge und Gesetze +als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877), pp. 44-77—Bulmerincq, "Praxis, +Theorie, und Codification des Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 167-192—Roszkowski in R.I. XXI. (1889), p. 520—Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, IV. (1910), pp. 208-227.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Movement in Favour of Codification.</p></div> -<p>§ 30. The lack of precision which is natural to a +<p>§ 30. The lack of precision which is natural to a large number of the rules of the Law of Nations on account of its slow and gradual growth has created a movement for its codification. The idea of a codification @@ -4480,8 +4439,8 @@ Quarterly Review</i>, XI. (1885), pp. which resolved in 1792 to create a Declaration of the Rights of Nations as a pendant to the Declaration of the Rights of Mankind of 1789. For this purpose -the Abbé Grégoire was charged with the drafting -of such a declaration. In 1795, Abbé Grégoire produced +the Abbé Grégoire was charged with the drafting +of such a declaration. In 1795, Abbé Grégoire produced a draft of twenty-one articles, which, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> was rejected by the Convention, and the matter dropped.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> @@ -4497,7 +4456,7 @@ only.</p></div> made to show the possibility of a codification. This was done by an Austrian jurist, Alfons von Domin-Petrushevecz, who published in that year at Leipzig a -"Précis d'un Code de Droit International."</p> +"Précis d'un Code de Droit International."</p> <p>In 1862, the Russian Professor Katschenowsky brought an essay before the Juridical Society of London @@ -4510,11 +4469,11 @@ of rules which the United States published during the Civil War for the guidance of her army.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th68">vol. II. § 68</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th68">vol. II. § 68</a>.</p></div> <p>In 1868, Bluntschli, the celebrated Swiss interpreter of the Law of Nations, published "Das moderne -Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch +Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt." This draft code has been translated into the French, Greek, Spanish, and Russian languages, and the Chinese Government produced an official @@ -4563,8 +4522,8 @@ diritto internazionale codificato e sua sanzione giuridica," of which a fourth edition appeared in 1911.</p> <p>In 1906 E. Duplessix published his "La loi des -Nations. Projet d'institution d'une autorité nationale, -législative, administrative, judiciaire. Projet de Code +Nations. Projet d'institution d'une autorité nationale, +législative, administrative, judiciaire. Projet de Code de Droit international public."</p> <p>In 1911 Jerome Internoscia published his "New Code @@ -4572,7 +4531,7 @@ of International Law" in English, French, and Italian.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Work of the first Hague Peace Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 31. At the end of the nineteenth century, in 1899, +<p>§ 31. At the end of the nineteenth century, in 1899, the so-called Peace Conference at the Hague, convened on the personal initiative of the Emperor Nicholas II. of Russia, has shown the possibility that parts of the @@ -4603,7 +4562,7 @@ made an epoch in the history of International Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Work of the second Hague Peace Conference and the Naval Conference of London.</p></div> -<p>§ 32. <a name="Sh32" id="Sh32"></a>Shortly after the Hague Peace Conference of +<p>§ 32. <a name="Sh32" id="Sh32"></a>Shortly after the Hague Peace Conference of 1899, the United States of America took a step with regard to sea warfare similar to that taken by her in 1863 with regard to land warfare. She published on @@ -4662,7 +4621,7 @@ Court possible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a>< <div class="sidenote"><p>Value of Codification of International Law contested.</p></div> -<p>§ 33. In spite of the movement in favour of codification +<p>§ 33. In spite of the movement in favour of codification of the Law of Nations, there are many eminent jurists who oppose such codification. They argue that codification would never be possible on account of @@ -4685,7 +4644,7 @@ certain basis for the practice of the States to stand upon.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Merits of Codification in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 34. I am decidedly not a blind and enthusiastic +<p>§ 34. I am decidedly not a blind and enthusiastic admirer of codification in general. It cannot be maintained that codification is everywhere, at all times, and under all circumstances opportune. Codification @@ -4746,7 +4705,7 @@ codification.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Merits of Codification of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 35. But do these arguments in favour of codification +<p>§ 35. But do these arguments in favour of codification in general also apply to codification of the Law of Nations? I have no doubt that they do more or less. If some of these arguments have no force in view of @@ -4823,7 +4782,7 @@ as to the feasibility of such partial codification.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Codification could be realised.</p></div> -<p>§ 36. However, although possible, codification could +<p>§ 36. However, although possible, codification could hardly be realised at once. The difficulties, though not insuperable, are so great that it would take the work of perhaps a generation of able jurists to prepare draft @@ -4871,26 +4830,26 @@ which could be realised by successive codification.<span class="pagenum"><a name <span class="smaller">DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW OF NATIONS BEFORE GROTIUS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 20-29—Manning, pp. 8-20—Halleck, I. pp. 1-11—Walker, -History, I. pp. 30-137—Taylor, §§ 6-29—Ullmann, §§ 12-14—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, I, pp. 159-386—Nys, I. pp. 1-18—Martens, I. §§ 8-20—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 20-29—Manning, pp. 8-20—Halleck, I. pp. 1-11—Walker, +History, I. pp. 30-137—Taylor, §§ 6-29—Ullmann, §§ 12-14—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, I, pp. 159-386—Nys, I. pp. 1-18—Martens, I. §§ 8-20—Fiore, I. Nos. 3-31—Calvo, I. pp. 1-32—Bonfils, Nos. 71-86—Despagnet, -Nos. 1-19—Mérignhac, I. pp. 38-43—Laurent, "Histoire du Droit des +Nos. 1-19—Mérignhac, I. pp. 38-43—Laurent, "Histoire du Droit des Gens," &c., 14 vols. (2nd ed. 1861-1868)—Ward, "Enquiry into the -Foundation and History of the Law of Nations," 2 vols. (1795)—Osenbrüggen, -"De Jure Belli ac Pacis Romanorum" (1876)—Müller-Jochmus, -"Geschichte des Völkerrechts im Alterthum" (1848)—Hosack, +Foundation and History of the Law of Nations," 2 vols. (1795)—Osenbrüggen, +"De Jure Belli ac Pacis Romanorum" (1876)—Müller-Jochmus, +"Geschichte des Völkerrechts im Alterthum" (1848)—Hosack, "Rise and Growth of the Law of Nations" (1883), pp. 1-226—Nys, "Le -Droit de la Guerre et les Précurseurs de Grotius" (1882) and "Les +Droit de la Guerre et les Précurseurs de Grotius" (1882) and "Les Origines du Droit International" (1894)—Hill, "History of Diplomacy in the International Development of Europe," vol. I. (1905) and vol. II. -(1906)—Cybichowski, "Das antike Völkerrecht" (1907)—Phillipson, "The +(1906)—Cybichowski, "Das antike Völkerrecht" (1907)—Phillipson, "The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and Rome," 2 vols. (1910)—Strupp, -"Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts," 2 vols. (1911).</p> +"Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts," 2 vols. (1911).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No Law of Nations in antiquity.</p></div> -<p>§ 37. <a name="In37" id="In37"></a>International Law as a law between Sovereign +<p>§ 37. <a name="In37" id="In37"></a>International Law as a law between Sovereign and equal States based on the common consent of these States is a product of modern Christian civilisation, and may be said to be hardly four hundred years @@ -4927,7 +4886,7 @@ Jews, Greeks, and Romans.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Jews.</p></div> -<p>§ 38. Although they were monotheists and the +<p>§ 38. Although they were monotheists and the standard of their ethics was consequently much higher than that of their heathen neighbours, the Jews did not in fact raise the standard of the international relations @@ -5047,7 +5006,7 @@ has never disappeared.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Greeks.</p></div> -<p>§ 39. Totally different from this Jewish contribution +<p>§ 39. Totally different from this Jewish contribution to a future International Law is that of the Greeks. The broad and deep gulf between their civilisation and that of their neighbours necessarily made them look @@ -5105,7 +5064,7 @@ members of that community.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Romans.</p></div> -<p>§ 40. <a name="To40" id="To40"></a>Totally different again from the Greek contribution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +<p>§ 40. <a name="To40" id="To40"></a>Totally different again from the Greek contribution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> to a future International Law is that of the Romans. As far back as their history goes, the Romans had a special set of twenty priests, the so-called <i>fetiales</i>, @@ -5202,7 +5161,7 @@ during the Middle Ages.</p></div> -<p>§ 41. The Roman Empire gradually absorbed nearly +<p>§ 41. The Roman Empire gradually absorbed nearly the whole civilised ancient world, so far as it was known to the Romans. They hardly knew of any independent civilised States outside the borders of their empire. @@ -5267,7 +5226,7 @@ influence of the Christian teaching visible.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.</p></div> -<p>§ 42. The necessity for a Law of Nations did not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +<p>§ 42. The necessity for a Law of Nations did not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> arise until a multitude of States absolutely independent of one another had successfully established themselves. The process of development, starting from the Treaty @@ -5317,9 +5276,9 @@ gained some kind of international recognition. The more important of these collections are the following: The <i>Consolato del Mare</i>, a private collection made at Barcelona in Spain in the middle of the fourteenth -century; the <i>Laws of Oléron</i>, a collection, made in the +century; the <i>Laws of Oléron</i>, a collection, made in the twelfth century, of decisions given by the maritime -court of Oléron in France; the <i>Rhodian Laws</i>, a very +court of Oléron in France; the <i>Rhodian Laws</i>, a very old collection of maritime laws which probably was put together between the sixth and the eighth centuries;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> the <i>Tabula Amalfitana</i>, the maritime laws of the town @@ -5334,9 +5293,9 @@ dating from the fourteenth century.</p> <p>The growth of international trade caused also the rise of the controversy regarding the freedom of the high seas (see - below, § <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>), which indirectly influenced + below, § <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>), which indirectly influenced the growth of an International Law (see - below, §§ <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>-250).</p> + below, §§ <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>-250).</p> <p>(3) A third factor was the numerous leagues of trading towns for the protection of their trade and @@ -5417,7 +5376,7 @@ proposed the division of Europe into fifteen States and the linking together of these into a federation with a General Council as its highest organ, consisting of Commissioners deputed by the member States.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> A -fourth project was that of Émeric Crucée, who, in 1623, +fourth project was that of Émeric Crucée, who, in 1623, proposed the establishment of a Union consisting not only of the Christian States but of all States then existing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> in the whole of the world, with a General Council @@ -5425,33 +5384,33 @@ as its highest organ, seated at Venice, and consisting of ambassadors of all the member States of the Union.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See - Meyer, "Die staats- und völkerrechtlichen Ideen von -Pierre Dubois" (1909); Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), -pp. 28-30; Vesnitch, "Deux Précurseurs Français du Pacifism, etc." + Meyer, "Die staats- und völkerrechtlichen Ideen von +Pierre Dubois" (1909); Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), +pp. 28-30; Vesnitch, "Deux Précurseurs Français du Pacifism, etc." (1911), pp. 1-29.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See - Schwitzky, "Der Europaeische Fürstenbund Georg's von -Podiebrad" (1909), and Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), + Schwitzky, "Der Europaeische Fürstenbund Georg's von +Podiebrad" (1909), and Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), pp. 32-36.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See - Nys, "Études de Droit International et de Droit + Nys, "Études de Droit International et de Droit Politique" (1896), pp. 301-306, and Darby, "International Arbitration" (4th ed. 1904), pp. 10-21.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See - Balch, "Le Nouveau Cynée de Émeric Crucée" (1909); + Balch, "Le Nouveau Cynée de Émeric Crucée" (1909); Darby, "International Arbitration" (4th ed. 1904), pp. 22-33; Vesnitch, -"Deux Précurseurs Français du Pacifism, etc." (1911), pp. 29-54. +"Deux Précurseurs Français du Pacifism, etc." (1911), pp. 29-54. </p><p> The schemes enumerated in the text are those which were advanced before the appearance of Grotius's work "De Jure Belli ac Pacis" (1625). The numerous plans which made their appearance afterwards—that of the Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels, 1666; of Charles, Duke of Lorraine, 1688; -of William Penn, 1693; of John Bellers, 1710; of the Abbé de St. Pierre +of William Penn, 1693; of John Bellers, 1710; of the Abbé de St. Pierre (1658-1743); of Kant, 1795; and of others—are all discussed in -Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), and Darby, "International +Schücking, "Die Organisation der Welt" (1909), and Darby, "International Arbitration" (4th ed. 1904). They are as utopian as the pre-Grotian schemes, but they are nevertheless of great importance. They preached again and again the gospel of the organisation of the Family of Nations, @@ -5470,24 +5429,24 @@ relations.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 29-53, and Essays, pp. 147-190—Halleck, I. pp. 12-45—Walker, -History, I. pp. 138-202—Taylor, §§ 65-95—Nys, I. pp. 19-46—Martens, -I. §§ 21-33—Fiore, I. Nos. 32-52—Calvo, I. pp. 32-101—Bonfils, Nos. -87-146—Despagnet, Nos. 20-27—Mérignhac, I. pp. 43-78—Ullmann, -§§ 15-17—Laurent, "Histoire du Droit des Gens, &c.," 14 vols. (2nd ed. -1861-1868)—Wheaton, "Histoire des Progrès du Droit des Gens en -Europe" (1841)—Bulmerincq, "Die Systematik des Völkerrechts" (1858)—Pierantoni, +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, §§ 29-53, and Essays, pp. 147-190—Halleck, I. pp. 12-45—Walker, +History, I. pp. 138-202—Taylor, §§ 65-95—Nys, I. pp. 19-46—Martens, +I. §§ 21-33—Fiore, I. Nos. 32-52—Calvo, I. pp. 32-101—Bonfils, Nos. +87-146—Despagnet, Nos. 20-27—Mérignhac, I. pp. 43-78—Ullmann, +§§ 15-17—Laurent, "Histoire du Droit des Gens, &c.," 14 vols. (2nd ed. +1861-1868)—Wheaton, "Histoire des Progrès du Droit des Gens en +Europe" (1841)—Bulmerincq, "Die Systematik des Völkerrechts" (1858)—Pierantoni, "Storia del diritto internazionale nel secolo XIX." (1876)—Hosack, "Rise and Growth of the Law of Nations" (1883), pp. 227-320—Brie, -"Die Fortschritte des Völkerrechts seit dem Wiener Congress" +"Die Fortschritte des Völkerrechts seit dem Wiener Congress" (1890)—Gareis, "Die Fortschritte des internationalen Rechts im letzten -Menschenalter" (1905)—Dupuis, "Le Principe d'Équilibre et le Concert -Européen de la Paix de Westphalie à l'Acte d'Algésiras" (1909)—Strupp, -"Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts," 2 vols. (1911).</p> +Menschenalter" (1905)—Dupuis, "Le Principe d'Équilibre et le Concert +Européen de la Paix de Westphalie à l'Acte d'Algésiras" (1909)—Strupp, +"Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts," 2 vols. (1911).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The time of Grotius.</p></div> -<p>§ 43. The seventeenth century found a multitude of +<p>§ 43. The seventeenth century found a multitude of independent States established and crowded on the comparatively small continent of Europe. Many interests and aims knitted these States together into a @@ -5550,11 +5509,11 @@ Grotius into seven periods—namely, 1648-1721, 1721-1789, <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1648-1721.</p></div> -<p>§ 44. The ending of the Thirty Years' War through +<p>§ 44. The ending of the Thirty Years' War through the Westphalian Peace of 1648 is the first event of great importance after the death of Grotius in 1645. What makes remarkable the meetings of Osnaburg, -where the Protestant Powers met, and Münster, where +where the Protestant Powers met, and Münster, where the Catholic Powers met, is the fact that there was for the first time in history a European Congress assembled for the purpose of settling matters international by @@ -5658,7 +5617,7 @@ the Law of Nations.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1721-1789.</p></div> -<p>§ 45. Before the end of the first half of the eighteenth +<p>§ 45. Before the end of the first half of the eighteenth century peace in Europe was again disturbed. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia, which had become a kingdom in 1701 and the throne of which Frederick II. @@ -5688,7 +5647,7 @@ fostered the growth of several rules of International Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See - below, Vol. II. §§ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a> + below, Vol. II. §§ <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Whereas_on_the_whole289">289</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_wars_of_the_French_Revolution290">290</a>, where details concerning the First and Second Armed Neutrality are @@ -5696,11 +5655,11 @@ given.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1789-1815.</p></div> -<p>§ 46. All progress, however, was endangered, and +<p>§ 46. All progress, however, was endangered, and indeed the Law of Nations seemed partly non-existent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> during the time of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars. Although the French Convention -resolved in 1792 (as stated above, § 30) to create a +resolved in 1792 (as stated above, § 30) to create a "Declaration of the Rights of Nations," the Revolutionary Government and afterwards Napoleon I. very often showed no respect for the rules of the Law of @@ -5744,7 +5703,7 @@ Sweden became a Real Union. The old dynasties were restored in Spain, in Sardinia, in Tuscany, and in Modena, as was also the Pope in Rome. To the nineteen cantons of the Swiss Confederation were added -those of Geneva, Valais, and Neuchâtel, and this Confederation +those of Geneva, Valais, and Neuchâtel, and this Confederation was neutralised for all the future.</p> <p>But the Vienna Congress did not only establish a @@ -5755,14 +5714,14 @@ are rivers navigable from the Open Sea and running through the land of different States. It was further arranged that henceforth diplomatic agents should be divided into three classes (Ambassadors, Ministers, -Chargés d'Affaires). Lastly, a universal prohibition of +Chargés d'Affaires). Lastly, a universal prohibition of the trade in negro slaves was agreed upon.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1815-1856.</p></div> -<p>§ 47. The period after the Vienna Congress begins +<p>§ 47. The period after the Vienna Congress begins with the so-called Holy Alliance. Already on September 26, 1815, before the second Peace of Paris, the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia @@ -5810,10 +5769,10 @@ interventions.</p> Martens, N.R. IV. p. 560.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See - Brockhaus, "Das Legitimitätsprincip" (1868).</p></div> + Brockhaus, "Das Legitimitätsprincip" (1868).</p></div> <p>The famous Monroe Doctrine (see - below, § <a href="#The139">139</a>) + below, § <a href="#The139">139</a>) owes its origin to that dangerous policy of the European Powers as regards intervention, although this doctrine embraces other points besides intervention. As from @@ -5853,7 +5812,7 @@ one may say that this principle of nationality superseded in European politics the principle of legitimacy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See - Bulmerincq, "Praxis, Theorie und Codification des Völkerrechts" + Bulmerincq, "Praxis, Theorie und Codification des Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 53-70.</p></div> <p>The last event of this period is the Crimean War, @@ -5895,7 +5854,7 @@ Spain and Mexico, however, signed the Declaration in 1907, as Japan had already done in 1886.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_spite_of_opposition251">251</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_spite_of_opposition251">251</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> It should be mentioned that the United States did not sign the Declaration of Paris because it did not go far enough, and did not @@ -5903,7 +5862,7 @@ interdict capture of private enemy vessels.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1856-1874.</p></div> -<p>§ 48. The next period, the time from 1856 to 1874,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +<p>§ 48. The next period, the time from 1856 to 1874,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> is of prominent importance for the development of the Law of Nations. Under the aegis of the principle of nationality, Austria turns in 1867 into the dual monarchy @@ -5956,7 +5915,7 @@ come to an understanding regarding such a code.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The period 1874-1899.</p></div> -<p>§ 49. After 1874 the principle of nationality continues +<p>§ 49. After 1874 the principle of nationality continues to exercise its influence as before. Under its aegis takes place the partial decay of the Ottoman Empire. The refusal of Turkey to introduce reforms @@ -6077,7 +6036,7 @@ by naval forces.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Twentieth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 50. <a name="Soon_after_the_Hague50" id="Soon_after_the_Hague50"></a>Soon after the Hague Peace Conference, in +<p>§ 50. <a name="Soon_after_the_Hague50" id="Soon_after_the_Hague50"></a>Soon after the Hague Peace Conference, in October 1899, war breaks out in South Africa between Great Britain and the two Boer Republics, which leads to the latter's subjugation at the end of 1901. The @@ -6152,7 +6111,7 @@ XXXIV. p. 700.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. II. p. 9, and - below, § <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>.</p></div> <p>The rivalry between France and Germany—the latter protesting against the position conceded to France @@ -6256,7 +6215,7 @@ signed. Of the greatest importance, however, are the second Hague Peace Conference of 1907 and the Naval Conference of London of 1898-9.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> See - Moore, VI. § 969; Fried, "Pan-America" (1910); Barrett, + Moore, VI. § 969; Fried, "Pan-America" (1910); Barrett, "The Pan-American Union" (1911).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See @@ -6354,7 +6313,7 @@ settled by arbitration.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href= vols. (1911).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th476">476</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th476">476</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> The general arbitration treaties concluded in August 1911 by the United States with Great Britain and France have not yet been @@ -6362,7 +6321,7 @@ ratified, as the consent of the American Senate is previously required.</p></div <div class="sidenote"><p>Six Lessons of the History of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 51. It is the task of history, not only to show how +<p>§ 51. It is the task of history, not only to show how things have grown in the past, but also to extract a moral for the future out of the events of the past. Six morals can be said to be deduced from the history of @@ -6386,9 +6345,9 @@ Napoleon I. shows clearly the soundness of this principle.<a name="FNanchor_68_6 necessity of a balance of power is generally recognised, there are some writers of great authority who vigorously oppose this principle, as, for instance, Bulmerincq, "Praxis, Theorie und Codification des -Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 40-50. On the principle itself see Donnadieu, -"Essai sur la Théorie de l'Équilibre" (1900), and Dupuis, "Le Principe -d'Équilibre et de Concert Européen" (1909).</p></div> +Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 40-50. On the principle itself see Donnadieu, +"Essai sur la Théorie de l'Équilibre" (1900), and Dupuis, "Le Principe +d'Équilibre et de Concert Européen" (1909).</p></div> <p>(2) The second moral is that International Law can develop progressively only when international politics,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> @@ -6444,7 +6403,7 @@ international intercourse firmer, broader, and more manifest than before.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See - Oppenheim, "Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts" (1911) where + Oppenheim, "Die Zukunft des Völkerrechts" (1911) where some progressive steps are discussed which the future may realise.</p></div> <p>(5) <a name="The_fifth_moral5of51" id="The_fifth_moral5of51"></a>The fifth moral is that the progress of International @@ -6473,7 +6432,7 @@ as only an international Court can supply.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> I name these schools "diplomatic" and "legal" for want of better denomination. They must, however, not be confounded with the three schools of the "Naturalists," "Positivists," and "Grotians," -details concerning which will be given below, §§ 55-57.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p></div> +details concerning which will be given below, §§ 55-57.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p></div> <p>(6) <a name="Th6of51" id="Th6of51"></a>The sixth, and last, moral is that the progressive development of International Law depends chiefly upon @@ -6499,28 +6458,28 @@ factors working in its favour.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Phillimore, I., Preface to the first edition—Lawrence, §§ 31-36—Manning, +<p class="indh1">Phillimore, I., Preface to the first edition—Lawrence, §§ 31-36—Manning, pp. 21-65—Halleck, I. pp. 12, 15, 18, 22, 25, 29, 34, 42—Walker, History, I. pp. 203-337, and "The Science of International Law" -(1893), <i>passim</i>—Taylor, §§ 37-48—Wheaton, §§ 4-13—Rivier in Holtzendorff, -I. pp. 337-475—Nys, I. pp. 213-328—Martens, I. §§ 34-38—Fiore, +(1893), <i>passim</i>—Taylor, §§ 37-48—Wheaton, §§ 4-13—Rivier in Holtzendorff, +I. pp. 337-475—Nys, I. pp. 213-328—Martens, I. §§ 34-38—Fiore, I. Nos. 53-88, 164-185, 240-272—Calvo, I. pp. 27-34, 44-46, 51-55, 61-63, 70-73, 101-137—Bonfils, Nos. 147-153—Despagnet, Nos. 28-35—Ullmann, -§ 18—Kaltenborn, "Die Vorläufer des Hugo Grotius" (1848)—Holland, +§ 18—Kaltenborn, "Die Vorläufer des Hugo Grotius" (1848)—Holland, Studies, pp. 1-58, 168-175—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 23-77—Ward, "Enquiry into the Foundation and History of the Law of -Nations," 2 vols. (1795)—Nys, "Le droit de la guerre et les précurseurs -de Grotius" (1882), "Notes pour servir à l'histoire ... du droit +Nations," 2 vols. (1795)—Nys, "Le droit de la guerre et les précurseurs +de Grotius" (1882), "Notes pour servir à l'histoire ... du droit international en Angleterre" (1888), "Les origines du droit international" -(1894)—Wheaton, "Histoire des progrès du droit des gens en +(1894)—Wheaton, "Histoire des progrès du droit des gens en Europe" (1841)—Oppenheim in A.J. I. (1908), pp. 313-356—Pollock in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. XII. (1910), pp. 703-729—See also -the bibliographies enumerated below in § <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHIES61">61</a>.</p> +the bibliographies enumerated below in § <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHIES61">61</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Forerunners of Grotius.</p></div> -<p>§ 52. The science of the modern Law of Nations +<p>§ 52. The science of the modern Law of Nations commences from Grotius's work, "De Jure Belli ac Pacis libri III.," because in it a fairly complete system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> of International Law was for the first time built up @@ -6568,13 +6527,13 @@ was taken, not by Grotius, but by Gentilis."</p> Professor Holland. On Gentilis, see Holland, Studies, pp. 1-391; Westlake, Chapters, pp. 33-36; Walker, History, I. pp. 249-277; Thamm, "Albericus Gentilis und seine Bedeutung -für das Völkerrecht" (1896); Phillipson in <i>The Journal of the Society +für das Völkerrecht" (1896); Phillipson in <i>The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, XII. (1912), pp. 52-80; Balch in A.J. V. (1911), pp. 665-679.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Grotius.</p></div> -<p>§ 53. <a name="Although_Grotius_owes_much53" id="Although_Grotius_owes_much53"></a>Although Grotius owes much to Gentilis, he +<p>§ 53. <a name="Although_Grotius_owes_much53" id="Although_Grotius_owes_much53"></a>Although Grotius owes much to Gentilis, he is nevertheless the greater of the two and bears by right the title of "Father of the Law of Nations." Hugo Grotius was born at Delft in Holland in 1583. @@ -6636,11 +6595,11 @@ of "Father of the Law of Nations," but also that of <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See details with regard to the controversy concerning the freedom of the open sea - below, §§ <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>-250. Grotius's treatise "Mare + below, §§ <a href="#In_antiquity248">248</a>-250. Grotius's treatise "Mare liberum" is—as we know now—the twelfth chapter of the work "De jure praedae," written in 1604 but never published by Grotius; it was not printed till 1868. See - below, § <a href="#Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250">250</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250">250</a>.</p></div> <p>Grotius, as a child of his time, could not help starting from the Law of Nature, since his intention was to find @@ -6704,7 +6663,7 @@ translation is that of 1854 by William Whewell.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Zouche.</p></div> -<p>§ 54. But the modern Law of Nations has another, +<p>§ 54. But the modern Law of Nations has another, though minor, founder besides Grotius, and this is an Englishman, Richard Zouche<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> (1590-1660), Professor of Civil Law at Oxford and a Judge of the Admiralty @@ -6754,11 +6713,11 @@ international law. See Wynne, "Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins," 2 vols. <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> These three schools of writers must not be confounded with the division of the present international jurists into the diplomatic and legal schools; see - above, § <a href="#The_fifth_moral5of51">51, No. 5</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_fifth_moral5of51">51, No. 5</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Naturalists.</p></div> -<p>§ 55. "Naturalists," or "Deniers of the Law of +<p>§ 55. "Naturalists," or "Deniers of the Law of Nations," is the appellation of those writers who deny that there is any positive Law of Nations whatever as the outcome of custom or treaties, and who maintain @@ -6781,7 +6740,7 @@ of Nations exists which has the force of real law (<i>quod quidem legis proprie dictae vim habeat, quae gentes tamquam a superiore profecta stringat</i>).</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> De jure naturae et gentium, II. c. 3, § 22.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> De jure naturae et gentium, II. c. 3, § 22.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p></div> <p>The most celebrated follower of Pufendorf is the German philosopher, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), @@ -6802,7 +6761,7 @@ mentioned.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Positivists.</p></div> -<p>§ 56. The "Positivists" are the antipodes of the +<p>§ 56. The "Positivists" are the antipodes of the Naturalists. They include all those writers who, in contradistinction to Hobbes and Pufendorf, not only defend the existence of a positive Law of Nations as @@ -6848,10 +6807,10 @@ Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, IX. (1908), pp. 27-49.</p></div> <p>Johann Jakob Moser (1701-1785), a German Professor of Law, published many books concerning the Law of Nations, of which three must be mentioned: -(1) "Grundsätze des jetzt üblichen Völkerrechts in -Friedenszeiten," 1750; (2) "Grundsätze des jetzt -üblichen Völkerrechts in Kriegszeiten," 1752; (3) -"Versuch des neuesten europäischen Völkerrechts in +(1) "Grundsätze des jetzt üblichen Völkerrechts in +Friedenszeiten," 1750; (2) "Grundsätze des jetzt +üblichen Völkerrechts in Kriegszeiten," 1752; (3) +"Versuch des neuesten europäischen Völkerrechts in Friedens- und Kriegszeiten," 1777-1780. Moser's books are magazines of an enormous number of facts which are of the greatest value for the positive Law of Nations. @@ -6861,16 +6820,16 @@ since to him the Law of Nations is positive law only and based on international custom and treaties.</p> <p>Georg Friedrich von Martens (1756-1821), Professor -of Law in the University of Göttingen, also published +of Law in the University of Göttingen, also published many books concerning the Law of Nations. The most -important is his "Précis du droit des gens moderne +important is his "Précis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe," published in 1789, of which William<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> Cobbett published in 1795 at Philadelphia an English translation, and of which as late as 1864 appeared a -new edition at Paris with notes by Charles Vergé. +new edition at Paris with notes by Charles Vergé. Martens began the celebrated collection of treaties which goes under the title "Martens, Recueil des -Traités," and is continued to our days.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The influence +Traités," and is continued to our days.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The influence of Martens was great, and even at the present time is considerable. He is not an exclusive Positivist, since he does not deny the existence of natural Law of Nations, @@ -6881,12 +6840,12 @@ builds up historically on international custom and treaties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Georg Friedrich von Martens is not to be confounded with -his nephew Charles de Martens, the author of the "Causes célèbres de +his nephew Charles de Martens, the author of the "Causes célèbres de droit des gens" and of the "Guide diplomatique."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Grotians.</p></div> -<p>§ 57. The "Grotians" stand midway between the +<p>§ 57. The "Grotians" stand midway between the Naturalists and the Positivists. They keep up the distinction of Grotius between the natural and the voluntary Law of Nations, but, in contradistinction to @@ -6928,18 +6887,18 @@ tacitly imposed by the <i>civitas gentium maxima</i>, the world-State, upon the member States.</p> <p>Emerich de Vattel<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> (1714-1767), a Swiss from -Neuchâtel, who entered into the service of Saxony and +Neuchâtel, who entered into the service of Saxony and became her Minister at Berne, did not in the main intend any original work, but undertook the task of introducing Wolff's teachings concerning the Law of Nations into the courts of Europe and to the diplomatists. He published in 1758 his book, "Le droit des gens, ou -principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et +principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des Nations et des Souverains." But it must be specially mentioned that Vattel expressly rejects Wolff's conception of the <i>civitas gentium maxima</i> in the preface to his book. Numerous editions of -Vattel's book have appeared, and as late as 1863 Pradier-Fodéré +Vattel's book have appeared, and as late as 1863 Pradier-Fodéré re-edited it at Paris. An English translation by Chitty appeared in 1834 and went through several editions. His influence was very great, and in diplomatic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> @@ -6952,7 +6911,7 @@ Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, X. (1909), pp. 17-39.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treatises of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.</p></div> -<p>§ 58. Some details concerning the three schools of +<p>§ 58. Some details concerning the three schools of the Naturalists, Positivists, and Grotians were necessary, because these schools are still in existence. I do not, however, intend to give a list of writers on special @@ -7043,69 +7002,69 @@ Law, 1901; 5th ed. 1910.</p> <p class="center">(3) <span class="smcap">French Treatises</span></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Funck-Brentano et Albert Sorel</i>: Précis du Droit des Gens, +<p class="indh"><i>Funck-Brentano et Albert Sorel</i>: Précis du Droit des Gens, 1877; 2nd ed. 1894.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>P. Pradier-Fodéré</i>: Traité de Droit International Public, 8 vols. +<p class="indh"><i>P. Pradier-Fodéré</i>: Traité de Droit International Public, 8 vols. 1885-1906.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Henry Bonfils</i>: Manuel de Droit International Public, 1894; 5th ed. by Fauchille, 1908.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Georges Bry</i>: Précis élémentaire de Droit International Public; +<p class="indh"><i>Georges Bry</i>: Précis élémentaire de Droit International Public; 5th ed. 1906.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Frantz Despagnet</i>: Cours de Droit International Public, 1894; 4th ed. by De Boeck, 1910.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Robert Piédelièvre</i>: Précis de Droit International Public, 2 vols. +<p class="indh"><i>Robert Piédelièvre</i>: Précis de Droit International Public, 2 vols. 1894-1895.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>A. Mérignhac</i>: Traité de Droit Public International, vol. I. +<p class="indh"><i>A. Mérignhac</i>: Traité de Droit Public International, vol. I. 1905; vol. II. 1907.</p> <p class="center">(4) <span class="smcap">German Treatises</span></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Theodor Schmalz</i>: Europäisches Völkerrecht, 1816.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Theodor Schmalz</i>: Europäisches Völkerrecht, 1816.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Johann Ludwig Klüber</i>: Droit des Gens moderne, 1819; -German ed. under the title of Europäisches Völkerrecht in +<p class="indh"><i>Johann Ludwig Klüber</i>: Droit des Gens moderne, 1819; +German ed. under the title of Europäisches Völkerrecht in 1821; last German ed. by Morstadt in 1851, and last French ed. by Ott in 1874.</p> <p class="indh"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Karl Heinrich Ludwig Poelitz</i>: Practisches (europäisches) -Völkerrecht, 1828.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Karl Heinrich Ludwig Poelitz</i>: Practisches (europäisches) +Völkerrecht, 1828.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Friedrich Saalfeld</i>: Handbuch des positiven Völkerrechts, +<p class="indh"><i>Friedrich Saalfeld</i>: Handbuch des positiven Völkerrechts, 1833.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>August Wilhelm Heffter</i>: Das europäische Völkerrecht der +<p class="indh"><i>August Wilhelm Heffter</i>: Das europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart, 1844; 8th ed. by Geffcken, 1888; French translations by Bergson in 1851 and Geffcken in 1883.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim</i>: System des Völkerrechts, 1845; +<p class="indh"><i>Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim</i>: System des Völkerrechts, 1845; 2nd ed. 1866.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Johann Caspar Bluntschli</i>: Das moderne Völkerrecht der +<p class="indh"><i>Johann Caspar Bluntschli</i>: Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 1868; 3rd ed. 1878; French translation by Lardy, 5th ed. 1895.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Adolf Hartmann</i>: Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts +<p class="indh"><i>Adolf Hartmann</i>: Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten, 1874; 2nd ed. 1878.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Franz von Holtzendorff</i>: Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. +<p class="indh"><i>Franz von Holtzendorff</i>: Handbuch des Völkerrechts, 4 vols. 1885-1889. Holtzendorff is the editor and a contributor, but there are many other contributors.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>August von Bulmerincq</i>: Das Völkerrecht, 1887.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>August von Bulmerincq</i>: Das Völkerrecht, 1887.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Karl Gareis</i>: Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 1888; 2nd. ed. 1901.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Karl Gareis</i>: Institutionen des Völkerrechts, 1888; 2nd. ed. 1901.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>E. Ullmann</i>: Völkerrecht, 1898; 2nd ed. 1908.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>E. Ullmann</i>: Völkerrecht, 1898; 2nd ed. 1908.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Franz von Liszt</i>: Das Völkerrecht, 1898; 6th ed. 1910.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Franz von Liszt</i>: Das Völkerrecht, 1898; 6th ed. 1910.</p> <p class="center">(5) <span class="smcap">Italian Treatises</span></p> @@ -7136,60 +7095,60 @@ pace, 2 vols. 1867-1875; French translation by Montanari-Pevest, <p class="indh"><i>Giovanni Lomonaco</i>: Trattato di diritto internazionale publico, 1905.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Giulio Diena</i>: Principî di diritto internazionale, Parte Prima, +<p class="indh"><i>Giulio Diena</i>: Principî di diritto internazionale, Parte Prima, Diritto internaziole publico, 1908.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> <p class="center">(6) <span class="smcap">Spanish And Spanish-american Treatises</span></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Andrés Bello</i>: Principios de derecho de gentes (internacional), +<p class="indh"><i>Andrés Bello</i>: Principios de derecho de gentes (internacional), 1832; last ed. in 2 vols. by Silva, 1883.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>José Maria de Pando</i>: Elementos del derecho internacional, +<p class="indh"><i>José Maria de Pando</i>: Elementos del derecho internacional, published after the death of the author, 1843-1844.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Antonio Riquelme</i>: Elementos de derecho público internacional, +<p class="indh"><i>Antonio Riquelme</i>: Elementos de derecho público internacional, etc.; 2 vols. 1849.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Carlos Calvo</i>: Le Droit International, etc. (first edition in Spanish, following editions in French), 1868; 5th ed. in 6 vols. 1896.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Amancio Alcorta</i>: Curso de derecho internacional público, vol. I. +<p class="indh"><i>Amancio Alcorta</i>: Curso de derecho internacional público, vol. I. 1886; French translation by Lehr, 1887.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Marquis de Olivart</i>: Trattato y notas de derecho internacional -público, 4 vols. 1887; 4th ed. 1903-1904.</p> +público, 4 vols. 1887; 4th ed. 1903-1904.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Luis Gesteso y Acosta</i>: Curso de derecho internacional público, +<p class="indh"><i>Luis Gesteso y Acosta</i>: Curso de derecho internacional público, 1894.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Miguel Cruchaga</i>: Nociones de derecho internacional, 1899; 2nd ed. 1902.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Manuel Torres Campos</i>: Elementos de derecho internacional -público; 2nd. ed. 1904.</p> +público; 2nd. ed. 1904.</p> <p class="center">(7) <span class="smcap">Treatises of Authors of other Nationalities</span></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Frederick Kristian Bornemann</i>: Forelæsninger over den positive +<p class="indh"><i>Frederick Kristian Bornemann</i>: Forelæsninger over den positive Folkeret, 1866.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Friedrich von Martens</i>: Völkerrecht, 2 vols. 1883; a German +<p class="indh"><i>Friedrich von Martens</i>: Völkerrecht, 2 vols. 1883; a German translation by Berghohm of the Russian original. A French -translation by Léo in 3 vols. appeared in the same year. +translation by Léo in 3 vols. appeared in the same year. The Russian original went through its 5th ed. in 1905.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Jan Helenus Ferguson</i>: Manual of International Law, etc., 2 vols. 1884. The author is Dutch, but the work is written in English.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Alphonse Rivier</i>: Lehrbuch des Völkerrechts, 1894; 2nd ed. +<p class="indh"><i>Alphonse Rivier</i>: Lehrbuch des Völkerrechts, 1894; 2nd ed. 1899, and the larger work in two vols. under the title: Principes du Droit des Gens, 1896. The author of these two excellent books was a Swiss who taught International Law at the University of Brussels.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>H. Matzen</i>: Forelæsninger over den positive Folkeret, 1900.</p> +<p class="indh"><i>H. Matzen</i>: Forelæsninger over den positive Folkeret, 1900.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Ernest Nys</i>: Le droit international, 3 vols. 1904-1906. The author of this exhaustive treatise is a Belgian jurist whose @@ -7207,7 +7166,7 @@ referring my readers to this learned work.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Science of the Law of Nations in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as represented by treatises.</p></div> -<p>§ 59. The Science of the Law of Nations, as left by +<p>§ 59. The Science of the Law of Nations, as left by the French Revolution, developed progressively during the nineteenth century under the influence of three factors. The first factor is the endeavour, on the @@ -7226,7 +7185,7 @@ still in the field, but Positivism<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84">< gradually the upper hand, until at the end it may be said to be victorious, without, however, being omnipotent. The most important writer<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> up to 1836 is -Klüber, who may be called a Positivist in the same +Klüber, who may be called a Positivist in the same sense as Martens, for he also applies the natural Law of Nations to fill up the gaps of the positive. Wheaton appears in 1836 with his "Elements," and, although an @@ -7243,7 +7202,7 @@ book excels all former ones, and all the following authors<span class="pagenum"> are in a sense standing on his shoulders. In Phillimore, Great Britain sends in 1854 a powerful author into the arena, who may, on the whole, be called a Positivist of -the same kind as Martens and Klüber. Generations to +the same kind as Martens and Klüber. Generations to come will consult Phillimore's volumes on account of the vast amount of material they contain and the sound judgment they exhibit. And the same is valid with @@ -7279,7 +7238,7 @@ influence of the downfall of the theory of the Law of Nature becomes visible in the treatises on the Law of Nations, and therefore real positivistic treatises make their appearance. For the Positivism of Zouche, -Bynkershoek, Martens, Klüber, Heffter, Phillimore, and +Bynkershoek, Martens, Klüber, Heffter, Phillimore, and Twiss was no real Positivism, since these authors recognised a natural Law of Nations, although they did not make much use of it. Real Positivism must entirely @@ -7292,7 +7251,7 @@ Only a positive Law of Nations can be a branch of the science of law.</p> <p>The first real positive treatise known to me is Hartmann's -"Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in +"Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten," which appeared in 1874, but is hardly known outside Germany. In 1880 Hall's treatise appeared, and at once won the attention of the whole @@ -7311,7 +7270,7 @@ of which appeared in 1885. Holtzendorff himself is the editor and at the same time a contributor to the work, but there are many other contributors, each of them dealing exhaustively with a different part of the Law -of Nations. The copious work of Pradier-Fodéré, +of Nations. The copious work of Pradier-Fodéré, which also began to appear in 1885, is far from being positive, although it has its merits. Wharton's three volumes, which appeared in 1886, are not a treatise, @@ -7319,7 +7278,7 @@ but contain the international practice of the United States. Bulmerincq's book, which appeared in 1887, gives a good survey of International Law from the positive point of view. In 1894 three French jurists, -Bonfils, Despagnet, and Piédelievre, step into the arena; +Bonfils, Despagnet, and Piédelievre, step into the arena; their treatises are comprehensive and valuable, but not absolutely positive. On the other hand, the English authors Lawrence and Walker, whose excellent manuals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> @@ -7356,14 +7315,14 @@ of the problems.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footn from the positive standpoint, see Oppenheim in A.J. II. (1908), pp. 313-356.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p></div> -<p class="center">§ 60. COLLECTIONS OF TREATIES</p> +<p class="center">§ 60. COLLECTIONS OF TREATIES</p> <p>(1) <span class="smcap">General Collections</span></p> <p class="indh"><i>Leibnitz</i>: Codex iuris gentium diplomaticus (1693); Mantissa codicis iuris gentium diplomatici (1700).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Bernard</i>: Recueil des traités, etc. 4 vols. (1700).</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Bernard</i>: Recueil des traités, etc. 4 vols. (1700).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Rymer</i>: Foedera etc. inter reges angliae et alios quosvis imperatores ... ab anno 1101 ad nostra usque tempora @@ -7372,7 +7331,7 @@ from 1101-1654).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Dumont</i>: Corps universel diplomatique, etc., 8 vols. (1726-1731).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Rousset</i>: Supplément au corps universel diplomatique de +<p class="indh"><i>Rousset</i>: Supplément au corps universel diplomatique de Dumont, 5 vols. (1739).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Schmauss</i>: Corpus iuris gentium academicum (1730).</p> @@ -7380,16 +7339,16 @@ Dumont, 5 vols. (1739).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Wenck</i>: Codex iuris gentium recentissimi, 3 vols. (1781, 1786, 1795).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Martens</i>: Recueil de Traités d'Alliance, etc., 8 vols. (1791-1808); -Nouveau Recueil de Traités d'Alliance, etc., 16 vols. (1817-1842); -Nouveaux Suppléments au Recueil de Traités et +<p class="indh"><i>Martens</i>: Recueil de Traités d'Alliance, etc., 8 vols. (1791-1808); +Nouveau Recueil de Traités d'Alliance, etc., 16 vols. (1817-1842); +Nouveaux Suppléments au Recueil de Traités et d'autres Actes remarquables, etc., 3 vols. (1839-1842); Nouveau -Recueil Général de Traités, Conventions et autres Actes +Recueil Général de Traités, Conventions et autres Actes remarquables, etc., 20 vols. (1843-1875); Nouveau Recueil -Général de Traités et autres Actes relatifs aux Rapports de -droit international, Deuxième Série, 35 vols. (1876-1908); -Nouveau Recueil Général de Traités et autres Actes relatifs -aux Rapports de droit international, Troisième Série, vol. +Général de Traités et autres Actes relatifs aux Rapports de +droit international, Deuxième Série, 35 vols. (1876-1908); +Nouveau Recueil Général de Traités et autres Actes relatifs +aux Rapports de droit international, Troisième Série, vol. I. 1908, continued up to date. Present editor, Heinrich Triepel, professor in the University of Kiel in Germany.</p> @@ -7401,7 +7360,7 @@ continuation by Geffcken, 3 vols. (1857-1885).</p> <p class="indh"><i>British and Foreign State Papers</i>: Vol. I. 1814, continued up to date, one volume yearly.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Das Staatsarchiv</i>: Sammlung der officiellen Actenstücke zur +<p class="indh"><i>Das Staatsarchiv</i>: Sammlung der officiellen Actenstücke zur Geschichte der Gegenwart, vol. I. 1861, continued up to date, one volume yearly.</p> @@ -7410,10 +7369,10 @@ et de droit international, first and second series, 1861-1900, third series from 1901 continued up to date (4 vols. yearly).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Recueil International des Traités du XX^e Siècle</i>: Edited by Descamps +<p class="indh"><i>Recueil International des Traités du XX^e Siècle</i>: Edited by Descamps and Renault since 1901.</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Strupp</i>: Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts, 2 vols. (1911).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Strupp</i>: Urkunden zur Geschichte des Völkerrechts, 2 vols. (1911).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> @@ -7431,16 +7390,16 @@ date).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Treaty Series</i>: Vol. I. 1892, and a volume every year.</p> -<p class="center"> § 61. <a name="BIBLIOGRAPHIES61" id="BIBLIOGRAPHIES61"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHIES</p> +<p class="center"> § 61. <a name="BIBLIOGRAPHIES61" id="BIBLIOGRAPHIES61"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHIES</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Ompteda</i>: Litteratur des gesammten Völkerrechts, 2 vols. +<p class="indh"><i>Ompteda</i>: Litteratur des gesammten Völkerrechts, 2 vols. (1785).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Kamptz</i>: Neue Litteratur des Völkerrechts seit 1784 (1817).</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Kamptz</i>: Neue Litteratur des Völkerrechts seit 1784 (1817).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Klüber</i>: Droit des gens moderne de l'Europe (Appendix) (1819).</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Klüber</i>: Droit des gens moderne de l'Europe (Appendix) (1819).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Miruss</i>: Das Europäische Gesandschaftsrecht, vol. II. (1847).</p> +<p class="indh"><i>Miruss</i>: Das Europäische Gesandschaftsrecht, vol. II. (1847).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Mohl</i>: Geschichte und Litteratur des Staatswissenschaften, vol. I. pp. 337-475 (1855).</p> @@ -7449,29 +7408,29 @@ vol. I. pp. 337-475 (1855).</p> (6th ed. 1891), Appendix I.</p> <p class="indh"><i>Rivier</i>: pp. 393-523 of vol. I. of Holtzendorff's Handbuch des -Völkerrechts (1885).</p> +Völkerrechts (1885).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Stoerk</i>: Die Litteratur des internationalen Rechts von 1884-1894 (1896).</p> -<p class="indh"><i>Olivart</i>: Catalogue d'une bibliothèque de droit international +<p class="indh"><i>Olivart</i>: Catalogue d'une bibliothèque de droit international (1899).</p> <p class="indh"><i>Nys</i>: Le droit international, vol. I. (1904), pp. 213-328.</p> -<p class="center">§ 62. PERIODICALS</p> +<p class="center">§ 62. PERIODICALS</p> -<p class="indh">Revue de droit international et de législation comparée. It +<p class="indh">Revue de droit international et de législation comparée. It has appeared in Brussels since 1869, one volume yearly. Present editor, Edouard Rolin.</p> -<p class="indh">Revue générale de droit international public. It has appeared in +<p class="indh">Revue générale de droit international public. It has appeared in Paris since 1894, one volume yearly. Founder and present editor, Paul Fauchille.</p> -<p class="indh">Zeitschrift für internationales Recht. It has appeared in Leipzig +<p class="indh">Zeitschrift für internationales Recht. It has appeared in Leipzig since 1891, one volume yearly. Present editor, Theodor Niemeyer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> @@ -7490,7 +7449,7 @@ Editor, Marquis de Olivart.</p> since 1906, one volume yearly. Editors, D. Anzilotti, A. Ricci-Busatti, and L. A. Senigallia.</p> -<p class="indh">Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht. It has appeared +<p class="indh">Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht. It has appeared in Breslau since 1906, one volume yearly. Editors, Joseph Kohler, L. Oppenheim, and F. Holldack.</p> @@ -7499,16 +7458,16 @@ Washington since 1907, one volume yearly. Editor, James Brown Scott.</p> <p class="indh">Essays and Notes concerning International Law frequently -appear also in the Journal du droit international privé et de -la Jurisprudence comparée (Clunet), the Archiv für öffentliches +appear also in the Journal du droit international privé et de +la Jurisprudence comparée (Clunet), the Archiv für öffentliches Recht, The Law Quarterly Review, The Law Magazine and Review, The Juridical Review, The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, The American Law Review, the Annalen des deutschen Reiches, the Zeitschrift -für das privat- und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart -(Grünhut), the Revue de droit public et de la science politique +für das privat- und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart +(Grünhut), the Revue de droit public et de la science politique (Larnaude), the Annales des sciences politiques, the Archivio -giuridico, the Jahrbuch des öffentlichen Rechts, and many +giuridico, the Jahrbuch des öffentlichen Rechts, and many others.</p> @@ -7532,18 +7491,18 @@ others.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh">Vattel, I. §§ 1-12—Hall, § 1—Lawrence, § 42—Phillimore, I. §§ 61-69—Twiss, -I. §§ 1-11—Taylor, § 117—Walker, § 1—Westlake, I. pp. 1-5, 20-21—Wheaton, -§§ 16-21—Ullmann, § 19—Heffter, § 15—Holtzendorff in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 5-11—Bonfils, Nos. 160-164—Despagnet, Nos. 69-74—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 43-81—Nys, I. pp. 329-356—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, -I. §§ 39-41—Fiore, I. Nos. 305-309, and Code, Nos. 51-77—Martens, -I. §§ 53-54—Mérignhac, I. pp. 114-231, and II. pp. 5, 154-221—Moore, -I. § 3.</p> +<p class="indh">Vattel, I. §§ 1-12—Hall, § 1—Lawrence, § 42—Phillimore, I. §§ 61-69—Twiss, +I. §§ 1-11—Taylor, § 117—Walker, § 1—Westlake, I. pp. 1-5, 20-21—Wheaton, +§§ 16-21—Ullmann, § 19—Heffter, § 15—Holtzendorff in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 5-11—Bonfils, Nos. 160-164—Despagnet, Nos. 69-74—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 43-81—Nys, I. pp. 329-356—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, +I. §§ 39-41—Fiore, I. Nos. 305-309, and Code, Nos. 51-77—Martens, +I. §§ 53-54—Mérignhac, I. pp. 114-231, and II. pp. 5, 154-221—Moore, +I. § 3.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Real and apparent International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 63. <a name="Th63" id="Th63"></a>The conception of International Persons is +<p>§ 63. <a name="Th63" id="Th63"></a>The conception of International Persons is derived from the conception of the Law of Nations. As this law is the body of rules which the civilised States consider legally binding in their intercourse, @@ -7568,9 +7527,9 @@ without thereby becoming members of the Family of Nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> See -below, § <a href="#Confederated_States88">88</a> (Confederations of States), - § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> (Holy See), - and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_characteristics59">vol. II. §§ 59</a> +below, § <a href="#Confederated_States88">88</a> (Confederations of States), + § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> (Holy See), + and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_characteristics59">vol. II. §§ 59</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_distinction76">76</a> (Insurgents).</p></div> <p>It must be specially mentioned that the character @@ -7582,12 +7541,12 @@ loss of their State (as, for instance, the Jews or the Poles), and organised wandering tribes.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Most jurists agree with this opinion, but there are some -who disagree. Thus, for instance, Heffter (§ 48) claims for monarchs the -character of subjects of the Law of Nations; Lawrence (§ 42) claims that +who disagree. Thus, for instance, Heffter (§ 48) claims for monarchs the +character of subjects of the Law of Nations; Lawrence (§ 42) claims that character for corporations; and Westlake, Chapters, p. 2, and Fiore, Code, Nos. 51, 61-64, claim it for individuals. The matter will be discussed - below in §§ <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, + below in §§ <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#But_what_is_the_real290">290</a>, <a href="#Heads_of_States344">344</a>, <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>.</p></div> @@ -7596,7 +7555,7 @@ discussed of the State.</p></div> -<p>§ 64. A State proper—in contradistinction to so-called +<p>§ 64. A State proper—in contradistinction to so-called Colonial States—is in existence when a people is settled in a country under its own Sovereign Government. The conditions which must obtain for the @@ -7629,7 +7588,7 @@ round, within and without the borders of the country.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Not-full Sovereign States.</p></div> -<p>§ 65. A State in its normal appearance does possess +<p>§ 65. A State in its normal appearance does possess independence all round and therefore full sovereignty. Yet there are States in existence which certainly do not possess full sovereignty, and are therefore named @@ -7645,7 +7604,7 @@ not-full Sovereign States can be International Persons and subjects of the Law of Nations at all.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The question will be discussed again - below, §§ <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>, + below, §§ <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>, <a href="#Th91">91</a>, <a href="#The_position_of_a_State93">93</a>, with regard to each kind of not-full Sovereign States. The object of @@ -7708,7 +7667,7 @@ thereby obtain a certain international position.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Divisibility of Sovereignty contested.</p></div> -<p>§ 66. The distinction between States full Sovereign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +<p>§ 66. The distinction between States full Sovereign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> and not-full Sovereign is based upon the opinion that sovereignty is divisible, so that the powers connected with sovereignty need not necessarily be united in one @@ -7727,17 +7686,17 @@ which was universally agreed upon.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91">< <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The literature upon sovereignty is extensive. The following authors give a survey of the opinions of the different -writers:—Dock,"Der Souveränitäts-begriff von Bodin bis zu Friedrich dem +writers:—Dock,"Der Souveränitäts-begriff von Bodin bis zu Friedrich dem Grossen," 1897; Merriam, "History of the Theory of Sovereignty since -Rousseau," 1900; Rehm, "Allgemeine Staatslehre," 1899, §§ 10-16. See +Rousseau," 1900; Rehm, "Allgemeine Staatslehre," 1899, §§ 10-16. See also Maine, "Early Institutions," pp. 342-400.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of Sovereignty in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.</p></div> -<p>§ 67. The term Sovereignty was introduced into +<p>§ 67. The term Sovereignty was introduced into political science by Bodin in his celebrated work, "De -la république," which appeared in 1577. Before Bodin, +la république," which appeared in 1577. Before Bodin, at the end of the Middle Ages, the word <i>souverain</i><a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> was used in France for an authority, political or other, which had no other authority above itself. Thus the highest @@ -7760,7 +7719,7 @@ commands that a contract shall be binding.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_ from <i>suprema potestas</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See - Bodin, "De la république," I. c. 8.</p></div> + Bodin, "De la république," I. c. 8.</p></div> <p>The conception of sovereignty thus introduced was at once accepted by writers on politics of the sixteenth @@ -7791,15 +7750,15 @@ of the Government are derived from this sovereignty of the State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> See - Hobbes, "De cive," c. 6, §§ 12-15.</p></div> + Hobbes, "De cive," c. 6, §§ 12-15.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> See - Pufendorf, "De jure naturae et gentium," VII. c. 6, §§ + Pufendorf, "De jure naturae et gentium," VII. c. 6, §§ 1-13.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of Sovereignty in the Eighteenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 68. In the eighteenth century matters changed +<p>§ 68. In the eighteenth century matters changed again. The fact that the several hundred reigning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> princes of the member-States of the German Empire had practically, although not theoretically, become @@ -7833,7 +7792,7 @@ from the people to any organ of the State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of Sovereignty in the Nineteenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 69. During the nineteenth century three different +<p>§ 69. During the nineteenth century three different factors of great practical importance have exercised their influence on the history of the conception of sovereignty.</p> @@ -7899,7 +7858,7 @@ European publicists followed him in time.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Result of the Controversy regarding Sovereignty.</p></div> -<p>§ 70. From the foregoing sketch of the history of +<p>§ 70. From the foregoing sketch of the history of the conception of sovereignty it becomes apparent that there is not and never was unanimity regarding this conception. It is therefore no wonder that the endeavour @@ -7925,20 +7884,20 @@ sovereignty is divisible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 2 and 26—Lawrence, §§ 44-47—Phillimore, II. §§ 10-23—Taylor, §§ -153-160—Walker, § 1—Westlake, I. pp. 49-58—Wheaton, § 27—Moore, -§§ 27-75—Bluntschli, §§ 28-38—Hartmann, § 11—Heffter, § 23—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 18-33—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, §§ 29-30—Bonfils, -Nos. 195-213—Despagnet, Nos. 79-85—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. -136-145—Nys, I. pp. 69-115—Mérignhac, I. pp. 320-329—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, -I. §§ 87-98—Fiore, I. Nos. 311-320, and Code, Nos. 160-177—Martens, -I. §§ 63-64—Le Normand, "La reconnaissance internationale +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 2 and 26—Lawrence, §§ 44-47—Phillimore, II. §§ 10-23—Taylor, §§ +153-160—Walker, § 1—Westlake, I. pp. 49-58—Wheaton, § 27—Moore, +§§ 27-75—Bluntschli, §§ 28-38—Hartmann, § 11—Heffter, § 23—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 18-33—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, §§ 29-30—Bonfils, +Nos. 195-213—Despagnet, Nos. 79-85—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. +136-145—Nys, I. pp. 69-115—Mérignhac, I. pp. 320-329—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, +I. §§ 87-98—Fiore, I. Nos. 311-320, and Code, Nos. 160-177—Martens, +I. §§ 63-64—Le Normand, "La reconnaissance internationale et ses diverses applications" (1899).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Recognition a condition of Membership of the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 71. <a name="As_the_basis_of_the_Law71" id="As_the_basis_of_the_Law71"></a>As the basis of the Law of Nations is the +<p>§ 71. <a name="As_the_basis_of_the_Law71" id="As_the_basis_of_the_Law71"></a>As the basis of the Law of Nations is the common consent of the civilised States, statehood alone does not include membership of the Family of Nations. There are States in existence, although their number @@ -7957,7 +7916,7 @@ A State is and becomes an International Person through recognition only and exclusively.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Thus_the_membership27">27</a> and <a href="#The_present_range28">28</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Thus_the_membership27">27</a> and <a href="#The_present_range28">28</a>.</p></div> <p>Many writers do not agree with this opinion. They maintain that, if a new civilised State comes into existence @@ -7974,7 +7933,7 @@ and that recognition supplies only the necessary evidence for this fact.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> See, - for instance, Hall, §§ 2 and 26; Ullmann, § 29; + for instance, Hall, §§ 2 and 26; Ullmann, § 29; Gareis, p. 64; Rivier, I. p. 57.</p></div> <p>If the real facts of international life are taken into @@ -7998,7 +7957,7 @@ International Person and a subject of International Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode of Recognition.</p></div> -<p>§ 72. <a name="Recognition_is_the_act72" id="Recognition_is_the_act72"></a>Recognition is the act through which it becomes +<p>§ 72. <a name="Recognition_is_the_act72" id="Recognition_is_the_act72"></a>Recognition is the act through which it becomes apparent that an old State is ready to deal with a new State as an International Person and a member of the Family of Nations. Recognition is given either @@ -8013,7 +7972,7 @@ which it becomes apparent that the new State is actually treated as an International Person.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Whether the sending of a consul includes recognition is -discussed below, § 428.</p></div> +discussed below, § 428.</p></div> <p>But no new State has by International Law a right to demand recognition, although practically such recognition @@ -8043,7 +8002,7 @@ give their recognition too.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Recognition under Conditions.</p></div> -<p>§ 73. <a name="Recognition_will73" id="Recognition_will73"></a>Recognition will as a rule be given without +<p>§ 73. <a name="Recognition_will73" id="Recognition_will73"></a>Recognition will as a rule be given without any conditions whatever, provided the new State is safely and permanently established. Since, however, the granting of recognition is a matter of policy, and @@ -8067,7 +8026,7 @@ the imposed condition.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> This condition contains a restriction on the personal supremacy of the respective States. See - below, § <a href="#Personal_Supremacy_does_not128">128</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Personal_Supremacy_does_not128">128</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> See arts. 5, 25, 35, and 44 of the Treaty of Berlin of @@ -8075,7 +8034,7 @@ supremacy of the respective States. See <div class="sidenote"><p>Recognition timely and precipitate.</p></div> -<p>§ 74. Recognition is of special importance in those +<p>§ 74. Recognition is of special importance in those cases where a new State tries to establish itself by breaking off from an existing State in the course of a revolution. And here the question is material whether @@ -8099,7 +8058,7 @@ submit.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> It is frequently maintained that such untimely recognition contains an intervention. But this is not correct, since intervention is (see - below, § <a href="#Intervention_is134">134</a>) <i>dictatorial</i> interference in the affairs of another + below, § <a href="#Intervention_is134">134</a>) <i>dictatorial</i> interference in the affairs of another State. The question of recognition of the belligerency of insurgents is exhaustively treated by Westlake, I. pp. 50-57.</p></div> @@ -8121,7 +8080,7 @@ then no legal obligation to grant it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> When, in 1903, Panama fell away from Colombia, the United States immediately recognised the new Republic as an independent State. -For the motives of this quick action, see Moore, I. § 344, pp. 46 and +For the motives of this quick action, see Moore, I. § 344, pp. 46 and following.</p></div> <p>The breaking off of the American States from their @@ -8141,13 +8100,13 @@ followed the example in 1824 and 1825.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_10 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> See Gibbs, "Recognition: a Chapter from the History of the -North American and South American States" (1863), and Moore, I. §§ +North American and South American States" (1863), and Moore, I. §§ 28-36.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>State Recognition in contradistinction to other Recognitions.</p></div> -<p>§ 75. Recognition of a new State must not be +<p>§ 75. Recognition of a new State must not be confounded with other recognitions. Recognition of insurgents as a belligerent Power has already been mentioned. Besides this, recognition of a change in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> @@ -8166,7 +8125,7 @@ such State cannot claim any privileges connected with the new title.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#At_the_present_time119">119</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#At_the_present_time119">119</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -8175,18 +8134,18 @@ the new title.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 9, §§ 5-13—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 12—Vattel, I. § 11—Hall, § 2—Halleck, -I. pp. 89-92—Phillimore, I. §§ 124-137—Taylor, § 163—Westlake, -I. pp. 58-66—Wheaton, §§ 28-32—Moore, I. §§ 76-79—Bluntschli, -§§ 39-53—Hartmann, §§ 12-13—Heffter, § 24—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 21-23—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, §§ 31 and 35—Bonfils, -Nos. 214-215—Despagnet, Nos. 86-89—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. -146-157—Nys, I. pp. 399-401—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, I. §§ 81-106—Fiore, -I. Nos. 321-331, and Code, Nos. 119-141—Martens, I. §§ 65-69.</p> +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 9, §§ 5-13—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 12—Vattel, I. § 11—Hall, § 2—Halleck, +I. pp. 89-92—Phillimore, I. §§ 124-137—Taylor, § 163—Westlake, +I. pp. 58-66—Wheaton, §§ 28-32—Moore, I. §§ 76-79—Bluntschli, +§§ 39-53—Hartmann, §§ 12-13—Heffter, § 24—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 21-23—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, §§ 31 and 35—Bonfils, +Nos. 214-215—Despagnet, Nos. 86-89—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. +146-157—Nys, I. pp. 399-401—Rivier, I. § 3—Calvo, I. §§ 81-106—Fiore, +I. Nos. 321-331, and Code, Nos. 119-141—Martens, I. §§ 65-69.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Important in contradistinction to Indifferent Changes.</p></div> -<p>§ 76. The existence of International Persons is +<p>§ 76. The existence of International Persons is exposed to the flow of things and times. There is a constant and gradual change in their citizens through deaths and births, emigration, and immigration. There @@ -8213,7 +8172,7 @@ International Person altogether.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Changes not affecting States as International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 77. A State remains one and the same International +<p>§ 77. A State remains one and the same International Person in spite of changes in its headship, in its dynasty, in its form, in its rank and title, and in its territory. These changes cannot be said to be indifferent to International @@ -8257,7 +8216,7 @@ International Person.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Changes affecting States as International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 78. Changes which affect States as International +<p>§ 78. Changes which affect States as International Persons are of different character.</p> <p>(1) As in a Real Union the member-States of the @@ -8271,7 +8230,7 @@ the member-States are again affected, for they now become again separate International Persons.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_Real87">87</a>, where the character of the Real Union is + below, § <a href="#A_Real87">87</a>, where the character of the Real Union is fully discussed.</p></div> <p>(2) Other changes affecting States as International @@ -8298,7 +8257,7 @@ Federal State which leaves the union and gains the condition of a full Sovereign State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>-127, where the + below, §§ <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>-127, where the different kinds of these restrictions are discussed.</p></div> @@ -8311,7 +8270,7 @@ an International Person of a particular kind.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extinction of International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 79. A State ceases to be an International Person +<p>§ 79. A State ceases to be an International Person when it ceases to exist. Theoretically such extinction of International Persons is possible through emigration or the perishing of the whole population of a State, @@ -8351,16 +8310,16 @@ Poland by Russia, Austria, and Prussia in 1795.</p> <p><a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 9 and 10—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 12—Hall, §§ 27-29—Phillimore, -I. § 137—Lawrence, § 49—Halleck, I. pp. 89-92—Taylor, §§ 164-168—Westlake, -I. pp. 68-83—Wharton, I. § 5—Moore, I. §§ 92-99—Wheaton, -§§ 28-32—Bluntschli, §§ 47-50—Hartmann, § 12—Heffter, -§ 25—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 33-47—Liszt, § 23—Ullmann, -§ 32—Bonfils, Nos. 216-233—Despagnet, Nos. 89-102—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 156-163—Nys, I. pp. 399-401—Rivier, I. § 3, pp. 69-75 and -p. 438—Calvo, I. §§ 99-103—Fiore, I. Nos. 349-366—Martens, I. § 67—Appleton, -"Des effets des annexions sur les dettes de l'état démembré -ou annexé" (1895)—Huber, "Die Staatensuccession" (1898)—Keith, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 9 and 10—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 12—Hall, §§ 27-29—Phillimore, +I. § 137—Lawrence, § 49—Halleck, I. pp. 89-92—Taylor, §§ 164-168—Westlake, +I. pp. 68-83—Wharton, I. § 5—Moore, I. §§ 92-99—Wheaton, +§§ 28-32—Bluntschli, §§ 47-50—Hartmann, § 12—Heffter, +§ 25—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 33-47—Liszt, § 23—Ullmann, +§ 32—Bonfils, Nos. 216-233—Despagnet, Nos. 89-102—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 156-163—Nys, I. pp. 399-401—Rivier, I. § 3, pp. 69-75 and +p. 438—Calvo, I. §§ 99-103—Fiore, I. Nos. 349-366—Martens, I. § 67—Appleton, +"Des effets des annexions sur les dettes de l'état démembré +ou annexé" (1895)—Huber, "Die Staatensuccession" (1898)—Keith, "The Theory of State Succession, with special reference to English and Colonial Law" (1907)—Cavaglieri, "La dottrina della successione di stato a stato, &c." (1910)—Richards in <i>The Law Magazine and @@ -8377,7 +8336,7 @@ pp. 618-648, is likewise very important.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Common Doctrine regarding Succession of International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 80. Although there is no unanimity among the +<p>§ 80. Although there is no unanimity among the writers on International Law with regard to the so-called succession of International Persons, nevertheless the following common doctrine can be stated to exist.</p> @@ -8424,11 +8383,11 @@ undergoes through losing part of its sovereignty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> See Gareis, pp. 66-70, who discusses the matter with great -clearness, and Liszt, § 23.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p></div> +clearness, and Liszt, § 23.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>How far Succession actually takes place.</p></div> -<p>§ 81. If the real facts of life are taken into consideration, +<p>§ 81. If the real facts of life are taken into consideration, the common doctrine cannot be upheld. To say that succession takes place in such and such cases and to make out afterwards what rights and duties @@ -8452,7 +8411,7 @@ These cases must be discussed singly.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Succession in consequence of Absorption.</p></div> -<p>§ 82. <a name="When_a_State_merges82" id="When_a_State_merges82"></a>When a State merges voluntarily into another +<p>§ 82. <a name="When_a_State_merges82" id="When_a_State_merges82"></a>When a State merges voluntarily into another State—as, for instance, Korea in 1910 did into Japan—or when a State is subjugated by another State, the latter remains one and the same International Person @@ -8475,8 +8434,8 @@ treaties, although they are non-political in a sense, possess some prominent political traits.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> On the whole question concerning the extinction of treaties -in consequence of the absorption of a State by another, see Moore, V. § -773, and below, § <a href="#A_cause_which548">548</a>. When, in 1910, Korea merged into Japan, the +in consequence of the absorption of a State by another, see Moore, V. § +773, and below, § <a href="#A_cause_which548">548</a>. When, in 1910, Korea merged into Japan, the latter published a Declaration—see Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. IV. p. 26—containing the following articles with regard to the treaty obligations of the extinct State of Korea:— @@ -8556,7 +8515,7 @@ See Scott, "Cases on International Law" (1902), p. 85.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> See - Moore, I. § 97, and Appleton, + Moore, I. § 97, and Appleton, "Des effets des annexions de territoires sur les dettes, &c." (1895).</p></div> @@ -8580,7 +8539,7 @@ safely be maintained that not a usage, but a real rule of International Law, based on custom, is in existence with regard to this point. -(See Hall, § 29, and Westlake in <i>The +(See Hall, § 29, and Westlake in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XVII. (1901), pp. 392-401, XXXI. (1905), p. 335, and now Westlake, I. pp. 74-82.)</p></div> @@ -8600,8 +8559,8 @@ An International Court would recognise such a rule.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> See - Martens, I. § 67; Heffter, -§ 25; Huber, op. cit. p. 158.</p></div> + Martens, I. § 67; Heffter, +§ 25; Huber, op. cit. p. 158.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> See the Report of the Transvaal Concession Commission, p. @@ -8613,13 +8572,13 @@ conditions—see Barclay in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXI. (1905), p. such funds in cash on neutral vessels to the enemy falls under the category of carriage of contraband, and can be punished by the belligerents. (See -below, Vol. II. § <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#It352">352</a>.)</p></div> +below, Vol. II. § <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#It352">352</a>.)</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> The question how far concessions granted by a subjugated State to a private individual or to a company must be upheld by the subjugating State, is difficult to answer in its generality. The merits of each case would seem to have to be taken into consideration. See -Westlake, I. p. 82; Moore, I. § 98; Gidel, "Des effets de l'annexion sur +Westlake, I. p. 82; Moore, I. § 98; Gidel, "Des effets de l'annexion sur les concessions" (1904).</p></div> <p>The case of a Federal State arising—like the German @@ -8639,11 +8598,11 @@ only.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121 92-98.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Succession in consequence of Dismemberment.</p></div> -<p>§ 83. When a State breaks up into fragments which +<p>§ 83. When a State breaks up into fragments which themselves become States and International Persons, or which are annexed by surrounding States, it becomes extinct as an International Person, and the same rules @@ -8676,11 +8635,11 @@ further, except those which concerned the very Union and lose all meaning by its dissolution.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_Real87">87</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_Real87">87</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Succession in case of Separation or Cession.</p></div> -<p>§ 84. When in consequence of war or otherwise one +<p>§ 84. When in consequence of war or otherwise one State cedes a part of its territory to another, or when a part of the territory of a State breaks off and becomes a State and an International Person of its own, @@ -8717,7 +8676,7 @@ the respective treaties are enumerated.</p></div> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. III. p. 449.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> See - Moore, III. § 97, pp. 351-385.</p></div> + Moore, III. § 97, pp. 351-385.</p></div> <h4> @@ -8726,26 +8685,26 @@ the respective treaties are enumerated.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Pufendorf, VII. c. 5—Hall, § 4—Westlake, I. pp. 31-37—Phillimore, I. §§ 71-74, -102-105—Twiss, I. §§ 37-60—Halleck, I. pp. 70-74—Taylor, §§ 120-130—Wheaton, -§§ 39-51—Moore, I. §§ 6-11—Hartmann, § 70—Heffter, -§§ 20-21—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 118-141—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, -§§ 20-24—Bonfils, Nos. 165-174—Despagnet, Nos. 109-126—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 117-123—Mérignhac, II. pp. 6-42—Nys, I. pp. -367-378—Rivier, I. §§ 5-6—Calvo, I. §§ 44-61—Fiore, I. Nos. 335-339, -and Code, Nos. 96-104—Martens, I. §§ 56-59—Pufendorf, "De +<p class="indh1">Pufendorf, VII. c. 5—Hall, § 4—Westlake, I. pp. 31-37—Phillimore, I. §§ 71-74, +102-105—Twiss, I. §§ 37-60—Halleck, I. pp. 70-74—Taylor, §§ 120-130—Wheaton, +§§ 39-51—Moore, I. §§ 6-11—Hartmann, § 70—Heffter, +§§ 20-21—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 118-141—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, +§§ 20-24—Bonfils, Nos. 165-174—Despagnet, Nos. 109-126—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 117-123—Mérignhac, II. pp. 6-42—Nys, I. pp. +367-378—Rivier, I. §§ 5-6—Calvo, I. §§ 44-61—Fiore, I. Nos. 335-339, +and Code, Nos. 96-104—Martens, I. §§ 56-59—Pufendorf, "De systematibus civitatum" (1675)—Jellinek, "Die Lehre von den -Staatenverbindungen" (1882)—Borel, "Etude sur la souveraineté de -l'Etat fédératif" (1886)—Brie, "Theorie der Staatenverbindungen" +Staatenverbindungen" (1882)—Borel, "Etude sur la souveraineté de +l'Etat fédératif" (1886)—Brie, "Theorie der Staatenverbindungen" (1886)—Hart, "Introduction to the Study of Federal Government" in "Harvard Historical Monographs," 1891 (includes an excellent bibliography)—Le -Fur, "Etat fédéral et confédération d'Etats" (1896)—Moll, +Fur, "Etat fédéral et confédération d'Etats" (1896)—Moll, "Der Bundesstaatsbegriff in den Vereinigten Staaten von America" (1905)—Ebers, "Die Lehre vom Staatenbunde" (1910).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Real and apparent Composite International Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 85. International Persons are as a rule single +<p>§ 85. International Persons are as a rule single Sovereign States. In such single States there is one central political authority as Government which represents the State, within its borders as well as without @@ -8789,7 +8748,7 @@ German Empire.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>States in Personal Union.</p></div> -<p>§ 86. A Personal Union is in existence when two +<p>§ 86. A Personal Union is in existence when two Sovereign States and separate International Persons are linked together through the accidental fact that they have the same individual as monarch. Thus a Personal @@ -8810,7 +8769,7 @@ time, but not the envoy of the Personal Union.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>States in Real Union.</p></div> -<p>§ 87. <a name="A_Real87" id="A_Real87"></a>A Real Union<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> is in existence when two +<p>§ 87. <a name="A_Real87" id="A_Real87"></a>A Real Union<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> is in existence when two Sovereign States are by an international treaty, recognised by other Powers, linked together for ever under the same monarch, so that they make one and the @@ -8834,7 +8793,7 @@ Austria-Hungary, that of Sweden-Norway having been dissolved in 1905.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> See - Blüthgen in Z.V. I. (1906), pp. 237-263.</p></div> + Blüthgen in Z.V. I. (1906), pp. 237-263.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> There is a Real Union between Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha within the German Empire.</p></div> @@ -8863,16 +8822,16 @@ integrity of which is guaranteed by Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia by the Treaty of Christiania of November 2, 1907.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> This is not universally recognised. Phillimore, I. § 74, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> This is not universally recognised. Phillimore, I. § 74, maintains that there was a Personal Union between Sweden and Norway, and -Twiss, I. § 40, calls it a Federal Union.</p></div> +Twiss, I. § 40, calls it a Federal Union.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>, p. 75.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>, p. 75.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Confederated States (Staatenbund).</p></div> -<p>§ 88. <a name="Confederated_States88" id="Confederated_States88"></a>Confederated States (Staatenbund) are a number +<p>§ 88. <a name="Confederated_States88" id="Confederated_States88"></a>Confederated States (Staatenbund) are a number of full Sovereign States linked together for the maintenance of their external and internal independence by a recognised international treaty into a union with @@ -8922,7 +8881,7 @@ established in 1895, came to an end in 1898.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Federal States (Bundesstaaten).</p></div> -<p>§ 89. <a name="A_Federal89" id="A_Federal89"></a>A Federal State<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> is a perpetual union of several +<p>§ 89. <a name="A_Federal89" id="A_Federal89"></a>A Federal State<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> is a perpetual union of several Sovereign States which has organs of its own and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> invested with power, not only over the member-States, but also over their citizens. The union is based, @@ -9012,7 +8971,7 @@ part-Sovereign States, and they are, consequently, International Persons for some parts only.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> See - Riess, "Auswärtige Hoheitsrechte der deutschen + Riess, "Auswärtige Hoheitsrechte der deutschen Einzelstaaten"(1905).</p></div> <p>But it happens frequently that a Federal State @@ -9073,20 +9032,20 @@ Argentina since 1860, Brazil since 1891, Venezuela since </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 4—Westlake, I. pp. 25-27—Lawrence, § 39—Phillimore, I. §§ 85-99—Twiss, -I. §§ 22-36, 61-73—Taylor, §§ 140-144—Wheaton, § 37—Moore, I. -§ 13—Bluntschli, §§ 76-77—Hartmann, § 16—Heffter, §§ 19 and 22—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 98-117—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, § 25—Gareis, -§ 15—Bonfils, Nos. 188-190—Despagnet, Nos. 127-129—Mérignhac, -I. pp. 201-218—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 109-112—Nys, I. -pp. 357-364—Rivier, I. § 4—Calvo, I. §§ 66-72—Fiore, I. No. 341, and -Code, Nos. 105-110—Martens, I. §§ 60-61—Stubbs, "Suzerainty" (1884)—Baty, -"International Law in South Africa" (1900), pp. 48-68—Boghitchévitch, -"Halbsouveränität" (1903).</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 4—Westlake, I. pp. 25-27—Lawrence, § 39—Phillimore, I. §§ 85-99—Twiss, +I. §§ 22-36, 61-73—Taylor, §§ 140-144—Wheaton, § 37—Moore, I. +§ 13—Bluntschli, §§ 76-77—Hartmann, § 16—Heffter, §§ 19 and 22—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 98-117—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, § 25—Gareis, +§ 15—Bonfils, Nos. 188-190—Despagnet, Nos. 127-129—Mérignhac, +I. pp. 201-218—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 109-112—Nys, I. +pp. 357-364—Rivier, I. § 4—Calvo, I. §§ 66-72—Fiore, I. No. 341, and +Code, Nos. 105-110—Martens, I. §§ 60-61—Stubbs, "Suzerainty" (1884)—Baty, +"International Law in South Africa" (1900), pp. 48-68—Boghitchévitch, +"Halbsouveränität" (1903).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Union between Suzerain and Vassal State.</p></div> -<p>§ 90. The union and the relations between a Suzerain +<p>§ 90. The union and the relations between a Suzerain and its Vassal State create much difficulty in the science of the Law of Nations. As both are separate States, a union of States they certainly make, but it would be @@ -9141,7 +9100,7 @@ internationally by the Suzerain State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Position of Vassal States.</p></div> -<p>§ 91. <a name="Th91" id="Th91"></a>The fact that the relation between the suzerain +<p>§ 91. <a name="Th91" id="Th91"></a>The fact that the relation between the suzerain and the vassal always depends upon the special case, excludes the possibility of laying down a general rule as regards the position of Vassal States within the Family<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> @@ -9192,7 +9151,7 @@ pp. 312-319.—See also Lee-Warner, "The Native States of India" (1910), pp. 254-279.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th171">171</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th171">171</a>.</p></div> <p>How could all these and other facts be explained, if Vassal States could never for some small part be International @@ -9223,8 +9182,8 @@ in Germany merged in 1854 into its suzerain Oldenburg.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> As regards the position of Bulgaria while she was a Vassal State under Turkish suzerainty, see Holland, "The European Concert in -the Eastern Question" (1885), pp. 277-307, and Nédjmidin, -"Völkerrechtliche Entwicklung Bulgariens" (1908).</p></div> +the Eastern Question" (1885), pp. 277-307, and Nédjmidin, +"Völkerrechtliche Entwicklung Bulgariens" (1908).</p></div> <p>Vassal States of importance which are for some parts International Persons are, at present, Egypt,<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> @@ -9236,13 +9195,13 @@ but enjoys autonomy to a vast degree.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> See Holland, "The European Concert in the Eastern Question" -(1885), pp. 89-205; Grünau, "Die staats- und völkerrechtliche Stellung +(1885), pp. 89-205; Grünau, "Die staats- und völkerrechtliche Stellung Aegyptens" (1903); Cocheris, "Situation internationale de l'Egypte et du Soudan" (1903); Freycinet, "La question d'Egypte" (1905); Moret in R.J. XIV. (1907), pp. 405-416; Lamba in R.G. XVII. (1910), pp. 36-55. In the case of the "Charkieh," 1873, L.R. 4 Adm. and Eccl. 59, the Court refused to acknowledge the half-sovereignty of Egypt; see Phillimore, I. -§ 99.</p></div> +§ 99.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> See Streit in R.G. X. (1903), pp. 399-417.</p></div> @@ -9258,22 +9217,22 @@ refused to acknowledge the half-sovereignty of Egypt; see Phillimore, I. </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 4 and 38*—Westlake, I. pp. 22-24—Lawrence, § 39—Phillimore, I. -75-82—Twiss, I. §§ 22-36—Taylor, §§ 134-139—Wheaton, §§ 34-36—Moore, -I. § 14—Bluntschli, § 78—Hartmann, § 9—Heffter, §§ 19 and 22—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 98-117—Gareis, § 15—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, -§ 26—Bonfils, Nos. 176-187—Despagnet, Nos. 130-136—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 180-220—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 94-108—Nys, I. pp. -364-366—Rivier, I. § 4—Calvo, I. §§ 62-65—Fiore, I. § 341, and Code, -Nos. 111-118—Martens, I. §§ 60-61—Pillet in R.G. II. (1895), pp. 583-608—Heilborn, -"Das völkerrechtliche Protectorat" (1891)—Engelhardt, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 4 and 38*—Westlake, I. pp. 22-24—Lawrence, § 39—Phillimore, I. +75-82—Twiss, I. §§ 22-36—Taylor, §§ 134-139—Wheaton, §§ 34-36—Moore, +I. § 14—Bluntschli, § 78—Hartmann, § 9—Heffter, §§ 19 and 22—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 98-117—Gareis, § 15—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, +§ 26—Bonfils, Nos. 176-187—Despagnet, Nos. 130-136—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 180-220—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 94-108—Nys, I. pp. +364-366—Rivier, I. § 4—Calvo, I. §§ 62-65—Fiore, I. § 341, and Code, +Nos. 111-118—Martens, I. §§ 60-61—Pillet in R.G. II. (1895), pp. 583-608—Heilborn, +"Das völkerrechtliche Protectorat" (1891)—Engelhardt, "Les Protectorats, &c." (1896)—Gairal, "Le protectorat international" -(1896)—Despagnet, "Essai sur les protectorats" (1896)—Boghitchévitch, -"Halbsouveränität" (1903).</p> +(1896)—Despagnet, "Essai sur les protectorats" (1896)—Boghitchévitch, +"Halbsouveränität" (1903).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Protectorate.</p></div> -<p>§ 92. <a name="Legally_and_materially92" id="Legally_and_materially92"></a>Legally and materially different from suzerainty +<p>§ 92. <a name="Legally_and_materially92" id="Legally_and_materially92"></a>Legally and materially different from suzerainty is the relation of protectorate between two States. It happens that a weak State surrenders itself by treaty into the protection of a strong and mighty State in @@ -9303,7 +9262,7 @@ became apparent in 1906, when Russia, after some hesitation, finally agreed upon Japan, and not Korea, granting the <i>exequatur</i> to the Consul-general appointed by Russia for Korea, which was then a State under Japanese protectorate. See - below, § <a href="#Consuls_are_appointed427">427</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Consuls_are_appointed427">427</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> It is therefore of great importance that the parties should make quite clear the meaning of a clause which is supposed to stipulate @@ -9315,7 +9274,7 @@ recognise it.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International position of States under Protectorate.</p></div> -<p>§ 93. <a name="The_position_of_a_State93" id="The_position_of_a_State93"></a>The position of a State under protectorate +<p>§ 93. <a name="The_position_of_a_State93" id="The_position_of_a_State93"></a>The position of a State under protectorate within the Family of Nations cannot be defined by a general rule, since it is the treaty of protectorate which indirectly specialises it by enumerating the reciprocal @@ -9346,7 +9305,7 @@ which, of course, must exercise the protectorate conjointly.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> This was recognised by the English Prize Courts during the Crimean War with regard to the Ionian Islands, which were then still under British protectorate; see the case of the Ionian Ships, 2 Spinks -212, and Phillimore, I. § 77.</p></div> +212, and Phillimore, I. § 77.</p></div> <p>In Europe there are at present only two very small States under protectorate—namely, the republic of @@ -9370,7 +9329,7 @@ Urgel. As regards the international position of Andorra, see Vilar, <div class="sidenote"><p>Protectorates outside the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 94. <a name="Outside_Europe_there_are94" id="Outside_Europe_there_are94"></a>Outside Europe there are numerous States +<p>§ 94. <a name="Outside_Europe_there_are94" id="Outside_Europe_there_are94"></a>Outside Europe there are numerous States under the protectorate of European States, but all of them are non-Christian States of such a civilisation as would not admit them to full membership of the Family @@ -9401,7 +9360,7 @@ Italian protectorate.</p> are Zanzibar under Great Britain and Tunis under France.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_growing_desire_to226">226</a>, and Perrinjaquet in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. + below, § <a href="#The_growing_desire_to226">226</a>, and Perrinjaquet in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 316-367.</p></div> @@ -9412,14 +9371,14 @@ are Zanzibar under Great Britain and Tunis under France.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 27-30—Lawrence, §§ 43 and 225—Taylor, § 133—Moore, I. -§ 12—Bluntschli, § 745—Heffter, § 145—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. -pp. 643-646—Gareis, § 15—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, § 27—Bonfils, Nos. 348-369—Despagnet, -Nos. 137-146—Mérignhac, II. pp. 56-65—Pradier-Fodéré, -II. Nos. 1001-1015—Nys, I. pp. 379-398—Rivier, I. § 7—Calvo, -IV. §§ 2596-2610—Piccioni's "Essai sur la neutralité perpétuelle" (2nd -ed. 1902)—Regnault, "Des effets de la neutralité perpétuelle" (1898)—Tswettcoff, -"De la situation juridique des états neutralisés" (1895)—Morand +<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 27-30—Lawrence, §§ 43 and 225—Taylor, § 133—Moore, I. +§ 12—Bluntschli, § 745—Heffter, § 145—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. +pp. 643-646—Gareis, § 15—Liszt, § 6—Ullmann, § 27—Bonfils, Nos. 348-369—Despagnet, +Nos. 137-146—Mérignhac, II. pp. 56-65—Pradier-Fodéré, +II. Nos. 1001-1015—Nys, I. pp. 379-398—Rivier, I. § 7—Calvo, +IV. §§ 2596-2610—Piccioni's "Essai sur la neutralité perpétuelle" (2nd +ed. 1902)—Regnault, "Des effets de la neutralité perpétuelle" (1898)—Tswettcoff, +"De la situation juridique des états neutralisés" (1895)—Morand in R.G. I. (1894), pp. 522-537—Hagerup in R.G. XII. (1909), pp. 577-602—Nys in R.I. 2nd Ser. II. (1900), pp. 468-583, III. (1901), p. 15—Westlake in R.I. 2nd Ser. III. (1901), pp. 389-397—Winslow in A.J. @@ -9427,7 +9386,7 @@ II. (1908), pp. 366-386—Wicker in A.J. V. (1911), pp. 639-654.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Neutralised States.</p></div> -<p>§ 95. <a name="A_neutralised_State95" id="A_neutralised_State95"></a>A neutralised State is a State whose independence +<p>§ 95. <a name="A_neutralised_State95" id="A_neutralised_State95"></a>A neutralised State is a State whose independence and integrity are for all the future guaranteed by an international convention of the Powers, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> the condition that such State binds itself never to take @@ -9450,11 +9409,11 @@ and the like, which has the effect that war cannot there be made and prepared.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">Vol. II. § 72.</a></p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">Vol. II. § 72.</a></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Act and Condition of Neutralisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 96. <a name="Without_thereby96" id="Without_thereby96"></a>Without thereby becoming a neutralised State, +<p>§ 96. <a name="Without_thereby96" id="Without_thereby96"></a>Without thereby becoming a neutralised State, every State can conclude a treaty with another State and undertake the obligation to remain neutral if such other State enters upon war. The act through which @@ -9490,19 +9449,19 @@ of territory without the consent of the Powers.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FN party to the treaty that neutralised Luxemburg in 1867, to take part in the guarantee of this neutralisation. See article 2 of the Treaty of London of May 11, 1867: "sous la sanction de la garantie collective des -puissances signataires, à l'exception de la Belgique, qui est elle-même -un état neutre."</p></div> +puissances signataires, à l'exception de la Belgique, qui est elle-même +un état neutre."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> This is a much discussed and very controverted point. See - Descamps, "La Neutralité de la Belgique" (1902), pp. 508-527; Fauchille + Descamps, "La Neutralité de la Belgique" (1902), pp. 508-527; Fauchille in R.G. II. (1895), pp. 400-439; Westlake in R.I. 2nd Ser. III. (1901), p. 396; Graux in R.I. 2nd Ser. VII. (1905), pp. 33-52; Rivier, I. p. 172. See also - below, § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International position of Neutralised States.</p></div> -<p>§ 97. <a name="Since_a_neutralised97" id="Since_a_neutralised97"></a>Since a neutralised State is under the obligation +<p>§ 97. <a name="Since_a_neutralised97" id="Since_a_neutralised97"></a>Since a neutralised State is under the obligation not to make war against any other State, except when attacked, and not to conclude treaties of alliance, guaranty, and the like, it is frequently maintained that @@ -9559,7 +9518,7 @@ initiative where action by a Great Power would create suspicion and reservedness on the part of other Powers.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> The case of Luxemburg, which became neutralised under the condition not to keep an armed force with the exception of a police, is @@ -9585,11 +9544,11 @@ which was annexed by Austria in 1846 (see Nys, I. pp. 383-385), cannot be quoted as an example that neutralised States have no durability. This annexation was only the last act in the drama of the absorption of Poland by her neighbours. As regards the former Congo Free State, see - below, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Switzerland.</p></div> -<p>§ 98. The Swiss Confederation,<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> which was recognised +<p>§ 98. The Swiss Confederation,<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> which was recognised by the Westphalian Peace of 1648, has pursued a traditional policy of neutrality since that time. During the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, however, @@ -9621,14 +9580,14 @@ on her territory, and guarded them till after the war.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> See Schweizer, "Geschichte der schweizerischen -Neutralität," 2 vols. (1895).</p></div> +Neutralität," 2 vols. (1895).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> See Martens, N.R. II. pp. 157, 173, 419, 740.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Belgium.</p></div> -<p>§ 99. Belgium<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> became neutralised from the moment +<p>§ 99. Belgium<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> became neutralised from the moment she was recognised as an independent State in 1831. The Treaty of London, signed on November 15, 1831, by Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, France, @@ -9642,7 +9601,7 @@ and which is the final treaty concerning the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> See - Descamps, "La Neutralité de la Belgique" (1902).</p></div> + Descamps, "La Neutralité de la Belgique" (1902).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> See Martens, N.R. XI. pp. 394 and 404.</p></div> @@ -9656,7 +9615,7 @@ and possesses a strong army.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Luxemburg.</p></div> -<p>§ 100. <a name="Th100" id="Th100"></a>The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> was since +<p>§ 100. <a name="Th100" id="Th100"></a>The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> was since 1815 in personal union with the Netherlands, but at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> the same time a member of the Germanic Confederation, and Prussia had since 1856 the right to keep troops @@ -9690,7 +9649,7 @@ as Belgium and Switzerland can.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The former Congo Free State.</p></div> -<p>§ 101. <a name="The_former_Congo101" id="The_former_Congo101"></a>The former Congo Free State,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> which was recognised +<p>§ 101. <a name="The_former_Congo101" id="The_former_Congo101"></a>The former Congo Free State,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> which was recognised as an independent State by the Berlin Congo Conference<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> of 1884-1885, was a permanently neutralised State from 1885-1908, but its neutralisation was @@ -9713,9 +9672,9 @@ the Congo Free State was not guaranteed either. In 1908<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> the Congo Free State merged by cession into Belgium.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Moynier, "La fondation de l'État indépendant du Congo" -(1887); Hall, § 26; Westlake, I. p., 30; Navez, "Essai historique sur -l'État Indépendant du Congo," Vol. I. (1905); Reeves in A.J. III. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Moynier, "La fondation de l'État indépendant du Congo" +(1887); Hall, § 26; Westlake, I. p., 30; Navez, "Essai historique sur +l'État Indépendant du Congo," Vol. I. (1905); Reeves in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 99-118.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> See @@ -9738,15 +9697,15 @@ into Belgium.</p></div> <span class="smaller">NON-CHRISTIAN STATES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. p. 40—Phillimore, I. §§ 27-33—Bluntschli, §§ -1-16—Heffter, § 7—Gareis, § 10—Rivier, I. pp. 13-18—Bonfils, -No. 40—Martens, § 41—Nys, I. pp. 122-125—Westlake, Chapters, +<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. p. 40—Phillimore, I. §§ 27-33—Bluntschli, §§ +1-16—Heffter, § 7—Gareis, § 10—Rivier, I. pp. 13-18—Bonfils, +No. 40—Martens, § 41—Nys, I. pp. 122-125—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 114-143. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No essential difference between Christian and other States.</p></div> -<p>§ 102. It will be remembered from the previous discussion +<p>§ 102. It will be remembered from the previous discussion of the dominion<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> of the Law of Nations that this dominion extends beyond the Christian and includes now the Mahometan State of Turkey and the @@ -9763,12 +9722,12 @@ would create confidence in the impartiality of her Courts of Justice, this restriction would certainly be abolished.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_present_range28">28</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_present_range28">28</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International position of non-Christian States except Turkey and Japan.</p></div> -<p>§ 103. <a name="Doubtful_is_the103" id="Doubtful_is_the103"></a>Doubtful is the position of all non-Christian +<p>§ 103. <a name="Doubtful_is_the103" id="Doubtful_is_the103"></a>Doubtful is the position of all non-Christian States except Turkey and Japan, such as China, Morocco, Siam, Persia, and further Abyssinia, although the latter is a Christian State, and although China, Persia, @@ -9850,25 +9809,25 @@ for its settlement.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 98—Westlake, I. pp. 37-39—Phillimore, I. §§ -278-440—Twiss, I. §§ 206-207—Taylor, §§ 277, 278, 282—Wharton, -I. § 70, p. 546—Moore, I. § 18—Bluntschli, § 172—Heffter, §§ -40-41—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 151-222—Gareis, § -13—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, § 28—Bonfils, Nos. 370-396—Despagnet, -Nos. 147-164—Mérignhac, II. pp. 119-153—Nys, II. pp. -297-324—Rivier, I. § 8—Fiore, I. Nos. 520, 521—Martens, I. § +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 98—Westlake, I. pp. 37-39—Phillimore, I. §§ +278-440—Twiss, I. §§ 206-207—Taylor, §§ 277, 278, 282—Wharton, +I. § 70, p. 546—Moore, I. § 18—Bluntschli, § 172—Heffter, §§ +40-41—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 151-222—Gareis, § +13—Liszt, § 5—Ullmann, § 28—Bonfils, Nos. 370-396—Despagnet, +Nos. 147-164—Mérignhac, II. pp. 119-153—Nys, II. pp. +297-324—Rivier, I. § 8—Fiore, I. Nos. 520, 521—Martens, I. § 84—Fiore, "Della condizione giuridica internazionale della chiesa e del Papa" (1887)—Bombard, "Le Pape et le droit des gens" -(1888)—Imbart-Latour, "La papauté en droit international" -(1893)—Olivart, "Le Pape, les états de l'église et l'Italie" -(1897)—Chrétien in R.G. VI. (1899), pp. 281-291—Bompart in R.G. +(1888)—Imbart-Latour, "La papauté en droit international" +(1893)—Olivart, "Le Pape, les états de l'église et l'Italie" +(1897)—Chrétien in R.G. VI. (1899), pp. 281-291—Bompart in R.G. VII. (1900), pp. 369-387—Higgins in <i>The Journal of the Society for Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, IX. (1907), pp. 252-264. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The former Papal States.</p></div> -<p>§ 104. When the Law of Nations began to grow up +<p>§ 104. When the Law of Nations began to grow up among the States of Christendom, the Pope was the monarch of one of those States—namely, the so-called Papal States. This State owed its existence to Pepin-le-Bref @@ -9894,7 +9853,7 @@ only.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>< <div class="sidenote"><p>The Italian Law of Guaranty.</p></div> -<p>§ 105. When, in 1870, Italy annexed the Papal +<p>§ 105. When, in 1870, Italy annexed the Papal States and made Rome her capital, she had to undertake the task of creating a position for the Holy See and the Pope which was consonant with the importance @@ -9964,7 +9923,7 @@ provided by the Law of Guaranty.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International position of the Holy See and the Pope.</p></div> -<p>§ 106. <a name="The_Law_of_Guaranty106" id="The_Law_of_Guaranty106"></a>The Law of Guaranty is not International +<p>§ 106. <a name="The_Law_of_Guaranty106" id="The_Law_of_Guaranty106"></a>The Law of Guaranty is not International but Italian Municipal Law, and the members of the Family of Nations have hitherto not made any special arrangements with regard to the International position @@ -10049,7 +10008,7 @@ envoy in Paris. Details of the case are to be found in R.I. 2nd Ser. IX. <div class="sidenote"><p>Violation of the Holy See and the Pope.</p></div> -<p>§ 107. Since the Holy See has no power whatever +<p>§ 107. Since the Holy See has no power whatever to protect herself and the person of the Pope against violations, the question as to the protection of the Holy See and the person of the Pope arises. I believe that, @@ -10078,7 +10037,7 @@ Holy See and the Pope.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>European States.</p></div> -<p>§ 108. All the seventy-four European States are, of +<p>§ 108. All the seventy-four European States are, of course, members of the Family of Nations. They are the following:</p> @@ -10149,7 +10108,7 @@ the following:</p> <div class="box5"> -<p class="indh">Kingdoms: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Würtemberg.</p> +<p class="indh">Kingdoms: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Würtemberg.</p> <p class="indh">Grand-Duchies: Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg.</p> @@ -10162,7 +10121,7 @@ Saxe-Weimar.</p> Line, Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Waldeck.</p> -<p class="indh">Free Towns are: Bremen, Lübeck, Hamburg.</p> +<p class="indh">Free Towns are: Bremen, Lübeck, Hamburg.</p> </div> @@ -10175,13 +10134,13 @@ Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Waldeck.</p> Fribourg, Soleure, Basle (Stadt und Landschaft), Schaffhausen, Appenzell (beider Rhoden), St. Gall, Grisons, Aargau, Thurgau, -Tessin, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Geneva.</p> +Tessin, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Geneva.</p> </div> <div class="sidenote"><p>American States.</p></div> -<p>§ 109. In America there are twenty-one States +<p>§ 109. In America there are twenty-one States which are members of the Family of Nations, but it must be emphasised that the member-States of the five Federal States on the American continent, although @@ -10236,7 +10195,7 @@ their member-States.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>African States.</p></div> -<p>§ 110. In Africa the Negro Republic of Liberia is +<p>§ 110. In Africa the Negro Republic of Liberia is the only real and full member of the Family of Nations. Egypt and Tunis are half-Sovereign, the one under Turkish suzerainty, the other under French protectorate. @@ -10249,7 +10208,7 @@ the Soudan certainly has not.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Asiatic States.</p></div> -<p>§ 111. In Asia only Japan is a full and real member +<p>§ 111. In Asia only Japan is a full and real member of the Family of Nations. Persia, China, Siam, Tibet, and Afghanistan are for some parts only within that family.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> @@ -10267,20 +10226,20 @@ family.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 13-25—Hall, § 7—Westlake, I. pp. 293-296—Lawrence, § 57—Phillimore, -I. §§ 144-147—Twiss, I. § 106—Wharton, § 60—Moore, I. -§ 23—Bluntschli, §§ 64-81—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, § 26—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 47-51—Gareis, §§ 24-25—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, -§ 38—Bonfils, Nos. 235-241—Despagnet, Nos. 165-166—Nys, II. pp. -176-181—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 165-195—Mérignhac, I. pp. 233-238—Rivier, -I. § 19—Fiore, I. Nos. 367-371—Martens, I. § 72—Fontenay, -"Des droits et des devoirs des États entre eux" (1888)—Pillet in R.G. V. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 13-25—Hall, § 7—Westlake, I. pp. 293-296—Lawrence, § 57—Phillimore, +I. §§ 144-147—Twiss, I. § 106—Wharton, § 60—Moore, I. +§ 23—Bluntschli, §§ 64-81—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, § 26—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 47-51—Gareis, §§ 24-25—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, +§ 38—Bonfils, Nos. 235-241—Despagnet, Nos. 165-166—Nys, II. pp. +176-181—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 165-195—Mérignhac, I. pp. 233-238—Rivier, +I. § 19—Fiore, I. Nos. 367-371—Martens, I. § 72—Fontenay, +"Des droits et des devoirs des États entre eux" (1888)—Pillet in R.G. V. (1898), pp. 66 and 236, VI. (1899), p. 503—Cavaglieri, "I diritti fondamentali -degli Stati nella Società Internazionale" (1906).</p> +degli Stati nella Società Internazionale" (1906).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The so-called Fundamental Rights.</p></div> -<p>§ 112. Until the last two decades of the nineteenth +<p>§ 112. Until the last two decades of the nineteenth century all jurists agreed that the membership of the Family of Nations includes so-called fundamental rights for States. Such rights are chiefly enumerated as the @@ -10316,19 +10275,19 @@ therefore only adequate to their importance to discuss them in a special chapter under that heading.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> See - Stoerk in Holtzendorff's "Encyklopädie der + Stoerk in Holtzendorff's "Encyklopädie der Rechtswissenschaft," 2nd ed. (1890), p. 1291; Jellinek, "System der -subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), p. 302; Heilborn, "System," p. +subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), p. 302; Heilborn, "System," p. 279; and others. The arguments of these writers have met, however, considerable resistance, and the existence of fundamental rights of States is emphatically defended by other writers. See, for instance, -Pillet, l.c., Liszt, § 7, and Gareis, §§ 24 and 25. Westlake, I. p. 293, +Pillet, l.c., Liszt, § 7, and Gareis, §§ 24 and 25. Westlake, I. p. 293, now joins the ranks of those writers who deny the existence of fundamental rights.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Personality a Body of Qualities.</p></div> -<p>§ 113. <a name="International_Personality113" id="International_Personality113"></a>International Personality is the term which +<p>§ 113. <a name="International_Personality113" id="International_Personality113"></a>International Personality is the term which characterises fitly the position of the States within the Family of Nations, since a State acquires International Personality through its recognition as a member. What @@ -10369,15 +10328,15 @@ another and recognise their responsibility for violations of these qualities.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Wh12">12</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Wh12">12</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_the_Law14">14</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_the_Law14">14</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Other Characteristics of the position of the States within the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 114. But the position of the States within the +<p>§ 114. But the position of the States within the Family of Nations is not exclusively characterised by these qualities. The States make a community because there is constant intercourse between them. Intercourse @@ -10407,16 +10366,16 @@ in this chapter.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 35-48—Westlake, I. pp. 308-312—Lawrence, §§ -112-119—Phillimore, I. § 147, II. §§ 27-43—Twiss, I. § -12—Halleck, I. pp. 116-140 —Taylor, § 160—Wheaton, §§ -152-159—Moore, I. § 24—Bluntschli, §§ 81-94—Hartmann, § -14—Heffter, §§ 27-28—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. -11-14—Ullmann, §§ 36 and 37—Bonfils, Nos. 272-278—Despagnet, -Nos. 167-171—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 484-594—Mérignhac, I. pp. -310-320—Rivier, I. § 9—Nys, II. pp. 194-199, 208-218—Calvo, I. -§§ 210-259—Fiore, I. Nos. 428-451, and Code, Nos. -388-421—Martens, I. §§ 70-71—Lawrence, Essays, pp. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 35-48—Westlake, I. pp. 308-312—Lawrence, §§ +112-119—Phillimore, I. § 147, II. §§ 27-43—Twiss, I. § +12—Halleck, I. pp. 116-140 —Taylor, § 160—Wheaton, §§ +152-159—Moore, I. § 24—Bluntschli, §§ 81-94—Hartmann, § +14—Heffter, §§ 27-28—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. +11-14—Ullmann, §§ 36 and 37—Bonfils, Nos. 272-278—Despagnet, +Nos. 167-171—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 484-594—Mérignhac, I. pp. +310-320—Rivier, I. § 9—Nys, II. pp. 194-199, 208-218—Calvo, I. +§§ 210-259—Fiore, I. Nos. 428-451, and Code, Nos. +388-421—Martens, I. §§ 70-71—Lawrence, Essays, pp. 191-213—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 86-109—Huber, "Die Gleichheit der Staaten" (1909)—Streit in R.I. 2nd Ser. II. pp. 5-27—Hicks in A.J. II. (1908), pp. 530-561. @@ -10424,7 +10383,7 @@ in A.J. II. (1908), pp. 530-561. <div class="sidenote"><p>Legal Equality of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 115. <a name="The_equality_before115" id="The_equality_before115"></a>The equality before International Law of all +<p>§ 115. <a name="The_equality_before115" id="The_equality_before115"></a>The equality before International Law of all member-States of the Family of Nations is an invariable quality derived from their International Personality.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> Whatever inequality may exist between States as @@ -10434,7 +10393,7 @@ equals as International Persons. This legal equality has three important consequences:</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_Law14">14</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_Law14">14</a> and <a href="#International_Personality113">113</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p></div> <p>The first is that, whenever a question arises which @@ -10461,13 +10420,13 @@ or have submitted themselves to such jurisdiction by suing in such foreign Court.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> See - Phillimore, II. § 113 A; Nys, II. pp. 288-296; Loening, -"Die Gerichtsbarkeit über fremde Staaten und Souveräne" (1903); and the + Phillimore, II. § 113 A; Nys, II. pp. 288-296; Loening, +"Die Gerichtsbarkeit über fremde Staaten und Souveräne" (1903); and the following cases:—The United States <i>v.</i> Wagner (1867), L.R. 2 Ch. App. 582; The Republic of Mexico <i>v.</i> Francisco de Arrangoiz, and others, 11 Howard's Practice Reports 1 (quoted by Scott, "Cases on International Law," 1902, p. 170); The Sapphire (1870), 11 Wallace, 164. See also - below, § <a href="#As_regards_however348">348</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#As_regards_however348">348</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> See De Haber <i>v.</i> the Queen of Portugal (1851), 17 Ch. D. @@ -10479,7 +10438,7 @@ Law," 1902, p. 170); The Sapphire (1870), 11 Wallace, 164. See also <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Provided the cross-suit is really connected with the claim in the action. As regards the German case of Hellfeld <i>v.</i> the Russian -Government, see Köhler in Z.V. IV. (1910), pp. 309-333; the opinions of +Government, see Köhler in Z.V. IV. (1910), pp. 309-333; the opinions of Laband, Meili, and Seuffert, <i>ibidem</i>, pp. 334-448; Baty in <i>The Law Magazine and Review</i>, XXV. (1909-1910), p. 207; Wolfman in A.J. IV. (1910), pp. 373-383.</p></div> @@ -10491,7 +10450,7 @@ considered International Persons, are not equals of the full members of the Family of Nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>.</p></div> <p>Secondly, States under suzerainty and under protectorate which are half-Sovereign and under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> @@ -10500,7 +10459,7 @@ of external affairs, are not equals of States which enjoy full sovereignty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Th91">91</a> and <a href="#The_position_of_a_State93">93</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Th91">91</a> and <a href="#The_position_of_a_State93">93</a>.</p></div> <p>Thirdly, the part-sovereign member-States of a Federal State are not equals of full-Sovereign States.</p> @@ -10513,7 +10472,7 @@ conditions of the special case.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Political Hegemony of Great Powers.</p></div> -<p>§ 116. Legal equality must not be confounded with +<p>§ 116. Legal equality must not be confounded with political equality. The enormous differences between States as regards their strength are the result of a natural inequality which, apart from rank and titles, finds its @@ -10563,18 +10522,18 @@ other Great Powers, becomes a Great Power itself.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id=" <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> This is, however, maintained by a few writers. See, for -instance, Lorimer, I. p. 170; Lawrence, §§ 113 and 114; Westlake, I. pp. +instance, Lorimer, I. p. 170; Lawrence, §§ 113 and 114; Westlake, I. pp. 308, 309; and Pitt Cobbett, "Cases and Opinions on International Law," 2nd ed. vol. I. (1909), p. 50.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> In contradistinction to the generally recognised political -hegemony of the Great Powers, Lawrence (§§ 113 and 114) and Taylor (§ +hegemony of the Great Powers, Lawrence (§§ 113 and 114) and Taylor (§ 69) maintain that the position of the Great Powers is <i>legally</i> superior to that of the smaller States, being a "Primacy" or "Overlordship." This doctrine, which professedly seeks to abolish the universally recognised rule of the equality of States, has no sound basis, and confounds political with legal inequality. I cannot agree with Lawrence when he -says (§ 114, p. 276):—"... in a system of rules depending, like +says (§ 114, p. 276):—"... in a system of rules depending, like International Law, for their validity on general consent, what is political is legal also, if it is generally accepted and acted on." The Great Powers are <i>de facto</i>, by the smaller States, recognised as @@ -10583,7 +10542,7 @@ legal superiority.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rank of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 117. Although the States are equals as International +<p>§ 117. Although the States are equals as International Persons, they are nevertheless not equals as regards rank. The differences as regards rank are recognised by International Law, but the legal equality @@ -10598,7 +10557,7 @@ important part as in the past, when questions of etiquette gave occasion for much dispute. It was in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that the rank of the different States was zealously discussed under the heading -of <i>droit de préséance</i> or <i>questions de préséance</i>. The +of <i>droit de préséance</i> or <i>questions de préséance</i>. The Congress at Vienna of 1815 intended to establish an order of precedence within the Family of Nations, but dropped this scheme on account of practical difficulties. @@ -10620,7 +10579,7 @@ and their monarchs address one another as honours always precede other States.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Ambassadors_form_the_first365">365</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Ambassadors_form_the_first365">365</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) Full-Sovereign States always precede those under suzerainty or protectorate.</p> @@ -10637,7 +10596,7 @@ and, on the other, grand dukes and other monarchs.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The "Alternat."</p></div> -<p>§ 118. To avoid questions of precedence, on signing +<p>§ 118. To avoid questions of precedence, on signing a treaty, States of the same rank observe a conventional usage which is called the "Alternat." According to that usage the signatures of the signatory States of a @@ -10646,11 +10605,11 @@ by lot, the representative of each State signing first the copy which belongs to his State. But sometimes that order is not observed, and the States sign either in the alphabetical order of their names in French or in -no order at all (<i>pêle-mêle</i>).</p> +no order at all (<i>pêle-mêle</i>).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Titles of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 119. <a name="At_the_present_time119" id="At_the_present_time119"></a>At the present time, States, save in a few +<p>§ 119. <a name="At_the_present_time119" id="At_the_present_time119"></a>At the present time, States, save in a few exceptional instances, have no titles, although formerly such titles did exist. Thus the former Republic of Venice as well as that of Genoa was addressed as "Serene @@ -10710,17 +10669,17 @@ the Kings of Hungary since 1758 <i>Rex Apostolicus</i>.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 35-48—Lawrence, § 120—Phillimore, II. §§ 27-43—Halleck, I. -pp. 124-142—Taylor, § 162—Wheaton, § 160—Bluntschli, §§ 82-83—Hartmann, -§ 15—Heffter, §§ 32, 102, 103—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 64-69—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 279-284—Despagnet, Nos. -184-186—Moore, I. pp. 310-320—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 451-483—Rivier, -I. pp. 260-262—Nys, II. pp. 212-214—Calvo, III. §§ 1300-1302—Fiore, -I. Nos. 439-451—Martens, I. § 78.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 35-48—Lawrence, § 120—Phillimore, II. §§ 27-43—Halleck, I. +pp. 124-142—Taylor, § 162—Wheaton, § 160—Bluntschli, §§ 82-83—Hartmann, +§ 15—Heffter, §§ 32, 102, 103—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, +II. pp. 64-69—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 279-284—Despagnet, Nos. +184-186—Moore, I. pp. 310-320—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 451-483—Rivier, +I. pp. 260-262—Nys, II. pp. 212-214—Calvo, III. §§ 1300-1302—Fiore, +I. Nos. 439-451—Martens, I. § 78.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Dignity a Quality.</p></div> -<p>§ 120. The majority of text-book writers maintain +<p>§ 120. The majority of text-book writers maintain that there is a fundamental right of reputation and of good name belonging to every State. Such a right, however, does not exist, because no duty corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> @@ -10758,7 +10717,7 @@ the Dignity of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 121. <a name="Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121" id="Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121"></a>Since dignity is a recognised quality of States +<p>§ 121. <a name="Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121" id="Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121"></a>Since dignity is a recognised quality of States as International Persons, all members of the Family of Nations grant reciprocally to one another by custom certain rights and ceremonial privileges. These are @@ -10802,7 +10761,7 @@ Criminal Law," article 91.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Maritime Ceremonials.</p></div> -<p>§ 122. <a name="Connected_with_the_dignity122" id="Connected_with_the_dignity122"></a>Connected with the dignity of States are the +<p>§ 122. <a name="Connected_with_the_dignity122" id="Connected_with_the_dignity122"></a>Connected with the dignity of States are the maritime ceremonials between vessels and between vessels and forts which belong to different States. In former times discord and jealousy existed between the @@ -10821,10 +10780,10 @@ maritime ceremonials to be observed by foreign merchantmen.<a name="FNanchor_194 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> See Halleck, I. pp. 124-142, where the matter is treated with all details. See also - below, § <a href="#The_freedom_of_the_Open257">257</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_freedom_of_the_Open257">257</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree187">187</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree187">187</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -10832,22 +10791,22 @@ with all details. See also <span class="smaller">INDEPENDENCE AND TERRITORIAL AND PERSONAL SUPREMACY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. Préliminaires, §§ 15-17—Hall, § 10—Westlake, I. pp. -308-312—Lawrence, §§ 58-61—Phillimore, I. §§ 144-149—Twiss, I. -§ 20—Halleck, I. pp. 93-113—Taylor, § 160—Wheaton, §§ -72-75—Bluntschli, §§ 64-69—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, §§ 29 and -31—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 36-60—Gareis, §§ -25-26—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 253-271—Despagnet, Nos. -187-189—Mérignhac, I. pp. 233-383—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. -287-332—Rivier, I. § 21—Nys, II. pp. 182-184—Calvo, I. §§ +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. Préliminaires, §§ 15-17—Hall, § 10—Westlake, I. pp. +308-312—Lawrence, §§ 58-61—Phillimore, I. §§ 144-149—Twiss, I. +§ 20—Halleck, I. pp. 93-113—Taylor, § 160—Wheaton, §§ +72-75—Bluntschli, §§ 64-69—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, §§ 29 and +31—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 36-60—Gareis, §§ +25-26—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 253-271—Despagnet, Nos. +187-189—Mérignhac, I. pp. 233-383—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. +287-332—Rivier, I. § 21—Nys, II. pp. 182-184—Calvo, I. §§ 107-109—Fiore, I. Nos. 372-427, and Code, Nos. 180-387—Martens, -I. §§ 74 and 75—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 86-106. +I. §§ 74 and 75—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 86-106. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Independence and Territorial as well as Personal Supremacy as Aspects of Sovereignty.</p></div> -<p>§ 123. Sovereignty as supreme authority, which is +<p>§ 123. Sovereignty as supreme authority, which is independent of any other earthly authority, may be said to have different aspects. As excluding dependence from any other authority, and in especial from @@ -10876,7 +10835,7 @@ point of view.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Independence and Territorial and Personal Supremacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 124. <a name="Independence_and_territorial124" id="Independence_and_territorial124"></a>Independence and territorial as well as personal +<p>§ 124. <a name="Independence_and_territorial124" id="Independence_and_territorial124"></a>Independence and territorial as well as personal supremacy are not rights, but recognised and therefore protected qualities of States as International Persons. The protection granted to these qualities by @@ -10934,7 +10893,7 @@ abroad.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violations of Independence and Territorial and Personal Supremacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 125. <a name="The_duty_of_every_State125" id="The_duty_of_every_State125"></a>The duty of every State itself to abstain and +<p>§ 125. <a name="The_duty_of_every_State125" id="The_duty_of_every_State125"></a>The duty of every State itself to abstain and to prevent its agents and subjects from any act which contains a violation<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> of another State's independence or territorial and personal supremacy is correlative to the @@ -10960,7 +10919,7 @@ to their home State, nor to incite citizens of foreign States to emigration.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#International_delinquencies155">155</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#International_delinquencies155">155</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> But neighbouring States very often give such permission to @@ -10969,13 +10928,13 @@ officers to be stationed on two railway stations of Basle for the purpose of examining the luggage of travellers from Basle to Germany.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> See, - however, below (§ <a href="#The_most_important299">299</a>), where the fact is stated that + however, below (§ <a href="#The_most_important299">299</a>), where the fact is stated that some States naturalise an alien through the very fact of his taking domicile on their territory.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Restrictions upon Independence.</p></div> -<p>§ 126. <a name="Independence_is_not126" id="Independence_is_not126"></a>Independence is not boundless liberty of a +<p>§ 126. <a name="Independence_is_not126" id="Independence_is_not126"></a>Independence is not boundless liberty of a State to do what it likes without any restriction whatever. The mere fact that a State is a member of the Family of Nations restricts its liberty of action with @@ -11000,7 +10959,7 @@ except in self-defence, cannot conclude alliances, and are in other ways hampered in their liberty of action.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_a_neutralised97">97</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_a_neutralised97">97</a>.</p></div> <p>From a political and a legal point of view it is of great importance that the States imposing and those @@ -11053,7 +11012,7 @@ under an American protectorate.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Restrictions upon Territorial Supremacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 127. <a name="Just_like_independence127" id="Just_like_independence127"></a>Just like independence, territorial supremacy +<p>§ 127. <a name="Just_like_independence127" id="Just_like_independence127"></a>Just like independence, territorial supremacy does not give a boundless liberty of action. Thus, by customary International Law every State has a right to demand that its merchantmen can pass through the @@ -11077,18 +11036,18 @@ instance, to stop or to divert the flow of a river which runs from its own into neighbouring territory.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> Great Britain would seem to uphold an exception to this -rule, for Lord Reay, one of her delegates, declared—see "Deuxième -Conférence Internationale de la Paix, Actes et Documents," vol. III. p. +rule, for Lord Reay, one of her delegates, declared—see "Deuxième +Conférence Internationale de la Paix, Actes et Documents," vol. III. p. 41—the following at the second Hague Peace Conference of 1907: "Nous -reconnaissons qu'en règle générale le neutre est exempt de tout service -militaire dans l'Etat où il réside. Cependant dans les colonies +reconnaissons qu'en règle générale le neutre est exempt de tout service +militaire dans l'Etat où il réside. Cependant dans les colonies britanniques et, dans une certaine mesure, dans tous les pays en voie de -formation, la situation est tout autre et la population toute entière, -sans distinction de nationalité, peut être appelée sous les armes pour -défendre leurs foyers menacés."</p></div> +formation, la situation est tout autre et la population toute entière, +sans distinction de nationalité, peut être appelée sous les armes pour +défendre leurs foyers menacés."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178 <i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178 <i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <p>In contradistinction to these restrictions by the customary Law of Nations, a State can through treaties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> @@ -11111,11 +11070,11 @@ supremacy by treaties with foreign Powers.</p> of Paris of 1783.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> It is doubtful whether this restriction is still in force; -see below, § <a href="#Since_no_State_can258">258</a>.</p></div> +see below, § <a href="#Since_no_State_can258">258</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Restrictions upon Personal Supremacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 128. <a name="Personal_Supremacy_does_not128" id="Personal_Supremacy_does_not128"></a>Personal Supremacy does not give a boundless +<p>§ 128. <a name="Personal_Supremacy_does_not128" id="Personal_Supremacy_does_not128"></a>Personal Supremacy does not give a boundless liberty of action either. Although the citizens of a State remain under its power when abroad, such State is restricted in the exercise of this power with @@ -11141,7 +11100,7 @@ to impose any religious disabilities on any of their subjects.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Recognition_will73">73</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Recognition_will73">73</a>.</p></div> @@ -11151,19 +11110,19 @@ subjects.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 49-53—Hall, §§ 8, 83-86—Westlake, I. pp. -296-304—Phillimore, I. §§ 210-220—Twiss, I. §§ 106-112—Halleck, -I. pp. 93-113—Taylor, §§ 401-409—Wheaton, §§ 61-62—Moore, II. -§§ 215-219—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, § 30—Holtzendorff in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 51-56—Gareis, § 25—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, § -38—Bonfils, Nos. 242-252—Despagnet, Nos. 172-175—Mérignhac, I. -pp. 239-245—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 211-286—Rivier, I. § -20—Nys, II. pp. 178-181—Calvo, I. §§ 208-209—Fiore, I. Nos. -452-466—Martens, I. § 73—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 110-125.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 49-53—Hall, §§ 8, 83-86—Westlake, I. pp. +296-304—Phillimore, I. §§ 210-220—Twiss, I. §§ 106-112—Halleck, +I. pp. 93-113—Taylor, §§ 401-409—Wheaton, §§ 61-62—Moore, II. +§§ 215-219—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, § 30—Holtzendorff in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 51-56—Gareis, § 25—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, § +38—Bonfils, Nos. 242-252—Despagnet, Nos. 172-175—Mérignhac, I. +pp. 239-245—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 211-286—Rivier, I. § +20—Nys, II. pp. 178-181—Calvo, I. §§ 208-209—Fiore, I. Nos. +452-466—Martens, I. § 73—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 110-125.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Self-preservation an excuse for violations.</p></div> -<p>§ 129. <a name="Fr129" id="Fr129"></a>From the earliest time of the existence of +<p>§ 129. <a name="Fr129" id="Fr129"></a>From the earliest time of the existence of the Law of Nations self-preservation was considered sufficient justification for many acts of a State which violate other States. Although, as a rule, all States @@ -11199,11 +11158,11 @@ suffered and endured by the States concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> This right was formerly frequently called <i>droit de convenance</i>, and was said to exist in the right of every State to act in favour of its interests in case of a conflict between its own and the -interests of another State. See Heffter, § 26.</p></div> +interests of another State. See Heffter, § 26.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>What acts of self-preservation are excused.</p></div> -<p>§ 130. <a name="It130" id="It130"></a>It is frequently maintained that every violation +<p>§ 130. <a name="It130" id="It130"></a>It is frequently maintained that every violation is excused so long as it was caused by the motive of self-preservation, but it becomes more and more recognised that violations of other States in the interest @@ -11241,7 +11200,7 @@ historical examples.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Case of the Danish Fleet (1807).</p></div> -<p>§ 131. After the Peace of Tilsit of 1807 the British +<p>§ 131. After the Peace of Tilsit of 1807 the British Government<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> was cognisant of the provision of some secret articles of this treaty that France should be at liberty to seize the Danish fleet and to make use of @@ -11262,11 +11221,11 @@ British considered a case of necessity in self-preservation had arisen, shelled Copenhagen, and seized the Danish fleet.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> I follow Hall's (§ 86) summary of the facts.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> I follow Hall's (§ 86) summary of the facts.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Case of Amelia Island.</p></div> -<p>§ 132. "Amelia Island, at the mouth of St. Mary's +<p>§ 132. "Amelia Island, at the mouth of St. Mary's River, and at that time in Spanish territory, was seized in 1817 by a band of buccaneers, under the direction of an adventurer named McGregor, who in the name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> @@ -11281,11 +11240,11 @@ island and expel the marauders, destroying their works and vessels."<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> See - Wharton, § 50 a, and Moore, II. § 216.</p></div> + Wharton, § 50 a, and Moore, II. § 216.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Case of the <i>Caroline</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 133. <a name="In_1837_during_the_Canadian133" id="In_1837_during_the_Canadian133"></a>In 1837, during the Canadian rebellion, several +<p>§ 133. <a name="In_1837_during_the_Canadian133" id="In_1837_during_the_Canadian133"></a>In 1837, during the Canadian rebellion, several hundreds of insurgents got hold of an island in the river Niagara, on the territory of the United States, and with the help of American subjects equipped a boat called @@ -11304,14 +11263,14 @@ invasion of her territory through application to the United States Government.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> See - Wharton, I. § 50 c, Moore, II. § 217, and Hall, § 84. + Wharton, I. § 50 c, Moore, II. § 217, and Hall, § 84. With the case of the <i>Caroline</i> is connected the case of Macleod, which will be discussed - below, § <a href="#An_excellent_example446">446</a>. Hall (§ 86), Martens (I. § 73), and + below, § <a href="#An_excellent_example446">446</a>. Hall (§ 86), Martens (I. § 73), and others quote also the case of the <i>Virginius</i> (1873) as an example of necessity of self-preservation, but it seems that the Spanish Government did not plead self-preservation but piracy as justification of the -capture of the vessel (see Moore, II. § 309, pp. 895-903). That a vessel +capture of the vessel (see Moore, II. § 309, pp. 895-903). That a vessel sailing under another State's flag can nevertheless be seized on the high seas in case she is sailing to a port of the capturing State for the purpose of an invasion or bringing material help to insurgents, @@ -11326,17 +11285,17 @@ by capture of the vessel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 54-62—Hall, §§ 88-95—Westlake, I. pp. -304-308—Lawrence, §§ 62-70—Phillimore, I. §§ 390-415A—Halleck, -I. pp. 94-109—Taylor, §§ 410-430—Walker, § 7—Wharton, I. §§ -45-72—Moore, VI. §§ 897-926—Wheaton, §§ 63-71—Bluntschli, §§ -474-480—Hartmann, § 17—Heffter, §§ 44-46—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 131-168—Gareis, § 26—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, -§§ 163-164—Bonfils, Nos. 295-323—Despagnet, Nos. -193-216—Mérignhac, I. pp. 284-310—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. -354-441—Rivier, I. § 31—Nys, II. pp. 185-193, 200-205—Calvo, I. -§§ 110-206—Fiore, I. Nos. 561-608, and Code, Nos. -543-557—Martens, I. § 76—Bernard, "On the Principle of +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 54-62—Hall, §§ 88-95—Westlake, I. pp. +304-308—Lawrence, §§ 62-70—Phillimore, I. §§ 390-415A—Halleck, +I. pp. 94-109—Taylor, §§ 410-430—Walker, § 7—Wharton, I. §§ +45-72—Moore, VI. §§ 897-926—Wheaton, §§ 63-71—Bluntschli, §§ +474-480—Hartmann, § 17—Heffter, §§ 44-46—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 131-168—Gareis, § 26—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, +§§ 163-164—Bonfils, Nos. 295-323—Despagnet, Nos. +193-216—Mérignhac, I. pp. 284-310—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. +354-441—Rivier, I. § 31—Nys, II. pp. 185-193, 200-205—Calvo, I. +§§ 110-206—Fiore, I. Nos. 561-608, and Code, Nos. +543-557—Martens, I. § 76—Bernard, "On the Principle of non-Intervention" (1860)—Hautefeuille, "Le principe de non-intervention" (1863)—Stapleton, "Intervention and Non-intervention, or the Foreign Policy of Great Britain from 1790 @@ -11348,7 +11307,7 @@ Drago" (1908).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and character of Intervention.</p></div> -<p>§ 134. <a name="Intervention_is134" id="Intervention_is134"></a>Intervention is dictatorial interference by a +<p>§ 134. <a name="Intervention_is134" id="Intervention_is134"></a>Intervention is dictatorial interference by a State in the affairs of another State for the purpose of maintaining or altering the actual condition of things. Such intervention can take place by right or without @@ -11401,11 +11360,11 @@ the Hungarian revolt.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Many writers constantly commit this confusion.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Di9">vol. II. § 9</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Di9">vol. II. § 9</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intervention by Right.</p></div> -<p>§ 135. <a name="It_is_apparent135" id="It_is_apparent135"></a>It is apparent that such interventions as take +<p>§ 135. <a name="It_is_apparent135" id="It_is_apparent135"></a>It is apparent that such interventions as take place by right must be distinguished from others. Wherever there is no right of intervention, although it may be admissible and excused, an intervention violates @@ -11468,7 +11427,7 @@ States, able to maintain such order."</p> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXXII. (1905), p. 79.—Even if no special right of intervention is stipulated, it nevertheless exists in such cases. Thus—see - below, § <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>—those Powers which have + below, § <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>—those Powers which have guaranteed the integrity of Norway under the condition that she does not cede any part of her territory to any foreign Power would have a right to intervene in case such a cession were contemplated, although the @@ -11502,12 +11461,12 @@ personally.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> But this is not generally recognised; see, for instance, -Hall, § 93, who denies the existence of such a right. I do not see the +Hall, § 93, who denies the existence of such a right. I do not see the reason why a State should not be able to undertake the obligation to retain a certain form of government or dynasty. That historical events can justify such State in considering itself no longer bound by such treaty according to the principle <i>rebus sic stantibus</i> (see - below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>) + below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>) is another matter.</p></div> <p>(6) <a name="The_right_of_pro6of135" id="The_right_of_pro6of135"></a>The right of protection<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> over citizens abroad, @@ -11517,7 +11476,7 @@ And it matters not whether protection of the life, security, honour, or property of a citizen abroad is concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>.</p></div> <p>The so-called <i>Drago<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> doctrine</i>, which asserts the rule that intervention is not allowed for the purpose of @@ -11559,7 +11518,7 @@ Hershey in A.J. I. (1907), pp. 26-45; Drago in A.J. I. (1907), pp. <div class="sidenote"><p>Admissibility of Intervention in default of Right.</p></div> -<p>§ 136. <a name="In_contradistinction136" id="In_contradistinction136"></a>In contradistinction to intervention by right, +<p>§ 136. <a name="In_contradistinction136" id="In_contradistinction136"></a>In contradistinction to intervention by right, there are other interventions which must be considered admissible, although they violate the independence or the territorial or personal supremacy of the State concerned, @@ -11573,7 +11532,7 @@ are necessary in the interest of the balance of power.</p> <p>(1) As regards interventions for the purpose of self-preservation, it is obvious that, if any necessary violation committed in self-preservation of the International -Personality of other States is, as shown above (§ 130), +Personality of other States is, as shown above (§ 130), excused, such violation must also be excused as is contained in an intervention. And it matters not whether such an intervention exercised in self-preservation is @@ -11610,10 +11569,10 @@ Greece and Turkey with regard to the island of Crete.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> A survey of the opinions concerning the value of the principle of balance of power is given by Bulmerincq, "Praxis, Theorie -und Codification des Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 40-50, but Bulmerincq -himself rejects the principle. See also Donnadieu, "Essai sur la théorie -de l'équilibre" (1900) where the matter is exhaustively treated, and -Dupuis, "Le principe d'équilibre et le concert européen" (1909), pp. +und Codification des Völkerrechts" (1874), pp. 40-50, but Bulmerincq +himself rejects the principle. See also Donnadieu, "Essai sur la théorie +de l'équilibre" (1900) where the matter is exhaustively treated, and +Dupuis, "Le principe d'équilibre et le concert européen" (1909), pp. 90-108, and 494-513. It is necessary to emphasise that the principle of the balance of power is not a legal principle and therefore not one of International Law, but one of International policy; it is a political @@ -11622,7 +11581,7 @@ present condition.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intervention in the interest of Humanity.</p></div> -<p>§ 137. <a name="Ma137" id="Ma137"></a>Many jurists maintain that intervention is +<p>§ 137. <a name="Ma137" id="Ma137"></a>Many jurists maintain that intervention is likewise admissible, or even has a basis of right, when exercised in the interest of humanity for the purpose of stopping religious persecution and endless cruelties in @@ -11645,14 +11604,14 @@ provided they are exercised in the form of a collective intervention of the Powers.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> See - Hall, §§ 91 and 95, where the merits of the problem are + Hall, §§ 91 and 95, where the merits of the problem are discussed from all sides. See also -below, § <a href="#Several_writ292">292</a>, and Rougier in R.G. +below, § <a href="#Several_writ292">292</a>, and Rougier in R.G. XVII. (1910), pp. 468-526.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intervention <i>de facto</i> a Matter of Policy.</p></div> -<p>§ 138. Careful analysis of the rules of the Law of +<p>§ 138. Careful analysis of the rules of the Law of Nations regarding intervention and the hitherto exercised practice of intervention make it apparent that intervention is <i>de facto</i> a matter of policy just like war. @@ -11689,7 +11648,7 @@ between the Great Powers, for an abuse of intervention on the part of one powerful State without calling other States into the field. Since unjustified intervention violates the very principles of the Law of Nations, and -since, as I have stated above <a href="#It_is_apparent135">(§ 135)</a>, in case of a violation +since, as I have stated above <a href="#It_is_apparent135">(§ 135)</a>, in case of a violation of these principles on the part of a State every other State has a right to intervene, any unjustifiable intervention by one State in the affairs of another gives @@ -11704,7 +11663,7 @@ Great Powers, but it seems unalterable.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Monroe Doctrine.</p></div> -<p>§ 139. <a name="The139" id="The139"></a>The <i>de facto</i> political character of the whole +<p>§ 139. <a name="The139" id="The139"></a>The <i>de facto</i> political character of the whole matter of intervention becomes clearly apparent through the so-called Monroe doctrine<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> of the United States of America. This doctrine, at its first appearance, was indirectly @@ -11723,12 +11682,12 @@ celebrated Message to Congress on December 2, 1823. This Message contains two quite different, but nevertheless equally important, declarations.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Wharton, § 57; Dana's Note No. 36 to Wharton, p. 36; +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Wharton, § 57; Dana's Note No. 36 to Wharton, p. 36; Tucker, "The Monroe Doctrine" (1885); Moore, "The Monroe Doctrine" -(1895), and Digest, VI. §§ 927-968; Cespedès, "La doctrine de Monroe" -(1893); Mérignhac, "La doctrine de Monroe à la fin du XIX^e siècle" +(1895), and Digest, VI. §§ 927-968; Cespedès, "La doctrine de Monroe" +(1893); Mérignhac, "La doctrine de Monroe à la fin du XIX^e siècle" (1896); Beaumarchais, "La doctrine de Monroe" (1898); Redaway, "The -Monroe Doctrine" (1898); Pékin, "Les États-Unis et la doctrine de +Monroe Doctrine" (1898); Pékin, "Les États-Unis et la doctrine de Monroe" (1900).</p></div> <p>(1) In connection with the unsettled boundary lines @@ -11774,11 +11733,11 @@ sent an <i>ultimatum</i> to Venezuela, and she retains the Monroe doctrine as a matter of principle.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> See - Moore, VI. § 957.</p></div> + Moore, VI. § 957.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Merits of the Monroe Doctrine.</p></div> -<p>§ 140. The importance of the Monroe doctrine is of +<p>§ 140. The importance of the Monroe doctrine is of a political, not of a legal character. Since the Law of Nations is a law between all the civilised States as equal members of the Family of Nations, the States of the @@ -11806,7 +11765,7 @@ between these very States, and eventually to intervene in conflicts. Since every State must decide for itself whether and where vital interests of its own are at stake and whether the balance of power is endangered to its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> -disadvantage, and since, as explained above (§ 138), +disadvantage, and since, as explained above (§ 138), intervention is therefore <i>de facto</i> a matter of policy, there is no legal impediment to the United States carrying out a policy in conformity with the Monroe doctrine. @@ -11825,18 +11784,18 @@ Monroe doctrine will have played its part.</p> <span class="smaller">INTERCOURSE</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, § 13—Vattel, II. §§ 21-26—Hall, § 13—Taylor, -§ 160—Bluntschli, § 381 and p. 26—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, §§ 26 -and 33—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 60-64—Gareis, § -27—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 285-289—Despagnet, -No. 183—Mérignhac, I. pp. 256-257—Pradier-Fodéré, I. No. -184—Rivier, I. pp. 262-264—Nys, II. pp. 221-228—Calvo, III. §§ -1303-1305—Fiore, I. No. 370—Martens, I. § 79. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, § 13—Vattel, II. §§ 21-26—Hall, § 13—Taylor, +§ 160—Bluntschli, § 381 and p. 26—Hartmann, § 15—Heffter, §§ 26 +and 33—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 60-64—Gareis, § +27—Liszt, § 7—Ullmann, § 38—Bonfils, Nos. 285-289—Despagnet, +No. 183—Mérignhac, I. pp. 256-257—Pradier-Fodéré, I. No. +184—Rivier, I. pp. 262-264—Nys, II. pp. 221-228—Calvo, III. §§ +1303-1305—Fiore, I. No. 370—Martens, I. § 79. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intercourse a presupposition of International Personality.</p></div> -<p>§ 141. <a name="Many_adherents_of_the141" id="Many_adherents_of_the141"></a>Many adherents of the doctrine of fundamental +<p>§ 141. <a name="Many_adherents_of_the141" id="Many_adherents_of_the141"></a>Many adherents of the doctrine of fundamental rights include therein also a right of intercourse of every State with all others. This right of intercourse is said to contain a right of diplomatic, commercial, @@ -11892,7 +11851,7 @@ Musgrove <i>v.</i> Chun Teeong Toy, L.R. <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Intercourse as a Presupposition of International Personality.</p></div> -<p>§ 142. <a name="Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142" id="Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142"></a>Intercourse being a presupposition of International +<p>§ 142. <a name="Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142" id="Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142"></a>Intercourse being a presupposition of International Personality, the Law of Nations favours intercourse in every way. The whole institution of legation serves the interest of intercourse between the States,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> @@ -11911,21 +11870,21 @@ of provisions of the Law of Nations in the interest of international intercourse.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Right_of_legation360">360</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Right_of_legation360">360</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>. The right of protection over citizens + below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>. The right of protection over citizens abroad is frequently said to be a special right of self-preservation, but it is really a right in the interest of intercourse.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Whereas_there_is_certainly178">178</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Whereas_there_is_certainly178">178</a>.</p></div> <p>The question is frequently discussed and answered in the affirmative whether a State has the right to @@ -11945,16 +11904,16 @@ morality.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 62, 75-80—Westlake, I. pp. 236-271—Lawrence, §§ 93-109—Phillimore, -I. §§ 317-356—Twiss, I. §§ 157-171—Halleck, I. pp. 186-245—Taylor, -§§ 169-171—Wheaton, §§ 77-151—Moore, II. §§ 175-249—Bluntschli, -§§ 388-393—Heffter, §§ 34-39—Bonfils, Nos. 263-266—Rivier, -I. § 28—Nys, II. pp. 257-263—Fiore, I. Nos. 475-588.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 62, 75-80—Westlake, I. pp. 236-271—Lawrence, §§ 93-109—Phillimore, +I. §§ 317-356—Twiss, I. §§ 157-171—Halleck, I. pp. 186-245—Taylor, +§§ 169-171—Wheaton, §§ 77-151—Moore, II. §§ 175-249—Bluntschli, +§§ 388-393—Heffter, §§ 34-39—Bonfils, Nos. 263-266—Rivier, +I. § 28—Nys, II. pp. 257-263—Fiore, I. Nos. 475-588.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction important for the position of the States within the Family of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 143. Jurisdiction is for several reasons a matter +<p>§ 143. Jurisdiction is for several reasons a matter of importance as regards the position of the States within the Family of Nations. States possessing independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> and territorial as well as personal supremacy @@ -11977,7 +11936,7 @@ to do so, leaving them to each other's jurisdiction.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Restrictions upon Territorial Jurisdiction.</p></div> -<p>§ 144. As all persons and things within the territory +<p>§ 144. As all persons and things within the territory of a State fall under its territorial supremacy, every State has jurisdiction over them. The Law of Nations, however, gives a right to every State to claim so-called @@ -11990,27 +11949,27 @@ restricted<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnot to foreign resident subjects of Christian Powers.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Details - below, §§ <a href="#As_regards_however348">348</a>-353, and <a href="#As_to_the_position_of356">356</a>.—The exemption of a + below, §§ <a href="#As_regards_however348">348</a>-353, and <a href="#As_to_the_position_of356">356</a>.—The exemption of a State itself from the jurisdiction of another is not based upon a claim to exterritoriality, but upon the claim to equality; see - above, § <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Details - below, §§ <a href="#Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385">385</a>-405.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385">385</a>-405.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> Details - below, §§ <a href="#Th450">450</a>-451.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Th450">450</a>-451.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Details - below, § <a href="#Wh445">445</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Wh445">445</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Details - below, §§ <a href="#The_rule_that_aliens318">318</a> + below, §§ <a href="#The_rule_that_aliens318">318</a> and <a href="#International_custom_and440">440</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction over Citizens abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 145. The Law of Nations does not prevent a State +<p>§ 145. The Law of Nations does not prevent a State from exercising jurisdiction over its subjects travelling or residing abroad, since they remain under its personal supremacy. As every State can also exercise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> @@ -12024,11 +11983,11 @@ aliens are actually for some matters under no State's jurisdiction.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Wi317">317</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Wi317">317</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction on the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 146. <a name="As146" id="As146"></a>As the Open Sea is not under the sway of +<p>§ 146. <a name="As146" id="As146"></a>As the Open Sea is not under the sway of any State, no State can exercise its jurisdiction there. But it is a rule of the Law of Nations that the vessels and the things and persons thereon remain during the @@ -12055,20 +12014,20 @@ Open Sea all neutral vessels for carrying contraband, breach of blockade, or unneutral services to the enemy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260">260</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260">260</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_pirate_and278">278</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_pirate_and278">278</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a>-266.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a>-266.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Criminal Jurisdiction over Foreigners in Foreign States.</p></div> -<p>§ 147. Many States claim jurisdiction and threaten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +<p>§ 147. Many States claim jurisdiction and threaten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> punishment for certain acts committed by a foreigner in foreign countries.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> States which claim jurisdiction of this kind threaten punishment for certain acts either @@ -12121,8 +12080,8 @@ a similar incident, diplomatic practice has not at all settled the subject.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> See - Hall, § 62; Westlake, I. pp. 251-253; Lawrence, § 104; -Taylor, § 191; Moore, II. §§ 200 and 201; Phillimore, I. § 334.</p></div> + Hall, § 62; Westlake, I. pp. 251-253; Lawrence, § 104; +Taylor, § 191; Moore, II. §§ 200 and 201; Phillimore, I. § 334.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> The Institute of International Law has studied the question at several meetings and in 1883, at its meeting at Munich (see Annuaire, @@ -12136,18 +12095,18 @@ where they take place." But it must be emphasised that this resolution has value <i>de lege ferenda</i> only.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> The case of Cirilo Pouble—see - Moore, II. § 200, pp. + Moore, II. § 200, pp. 227-228—concerning which the United States at first were inclined to intervene, proved to be a case of a crime committed within Spanish -jurisdiction. The case of John Anderson—see Moore, I. § 174, p. 933—is +jurisdiction. The case of John Anderson—see Moore, I. § 174, p. 933—is likewise not relevant, as he claimed to be a British subject.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> See - Westlake, I. p. 252; Taylor, § 192; Calvo, VI. §§ -171-173; Moore, II. § 201, and "Report on Extraterritorial Crime and the + Westlake, I. p. 252; Taylor, § 192; Calvo, VI. §§ +171-173; Moore, II. § 201, and "Report on Extraterritorial Crime and the Cutting Case" (1887); Rolin in R.I. XX. (1888), pp. 559-577. The case is fully discussed and the American claim is disputed by Mendelssohn -Bartholdy, "Das räumliche Herrschaftsgebiet des Strafgesetzes" (1908), +Bartholdy, "Das räumliche Herrschaftsgebiet des Strafgesetzes" (1908), pp. 135-143.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p></div> @@ -12162,18 +12121,18 @@ pp. 135-143.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a>< <span class="smaller">ON STATE RESPONSIBILITY IN GENERAL</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 21, § 2—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 6, § 12—Vattel, II. §§ 63-78—Hall, -§ 65—Halleck, I. pp. 440-444—Wharton, I. § 21—Moore, VI. §§ -979-1039—Wheaton, § 32—Bluntschli, § 74—Heffter, §§ 101-104—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 70-74—Liszt, § 24—Ullmann, § 39—Bonfils, -Nos. 324-332—Despagnet, No. 466—Piedelièvre, I. pp. 317-322—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 21, § 2—Pufendorf, VIII. c. 6, § 12—Vattel, II. §§ 63-78—Hall, +§ 65—Halleck, I. pp. 440-444—Wharton, I. § 21—Moore, VI. §§ +979-1039—Wheaton, § 32—Bluntschli, § 74—Heffter, §§ 101-104—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 70-74—Liszt, § 24—Ullmann, § 39—Bonfils, +Nos. 324-332—Despagnet, No. 466—Piedelièvre, I. pp. 317-322—Pradier-Fodéré, I. Nos. 196-210—Rivier, I. pp. 40-44—Calvo, III. -§§ 1261-1298—Fiore, I. Nos. 659-679, and Code, Nos. 591-610—Martens, -I. § 118—Clunet, "Offenses et actes hostiles commis par -particuliers contre un état étranger" (1887)—Triepel, "Völkerrecht +§§ 1261-1298—Fiore, I. Nos. 659-679, and Code, Nos. 591-610—Martens, +I. § 118—Clunet, "Offenses et actes hostiles commis par +particuliers contre un état étranger" (1887)—Triepel, "Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899), pp. 324-381—Anzillotti, "Teoria generale -della responsabilità dello stato nel diritto internazionale" (1902)—Wiese, -"Le droit international appliqué aux guerres civiles" (1898), pp. 43-65—Rougier, +della responsabilità dello stato nel diritto internazionale" (1902)—Wiese, +"Le droit international appliqué aux guerres civiles" (1898), pp. 43-65—Rougier, "Les guerres civiles et le droit des gens" (1903), pp. 448-474—Baty, "International Law" (1908), pp. 91-242—Anzillotti in R.G. XIII. (1906), pp. 5-29 and 285-309—Foster in A.J. I. (1907), pp. 5-10—Bar in @@ -12183,7 +12142,7 @@ R.I. 2nd Ser. I. (1899), pp. 464-481.</p> State Responsibility.</p></div> -<p>§ 148. <a name="It_is_often_maintained148" id="It_is_often_maintained148"></a>It is often maintained that a State, as a +<p>§ 148. <a name="It_is_often_maintained148" id="It_is_often_maintained148"></a>It is often maintained that a State, as a sovereign person, can have no legal responsibility whatever. This is only correct with reference to certain acts of a State towards its subjects. Since a State @@ -12228,7 +12187,7 @@ responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces."</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#International_Personality113">113</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#International_Personality113">113</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> See Annex to Protocol I. of Conference of London, 1871, @@ -12239,11 +12198,11 @@ the consent of the contracting Powers by means of an amicable arrangement."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Original and Vicarious State Responsibility.</p></div> -<p>§ 149. <a name="No149" id="No149"></a>Now if we examine the various international +<p>§ 149. <a name="No149" id="No149"></a>Now if we examine the various international duties out of which responsibility of a State may rise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> we find that there is a necessity for two different kinds of State responsibility to be distinguished. They may @@ -12272,7 +12231,7 @@ its officials, subjects, and such aliens as are temporarily resident on its territory.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#But_what_is_the_real290">290</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#But_what_is_the_real290">290</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> The distinction between original and vicarious responsibility was first made, in 1905, in the first edition of this @@ -12284,7 +12243,7 @@ researches concerning the responsibility of States.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Essential Difference between Original and Vicarious Responsibility.</p></div> -<p>§ 150. <a name="It150" id="It150"></a>It is, however, obvious that original and +<p>§ 150. <a name="It150" id="It150"></a>It is, however, obvious that original and vicarious State responsibility are essentially different. Whereas the one is responsibility of a State for a neglect of its own duty, the other is not. A neglect of international @@ -12315,14 +12274,14 @@ turns <i>ipso facto</i> into original responsibility.</p> <span class="smaller">STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR INTERNATIONAL DELINQUENCIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 151. <a name="International_delinquency151" id="International_delinquency151"></a>International delinquency is every injury to +<p>§ 151. <a name="International_delinquency151" id="International_delinquency151"></a>International delinquency is every injury to another State committed by the head and the Government of a State through violation of an international legal duty. Equivalent to acts of the head and Government @@ -12357,7 +12316,7 @@ not illegal and therefore not delinquent acts.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjects of International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 152. An international delinquency may be committed +<p>§ 152. An international delinquency may be committed by every member of the Family of Nations, be such member a full-Sovereign, half-Sovereign, or part-Sovereign State. Yet, half- and part-Sovereign States @@ -12396,12 +12355,12 @@ with the Japanese demands.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> See Hyde in "The Green Bag," XIX. (1907), pp. 38-49; Root -in A.J. I. (1907), pp. 273-286; Barthélemy in R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. +in A.J. I. (1907), pp. 273-286; Barthélemy in R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. 636-685.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>State Organs able to commit International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 153. Since States are juristic persons, the question +<p>§ 153. Since States are juristic persons, the question arises, Whose internationally injurious acts are to be considered State acts and therefore international delinquencies? It is obvious that acts of this kind are, @@ -12424,12 +12383,12 @@ but for that very reason these acts do not comprise international delinquencies.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-158.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-158.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>No International Delinquency without Malice or culpable Negligence.</p></div> -<p>§ 154. <a name="An154" id="An154"></a>An act of a State injurious to another State +<p>§ 154. <a name="An154" id="An154"></a>An act of a State injurious to another State is nevertheless not an international delinquency if committed neither wilfully and maliciously nor with culpable negligence. Therefore, an act of a State committed @@ -12442,7 +12401,7 @@ with the authorisation of a Government.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Objects of International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 155. <a name="International_delinquencies155" id="International_delinquencies155"></a>International delinquencies may be committed +<p>§ 155. <a name="International_delinquencies155" id="International_delinquencies155"></a>International delinquencies may be committed against so many different objects that it is impossible to enumerate them. It suffices to give some striking examples. Thus a State may be injured—in @@ -12474,11 +12433,11 @@ foreigners concerned, to make satisfactory arrangements commits international delinquency there is no doubt. On the so-called Drago doctrine and the Hague Convention concerning the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts, see - above, § <a href="#The_right_of_pro6of135">135, No. 6</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_right_of_pro6of135">135, No. 6</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Legal consequences of International Delinquencies.</p></div> -<p>§ 156. <a name="Th156" id="Th156"></a>The nature of the Law of Nations as a law +<p>§ 156. <a name="Th156" id="Th156"></a>The nature of the Law of Nations as a law between, not above, Sovereign States excludes the possibility of punishing a State for an international delinquency and of considering the latter in the light @@ -12525,10 +12484,10 @@ acts of warfare on the part of a belligerent, such means are reprisals and the taking of hostages.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Reprisals_are_admissible34">vol. II. § 34</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Reprisals_are_admissible34">vol. II. § 34</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Whereas_reprisals248">vol. II. §§ 248</a> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Whereas_reprisals248">vol. II. §§ 248</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#A_new_practice259">259</a>.</p></div> @@ -12540,15 +12499,15 @@ and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#A_new_prac </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>, +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>, and -especially Moore, VI. §§ 998-1018. +especially Moore, VI. §§ 998-1018. </p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Responsibility varies with Organs concerned.</p></div> -<p>§ 157. States must bear vicarious responsibility for +<p>§ 157. States must bear vicarious responsibility for all internationally injurious acts of their organs. As, however, these organs are of different kinds and of different position, the actual responsibility of a State @@ -12561,11 +12520,11 @@ and naval forces.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Acts of Heads of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 158. Such international injurious acts as are committed +<p>§ 158. Such international injurious acts as are committed by heads of States in the exercise of their official functions are not our concern here, because they constitute international delinquencies which have been -discussed above (§§ <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>-156). But a monarch can, just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +discussed above (§§ <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>-156). But a monarch can, just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> as any other individual, in his private life commit many internationally injurious acts, and the question is, whether and in what degree a State must bear responsibility @@ -12583,12 +12542,12 @@ be requested to pay damages on his behalf.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Acts of Members of Government.</p></div> -<p>§ 159. As regards internationally injurious acts of +<p>§ 159. As regards internationally injurious acts of members of a Government, a distinction must be made between such acts as are committed by the offenders in their official capacity, and other acts. Acts of the first kind constitute international delinquencies, as stated -above (§ 153). But members of a Government can in +above (§ 153). But members of a Government can in their private life perform as many internationally injurious acts as private individuals, and we must ascertain therefore what kind of responsibility their State @@ -12603,7 +12562,7 @@ for acts of private persons.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Acts of Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 160. The position of diplomatic envoys who, as +<p>§ 160. The position of diplomatic envoys who, as representatives of their home State, enjoy the privileges of exterritoriality, gives, on the one hand, a very great importance to internationally injurious acts committed @@ -12630,7 +12589,7 @@ cannot personally be blamed.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Attitudes of Parliaments.</p></div> -<p>§ 161. As regards internationally injurious attitudes +<p>§ 161. As regards internationally injurious attitudes of parliaments, it must be kept in mind that, most important as may be the part parliaments play in the political life of a nation, they do not belong to the @@ -12649,7 +12608,7 @@ the wrong done.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Acts of Judicial Functionaries.</p></div> -<p>§ 162. Internationally injurious acts committed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +<p>§ 162. Internationally injurious acts committed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> judicial functionaries in their private life are in no way different from such acts committed by other individuals. But these functionaries may in their official capacity @@ -12672,7 +12631,7 @@ which the injured State can successfully obtain reparation for the wrong done, unless the other party consents to bring the case before a Court of Arbitration.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Wharton, II. § 230, comprises abundant and instructive +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Wharton, II. § 230, comprises abundant and instructive material on this question.</p></div> <p>An illustrative case is that of the <i>Costa Rica Packet</i>,<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> @@ -12702,8 +12661,8 @@ crew of the <i>Costa Rica Packet</i>.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> See Bles in R.I. XXVIII. (1896), pp. 452-468; Regelsperger in R.G. IV. (1897), pp. 735-745; Valery in R.G. V. (1898), pp. 57-66; -Moore, I. § 148. See also Ullmann, "De la responsabilité de l'état en -matière judiciaire" (1911).</p></div> +Moore, I. § 148. See also Ullmann, "De la responsabilité de l'état en +matière judiciaire" (1911).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> The whole correspondence on the subject and the award are printed in Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXIII. (1898), pp. 48, 715, and @@ -12712,7 +12671,7 @@ printed in Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXIII. (1898), pp. 48, 715, and <div class="sidenote"><p>Internationally injurious Acts of administrative Officials and Military and Naval Forces.</p></div> -<p>§ 163. <a name="In163" id="In163"></a>Internationally injurious acts committed in +<p>§ 163. <a name="In163" id="In163"></a>Internationally injurious acts committed in the exercise of their official functions by administrative officials and military and naval forces of a State without that State's command or authorisation, are not @@ -12779,7 +12738,7 @@ apologised for it, and punished the commander of the <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Another example occurred in 1904, when the Russian Baltic Fleet, on its way to the Far East during the Russo-Japanese war, fired upon the Hull Fishing Fleet off the Dogger Bank; see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th5">vol. II. § 5</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th5">vol. II. § 5</a>.</p></div> <p>(3) On July 15, 1911, while the Spanish were in occupation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> of Alcazar in Morocco, M. Boisset, the French @@ -12833,10 +12792,10 @@ dangerous disease, and the like.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> Provided, however, such law does not violate essential principles of justice. See - below, § <a href="#Under_the_influence320">320</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Under_the_influence320">320</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th167">167</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th167">167</a>.</p></div> @@ -12846,13 +12805,13 @@ principles of justice. See <span class="smaller">STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR ACTS OF PRIVATE PERSONS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>, and -especially Moore, VI. §§ 1019-1031.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted above at the commencement of § <a href="#It_is_often_maintained148">148</a>, and +especially Moore, VI. §§ 1019-1031.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vicarious in contradistinction to original State Responsibility for Acts of Private Persons.</p></div> -<p>§ 164. As regards State responsibility for acts of +<p>§ 164. As regards State responsibility for acts of private persons, it is first of all necessary not to confound the original with the vicarious responsibility of States for internationally injurious acts of private @@ -12874,7 +12833,7 @@ incapable of prevention.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vicarious responsibility for Acts of Private Persons relative only.</p></div> -<p>§ 165. Now, whereas the vicarious responsibility of +<p>§ 165. Now, whereas the vicarious responsibility of States for official acts of administrative officials and military and naval forces is unlimited and unrestricted, their vicarious responsibility for acts of private persons @@ -12889,7 +12848,7 @@ to do it.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Municipal Law for Offences against Foreign States.</p></div> -<p>§ 166. It is a consequence of the vicarious responsibility +<p>§ 166. It is a consequence of the vicarious responsibility of States for acts of private persons that by the Criminal Law of every civilised State punishment is severe for certain offences of private persons against @@ -12914,7 +12873,7 @@ acts, see Stephen's Digest, articles 96-103.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Responsibility for Acts of Insurgents and Rioters.</p></div> -<p>§ 167. <a name="Th167" id="Th167"></a>The vicarious responsibility of States for acts +<p>§ 167. <a name="Th167" id="Th167"></a>The vicarious responsibility of States for acts of insurgents and rioters is the same as for acts of other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> private individuals. As soon as peace and order are re-established, such insurgents and rioters as have committed @@ -12971,7 +12930,7 @@ not responsible for losses sustained by foreign subjects on their territory through acts of insurgents and rioters.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> See - the cases in Calvo, III. §§ 1283-1290.</p></div> + the cases in Calvo, III. §§ 1283-1290.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. IX. p. 474 (Germany and Mexico); XV. p. @@ -12979,10 +12938,10 @@ on their territory through acts of insurgents and rioters.</p> 308 (Italy and Colombia); and p. 507 (Italy and Paraguay).</p></div> <p>The Institute of International Law has studied the -matter and has proposed<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> the following <i>Règlement</i> concerning +matter and has proposed<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> the following <i>Règlement</i> concerning it:—</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> At its meeting at Neuchâtel in 1900; see +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> At its meeting at Neuchâtel in 1900; see Annuaire, XVIII. p. 254.</p></div> @@ -13091,20 +13050,20 @@ riot, an insurrection, or of civil war.</p></div> <span class="smaller">ON STATE TERRITORY IN GENERAL</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 79-83—Hall, § 30—Westlake, I. pp. 84-88—Lawrence, §§ 71-72—Phillimore, -I. §§ 150-154—Twiss, I. §§ 140-144—Halleck, I. pp. 150-156—Taylor, -§ 217—Wheaton, §§ 161-163—Moore, I. § 125—Bluntschli, -§ 277—Hartmann, § 58—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 225-232—Gareis, -§ 18—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 86—Heffter, §§ 65-68—Bonfils, No. -483—Despagnet, Nos. 374-377—Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 612—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 79-83—Hall, § 30—Westlake, I. pp. 84-88—Lawrence, §§ 71-72—Phillimore, +I. §§ 150-154—Twiss, I. §§ 140-144—Halleck, I. pp. 150-156—Taylor, +§ 217—Wheaton, §§ 161-163—Moore, I. § 125—Bluntschli, +§ 277—Hartmann, § 58—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 225-232—Gareis, +§ 18—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 86—Heffter, §§ 65-68—Bonfils, No. +483—Despagnet, Nos. 374-377—Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 612—Mérignhac, II. pp. 356-366—Nys, I. pp. 402-412—Rivier, I. pp. 135-142—Calvo, I. -§§ 260-262—Fiore, I. Nos. 522-530—Martens, I. § 88—Del Bon, -"Proprietà territoriale degli Stati" (1867)—Fricker, "Vom Staatsgebiet" +§§ 260-262—Fiore, I. Nos. 522-530—Martens, I. § 88—Del Bon, +"Proprietà territoriale degli Stati" (1867)—Fricker, "Vom Staatsgebiet" (1867).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of State Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 168. <a name="State_territory_is_that168" id="State_territory_is_that168"></a>State territory is that definite portion of the +<p>§ 168. <a name="State_territory_is_that168" id="State_territory_is_that168"></a>State territory is that definite portion of the surface of the globe which is subjected to the sovereignty of the State. A State without a territory is not possible, although the necessary territory may be @@ -13137,7 +13096,7 @@ the State territory at will and without the consent of Parliament.<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> And some writers refuse to draw it even nowadays, as, for -instance, Lawrence, § 71.</p></div> +instance, Lawrence, § 71.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> In English Constitutional Law this point is not settled. The cession of the Island of Heligoland to Germany in 1890 was, however, @@ -13153,7 +13112,7 @@ or the Austrians.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 169. <a name="Th169" id="Th169"></a>The territory of a State may consist of one +<p>§ 169. <a name="Th169" id="Th169"></a>The territory of a State may consist of one piece of the surface of the globe only, such as that of Switzerland. Such kind of territory is named "integrate territory" (<i>territorium clausum</i>). But the territory @@ -13189,11 +13148,11 @@ Nations, is internationally for the most part considered a mere portion of the Suzerain State.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Importance of State Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 170. The importance of State territory lies in the +<p>§ 170. The importance of State territory lies in the fact that it is the space within which the State exercises its supreme authority. State territory is an object of the Law of Nations because the latter recognises the @@ -13211,11 +13170,11 @@ international treaties may, restrict<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_ in many points in the exercise of its sovereignty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>-128.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#Independence_is_not126">126</a>-128.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>One Territory, one State.</p></div> -<p>§ 171. <a name="Th171" id="Th171"></a>The supreme authority which a State exercises +<p>§ 171. <a name="Th171" id="Th171"></a>The supreme authority which a State exercises over its territory makes it apparent that on one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> and the same territory can exist one full-Sovereign State only. Two or more full-Sovereign States on one @@ -13249,14 +13208,14 @@ over these pieces, but they agree upon a joint administration under their conjoint sovereignty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> See - Schröder, "Das grenzstreitige Gebiet von Moresnet" + Schröder, "Das grenzstreitige Gebiet von Moresnet" (1902).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> The New Hebrides are materially likewise under a <i>condominium</i>, namely, that of Great Britain and France, although article 1 of the Convention of October 20, 1906—see Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. I. (1909), p. 523—speaks only of "a region of joint influence" -with regard to the New Hebrides. See Brunet, "Le Régime International +with regard to the New Hebrides. See Brunet, "Le Régime International des Nouvelles-Hebrides" (1908), and Politis in R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. 689-759.</p></div> @@ -13287,7 +13246,7 @@ Austria-Hungary had therefore no right to annex, in provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>.</p></div> <p>(3) <a name="The_third_case3of171" id="The_third_case3of171"></a>The third case is that of a piece of territory leased or pledged by the owner-State to a foreign Power. @@ -13311,7 +13270,7 @@ lease-holder who exercises sovereignty over the territory concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> Russia in 1905, by the Peace Treaty of Portsmouth, transferred her lease to Japan.</p></div> @@ -13345,7 +13304,7 @@ really cession all but in name, and it is certain that only the grantee exercises sovereignty there.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Already_in184">184</a>, and Boyd in + below, § <a href="#Already_in184">184</a>, and Boyd in R.G. XVII. (1910), pp. 614-624.</p></div> <p>(5) The fifth case is that of the territory of a Federal @@ -13362,7 +13321,7 @@ for so far as the Federal State possesses sovereignty the member-States do not, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#A_Federal89">89</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -13373,14 +13332,14 @@ the member-States do not, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Real and Fictional parts of Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 172. <a name="To_the_territory_of172" id="To_the_territory_of172"></a>To the territory of a State belong not only +<p>§ 172. <a name="To_the_territory_of172" id="To_the_territory_of172"></a>To the territory of a State belong not only the land within the State boundaries, but also the so-called territorial waters. They consist of the rivers, canals, and lakes which water the land, and, in the case of a State with a seacoast, of the maritime belt and certain gulfs, bays, and straits of the sea. These different kinds of territorial waters will be separately discussed -below in §§ 176-197. In contradistinction to +below in §§ 176-197. In contradistinction to these real parts of State territory there are some things that are either in every point or for some part treated as though they were territorial parts of a State. They @@ -13398,17 +13357,17 @@ of the State under whose flag they legitimately sail.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th450">450</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th450">450</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_first_of_these_privileges390">390</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_first_of_these_privileges390">390</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_a_customary264">264</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_a_customary264">264</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Territorial Subsoil.</p></div> -<p>§ 173. <a name="The_subsoil173" id="The_subsoil173"></a>The subsoil beneath the territorial land and +<p>§ 173. <a name="The_subsoil173" id="The_subsoil173"></a>The subsoil beneath the territorial land and water<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> is of importance on account of telegraph and telephone wires and the like, and further on account of the working of mines and of the building of tunnels. @@ -13419,12 +13378,12 @@ subsoil to an unbounded depth belongs to the State which owns the territory on the surface.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> As regards the subsoil of the Open Sea, see - below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> + below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> and <a href="#Since_there_is287d">287<i>d</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Territorial Atmosphere.</p></div> -<p>§ 174. The space of the territorial atmosphere is no +<p>§ 174. The space of the territorial atmosphere is no more a special part of territory than the territorial subsoil, but it is of the greatest importance on account of wires for telegraphs, telephones, electric traction, and @@ -13452,21 +13411,21 @@ over its territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> See Meili, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie, &c." (1908); -Schneeli, "Drahtlose Telegraphie und Völkerrecht" (1908); Landsberg, +Schneeli, "Drahtlose Telegraphie und Völkerrecht" (1908); Landsberg, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie" (1909); Kausen, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie -im Völkerrecht" (1910); Rolland in R.G. XIII. (1906), pp. 58-92; +im Völkerrecht" (1910); Rolland in R.G. XIII. (1906), pp. 58-92; Fauchille in Annuaire, XXI. (1906), pp. 76-87; Bonfils, Nos. 531<span class="topnum">10</span> and 531<span class="topnum">11</span>; Despagnet, No. 433 <i>quater</i>; Meurer and Boidin in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 76 and 261.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i>, + below, §§ <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i>, <a href="#To_secure_radio287b">287<i>b</i></a>, and <a href="#A_general_radio4of582">582, No. 4</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> The Institute of International Law—see Annuaire, XXI. -(1906), p. 328—proposes by art. 3 of its "Régime de la Télégraphie sans +(1906), p. 328—proposes by art. 3 of its "Régime de la Télégraphie sans fil" to restrict the power of the territorial State to exclude such waves from passing over its territory to the case in which the exclusion is necessary in the interest of its security.</p></div> @@ -13518,27 +13477,27 @@ territorial State for the aerial traffic.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> The literature on aviation is abundant, see Holtzendorff, -II. p. 230; Lawrence, § 73; Bonfils, Nos. 531<span class="topnum">1</span>-531<span class="topnum">9</span>; Despagnet, Nos. -433 <i>bis</i> and 433 <i>ter</i>; Mérignhac, II. pp. 398-410; Nys, I. pp. -523-532; Grünwald, "Das Luftschiff, &c." (1908); Meili, "Das Luftschiff, +II. p. 230; Lawrence, § 73; Bonfils, Nos. 531<span class="topnum">1</span>-531<span class="topnum">9</span>; Despagnet, Nos. +433 <i>bis</i> and 433 <i>ter</i>; Mérignhac, II. pp. 398-410; Nys, I. pp. +523-532; Grünwald, "Das Luftschiff, &c." (1908); Meili, "Das Luftschiff, &c." (1908); Meurer, "Luftschiffahrtsrecht" (1909); Meyer, "Die Erschliessung des Luftraums und ihre rechtlichen Folgen" (1909); Magnani, "Il diritto sullo spazio aereo e l'aeronautica" (1909); Leech, "The Jurisprudence of the Air" (1910), a reprint from the <i>Journal of -the Royal Artillery</i>, vol. XXXVII.; Lycklama à Nijeholt, "Air +the Royal Artillery</i>, vol. XXXVII.; Lycklama à Nijeholt, "Air Sovereignty" (1910); Hazeltine, "The Law of the Air" (1911); Bielenberg, "Die Freiheit des Luftraums" (1911); Catellani, "Il diritto aereo" (1911); Sperl, "Die Luftschiffahrt, &c." (1911); Loubeyre, "Les -principes du droit aérien" (1911); Fauchille in Annuaire, XIX. (1902) +principes du droit aérien" (1911); Fauchille in Annuaire, XIX. (1902) pp. 19-114, XXIV. (1911), and in R.G. VIII. (1901), pp. 414-485, XVII. -(1910), pp. 55-62; Zitelmann in the <i>Zeitschrift für internationales -Privat- und Öffentliches Recht</i>, XIX. (1909), pp. 458-496; Baldwin and +(1910), pp. 55-62; Zitelmann in the <i>Zeitschrift für internationales +Privat- und Öffentliches Recht</i>, XIX. (1909), pp. 458-496; Baldwin and Kuhm in A.J. IV. (1910), pp. 95-108, 109-132; Baldwin in Z.V. V. (1911), pp. 394-399.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> The Institute of International Law is studying the question of aviation, and passed, in 1911, at its meeting in Madrid, some rules -concerning the "Régime juridiques des Aéronefs"; see Annuaire, XXIV. +concerning the "Régime juridiques des Aéronefs"; see Annuaire, XXIV. (1911).</p></div> <p>Aviation through the atmosphere above the Open @@ -13548,7 +13507,7 @@ sea, as will also aviation in general in time of war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Inalienability of Parts of Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 175. <a name="It_should_be_mentioned175" id="It_should_be_mentioned175"></a>It should be mentioned that not every part +<p>§ 175. <a name="It_should_be_mentioned175" id="It_should_be_mentioned175"></a>It should be mentioned that not every part of territory is alienable by the owner-State. For it is evident that the territorial waters are as much inseparable appurtenances of the land as are the territorial @@ -13567,10 +13526,10 @@ of land, although they are now an appurtenance of the one bank only.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Maritime_belt185">185</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Maritime_belt185">185</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>.</p></div> @@ -13580,29 +13539,29 @@ of the one bank only.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, §§ 11-15—Pufendorf, III. c. 3, § 8—Vattel, II. §§ 117, 128, -129, 134—Hall, § 39—Westlake, I. pp. 142-159—Lawrence, § 92—Phillimore, -I. §§ 125-151—Twiss, I. § 145—Halleck, I. pp. 171-177—Taylor, -§§ 233-241—Walker, § 16—Wharton, I. § 30—Moore, I. §§ 128-132—Wheaton, -§§ 192-205—Bluntschli, §§ 314, 315—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, -§ 77—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 279-406—Gareis, § 20—Liszt, -§§ 9 and 27—Ullmann, §§ 87 and 105—Bonfils, Nos. 520-531—Despagnet, -Nos. 419-421—Mérignhac, II. pp. 605-632—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, §§ 11-15—Pufendorf, III. c. 3, § 8—Vattel, II. §§ 117, 128, +129, 134—Hall, § 39—Westlake, I. pp. 142-159—Lawrence, § 92—Phillimore, +I. §§ 125-151—Twiss, I. § 145—Halleck, I. pp. 171-177—Taylor, +§§ 233-241—Walker, § 16—Wharton, I. § 30—Moore, I. §§ 128-132—Wheaton, +§§ 192-205—Bluntschli, §§ 314, 315—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, +§ 77—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 279-406—Gareis, § 20—Liszt, +§§ 9 and 27—Ullmann, §§ 87 and 105—Bonfils, Nos. 520-531—Despagnet, +Nos. 419-421—Mérignhac, II. pp. 605-632—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 688-755—Nys, I. pp. 438-441, and II. pp. 109-131—Rivier, I. -p. 142 and § 14—Calvo, I. §§ 302-340—Fiore, II. Nos. 755-776, and -Code, §§ 283-285 and 976-982—Martens, I. § 102, II. § 57—Delavaud, +p. 142 and § 14—Calvo, I. §§ 302-340—Fiore, II. Nos. 755-776, and +Code, §§ 283-285 and 976-982—Martens, I. § 102, II. § 57—Delavaud, "Navigation ... sur les fleuves internationaux" (1885)—Engehardt, -"Du régime conventionnel des fleuves internationaux" (1879), and +"Du régime conventionnel des fleuves internationaux" (1879), and "Histoire du droit fluvial conventionnel" (1889)—Vernesco, "Des fleuves en droit international" (1888)—Orban, "Etude sur le droit fluvial -international" (1896)—Berges, "Du régime de navigation des fleuves +international" (1896)—Berges, "Du régime de navigation des fleuves internationaux" (1902)—Lopez, "Regimen internacional de los rios navigables" (1905)—Huber in Z.V. I. (1906), pp. 29 and 159—Hyde in A.J. IV. (1910), pp. 145-155.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rivers State property of Riparian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 176. Theory and practice agree upon the rule that +<p>§ 176. Theory and practice agree upon the rule that rivers are part of the territory of the riparian State. Consequently, if a river lies wholly, that is, from its source to its mouth, within the boundaries of one and @@ -13628,7 +13587,7 @@ of the States concerned; each State owns that part of the river which runs through its territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>, and Huber in Z.V. I. (1906), pp. 29 and + below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>, and Huber in Z.V. I. (1906), pp. 29 and 159.</p></div> <p>There is, however, another group of rivers to be @@ -13645,7 +13604,7 @@ Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation on National, Boundary and not-National Rivers.</p></div> -<p>§ 177. There is no rule of the Law of Nations in +<p>§ 177. There is no rule of the Law of Nations in existence which grants foreign States the right of admittance of their public or private vessels to navigation on national rivers. In the absence of commercial or @@ -13653,9 +13612,9 @@ other treaties granting such a right, every State can exclude foreign vessels from its national rivers or admit them under certain conditions only, such as the payment of a due and the like. The teaching of Grotius -(II. c. 2, § 12) that innocent passage through rivers +(II. c. 2, § 12) that innocent passage through rivers must be granted has not been recognised by the practice -of the States, and Bluntschli's assertion (§ 314) +of the States, and Bluntschli's assertion (§ 314) that such rivers as are navigable from the Open Sea must in time of peace be open to vessels of all nations, is at best an anticipation of a future rule of International @@ -13669,11 +13628,11 @@ States altogether unless prevented therefrom by virtue of special treaties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation on International Rivers.</p></div> -<p>§ 178. <a name="Whereas_there_is_certainly178" id="Whereas_there_is_certainly178"></a>Whereas there is certainly no recognised +<p>§ 178. <a name="Whereas_there_is_certainly178" id="Whereas_there_is_certainly178"></a>Whereas there is certainly no recognised principle of free navigation on national, boundary, and not-national rivers, a movement for the recognition of free navigation on international rivers set in at the @@ -13705,7 +13664,7 @@ realised in practice.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> Articles 108-117 of the Final Act of the Vienna Congress; see Martens, N.R. II. p. 427.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> "Règlements pour la libre navigation des rivières"; see +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> "Règlements pour la libre navigation des rivières"; see Martens, N.R. II. p. 434.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p></div> <p>The next step was taken by the Peace Treaty of @@ -13721,7 +13680,7 @@ Danube Commission.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. XV. p. 776. The documents concerning navigation on the Danube are collected by Sturdza, "Recueil de documents -relatifs à la liberté de navigation du Danube" (Berlin, 1904).</p></div> +relatifs à la liberté de navigation du Danube" (Berlin, 1904).</p></div> <p>A further development took place at the Congo Conference at Berlin in 1884-85, since the General Act<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> @@ -13746,8 +13705,8 @@ in 1903 in favour of free navigation for merchantmen of all nations on the rivers Amakourou and Barima.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> See - Taylor, § 238, and Moore, I. -§ 131, pp. 639-651.</p></div> + Taylor, § 238, and Moore, I. +§ 131, pp. 639-651.</p></div> <p>Thus the principle of free navigation, which is a settled fact as regards all European and some African @@ -13771,8 +13730,8 @@ the United States, but not for vessels of other nations, free navigation "for ever" on the same river.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> See - Wharton, pp. 81-83; Moore, I. § 131, p. 631, and Hall, -§ 39.</p></div> + Wharton, pp. 81-83; Moore, I. § 131, p. 631, and Hall, +§ 39.</p></div> <p>However this may be, the principle of free navigation embodies the rule that vessels of all nations must @@ -13788,7 +13747,7 @@ the rivers Rhine and Elbe, see Arndt in Z.V. IV. (1910), pp. 208-229.</p></div> <p>I should mention that the Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Heidelberg in 1888, adopted a -<i>Projet de Règlement international de navigation fluviale</i>,<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> +<i>Projet de Règlement international de navigation fluviale</i>,<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> which comprises forty articles.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> See @@ -13796,7 +13755,7 @@ which comprises forty articles.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Utilisation of the flow of rivers.</p></div> -<p>§ 178<i>a</i>. <a name="Apart_from_navigation178a" id="Apart_from_navigation178a"></a>Apart from navigation on rivers, the question +<p>§ 178<i>a</i>. <a name="Apart_from_navigation178a" id="Apart_from_navigation178a"></a>Apart from navigation on rivers, the question of the utilisation of the flow of rivers is of importance. With regard to national rivers, the question can not indeed be raised, since the local State is absolutely @@ -13818,12 +13777,12 @@ concerning special cases, neither customary nor conventional detailed rules of International Law concerning this subject are in existence, the Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Madrid<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> in 1911, adopted -the following "<i>Réglementation internationale des cours +the following "<i>Réglementation internationale des cours d'eau internationaux au point de vue de leur force motrice et de leur utilisation industrielle ou agricole</i>":—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> See, for instance, the treaty of Washington of January 11, @@ -13895,20 +13854,20 @@ situated on the territory of another State.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 294—Hall, § 38—Phillimore, I. §§ 205-205<span class="smcap">A</span>—Twiss, I. § 181—Halleck, -I. p. 170—Moore, I. §§ 135-143—Bluntschli, § 316—Hartmann, -§ 58—Heffter, § 77—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 378-385—Gareis, -§§ 20-21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, §§ 88 and 106—Bonfils, Nos. 495-505—Despagnet, -No. 407—Mérignhac, II. 587-596—Pradier-Fodéré, II. -Nos. 640-649—Nys, I. pp. 447-450—Calvo, I. §§ 301, 373, 383—Fiore, II. -Nos. 811-813, and Code, Nos. 279 and 1000—Martens, I. § 100—Rivier, I. -pp. 143-145, 230—Mischeff, "La Mer Noire et les détroits de Constantinople" +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 294—Hall, § 38—Phillimore, I. §§ 205-205<span class="smcap">A</span>—Twiss, I. § 181—Halleck, +I. p. 170—Moore, I. §§ 135-143—Bluntschli, § 316—Hartmann, +§ 58—Heffter, § 77—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 378-385—Gareis, +§§ 20-21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, §§ 88 and 106—Bonfils, Nos. 495-505—Despagnet, +No. 407—Mérignhac, II. 587-596—Pradier-Fodéré, II. +Nos. 640-649—Nys, I. pp. 447-450—Calvo, I. §§ 301, 373, 383—Fiore, II. +Nos. 811-813, and Code, Nos. 279 and 1000—Martens, I. § 100—Rivier, I. +pp. 143-145, 230—Mischeff, "La Mer Noire et les détroits de Constantinople" (1901)—Hunt in A.J. IV. (1910), pp. 285-313.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Lakes and land-locked seas State Property of Riparian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 179. <a name="Theory_and_practice_agree179" id="Theory_and_practice_agree179"></a>Theory and practice agree upon the rule that +<p>§ 179. <a name="Theory_and_practice_agree179" id="Theory_and_practice_agree179"></a>Theory and practice agree upon the rule that such lakes and land-locked seas as are entirely enclosed by the land of one and the same State are part of the territory of this State. Thus the Dead Sea in Palestine @@ -13925,7 +13884,7 @@ of the majority of writers, for special treaties frequently arrange what portions of such lakes and seas belong to the riparian States.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> Examples are:—The Lake of Constance,<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> which is surrounded by the territories of -Germany (Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria), Austria, and +Germany (Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria), Austria, and Switzerland (Thurgau and St. Gall); the Lake of Geneva, which belongs to Switzerland and France; the Lakes of Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which belong to @@ -13933,26 +13892,26 @@ British Canada and the United States; the Caspian Sea, which belongs to Persia and Russia.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> See, - for instance, Calvo, I. § 301; Caratheodory in + for instance, Calvo, I. § 301; Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, II. p. 378.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> As regards the utilisation of the flow of such lakes and seas, the same is valid as that concerning the utilisation of the flow of rivers; see - above, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Apart_from_navigation178a">178<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> See - Stoffel, "Die Fischerei-Verhältnisse des Bodensees -unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der an ihm bestehenden Hoheitsrechte" + Stoffel, "Die Fischerei-Verhältnisse des Bodensees +unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der an ihm bestehenden Hoheitsrechte" (1906).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> But the Caspian Sea is almost entirely under Russian control through the two treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Tourkmantschai -(1828). See Rivier, I. p. 144, and Phillimore, I. § 205.</p></div> +(1828). See Rivier, I. p. 144, and Phillimore, I. § 205.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>So-called International Lakes and Land-locked Seas.</p></div> -<p>§ 180. In analogy with so-called international rivers, +<p>§ 180. In analogy with so-called international rivers, such lakes and land-locked seas as are surrounded by the territories of several States and are at the same time navigable from the Open Sea, are called "international @@ -13971,14 +13930,14 @@ lakes of Huron, Erie, and Ontario.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> See, for instance, Rivier, I. p. 230; Caratheodory in -Holtzendorff, II. p. 378; Calvo, I. § 301.</p></div> +Holtzendorff, II. p. 378; Calvo, I. § 301.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Article 15 of the General Act of the Congo Conference. (See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. X. p. 417.)</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Black Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 181. <a name="It181" id="It181"></a>It is of interest to give some details regarding +<p>§ 181. <a name="It181" id="It181"></a>It is of interest to give some details regarding the Black Sea. This is a land-locked sea which was undoubtedly wholly a part of Turkish territory as long as the enclosing land was Turkish only, and as long as @@ -14013,7 +13972,7 @@ treaty, as was also free navigation for merchantmen of all nations on the Black Sea.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Open_Sea_or_High252">252</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Open_Sea_or_High252">252</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. XV. p. 775.</p></div> @@ -14022,7 +13981,7 @@ all nations on the Black Sea.</p> Martens, N.R.G. XVIII. p. 303.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th197">197</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th197">197</a>.</p></div> @@ -14031,25 +13990,25 @@ all nations on the Black Sea.</p> <span class="smaller">CANALS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 320-331—Lawrence, § 90, and Essays, pp. 41-162—Phillimore, -I. §§ 399 and 207—Moore, III. §§ 336-371—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 386-405—Liszt, § 27—Ullmann, § 106—Bonfils, Nos. 511-515—Despagnet, -No. 418—Mérignhac, II. pp. 597-604—Pradier-Fodéré, II. -Nos. 658-660—Nys, I. pp. 475-495—Rivier, I. § 16—Calvo, I. §§ 376-380—Fiore, -Code, Nos. 983-987—Martens, II. § 59—Sir Travers Twiss in R.I. +<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 320-331—Lawrence, § 90, and Essays, pp. 41-162—Phillimore, +I. §§ 399 and 207—Moore, III. §§ 336-371—Caratheodory in Holtzendorff, +II. pp. 386-405—Liszt, § 27—Ullmann, § 106—Bonfils, Nos. 511-515—Despagnet, +No. 418—Mérignhac, II. pp. 597-604—Pradier-Fodéré, II. +Nos. 658-660—Nys, I. pp. 475-495—Rivier, I. § 16—Calvo, I. §§ 376-380—Fiore, +Code, Nos. 983-987—Martens, II. § 59—Sir Travers Twiss in R.I. VII. (1875), p. 682, XIV. (1882), p. 572, XVII. (1885), p. 615—Holland, Studies, pp. 270-298—Asser in R.I. XX. (1888), p. 529—Bustamante in R.I. XXVII. (1895), p. 112—Rossignol, "Le Canal de Suez" (1898)—Camand, -"Étude sur le régime juridique du Canal de Suez" (1899)—Charles-Roux, +"Étude sur le régime juridique du Canal de Suez" (1899)—Charles-Roux, "L'Isthme et le canal de Suez" (1901)—Othalom, "Der -Suezkanal" (1905)—Müller-Heymer, "Der Panamakanal in der Politik +Suezkanal" (1905)—Müller-Heymer, "Der Panamakanal in der Politik der Vereinigten Staaten" (1909)—Arias, "The Panama Canal" (1911)—Hains, Davis, Knapp, Wambough, Olney, and Kennedy in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 354 and 885, IV. (1910), p. 314, V. (1911), pp. 298, 615, 620.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Canals State Property of Riparian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 182. That canals are parts of the territories of the +<p>§ 182. That canals are parts of the territories of the respective territorial States is obvious from the fact that they are artificially constructed waterways. And there ought to be no doubt<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> that all the rules regarding @@ -14061,7 +14020,7 @@ contemplated in the future. And as regards two of these, the Emperor William (Kiel or Baltic) Canal, which connects the Baltic with the North Sea, and the Corinth Canal, which connects the Gulf of Corinth with -the Gulf of Ægina, there is not much to be said. The +the Gulf of Ægina, there is not much to be said. The former is a canal made mainly for strategic purposes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> by the German Empire entirely through German territory. Although Germany keeps it open for navigation @@ -14079,7 +14038,7 @@ Greece exclusively controls the navigation thereof.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Suez Canal.</p></div> -<p>§ 183. <a name="The_most_important183" id="The_most_important183"></a>The most important of the interoceanic canals +<p>§ 183. <a name="The_most_important183" id="The_most_important183"></a>The most important of the interoceanic canals is that of Suez, which connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. Already in 1838 Prince Metternich gave his opinion that such a canal, if ever made, ought @@ -14166,7 +14125,7 @@ treaty to others and to invite them to accede thereto <div class="sidenote"><p>The Panama Canal.</p></div> -<p>§ 184. <a name="Already_in184" id="Already_in184"></a>Already in 1850 Great Britain and the United +<p>§ 184. <a name="Already_in184" id="Already_in184"></a>Already in 1850 Great Britain and the United States in the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> of Washington had stipulated the free navigation and neutralisation of a canal between the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean @@ -14194,12 +14153,12 @@ be considered expedient, and its five articles are the following:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> See - Martens, N.R.G. XV. p. 187, and Moore, III. §§ 351-365. + Martens, N.R.G. XV. p. 187, and Moore, III. §§ 351-365. According to its article 8 this treaty was also to be applied to a proposed canal through the Isthmus of Panama.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> See - Moore, III. §§ 366-368.</p></div> + Moore, III. §§ 366-368.</p></div> <p> @@ -14355,8 +14314,8 @@ Treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> That this grant is really cession all but in name, was pointed out - above, <a href="#The_fourth_case4of171">§ 171 (4)</a>; see also - below § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p></div> + above, <a href="#The_fourth_case4of171">§ 171 (4)</a>; see also + below § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p></div> @@ -14365,21 +14324,21 @@ pointed out <span class="smaller">MARITIME BELT</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 13—Vattel, I. §§ 287-290—Hall, §§ 41-42—Westlake, I. pp. -183-192—Lawrence, § 187—Phillimore, I. §§ 197-201—Twiss, I. §§ 144, -190-192—Halleck, I. pp. 157-167—Taylor, §§ 247-250—Walker, § 17—Wharton, -§ 32—Moore, I. §§ 144-152—Wheaton, §§ 177-180—Bluntschli, -§§ 302, 309-310—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, § 75—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 409-449—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 87—Bonfils, Nos. -491-494—Despagnet, Nos. 403-414—Mérignhac, II. pp. 370-392—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 13—Vattel, I. §§ 287-290—Hall, §§ 41-42—Westlake, I. pp. +183-192—Lawrence, § 187—Phillimore, I. §§ 197-201—Twiss, I. §§ 144, +190-192—Halleck, I. pp. 157-167—Taylor, §§ 247-250—Walker, § 17—Wharton, +§ 32—Moore, I. §§ 144-152—Wheaton, §§ 177-180—Bluntschli, +§§ 302, 309-310—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, § 75—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, +II. pp. 409-449—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 87—Bonfils, Nos. +491-494—Despagnet, Nos. 403-414—Mérignhac, II. pp. 370-392—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 617-639—Nys, I. pp. 496-520—Rivier, I. pp. -145-153—Calvo, I. §§ 353-362—Fiore, II. Nos. 801-809, and Code, Nos. -271-273, 1025—Martens, I. § 99—Bynkershoek, "De dominio maris" and +145-153—Calvo, I. §§ 353-362—Fiore, II. Nos. 801-809, and Code, Nos. +271-273, 1025—Martens, I. § 99—Bynkershoek, "De dominio maris" and "Quaestiones juris publici," I. c. 8—Ortolan, "Diplomatie de la mer" (1856), I. pp. 150-175—Heilborn, System, pp. 37-57—Imbart-Latour, -"La mer territoriale, &c." (1889)—Godey, "La mer côtière" (1896)—Schücking, -"Das Küstenmeer im internationalen Recht" (1897)—Perels, -§ 5—Fulton, "The Sovereignty of the Seas" (1911), pp. 537-740—Barclay +"La mer territoriale, &c." (1889)—Godey, "La mer côtière" (1896)—Schücking, +"Das Küstenmeer im internationalen Recht" (1897)—Perels, +§ 5—Fulton, "The Sovereignty of the Seas" (1911), pp. 537-740—Barclay in Annuaire, XII. (1892), pp. 104-136, and XIII. (1894), pp. 125-162—Martens in R.G. I. (1894), pp. 32-43—Aubert, <i>ibidem</i>, pp. 429-441—Engelhardt in R.I. XXVI. (1894), pp. 209-213—Godey in R.G. III. (1896), @@ -14387,7 +14346,7 @@ pp. 224-237—Lapradelle in R.G. V. (1898), pp. 264-284, 309-347.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>State Property of Maritime Belt contested.</p></div> -<p>§ 185. <a name="Maritime_belt185" id="Maritime_belt185"></a>Maritime belt is that part of the sea which, +<p>§ 185. <a name="Maritime_belt185" id="Maritime_belt185"></a>Maritime belt is that part of the sea which, in contradistinction to the Open Sea, is under the sway of the littoral States. But no unanimity exists with regard to the nature of the sway of the littoral States. @@ -14425,10 +14384,10 @@ waters of all kinds are inalienable appurtenances<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id=" the littoral and riparian States.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> Hall, p. 158. The question is treated with great clearness -by Heilborn, "System," pp. 37-57, and Schücking, pp. 14-20.</p></div> +by Heilborn, "System," pp. 37-57, and Schücking, pp. 14-20.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a>. Bynkershoek's ("De Dominio Maris," c. 5) + above, § <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a>. Bynkershoek's ("De Dominio Maris," c. 5) opinion that a littoral State can alienate its maritime belt without the coast itself, is at the present day untenable.</p></div> @@ -14440,7 +14399,7 @@ be of the nature of sovereignty.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Breadth of Maritime Belt.</p></div> -<p>§ 186. Be that as it may, the question arises how +<p>§ 186. Be that as it may, the question arises how far into the sea those waters extend which are coast waters and are therefore under the sway of the littoral State. Here, too, no unanimity exists upon either the @@ -14459,7 +14418,7 @@ of this starting line, and many treaties stipulate the same.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> See - Schücking, p. 13.</p></div> + Schücking, p. 13.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> See Annuaire, XIII. p. 329.</p></div> @@ -14501,12 +14460,12 @@ six miles, or two marine leagues, as the breadth of the belt. See Annuaire, XIII. p. 281.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt25">25</a>, and Maine, p. 39.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#There_is_no_doubt25">25</a>, and Maine, p. 39.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fisheries, Cabotage, Police, and Maritime Ceremonials within the Belt.</p></div> -<p>§ 187. <a name="Theory_and_practice_agree187" id="Theory_and_practice_agree187"></a>Theory and practice agree upon the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +<p>§ 187. <a name="Theory_and_practice_agree187" id="Theory_and_practice_agree187"></a>Theory and practice agree upon the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> principles with regard to fisheries, cabotage, police, and maritime ceremonials within the maritime belt:—</p> @@ -14537,10 +14496,10 @@ and geographical unit in contradistinction to the coasts of colonial dependencies of such country.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> See - Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2441, 2442.</p></div> + Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2441, 2442.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_meaning_of_the_term579">579</a>, where the matter is more amply treated.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_meaning_of_the_term579">579</a>, where the matter is more amply treated.</p></div> <p>(3) The littoral State can exclusively exercise police and control within its maritime belt in the interest of @@ -14554,11 +14513,11 @@ by such foreign merchantmen as enter its territorial maritime belt.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> See - Twiss, I. § 194.</p></div> + Twiss, I. § 194.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation within the Belt.</p></div> -<p>§ 188. <a name="Although_the_maritime188" id="Although_the_maritime188"></a>Although the maritime belt is a portion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +<p>§ 188. <a name="Although_the_maritime188" id="Although_the_maritime188"></a>Although the maritime belt is a portion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> the territory of the littoral State and therefore under the absolute territorial supremacy of such State, the belt is nevertheless, according to the practice of all the @@ -14592,9 +14551,9 @@ peace would meet with stern opposition on the part of all other States.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Klüber, § 76; Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 628.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Klüber, § 76; Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 628.</p></div> <p>But a right of foreign States for their men-of-war to pass unhindered through the maritime belt is not @@ -14613,11 +14572,11 @@ form part of the highways for international traffic cannot be denied to foreign men-of-war.<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Whereas_armed_forces449">449</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Whereas_armed_forces449">449</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction within the Belt.</p></div> -<p>§ 189. <a name="That_the_littoral189" id="That_the_littoral189"></a>That the littoral State has exclusive jurisdiction +<p>§ 189. <a name="That_the_littoral189" id="That_the_littoral189"></a>That the littoral State has exclusive jurisdiction within the belt as regards mere matters of police and control is universally recognised. Thus it can exclude foreign pilots, can make custom-house arrangements, @@ -14642,8 +14601,8 @@ to exist.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> The Institute of International Law—see Annuaire, XVII. (1898), p. 273—adopted at its meeting at the Hague in 1898 a -"<i>Règlement</i> sur le régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans -les ports étrangers" comprising seven rules.</p></div> +"<i>Règlement</i> sur le régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans +les ports étrangers" comprising seven rules.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> See Perels, pp. 69-77. The Institute of International Law, @@ -14654,7 +14613,7 @@ through the belt. See Annuaire, XIII. p. 328.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Zone for Revenue and Sanitary Laws.</p></div> -<p>§ 190. <a name="Different_from_the_territorial190" id="Different_from_the_territorial190"></a>Different from the territorial maritime belt +<p>§ 190. <a name="Different_from_the_territorial190" id="Different_from_the_territorial190"></a>Different from the territorial maritime belt is the zone of the Open Sea, over which a littoral State extends the operation of its revenue and sanitary laws. The fact is that Great Britain and the United States, @@ -14685,9 +14644,9 @@ not yet within, their territorial maritime belt.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> See, for instance, the British so-called <i>Hovering Acts</i>, 9 Geo. II. c. 35 and 24 Geo. III. c. 47. The matter is treated by Moore, -I. § 151; Taylor, § 248; Twiss, I. § 190; Phillimore, I. § 198; Halleck, -I. p. 157; Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 475-478; Perels, § 5, pp. -25-28. See also Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 108 and 109, +I. § 151; Taylor, § 248; Twiss, I. § 190; Phillimore, I. § 198; Halleck, +I. p. 157; Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 475-478; Perels, § 5, pp. +25-28. See also Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 108 and 109, and Annuaire, XIII. (1894), pp. 135 and 141.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p></div> @@ -14698,22 +14657,22 @@ and Annuaire, XIII. (1894), pp. 135 and 141.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 291—Hall, § 41—Westlake, I. pp. 183-192—Lawrence, § 72—Phillimore, -I. §§ 196-206—Twiss, I. §§ 181-182—Halleck, I. pp. 165-170—Taylor, -§§ 229-231—Walker, § 18—Wharton, I. §§ 27-28—Moore, I. § 153—Wheaton, -§§ 181-190—Bluntschli, §§ 309-310—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, -§ 76—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 419-428—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, -§ 88—Bonfils, No. 516—Despagnet, Nos. 405-406—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 394-397—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 661-681—Nys, I. pp. 441-447—Rivier, -I. pp. 153-157—Calvo, I. §§ 366-367—Fiore, II. Nos. 808-815, and -Code, Nos. 278-279—Martens, I. § 100—Perels, § 5—Schücking, "Das -Küstenmeer im internationalen Recht" (1897), pp. 20-24—Barclay in +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 291—Hall, § 41—Westlake, I. pp. 183-192—Lawrence, § 72—Phillimore, +I. §§ 196-206—Twiss, I. §§ 181-182—Halleck, I. pp. 165-170—Taylor, +§§ 229-231—Walker, § 18—Wharton, I. §§ 27-28—Moore, I. § 153—Wheaton, +§§ 181-190—Bluntschli, §§ 309-310—Hartmann, § 58—Heffter, +§ 76—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 419-428—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, +§ 88—Bonfils, No. 516—Despagnet, Nos. 405-406—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 394-397—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 661-681—Nys, I. pp. 441-447—Rivier, +I. pp. 153-157—Calvo, I. §§ 366-367—Fiore, II. Nos. 808-815, and +Code, Nos. 278-279—Martens, I. § 100—Perels, § 5—Schücking, "Das +Küstenmeer im internationalen Recht" (1897), pp. 20-24—Barclay in Annuaire, XII. pp. 127-129—Oppenheim in Z.V. I. (1907), pp. 579-587, and V. (1911), pp. 74-95.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Territorial Gulfs and Bays.</p></div> -<p>§ 191. <a name="It_is_generally_admitted191" id="It_is_generally_admitted191"></a>It is generally admitted that such gulfs and +<p>§ 191. <a name="It_is_generally_admitted191" id="It_is_generally_admitted191"></a>It is generally admitted that such gulfs and bays as are enclosed by the land of one and the same littoral State, and whose entrance from the sea is narrow enough to be commanded by coast batteries erected @@ -14727,8 +14686,8 @@ the name of the British Government, that they considered such bays only to be territorial as possessed an entrance <i>not</i> wider than six miles. The future will have to show whether Great Britain and her self-governing colonies consider themselves bound by this statement. No -writer of authority can be quoted in favour of it, although Walker (§ -18) and Wilson and Tucker (5th ed., 1910, § 53) state it. Westlake (vol. +writer of authority can be quoted in favour of it, although Walker (§ +18) and Wilson and Tucker (5th ed., 1910, § 53) state it. Westlake (vol. I. p. 187) cannot be cited in favour of it, since he distinguishes between bays and gulfs in such a way as is not generally done by international lawyers, and as is certainly not recognised by geography; @@ -14760,7 +14719,7 @@ such gulfs and bays with a wider entrance as have been considered territorial for more than one hundred years.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> See - Taylor, § 229; Wharton, I. §§ 27 and 28; Moore, I. § + Taylor, § 229; Wharton, I. §§ 27 and 28; Moore, I. § 153.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> See @@ -14781,16 +14740,16 @@ of the so-called King's Chambers,<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349 portions of the sea between lines drawn from headland to headland.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> Whereas Hall (§ 41, p. 162) says: "England would, no doubt, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> Whereas Hall (§ 41, p. 162) says: "England would, no doubt, not attempt any longer to assert a right of property over the King's -Chambers," Phillimore (I. § 200) still keeps up this claim. The attitude +Chambers," Phillimore (I. § 200) still keeps up this claim. The attitude of the British Government in the Moray Firth Case—see below, p. <a href="#Page_264">264</a>—would seem to demonstrate that this claim is no longer upheld. See -also Lawrence, § 87, and Westlake, I. p. 188.</p></div> +also Lawrence, § 87, and Westlake, I. p. 188.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Non-territorial Gulfs and Bays.</p></div> -<p>§ 192. <a name="Gulfs_and_bays192" id="Gulfs_and_bays192"></a>Gulfs and bays surrounded by the land of +<p>§ 192. <a name="Gulfs_and_bays192" id="Gulfs_and_bays192"></a>Gulfs and bays surrounded by the land of one and the same littoral State whose entrance is so wide that it cannot be commanded by coast batteries, and, further, all gulfs and bays enclosed by the land of @@ -14851,7 +14810,7 @@ or sold in the United Kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353">< <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation and Fishery in Territorial Gulfs and Bays.</p></div> -<p>§ 193. As regards navigation and fishery within +<p>§ 193. As regards navigation and fishery within territorial gulfs and bays, the same rules of the Law of Nations are valid as in the case of navigation and fishery within the territorial maritime belt. The right of fishery @@ -14877,19 +14836,19 @@ thirteen miles wide. See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. IX. (1884), p. 556.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 292—Hall, § 41—Westlake, I. pp. 193-197—Lawrence, §§ 87-89—Phillimore, -I. §§ 180-196—Twiss, I. §§ 183, 184, 189—Halleck, I. pp. 165-170—Taylor, -§§ 229-231—Walker, § 17—Wharton, §§ 27-29—Wheaton, -§§ 181-190—Moore, I. §§ 133-134—Bluntschli, § 303—Hartmann, § 65—Heffter, -§ 76—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 419-428—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, -§§ 9 and 26—Ullmann, § 88—Bonfils, Nos. 506-511—Despagnet, -Nos. 415-417—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 650-656—Nys, I. pp. 451-474—Rivier, -I. pp. 157-159—Calvo, I. §§ 368-372—Fiore, II. Nos. 745-754, and -Code, Nos. 280-281—Martens, I. § 101—Holland, Studies, p. 277.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 292—Hall, § 41—Westlake, I. pp. 193-197—Lawrence, §§ 87-89—Phillimore, +I. §§ 180-196—Twiss, I. §§ 183, 184, 189—Halleck, I. pp. 165-170—Taylor, +§§ 229-231—Walker, § 17—Wharton, §§ 27-29—Wheaton, +§§ 181-190—Moore, I. §§ 133-134—Bluntschli, § 303—Hartmann, § 65—Heffter, +§ 76—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 419-428—Gareis, § 21—Liszt, +§§ 9 and 26—Ullmann, § 88—Bonfils, Nos. 506-511—Despagnet, +Nos. 415-417—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 650-656—Nys, I. pp. 451-474—Rivier, +I. pp. 157-159—Calvo, I. §§ 368-372—Fiore, II. Nos. 745-754, and +Code, Nos. 280-281—Martens, I. § 101—Holland, Studies, p. 277.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>What Straits are Territorial.</p></div> -<p>§ 194. <a name="All_straits194" id="All_straits194"></a>All straits which are so narrow as to be under +<p>§ 194. <a name="All_straits194" id="All_straits194"></a>All straits which are so narrow as to be under the command of coast batteries erected either on one or both sides of the straits, are territorial. Therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> straits of this kind which divide the land of one and the @@ -14909,7 +14868,7 @@ as long as the land opposite Hong Kong was Chinese territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>.</p></div> <p>It would seem that claims of States over wider straits than those which can be commanded by guns @@ -14925,9 +14884,9 @@ her former claim,<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="# Jurisdiction Act 1878 does not mention it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> See - Phillimore, I. § 189, and - above, § <a href="#It_is_generally_admitted191">191</a> (King's -Chambers). Concerning the Bristol Channel, Hall (§ 41, p. 162, note 2) + Phillimore, I. § 189, and + above, § <a href="#It_is_generally_admitted191">191</a> (King's +Chambers). Concerning the Bristol Channel, Hall (§ 41, p. 162, note 2) remarks: "It was apparently decided by the Queen's Bench in Reg. <i>v.</i> Cunningham (Bell's "Crown Cases," 86) that the whole of the Bristol Channel between Somerset and Glamorgan is British territory; possibly, @@ -14937,7 +14896,7 @@ note 3.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation, Fishery, and Jurisdiction in Straits.</p></div> -<p>§ 195. <a name="All195" id="All195"></a>All rules of the Law of Nations concerning +<p>§ 195. <a name="All195" id="All195"></a>All rules of the Law of Nations concerning navigation, fishery, and jurisdiction within the maritime belt apply likewise to navigation, fishery, and jurisdiction within straits. Foreign merchantmen, therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> @@ -14957,15 +14916,15 @@ or otherwise as by treaty arranged.</p> 410—to have a right to exclude foreign merchantmen from the passage through the Kara and the Yugor Straits, is therefore unfounded. As regards the Kara Sea, see - below, § <a href="#It_is_not_necessary253">253</a>, note 2.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_not_necessary253">253</a>, note 2.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> As, for instance, the Straits of Magellan. These straits were neutralised in 1881—see - below, § <a href="#The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568">568</a>, and -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">vol. II. § 72</a>—by a -treaty between Chili and Argentina. See Abribat, "Le détroit de Magellan + below, § <a href="#The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568">568</a>, and +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">vol. II. § 72</a>—by a +treaty between Chili and Argentina. See Abribat, "Le détroit de Magellan au point de vue international" (1902); Nys, I. pp. 470-474; and Moore, -I. § 134.</p></div> +I. § 134.</p></div> <p>It must, however, be stated that foreign merchantmen cannot be excluded from the passage through @@ -14979,15 +14938,15 @@ formerly the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNancho vessels can be excluded therefrom.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Open_Sea_or_High252">252</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Open_Sea_or_High252">252</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th197">197</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th197">197</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The former Sound Dues.</p></div> -<p>§ 196. The rule that foreign merchantmen must be +<p>§ 196. The rule that foreign merchantmen must be allowed inoffensive passage through territorial straits without any dues and tolls whatever, had one exception until the year 1857. From time immemorial, @@ -15013,7 +14972,7 @@ recognised.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> See the details, which have historical interest only, in -Twiss, I. § 188; Phillimore, I. § 189; Wharton, I. § 29; and Scherer, +Twiss, I. § 188; Phillimore, I. § 189; Wharton, I. § 29; and Scherer, "Der Sundzoll" (1845).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> The Treaty of Copenhagen of March 14, 1857. See @@ -15026,7 +14985,7 @@ N.R.G. XVII. 1st part, p. 210.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Bosphorus and Dardanelles.</p></div> -<p>§ 197. <a name="Th197" id="Th197"></a>The Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the two +<p>§ 197. <a name="Th197" id="Th197"></a>The Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the two Turkish territorial straits which connect the Black Sea with the Mediterranean, must be specially mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> So long as the Black Sea was entirely enclosed by @@ -15060,12 +15019,12 @@ Treaty of Paris of 1856.</p> Question," p. 225, and Perels, p. 29.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#All195">195</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#All195">195</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> The United States, although she actually acquiesces in the exclusion of her men-of-war, seems not to consider herself bound by the -Convention of London, to which she is not a party. See Wharton, I. § 29, -pp. 79 and 80, and Moore, I. § 134, pp. 666-668.</p></div> +Convention of London, to which she is not a party. See Wharton, I. § 29, +pp. 79 and 80, and Moore, I. § 134, pp. 666-668.</p></div> <p>On the whole, the rule has in practice always been upheld by Turkey. Foreign light public vessels in the @@ -15095,7 +15054,7 @@ hoisting the Russian war flag.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368">< Perels, p. 30.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#A_case_which_happened_in84">vol. II. § 84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#A_case_which_happened_in84">vol. II. § 84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p></div> @@ -15106,18 +15065,18 @@ hoisting the Russian war flag.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368">< -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 18—Vattel, I. § 266—Hall, § 38—Westlake, I. pp. 141-142—Twiss, -I. §§ 147-148—Taylor, § 251—Moore, I. §§ 154-162—Bluntschli, -§§ 296-302—Hartmann, § 59—Heffter, § 66—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 232-239—Gareis, § 19—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 91—Bonfils, Nos. -486-489—Despagnet, No. 377—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 759-777—Mérignhac, -II. p. 358—Nys, I. pp. 413-422—Rivier, I. § 11—Calvo, I. §§ +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 18—Vattel, I. § 266—Hall, § 38—Westlake, I. pp. 141-142—Twiss, +I. §§ 147-148—Taylor, § 251—Moore, I. §§ 154-162—Bluntschli, +§§ 296-302—Hartmann, § 59—Heffter, § 66—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, +II. pp. 232-239—Gareis, § 19—Liszt, § 9—Ullmann, § 91—Bonfils, Nos. +486-489—Despagnet, No. 377—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 759-777—Mérignhac, +II. p. 358—Nys, I. pp. 413-422—Rivier, I. § 11—Calvo, I. §§ 343-352—Fiore, II. Nos. 799-806, and Code, Nos. 1040-1049—Martens, I. -§ 89—Lord Curzon of Kedleston, "Frontiers" (Romanes lecture of 1907).</p> +§ 89—Lord Curzon of Kedleston, "Frontiers" (Romanes lecture of 1907).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Natural and Artificial Boundaries.</p></div> -<p>§ 198. Boundaries of State territory are the imaginary +<p>§ 198. Boundaries of State territory are the imaginary lines on the surface of the earth which separate the territory of one State from that of another, or from unappropriated territory, or from the Open Sea. The @@ -15143,7 +15102,7 @@ walls, and the Chinese Wall may also be cited as an example.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Boundary Waters.</p></div> -<p>§ 199. <a name="Natural_boundaries199" id="Natural_boundaries199"></a>Natural boundaries consisting of water must +<p>§ 199. <a name="Natural_boundaries199" id="Natural_boundaries199"></a>Natural boundaries consisting of water must be specially discussed on account of the different kinds of boundary waters. Such kinds are rivers, lakes, landlocked seas, and the maritime belt.</p> @@ -15171,7 +15130,7 @@ special treaty arrangements, through the middle of the bridge. As regards the boundary lines running through islands rising in boundary rivers and through the abandoned beds of such rivers, see - below, §§ <a href="#The_same_and_other234">234</a> + below, §§ <a href="#The_same_and_other234">234</a> and <a href="#It_happens_sometimes235">235</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> See @@ -15182,10 +15141,10 @@ a river runs through the lands of two different States. In this latter case the boundary line runs across the river.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> See - Twiss, I. §§ 147 and 148, and Westlake, I. p. 142.</p></div> + Twiss, I. §§ 147 and 148, and Westlake, I. p. 142.</p></div> <p>(2) Boundary lakes and land-locked seas are such as separate the lands of two or more different States from @@ -15194,10 +15153,10 @@ of these lakes and seas, but as a rule special treaties portion off such lakes and seas between riparian States.<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree179">179</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree179">179</a>.</p></div> <p>(3) The boundary line of the maritime belt is, according -to details given above (§ 186), uncertain, since no +to details given above (§ 186), uncertain, since no unanimity prevails with regard to the width of the belt. It is, however, certain that the boundary line runs not nearer to the shore than three miles, or one marine @@ -15209,12 +15168,12 @@ the middle or through the mid-channel,<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_37 treaties make different arrangements.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> See - Twiss, I. §§ 183 and 184, and - above, § <a href="#All_straits194">194</a>.</p></div> + Twiss, I. §§ 183 and 184, and + above, § <a href="#All_straits194">194</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Boundary Mountains.</p></div> -<p>§ 200. Boundary mountains or hills are such natural +<p>§ 200. Boundary mountains or hills are such natural elevations from the common level of the ground as separate the territories of two or more States from each other. Failing special treaty arrangements, the boundary @@ -15228,7 +15187,7 @@ they separate.<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Foo <div class="sidenote"><p>Boundary Disputes.</p></div> -<p>§ 201. Boundary lines are, for many reasons, of such +<p>§ 201. Boundary lines are, for many reasons, of such vital importance that disputes relating thereto are inevitably very frequent and have often led to war. During the nineteenth century, however, a tendency @@ -15257,11 +15216,11 @@ the Dominion of Canada, signed at Washington on April 11, 1908. See Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. IV. (1911), p. 191.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Th171">171</a>, No. 1.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Th171">171</a>, No. 1.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Natural Boundaries <i>sensu politico</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 202. Whereas the term "natural boundaries" in +<p>§ 202. Whereas the term "natural boundaries" in the theory and practice of the Law of Nations means natural signs which indicate the course of boundary lines, the same term is used politically<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> in various different @@ -15290,14 +15249,14 @@ politically.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 89—Hall, § 42*—Westlake, I. p. 61—Phillimore, I. §§ 281-283—Twiss, -I. § 245—Taylor, § 252—Moore, I. §§ 163-168, II. § 177—Bluntschli, -§§ 353-359—Hartmann, § 62—Heffter, § 43—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 242-252—Gareis, § 71—Liszt, §§ 8 and 19—Ullmann, -§ 99—Bonfils, Nos. 340-344—Despagnet, Nos. 190-192—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 366-368—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 834-845, 1038—Rivier, -I. pp. 296-303—Nys, II. pp. 271-279—Calvo, III. § 1583—Fiore, -I. § 380, and Code, Nos. 1095-1097—Martens, I. §§ 94-95—Clauss, "Die +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 89—Hall, § 42*—Westlake, I. p. 61—Phillimore, I. §§ 281-283—Twiss, +I. § 245—Taylor, § 252—Moore, I. §§ 163-168, II. § 177—Bluntschli, +§§ 353-359—Hartmann, § 62—Heffter, § 43—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 242-252—Gareis, § 71—Liszt, §§ 8 and 19—Ullmann, +§ 99—Bonfils, Nos. 340-344—Despagnet, Nos. 190-192—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 366-368—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 834-845, 1038—Rivier, +I. pp. 296-303—Nys, II. pp. 271-279—Calvo, III. § 1583—Fiore, +I. § 380, and Code, Nos. 1095-1097—Martens, I. §§ 94-95—Clauss, "Die Lehre von den Staatsdienstbarkeiten" (1894)—Fabres, "Des servitudes dans le droit international" (1901)—Hollatz, "Begriff und Wesen der Staatsservituten" (1909)—Labrousse, "Des servitudes en droit international @@ -15306,7 +15265,7 @@ and XIII. (1911), pp. 312-323.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 203. <a name="State_servitudes203" id="State_servitudes203"></a>State servitudes are those exceptional and +<p>§ 203. <a name="State_servitudes203" id="State_servitudes203"></a>State servitudes are those exceptional and conventional restrictions on the territorial supremacy of a State by which a part or the whole of its territory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> is in a limited way made perpetually to serve a certain @@ -15330,8 +15289,8 @@ territorial supremacy, that a State is obliged to admit the free passage of foreign merchantmen through its territorial maritime belt.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> This is done, for instance, by Heffter (§ 43), Martens (§ -94), Nys (II. p. 271), and Hall (§ 42*); the latter speaks of the right +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> This is done, for instance, by Heffter (§ 43), Martens (§ +94), Nys (II. p. 271), and Hall (§ 42*); the latter speaks of the right of innocent use of territorial seas as a servitude.</p></div> <p>That State servitudes are or may on occasions be of @@ -15345,8 +15304,8 @@ disputed whether a certain restriction upon territorial supremacy is or is not a State servitude.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> The conception of State servitudes -is rejected by Bulmerincq (§ -49), Gareis (§ 71), Liszt (§§ 8 and 19), +is rejected by Bulmerincq (§ +49), Gareis (§ 71), Liszt (§§ 8 and 19), Jellinek ("Allgemeine Staatslehre," p. 366).</p></div> @@ -15400,7 +15359,7 @@ in R.I. 2nd Ser. XIII. (1911), pp. 5-23, 131-157.<span class="pagenum"><a name=" <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjects of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 204. Subjects of State servitudes are States only +<p>§ 204. Subjects of State servitudes are States only and exclusively, since State servitudes can exist between States only (<i>territorium dominans</i> and <i>territorium serviens</i>). Formerly some writers<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> maintained that @@ -15412,7 +15371,7 @@ rights may be granted by a State to foreign individuals and corporations, such rights can never constitute State servitudes.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> Bluntschli, § 353; Heffter, § 44.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> Bluntschli, § 353; Heffter, § 44.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, every State can acquire and grant State servitudes, although some States may, in @@ -15432,7 +15391,7 @@ provided they have any international status at all.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 205. The object of State servitudes is always the +<p>§ 205. The object of State servitudes is always the whole or a part of the territory of the State the territorial supremacy of which is restricted by any such servitude.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> Since the territory of a State includes not @@ -15445,7 +15404,7 @@ for its subjects to the fishery in the maritime belt of another State, or a right to lay telegraph cables through a foreign maritime belt, or a right to make and use a tunnel through a boundary mountain, and the like. -And should ever aërostation become so developed as +And should ever aërostation become so developed as to be of practical utility, a State servitude might be created through a State acquiring a perpetual right to send military aerial vehicles through the territorial @@ -15458,7 +15417,7 @@ territory.</p> Arbitration Tribunal, in 1910, in the case of the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries, that a State servitude conferred a sovereign right upon the State in favour of which it is established, was refuted - above in § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>, + above in § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>, p. 275.</p></div> <p>Since the object of State servitudes is the territory @@ -15485,14 +15444,14 @@ its territory is made to serve the interest of another State, and such restrictions are therefore State servitudes.<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> See, - for instance, Bluntschli, § 356.</p></div> + for instance, Bluntschli, § 356.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> Thus by article 32 of the peace treaty of Paris, 1856, and by the Convention of March 30, 1856, between Great Britain, France, and Russia, annexed to the peace treaty of Paris—see Martens, N.R.G. XV. pp. 780 and 788—Russia is prevented from fortifying the Aland Islands in the Baltic. See - below, § <a href="#According_to_the_principle522">522</a>, and Waultrin in R.G. XIV. pp. 517-533. + below, § <a href="#According_to_the_principle522">522</a>, and Waultrin in R.G. XIV. pp. 517-533. See also A.J. II. (1908), p. 397.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> Examples of such fishery servitudes are:— @@ -15500,7 +15459,7 @@ See also A.J. II. (1908), p. 397.</p></div> (<i>a</i>) The former French fishery rights in Newfoundland which were based on article 13 of the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, and on the Treaty of Versailles, 1783. See the details regarding the Newfoundland Fishery -Dispute, in Phillimore, I. § 195; Clauss, pp. 17-31; Geffcken in R.I. +Dispute, in Phillimore, I. § 195; Clauss, pp. 17-31; Geffcken in R.I. XXII. p. 217; Brodhurst in <i>Law Magazine and Review</i>, XXIV. p. 67. The French literature on the question is quoted in Bonfils, No. 342, note 1. The dispute is now settled by France's renunciation of the privileges @@ -15517,10 +15476,10 @@ article 1 of the Treaty of 1818 which gave rise to disputes extending over a long period. The dispute is now settled by an award of the Hague Permanent Court of Arbitration given in September (1910). That the Court refused to recognise the conception of State servitudes, was pointed out -above, § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>. See - above, § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>, and the literature there quoted.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>. See + above, § <a href="#State_servitudes203">203</a>, and the literature there quoted.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Phillimore (I. § 283) quotes two interesting State +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Phillimore (I. § 283) quotes two interesting State servitudes which belong to the past. According to articles 4 and 10 of the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, France was, in the interest of Great Britain, not to allow the Stuart Pretender to reside on French @@ -15529,14 +15488,14 @@ Moors and Jews to reside in Gibraltar.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> The controverted question whether neutralisation of a State creates a State servitude is answered by Clauss (p. 167) in the -affirmative, but by Ullmann (§ 99), correctly, I think, in the negative. +affirmative, but by Ullmann (§ 99), correctly, I think, in the negative. But a distinction must be drawn between neutralisation of a whole State and neutralisation of certain parts of a State. In the latter case a State servitude is indeed created.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 206. According to different qualities different kinds +<p>§ 206. According to different qualities different kinds of State servitudes must be distinguished.</p> <p>(1) Affirmative, active, or positive, are those servitudes @@ -15544,7 +15503,7 @@ which give the right to a State to perform certain acts on the territory of another State, such as to build and work a railway, to establish a custom-house, to let an armed force pass through a certain territory -(<i>droit d'étape</i>), or to keep troops in a certain fortress, +(<i>droit d'étape</i>), or to keep troops in a certain fortress, to use a port or an island as a coaling station, and the like.</p> @@ -15575,7 +15534,7 @@ like.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Validity of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 207. <a name="Si207" id="Si207"></a>Since State servitudes, in contradistinction to +<p>§ 207. <a name="Si207" id="Si207"></a>Since State servitudes, in contradistinction to personal rights (rights <i>in personam</i>), are rights inherent to the object with which they are connected (rights <i>in rem</i>), they remain valid and may be exercised however @@ -15584,10 +15543,10 @@ may change. Therefore, if, after the creation of a State servitude, the part of the territory affected comes by subjugation or cession under the territorial supremacy of another State, such servitude remains in force. Thus, -when the Alsatian town of Hüningen became in 1871, +when the Alsatian town of Hüningen became in 1871, together with the whole of Alsace, German territory, the State servitude created by the Treaty of Paris, 1815, -that Hüningen should, in the interest of the Swiss canton +that Hüningen should, in the interest of the Swiss canton of Basle, never be fortified, was not extinguished.<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> Thus, further, when in 1860 the former Sardinian provinces of Chablais and Faucigny became French, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> @@ -15611,13 +15570,13 @@ passage of troops?<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href=" <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> This question became practical when in 1900, during the South African war, Great Britain claimed, and Portugal was ready to grant, passage of troops through Portuguese territory in South Africa. - See below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#For_the_purpose_of306">vol. II. §§ 306</a> + See below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#For_the_purpose_of306">vol. II. §§ 306</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In_contradistinction323">323</a>; Clauss, pp. 212-217; and Dumas in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 289-316.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extinction of State Servitudes.</p></div> -<p>§ 208. State servitudes are extinguished by agreement +<p>§ 208. State servitudes are extinguished by agreement between the States concerned, or by express or tacit<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> renunciation on the part of the State in whose interest they were created. They are not, according to @@ -15640,14 +15599,14 @@ for the purpose of doing away with a State servitude proves only that such appeal has hitherto been unnecessary.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> See - Bluntschli, § 359 b. The opposition of Clauss (p. 219) + Bluntschli, § 359 b. The opposition of Clauss (p. 219) and others to this sound statement of Bluntschli's is not justified.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> See - Bluntschli, § 359 d, and Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 845. + Bluntschli, § 359 d, and Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 845. Clauss (p. 222) and others oppose this sound statement likewise.</p></div> @@ -15660,19 +15619,19 @@ Clauss (p. 222) and others oppose this sound statement likewise.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 203-207—Hall, § 31—Westlake, I. pp. 84-116—Lawrence, §§ 74-78—Phillimore, -I. §§ 222-225—Twiss, I. §§ 113-139—Halleck, I. p. 154—Taylor, -§§ 217-228—Wheaton, §§ 161-163—Bluntschli, §§ 278-295—Hartmann, -§ 61—Heffter, § 69—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. -252-255—Gareis, § 76—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 532—Despagnet, -No. 378—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 781-787—Mérignhac, II. -pp. 410-412—Rivier, I. § 12—Nys, II. pp. 1-3—Calvo, I. § 263—Fiore, -I. Nos. 838-840—Martens, I. § 90—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 203-207—Hall, § 31—Westlake, I. pp. 84-116—Lawrence, §§ 74-78—Phillimore, +I. §§ 222-225—Twiss, I. §§ 113-139—Halleck, I. p. 154—Taylor, +§§ 217-228—Wheaton, §§ 161-163—Bluntschli, §§ 278-295—Hartmann, +§ 61—Heffter, § 69—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. +252-255—Gareis, § 76—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 532—Despagnet, +No. 378—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 781-787—Mérignhac, II. +pp. 410-412—Rivier, I. § 12—Nys, II. pp. 1-3—Calvo, I. § 263—Fiore, +I. Nos. 838-840—Martens, I. § 90—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Who can acquire State Territory?</p></div> -<p>§ 209. <a name="Since_States_only209" id="Since_States_only209"></a>Since States only and exclusively are subjects +<p>§ 209. <a name="Since_States_only209" id="Since_States_only209"></a>Since States only and exclusively are subjects of the Law of Nations, it is obvious that, as far as the Law of Nations is concerned, States<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> solely can acquire State territory. But the acquisition of territory @@ -15688,8 +15647,8 @@ rule, prevented by the Law of Nations from acquiring more territory than it already owns, unless some treaty arrangement precludes it from so doing. As regards the question whether a neutralised State is, by its neutralisation, prevented from acquiring territory, see - above, § <a href="#Without_thereby96">96</a>, and -below, § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Without_thereby96">96</a>, and +below, § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> <p>(1) Whenever a multitude of individuals, living on or entering into such a part of the surface of the globe @@ -15709,7 +15668,7 @@ it matters not how this territory was acquired before the recognition.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#As_the_basis_of_the_Law71">71</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As_the_basis_of_the_Law71">71</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) <a name="Not_essentially_different2of209" id="Not_essentially_different2of209"></a>Not essentially different is the case in which a private individual or a corporation acquires land with @@ -15731,7 +15690,7 @@ must ask a member of the Family of Nations to acknowledge the acquisition as made on its behalf.<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>. The case of Sir James Brooke, who + above, § <a href="#The_former_Congo101">101</a>. The case of Sir James Brooke, who acquired in 1841 Sarawak, in North Borneo, and established an independent State there, of which he became the Sovereign, may also be cited. Sarawak is under English protectorate, but the successor of Sir @@ -15740,11 +15699,11 @@ James Brooke is still recognised as Sovereign.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> The matter is treated with great lucidity by Heimburger, pp. 44-77, who defends the opinion represented in the text against Sir Travers Twiss (I. Preface, p. x.; also in R.I. XV. p. 547, and XVI. p. -237) and other writers. See also Ullmann, § 93.</p></div> +237) and other writers. See also Ullmann, § 93.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Former Doctrine concerning Acquisition of Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 210. No unanimity exists among writers on the +<p>§ 210. No unanimity exists among writers on the Law of Nations with regard to the modes of acquiring territory on the part of the members of the Family of Nations. The topic owes its controversial character to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> @@ -15774,15 +15733,15 @@ Roman Law, although the latter's terminology and common-sense basis may be made use of.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#State_territory_is_that168">168</a>. The distinction between <i>imperium</i> and + above, § <a href="#State_territory_is_that168">168</a>. The distinction between <i>imperium</i> and <i>dominium</i> in Seneca's <i>dictum</i> that "omnia rex imperio possidet, -singuli dominio" was well known, and Grotius, II. c. 3, § 4, quotes it, +singuli dominio" was well known, and Grotius, II. c. 3, § 4, quotes it, but the consequences thereof were nevertheless not deduced. (See Westlake, Chapters, pp. 129-133, and Westlake, I. pp. 84-88.)</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>What Modes of Acquisition of Territory there are.</p></div> -<p>§ 211. States as living organisms grow and decrease +<p>§ 211. States as living organisms grow and decrease in territory. If the historical facts are taken into consideration, different reasons may be found to account for the exercise of sovereignty by a State over the @@ -15813,25 +15772,25 @@ practice of the States recognises cession, occupation, accretion, subjugation, and prescription as distinct modes of acquiring territory.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> Thus Gareis (§ 70) recognises cession and occupation only, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> Thus Gareis (§ 70) recognises cession and occupation only, whereas Heimburger (pp. 106-110) and Holtzendorff (II. p. 254) recognise cession, occupation, and accretion only.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>. Such alleged special modes are sale, + below, § <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>. Such alleged special modes are sale, exchange, gift, marriage contract, testamentary disposition, and the like.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Original and derivative Modes of Acquisition.</p></div> -<p>§ 212. The modes of acquiring territory are correctly +<p>§ 212. The modes of acquiring territory are correctly divided according as the title they give is derived from the title of a prior owner State, or not. Cession is therefore a derivative mode of acquisition, whereas occupation, accretion, subjugation, and prescription are original modes.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> Lawrence (§ 74) enumerates conquest (subjugation) and +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> Lawrence (§ 74) enumerates conquest (subjugation) and prescription besides cession as derivative modes. This is, however, merely the consequence of a peculiar conception of what is called a derivative mode of acquisition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p></div> @@ -15845,19 +15804,19 @@ derivative mode of acquisition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 35—Lawrence, § 76—Phillimore, I. §§ 252-273—Twiss, I. § 138—Walker, -§ 10—Halleck, I. pp. 154-157—Taylor, § 227—Moore, I. §§ 83-86—Bluntschli, -§§ 285-287—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, §§ 69 and 182—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 269-274—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, -§§ 97-98—Bonfils, Nos. 364-371—Mérignhac, II. pp. 487-497—Despagnet, -Nos. 381-391—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 817-819—Rivier, I. -pp. 197-217—Nys, II. pp. 8-31—Calvo, I. § 266—Fiore, II. §§ 860-861, -and Code, No. 1053—Martens, I. § 91—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 35—Lawrence, § 76—Phillimore, I. §§ 252-273—Twiss, I. § 138—Walker, +§ 10—Halleck, I. pp. 154-157—Taylor, § 227—Moore, I. §§ 83-86—Bluntschli, +§§ 285-287—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, §§ 69 and 182—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 269-274—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, +§§ 97-98—Bonfils, Nos. 364-371—Mérignhac, II. pp. 487-497—Despagnet, +Nos. 381-391—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 817-819—Rivier, I. +pp. 197-217—Nys, II. pp. 8-31—Calvo, I. § 266—Fiore, II. §§ 860-861, +and Code, No. 1053—Martens, I. § 91—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888), pp. 110-120.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of cession of State Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 213. Cession of State territory is the transfer of +<p>§ 213. Cession of State territory is the transfer of sovereignty over State territory by the owner State to another State. There is no doubt whatever that such cession is possible according to the Law of Nations, and @@ -15876,17 +15835,17 @@ heads of States or Governments as violate these restrictions are not binding.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#State_territory_is_that168">168</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#State_territory_is_that168">168</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjects of cession.</p></div> -<p>§ 214. <a name="Since_cession_is214" id="Since_cession_is214"></a>Since cession is a bilateral transaction, it has +<p>§ 214. <a name="Since_cession_is214" id="Since_cession_is214"></a>Since cession is a bilateral transaction, it has two subjects—namely, the ceding and the acquiring State. Both subjects must be States, and only those cessions in which both subjects are States concern @@ -15903,18 +15862,18 @@ since such State becomes through the treaty of cession in some respects a member of that family.<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Not_essentially_different2of209">209, No. 2</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Not_essentially_different2of209">209, No. 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Only_such_territory221">221</a> + below, §§ <a href="#Only_such_territory221">221</a> and <a href="#Theory_and_practice222">222</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Doubtful_is_the103">103</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of cession.</p></div> -<p>§ 215. <a name="The_object_of_cession215" id="The_object_of_cession215"></a>The object of cession is sovereignty over such +<p>§ 215. <a name="The_object_of_cession215" id="The_object_of_cession215"></a>The object of cession is sovereignty over such territory as has hitherto already belonged to another State. As far as the Law of Nations is concerned, every State as a rule can cede a part of its territory to another @@ -15925,7 +15884,7 @@ maritime belt, are inalienable appurtenances of the land, they cannot be ceded without a piece of land.<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a> + above, §§ <a href="#It_should_be_mentioned175">175</a> and <a href="#Maritime_belt185">185</a>.</p></div> <p>The controverted question whether permanently @@ -15945,14 +15904,14 @@ which exercised a protectorate over these islands.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> Thus in 1860 Sardinia ceded her neutralised provinces of Chablais and Faucigny to France. See - above, §207.</p></div> + above, §207.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Without_thereby96">96</a>, and the literature there quoted.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Without_thereby96">96</a>, and the literature there quoted.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form of cession.</p></div> -<p>§ 216. <a name="The_only_form216" id="The_only_form216"></a>The only form in which a cession can be effected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +<p>§ 216. <a name="The_only_form216" id="The_only_form216"></a>The only form in which a cession can be effected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> is an agreement embodied in a treaty between the ceding and the acquiring State. Such treaty may be the outcome of peaceable negotiations or of war, and the @@ -15999,17 +15958,17 @@ leased in 1898 Kiaochau to Germany,<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_4 and the land opposite the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain,<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> and Port Arthur to Russia.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> Phillimore, I. §§ 274-276, enumerates many examples of such +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> Phillimore, I. §§ 274-276, enumerates many examples of such cession. The question whether the monarch of a State under absolute government could nowadays by a testamentary disposition cede territory to another State must, I believe, be answered in the affirmative.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_third_case3of171">171, No. 3</a>. Cession may also take place under + above, § <a href="#The_third_case3of171">171, No. 3</a>. Cession may also take place under the disguise of an agreement according to which territory comes under the "administration" or under the "use, occupation, and control" of a foreign State. See - above, § <a href="#The_second_case2of171">171, Nos. 2</a> + above, § <a href="#The_second_case2of171">171, Nos. 2</a> and <a href="#The_fourth_case4of171">4</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> See @@ -16027,11 +15986,11 @@ transit cum suo onere</i>, and <i>Nemo plus juris transferre potest, quam ipse habet</i>).</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> How far a succession of States takes place in the case of -cession of territory has been discussed above, § 84.</p></div> +cession of territory has been discussed above, § 84.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Tradition of the ceded Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 217. The treaty of cession must be followed by +<p>§ 217. The treaty of cession must be followed by actual tradition of the territory to the new owner State, unless such territory is already occupied by the new owner, as in the case where the cession is the outcome @@ -16056,7 +16015,7 @@ actually taken possession of it.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Veto of third Powers.</p></div> -<p>§ 218. As a rule, no third Power has the right of +<p>§ 218. As a rule, no third Power has the right of <i>veto</i> with regard to a cession of territory. Exceptionally, however, such right may exist. It may be that a third Power has by a previous treaty acquired a right @@ -16081,18 +16040,18 @@ and the cession was not effected, but Luxemburg became permanently neutralised.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> See - above. § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> + above. § <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Since_States_only209">209</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Since_States_only209">209</a> and <a href="#The_object_of_cession215">215</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction136">136</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_contradistinction136">136</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Plebiscite and option.</p></div> -<p>§ 219. <a name="As_the_object219" id="As_the_object219"></a>As the object of cession is sovereignty over +<p>§ 219. <a name="As_the_object219" id="As_the_object219"></a>As the object of cession is sovereignty over the ceded territory, all such individuals domiciled thereon as are subjects of the ceding State become <i>ipso facto</i> by the cession subjects<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> of the acquiring State. The hardship @@ -16114,20 +16073,20 @@ cases they will not allow it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> See Keith, "The Theory of State Succession, &c." (1907), -pp. 42-45; Cogordan, "La Nationalité" (1890), pp. 317-400; Moore, III. § +pp. 42-45; Cogordan, "La Nationalité" (1890), pp. 317-400; Moore, III. § 379.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> See Stoerk, "Option und Plebiscite" (1879); Rivier, I. p. 204; Freudenthal, "Die Volksabstimmung bei Gebietsabtretungen und -Eroberungen" (1891); Bonfils, No. 570; Despagnet, No. 391; Ullmann, § +Eroberungen" (1891); Bonfils, No. 570; Despagnet, No. 391; Ullmann, § 97.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> See Rivier, I. p. 210, where all these treaties are enumerated.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> Although Grotius (II. c. VI. § 4) taught this to be +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> Although Grotius (II. c. VI. § 4) taught this to be necessary.</p></div> <p>The hardship of the inhabitants being handed over @@ -16165,7 +16124,7 @@ but domiciled at the time of the cession in Great Britain, would not have lost their French citizenship through the cession to Germany but for article 1, part 2, of the additional treaty of Dec. 11, 1871, to the Peace Treaty of Frankfort. (Martens, N.R.G. XX. p. 847.) See Bonfils, -No. 427, and Cogordan, "La Nationalité, &c." (1890), p. 361.</p></div> +No. 427, and Cogordan, "La Nationalité, &c." (1890), p. 361.</p></div> @@ -16175,25 +16134,25 @@ No. 427, and Cogordan, "La Nationalité, &c." (1890), p. 361.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 32-34—Westlake, I. pp. 96-111, 119-133—Lawrence, § 74—Phillimore, -I. §§ 236-250—Twiss, I. §§ 118-126—Halleck, I. p. 154—Taylor, §§ 221-224—Walker, -§ 9—Wharton, I. § 2—Moore, I. §§ 80-81—Wheaton, §§ -165-174—Bluntschli, §§ 278-283—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, § 70—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 255-266—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, -§§ 93-96—Bonfils, Nos. 536-563—Despagnet, Nos. 329-399—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 419-487—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 784-802—Rivier, -I. pp. 188-197—Nys, II. pp. 47-108—Calvo, I. §§ 266-282—Fiore, II. -Nos. 841-849, and Code, Nos. 1054-1067—Martens, I. § 90—Tartarin, -"Traité de l'occupation" (1873)—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 155-187—Heimburger, +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 32-34—Westlake, I. pp. 96-111, 119-133—Lawrence, § 74—Phillimore, +I. §§ 236-250—Twiss, I. §§ 118-126—Halleck, I. p. 154—Taylor, §§ 221-224—Walker, +§ 9—Wharton, I. § 2—Moore, I. §§ 80-81—Wheaton, §§ +165-174—Bluntschli, §§ 278-283—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, § 70—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 255-266—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, +§§ 93-96—Bonfils, Nos. 536-563—Despagnet, Nos. 329-399—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 419-487—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 784-802—Rivier, +I. pp. 188-197—Nys, II. pp. 47-108—Calvo, I. §§ 266-282—Fiore, II. +Nos. 841-849, and Code, Nos. 1054-1067—Martens, I. § 90—Tartarin, +"Traité de l'occupation" (1873)—Westlake, Chapters, pp. 155-187—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888), pp. 103-155—Salomon, -"L'occupation des territoires sans maître" (1889)—Jèze, -"Étude théorique et pratique sur l'occupation, &c." (1896)—Macdonell +"L'occupation des territoires sans maître" (1889)—Jèze, +"Étude théorique et pratique sur l'occupation, &c." (1896)—Macdonell in the <i>Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, New Series, I. (1899), pp. 276-286—Waultrin in R.G. XV. (1908), pp. 78, 185, 401.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 220. Occupation is the act of appropriation by a +<p>§ 220. Occupation is the act of appropriation by a State through which it intentionally acquires sovereignty over such territory as is at the time not under the sovereignty of another State. Occupation as a mode @@ -16211,14 +16170,14 @@ that is, it must be performed in the service of a State, or it must be acknowledged by a State after its performance.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Conquest_is236">236</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Conquest_is236">236</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_States_only209">209</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_States_only209">209</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 221. <a name="Only_such_territory221" id="Only_such_territory221"></a>Only such territory can be the object of +<p>§ 221. <a name="Only_such_territory221" id="Only_such_territory221"></a>Only such territory can be the object of occupation as is no State's land, whether entirely uninhabited, as <i>e.g.</i> an island, or inhabited by natives whose community is not to be considered as a State. @@ -16237,10 +16196,10 @@ abandoned, is a possible object for occupation on the part of another State.<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_cession_is214">214</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_cession_is214">214</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#As_soon_as228">228</a> + below, §§ <a href="#As_soon_as228">228</a> and <a href="#Dereliction_as_a_mode247">247</a>.</p></div> <p>Although the Open Sea is free and is, therefore, not @@ -16249,7 +16208,7 @@ Open Sea may become the object of occupation through driving mines and piercing tunnels from the coast.<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> + below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> and <a href="#Since_there_is287d">287<i>d</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> When, in 1909, Admiral Peary reached the North Pole and @@ -16261,7 +16220,7 @@ pp. 265-275.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occupation how effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 222. <a name="Theory_and_practice222" id="Theory_and_practice222"></a>Theory and practice agree nowadays upon the +<p>§ 222. <a name="Theory_and_practice222" id="Theory_and_practice222"></a>Theory and practice agree nowadays upon the rule that occupation is effected through taking possession of and establishing an administration over the territory in the name of and for the acquiring State.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> @@ -16298,7 +16257,7 @@ respective territory would be acquired by cession, and not by occupation. But although it is nowadays quite usual to obtain a cession from a native chief, this is, nevertheless, not cession in the technical sense of the term in International Law; see - above, § <a href="#Since_cession_is214">214</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_cession_is214">214</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) After having, in the aforementioned way, taken possession of a territory, the possessor must establish @@ -16312,7 +16271,7 @@ sovereignty of a State is exercised over the territory.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Inchoate Title of Discovery.</p></div> -<p>§ 223. In former times the two conditions of possession +<p>§ 223. In former times the two conditions of possession and administration which now make the occupation effective were not considered necessary for the acquisition of territory through occupation. In the age of @@ -16340,13 +16299,13 @@ title perishes, and any other State can now acquire the territory by means of an effective occupation.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> See - Vattel, I. § 208.</p></div> + Vattel, I. § 208.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> Thus Hall, § 32.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> Thus Hall, § 32.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Notification of Occupation to other Powers.</p></div> -<p>§ 224. No rule of the Law of Nations exists which +<p>§ 224. No rule of the Law of Nations exists which makes notification of occupation to other Powers a necessary condition of its validity. But as regards all future occupations on the <i>African</i> coast the Powers @@ -16364,7 +16323,7 @@ African coast to occupations everywhere else.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extent of Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 225. Since an occupation is valid only if effective, +<p>§ 225. Since an occupation is valid only if effective, it is obvious that the extent of an occupation ought only to reach over so much territory as is effectively occupied. In practice, however, the interested States @@ -16412,24 +16371,24 @@ on the basis of strict law; they must nearly always be compromised, whether by a treaty or by arbitration.<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> Claim of the United States in the Oregon Boundary dispute -(1827) with Great Britain. See Twiss, I. §§ 126 and 127, and his "The -Oregon Question Examined" (1846); Phillimore, I. § 250; Hall, § 34.</p></div> +(1827) with Great Britain. See Twiss, I. §§ 126 and 127, and his "The +Oregon Question Examined" (1846); Phillimore, I. § 250; Hall, § 34.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> Claim of the United States in their dispute with Spain -concerning the boundary of Louisiana (1803), approved of by Twiss, I. § +concerning the boundary of Louisiana (1803), approved of by Twiss, I. § 125.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> This is the so-called "right of contiguity," approved of by -Twiss, I. §§ 124 and 131.</p></div> +Twiss, I. §§ 124 and 131.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> The Institute of International Law, in 1887, at its meeting -in Lausanne, adopted a "Projet de déclaration internationale relatif aux +in Lausanne, adopted a "Projet de déclaration internationale relatif aux occupations de territoires," comprising ten articles; see Annuaire, X. p. 201.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protectorate as Precursor of Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 226. <a name="The_growing_desire_to226" id="The_growing_desire_to226"></a>The growing desire to acquire vast territories +<p>§ 226. <a name="The_growing_desire_to226" id="The_growing_desire_to226"></a>The growing desire to acquire vast territories as colonies on the part of States unable at once to occupy effectively such territories has, in the second half of the nineteenth century, led to the contracting @@ -16456,15 +16415,15 @@ inchoate title, and are preparations and precursors of future occupations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Legally_and_materially92">92</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Legally_and_materially92">92</a> and <a href="#The_position_of_a_State93">93</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Outside_Europe_there_are94">94</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Outside_Europe_there_are94">94</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Spheres of influence.</p></div> -<p>§ 227. The uncertainty of the extent of an occupation +<p>§ 227. The uncertainty of the extent of an occupation and the tendency of every colonising State to extend its occupation constantly and gradually into the interior, the "Hinterland," of an occupied territory, @@ -16497,12 +16456,12 @@ in 1886 and 1890, and with France<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> Protectorates and Spheres of Influence are exhaustively treated in Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown," -§§ 92-100; but Hall fails to distinguish between protectorates over +§§ 92-100; but Hall fails to distinguish between protectorates over Eastern States and protectorates over native tribes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 228. <a name="As_soon_as228" id="As_soon_as228"></a>As soon as a territory is occupied by a member +<p>§ 228. <a name="As_soon_as228" id="As_soon_as228"></a>As soon as a territory is occupied by a member of the Family of Nations, it comes within the sphere of the Law of Nations, because it constitutes a portion of the territory of a subject of International Law. No @@ -16520,7 +16479,7 @@ against neighbouring territories, and has eventually to punish them for such acts.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Dereliction_as_a_mode247">247</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Dereliction_as_a_mode247">247</a>.</p></div> <p>A question of some importance is how far occupation affects private property of the inhabitants of the occupied @@ -16550,20 +16509,20 @@ land, such title is not based on International Law.<span class="pagenum"><a name <span class="smaller">ACCRETION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 8, §§ 8-16—Hall, § 37—Lawrence, § 75—Phillimore, I. §§ 240-241—Twiss, -I. §§ 131 and 154—Moore, I. § 82—Bluntschli, §§ 294-295—Hartmann, -§ 61—Heffter, § 69—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 266-268—Gareis, -§ 20—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 533—Despagnet, -No. 387—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 803-816—Rivier, I. pp. 179-180—Nys, -II. pp. 3-7—Calvo, I. § 266—Fiore, II. No. 852, and Code, Nos. 1068-1070—Martens, -I. § 90—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 8, §§ 8-16—Hall, § 37—Lawrence, § 75—Phillimore, I. §§ 240-241—Twiss, +I. §§ 131 and 154—Moore, I. § 82—Bluntschli, §§ 294-295—Hartmann, +§ 61—Heffter, § 69—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 266-268—Gareis, +§ 20—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 533—Despagnet, +No. 387—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 803-816—Rivier, I. pp. 179-180—Nys, +II. pp. 3-7—Calvo, I. § 266—Fiore, II. No. 852, and Code, Nos. 1068-1070—Martens, +I. § 90—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888), p. 107.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Accretion.</p></div> -<p>§ 229. Accretion is the name for the increase of land +<p>§ 229. Accretion is the name for the increase of land through new formations. Such new formations may be a modification only of the existing State territory, as, for instance, where an island rises within such river @@ -16583,7 +16542,7 @@ as a mode of acquiring territory.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Accretion.</p></div> -<p>§ 230. New formations through accretion may be +<p>§ 230. New formations through accretion may be artificial or natural. They are artificial if they are the outcome of human work. They are natural if they are produced through operation of nature. And @@ -16593,7 +16552,7 @@ new-born islands, and abandoned river beds.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Artificial Formations.</p></div> -<p>§ 231. Artificial formations are embankments, breakwaters, +<p>§ 231. Artificial formations are embankments, breakwaters, dykes, and the like, built along the river or the coast-line of the sea. As such artificial new formations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> along the bank of a boundary river may more or less @@ -16611,11 +16570,11 @@ since the extent of the at least three miles wide maritime belt is now to be measured from the extended shore.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Alluvions.</p></div> -<p>§ 232. Alluvion is the name for an accession of land +<p>§ 232. Alluvion is the name for an accession of land washed up on the sea-shore or on a river-bank by the waters. Such accession is as a rule produced by a slow and gradual process, but sometimes also through a @@ -16635,11 +16594,11 @@ or through the mid-channel,<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a> into former territory of the other riparian State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>, No. 1.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Natural_boundaries199">199</a>, No. 1.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Deltas.</p></div> -<p>§ 233. Similar to alluvions are Deltas. Delta is the +<p>§ 233. Similar to alluvions are Deltas. Delta is the name for a tract of land at the mouth of a river shaped like the Greek letter Δ, which land owes its existence to a gradual deposit by the river of sand, stones, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> @@ -16657,7 +16616,7 @@ from the shore of the Delta.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>New-born Islands.</p></div> -<p>§ 234. <a name="The_same_and_other234" id="The_same_and_other234"></a>The same and other natural processes which +<p>§ 234. <a name="The_same_and_other234" id="The_same_and_other234"></a>The same and other natural processes which create alluvions on the shore and banks, and Deltas at the mouths of rivers, lead to the birth of new islands. If they rise on the High Seas outside the territorial maritime @@ -16696,7 +16655,7 @@ of earth and trees drifted down into the sea.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Abandoned Riverbeds.</p></div> -<p>§ 235. <a name="It_happens_sometimes235" id="It_happens_sometimes235"></a>It happens sometimes that a river abandons +<p>§ 235. <a name="It_happens_sometimes235" id="It_happens_sometimes235"></a>It happens sometimes that a river abandons its bed entirely or dries up altogether. If such river was a boundary river, the abandoned bed is now the natural boundary. But often the old boundary line @@ -16715,19 +16674,19 @@ that of the other diminished.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 199-203—Hall, §§ 204-205—Lawrence, § 77—Halleck, II. pp. -467-498—Taylor, § 220—Walker, § 11—Wheaton, § 165—Moore, I. § 87—Bluntschli, -§§ 287-289, 701-702—Heffter, § 178—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, -§§ 92 and 97—Bonfils, No. 535—Despagnet, Nos. 387-390—Rivier, I. pp. -181-182, II. 436-441—Nys, II. pp. 40-46—Calvo, V. §§ 3117, 3118—Fiore, -II. No. 863, III. No. 1693, and Code, Nos. 1078-1081—Martens, I. § 91—Holtzendorff, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, III. §§ 199-203—Hall, §§ 204-205—Lawrence, § 77—Halleck, II. pp. +467-498—Taylor, § 220—Walker, § 11—Wheaton, § 165—Moore, I. § 87—Bluntschli, +§§ 287-289, 701-702—Heffter, § 178—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, +§§ 92 and 97—Bonfils, No. 535—Despagnet, Nos. 387-390—Rivier, I. pp. +181-182, II. 436-441—Nys, II. pp. 40-46—Calvo, V. §§ 3117, 3118—Fiore, +II. No. 863, III. No. 1693, and Code, Nos. 1078-1081—Martens, I. § 91—Holtzendorff, "Eroberung und Eroberungsrecht" (1871)—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888), pp. 121-132—Westlake in <i>The Law Quarterly Review</i>, XVII. (1901), p. 392.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Conquest and of Subjugation.</p></div> -<p>§ 236. <a name="Conquest_is236" id="Conquest_is236"></a>Conquest is the taking possession of enemy +<p>§ 236. <a name="Conquest_is236" id="Conquest_is236"></a>Conquest is the taking possession of enemy territory through military force in time of war. Conquest alone does not <i>ipso facto</i> make the conquering State the sovereign of the conquered territory, although @@ -16751,15 +16710,15 @@ but cession.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footn <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> Concerning the distinction between conquest and subjugation, see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Subjugation_must_not264">vol. II. § 264</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Subjugation_must_not264">vol. II. § 264</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a> + above, §§ <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a> and <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjugation in Contradistinction to Occupation.</p></div> -<p>§ 237. Some writers<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> maintain that subjugation is +<p>§ 237. Some writers<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> maintain that subjugation is only a special case of occupation, because, as they assert, through conquest the enemy territory becomes no State's land and the conqueror can acquire it by @@ -16784,7 +16743,7 @@ although not through cession, but through annexation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Justification of Subjugation as a Mode of Acquisition.</p></div> -<p>§ 238. As long as a Law of Nations has been in +<p>§ 238. As long as a Law of Nations has been in existence, the States as well as the vast majority of writers have recognised subjugation as a mode of acquiring territory. Its justification lies in the fact @@ -16807,11 +16766,11 @@ Code N. See also Despagnet, Nos. 387-390.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> It should be mentioned that the Pan-American Congress at Washington, 1890, passed a resolution that conquest should hereafter not -be a mode of acquisition of territory in America; see Moore, I. § 87.</p></div> +be a mode of acquisition of territory in America; see Moore, I. § 87.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subjugation of the whole or of a part of Enemy Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 239. Subjugation is as a rule a mode of acquiring +<p>§ 239. Subjugation is as a rule a mode of acquiring the entire enemy territory. The actual process is regularly that the victor destroys the enemy military forces, takes possession of the enemy territory, and then @@ -16833,10 +16792,10 @@ conquered territory, submits silently<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459 or by simple cessation of hostilities.<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Un273">vol. II. § 273</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Un273">vol. II. § 273</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Since_in_the_case263">vol. II. § 263</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Since_in_the_case263">vol. II. § 263</a>.</p></div> <p>It must, however, be emphasised that such a mode of acquiring a part of enemy territory is totally different @@ -16855,18 +16814,18 @@ asserted that annexation gives a title only after a conquest is not firmly established.<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_characteristics60">vol. II. § 60</a>, concerning guerilla war after the + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_characteristics60">vol. II. § 60</a>, concerning guerilla war after the termination of real war. Many writers, however, deny that a conquest is firmly established as long as guerilla war is going on.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consequences of Subjugation.</p></div> -<p>§ 240. <a name="Although_subjugation240" id="Although_subjugation240"></a>Although subjugation is an original mode of +<p>§ 240. <a name="Although_subjugation240" id="Although_subjugation240"></a>Although subjugation is an original mode of acquisition, since the sovereignty of the new acquirer is not derived from that of the former owner State, the new owner State is nevertheless the successor of the former owner State as regards many points which have -been discussed above (§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>). It must be specially mentioned +been discussed above (§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>). It must be specially mentioned that, as far as the Law of Nations is concerned, the subjugator does not acquire the private property of the inhabitants of the annexed territory. Being @@ -16918,8 +16877,8 @@ inhabitants of the conquered territory.</p> Hall <i>v.</i> Campbell (1774), 1 Cowper 1208, and United States <i>v.</i> Repentigny (1866), 5 Wallace, 211. The case is similar to that of cession: see - above, § <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a>; Keith, "The Theory of State -Succession" (1907), pp. 45 and 48; Moore, III. § 379.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a>; Keith, "The Theory of State +Succession" (1907), pp. 45 and 48; Moore, III. § 379.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> See Halleck, II. p. 476.</p></div> @@ -16948,7 +16907,7 @@ rights as those which its citizens by birth enjoy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Veto of third Powers.</p></div> -<p>§ 241. Although subjugation is an original mode of +<p>§ 241. Although subjugation is an original mode of acquiring territory and no third Power has as a rule<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> a right of intervention, the conqueror has not in fact an unlimited possibility of annexation of the territory of @@ -16973,20 +16932,20 @@ Powers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span <span class="smaller">PRESCRIPTION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 4—Vattel, I. §§ 140-151—Hall, § 36—Westlake, I. pp. 92-94—Lawrence, -§ 78—Phillimore, I. §§ 251-261—Twiss, I. § 129—Taylor, -§§ 218-219—Walker, § 13—Wheaton, § 164—Moore, I. § 88—Bluntschli, -§ 290—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, § 12—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. p. -255—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 534—Mérignhac, II. p. 412—Despagnet, -No. 380—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 820-829—Rivier, I. pp. 182-184—Nys, -II. pp. 34-39—Calvo, I. §§ 264-265—Fiore, II. Nos. 850-851, and Code, -Nos. 1074-1077—Martens, I. § 90—G. F. Martens, §§ 70-71—Bynkershoek, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 4—Vattel, I. §§ 140-151—Hall, § 36—Westlake, I. pp. 92-94—Lawrence, +§ 78—Phillimore, I. §§ 251-261—Twiss, I. § 129—Taylor, +§§ 218-219—Walker, § 13—Wheaton, § 164—Moore, I. § 88—Bluntschli, +§ 290—Hartmann, § 61—Heffter, § 12—Holtzendorff in Holtzendorff, II. p. +255—Ullmann, § 92—Bonfils, No. 534—Mérignhac, II. p. 412—Despagnet, +No. 380—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 820-829—Rivier, I. pp. 182-184—Nys, +II. pp. 34-39—Calvo, I. §§ 264-265—Fiore, II. Nos. 850-851, and Code, +Nos. 1074-1077—Martens, I. § 90—G. F. Martens, §§ 70-71—Bynkershoek, "Quaestiones juris publici," IV. c 12—Heimburger, "Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit" (1888), pp. 140-155—Ralston in A.J. IV. (1910), pp. 133-144.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Prescription.</p></div> -<p>§ 242. Since the existence of a science of the Law +<p>§ 242. Since the existence of a science of the Law of Nations there has always been opposition to prescription as a mode of acquiring territory. Grotius rejected the usucaption of the Roman Law, yet adopted @@ -17001,16 +16960,16 @@ for the possessor, if the possession has lasted for some length of time.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> See - Grotius, II. c. 4, §§ 1, 7, 9.</p></div> + Grotius, II. c. 4, §§ 1, 7, 9.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> See, - for instance, Heffter, § 12; Martens, § 90.</p></div> + for instance, Heffter, § 12; Martens, § 90.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> G. F. Martens, § 71; Klüber, §§ 6 and 125; Holtzendorff, -II. p. 255; Ullmann, § 92.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> G. F. Martens, § 71; Klüber, §§ 6 and 125; Holtzendorff, +II. p. 255; Ullmann, § 92.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Vattel, II. § 147; Wheaton, § 165; Phillimore, I. § 259; -Hall, § 36; Bluntschli, § 290; Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 825; Bonfils, No. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Vattel, II. § 147; Wheaton, § 165; Phillimore, I. § 259; +Hall, § 36; Bluntschli, § 290; Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 825; Bonfils, No. 534, and many others.</p></div> <p>This opinion would indeed seem to be correct, because @@ -17052,7 +17011,7 @@ wrongful possession.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Prescription how effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 243. From the conception of prescription, as above +<p>§ 243. From the conception of prescription, as above defined, it becomes apparent that no general rule can be laid down as regards the length of time and other circumstances which are necessary to create a title by @@ -17106,14 +17065,14 @@ a political and historical character, differ so much in the different cases that the length of time necessary for prescription must likewise differ.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> Vattel (II. § 151) suggests that the members of the Family +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> Vattel (II. § 151) suggests that the members of the Family of Nations should enter into an agreement stipulating the number of years necessary for prescription, and David Dudley Field proposes the following rule (52) in his Outlines of an International Code: "The uninterrupted possession of territory or other property for fifty years by a nation excludes the claim of every other nation."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> Heffter's (§ 12) dictum, "Hundert Jahre Unrecht ist noch +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> Heffter's (§ 12) dictum, "Hundert Jahre Unrecht ist noch kein Tag Recht" is met by the fact that it is not the operation of time alone, but the co-operation of other circumstances and influences which creates the title by prescription.</p></div> @@ -17126,14 +17085,14 @@ creates the title by prescription.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 34—Phillimore, I. §§ 284-295—Moore, I. §§ 89 and 90—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 274-279—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, -§ 101—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 850-852—Rivier, I. § 13—Fiore, II. -No. 865—Martens, I. § 92.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 34—Phillimore, I. §§ 284-295—Moore, I. §§ 89 and 90—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 274-279—Gareis, § 70—Liszt, § 10—Ullmann, +§ 101—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 850-852—Rivier, I. § 13—Fiore, II. +No. 865—Martens, I. § 92.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Six modes of losing State Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 244. To the five modes of acquiring sovereignty +<p>§ 244. To the five modes of acquiring sovereignty over territory correspond five modes of losing it—namely, cession, dereliction, operation of nature, subjugation, prescription. But there is a sixth mode of @@ -17148,12 +17107,12 @@ operation of nature, revolt, and dereliction must be specially discussed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Th171">171</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Th171">171</a> and <a href="#The_only_form216">216</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Operation of Nature.</p></div> -<p>§ 245. Operation of nature as a mode of losing corresponds +<p>§ 245. Operation of nature as a mode of losing corresponds to accretion as a mode of acquiring territory. Just as through accretion a State may become enlarged, so it may become diminished through the disappearance @@ -17175,7 +17134,7 @@ to the present middle or mid-channel of the river.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Revolt.</p></div> -<p>§ 246. Revolt followed by secession is a mode of +<p>§ 246. Revolt followed by secession is a mode of losing territory to which no mode of acquisition corresponds.<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> Revolt followed by secession has, as history teaches, frequently been a cause of loss of territory. @@ -17191,7 +17150,7 @@ once for all, since no hard-and-fast rule can be laid down regarding the time when it can be said that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> State broken off from another has established itself safely and permanently. The matter has, as will be -remembered, been treated above (§ 74), in connection +remembered, been treated above (§ 74), in connection with recognition. It may well happen that, although such a seceded State is already recognised by a third Power, the mother country does not consider the territory @@ -17205,7 +17164,7 @@ whole territory.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Dereliction.</p></div> -<p>§ 247. <a name="Dereliction_as_a_mode247" id="Dereliction_as_a_mode247"></a>Dereliction as a mode of losing corresponds +<p>§ 247. <a name="Dereliction_as_a_mode247" id="Dereliction_as_a_mode247"></a>Dereliction as a mode of losing corresponds to occupation as a mode of acquiring territory. Dereliction frees a territory from the sovereignty of the present owner State. Dereliction is effected through @@ -17233,10 +17192,10 @@ of the island of Santa Lucia and of the Delagoa Bay may be quoted as illustrations:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice222">222</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice222">222</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#As_soon_as228">228</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As_soon_as228">228</a>.</p></div> <p>(<i>a</i>) In 1639 Santa Lucia, one of the Antilles Islands, was occupied by England, but in the following year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> @@ -17256,7 +17215,7 @@ however, England resigned her claims by the Peace Treaty of Paris of 1763.<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> See - Hall, § 34, and Moore, I. § 89.</p></div> + Hall, § 34, and Moore, I. § 89.</p></div> <p>(<i>b</i>) In 1823 England occupied, in consequence of a so-called cession from native chiefs, a piece of territory @@ -17272,7 +17231,7 @@ Portugal had exercised sovereignty for nearly three hundred years.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> See - Hall, § 34. The text of the award is printed in Moore, + Hall, § 34. The text of the award is printed in Moore, "Arbitrations," V. p. 4984.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p></div> @@ -17288,22 +17247,22 @@ hundred years.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Foo </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, § 3—Pufendorf, IV. c. 5, § 5—Vattel, I. §§ 279-286—Hall, -§ 40—Westlake, I. pp. 161-162—Phillimore, I. §§ 172-179—Taylor, §§ 242-246—Walker, -Science, pp. 163-171—Wheaton, §§ 186-187—Hartmann, -§ 64—Heffter, § 73—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 483-490—Bonfils, Nos. -573-576—Despagnet, No. 401—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 871-874—Nys, -II. pp. 132-139—Mérignhac, II. pp. 498-505—Calvo, I. §§ 347-352—Fiore, -II. Nos. 718-726—Martens, I. § 97—Perels, § 4—Azuni, "Diritto +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 2, § 3—Pufendorf, IV. c. 5, § 5—Vattel, I. §§ 279-286—Hall, +§ 40—Westlake, I. pp. 161-162—Phillimore, I. §§ 172-179—Taylor, §§ 242-246—Walker, +Science, pp. 163-171—Wheaton, §§ 186-187—Hartmann, +§ 64—Heffter, § 73—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 483-490—Bonfils, Nos. +573-576—Despagnet, No. 401—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 871-874—Nys, +II. pp. 132-139—Mérignhac, II. pp. 498-505—Calvo, I. §§ 347-352—Fiore, +II. Nos. 718-726—Martens, I. § 97—Perels, § 4—Azuni, "Diritto maritimo" (1796), 1, c. I. Article III.—Cauchy, "Le droit maritime -international considéré dans ses origines," 2 vols. (1862)—Nys, "Les +international considéré dans ses origines," 2 vols. (1862)—Nys, "Les origines du droit international" (1894), pp. 377-388—Castel, "Du -principe de la liberté des mers" (1900), pp. 1-15—Fulton, "The +principe de la liberté des mers" (1900), pp. 1-15—Fulton, "The Sovereignty of the Seas" (1911), pp. 1-56.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Former Claims to Control over the Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 248. <a name="In_antiquity248" id="In_antiquity248"></a>In antiquity and the first half of the Middle +<p>§ 248. <a name="In_antiquity248" id="In_antiquity248"></a>In antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages navigation on the Open Sea was free to everybody. According to Ulpianus,<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a> the sea is open to everybody by nature, and, according to Celsus,<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> the sea, like the @@ -17357,7 +17316,7 @@ Adriatic Sea.<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Foot century compelled foreigners to take out an English licence for fishing in the North Sea; and when in 1636 the Dutch attempted to fish without such licence, they -were attacked and compelled to pay £30,000 as the +were attacked and compelled to pay £30,000 as the price for the indulgence.<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> Again, when Philip II. of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> Spain was in 1554 on his way to England to marry Queen Mary, the British Admiral, who met him in the @@ -17370,12 +17329,12 @@ strike the Danish flag.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> See Walker, "History," I. p. 163.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> This and the two following examples are quoted by Hall, § +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> This and the two following examples are quoted by Hall, § 40.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Practical Expression of claims to Maritime Sovereignty.</p></div> -<p>§ 249. Maritime sovereignty found expression in +<p>§ 249. Maritime sovereignty found expression in maritime ceremonials at least. Such State as claimed sovereignty over a part of the Open Sea required foreign vessels navigating on that part to honour its @@ -17396,7 +17355,7 @@ to His Majesty."</p> Fulton, "The Sovereignty of the Seas" (1911), pp. 38 and 204-208.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> Quoted by Hall, § 40.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> Quoted by Hall, § 40.</p></div> <p>But apart from maritime ceremonials maritime sovereignty found expression in the levying of tolls from @@ -17431,7 +17390,7 @@ England's claims would have incurred her royal displeasure.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Grotius's Attack on Maritime Sovereignty.</p></div> -<p>§ 250. <a name="Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250" id="Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250"></a>Queen Elizabeth's attitude was the germ out +<p>§ 250. <a name="Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250" id="Queen_Elizabeths_attitude250"></a>Queen Elizabeth's attitude was the germ out of which grew gradually the present freedom of the Open Sea. Twenty-nine years after her answer to Mendoza, in 1609, appeared Grotius's short treatise<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> @@ -17468,17 +17427,17 @@ competit ad Indicana commercia Dissertatio," and it is now proved that this short treatise is only chapter 12 of another work of Grotius, "De jure praedae," which was found in manuscript in 1864 and published in 1868. See - above, § <a href="#Although_Grotius_owes_much53">53</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_Grotius_owes_much53">53</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> Grotius was by no means the first author who defended the freedom of the sea. See Nys, "Les origines du droit international," pp. 381 and 382.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> See - Phillimore, I. § 182.</p></div> + Phillimore, I. § 182.</p></div> <p>The general opposition to Grotius's bold attack on maritime sovereignty prevented his immediate victory. @@ -17502,11 +17461,11 @@ to salute the British flag within the "British Seas" as a recognition of British maritime sovereignty.<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> See - Hall, § 40, p. 152, note 1.</p></div> + Hall, § 40, p. 152, note 1.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Gradual Recognition of the Freedom of the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 251. <a name="In_spite_of_opposition251" id="In_spite_of_opposition251"></a>In spite of opposition, the work of Grotius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +<p>§ 251. <a name="In_spite_of_opposition251" id="In_spite_of_opposition251"></a>In spite of opposition, the work of Grotius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> was not to be undone. All prominent writers of the eighteenth century take up again the case of the freedom of the Open Sea, making a distinction between @@ -17543,7 +17502,7 @@ in 1886 with Great Britain, which was settled by arbitration<a name="FNanchor_49 in 1893 in favour of the freedom of the Open Sea.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_1886_a_conflict284">284</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_1886_a_conflict284">284</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -17552,13 +17511,13 @@ in 1893 in favour of the freedom of the Open Sea.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Field, article 53—Westlake, I. p. 160—Moore, II. § 308—Rivier, I. pp. 234-235—Pradier-Fodéré, -II. No. 868—Ullmann, § 101—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, +<p class="indh1">Field, article 53—Westlake, I. p. 160—Moore, II. § 308—Rivier, I. pp. 234-235—Pradier-Fodéré, +II. No. 868—Ullmann, § 101—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 483.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Discrimination between Open Sea and Territorial Waters.</p></div> -<p>§ 252. <a name="Open_Sea_or_High252" id="Open_Sea_or_High252"></a>Open Sea or High Seas<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> is the coherent +<p>§ 252. <a name="Open_Sea_or_High252" id="Open_Sea_or_High252"></a>Open Sea or High Seas<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> is the coherent body of salt water all over the greater part of the globe, with the exception of the maritime belt and the territorial straits, gulfs, and bays, which are parts of the @@ -17594,15 +17553,15 @@ and all connecting arms and bays or other extensions thereof not within the territorial limits of any nation whatever."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It181">181</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It181">181</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> So say Rivier, I. p. 237, and Martens, I. § 97: but Stoerk +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> So say Rivier, I. p. 237, and Martens, I. § 97: but Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 513, declares that the Sea of Azoff is part of the Open Sea.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Clear Instances of Parts of the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 253. <a name="It_is_not_necessary253" id="It_is_not_necessary253"></a>It is not necessary and not possible to particularise +<p>§ 253. <a name="It_is_not_necessary253" id="It_is_not_necessary253"></a>It is not necessary and not possible to particularise every portion of the Open Sea. It is sufficient to state instances which clearly indicate the extent of the Open Sea. To the Open Sea belong, of course, all @@ -17625,9 +17584,9 @@ Caribbean Sea; Baffin's Bay.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> The assertion of some Russian publicists that the Kara Sea -is Russian territory is refuted by Martens, I. § 97. As regards the Kara +is Russian territory is refuted by Martens, I. § 97. As regards the Kara Straits, see - above, § <a href="#All_straits194">194</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#All_straits194">194</a>.</p></div> <p>It will be remembered that it is doubtful as regards @@ -17635,7 +17594,7 @@ many gulfs and bays whether they belong to the Open Sea or are territorial.<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_is_generally_admitted191">191</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_is_generally_admitted191">191</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -17644,19 +17603,19 @@ Sea or are territorial.<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a h </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 75—Westlake, I. pp. 160-166—Lawrence, § 100—Twiss, I. §§ 172-173—Moore, -II. §§ 309-310—Taylor, § 242—Wheaton, § 187—Bluntschli, -§§ 304-308—Heffter, § 94—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 483-498—Ullmann, -§ 101—Bonfils, Nos. 572-577—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 874-881—Rivier, -I. § 17—Nys, II. pp. 140-166—Calvo, I. § 346—Fiore, II. Nos. -724, 727, and Code, Nos. 928-930—Martens, I. § 97—Perels, § 4—Testa, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 75—Westlake, I. pp. 160-166—Lawrence, § 100—Twiss, I. §§ 172-173—Moore, +II. §§ 309-310—Taylor, § 242—Wheaton, § 187—Bluntschli, +§§ 304-308—Heffter, § 94—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 483-498—Ullmann, +§ 101—Bonfils, Nos. 572-577—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 874-881—Rivier, +I. § 17—Nys, II. pp. 140-166—Calvo, I. § 346—Fiore, II. Nos. +724, 727, and Code, Nos. 928-930—Martens, I. § 97—Perels, § 4—Testa, pp. 63-66—Ortolan, "Diplomatie de la mer" (1856), I. pp. 119-149—De Burgh, "Elements of Maritime International Law" (1868), pp. 1-24—Castel, -"Du principe de la liberté des mers" (1900), pp. 37-80.</p> +"Du principe de la liberté des mers" (1900), pp. 37-80.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of the Term "Freedom of the Open Sea."</p></div> -<p>§ 254. The term "Freedom of the Open Sea" indicates +<p>§ 254. The term "Freedom of the Open Sea" indicates the rule of the Law of Nations that the Open Sea is not and never can be under the sovereignty of any State whatever. Since, therefore, the Open Sea is not @@ -17683,16 +17642,16 @@ fact that it is not the territory of any State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> As regards jurisdiction in cases of collision and salvage on the Open Sea, see - below, §§ <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a> + below, §§ <a href="#No_rules_of_the_Law265">265</a> and <a href="#It_is_at_present271">271</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> See, however, - above, § <a href="#Different_from_the_territorial190">190</a>, concerning the zone for Revenue + above, § <a href="#Different_from_the_territorial190">190</a>, concerning the zone for Revenue and Sanitary Laws.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> Following Grotius (II. c. 3, § 13) and Bynkershoek ("De -dominio maris," c. 3), some writers (for instance, Phillimore, I. § 203) +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> Following Grotius (II. c. 3, § 13) and Bynkershoek ("De +dominio maris," c. 3), some writers (for instance, Phillimore, I. § 203) maintain that any part of the Open Sea covered for the time by a vessel is by occupation to be considered as the temporary territory of the vessel's flag State. And some French writers go even beyond that and @@ -17704,13 +17663,13 @@ Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 494; Rivier, I. p. 238; Perels, pp. <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> But the subsoil of the bed of the Open Sea can well, through driving mines and piercing tunnels from the coast, be acquired by a littoral State. See - above, § <a href="#Only_such_territory221">221</a>, and - below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> + above, § <a href="#Only_such_territory221">221</a>, and + below, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil287c">287<i>c</i></a> and <a href="#Since_there_is287d">287<i>d</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Legal Provisions for the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 255. <a name="This_legal_order255" id="This_legal_order255"></a>This legal order is created through the co-operation +<p>§ 255. <a name="This_legal_order255" id="This_legal_order255"></a>This legal order is created through the co-operation of the Law of Nations and the Municipal Laws of such States as possess a maritime flag. The following rules of the Law of Nations are universally @@ -17751,7 +17710,7 @@ on the Open Sea.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Freedom of the Open Sea and war.</p></div> -<p>§ 256. <a name="Al256" id="Al256"></a>Although the Open Sea is free and not the +<p>§ 256. <a name="Al256" id="Al256"></a>Although the Open Sea is free and not the territory of any State, it may nevertheless in its whole extent become the theatre of war, since the region of war is not only the territories of the belligerents, but @@ -17768,15 +17727,15 @@ neutral merchantmen for breach of blockade, contraband, and the like.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> Concerning the distinction between theatre and region of war, see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Region_of_war70">vol. II. § 70</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Region_of_war70">vol. II. § 70</a>.</p></div> <p>However, certain parts of the Open Sea can become neutralised and thereby be excluded from the region of war. Thus, the Black Sea became neutralised in 1856 through article 11 of the Peace Treaty of Paris -stipulating:—"La Mer Noire est neutralisée: ouverte -à la marine marchande de toutes les nations, ses eaux -et ses ports sont formellement et à perpétuité interdites +stipulating:—"La Mer Noire est neutralisée: ouverte +à la marine marchande de toutes les nations, ses eaux +et ses ports sont formellement et à perpétuité interdites au pavillon de guerre, soit des puissances riveraines, soit de tout autre puissance." Yet this neutralisation of the Black Sea was abolished<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> in 1871 by article 1 @@ -17784,11 +17743,11 @@ of the Treaty of London, and no other part of the Open Sea is at present neutralised.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It181">181</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#It181">181</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Navigation and ceremonials on the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 257. <a name="The_freedom_of_the_Open257" id="The_freedom_of_the_Open257"></a>The freedom of the Open Sea involves perfect +<p>§ 257. <a name="The_freedom_of_the_Open257" id="The_freedom_of_the_Open257"></a>The freedom of the Open Sea involves perfect freedom of navigation for vessels of all nations, whether men-of-war, other public vessels, or merchantmen. It involves, further, absence of compulsory @@ -17804,7 +17763,7 @@ men-of-war.<a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footno <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> But not within the maritime belt or other territorial waters. See - above, §§ <a href="#Connected_with_the_dignity122">122</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Connected_with_the_dignity122">122</a> and <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree187">187</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> That men-of-war can on the @@ -17813,7 +17772,7 @@ merchantmen to show their flags has nothing to do with ceremonials, but with the supervision of the Open Sea in the interest of its safety. See - below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>.</p></div> <p>The freedom of the Open Sea involves likewise freedom of inoffensive passage<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> through the maritime @@ -17825,11 +17784,11 @@ navigation on the Open Sea by vessels of all nations would be a physical impossibility.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Claim of States to Maritime Flag.</p></div> -<p>§ 258. <a name="Since_no_State_can258" id="Since_no_State_can258"></a>Since no State can exercise protection over +<p>§ 258. <a name="Since_no_State_can258" id="Since_no_State_can258"></a>Since no State can exercise protection over vessels that do not sail under its flag, and since every vessel must, in the interest of the order and safety of the Open Sea, sail under the flag of a State, the question @@ -17865,7 +17824,7 @@ the goodwill of the maritime Powers.<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_ Salis, "Schweizerisches Bundesrecht" (1891), vol. I. p. 234.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> The question is discussed by Calvo, I. § 427; Twiss, I. §§ +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> The question is discussed by Calvo, I. § 427; Twiss, I. §§ 197 and 198; and Westlake, I. p. 165.</p></div> <p>Such States as have a maritime flag as a rule have @@ -17879,7 +17838,7 @@ the position of Montenegro<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a>< the Treaty of Berlin of 1878.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>, but it is doubtful whether this + above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>, but it is doubtful whether this restriction is still in existence, since article 29 has, after the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, been modified by the Powers, so that the port of Antivari and the other Montenegrin @@ -17888,7 +17847,7 @@ XVII. (1910), pp. 173-176.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rationale for the Freedom of the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 259. <a name="Grotius_and_many_writers259" id="Grotius_and_many_writers259"></a>Grotius and many writers who follow<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> him +<p>§ 259. <a name="Grotius_and_many_writers259" id="Grotius_and_many_writers259"></a>Grotius and many writers who follow<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> him establish two facts as the reason for the freedom of the Open Sea. They maintain, first, that a part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> the Open Sea could not effectively be occupied by a @@ -17919,19 +17878,19 @@ of the freedom of the Open Sea has become universally recognised and will always be upheld.<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> See, - for instance, Twiss, I. § 172, and Westlake, I. p. + for instance, Twiss, I. § 172, and Westlake, I. p. 160.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> See - Grotius, II. c. 2, § 3.</p></div> + Grotius, II. c. 2, § 3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> Connected with the reason for the freedom of the Open Sea is the merely theoretical question whether the vessels of a State could through an international treaty be prevented from navigating on the -whole or on certain parts of the Open Sea. See Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. +whole or on certain parts of the Open Sea. See Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 881-885, where this point is exhaustively discussed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p></div> @@ -17942,20 +17901,20 @@ whole or on certain parts of the Open Sea. See Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 80—Hall, § 45—Westlake, I. pp. 166-176—Lawrence, § 100—Halleck, -p. 438—Taylor, §§ 262-267—Walker, § 20—Wheaton, § 106—Moore, -II. §§ 309-310—Bluntschli, §§ 317-352—Heffter, §§ 78-80—Stoerk -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 518-550—Liszt, § 26—Bonfils, Nos. 578-580, -597-613—Despagnet, Nos. 422-430—Mérignhac, II. pp. 505-511—Pradier-Fodéré, -V. Nos. 2376-2470—Rivier, I. § 18—Nys, II. pp. 139-165—Calvo, -I. §§ 385-473—Fiore, II. Nos. 730-742, and Code, Nos. 1001-1027—Martens, -II. §§ 55-56—Perels, § 12—Testa, pp. 98-112—Ortolan, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 80—Hall, § 45—Westlake, I. pp. 166-176—Lawrence, § 100—Halleck, +p. 438—Taylor, §§ 262-267—Walker, § 20—Wheaton, § 106—Moore, +II. §§ 309-310—Bluntschli, §§ 317-352—Heffter, §§ 78-80—Stoerk +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 518-550—Liszt, § 26—Bonfils, Nos. 578-580, +597-613—Despagnet, Nos. 422-430—Mérignhac, II. pp. 505-511—Pradier-Fodéré, +V. Nos. 2376-2470—Rivier, I. § 18—Nys, II. pp. 139-165—Calvo, +I. §§ 385-473—Fiore, II. Nos. 730-742, and Code, Nos. 1001-1027—Martens, +II. §§ 55-56—Perels, § 12—Testa, pp. 98-112—Ortolan, "Diplomatie de la mer" (1856), II. 254-326—Hall, "Foreign Powers -and Jurisdiction of the British Crown" (1894), §§ 106-109.</p> +and Jurisdiction of the British Crown" (1894), §§ 106-109.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction on the Open Sea mainly connected with Flag.</p></div> -<p>§ 260. <a name="Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260" id="Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260"></a>Jurisdiction on the Open Sea is in the main +<p>§ 260. <a name="Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260" id="Jurisdiction_on_the_Open_Sea260"></a>Jurisdiction on the Open Sea is in the main connected with the maritime flag under which vessels sail. This is the consequence of the fact stated above<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> that a certain legal order is created on the Open Sea @@ -17978,14 +17937,14 @@ of men-of-war over merchantmen of all nations, and, lastly, shipwreck.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#This_legal_order255">255</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#This_legal_order255">255</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Claim of Vessels to sail under a certain Flag.</p></div> -<p>§ 261. <a name="Th261" id="Th261"></a>The Law of Nations does not include any +<p>§ 261. <a name="Th261" id="Th261"></a>The Law of Nations does not include any rules regarding the claim of vessels to sail under a certain maritime flag, but imposes the duty upon every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> State having a maritime flag to stipulate by its own @@ -18011,7 +17970,7 @@ Others again, as France, admit vessels which are in part the property of French citizens.<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> See - Calvo, I. §§ 393-423, where the respective Municipal + Calvo, I. §§ 393-423, where the respective Municipal Laws of most countries are quoted.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> See @@ -18022,7 +17981,7 @@ Vict. c. 60), and sections 51 and 80 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1906 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> The Institute of International Law adopted, at its meeting at Venice—see Annuaire, XV. (1896), p. 201—in 1896, a body of ten rules concerning the sailing of merchantmen under the maritime flag of a -State under the heading:—"<i>Règles relatives à l'usage du pavillon +State under the heading:—"<i>Règles relatives à l'usage du pavillon national pour les navires de commerce</i>."</p></div> <p>But no State can allow such vessel to sail under its @@ -18048,7 +18007,7 @@ Britannic Majesty's Consul-General at Shanghai, L.R., App. c. 1909, p. <div class="sidenote"><p>Ship Papers.</p></div> -<p>§ 262. <a name="Al262" id="Al262"></a>All States with a maritime flag are by the +<p>§ 262. <a name="Al262" id="Al262"></a>All States with a maritime flag are by the Law of Nations obliged to make private vessels sailing under their flags carry on board so-called ship papers, which serve the purpose of identification on the Open @@ -18059,7 +18018,7 @@ this subject.<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Foot to the following papers:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> See - Holland, "Manual of Naval Prize Law," §§ 178-194, where + Holland, "Manual of Naval Prize Law," §§ 178-194, where the papers required by the different maritime States are enumerated.</p></div> <p>(1) An official voucher authorising the vessel to sail @@ -18093,7 +18052,7 @@ person who hires it.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Names of Vessels.</p></div> -<p>§ 263. Every State must register the names of all +<p>§ 263. Every State must register the names of all private vessels sailing under its flag, and it must make them bear their names visibly, so that every vessel may be identified from a distance. No vessel must be @@ -18107,7 +18066,7 @@ Shipping Act, 1906.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Territorial Quality of Vessels on the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 264. <a name="It_is_a_customary264" id="It_is_a_customary264"></a>It is a customary rule of the Law of Nations +<p>§ 264. <a name="It_is_a_customary264" id="It_is_a_customary264"></a>It is a customary rule of the Law of Nations that men-of-war and other public vessels of any State are, whilst on the Open Sea as well as in foreign territorial waters, in every point considered as though they @@ -18129,8 +18088,8 @@ and in time of peace men-of-war of all nations have certain powers<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> over merchantmen of all nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#To_the_territory_of172">172</a>, and - below, §§ <a href="#Men-of-war_are_State_organs447">447</a>-451.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#To_the_territory_of172">172</a>, and + below, §§ <a href="#Men-of-war_are_State_organs447">447</a>-451.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> See Jordan in R.I. 2nd Ser. X. (1908), pp. 340-362 and @@ -18142,12 +18101,12 @@ legislating as regards such of its citizens as sail on the Open Sea on board a foreign vessel.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>. The question of the territoriality of -vessels is ably discussed by Hall, §§ 76-79.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Although_the_freedom266">266</a>. The question of the territoriality of +vessels is ably discussed by Hall, §§ 76-79.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Safety of Traffic on the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 265. <a name="No_rules_of_the_Law265" id="No_rules_of_the_Law265"></a>No rules of the Law of Nations exist as yet<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> +<p>§ 265. <a name="No_rules_of_the_Law265" id="No_rules_of_the_Law265"></a>No rules of the Law of Nations exist as yet<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> for the purpose of preventing collisions, saving lives after collisions, and the like, but every State possessing a maritime flag has legislated for the conduct on @@ -18241,7 +18200,7 @@ by maintaining that collision is a matter of by the Courts<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> of all maritime States.<a name="FNanchor_541_541" id="FNanchor_541_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> See - Phillimore, IV. § 815; Calvo, I. § 444; Pradier-Fodéré, + Phillimore, IV. § 815; Calvo, I. § 444; Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2362-2374; Bar, "Private International Law" (2nd ed. translated by Gillespie), pp. 720 and 928; Dicey, "Conflict of Laws" (2nd ed.), pp. 650-652 and 790; Foote, "Private International Law" (3rd ed.), pp. 486 @@ -18251,13 +18210,13 @@ Bruce, "Treatise on the Jurisdiction of English Courts in Admiralty Actions" (3rd ed. 1902).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#As146">146</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As146">146</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> See - Pradier-Fodéré, No. 2363.</p></div> + Pradier-Fodéré, No. 2363.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> See - Pradier-Fodéré, No. 2364.</p></div> + Pradier-Fodéré, No. 2364.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> Or even in foreign territorial waters. See Williams and @@ -18273,7 +18232,7 @@ Netherlands India Steam Navigation Co., 10 Q.B.D. 537.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> The practice of the United States of America coincides with that of Great Britain; see the case of the <i>Belgenland</i>, 114, United -States, 355, and Wharton, I. § 27.</p></div> +States, 355, and Wharton, I. § 27.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_541_541" id="Footnote_541_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a> The Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Lausanne in 1888, adopted two rules concerning the jurisdiction in cases @@ -18281,7 +18240,7 @@ of collision; see Annuaire, X. (1889), p. 152.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Powers of Men-of-war over Merchantmen of all Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 266. <a name="Although_the_freedom266" id="Although_the_freedom266"></a>Although the freedom of the Open Sea and +<p>§ 266. <a name="Although_the_freedom266" id="Although_the_freedom266"></a>Although the freedom of the Open Sea and the fact that vessels on the Open Sea remain under the jurisdiction of the flag State exclude as a rule the exercise of any State's authority over foreign vessels, there @@ -18311,13 +18270,13 @@ must not be abused, and that the home State is responsible for damages in case a man-of-war stops and visits a foreign merchantman without sufficient ground of suspicion. The right of every State to punish piracy -on the Open Sea will be treated below, §§ 272-280.</p> +on the Open Sea will be treated below, §§ 272-280.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> So-called "Droit d'enquête" or "Vérification du pavillon." +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> So-called "Droit d'enquête" or "Vérification du pavillon." This power of men-of-war has given occasion to much dispute and discussion, but in fact nobody denies that in case of grave suspicion -this power does exist. See Twiss, I. § 193; Hall, § 81, p. 276; Fiore, -II. Nos. 732-736; Perels, § 17; Taylor, § 266; Bonfils, No. 519.</p></div> +this power does exist. See Twiss, I. § 193; Hall, § 81, p. 276; Fiore, +II. Nos. 732-736; Perels, § 17; Taylor, § 266; Bonfils, No. 519.</p></div> <p>(3) So-called Right of Pursuit. It is a universally recognised customary rule that men-of-war of a littoral @@ -18332,7 +18291,7 @@ as soon as the merchantman passes into the maritime belt of a foreign State.<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> See - Hall, § 80.</p></div> + Hall, § 80.</p></div> <p>(4) Abuse of Flag. It is another universally recognised rule that men-of-war of every State may seize @@ -18367,17 +18326,17 @@ suspect vessel under 500 tons. </p><p> (2) In the interest of the Fisheries in the North Sea, special cruisers of the littoral Powers control all fishing vessels and bumboats. See - below, §§ <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a> + below, §§ <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a> and <a href="#Connected_with_the_regulation283">283</a>. </p><p> (3) In the interest of Transatlantic telegraph cables, men-of-war of the signatory Powers of the treaty for the protection of such cables have certain powers over merchantmen. (See - below, § <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.)</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.)</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Verification of Flag is effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 267. A man-of-war which meets a suspicious +<p>§ 267. A man-of-war which meets a suspicious merchantman not showing her colours and wishes to verify the same, hoists her own flag and fires a blank cartridge. This is a signal for the other vessel to hoist @@ -18390,7 +18349,7 @@ of visiting her and thereby verifying her nationality.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Visit is effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 268. <a name="Th268" id="Th268"></a>The intention to visit may be communicated +<p>§ 268. <a name="Th268" id="Th268"></a>The intention to visit may be communicated to a merchantman either by hailing or by the "informing gun"—that is, by firing either one or two blank cartridges. If the vessel takes no notice of this @@ -18406,7 +18365,7 @@ and the vessel is allowed to proceed on her course.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Search is effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 269. <a name="Se269" id="Se269"></a>Search is naturally a measure which visit +<p>§ 269. <a name="Se269" id="Se269"></a>Search is naturally a measure which visit must always precede. It is because the visit has given no satisfaction that search is instituted. Search is effected by an officer and some of the crew of the man-of-war, @@ -18422,7 +18381,7 @@ is to be allowed to proceed on her course.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Arrest is effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 270. Arrest of a vessel takes place either after +<p>§ 270. Arrest of a vessel takes place either after visit and search have shown her liable thereto, or after she has committed some act which alone already justifies her seizure. Arrest is effected through the commander @@ -18444,15 +18403,15 @@ be brought into a harbour of her flag State and handed over to the authorities there.<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> Except in the case of distress or unseaworthiness; see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As_soon_as_a_vessel193">vol. II. § 193</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As_soon_as_a_vessel193">vol. II. § 193</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a> + below, §§ <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a> and <a href="#Connected_with_the_regulation283">283</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Shipwreck and Distress on the Open Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 271. <a name="It_is_at_present271" id="It_is_at_present271"></a>It is at present the universal conviction on +<p>§ 271. <a name="It_is_at_present271" id="It_is_at_present271"></a>It is at present the universal conviction on the part of the States that goods and persons shipwrecked on the Open Sea do not thereby lose the protection of the flag State of the shipwrecked vessel. @@ -18471,12 +18430,12 @@ Conference of the Maritime Committee held at Brussels in September 1910 also produced a draft convention concerning salvage, which the British Government likewise intends to ratify provided Parliament passes the "Maritime Conventions Bill," see - above, <a href="#Footnote_528_528">§ 265, p. 333, note 2</a>, and Supplement to the <i>American Journal of International + above, <a href="#Footnote_528_528">§ 265, p. 333, note 2</a>, and Supplement to the <i>American Journal of International Law</i>, IV. (1910), p. 126. According to the practice of the Admiralty Court—see the case of the <i>Johann Friederich</i>, 1 W. Robinson, 35—salvage on the Open Sea is, just like collisions, a matter of <i>communis juris</i> upon which the Courts of all maritime States are -competent to adjudicate. See Phillimore, IV. § 815; and Dicey, "Conflict +competent to adjudicate. See Phillimore, IV. § 815; and Dicey, "Conflict of Laws" (2nd ed. 1908), p. 791. See also sect. 545 and 565 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894.</p></div> @@ -18493,7 +18452,7 @@ morally every vessel is bound to render assistance to another vessel in distress.<a name="FNanchor_549_549" id="FNanchor_549_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_548_548" id="Footnote_548_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a> See, - for instance, Perels, § 25, and Fiore, II. No. 732.</p></div> + for instance, Perels, § 25, and Fiore, II. No. 732.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> According to article 11 of the draft convention concerning salvage produced by the Conference of the Maritime Committee at Brussels @@ -18515,21 +18474,21 @@ liable for violations of the foregoing provision."</p></div> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 81-82—Westlake, I. pp. 177-182—Lawrence, § 102—Phillimore, I. -§§ 356-361—Twiss, I. §§ 177 and 193—Halleck, I. pp. 444-450—Taylor, §§ -188-189—Walker, § 21—Westlake, I. pp. 177-182—Wheaton, §§ 122-124—Moore, -II. §§ 311-315—Bluntschli, §§ 343-350—Heffter, § 104—Gareis in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 571-581—Gareis, § 58—Liszt, § 26—Ullmann, § 104—Bonfils, -Nos. 592-594—Despagnet, Nos. 431-433—Mérignhac, II. pp. -506-511—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2491-2515—Rivier, I. pp. 248-251—Calvo, -I. §§ 485-512—Fiore, I. Nos. 494-495, and Code, Nos. 295-300—Perels, -§§ 16-17—Testa, pp. 90-97—Ortolan, "Diplomatie de la mer" +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 81-82—Westlake, I. pp. 177-182—Lawrence, § 102—Phillimore, I. +§§ 356-361—Twiss, I. §§ 177 and 193—Halleck, I. pp. 444-450—Taylor, §§ +188-189—Walker, § 21—Westlake, I. pp. 177-182—Wheaton, §§ 122-124—Moore, +II. §§ 311-315—Bluntschli, §§ 343-350—Heffter, § 104—Gareis in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 571-581—Gareis, § 58—Liszt, § 26—Ullmann, § 104—Bonfils, +Nos. 592-594—Despagnet, Nos. 431-433—Mérignhac, II. pp. +506-511—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2491-2515—Rivier, I. pp. 248-251—Calvo, +I. §§ 485-512—Fiore, I. Nos. 494-495, and Code, Nos. 295-300—Perels, +§§ 16-17—Testa, pp. 90-97—Ortolan, "Diplomatie de la mer" (1856), I. pp. 231-253—Stiel, "Der Thatbestand der Piraterie" (1905).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Piracy.</p></div> -<p>§ 272. Piracy, in its original and strict meaning, is +<p>§ 272. Piracy, in its original and strict meaning, is every unauthorised act of violence committed by a private vessel on the Open Sea against another vessel with intent to plunder (<i>animo furandi</i>). The majority @@ -18559,8 +18518,8 @@ persons or goods committed on the Open Sea either by a private vessel against another vessel or by the mutinous crew or passengers against their own vessel</i>.<a name="FNanchor_551_551" id="FNanchor_551_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> Hall, § 81; Lawrence, § 102; Bluntschli, § 343; Liszt, § -26; Calvo, § 485.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> Hall, § 81; Lawrence, § 102; Bluntschli, § 343; Liszt, § +26; Calvo, § 485.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> The conception of Piracy is discussed in the case of the Republic of Bolivia <i>v.</i> The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Co., L.R. @@ -18579,11 +18538,11 @@ the enemy of every State, and can be brought to justice anywhere.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Private Ships as Subjects of Piracy.</p></div> -<p>§ 273. <a name="Private_vessels273" id="Private_vessels273"></a>Private vessels only<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> can commit piracy. A +<p>§ 273. <a name="Private_vessels273" id="Private_vessels273"></a>Private vessels only<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> can commit piracy. A man-of-war or other public ship, as long as she remains such, is never a pirate. If she commits unjustified acts of violence, redress must be asked from her flag State, @@ -18601,12 +18560,12 @@ were to take Letters of Marque from both belligerents, she would be considered a pirate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> Piracy committed by the mutinous crew will be treated -below, § 274.</p></div> +below, § 274.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_554_554" id="Footnote_554_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a> See - details regarding this controversial point in Hall, § + details regarding this controversial point in Hall, § 81. See also - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Formerly_privateers83">vol. II. §§ 83</a> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Formerly_privateers83">vol. II. §§ 83</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In_former_centuries330">330</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p></div> <p>Doubtful is the case where a privateer in a civil war @@ -18638,11 +18597,11 @@ was in command of the British squadron in the Pacific.<a name="FNanchor_557_557" id="FNanchor_557_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> See - Calvo, I. §§ 497-501; Hall, § 82; Westlake, I. pp. + Calvo, I. §§ 497-501; Hall, § 82; Westlake, I. pp. 179-182.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_556_556" id="Footnote_556_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a> But in the American case of the <i>Ambrose Light</i> (25 Federal -408; see also Moore, II. § 332, p. 1098) the Court did not agree with +408; see also Moore, II. § 332, p. 1098) the Court did not agree with this. The <i>Ambrose Light</i> was a brigantine which, when on April 24, 1885, she was sighted by Commander Clark of the U.S.S. <i>Alliance</i> in the Caribbean Sea, was flying a strange flag showing a red cross on a white @@ -18658,9 +18617,9 @@ however, nevertheless released because the American Secretary of State had recognised by implication a state of war between the insurgents and the legitimate Columbian Government.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> As regards the case of the Argentinian vessel <i>Porteña</i> and +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> As regards the case of the Argentinian vessel <i>Porteña</i> and the Spanish vessel <i>Montezuma</i>, afterwards called <i>Cespedes</i>, see Calvo, -I. §§ 502 and 503.</p></div> +I. §§ 502 and 503.</p></div> <p>The case must also be mentioned of a privateer or man-of-war which after the conclusion of peace or the @@ -18679,7 +18638,7 @@ from hostilities as soon as he had obtained this information.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> See - Lawrence, § 102.</p></div> + Lawrence, § 102.</p></div> <p>It must be emphasised that the motive and the purpose of such acts of violence do not alter their @@ -18693,11 +18652,11 @@ pirate.<a name="FNanchor_559_559" id="FNanchor_559_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_5 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> This statement is correct in spite of art. 46, No. 1, of the Declaration of London; see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In_contradistinction410">vol. II. § 410</a>, No. 1.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In_contradistinction410">vol. II. § 410</a>, No. 1.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mutinous Crew and Passengers as Subjects of Piracy.</p></div> -<p>§ 274. The crew or the whole or a part of the passengers +<p>§ 274. The crew or the whole or a part of the passengers who revolt on the Open Sea and convert the vessel and her goods to their own use, commit thereby piracy, whether the vessel is private or public. But a @@ -18714,7 +18673,7 @@ their own use.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of Piracy.</p></div> -<p>§ 275. The object of piracy is any public or private +<p>§ 275. The object of piracy is any public or private vessel, or the persons or the goods thereon, whilst on the Open Sea. In the regular case of piracy the pirate wants to make booty; it is the cargo of the attacked @@ -18733,11 +18692,11 @@ although he may afterwards free vessel, crew, and cargo.</p> <p>That a possible object of piracy is not only another vessel, but also the very ship on which the crew and passenger navigate, is an inference from the statements -above in § 274.</p> +above in § 274.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Piracy, how effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 276. Piracy is effected by any unauthorised act of +<p>§ 276. Piracy is effected by any unauthorised act of violence, be it direct application of force or intimidation through menace. The crew or passengers who, for the purpose of converting a vessel and her goods to @@ -18762,13 +18721,13 @@ single act of violence.<a name="FNanchor_560_560" id="FNanchor_560_560"></a><a h <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> See Stephen, "Digest of the Criminal Law," article 104. In the case of the <i>Ambrose Light</i>—see - above, § <a href="#Private_vessels273">273</a>—the Court considered + above, § <a href="#Private_vessels273">273</a>—the Court considered the vessel to be a pirate, although no attempt to commit a piratical act had been made by her.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Where Piracy can be committed.</p></div> -<p>§ 277. Piracy as an "international crime" can be +<p>§ 277. Piracy as an "international crime" can be committed on the Open Sea only. Piracy in territorial coast waters has quite as little to do with International Law as other robberies on the territory of a State. Some @@ -18786,11 +18745,11 @@ been, a crime against the safety of traffic on the Open Sea, and therefore it cannot be committed anywhere else than on the Open Sea.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> Hall, § 81; Lawrence, § 102; Westlake, I. p. 177.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> Hall, § 81; Lawrence, § 102; Westlake, I. p. 177.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Jurisdiction over Pirates, and their Punishment.</p></div> -<p>§ 278. <a name="A_pirate_and278" id="A_pirate_and278"></a>A pirate and his vessel lose <i>ipso facto</i> by an +<p>§ 278. <a name="A_pirate_and278" id="A_pirate_and278"></a>A pirate and his vessel lose <i>ipso facto</i> by an act of piracy the protection of their flag State and their national character. Every maritime State has by a customary rule of the Law of Nations the right to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> @@ -18813,8 +18772,8 @@ different States being competent to order any less severe punishment. Nor does the Law of Nations make it a duty for every maritime State to punish all pirates.<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> A few writers (Gareis in Holtzendorff, II. p 575; Liszt, § -26; Ullmann, § 104; Stiel, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 51) maintain, however, that +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> A few writers (Gareis in Holtzendorff, II. p 575; Liszt, § +26; Ullmann, § 104; Stiel, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 51) maintain, however, that men-of-war only have the power to seize the pirate.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> If a pirate is chased on the Open Sea and flees into the @@ -18824,7 +18783,7 @@ littoral State.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> Thus, according to the German Criminal Code, piracy committed by foreigners against foreign vessels cannot be punished by -German Courts (see Perels, § 17). From article 104 of Stephen's "Digest +German Courts (see Perels, § 17). From article 104 of Stephen's "Digest of the Criminal Law," there seems to be no doubt that, according to English Law, all pirates are liable to be punished. See Stiel, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 15, note 4, where a survey is given of the Municipal Law of @@ -18834,11 +18793,11 @@ many States concerning this point.</p></div> insuring the safety of traffic, the power of verifying the flags of suspicious merchantmen of all nations, has already been stated - above (§ <a href="#Ve2of266">266, No. 2</a>).</p> + above (§ <a href="#Ve2of266">266, No. 2</a>).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p><i>Pirata non mutat dominium.</i></p></div> -<p>§ 279. The question as to the property in the seized +<p>§ 279. The question as to the property in the seized piratical vessels and the goods thereon has been the subject of much controversy. During the seventeenth century the practice of several States conceded such @@ -18857,7 +18816,7 @@ is to be paid to the captor of the pirate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> See details regarding the question as to the piratical -vessels and goods in Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2496-2499.</p></div> +vessels and goods in Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2496-2499.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> See section 5 of the "Act to repeal an Act of the Sixth @@ -18866,8 +18825,8 @@ Destruction of Piratical Ships, &c." (13 & 14 Vict. ch. 26).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Piracy according to Municipal Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 280. Piracy, according to the Law of Nations, -which has been defined above (§ 272) as every unauthorised +<p>§ 280. Piracy, according to the Law of Nations, +which has been defined above (§ 272) as every unauthorised act of violence against persons or goods committed on the Open Sea either by a private vessel against another vessel or by the mutinous crew or @@ -18885,7 +18844,7 @@ the King's enemies during a war, or who transports slaves on the High Seas.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> See - Calvo, §§ 488-492; Lawrence, § 103; Pradier-Fodéré, V. + Calvo, §§ 488-492; Lawrence, § 103; Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2501 and 2502.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> See @@ -18902,8 +18861,8 @@ molested American vessels suspected of carrying slaves, the United States objected and rightly complained.<a name="FNanchor_569_569" id="FNanchor_569_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> See - Wharton, III. § 327, pp. 142 and 143; Taylor, § 190; -Moore, II. § 310, pp. 941-946.</p></div> + Wharton, III. § 327, pp. 142 and 143; Taylor, § 190; +Moore, II. § 310, pp. 941-946.</p></div> @@ -18914,21 +18873,21 @@ Moore, II. § 310, pp. 941-946.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 4—Vattel, I. § 287—Hall, § 27—Lawrence, §§ 86 and 91—Phillimore, -I. §§ 181-195—Twiss, I. § 185—Taylor, §§ 249-250—Wharton, -II. §§ 300-308—Wheaton, §§ 167-171—Moore, I. §§ 169-173—Bluntschli, -§ 307—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 504-507—Gareis, § 62—Liszt, § 35—Ullmann, -§ 103—Bonfils, Nos. 581-582, 595—Despagnet, Nos. 411-413—Mérignhac, -II. p. 531—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2446-2458—Rivier, I. -pp. 243-245—Nys, II. pp. 165-169—Calvo, I. §§ 357-364—Fiore, II. Nos. -728-729, and Code, Nos. 995-999—Martens, I. § 98—Perels, § 20—Hall, -"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 107—David, "La pêche +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 3, § 4—Vattel, I. § 287—Hall, § 27—Lawrence, §§ 86 and 91—Phillimore, +I. §§ 181-195—Twiss, I. § 185—Taylor, §§ 249-250—Wharton, +II. §§ 300-308—Wheaton, §§ 167-171—Moore, I. §§ 169-173—Bluntschli, +§ 307—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 504-507—Gareis, § 62—Liszt, § 35—Ullmann, +§ 103—Bonfils, Nos. 581-582, 595—Despagnet, Nos. 411-413—Mérignhac, +II. p. 531—Pradier-Fodéré, V. Nos. 2446-2458—Rivier, I. +pp. 243-245—Nys, II. pp. 165-169—Calvo, I. §§ 357-364—Fiore, II. Nos. +728-729, and Code, Nos. 995-999—Martens, I. § 98—Perels, § 20—Hall, +"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 107—David, "La pêche maritime au point de vue international" (1897)—Fulton, "The Sovereignty of the Seas" (1911), pp. 57-534.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fisheries in the Open Sea free to all Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 281. Whereas the fisheries in the territorial maritime +<p>§ 281. Whereas the fisheries in the territorial maritime belt can be reserved by the littoral State for its own subjects, it is an inference of the freedom of the Open Sea that the fisheries thereon are open<a name="FNanchor_570_570" id="FNanchor_570_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> to vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> @@ -18950,11 +18909,11 @@ fisheries in the North Sea and the suppression of the liquor trade among the fishing vessels in that Sea; secondly, with regard to the seal fisheries in the Behring Sea; thirdly, with regard to the fisheries around the -Faröe Islands and Iceland.</p> +Faröe Islands and Iceland.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> Denmark silently, by fishing regulations of 1872, dropped her claim to an exclusive right of fisheries within twenty miles of the -coast of Iceland; see Hall, § 40, p. 153, note 2. Russia promulgated, in +coast of Iceland; see Hall, § 40, p. 153, note 2. Russia promulgated, in 1911, a statute forbidding the fisheries to foreign vessels within twelve miles of the shore of the White Sea, but the Powers protested against this encroachment upon the freedom of the Open Sea; the matter @@ -18980,8 +18939,8 @@ fishery will be territorial even though the shallowness of the water may allow it to be practised beyond the limit which the State in question generally fixes for the littoral seas, as in the case of Ceylon it is practised beyond the three miles limit generally recognised by Great -Britain. 'Qui doutera,' says Vattel (I. § 28), 'que les pêcheries de -Bahrein et de Ceylon ne puissent légitimement tomber en propriété?' And +Britain. 'Qui doutera,' says Vattel (I. § 28), 'que les pêcheries de +Bahrein et de Ceylon ne puissent légitimement tomber en propriété?' And the territorial nature of the industry will carry with it, as being necessary for its protection, the territorial character of the spot." This opinion of Westlake coincides with that contended by Great Britain @@ -18997,7 +18956,7 @@ p. 203.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fisheries in the North Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 282. <a name="For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282" id="For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282"></a>For the purpose of regulating the fisheries in +<p>§ 282. <a name="For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282" id="For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282"></a>For the purpose of regulating the fisheries in the North Sea, an International Conference took place at the Hague in 1881 and again in 1882, at which Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, @@ -19011,8 +18970,8 @@ contains the following stipulations:<a name="FNanchor_572_572" id="FNanchor_572_ <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. IX. p. 556.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> The matter is exhaustively treated by Rykere, "Le régime -légal de la pêche maritime dans la Mer du Nord" (1901). To carry out the +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> The matter is exhaustively treated by Rykere, "Le régime +légal de la pêche maritime dans la Mer du Nord" (1901). To carry out the obligations undertaken by her in the Convention for the regulation of the fisheries in the North Sea, Great Britain enacted in 1883 the "Act to carry into effect an International Convention concerning the @@ -19050,7 +19009,7 @@ special public cruisers of the Powers (article 33).<span class="pagenum"><a name <div class="sidenote"><p>Bumboats in the North Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 283. <a name="Connected_with_the_regulation283" id="Connected_with_the_regulation283"></a>Connected with the regulation of the fisheries +<p>§ 283. <a name="Connected_with_the_regulation283" id="Connected_with_the_regulation283"></a>Connected with the regulation of the fisheries is the abolition of the liquor trade among the fishing vessels in the North Sea. Since serious quarrels and difficulties were caused through bumboats and floating @@ -19097,7 +19056,7 @@ N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXII. p. 565.)</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Seal Fisheries in Behring Sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 284. <a name="In_1886_a_conflict284" id="In_1886_a_conflict284"></a>In 1886 a conflict arose between Great Britain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +<p>§ 284. <a name="In_1886_a_conflict284" id="In_1886_a_conflict284"></a>In 1886 a conflict arose between Great Britain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> and the United States through the seizure and confiscation of British-Columbian vessels which had hunted seals in the Behring Sea outside the American territorial @@ -19129,8 +19088,8 @@ the arbitrators, but only Italy<a name="FNanchor_579_579" id="FNanchor_579_579"> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXI. p. 439. The award is discussed by Barclay in R.I. XXV. (1893), p. 417, and Engelhardt in R.I. XXVI. (1894), p. 386, and R.G. V. (1898), pp. 193 and 347. See also -Tillier, "Les Pêcheries de Phoques de la Mer de Behring" (1906), and -Balch, "L'évolution de l'Arbitrage International" (1908), pp. 70-91.</p></div> +Tillier, "Les Pêcheries de Phoques de la Mer de Behring" (1906), and +Balch, "L'évolution de l'Arbitrage International" (1908), pp. 70-91.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_578_578" id="Footnote_578_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a> See the Behring Sea Award Act, 1894 (57 Vict. c. 2).</p></div> @@ -19153,12 +19112,12 @@ upon.</p> and it has not yet been ratified.]</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_behalf_of_the_prevention2of593">593, No. 2</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_behalf_of_the_prevention2of593">593, No. 2</a>.</p></div> -<div class="sidenote"><p>Fisheries around the Faröe Islands and Iceland.</p></div> +<div class="sidenote"><p>Fisheries around the Faröe Islands and Iceland.</p></div> -<p>§ 285. For the purpose of regulating the fisheries -outside territorial waters around the Faröe Islands and +<p>§ 285. For the purpose of regulating the fisheries +outside territorial waters around the Faröe Islands and Iceland, Great Britain and Denmark signed on June 24, 1901, the Convention of London,<a name="FNanchor_581_581" id="FNanchor_581_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> whose stipulations are for the most part literally the same as those of the @@ -19166,14 +19125,14 @@ International Convention for the Regulation of the Fisheries in the North Sea, concluded at the Hague in 1882.<a name="FNanchor_582_582" id="FNanchor_582_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> The additional article of this Convention of London stipulates that any other State whose subjects -fish around the Faröe Islands and Iceland may accede +fish around the Faröe Islands and Iceland may accede to it.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXXIII. (1906), p. 268.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_regulating_the_fisheries282">282</a>.</p></div> @@ -19183,19 +19142,19 @@ to it.</p> <span class="smaller">TELEGRAPH CABLES IN THE OPEN SEA</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bonfils, No. 583—Despagnet, No. 401—Pradier-Fodéré, V. No. 2548—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Bonfils, No. 583—Despagnet, No. 401—Pradier-Fodéré, V. No. 2548—Mérignhac, II. p. 532—Nys, II. p. 170—Rivier, I. pp. 244 and 386—Fiore, II. No. 822, and Code, Nos. 1134-1137—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 507-508—Liszt, § 29—Ullmann, § 103—Lauterbach, "Die -Beschädigung unterseeischer Telegraphenkabel" (1889)—Landois, "Zur -Lehre vom völkerrechtlichen Schutz der submarinen Telegraphenkabel" -(1894)—Jouhannaud, "Les câbles sous-marins" (1904)—Renault, in R.I. +II. pp. 507-508—Liszt, § 29—Ullmann, § 103—Lauterbach, "Die +Beschädigung unterseeischer Telegraphenkabel" (1889)—Landois, "Zur +Lehre vom völkerrechtlichen Schutz der submarinen Telegraphenkabel" +(1894)—Jouhannaud, "Les câbles sous-marins" (1904)—Renault, in R.I. XII. (1880), p. 251, XV. (1883), p. 17. See also the literature quoted - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As214">vol. II., at the commencement of § 214</a>.</p> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As214">vol. II., at the commencement of § 214</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Telegraph cables in the Open Sea admitted.</p></div> -<p>§ 286. <a name="It286" id="It286"></a>It is a consequence of the freedom of the +<p>§ 286. <a name="It286" id="It286"></a>It is a consequence of the freedom of the Open Sea that no State can prevent another from laying telegraph and telephone cables in any part of the Open Sea, whereas no State need allow this within its territorial @@ -19231,7 +19190,7 @@ acceded to it later on.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables.</p></div> -<p>§ 287. <a name="Th287" id="Th287"></a>The protection afforded to submarine telegraph +<p>§ 287. <a name="Th287" id="Th287"></a>The protection afforded to submarine telegraph cables finds its expression in the following stipulations of this international treaty:—</p> @@ -19264,7 +19223,7 @@ only and in no wise restrict the action of belligerents during time of war.<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As214">vol. II. § 214</a>, and art. 54 of the Hague rules + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#As214">vol. II. § 214</a>, and art. 54 of the Hague rules concerning land warfare which enacts:—"Submarine cables connecting a territory occupied with a neutral territory shall not be seized or destroyed except in the case of absolute necessity. They also must be @@ -19279,10 +19238,10 @@ restored and indemnities for them regulated at the peace."</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bonfils, Nos. 531<span class="topnum">10, 11</span>—Despagnet, 433<span class="topnum">quater</span>—Liszt, § 29—Ullmann, § 147—Meili, +<p class="indh1">Bonfils, Nos. 531<span class="topnum">10, 11</span>—Despagnet, 433<span class="topnum">quater</span>—Liszt, § 29—Ullmann, § 147—Meili, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie, &c." (1908)—Schneeli, "Drahtlose -Telegraphie und Völkerrecht" (1908)—Landsberg, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie" -(1909)—Kausen, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie im Völkerrecht" +Telegraphie und Völkerrecht" (1908)—Landsberg, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie" +(1909)—Kausen, "Die drahtlose Telegraphie im Völkerrecht" (1910)—Rolland in R.G. XIII. (1906), pp. 58-92—Fauchille in Annuaire, XXI. (1906), pp. 76-87—Meurer and Boidin in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 76 and 261.</p> @@ -19292,7 +19251,7 @@ between ships and the shore.</p></div> -<p>§ 287<i>a</i>. <a name="To287a" id="To287a"></a>To secure radio-telegraphic<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> communication +<p>§ 287<i>a</i>. <a name="To287a" id="To287a"></a>To secure radio-telegraphic<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> communication between ships of all nations at sea and the continents, a Conference met at Berlin in 1906, where Great Britain, Germany, the United States of America, Argentina, @@ -19325,8 +19284,8 @@ every kind concerning radio-telegraphy, and for some other purposes mentioned in article 13.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_subsoil173">173</a>, and - below, §§ <a href="#In_1868_the_international464">464</a> + above, § <a href="#The_subsoil173">173</a>, and + below, §§ <a href="#In_1868_the_international464">464</a> and <a href="#A_general_radio4of582">582, No. 4</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_588_588" id="Footnote_588_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a> See @@ -19341,10 +19300,10 @@ Telegraphy Co.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Radio-telegraphy between ships at sea.</p></div> -<p>§ 287<i>b</i>. <a name="To_secure_radio287b" id="To_secure_radio287b"></a>To secure radio-telegraphic communication +<p>§ 287<i>b</i>. <a name="To_secure_radio287b" id="To_secure_radio287b"></a>To secure radio-telegraphic communication between such ships at sea as possess installations for wireless telegraphy, an Additional Convention<a name="FNanchor_589_589" id="FNanchor_589_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> to that -mentioned above in § <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i> was signed on November 3, +mentioned above in § <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i> was signed on November 3, 1906, by all the Powers who signed the forementioned Convention except by Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Persia, and Portugal. According to this additional @@ -19389,7 +19348,7 @@ wireless apparatus other than the Marconi.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Five rules concerning the subsoil beneath the Sea Bed.</p></div> -<p>§ 287<i>c</i>. <a name="The_subsoil287c" id="The_subsoil287c"></a>The subsoil beneath the bed of the Open Sea +<p>§ 287<i>c</i>. <a name="The_subsoil287c" id="The_subsoil287c"></a>The subsoil beneath the bed of the Open Sea requires special consideration on account of coal or other mines, tunnels, and the like, for the question is whether such buildings can be driven into that subsoil @@ -19422,13 +19381,13 @@ five rules recommend themselves concerning this subject:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil173">173</a>, 175.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#The_subsoil173">173</a>, 175.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_592_592" id="Footnote_592_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a> See Oppenheim in Z.V. II. (1908), p. 11.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_593_593" id="Footnote_593_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Grotius_and_many_writers259">259</a>.</p></div> <p>(1) The subsoil beneath the bed of the Open Sea is no man's land, and it can be acquired on the part of @@ -19474,7 +19433,7 @@ runs under the bed of the Open Sea.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The proposed Channel Tunnel.</p></div> -<p>§ 287<i>d</i>. <a name="Since_there_is287d" id="Since_there_is287d"></a>Since there is as yet no submarine tunnel in +<p>§ 287<i>d</i>. <a name="Since_there_is287d" id="Since_there_is287d"></a>Since there is as yet no submarine tunnel in existence, it is of interest to give some details concerning the project of a Channel Tunnel<a name="FNanchor_594_594" id="FNanchor_594_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> between Dover and Calais, and the preliminary arrangements between @@ -19497,7 +19456,7 @@ the following:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_594_594" id="Footnote_594_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a> See Oppenheim in Z.V. II. (1908), pp. 1-16; Robin in R.G. -XV. (1908), pp. 50-77; and Liszt, § 26.</p></div> +XV. (1908), pp. 50-77; and Liszt, § 26.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> See Parliamentary Papers, C. 1576, Report of the @@ -19574,20 +19533,20 @@ undergone a change.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 36 <span class="smaller">POSITION OF INDIVIDUALS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 42—Taylor, § 171—Heffter, § 58—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. -585-592—Gareis, § 53—Liszt, §§ 5 and 11—Ullmann, § 107—Bonfils, Nos. -397-409—Despagnet, No. 328—Mérignhac, II. pp. 169-172—Pradier-Fodéré, -I. Nos. 43-49—Fiore, II. Nos. 568-712—Martens, I. §§ 85-86—Jellinek, -"System der subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), pp. 310-314—Heilborn, +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 42—Taylor, § 171—Heffter, § 58—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. +585-592—Gareis, § 53—Liszt, §§ 5 and 11—Ullmann, § 107—Bonfils, Nos. +397-409—Despagnet, No. 328—Mérignhac, II. pp. 169-172—Pradier-Fodéré, +I. Nos. 43-49—Fiore, II. Nos. 568-712—Martens, I. §§ 85-86—Jellinek, +"System der subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), pp. 310-314—Heilborn, "System," pp. 58-138—Kaufmann, "Die Rechtskraft des -Internationalen Rechtes" (1899)—Buonvino, "Diritto e personalità +Internationalen Rechtes" (1899)—Buonvino, "Diritto e personalità giuridica internazionale" (1910)—Rehm and Adler in Z.V. II. (1908), pp. 53-55 and 614-618—Kohler in Z.V. III. (1909), pp. 209-230—Diena in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 57-76.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Importance of Individuals to the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 288. The importance of individuals to the Law +<p>§ 288. The importance of individuals to the Law of Nations is just as great as that of territory, for individuals are the personal basis of every State. Just as a State cannot exist without a territory, so it cannot @@ -19601,7 +19560,7 @@ individuals.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Individuals never Subjects of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 289. <a name="No289" id="No289"></a>Now, what is the position of individuals in +<p>§ 289. <a name="No289" id="No289"></a>Now, what is the position of individuals in International Law according to these rules? Since the Law of Nations is a law between States only and exclusively, States only and exclusively<a name="FNanchor_597_597" id="FNanchor_597_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a> are subjects @@ -19641,7 +19600,7 @@ Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_Law_of13">13</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Since_the_Law_of13">13</a> and <a href="#Th63">63</a>.</p></div> <p>And the same is valid as regards special rights of @@ -19656,7 +19615,7 @@ calling these rights into existence by their Municipal Laws.<a name="FNanchor_598_598" id="FNanchor_598_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> The whole matter is treated with great lucidity by -Jellinek, "System der subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), pp. +Jellinek, "System der subjectiven öffentlichen Rechte" (1892), pp. 310-314, and Heilborn, "System," pp. 58-138.</p></div> <p>Again, in those rare cases in which States stipulate @@ -19694,7 +19653,7 @@ it by the Treaty of Vienna of 1878.<a name="FNanchor_600_600" id="FNanchor_600_6 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> It ought to be mentioned that the opinion presented in the text concerning the impossibility for individuals to be subjects of International Law, which is now mostly upheld, is vigorously opposed by -Kaufmann, "Die Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechtes" (1899), §§ 1-4, +Kaufmann, "Die Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechtes" (1899), §§ 1-4, and a few others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p></div> <p>Now it is maintained<a name="FNanchor_601_601" id="FNanchor_601_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> that, although individuals @@ -19733,12 +19692,12 @@ within the province of Municipal Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> See Diena in R.G. XVI. (1909), pp. 57-76; Rehm and Adler in -Z.V. I. (1908), pp. 53 and 614; Liszt, § 5; Kohler in Z.V. II. (1909), +Z.V. I. (1908), pp. 53 and 614; Liszt, § 5; Kohler in Z.V. II. (1909), pp. 209-230.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Individuals Objects of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 290. <a name="But_what_is_the_real290" id="But_what_is_the_real290"></a>But what is the real position of individuals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +<p>§ 290. <a name="But_what_is_the_real290" id="But_what_is_the_real290"></a>But what is the real position of individuals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> in International Law, if they are not subjects thereof? The answer can only be that they are <i>objects</i> of the Law of Nations. They appear as such from many @@ -19770,7 +19729,7 @@ standpoint is taken up by Lorimer, II. p. 131, and Holland, <div class="sidenote"><p>Nationality the Link between Individuals and the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 291. <a name="If_as_stated_individuals291" id="If_as_stated_individuals291"></a>If, as stated, individuals are never subjects +<p>§ 291. <a name="If_as_stated_individuals291" id="If_as_stated_individuals291"></a>If, as stated, individuals are never subjects but always objects of the Law of Nations, then nationality is the link between this law and individuals. It is through the medium of their nationality only that @@ -19797,7 +19756,7 @@ And so distinct is the position as subjects of these members from the position of stateless individuals and from subjects of States outside the Family of Nations, that it has been correctly characterised as a kind of -international "indigenousness," a <i>Völkerrechts-Indigenat</i>.<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> +international "indigenousness," a <i>Völkerrechts-Indigenat</i>.<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> Just as municipal citizenship procures for an individual the enjoyment of the benefits of the Municipal Laws, so this international "indigenousness," @@ -19806,10 +19765,10 @@ procures the enjoyment of the benefits of the Law of Nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_603_603" id="Footnote_603_603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_603_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_will_be_remembered294">294</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_will_be_remembered294">294</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#That_stateless_individuals312">312</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#That_stateless_individuals312">312</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> See Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. @@ -19817,7 +19776,7 @@ p. 588.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Law of Nations and the Rights of Mankind.</p></div> -<p>§ 292. <a name="Several_writ292" id="Several_writ292"></a>Several writers<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> maintain that the Law of +<p>§ 292. <a name="Several_writ292" id="Several_writ292"></a>Several writers<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> maintain that the Law of Nations guarantees to every individual at home and abroad the so-called rights of mankind, without regarding whether an individual be stateless or not, or @@ -19867,7 +19826,7 @@ classes of subjects are forcibly submitted within certain States show that the Law of Nations really comprises such guarantee.<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> Bluntschli, §§ <a href="#Right_of_legation360">360</a>-363 and 370; Martens, I. §§ 85 and 86; +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> Bluntschli, §§ <a href="#Right_of_legation360">360</a>-363 and 370; Martens, I. §§ 85 and 86; Fiore, I. Nos. 684-712, and Code, Nos. 614-669; Bonfils, No. 397, and others.</p></div> @@ -19884,13 +19843,13 @@ the General Act of the Congo Conference of Berlin, 1885, whose article 9 deals with the slave trade; (3) the General Act of the anti-slavery Conference of Brussels, 1890, which is signed by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, the Congo Free State, Denmark, France, (see, -however, below, § <a href="#It_follows_from517">517</a>), Germany, Holland, Italy, Luxemburg, Persia, +however, below, § <a href="#It_follows_from517">517</a>), Germany, Holland, Italy, Luxemburg, Persia, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Norway, the United States, Turkey, and Zanzibar. See Queneuil, "De la traite des noirs et de l'esclavage" (1907).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_609_609" id="Footnote_609_609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_609_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Ma137">137</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Ma137">137</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> The reader may think of the sad position of the Jews within the Russian Empire. The treatment of the native Jews in Roumania, @@ -19898,7 +19857,7 @@ although the Powers have, according to the spirit of article 44 of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878, a right of intervention, shows even more clearly that the Law of Nations does not guarantee what are called rights of mankind. See - below, § <a href="#That_stateless_individuals312">312</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#That_stateless_individuals312">312</a>.</p></div> @@ -19908,20 +19867,20 @@ rights of mankind. See </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 220-226—Hall, §§ 66 and 87—Westlake, I. pp. 213, 231-233—Halleck, -I. p. 401—Taylor, §§ 172-178—Moore, III. §§ 372-376—Bluntschli, -§§ 364-380—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 630-650—Gareis, -§ 54—Liszt, § 11—Ullmann, § 108—Bonfils, Nos. 433-454—Despagnet, -Nos. 329-333—Pradier-Fodéré, III. No. 1645—Rivier, I. p. 303—Nys, II. -pp. 214-220, 229-237—Calvo, II. §§ 539-540—Fiore, I. Nos. 644-658, -684-717, and Code, Nos. 638-641—Martens, I. §§ 85-87—Hall, "Foreign -Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 14—Cogordan, "La nationalité au +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 220-226—Hall, §§ 66 and 87—Westlake, I. pp. 213, 231-233—Halleck, +I. p. 401—Taylor, §§ 172-178—Moore, III. §§ 372-376—Bluntschli, +§§ 364-380—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 630-650—Gareis, +§ 54—Liszt, § 11—Ullmann, § 108—Bonfils, Nos. 433-454—Despagnet, +Nos. 329-333—Pradier-Fodéré, III. No. 1645—Rivier, I. p. 303—Nys, II. +pp. 214-220, 229-237—Calvo, II. §§ 539-540—Fiore, I. Nos. 644-658, +684-717, and Code, Nos. 638-641—Martens, I. §§ 85-87—Hall, "Foreign +Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 14—Cogordan, "La nationalité au point de vue des rapports internationaux" (2nd ed. 1890)—Gargas in Z.V. V. (1911), pp. 278-316 and....</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 293. Nationality of an individual is his quality of +<p>§ 293. Nationality of an individual is his quality of being a subject of a certain State and therefore its citizen. It is not for International but for Municipal Law to determine who is and who is not to be considered @@ -19949,8 +19908,8 @@ made use of in the theory and practice of International Law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_present_law307">307</a>, and Hall, "Foreign Powers and -Jurisdiction," § 20, who quotes, however, a decision of the French Cour + below, § <a href="#The_present_law307">307</a>, and Hall, "Foreign Powers and +Jurisdiction," § 20, who quotes, however, a decision of the French Cour de Cassation according to which naturalisation in a British Colony does not constitute a real naturalisation. But this decision is based on the Code Civil of France and has nothing to do with the Law of Nations. See @@ -19971,7 +19930,7 @@ Prussia, either of Russian, Austrian, or German nationality <div class="sidenote"><p>Function of Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 294. <a name="It_will_be_remembered294" id="It_will_be_remembered294"></a>It will be remembered that nationality is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> +<p>§ 294. <a name="It_will_be_remembered294" id="It_will_be_remembered294"></a>It will be remembered that nationality is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> the link between individuals and the benefits of the Law of Nations.<a name="FNanchor_612_612" id="FNanchor_612_612"></a><a href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> This function of nationality becomes apparent with regard to individuals abroad, or property @@ -19982,7 +19941,7 @@ all other States this function of nationality becomes most conspicuous. The right is that of protection over its citizens abroad which every State holds and occasionally vigorously exercises towards other States; it -will be discussed in detail below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>. The duty, on +will be discussed in detail below, § <a href="#Although_aliens319">319</a>. The duty, on the other hand, is that of receiving on its territory such citizens as are not allowed to remain<a name="FNanchor_613_613" id="FNanchor_613_613"></a><a href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> on the territory of other States. Since no State is obliged by the Law @@ -19995,16 +19954,16 @@ States having a claim on the home State that the latter do receive the expelled individuals.<a name="FNanchor_614_614" id="FNanchor_614_614"></a><a href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#If_as_stated_individuals291">291</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#If_as_stated_individuals291">291</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_many_Continental_States326">326</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_many_Continental_States326">326</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_614_614" id="Footnote_614_614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_614_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a> Beyond the right of protection and the duty to receive expelled citizens at home, the powers of a State over its citizens abroad in consequence of its personal supremacy illustrate the function of nationality. (See - above, § <a href="#Independence_and_territorial124">124</a>.) Thus, the home State can tax + above, § <a href="#Independence_and_territorial124">124</a>.) Thus, the home State can tax citizens living abroad in the interest of home finance, can request them to come home for the purpose of rendering military service, can punish them for crimes committed abroad, can categorically request them to come @@ -20012,9 +19971,9 @@ home for good (so-called <i>jus avocandi</i>). And no State has a right forcibly to retain foreign citizens called home by their home State, or to prevent them from paying taxes to their home State, and the like.</p></div> -<div class="sidenote"><p>So-called <i>Protégés</i> and <i>de facto</i> Subjects.</p></div> +<div class="sidenote"><p>So-called <i>Protégés</i> and <i>de facto</i> Subjects.</p></div> -<p>§ 295. Although nationality alone is the regular +<p>§ 295. Although nationality alone is the regular means through which individuals can derive benefit from the Law of Nations, there are two exceptional cases in which individuals may come under the international @@ -20023,7 +19982,7 @@ being really its subjects. It happens, first, that a State undertakes by an international agreement the diplomatic protection of another State's citizens abroad, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> in this case the protected foreign subjects are named -"<i>protégés</i>" of the protecting States. Such agreements +"<i>protégés</i>" of the protecting States. Such agreements are either concluded for a permanency as in the case of a small State, Switzerland for instance, having no diplomatic envoy in a certain foreign country where many @@ -20034,9 +19993,9 @@ the enemy State to a neutral State.</p> <p>It happens, secondly, that a State promises diplomatic protection within the boundaries of Turkey and other Oriental countries to certain natives. Such protected -natives are likewise named <i>protégés</i>, but they +natives are likewise named <i>protégés</i>, but they are also called "<i>de facto</i> subjects" of the protecting -State. The position of these <i>protégés</i> is quite anomalous, +State. The position of these <i>protégés</i> is quite anomalous, it is based on custom and treaties, and no special rules of the Law of Nations itself are in existence concerning such <i>de facto</i> subjects. Every State @@ -20054,7 +20013,7 @@ France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Sweden-Norway, and the United States of America, which sanctions the stipulations of the treaty of 1863 between France and Morocco concerning the same -subject. According to this treaty the term "<i>protégé</i>" +subject. According to this treaty the term "<i>protégé</i>" embraces<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> in relation to States of Capitulations only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> the following classes of persons:—(1) Persons being subjects of a country which is under the protectorate @@ -20062,12 +20021,12 @@ of the Power whose protection they claim; (2) individuals corresponding to the classes enumerated in the treaties with Morocco of 1863 and 1880 and in the Ottoman law of 1863; (3) persons, who under a special -treaty have been recognised as <i>protégés</i> like those +treaty have been recognised as <i>protégés</i> like those enumerated by article 4 of the French Muscat Convention of 1844; and (4) those individuals who can establish that they had been considered and treated -as <i>protégés</i> by the Power in question before the year -in which the creation of new <i>protégés</i> was regulated +as <i>protégés</i> by the Power in question before the year +in which the creation of new <i>protégés</i> was regulated and limited—that is to say, before the year 1863, these individuals not having lost the <i>status</i> they had once legitimately acquired.</p> @@ -20081,10 +20040,10 @@ in 1905, of the Hague Court of Arbitration in the case of France <i>v.</i> Great Britain concerning the Muscat Dhows. </p><p> It is of interest to note that the Court considers it a fact that the -Powers have no longer the right to create <i>protégés</i> in unlimited +Powers have no longer the right to create <i>protégés</i> in unlimited numbers in any of the Oriental States, for the Award states on p. 56:—"Although the Powers have <i>expressis verbis</i> resigned the exercise -of the pretended right to create '<i>protégés</i>' in unlimited number only +of the pretended right to create '<i>protégés</i>' in unlimited number only in relation to Turkey and Morocco, nevertheless the exercise of this pretended right has been abandoned also in relation to other Oriental States, analogy having always been recognised as a means to complete the @@ -20093,7 +20052,7 @@ circumstances are analogous."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Nationality and Emigration.</p></div> -<p>§ 296. As emigration comprises the voluntary removal +<p>§ 296. As emigration comprises the voluntary removal of an individual from his home State with the intention of residing abroad, but not necessarily with the intention of renouncing his nationality, it is obvious @@ -20116,8 +20075,8 @@ State.<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_61 protection of the interests of emigrants and immigrants from the moral, hygienic, and economic view, the Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Copenhagen in 1897, adopted a body of fourteen principles -concerning emigration under the heading "Vœux relatifs à la matière -de l'émigration"; see Annuaire, XVI. (1897), p. 276. See also Gargas in +concerning emigration under the heading "Vœux relatifs à la matière +de l'émigration"; see Annuaire, XVI. (1897), p. 276. See also Gargas in Z.V. V. (1911), pp. 278-316.</p></div> @@ -20127,22 +20086,22 @@ Z.V. V. (1911), pp. 278-316.</p></div> <span class="smaller">MODES OF ACQUIRING AND LOSING NATIONALITY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 212-219—Hall, §§ 67-72—Westlake, I. pp. 213-220—Lawrence, -§§ 94-95—Halleck, I. pp. 402-418—Moore, III. §§ 372-473—Taylor, -§§ 176-183—Walker, § 19—Bluntschli, §§ 364-373—Hartmann, § 81—Heffter, -§ 59—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 592-630—Gareis, § 55—Liszt, -§ 11—Ullmann, §§ 110 and 112—Bonfils, Nos. 417-432—Despagnet, -Nos. 318-327—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1646-1691—Rivier, I. pp. 303-306—Calvo, -II. §§ 541-654, VI. §§ 92-117—Martens, II. §§ 44-48—Fiore, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 212-219—Hall, §§ 67-72—Westlake, I. pp. 213-220—Lawrence, +§§ 94-95—Halleck, I. pp. 402-418—Moore, III. §§ 372-473—Taylor, +§§ 176-183—Walker, § 19—Bluntschli, §§ 364-373—Hartmann, § 81—Heffter, +§ 59—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 592-630—Gareis, § 55—Liszt, +§ 11—Ullmann, §§ 110 and 112—Bonfils, Nos. 417-432—Despagnet, +Nos. 318-327—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1646-1691—Rivier, I. pp. 303-306—Calvo, +II. §§ 541-654, VI. §§ 92-117—Martens, II. §§ 44-48—Fiore, Code, Nos. 660-669—Foote, "Private International Jurisprudence" (3rd ed. 1904), pp. 1-52—Dicey, "Conflict of Laws" (1896), pp. 173-204—Martitz, -"Das Recht der Staatsangehörigkeit im internationalen -Verkehr" (1885)—Cogordan, "La nationalité, &c" (2nd ed. 1890), pp. -21-116, 317-400—Lapradelle, "De la nationalité d'origine" (1893)—Berney, -"La nationalité à l'Institut de Droit International" (1897)—Bisocchi, -"Acquisto e perdita della Nazionalità, &c." (1907)—Sieber, -"Das Staatsbürgerrecht in internationalem Verkehr," 2 vols. (1907)—Lehr, -"La nationalité dans les principaux états du globe" (1909), and +"Das Recht der Staatsangehörigkeit im internationalen +Verkehr" (1885)—Cogordan, "La nationalité, &c" (2nd ed. 1890), pp. +21-116, 317-400—Lapradelle, "De la nationalité d'origine" (1893)—Berney, +"La nationalité à l'Institut de Droit International" (1897)—Bisocchi, +"Acquisto e perdita della Nazionalità , &c." (1907)—Sieber, +"Das Staatsbürgerrecht in internationalem Verkehr," 2 vols. (1907)—Lehr, +"La nationalité dans les principaux états du globe" (1909), and in R.I. 2nd Ser. X. (1908), pp. 285, 401, and 525.</p> <p>In 1893 the British Government addressed a circular to its representatives @@ -20154,7 +20113,7 @@ Parliament. They are printed in Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XIX. pp. <div class="sidenote"><p>Five Modes of Acquisition of Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 297. Although it is for Municipal Law to determine +<p>§ 297. Although it is for Municipal Law to determine who is and who is not a subject of a State, it is nevertheless of interest for the theory of the Law of Nations to ascertain how nationality can be acquired @@ -20167,7 +20126,7 @@ redintegration, subjugation, and cession.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375 <div class="sidenote"><p>Acquisition of Nationality by Birth.</p></div> -<p>§ 298. The first and chief mode of acquiring nationality +<p>§ 298. The first and chief mode of acquiring nationality is by birth, for the acquisition of nationality by another mode is exceptional only, since the vast majority of mankind acquires nationality by birth and does not @@ -20199,11 +20158,11 @@ their territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> See details concerning British law on this point in Hall, -"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 14.</p></div> +"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 14.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Acquisition of Nationality through Naturalisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 299. <a name="The_most_important299" id="The_most_important299"></a>The most important mode of acquiring +<p>§ 299. <a name="The_most_important299" id="The_most_important299"></a>The most important mode of acquiring nationality besides birth is that of naturalisation in the wider sense of the term. Through naturalisation an alien by birth acquires the nationality of the naturalising @@ -20237,22 +20196,22 @@ in the narrower sense of the term; it is the most important for the Law of Nations, and, whenever one speaks of naturalisation pure and simple, such naturalisation through direct grant on application is meant; -it will be discussed in detail below, §§ 303-307.</p> +it will be discussed in detail below, §§ 303-307.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_621_621" id="Footnote_621_621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_621_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> English law has not adopted this rule.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> It is doubtful (see - Hall, § 64) whether the home State of + Hall, § 64) whether the home State of such individuals naturalised against their will must submit to this <i>ipso facto</i> naturalisation. See - above, § <a href="#The_duty_of_every_State125">125</a>, where the rule has been + above, § <a href="#The_duty_of_every_State125">125</a>, where the rule has been stated that in consideration of the personal supremacy of the home State over its citizens abroad no State can naturalise foreigners against their will.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Acquisition of Nationality through Redintegration.</p></div> -<p>§ 300. The third mode of acquiring nationality is +<p>§ 300. The third mode of acquiring nationality is that by so-called redintegration or resumption. Such individuals as have been natural-born subjects of a State, but have lost their original nationality through @@ -20281,7 +20240,7 @@ in the case of an alien applying for naturalisation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Acquisition of Nationality through Subjugation and Cession.</p></div> -<p>§ 301. <a name="The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301" id="The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301"></a>The fourth and fifth modes of acquiring +<p>§ 301. <a name="The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301" id="The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301"></a>The fourth and fifth modes of acquiring nationality are by subjugation after conquest and by cession of territory, the inhabitants of the subjugated as well as of the ceded territory acquiring <i>ipso facto</i> @@ -20290,11 +20249,11 @@ State which acquires the territory. These modes of acquisition of nationality are modes settled by the customary Law of Nations; it will be remembered that details concerning this matter have been given -above, §§ <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a> and <a href="#Although_subjugation240">240</a>.</p> +above, §§ <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a> and <a href="#Although_subjugation240">240</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Seven modes of losing Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 302. Although it is left in the discretion of the +<p>§ 302. Although it is left in the discretion of the different States to determine the grounds on which individuals lose their nationality, it is nevertheless of interest for the theory of the Law of Nations to take @@ -20351,9 +20310,9 @@ their nationality and acquire that of the State which annexes the territory.<a name="FNanchor_624_624" id="FNanchor_624_624"></a><a href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301">301</a>. Concerning the option sometimes given to + above, § <a href="#The_fourth_and_fifth_modes301">301</a>. Concerning the option sometimes given to inhabitants of ceded territory to retain their former nationality, see - above, § <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#As_the_object219">219</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -20361,14 +20320,14 @@ inhabitants of ceded territory to retain their former nationality, see <span class="smaller">NATURALISATION IN ESPECIAL</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 214—Hall, §§ 71-71*—Westlake, § I. pp. 225-230—Lawrence, §§ 95-96—Phillimore, -I. §§ 325-332—Halleck, I. pp. 403-410—Taylor, §§ 181-182—Walker, -§ 19—Wharton, II. §§ 173-183—Moore, III. §§ 377-380—Wheaton, -§ 85—Bluntschli, §§ 371-372—Ullmann, §§ 110-111—Pradier-Fodéré, -III. Nos. 1656-1659—Calvo, II. §§ 581-646—Martens, II. §§ 47-48—Stoicesco, -"Étude sur la naturalisation" (1875)—Folleville, -"Traité de la naturalisation" (1880)—Cogordan, "La nationalité, &c." -(2nd ed. 1890), pp. 117-284, 307-316—Delécaille, "De la naturalisation" +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 214—Hall, §§ 71-71*—Westlake, § I. pp. 225-230—Lawrence, §§ 95-96—Phillimore, +I. §§ 325-332—Halleck, I. pp. 403-410—Taylor, §§ 181-182—Walker, +§ 19—Wharton, II. §§ 173-183—Moore, III. §§ 377-380—Wheaton, +§ 85—Bluntschli, §§ 371-372—Ullmann, §§ 110-111—Pradier-Fodéré, +III. Nos. 1656-1659—Calvo, II. §§ 581-646—Martens, II. §§ 47-48—Stoicesco, +"Étude sur la naturalisation" (1875)—Folleville, +"Traité de la naturalisation" (1880)—Cogordan, "La nationalité, &c." +(2nd ed. 1890), pp. 117-284, 307-316—Delécaille, "De la naturalisation" (1893)—Henriques, "The Law of Aliens, &c." (1906), pp. 91-121—Piggott, "Nationality and Naturalisation, &c." 2 vols. (new ed. 1907)—Hart, in the <i>Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation</i>, new series, @@ -20376,11 +20335,11 @@ vol. II. (1900), pp. 11-26.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and Importance of Naturalisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 303. Naturalisation in the narrower sense of the +<p>§ 303. Naturalisation in the narrower sense of the term—in contradistinction to naturalisation <i>ipso facto</i> through marriage, legitimation, option, domicile, and Government office (see - above, § <a href="#The_most_important299">299</a>)—must be defined + above, § <a href="#The_most_important299">299</a>)—must be defined as reception of an alien into the citizenship of a State through a formal act on application of the favoured individual. International Law does not provide any @@ -20409,7 +20368,7 @@ existence which abstains altogether from naturalising foreigners.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of Naturalisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 304. The object of naturalisation is always an +<p>§ 304. The object of naturalisation is always an alien. Some States will naturalise such aliens only as are stateless because they never have been citizens of another State or because they have renounced, or have @@ -20430,7 +20389,7 @@ which can refuse it without giving any reasons.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conditions of Naturalisation.</p></div> -<p>§ 305. If granted, naturalisation makes an alien a +<p>§ 305. If granted, naturalisation makes an alien a citizen. But it is left to the discretion of the naturalising State to grant naturalisation under any conditions it likes. Thus, for example, Great Britain grants @@ -20448,11 +20407,11 @@ alien can never be elected President.<a name="FNanchor_626_626" id="FNanchor_626 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> A foreigner naturalised in Great Britain by Letters of Denization does not acquire the same rights as a natural-born British -subject. See Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 22.</p></div> +subject. See Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction" (1894), § 22.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Naturalisation upon previous Citizenship.</p></div> -<p>§ 306. Since the Law of Nations does not comprise +<p>§ 306. Since the Law of Nations does not comprise any rules concerning naturalisation, the effect of naturalisation upon previous citizenship is exclusively a matter of the Municipal Law of the States concerned. @@ -20475,17 +20434,17 @@ before his naturalisation abroad.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> Formerly Great Britain upheld the rule <i>nemo potest exuere patriam</i>, but Section 6 of the Naturalisation Act, 1870, does away with that rule. Its antithesis is the rule <i>ne quis invitus civitate mutetur, -neve in civitate maneat invitus</i> (Cicero, "Pro Balbo," c. 13, § 31; see +neve in civitate maneat invitus</i> (Cicero, "Pro Balbo," c. 13, § 31; see Rattigan, "Private International Law" (1895), p. 29, No. 21).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> Many instructive cases concerning this matter are reported -by Wharton, II. §§ 180 and 181, and Moore, III. §§ 401-407. See also -Hall, § 71, where details concerning the practice of many States are +by Wharton, II. §§ 180 and 181, and Moore, III. §§ 401-407. See also +Hall, § 71, where details concerning the practice of many States are given with regard to their subjects naturalised abroad.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Naturalisation in Great Britain.</p></div> -<p>§ 307. <a name="The_present_law307" id="The_present_law307"></a>The present law of Great Britain<a name="FNanchor_629_629" id="FNanchor_629_629"></a><a href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> concerning +<p>§ 307. <a name="The_present_law307" id="The_present_law307"></a>The present law of Great Britain<a name="FNanchor_629_629" id="FNanchor_629_629"></a><a href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> concerning Naturalisation is mainly contained in the Naturalisation Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1895.<a name="FNanchor_630_630" id="FNanchor_630_630"></a><a href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a> Aliens may on their application become naturalised by a certificate @@ -20522,20 +20481,20 @@ British subjects, except children born of a naturalised father abroad in the service of the Crown.<a name="FNanchor_633_633" id="FNanchor_633_633"></a><a href="#Footnote_633_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a> As regards naturalisation in the United States of America, -see Moore, III. §§ 381-389, and Dyne, "Naturalisation in the United +see Moore, III. §§ 381-389, and Dyne, "Naturalisation in the United States" (1907).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a> 33 Vict. c. 14; 35 and 36 Vict. c. 39; 58 & 59 Vict. c. 43. See Foote, "Private International Jurisprudence," 3rd ed. (1904), pp. -1-51; Westlake, "Private International Law," 4th ed. (1905), §§ 284-287; +1-51; Westlake, "Private International Law," 4th ed. (1905), §§ 284-287; Dicey, "Conflict of Laws," 2nd ed. (1908), pp. 172-191.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a> See - Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 20 and 21, + Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 20 and 21, especially concerning naturalisation in India.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a> See - Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 19.</p></div> + Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 19.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a> See Naturalisation Act, 1895 (58 & 59 Vict. c. 43).</p></div> @@ -20561,7 +20520,7 @@ to exercise British consular jurisdiction in the East." (Hall.)</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a> See - Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 22.</p></div> + Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 22.</p></div> @@ -20571,16 +20530,16 @@ to exercise British consular jurisdiction in the East." </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 71—Westlake, I. pp. 221-225—Lawrence, § 96—Halleck, I. pp. 410-413—Taylor, -§ 183—Wheaton, § 85 (Dana's note)—Moore, III. §§ 426-430—Bluntschli, -§§ 373-374—Hartmann, § 82—Heffter, § 59—Stoerk in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 650-655—Ullmann, § 110—Bonfils, No. 422—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 71—Westlake, I. pp. 221-225—Lawrence, § 96—Halleck, I. pp. 410-413—Taylor, +§ 183—Wheaton, § 85 (Dana's note)—Moore, III. §§ 426-430—Bluntschli, +§§ 373-374—Hartmann, § 82—Heffter, § 59—Stoerk in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 650-655—Ullmann, § 110—Bonfils, No. 422—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1660-1665—Rivier, I. pp. 304-306—Calvo, II. -§§ 647-654—Martens, II. § 46.</p> +§§ 647-654—Martens, II. § 46.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Possibility of Double and Absent Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 308. The Law of Nations having no rule concerning +<p>§ 308. The Law of Nations having no rule concerning acquisition and loss of nationality beyond this, that nationality is lost and acquired through subjugation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> and cession, and, on the other hand, the Municipal @@ -20618,7 +20577,7 @@ may be inside these States.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Double Nationality occurs.</p></div> -<p>§ 309. An individual may own double nationality +<p>§ 309. An individual may own double nationality knowingly or unknowingly, and with or without intention. And double nationality may be produced by every mode of acquiring nationality. Even birth can @@ -20662,7 +20621,7 @@ Naturalisation Act, 1870.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Individuals with Double Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 310. Individuals owning double nationality bear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +<p>§ 310. Individuals owning double nationality bear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> in the language of diplomatists the name <i>sujets mixtes</i>. The position of such "mixed subjects" is awkward on account of the fact that two different States claim @@ -20713,7 +20672,7 @@ Jurisprudence," 3rd ed. (1904), p. 106, and the cases there cited.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Absent Nationality occurs.</p></div> -<p>§ 311. An individual may be destitute of nationality +<p>§ 311. An individual may be destitute of nationality knowingly or unknowingly, intentionally or through no fault of his own. Even by birth a person may be stateless. Thus, an illegitimate child born in @@ -20730,7 +20689,7 @@ another are in fact destitute of nationality.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Individuals destitute of Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 312. <a name="That_stateless_individuals312" id="That_stateless_individuals312"></a>That stateless individuals are objects of the +<p>§ 312. <a name="That_stateless_individuals312" id="That_stateless_individuals312"></a>That stateless individuals are objects of the Law of Nations in so far as they fall under the territorial supremacy of the State on whose territory they live there is no doubt whatever. But since they do not @@ -20748,7 +20707,7 @@ no restriction whatever upon a State's maltreating them to any extent.<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_637_637" id="Footnote_637_637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_637_637"><span class="label">[637]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#If_as_stated_individuals291">291</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#If_as_stated_individuals291">291</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_638_638" id="Footnote_638_638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_638_638"><span class="label">[638]</span></a> The position of the Jews in Roumania furnishes a sad example. According to Municipal Law they are, with a few exceptions, @@ -20760,12 +20719,12 @@ to render military service, and actually treats them in every way according to discretion without any foreign State being able to exercise a right of protection over them. See Rey in R.G. X. (1903), pp. 460-526, and Bar in R.I. 2nd Ser. IX. (1907), pp. 711-716. See also - above, <a href="#Footnote_610_610">§ 293, p. 369, note 2</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p></div> + above, <a href="#Footnote_610_610">§ 293, p. 369, note 2</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Redress against Difficulties arising from Double and Absent Nationality.</p></div> -<p>§ 313. Double as well as absent nationality of individuals +<p>§ 313. Double as well as absent nationality of individuals has from time to time created many difficulties for the States concerned. As regards the remedy for such difficulties, it is comparatively easy to meet those @@ -20812,15 +20771,15 @@ and loss of nationality as make the very occurrence of double and absent nationality impossible.<a name="FNanchor_641_641" id="FNanchor_641_641"></a><a href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a> The case of Martin Koszta ought here to be mentioned, -details of which are reported by Wharton, II. § 175; Moore, III. §§ -490-491, and Martens, "Causes Célèbre," V. pp. 583-599. Koszta was a +details of which are reported by Wharton, II. § 175; Moore, III. §§ +490-491, and Martens, "Causes Célèbre," V. pp. 583-599. Koszta was a Hungarian subject who took part in the revolutionary movement of 1848, escaped to the United States, and in July, 1852, made a declaration under oath, before a proper tribunal, of his intention to become naturalised there. After remaining nearly two years in the United States, but before he was really naturalised, he visited Turkey, and obtained a <i>tezkereh</i>, a kind of letter of safe-conduct, from the -American Chargé d'Affaires at Constantinople. Later on, while at Smyrna, +American Chargé d'Affaires at Constantinople. Later on, while at Smyrna, he was seized by Austrian officials and taken on board an Austrian man-of-war with the intention of bringing him to Austria, to be there punished for his part in the revolution of 1848. The American Consul @@ -20842,12 +20801,12 @@ Treaties," attempted to overcome conflicts arising from double nationality. The first of these treaties was concluded in 1868 with the North German Confederation, the precursor of the present German Empire, and signed on behalf of the United States by her Minister in Berlin, -George Bancroft. (See Wharton, II. §§ 149 and 179, and Moore, III. §§ +George Bancroft. (See Wharton, II. §§ 149 and 179, and Moore, III. §§ 391-400.) In the same and the following years treaties of the same kind were concluded with many other States, the last with Portugal in 1908. A treaty of another kind, but with the same object, was concluded between the United States and Great Britain on May 13, 1870. (See Martens, -N.R.G. XX. p. 524, and Moore, III. § 397.) All these treaties stipulate +N.R.G. XX. p. 524, and Moore, III. § 397.) All these treaties stipulate that naturalisation in one of the contracting States shall be recognised by the other, whether the naturalised individual has or has not previously been released from his original citizenship, provided he has @@ -20876,14 +20835,14 @@ the difficulties. (See Annuaire, XV. p. 270.)</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 100—Hall, §§ 63-64—Westlake, I. pp. 208-210—Lawrence, §§ 97-98—Phillimore, -I. §§ 365-370—Twiss, I. § 238—Halleck, I. pp. 452-454—Taylor, -§ 186—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. § 206—Wheaton, § 115, -and Dana's Note—Moore, IV. §§ 560-566—Bluntschli, §§ 381-398—Hartmann, -§§ 84-85, 89—Heffter, §§ 61-63—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. -pp. 637-650—Gareis, § 57—Liszt, § 25—Ullmann, §§ 113-115—Bonfils, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 100—Hall, §§ 63-64—Westlake, I. pp. 208-210—Lawrence, §§ 97-98—Phillimore, +I. §§ 365-370—Twiss, I. § 238—Halleck, I. pp. 452-454—Taylor, +§ 186—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. § 206—Wheaton, § 115, +and Dana's Note—Moore, IV. §§ 560-566—Bluntschli, §§ 381-398—Hartmann, +§§ 84-85, 89—Heffter, §§ 61-63—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. +pp. 637-650—Gareis, § 57—Liszt, § 25—Ullmann, §§ 113-115—Bonfils, Nos. 441-446—Despagnet, Nos. 339-343—Rivier, I. pp. 307-309—Nys, -II. pp. 232-237—Calvo, II. §§ 701-706, VI. § 119—Martens, II. § 46—Overbeck, +II. pp. 232-237—Calvo, II. §§ 701-706, VI. § 119—Martens, II. § 46—Overbeck, "Niederlassungsfreiheit und Ausweisungsrecht" (1906); Henriques, "The Law of Aliens, &c." (1906)—Sibley and Elias, "The Aliens Act, &c." (1906)—Proceedings of the American Society of International @@ -20891,7 +20850,7 @@ Law, 1911, pp. 65-115.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No Obligation to admit Aliens.</p></div> -<p>§ 314. Many writers<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> maintain that every member +<p>§ 314. Many writers<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> maintain that every member of the Family of Nations is bound by International Law to admit all aliens into its territory for all lawful purposes, although they agree that every State could @@ -20942,11 +20901,11 @@ in strict law every State is competent to exclude foreigners from its territory.<a name="FNanchor_645_645" id="FNanchor_645_645"></a><a href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a> See, - for instance, Bluntschli, § -381, and Liszt, § 25.</p></div> + for instance, Bluntschli, § +381, and Liszt, § 25.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Many_adherents_of_the141">141</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Many_adherents_of_the141">141</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a> See the Aliens Act, 1905 (5 Edw. @@ -20966,7 +20925,7 @@ with the admittance of aliens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_ <div class="sidenote"><p>Reception of Aliens under conditions.</p></div> -<p>§ 315. It is obvious that, if a State need not receive +<p>§ 315. It is obvious that, if a State need not receive aliens at all, it can, on the other hand, receive them under certain conditions only. Thus, for example, Russia does not admit aliens without passports, and if @@ -20986,7 +20945,7 @@ is unconditionally open to all mere travelling aliens.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>So-called Right of Asylum.</p></div> -<p>§ 316. The fact that every State exercises territorial +<p>§ 316. The fact that every State exercises territorial supremacy over all persons on its territory, whether they are its subjects or aliens, excludes the prosecution of aliens thereon by foreign States. Thus, a foreign @@ -21028,21 +20987,21 @@ importance.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 213, II. §§ 101-115—Hall, §§ 63 and 87—Westlake, I. pp. 211-212, -313-316—Lawrence, §§ 97-98—Phillimore, I. §§ 332-339—Twiss, I. § 163—Taylor, -§§ 173, 187, 201-203—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. §§ 201-205—Wheaton, -§ 77-82—Moore, IV. §§ 534-549—Bluntschli, §§ 385-393—Hartmann, -§§ 84-85—Heffter, § 62—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 637-650—Gareis, -§ 57—Liszt, § 25—Ullmann, §§ 113-115—Bonfils, Nos. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. § 213, II. §§ 101-115—Hall, §§ 63 and 87—Westlake, I. pp. 211-212, +313-316—Lawrence, §§ 97-98—Phillimore, I. §§ 332-339—Twiss, I. § 163—Taylor, +§§ 173, 187, 201-203—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. §§ 201-205—Wheaton, +§ 77-82—Moore, IV. §§ 534-549—Bluntschli, §§ 385-393—Hartmann, +§§ 84-85—Heffter, § 62—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 637-650—Gareis, +§ 57—Liszt, § 25—Ullmann, §§ 113-115—Bonfils, Nos. 447-454—Despagnet, Nos. 339-343—Rivier, I. pp. 309-311—Calvo, II. -§§ 701-706—Martens, II. § 46—Gaston de Leval, "De la protection des -nationaux à l'étranger" (1907)—Wheeler in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 869-884—Proceedings +§§ 701-706—Martens, II. § 46—Gaston de Leval, "De la protection des +nationaux à l'étranger" (1907)—Wheeler in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 869-884—Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, 1911, pp. 32-65, 150-225.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Aliens subjected to territorial Supremacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 317. <a name="Wi317" id="Wi317"></a>With his entrance into a State, an alien, +<p>§ 317. <a name="Wi317" id="Wi317"></a>With his entrance into a State, an alien, unless he belongs to the class of those who enjoy so-called exterritoriality, falls at once under such State's territorial supremacy, although he remains at the same @@ -21075,7 +21034,7 @@ discretion.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a> See, however, - above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>, concerning the attitude of + above, § <a href="#Just_like_independence127">127</a>, concerning the attitude of Great Britain with regard to aliens in British colonies.</p></div> <p>It must be emphasised that an alien is responsible @@ -21099,12 +21058,12 @@ of De Jager.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a>< <p>He was tried in March 1901, and convicted of high treason, and sentenced to five years' imprisonment and -a fine of £5000, or, failing payment thereof, to a further +a fine of £5000, or, failing payment thereof, to a further three years.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Aliens in Eastern Countries.</p></div> -<p>§ 318. <a name="The_rule_that_aliens318" id="The_rule_that_aliens318"></a>The rule that aliens fall under the territorial +<p>§ 318. <a name="The_rule_that_aliens318" id="The_rule_that_aliens318"></a>The rule that aliens fall under the territorial supremacy of the State they are in finds an exception in Turkey and, further, in such other Eastern States, like China, as are, in consequence of their deficient @@ -21126,11 +21085,11 @@ Japan has since 1899 ceased to belong to the Eastern States in which aliens are exempt from local jurisdiction.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#International_custom_and440">440</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#International_custom_and440">440</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> See Twiss, I. § 163, who enumerates many of these treaties; -see also Phillimore, I. §§ 336-339; Hall, "Foreign Powers and -Jurisdiction," §§ 59-91; and Scott, "The Law affecting Foreigners in +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a> See Twiss, I. § 163, who enumerates many of these treaties; +see also Phillimore, I. §§ 336-339; Hall, "Foreign Powers and +Jurisdiction," §§ 59-91; and Scott, "The Law affecting Foreigners in Egypt as the Result of the Capitulations" (1907).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_650_650" id="Footnote_650_650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_650_650"><span class="label">[650]</span></a> 53 & 54 Vict. c. 37. See @@ -21139,7 +21098,7 @@ Law relating to Consular Jurisdiction, &c.," new edition (1907).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Aliens under the Protection of their Home State.</p></div> -<p>§ 319. <a name="Although_aliens319" id="Although_aliens319"></a>Although aliens fall at once under the territorial +<p>§ 319. <a name="Although_aliens319" id="Although_aliens319"></a>Although aliens fall at once under the territorial supremacy of the State they enter, they remain nevertheless under the protection of their home State. By a universally recognised customary rule of the Law @@ -21147,7 +21106,7 @@ of Nations every State holds a right of protection<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id= over its citizens abroad, to which corresponds the duty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> of every State to treat foreigners on its territory with a certain consideration which will be discussed below, -§§ <a href="#Under_the_influence320">320</a>-322. The question here is only when and how +§§ <a href="#Under_the_influence320">320</a>-322. The question here is only when and how this right of protection can be exercised.<a name="FNanchor_652_652" id="FNanchor_652_652"></a><a href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> Now there is certainly, as far as the Law of Nations is concerned, no duty incumbent upon a State to exercise its protection @@ -21188,28 +21147,28 @@ and the like.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a> This right has, I believe, grown up in furtherance of intercourse between the members of the Family of Nations (see - above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>); -Hall (§ 87) and others deduce this indubitable right from the + above, § <a href="#Intercourse_being_a_presupposition142">142</a>); +Hall (§ 87) and others deduce this indubitable right from the "fundamental" right of self-preservation.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a> See - Moore, VI. §§ 979-997, and Wheeler in A.J. III. (1909), + Moore, VI. §§ 979-997, and Wheeler in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 869-884.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a> Concerning the responsibility of a State for internationally injurious acts of its own, its organs and other officials, and its subjects, see - above, §§ <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>-167, and Anzilloti in + above, §§ <a href="#International_delinquency151">151</a>-167, and Anzilloti in R.G. XIII. (1906), pp. 5 and 285. The right of protection over citizens -abroad is discussed in detail by Hall, § 87, Westlake, I. pp. 313-320, +abroad is discussed in detail by Hall, § 87, Westlake, I. pp. 313-320, and Gaston de Leval, op. cit. Concerning the right of protection of a State over its citizens with regard to public debts of foreign States, -see above, §§ <a href="#The_right_of_pro6of135">135 (6)</a> +see above, §§ <a href="#The_right_of_pro6of135">135 (6)</a> and <a href="#International_delinquencies155">155</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protection to be afforded to Aliens' Persons and Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 320. <a name="Under_the_influence320" id="Under_the_influence320"></a>Under the influence of the right of protection +<p>§ 320. <a name="Under_the_influence320" id="Under_the_influence320"></a>Under the influence of the right of protection over its subjects abroad which every State holds, and the corresponding duty of every State to treat aliens on its territory with a certain consideration, an alien, @@ -21235,7 +21194,7 @@ can cloak itself with the judgment of corrupt judges.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How far Aliens can be treated according to Discretion.</p></div> -<p>§ 321. Apart from protection of person and property, +<p>§ 321. Apart from protection of person and property, every State can treat aliens according to discretion, those points excepted concerning which discretion is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> restricted through international treaties between the @@ -21266,7 +21225,7 @@ regulations of the Stock Exchange.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Departure from the Foreign Country.</p></div> -<p>§ 322. Since a State holds territorial only, but not +<p>§ 322. Since a State holds territorial only, but not personal supremacy over an alien within its boundaries, it can never under any circumstances prevent him from leaving its territory, provided he has fulfilled his local @@ -21288,7 +21247,7 @@ be levied in case of an alien dying on its territory.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_656_656" id="Footnote_656_656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_656_656"><span class="label">[656]</span></a> So-called <i>gabella emigrationis</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a> See - details in Wheaton, § 82. The <i>droit d'aubaine</i> was + details in Wheaton, § 82. The <i>droit d'aubaine</i> was likewise named <i>jus albinagii</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a> 57 & 58 Vict. c. 30. Estate duty is levied in Great Britain @@ -21305,15 +21264,15 @@ competent to claim estate duties in such cases.</p></div> <span class="smaller">EXPULSION OF ALIENS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 63—Westlake, I. p. 210—Phillimore, I. § 364—Halleck, I. pp. 460-461—Taylor, -§ 186—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. § 206—Moore, IV. §§ 550-559—Bluntschli, -§§ 383-384—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 646-656—Ullmann, -§ 115—Bonfils, No. 442—Despagnet, Nos. 336-337—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 63—Westlake, I. p. 210—Phillimore, I. § 364—Halleck, I. pp. 460-461—Taylor, +§ 186—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. § 206—Moore, IV. §§ 550-559—Bluntschli, +§§ 383-384—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 646-656—Ullmann, +§ 115—Bonfils, No. 442—Despagnet, Nos. 336-337—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1857-1859—Rivier, I. pp. 311-314—Nys, II. -pp. 229-237—Calvo, VI. §§ 119-125—Fiore, Code, Nos. 252-259—Martens, -I. § 79—Bleteau, "De l'asile et de l'expulsion" (1886)—Berc, -"De l'expulsion des étrangers" (1888)—Féraud-Giraud, "Droit -d'expulsion des étrangers" (1889)—Langhard, "Das Recht der politischen +pp. 229-237—Calvo, VI. §§ 119-125—Fiore, Code, Nos. 252-259—Martens, +I. § 79—Bleteau, "De l'asile et de l'expulsion" (1886)—Berc, +"De l'expulsion des étrangers" (1888)—Féraud-Giraud, "Droit +d'expulsion des étrangers" (1889)—Langhard, "Das Recht der politischen Fremdenausweisung" (1891)—Overbeck, "Niederlassungsfreiheit und Ausweisungsrecht" (1906)—Rolin-Jaequemyns in R.I. XX. (1888), pp. 499 and 615—Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, @@ -21321,7 +21280,7 @@ Ausweisungsrecht" (1906)—Rolin-Jaequemyns in R.I. XX. (1888), pp. <div class="sidenote"><p>Competence to expel Aliens.</p></div> -<p>§ 323. Just as a State is competent to refuse admittance +<p>§ 323. Just as a State is competent to refuse admittance to an alien, so it is, in conformity with its territorial supremacy, competent to expel at any moment an alien who has been admitted into its territory. And @@ -21363,7 +21322,7 @@ which can rightfully be met with retorsion.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Just Causes of Expulsion of Aliens.</p></div> -<p>§ 324. <a name="On324" id="On324"></a>On account of the fact that retorsion might +<p>§ 324. <a name="On324" id="On324"></a>On account of the fact that retorsion might be justified, the question is of importance what just causes of expulsion of aliens there are. As International Law gives no detailed rules regarding expulsion, everything @@ -21413,7 +21372,7 @@ citizens without giving up their residence at Frankfort.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_659_659" id="Footnote_659_659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_659_659"><span class="label">[659]</span></a> Thus in 1870, during the Franco-German war, the French expelled all Germans from France, and the former South African Republic expelled in 1899, during the Boer war, almost all British subjects. See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_outbreak_of_war100">vol. II. § 100</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_outbreak_of_war100">vol. II. § 100</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a> See details in Rivier, I. p. 312.</p></div> @@ -21427,7 +21386,7 @@ doubtful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></sp <div class="sidenote"><p>Expulsion how effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 325. Expulsion is, in theory at least, not a punishment, +<p>§ 325. Expulsion is, in theory at least, not a punishment, but an administrative measure consisting in an order of the Government directing a foreigner to leave the country. Expulsion must therefore be effected @@ -21445,7 +21404,7 @@ frontier.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reconduction in Contradistinction to Expulsion.</p></div> -<p>§ 326. <a name="In_many_Continental_States326" id="In_many_Continental_States326"></a>In many Continental States destitute aliens, +<p>§ 326. <a name="In_many_Continental_States326" id="In_many_Continental_States326"></a>In many Continental States destitute aliens, foreign vagabonds, suspicious aliens without papers of legitimation, alien criminals who have served their punishment, and the like, are without any formalities @@ -21473,14 +21432,14 @@ is a blemish in Municipal as well as International Law.<a name="FNanchor_665_665" id="FNanchor_665_665"></a><a href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a> Rivier, I. p. 308, correctly distinguishes between -reconduction and expulsion, but Phillimore, I. § 364, seems to confound +reconduction and expulsion, but Phillimore, I. § 364, seems to confound them.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_will_be_remembered294">294</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_will_be_remembered294">294</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_664_664" id="Footnote_664_664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_664_664"><span class="label">[664]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Expiration_Some_States3of302">302, No. 3</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Expiration_Some_States3of302">302, No. 3</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_665_665" id="Footnote_665_665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_665_665"><span class="label">[665]</span></a> It ought to be mentioned that many States have, either by special treaties or in their treaties of commerce, friendship, and the @@ -21494,18 +21453,18 @@ each other's territory.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 13 and 63—Westlake, I. pp. 241-251—Lawrence, §§ 110-111—Phillimore, -I. §§ 365-389D—Twiss, I. § 236—Halleck, I. pp. 257-268—Taylor, -§§ 205-211—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. §§ 268-282—Wheaton, -§§ 115-121—Moore, IV. §§ 579-622—Bluntschli, §§ 394-401—Hartmann, -§ 89—Heffter, § 63—Lammasch in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 454-566—Liszt, -§ 33—Ullmann, §§ 127-131—Bonfils, Nos. 455-481—Despagnet, -Nos. 276-286—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1863-1893—Mérignhac, II. +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 13 and 63—Westlake, I. pp. 241-251—Lawrence, §§ 110-111—Phillimore, +I. §§ 365-389D—Twiss, I. § 236—Halleck, I. pp. 257-268—Taylor, +§§ 205-211—Walker, § 19—Wharton, II. §§ 268-282—Wheaton, +§§ 115-121—Moore, IV. §§ 579-622—Bluntschli, §§ 394-401—Hartmann, +§ 89—Heffter, § 63—Lammasch in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 454-566—Liszt, +§ 33—Ullmann, §§ 127-131—Bonfils, Nos. 455-481—Despagnet, +Nos. 276-286—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1863-1893—Mérignhac, II. pp. 732-777—Rivier, I. pp. 348-357—Nys, II. pp. 244-253—Calvo, II. -§§ 949-1071—Fiore, Code, Nos. 584-586—Martens, II. §§ 91-98—Spear, +§§ 949-1071—Fiore, Code, Nos. 584-586—Martens, II. §§ 91-98—Spear, "The Law of Extradition" (1879)—Lammasch, "Auslieferungspflicht und Asylrecht" (1887)—Martitz, "Internationale Rechtshilfe in -Strafsachen," 2 vols. (1888 and 1897)—Bernard, "Traité théorique et +Strafsachen," 2 vols. (1888 and 1897)—Bernard, "Traité théorique et pratique de l'extradition," 2 vols. (2nd ed. 1890)—Moore, "Treatise on Extradition" (1891)—Hawley, "The Law of International Extradition" (1893)—Clark, "The Law of Extradition" (3rd ed. 1903)—Biron and @@ -21517,7 +21476,7 @@ literature concerning extradition quoted by Fauchille in Bonfils, No. <div class="sidenote"><p>Extradition no legal duty.</p></div> -<p>§ 327. Extradition is the delivery of a prosecuted +<p>§ 327. Extradition is the delivery of a prosecuted individual to the State on whose territory he has committed a crime by the State on whose territory the criminal is for the time staying. Although Grotius<a name="FNanchor_666_666" id="FNanchor_666_666"></a><a href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> @@ -21537,7 +21496,7 @@ special extradition treaties, if any. There is, therefore, no universal rule of customary International Law in existence which commands<a name="FNanchor_667_667" id="FNanchor_667_667"></a><a href="#Footnote_667_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a> extradition.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a> II. c. 21, § 4.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a> II. c. 21, § 4.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a> Clarke, op. cit. pp. 1-15, tries to prove that a duty to extradite criminals does exist, but the result of all his labour is that @@ -21550,7 +21509,7 @@ denied.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extradition Treaties how arisen.</p></div> -<p>§ 328. Since, however, modern civilisation categorically +<p>§ 328. Since, however, modern civilisation categorically demands extradition of criminals as a rule, numerous treaties have been concluded between the several States stipulating the cases in which extradition shall @@ -21570,7 +21529,7 @@ change in the eighteenth century, for then treaties between neighbouring States frequently stipulated extradition of ordinary criminals besides that of political fugitives, conspirators, military deserters, and the like.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> -Vattel (II. § 76) is able to assert in 1758 that murderers, +Vattel (II. § 76) is able to assert in 1758 that murderers, incendiaries, and thieves are regularly surrendered by neighbouring States to each other. But general treaties of extradition between all the members of the Family @@ -21611,7 +21570,7 @@ Vie Internationale" (1908-9), p. 461.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Municipal Extradition Laws.</p></div> -<p>§ 329. Some States, however, were unwilling to depend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> +<p>§ 329. Some States, however, were unwilling to depend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> entirely upon the discretion of their Governments as regards the conclusion of extradition treaties and the procedure in extradition cases. They have therefore @@ -21670,7 +21629,7 @@ exists.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of Extradition.</p></div> -<p>§ 330. Since extradition is the delivery of an incriminated +<p>§ 330. Since extradition is the delivery of an incriminated individual to the State on whose territory he has committed a crime by the State on whose territory he is for the time staying, the object of extradition @@ -21702,7 +21661,7 @@ by false pretences in Germany.<a name="FNanchor_675_675" id="FNanchor_675_675">< <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a> This case is all the more remarkable, as (see 24 & 25 Vict. -c. 100, § 9) the criminal law of England extends over murder and +c. 100, § 9) the criminal law of England extends over murder and manslaughter committed abroad by English subjects, and as, according to article 3 of the extradition treaty of 1873 between England and Austria-Hungary, the contracting parties are in no case under obligation @@ -21738,14 +21697,14 @@ one Porter Charlton,<a name="FNanchor_677_677" id="FNanchor_677_677"></a><a href committed a murder in Italy, extradition was granted.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a> See - Moore, IV. § 594, pp. 290-297.</p></div> + Moore, IV. § 594, pp. 290-297.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_677_677" id="Footnote_677_677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_677_677"><span class="label">[677]</span></a> See A.J. V. (1911), pp. 182-191.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extraditable Crimes.</p></div> -<p>§ 331. Unless a State is restricted by an extradition +<p>§ 331. Unless a State is restricted by an extradition law, it can grant extradition for any crime it thinks fit. And unless a State is bound by an extradition treaty, it can refuse extradition for any crime. Such @@ -21782,11 +21741,11 @@ deserters and such persons as have committed offences against religion are likewise excluded from extradition.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_678_678" id="Footnote_678_678"></a><a href="#FNanchor_678_678"><span class="label">[678]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Before_the_French333">333</a>-340.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Before_the_French333">333</a>-340.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effectuation and Condition of Extradition.</p></div> -<p>§ 332. Extradition is granted only if asked for, and +<p>§ 332. Extradition is granted only if asked for, and after the formalities have taken place which are stipulated in the treaties of extradition and the extradition laws, if any. It is effected through handing over the @@ -21802,7 +21761,7 @@ and punished for another crime, the extraditing State has a right of intervention.<a name="FNanchor_680_680" id="FNanchor_680_680"></a><a href="#Footnote_680_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_679_679" id="Footnote_679_679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_679_679"><span class="label">[679]</span></a> See - Mettgenberg in the "Zeitschrift für internationales + Mettgenberg in the "Zeitschrift für internationales Recht," XVIII. (1908), pp. 425-430.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_680_680" id="Footnote_680_680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_680_680"><span class="label">[680]</span></a> It ought to be mentioned that the Institute of @@ -21851,11 +21810,11 @@ and had agreed to this.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_681_681" id="Footnote_681_681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_681_681"><span class="label">[681]</span></a> See Hamelin, "L'Affaire Savarkar" (Extrait du "Recueil -général de Jurisprudence, de Doctrine et de Législation coloniales," +général de Jurisprudence, de Doctrine et de Législation coloniales," 1911), who defends the French view. The award of the Court of Arbitration has been severely criticised by Baty in the <i>Law Magazine and Review</i>, XXXVI. (1911), pp. 326-330; Kohler in Z.V. V. (1911), pp. -202-211; Strupp, "Zwei praktische Fälle aus dem Völkerrecht" (1911), pp. +202-211; Strupp, "Zwei praktische Fälle aus dem Völkerrecht" (1911), pp. 12-26; Robin in R.G. XVIII. (1911), pp. 303-352; Hamel in R.I. 2nd Ser. XIII. (1911), pp. 370-403.</p></div> @@ -21867,11 +21826,11 @@ XIII. (1911), pp. 370-403.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 247-248—Lawrence, § 111—Taylor, § 212—Wharton, II. -§ 272—Moore, IV. § 604—Bluntschli, § 396—Hartmann, § 89—Lammasch -in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 485-510—Liszt, § 33—Ullmann, § 129—Rivier, -I. pp. 351-357—Nys, II. pp. 253-256—Calvo, II. §§ 1034-1036—Martens, -II. § 96—Bonfils, Nos. 466-467—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1871-1873—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Westlake, I. pp. 247-248—Lawrence, § 111—Taylor, § 212—Wharton, II. +§ 272—Moore, IV. § 604—Bluntschli, § 396—Hartmann, § 89—Lammasch +in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 485-510—Liszt, § 33—Ullmann, § 129—Rivier, +I. pp. 351-357—Nys, II. pp. 253-256—Calvo, II. §§ 1034-1036—Martens, +II. § 96—Bonfils, Nos. 466-467—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1871-1873—Mérignhac, II. pp. 754-771—Soldan, "L'extradition des criminels politiques" (1882)—Martitz, "Internationale Rechtshilfe in Strafsachen," vol. II. (1897), pp. 134-707—Lammasch, "Auslieferungspflicht und @@ -21881,7 +21840,7 @@ in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 459-461.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>How Non-extradition of Political Criminals became the Rule.</p></div> -<p>§ 333. <a name="Before_the_French333" id="Before_the_French333"></a>Before the French Revolution<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a> the term +<p>§ 333. <a name="Before_the_French333" id="Before_the_French333"></a>Before the French Revolution<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a> the term "political crime" was unknown in either the theory or the practice of the Law of Nations. And the principle of non-extradition of political criminals was likewise @@ -21953,15 +21912,15 @@ the facts given by Martitz, op. cit. II. pp. 134-184.</p></div> extraditions of political criminals which took place between 1648 and 1789.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a> So Grotius, II. c. 21, § 5, No. 5.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a> So Grotius, II. c. 21, § 5, No. 5.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a> H. Provó Kluit, "De deditione profugorum."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a> H. Provó Kluit, "De deditione profugorum."</p></div> <p>On the other hand, a reaction set in in 1833, when Austria, Prussia, and Russia concluded treaties which remained in force for a generation, and which stipulated that henceforth individuals who had committed crimes -of high treason and <i>lèse-majesté</i>, or had conspired against +of high treason and <i>lèse-majesté</i>, or had conspired against the safety of the throne and the legitimate Government, or had taken part in a revolt, should be surrendered to the State concerned. The same year, however, is @@ -22005,7 +21964,7 @@ their Governments, but to grant them an asylum.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Difficulty concerning the Conception of Political Crime.</p></div> -<p>§ 334. Although the principle became and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +<p>§ 334. Although the principle became and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> generally<a name="FNanchor_686_686" id="FNanchor_686_686"></a><a href="#Footnote_686_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> recognised that political criminals shall not be extradited, serious difficulties exist concerning the conception of "political crime." Such conception is of @@ -22020,13 +21979,13 @@ purpose; again, others recognise such crime only as and at the same time for a political purpose; and, thirdly, some writers confine the term "political crime" to certain offences against the State only, as high -treason, <i>lèse-majesté</i>, and the like.<a name="FNanchor_687_687" id="FNanchor_687_687"></a><a href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> To the present day +treason, <i>lèse-majesté</i>, and the like.<a name="FNanchor_687_687" id="FNanchor_687_687"></a><a href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> To the present day all attempts have failed to formulate a satisfactory conception of the term, and the reason of the thing will, I believe, for ever exclude the possibility of finding a satisfactory conception and definition.<a name="FNanchor_688_688" id="FNanchor_688_688"></a><a href="#Footnote_688_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> The difficulty is caused through the so-called "relative political -crimes" or <i>délits complexes</i>—namely, those complex +crimes" or <i>délits complexes</i>—namely, those complex cases in which the political offence comprises at the same time<a name="FNanchor_689_689" id="FNanchor_689_689"></a><a href="#Footnote_689_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a> an ordinary crime, such as murder, arson, theft, and the like. Some writers deny categorically @@ -22046,7 +22005,7 @@ complex crimes without violating this principle.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a> See, however, - below, § <a href="#Be_that_as_it_may340">340</a>, concerning the reactionary + below, § <a href="#Be_that_as_it_may340">340</a>, concerning the reactionary movement in the matter.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a> See @@ -22072,11 +22031,11 @@ considered to be political.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The so-called Belgian <i>Attentat</i> Clause.</p></div> -<p>§ 335. The first attempt was the enactment of the +<p>§ 335. The first attempt was the enactment of the so-called <i>attentat</i> clause by Belgium in 1856,<a name="FNanchor_690_690" id="FNanchor_690_690"></a><a href="#Footnote_690_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> following the case of Jacquin in 1854. A French manufacturer named Jules Jacquin, domiciled in Belgium, and a -foreman of his factory named Célestin Jacquin, who +foreman of his factory named Célestin Jacquin, who was also a Frenchman, tried to cause an explosion on the railway line between Lille and Calais with the intention of murdering the Emperor Napoleon III. @@ -22103,7 +22062,7 @@ II. p. 372.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Russian Project of 1881.</p></div> -<p>§ 336. Another attempt to deal with complex crimes +<p>§ 336. Another attempt to deal with complex crimes without detriment to the principle of non-extradition of political criminals was made by Russia in 1881. Influenced by the murder of the Emperor Alexander<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> @@ -22123,7 +22082,7 @@ proposal having fallen through.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Swiss Solution of the Problem in 1892.</p></div> -<p>§ 337. Eleven years later, in 1892, Switzerland +<p>§ 337. Eleven years later, in 1892, Switzerland attempted a solution of the problem on a new basis. In that year Switzerland enacted an extradition law whose article 10 recognises the non-extradition of @@ -22159,7 +22118,7 @@ satisfaction.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rationale for the Principle of Non-extradition of Political Criminals.</p></div> -<p>§ 338. The numerous attempts<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> against the lives of +<p>§ 338. The numerous attempts<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> against the lives of heads of States and the frequency of anarchistic crimes have shaken the value of the principle of non-extradition of political criminals in the opinion of the civilised @@ -22294,7 +22253,7 @@ of Non-extradition of Political Criminals.</p></div> -<p>§ 339. The question, however, is how to sift the chaff +<p>§ 339. The question, however, is how to sift the chaff from the wheat, how to distinguish between such political criminals as deserve an asylum and such as do not. The difficulties are great and partly insuperable @@ -22352,7 +22311,7 @@ was really political.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reactionary Extradition Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 340. <a name="Be_that_as_it_may340" id="Be_that_as_it_may340"></a>Be that as it may, the present condition of +<p>§ 340. <a name="Be_that_as_it_may340" id="Be_that_as_it_may340"></a>Be that as it may, the present condition of matters is a danger to the very principle of non-extradition of political criminals. Under the influence of the excitement caused by numerous criminal attempts @@ -22377,7 +22336,7 @@ the United States and Holland of 1893, she had to adopt it with a restrictive clause similar to the Belgian <i>attentat</i> clause.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> Thus, even for <i>lèse majesté</i> extradition must be granted.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a> Thus, even for <i>lèse majesté</i> extradition must be granted.</p></div> @@ -22399,14 +22358,14 @@ adopt it with a restrictive clause similar to the Belgian <span class="smaller">POSITION OF HEADS OF STATES ACCORDING TO INTERNATIONAL LAW</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 97—Phillimore, II. §§ 101 and 102—Bluntschli, §§ 115-125—Holtzendorff -in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 77-81—Ullmann, § 40—Rivier, I. § 32—Nys, -II. pp. 325-329—Fiore, II. No. 1097—Bonfils, No. 632—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 294-305—Bynkershoek, "De foro legatorum" (1721), c. III. § 13.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 97—Phillimore, II. §§ 101 and 102—Bluntschli, §§ 115-125—Holtzendorff +in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 77-81—Ullmann, § 40—Rivier, I. § 32—Nys, +II. pp. 325-329—Fiore, II. No. 1097—Bonfils, No. 632—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 294-305—Bynkershoek, "De foro legatorum" (1721), c. III. § 13.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Necessity of a Head for every State.</p></div> -<p>§ 341. As a State is an abstraction from the fact +<p>§ 341. As a State is an abstraction from the fact that a multitude of individuals live in a country under a Sovereign Government, every State must have a head as its highest organ, which represents it within and @@ -22425,7 +22384,7 @@ anarchy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Recognition of Heads of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 342. In case of the accession of a new head of a +<p>§ 342. In case of the accession of a new head of a State, other States are as a rule notified. The latter usually recognise the new head through some formal act, such as a congratulation. But neither such @@ -22469,7 +22428,7 @@ considered the legitimate head of that State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Competence of Heads of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 343. The head of a State, as its chief organ and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> +<p>§ 343. The head of a State, as its chief organ and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> representative in the totality of its international relations, acts for his State in the latter's international intercourse, with the consequence that all his legally @@ -22489,7 +22448,7 @@ would go beyond his powers, and therefore such treaty would not be binding upon his State.<a name="FNanchor_700_700" id="FNanchor_700_700"></a><a href="#Footnote_700_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> <p>On the other hand, this competence is certainly independent of the question whether a head of a State is @@ -22503,7 +22462,7 @@ always elapses before matters are settled.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Heads of States Objects of the Law of Nations.</p></div> -<p>§ 344. <a name="Heads_of_States344" id="Heads_of_States344"></a>Heads of States are never subjects<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FNanchor_701_701"></a><a href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> of the +<p>§ 344. <a name="Heads_of_States344" id="Heads_of_States344"></a>Heads of States are never subjects<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FNanchor_701_701"></a><a href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> of the Law of Nations. The position a head of a State has according to International Law is due to him, not as an individual, but as the head of his State. His position @@ -22519,15 +22478,15 @@ home States of the respective heads. Thus, heads of States are not subjects but objects of International Law, and in this regard are like any other individual.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_701_701" id="Footnote_701_701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_701_701"><span class="label">[701]</span></a> But Heffter (§ 48) maintains the contrary, and Phillimore -(II. § 100) designates monarchs <i>mediately and derivatively</i> as subjects -of International Law. The matter is treated in detail above, §§ 13 and +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_701_701" id="Footnote_701_701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_701_701"><span class="label">[701]</span></a> But Heffter (§ 48) maintains the contrary, and Phillimore +(II. § 100) designates monarchs <i>mediately and derivatively</i> as subjects +of International Law. The matter is treated in detail above, §§ 13 and 288-290; see also - below, § <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Honours and Privileges of Heads of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 345. All honours and privileges of heads of States +<p>§ 345. All honours and privileges of heads of States due to them by foreign States are derived from the fact that dignity is a recognised quality of States as members of the Family of Nations and International Persons.<a name="FNanchor_702_702" id="FNanchor_702_702"></a><a href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> @@ -22541,7 +22500,7 @@ Municipal Law of the republics. For monarchs are sovereigns, but heads of republics are not.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121">121</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121">121</a>.</p></div> @@ -22551,15 +22510,15 @@ sovereigns, but heads of republics are not.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 28-45; IV. § 108—Hall, § 49—Lawrence, § 105—Phillimore, II. -§§ 108-113—Taylor, § 129—Moore, II. § 250—Bluntschli, §§ 126-153—Heffter, -§§ 48-57—Ullmann, §§ 41-42—Rivier, I. § 33—Nys, II. pp. 280-296—Calvo, -III. §§ 1454-1479—Fiore, II. Nos. 1098-1102—Bonfils, Nos. -633-647—Mérignhac, II. pp. 94-105—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1564-1591.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, I. §§ 28-45; IV. § 108—Hall, § 49—Lawrence, § 105—Phillimore, II. +§§ 108-113—Taylor, § 129—Moore, II. § 250—Bluntschli, §§ 126-153—Heffter, +§§ 48-57—Ullmann, §§ 41-42—Rivier, I. § 33—Nys, II. pp. 280-296—Calvo, +III. §§ 1454-1479—Fiore, II. Nos. 1098-1102—Bonfils, Nos. +633-647—Mérignhac, II. pp. 94-105—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. 1564-1591.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Sovereignty of Monarchs.</p></div> -<p>§ 346. In every monarchy the monarch appears as +<p>§ 346. In every monarchy the monarch appears as the representative of the sovereignty of the State and thereby becomes a Sovereign himself, a fact which is recognised by International Law. And the difference @@ -22577,7 +22536,7 @@ indifferently sovereign according to International Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consideration due to Monarchs at home.</p></div> -<p>§ 347. Not much need be said as regards the consideration +<p>§ 347. Not much need be said as regards the consideration due to a monarch from other States when within the boundaries of his own State. Foreign States have to give him his usual and recognised predicates<a name="FNanchor_703_703" id="FNanchor_703_703"></a><a href="#Footnote_703_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> @@ -22587,11 +22546,11 @@ in title and actual power there may be between them.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a> Details as regards the predicates of monarchs are given -above, § <a href="#At_the_present_time119">119</a>.</p></div> +above, § <a href="#At_the_present_time119">119</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consideration due to Monarchs abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 348. <a name="As_regards_however348" id="As_regards_however348"></a>As regards, however, the consideration due +<p>§ 348. <a name="As_regards_however348" id="As_regards_however348"></a>As regards, however, the consideration due to a monarch abroad from the State on whose territory he is staying in time of peace and with the consent and the knowledge of the Government, details must necessarily @@ -22649,10 +22608,10 @@ granted exterritoriality, but not other members of a Sovereign's family.<a name="FNanchor_706_706" id="FNanchor_706_706"></a><a href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_704_704" id="Footnote_704_704"></a><a href="#FNanchor_704_704"><span class="label">[704]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>, and + above, § <a href="#The_equality_before115">115</a>, and the cases there quoted; see also -Phillimore, II. § 113<span class="smcap">A</span>, and Loening, "Die Gerichtsbarkeit über fremde -Staaten und Souveräne" (1903).</p></div> +Phillimore, II. § 113<span class="smcap">A</span>, and Loening, "Die Gerichtsbarkeit über fremde +Staaten und Souveräne" (1903).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_705_705" id="Footnote_705_705"></a><a href="#FNanchor_705_705"><span class="label">[705]</span></a> A celebrated case happened on November 10, 1656, in France, when Christina, Queen of Sweden, although she had already abdicated, @@ -22660,7 +22619,7 @@ sentenced her grand equerry, Monaldeschi, to death, and had him executed by her bodyguard.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a> See - Rivier, I. p. 421, and Bluntschli, § 154; but, + Rivier, I. p. 421, and Bluntschli, § 154; but, according to Bluntschli, exterritoriality need not in strict law be granted even to the wife of a Sovereign.</p></div> @@ -22679,7 +22638,7 @@ speedily as possible to the frontier.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Retinue of Monarchs abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 349. The position of individuals who accompany +<p>§ 349. The position of individuals who accompany a monarch during his stay abroad is a matter of some dispute. Several publicists maintain that the home State can claim the privilege of exterritoriality as well @@ -22691,15 +22650,15 @@ of his suite be in an inferior position to a diplomatic envoy.<a name="FNanchor_708_708" id="FNanchor_708_708"></a><a href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_707_707" id="Footnote_707_707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_707_707"><span class="label">[707]</span></a> See - Bluntschli, § 154, and Hall, § 49, in contradistinction -to Martens, I. § 83.</p></div> + Bluntschli, § 154, and Hall, § 49, in contradistinction +to Martens, I. § 83.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_708_708" id="Footnote_708_708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_708_708"><span class="label">[708]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#The_individuals_accompanying401">401</a>-405.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#The_individuals_accompanying401">401</a>-405.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Monarchs travelling <i>incognito</i>.</p></div> -<p>§ 350. Hitherto only the case where a monarch is +<p>§ 350. Hitherto only the case where a monarch is staying in a foreign country with the official knowledge of the latter's Government has been discussed. Such knowledge may be held in the case of a monarch travelling @@ -22721,7 +22680,7 @@ gave up his <i>incognito</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Deposed and Abdicated Monarchs.</p></div> -<p>§ 351. All privileges mentioned must be granted to +<p>§ 351. All privileges mentioned must be granted to a monarch only as long as he is really the head of a State. As soon as he is deposed or has abdicated, he is no longer a Sovereign. Therefore in 1870 and 1872 @@ -22736,7 +22695,7 @@ such courtesy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Regents.</p></div> -<p>§ 352. All privileges due to a monarch are also due +<p>§ 352. All privileges due to a monarch are also due to a Regent, at home or abroad, whilst he governs on behalf of an infant, or of a King who is through illness incapable of exercising his powers. And it matters not @@ -22745,7 +22704,7 @@ and a Prince of royal blood or not.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Monarchs in the service or subjects of Foreign Powers.</p></div> -<p>§ 353. When a monarch accepts any office in a foreign +<p>§ 353. When a monarch accepts any office in a foreign State, when, for instance, he serves in a foreign army, as the monarchs of the small German States have formerly frequently done, he submits to such State as far @@ -22769,7 +22728,7 @@ subject.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a> 6 Beavan, 1; 2 House of Lords Cases, 1; see also -Phillimore, II. § 109.</p></div> +Phillimore, II. § 109.</p></div> @@ -22780,13 +22739,13 @@ Phillimore, II. § 109.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bluntschli, § 134—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 661—Ullmann, § 42—Rivier, -I. § 33—Martens, I. § 80—Walther, "Das Staatshaupt in den Republiken" +<p class="indh1">Bluntschli, § 134—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 661—Ullmann, § 42—Rivier, +I. § 33—Martens, I. § 80—Walther, "Das Staatshaupt in den Republiken" (1907), pp. 190-204.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Presidents not Sovereigns.</p></div> -<p>§ 354. In contradistinction to monarchies, in republics +<p>§ 354. In contradistinction to monarchies, in republics the people itself, and not a single individual, appears as the representative of the sovereignty of the State, and accordingly the people styles itself the @@ -22802,7 +22761,7 @@ he is as President.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 43 <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Presidents in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 355. Consequently, his position at home and abroad +<p>§ 355. Consequently, his position at home and abroad cannot be compared with that of monarchs, and International Law does not empower his home State to claim for him the same, but only similar, consideration @@ -22820,7 +22779,7 @@ a Sovereign monarch.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Presidents abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 356. <a name="As_to_the_position_of356" id="As_to_the_position_of356"></a>As to the position of a president when abroad, +<p>§ 356. <a name="As_to_the_position_of356" id="As_to_the_position_of356"></a>As to the position of a president when abroad, writers on the Law of Nations do not agree. Some<a name="FNanchor_710_710" id="FNanchor_710_710"></a><a href="#Footnote_710_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> maintain that, since a president is not a Sovereign, his home State can never claim for him the same privileges @@ -22852,14 +22811,14 @@ the time being a sublime office, and the grant of exterritoriality to them is a tribute paid to the dignity of the States they represent.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> Ullmann, § 42; Rivier, I. p. 423; Stoerk in Holtzendorff, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a> Ullmann, § 42; Rivier, I. p. 423; Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. p. 658.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> Martens, I. § 80; Bluntschli, § 134; Despagnet, No. 254; -Hall, § 97.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a> Martens, I. § 80; Bluntschli, § 134; Despagnet, No. 254; +Hall, § 97.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> Bonfils, No. 632; Nys, II. p. 287; Mérignhac, II. p. 298; -Liszt, § 13; Walther, op. cit., p. 195.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a> Bonfils, No. 632; Nys, II. p. 287; Mérignhac, II. p. 298; +Liszt, § 13; Walther, op. cit., p. 195.</p></div> @@ -22871,12 +22830,12 @@ Liszt, § 13; Walther, op. cit., p. 195.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Heffter, § 201—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. p. 668—Ullmann, § 43—Rivier, -I. § 34—Bonfils, Nos. 648-651—Nys, II. pp. 330-334.</p> +<p class="indh1">Heffter, § 201—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. p. 668—Ullmann, § 43—Rivier, +I. § 34—Bonfils, Nos. 648-651—Nys, II. pp. 330-334.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of the Secretary for Foreign Affairs.</p></div> -<p>§ 357. As a rule nowadays no head of a State, be +<p>§ 357. As a rule nowadays no head of a State, be he a monarch or a president, negotiates directly and in person with a foreign Power, although this happens occasionally. The necessary negotiations are regularly @@ -22923,25 +22882,25 @@ Foreign Secretary himself makes this notification.<span class="pagenum"><a name= <span class="smaller">THE INSTITUTION OF LEGATION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Phillimore, II. §§ 143-153—Taylor, § 274—Twiss, § 199—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -III. pp. 605-618—Nys, II. pp. 335-339—Rivier, I. § 35—Ullmann, -§ 44—Martens, II. § 6—Gentilis, "De legationibus libri III." (1585)—Wicquefort, +<p class="indh1">Phillimore, II. §§ 143-153—Taylor, § 274—Twiss, § 199—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, +III. pp. 605-618—Nys, II. pp. 335-339—Rivier, I. § 35—Ullmann, +§ 44—Martens, II. § 6—Gentilis, "De legationibus libri III." (1585)—Wicquefort, "L'Ambassadeur et ses fonctions" (1680)—Bynkershoek, -"De foro legatorum" (1721)—Garden, "Traité complet de diplomatie" -(3 vols. 1833)—Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht" (2 vols. +"De foro legatorum" (1721)—Garden, "Traité complet de diplomatie" +(3 vols. 1833)—Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht" (2 vols. 1847)—Charles de Martens, "Le guide diplomatique" (2 vols. 1832; 6th ed. by Geffcken, 1866)—Montague Bernard, "Four Lectures on Subjects connected with Diplomacy" (1868), pp. 111-162 (3rd Lecture)—Alt, -"Handbuch des Europäischen Gesandtschaftsrechts" (1870)—Pradier-Fodéré, +"Handbuch des Europäischen Gesandtschaftsrechts" (1870)—Pradier-Fodéré, "Cours de droit diplomatique" (2 vols. 2nd ed. 1899)—Krauske, -"Die Entwickelung der ständigen Diplomatie," &c. (1885)—Lehr, -"Manuel théorique et pratique des agents diplomatiques" (1888)—Hill, +"Die Entwickelung der ständigen Diplomatie," &c. (1885)—Lehr, +"Manuel théorique et pratique des agents diplomatiques" (1888)—Hill, "History of Diplomacy in the International Development of Europe," vol. I. (1905), vol. II. (1906; the other vols. have not yet appeared).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Development of Legations.</p></div> -<p>§ 358. Legation as an institution for the purpose of +<p>§ 358. Legation as an institution for the purpose of negotiating between different States is as old as history, whose records are full of examples of legations sent and received by the oldest nations. And it is remarkable @@ -22990,13 +22949,13 @@ States flows.</p> Nys, "Les Origines du droit international" (1894), p. 295.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> "De jure belli ac pacis," II. c. 28, § 3: "Optimo autem +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a> "De jure belli ac pacis," II. c. 28, § 3: "Optimo autem jure rejici possunt, quae nunc in usu sunt, legationes assiduae, quibus cum non sit opus, docet mos antiquus, cui illae ignoratae."</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Diplomacy.</p></div> -<p>§ 359. <a name="The_rise_of_permanent359" id="The_rise_of_permanent359"></a>The rise of permanent legations created the +<p>§ 359. <a name="The_rise_of_permanent359" id="The_rise_of_permanent359"></a>The rise of permanent legations created the necessity for a new class of State officials, the so-called diplomatists; yet it was not until the end of the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> century that the terms "diplomatist" and @@ -23031,7 +22990,7 @@ diplomatists from dropping French at any moment and adopting another language instead.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a> See - Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht," I. §§ + Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht," I. §§ 266-268.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></p></div> @@ -23042,16 +23001,16 @@ adopting another language instead.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 18—Vattel, IV. §§ 55-68—Hall, § 98—Phillimore, II. §§ 115-139—Taylor, -§§ 285-288—Twiss, §§ 201-202—Wheaton, §§ 206-209—Bluntschli, -§§ 159-165—Heffter, § 200—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. -pp 620-631—Ullmann, § 45—Rivier, I. § 35—Nys, II. p. 339—Bonfils, -Nos. 658-667—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1225-1256—Fiore, II. Nos. 1112-1117—Calvo, -III. §§ 1321-1325—Martens, II. §§ 7-8.</p> +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 18—Vattel, IV. §§ 55-68—Hall, § 98—Phillimore, II. §§ 115-139—Taylor, +§§ 285-288—Twiss, §§ 201-202—Wheaton, §§ 206-209—Bluntschli, +§§ 159-165—Heffter, § 200—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. +pp 620-631—Ullmann, § 45—Rivier, I. § 35—Nys, II. p. 339—Bonfils, +Nos. 658-667—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1225-1256—Fiore, II. Nos. 1112-1117—Calvo, +III. §§ 1321-1325—Martens, II. §§ 7-8.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Right of Legation.</p></div> -<p>§ 360. <a name="Right_of_legation360" id="Right_of_legation360"></a>Right of legation is the right of a State to +<p>§ 360. <a name="Right_of_legation360" id="Right_of_legation360"></a>Right of legation is the right of a State to send and receive diplomatic envoys. The right to send such envoys is termed <i>active</i> right of legation, in contradistinction to the <i>passive</i> right of legation, as the right @@ -23083,15 +23042,15 @@ The passive right of legation is discretionary as regards the reception of <i>permanent</i> envoys only.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_716_716" id="Footnote_716_716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_716_716"><span class="label">[716]</span></a> See, - for instance, Wheaton, § 207; Heilborn, "System," p. + for instance, Wheaton, § 207; Heilborn, "System," p. 182.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_717_717" id="Footnote_717_717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_717_717"><span class="label">[717]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Many_adherents_of_the141">141</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Many_adherents_of_the141">141</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>What States possess the Right of Legation.</p></div> -<p>§ 361. Not every State, however, possesses the right +<p>§ 361. Not every State, however, possesses the right of legation. Such right pertains chiefly to full-Sovereign States,<a name="FNanchor_718_718" id="FNanchor_718_718"></a><a href="#Footnote_718_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a> for other States possess this right under certain conditions only.</p> @@ -23104,7 +23063,7 @@ diplomatic envoys. That they are actually not diplomatic envoys, although so treated, becomes apparent from the fact that they are not agents for international affairs of States, but exclusively for affairs of the Roman Catholic Church. (See - above, § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a>.)</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a>.)</p></div> @@ -23118,7 +23077,7 @@ there may be exceptions to this rule. Thus, according to the Peace Treaty of Kainardgi of 1774 between Russia and Turkey, the two half-Sovereign principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia had the right of sending -Chargés d'Affaires to foreign Powers. Thus, further, +Chargés d'Affaires to foreign Powers. Thus, further, the late South African Republic, which was a State under British suzerainty in the opinion of Great Britain, used to keep permanent diplomatic envoys in several @@ -23139,7 +23098,7 @@ sends and receives several diplomatic envoys. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Pag <div class="sidenote"><p>Right of Legation by whom exercised.</p></div> -<p>§ 362. As, according to International Law, a State +<p>§ 362. As, according to International Law, a State is represented in its international relations by its head, it is he who acts in the exercise of his State's right of legation. But Municipal Law may, just as it designates @@ -23151,7 +23110,7 @@ Law of his State, delegate<a name="FNanchor_719_719" id="FNanchor_719_719"></a>< right to any representative he chooses.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a> See - Phillimore, II. §§ 126-133, where several interesting + Phillimore, II. §§ 126-133, where several interesting cases of such delegation are discussed.</p></div> <p>It may, however, in consequence of revolutionary @@ -23184,7 +23143,7 @@ abdicated nor a deposed head has a right to send and receive diplomatic envoys.<a name="FNanchor_720_720" id="FNanchor_720_720"></a><a href="#Footnote_720_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a> See - Phillimore, II. §§ 124-125, where the case of Bishop + Phillimore, II. §§ 124-125, where the case of Bishop Ross, ambassador of Mary Queen of Scots, is discussed.</p></div> @@ -23193,14 +23152,14 @@ Ross, ambassador of Mary Queen of Scots, is discussed.</p></div> <span>KINDS AND CLASSES OF DIPLOMATIC ENVOYS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 69-75—Phillimore, II. §§ 211-224—Twiss, I. §§ 204-209—Moore, -IV. § 624—Heffter, § 208—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 635-646—Calvo, -III. §§ 1326-1336—Bonfils, Nos. 668-676—Pradier-Fodéré, III. -§§ 1277-1290—Rivier, I. pp. 443-453—Nys, II. pp. 342-352.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 69-75—Phillimore, II. §§ 211-224—Twiss, I. §§ 204-209—Moore, +IV. § 624—Heffter, § 208—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 635-646—Calvo, +III. §§ 1326-1336—Bonfils, Nos. 668-676—Pradier-Fodéré, III. +§§ 1277-1290—Rivier, I. pp. 443-453—Nys, II. pp. 342-352.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Envoys Ceremonial and Political.</p></div> -<p>§ 363. Two different kinds of diplomatic envoys are +<p>§ 363. Two different kinds of diplomatic envoys are to be distinguished—namely, such as are sent for political negotiations and such as are sent for the purpose of ceremonial function or notification of changes in the @@ -23224,7 +23183,7 @@ safety of their persons and the members of their suites.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Classes of Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 364. Diplomatic envoys accredited to a State differ +<p>§ 364. Diplomatic envoys accredited to a State differ in class. These classes did not exist in the early stages of International Law. But during the sixteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span> a distinction between two classes of diplomatic @@ -23244,11 +23203,11 @@ matter ought to be settled by an international understanding, and they agreed, therefore, on March 19, 1815, upon the establishment of three different classes—namely, first, Ambassadors; second, Ministers Plenipotentiary -and Envoys Extraordinary; third, Chargés +and Envoys Extraordinary; third, Chargés d'Affaires. And the five Powers assembled at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 agreed upon a fourth class—namely, Ministers Resident, to rank between -Ministers Plenipotentiary and Chargés d'Affaires. +Ministers Plenipotentiary and Chargés d'Affaires. All the other States either expressly or tacitly accepted these arrangements, so that nowadays the four classes are an established order. Although their privileges are @@ -23257,7 +23216,7 @@ and they must therefore be treated separately.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ambassadors.</p></div> -<p>§ 365. <a name="Ambassadors_form_the_first365" id="Ambassadors_form_the_first365"></a>Ambassadors form the first class. Only +<p>§ 365. <a name="Ambassadors_form_the_first365" id="Ambassadors_form_the_first365"></a>Ambassadors form the first class. Only States enjoying royal honours<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> are entitled to send and to receive Ambassadors, as also is the Holy See, whose first-class envoys are called <i>Nuncios</i>, or <i>Legati a latere</i> @@ -23272,11 +23231,11 @@ important business should go through the hands of a Foreign Secretary.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_721_721" id="Footnote_721_721"></a><a href="#FNanchor_721_721"><span class="label">[721]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_States_are_divided_into117">117, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_States_are_divided_into117">117, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ministers Plenipotentiary and Envoys Extraordinary.</p></div> -<p>§ 366. The second class, the Ministers Plenipotentiary +<p>§ 366. The second class, the Ministers Plenipotentiary and Envoys Extraordinary, to which also belong the Papal Internuncios, are not considered to be personal representatives of the heads of their States. @@ -23287,31 +23246,31 @@ there is no difference between these two classes.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ministers Resident.</p></div> -<p>§ 367. The third class, the Ministers Resident, enjoy +<p>§ 367. The third class, the Ministers Resident, enjoy fewer honours and rank below the Ministers Plenipotentiary. But beyond the fact that Ministers Resident do not enjoy the title "Excellency," there is no difference between them and the Ministers Plenipotentiary.</p> -<div class="sidenote"><p>Chargés d'Affaires.</p></div> +<div class="sidenote"><p>Chargés d'Affaires.</p></div> -<p>§ 368. The fourth class, the Chargés d'Affaires, +<p>§ 368. The fourth class, the Chargés d'Affaires, differs chiefly in one point from the first, second, and third class—namely, in so far as its members are accredited from Foreign Office to Foreign Office, whereas the members of the other classes are accredited from -head of State to head of State. Chargés d'Affaires +head of State to head of State. Chargés d'Affaires do not enjoy, therefore, so many honours as other diplomatic envoys. And it must be specially mentioned -that a distinction ought to be made between a Chargé +that a distinction ought to be made between a Chargé d'Affaires who is the head of a Legation, and who, therefore, is accredited from Foreign Office to Foreign -Office, and a Chargé d'Affaires <i>ad interim</i>. The latter +Office, and a Chargé d'Affaires <i>ad interim</i>. The latter is a member of a Legation whom the head of the Legation delegates for the purpose of taking his place during -absence on leave. Such Chargé d'Affaires <i>ad interim</i>, -who had better be called a Chargé des Affaires,<a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> ranks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span> -below the ordinary Chargé d'Affaires; he is not accredited +absence on leave. Such Chargé d'Affaires <i>ad interim</i>, +who had better be called a Chargé des Affaires,<a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a> ranks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span> +below the ordinary Chargé d'Affaires; he is not accredited from Foreign Office to Foreign Office, but is simply a delegate of the absent head of the Legation.</p> @@ -23320,7 +23279,7 @@ simply a delegate of the absent head of the Legation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Diplomatic Corps.</p></div> -<p>§ 369. All the Diplomatic Envoys accredited to the +<p>§ 369. All the Diplomatic Envoys accredited to the same State form, according to a diplomatic usage, a body which is styled the "Diplomatic Corps." The head of this body, the so-called "Doyen," is the Papal @@ -23340,13 +23299,13 @@ honours due to diplomatic envoys.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 76-77—Phillimore, II. §§ 227-231—Twiss, I. §§ 212-214—Ullmann, -§ 48—Calvo, III. §§ 1343-1345—Bonfils, Nos. 677-680—Wheaton, -§§ 217-220—Moore, IV. §§ 632-635.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 76-77—Phillimore, II. §§ 227-231—Twiss, I. §§ 212-214—Ullmann, +§ 48—Calvo, III. §§ 1343-1345—Bonfils, Nos. 677-680—Wheaton, +§§ 217-220—Moore, IV. §§ 632-635.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Person and Qualification of the Envoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 370. International Law has no rules as regards the +<p>§ 370. International Law has no rules as regards the qualification of the individuals whom a State can appoint as diplomatic envoys, States being naturally competent to act according to discretion, although @@ -23360,7 +23319,7 @@ even the Municipal Laws have no provisions at all. The question is sometimes discussed whether females<a name="FNanchor_723_723" id="FNanchor_723_723"></a><a href="#Footnote_723_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> be appointed envoys. History relates a few cases of female diplomatists. Thus, for example, Louis -XIV. of France accredited in 1646 Madame de Guébriant +XIV. of France accredited in 1646 Madame de Guébriant ambassador to the Court of Poland. During the last two centuries, however, no such case has to my knowledge occurred, although I doubt not that International @@ -23369,18 +23328,18 @@ a female as diplomatic envoy. But under the present circumstances many States would refuse to receive her.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a> See - Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht," I. §§ -127-128; Phillimore, II. § 134; and Focherini, "Le Signore Ambasciatrici + Mirus, "Das europäische Gesandtschaftsrecht," I. §§ +127-128; Phillimore, II. § 134; and Focherini, "Le Signore Ambasciatrici dei secoli XVII. e XVIII. e loro posizione nel diritto diplomatico" (1909).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Letter of Credence, Full Powers, Passports.</p></div> -<p>§ 371. The appointment of an individual as a diplomatic +<p>§ 371. The appointment of an individual as a diplomatic envoy is announced to the State to which he is accredited in certain official papers to be handed in by the envoy to the receiving State. <i>Letter of Credence</i> -(<i>lettre de créance</i>) is the designation of the document +(<i>lettre de créance</i>) is the designation of the document in which the head of the State accredits a permanent ambassador or minister to a foreign State. Every such envoy receives a sealed Letter of Credence and an @@ -23389,7 +23348,7 @@ he sends the copy to the Foreign Office in order to make his arrival officially known. The sealed original, however, is handed in personally by the envoy to the head of the State to whom he is accredited. -Chargés d'Affaires receive a Letter of Credence too, but +Chargés d'Affaires receive a Letter of Credence too, but as they are accredited from Foreign Office to Foreign Office, their Letter of Credence is signed, not by the head of their home State, but by its Foreign Office. @@ -23426,7 +23385,7 @@ his dismissal.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Combined Legations.</p></div> -<p>§ 372. As a rule, a State appoints different individuals +<p>§ 372. As a rule, a State appoints different individuals as permanent diplomatic envoys to different States, but sometimes a State appoints the same individual as permanent diplomatic envoy to several States. @@ -23437,7 +23396,7 @@ represents several States.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Appointment of several Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 373. In former times States used frequently<a name="FNanchor_724_724" id="FNanchor_724_724"></a><a href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a> to +<p>§ 373. In former times States used frequently<a name="FNanchor_724_724" id="FNanchor_724_724"></a><a href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a> to appoint more than one permanent diplomatic envoy as their representative in a foreign State. Although this would hardly occur nowadays, there is no rule against @@ -23448,7 +23407,7 @@ such cases one of the several envoys is appointed senior, to whom the others are subordinate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a> See - Mirus, op. cit. I. §§ 117-119.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></p></div> + Mirus, op. cit. I. §§ 117-119.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></p></div> @@ -23459,14 +23418,14 @@ to whom the others are subordinate.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 65-67—Hall, § 98—Phillimore, II. §§ 133-139—Twiss, I. §§ 202-203—Taylor, -§§ 285-290—Moore, IV. §§ 635, 637-638—Martens, II. § 8—Calvo, -III. §§ 1353-1356—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1253-1260—Fiore, II. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 65-67—Hall, § 98—Phillimore, II. §§ 133-139—Twiss, I. §§ 202-203—Taylor, +§§ 285-290—Moore, IV. §§ 635, 637-638—Martens, II. § 8—Calvo, +III. §§ 1353-1356—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1253-1260—Fiore, II. Nos. 1118-1120—Rivier, I. pp. 455-457.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Duty to receive Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 374. Every member of the Family of Nations that +<p>§ 374. Every member of the Family of Nations that possesses the passive right of legation is under ordinary circumstances bound to receive diplomatic envoys accredited to itself from other States for the purpose @@ -23509,13 +23468,13 @@ receive a legation from the other belligerent, as war involves the rupture of all peaceable relations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a> But this is not generally recognised. -See Vattel, IV. § 67; Phillimore, -II. § 138; and Pradier-Fodéré, +See Vattel, IV. § 67; Phillimore, +II. § 138; and Pradier-Fodéré, III. No. 1255.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Refusal to receive a certain Individual.</p></div> -<p>§ 375. But the refusal to receive an envoy must not +<p>§ 375. But the refusal to receive an envoy must not be confounded with the refusal to receive a certain individual as envoy. A State may be ready to receive a permanent or temporary envoy, but may object to @@ -23548,7 +23507,7 @@ vacant. In 1885, when, as above mentioned, Austria refused reception to Mr. Keiley as ambassador of the United States, the latter did not appoint another, although Mr. Keiley resigned, and the legation was for -several years left to the care of a Chargé d'Affaires.<a name="FNanchor_727_727" id="FNanchor_727_727"></a><a href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a> +several years left to the care of a Chargé d'Affaires.<a name="FNanchor_727_727" id="FNanchor_727_727"></a><a href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a> To avoid such conflicts it is a good practice of many States never to appoint an individual as envoy without having ascertained beforehand whether the individual @@ -23566,23 +23525,23 @@ decided that a British subject accredited to Great Britain by the Chinese Government as a Secretary of its embassy and received by Great Britain in that capacity without an express condition that he should remain subject to British jurisdiction, was exempt from British -jurisdiction. See, however, article 15 of the Règlement sur les -Immunités Diplomatiques, adopted in 1895 by the Institute of +jurisdiction. See, however, article 15 of the Règlement sur les +Immunités Diplomatiques, adopted in 1895 by the Institute of International Law (see Annuaire, XIV. p. 244), which denies to such an -individual exemption from jurisdiction. See also Phillimore, II. § 135, -and Twiss, I. § 203.</p></div> +individual exemption from jurisdiction. See also Phillimore, II. § 135, +and Twiss, I. § 203.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_727_727" id="Footnote_727_727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_727_727"><span class="label">[727]</span></a> See - Moore, IV. § 638, p. 480.</p></div> + Moore, IV. § 638, p. 480.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a> The question is of interest whether the privileges due to diplomatists must be granted on his journey home to an individual to whom reception as an envoy is refused. I think the question ought to be -answered in the affirmative; see, however, Moore, IV. § 666, p. 668.</p></div> +answered in the affirmative; see, however, Moore, IV. § 666, p. 668.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode and Solemnity of Reception.</p></div> -<p>§ 376. In case a State does not object to the reception +<p>§ 376. In case a State does not object to the reception of a person as diplomatic envoy accredited to itself, his actual reception takes place as soon as he has arrived at the place of his designation. But the @@ -23594,7 +23553,7 @@ with all the usual ceremonies. For that purpose the<span class="pagenum"><a name envoy sends a copy of his credentials to the Foreign Office, which arranges a special audience with the head of the State for the envoy, when he delivers in person -his sealed credentials.<a name="FNanchor_729_729" id="FNanchor_729_729"></a><a href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a> If the envoy be a Chargé +his sealed credentials.<a name="FNanchor_729_729" id="FNanchor_729_729"></a><a href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a> If the envoy be a Chargé d'Affaires only, he is received in audience by the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, to whom he hands his credentials. Through the formal reception the envoy becomes @@ -23610,11 +23569,11 @@ State, his passports furnishing sufficient proof of his diplomatic character.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_729_729" id="Footnote_729_729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_729_729"><span class="label">[729]</span></a> Details concerning reception of envoys are given by Twiss, -I. § 215, and Rivier, I. p. 467.</p></div> +I. § 215, and Rivier, I. p. 467.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reception of Envoys to Congresses and Conferences.</p></div> -<p>§ 377. It must be specially observed that all these +<p>§ 377. It must be specially observed that all these details regarding the reception of diplomatic envoys accredited to a State do not apply to the reception of envoys sent to represent the several States at a Congress @@ -23641,12 +23600,12 @@ produce them in exchange with one another.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45 <span class="smaller">FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMATIC ENVOYS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. § 37—Ullmann, § 49—Bonfils, Nos. 681-683—Pradier-Fodéré, III. -§§ 1346-1376.</p> +<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. § 37—Ullmann, § 49—Bonfils, Nos. 681-683—Pradier-Fodéré, III. +§§ 1346-1376.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>On Diplomatic Functions in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 378. A distinction must be made between functions +<p>§ 378. A distinction must be made between functions of permanent envoys and of envoys for temporary purposes. The functions of the latter, who are either envoys ceremonial or such envoys political as are @@ -23663,7 +23622,7 @@ functions.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 379. A permanent ambassador or other envoy +<p>§ 379. A permanent ambassador or other envoy represents his home State in the totality of its international relations not only with the State to which he is accredited, but also with other States. He is the @@ -23683,7 +23642,7 @@ to affairs international is taking place between them.<span class="pagenum"><a n <div class="sidenote"><p>Observation.</p></div> -<p>§ 380. But these are not all the functions of permanent +<p>§ 380. But these are not all the functions of permanent diplomatic envoys. Their task is, further, to observe attentively every occurrence which might affect the interest of their home States, and to report such @@ -23698,7 +23657,7 @@ exercising their function of observation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protection.</p></div> -<p>§ 381. A third task of diplomatic envoys is the +<p>§ 381. A third task of diplomatic envoys is the protection of the persons, property, and interests of such subjects of their home States as are within the boundaries of the State to which they are accredited. @@ -23713,7 +23672,7 @@ to his compatriots.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Miscellaneous Functions.</p></div> -<p>§ 382. Negotiation, observation, and protection are +<p>§ 382. Negotiation, observation, and protection are tasks common to all diplomatic envoys of every State. But a State may order its permanent envoys to perform other tasks, such as the registration of deaths, births, @@ -23733,7 +23692,7 @@ of witnesses on oath.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Envoys not to interfere in Internal Politics.</p></div> -<p>§ 383. But it must be specially emphasised that +<p>§ 383. But it must be specially emphasised that envoys must not interfere with the internal political life of the State to which they are accredited. It certainly belongs to their functions to watch the political @@ -23756,7 +23715,7 @@ abused his office for the purpose of interfering with internal politics.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_730_730" id="Footnote_730_730"></a><a href="#FNanchor_730_730"><span class="label">[730]</span></a> See - Hall (§ 98**), Taylor (§ 322), and Moore (IV. § 640), + Hall (§ 98**), Taylor (§ 322), and Moore (IV. § 640), who discuss a number of cases, especially that of Lord Sackville, who received his passports in 1888 from the United States of America for an alleged interference in the Presidential election.</p></div> @@ -23772,7 +23731,7 @@ alleged interference in the Presidential election.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Diplomatic Envoys objects of International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 384. <a name="Diplomatic_envoys384" id="Diplomatic_envoys384"></a>Diplomatic envoys are just as little subjects +<p>§ 384. <a name="Diplomatic_envoys384" id="Diplomatic_envoys384"></a>Diplomatic envoys are just as little subjects of International Law as are heads of States; and the arguments regarding the position of such heads<a name="FNanchor_731_731" id="FNanchor_731_731"></a><a href="#Footnote_731_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a> must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> also be applied to the position of diplomatic envoys, @@ -23793,11 +23752,11 @@ International Law, and is in this regard like any other individual.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_731_731" id="Footnote_731_731"></a><a href="#FNanchor_731_731"><span class="label">[731]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Heads_of_States344">344</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Heads_of_States344">344</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privileges due to Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 385. <a name="Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385" id="Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385"></a>Privileges due to diplomatic envoys, apart +<p>§ 385. <a name="Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385" id="Privileges_due_to_diplomatic385"></a>Privileges due to diplomatic envoys, apart from ceremonial honours, have reference to their inviolability and to their so-called exterritoriality. The reasons why these privileges must be granted are that @@ -23813,7 +23772,7 @@ such a degree as would materially hamper the exercise of their functions. It is equally clear that liability to interference with their full and free intercourse with their home States through letters, telegrams, and -couriers would wholly nullify their <i>raison d'être</i>. In +couriers would wholly nullify their <i>raison d'être</i>. In this case it would be impossible for them to send independent and secret reports to or receive similar instructions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> from their home States. From the consideration @@ -23822,7 +23781,7 @@ seem to be inseparable attributes of the very existence of diplomatic envoys.<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_732_732" id="Footnote_732_732"></a><a href="#FNanchor_732_732"><span class="label">[732]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121">121</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Since_dignity_is_a_recognised121">121</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_733_733" id="Footnote_733_733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_733_733"><span class="label">[733]</span></a> The Institute of International Law, at its meeting at Cambridge in 1895, discussed the privileges of diplomatic envoys, and @@ -23836,17 +23795,17 @@ p. 240.</p></div> <span class="smaller">INVIOLABILITY OF DIPLOMATIC ENVOYS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 80-107—Hall, §§ 50, 98*—Phillimore, II. §§ 154-175—Twiss, -I. §§ 216-217—Moore, IV. §§ 657-659—Ullmann, § 50—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, III. pp. 648-654—Rivier, I. § 38—Nys, II. pp. 372-374—Bonfils, -Nos. 684-699—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1382-1393—Mérignhac, II. -pp. 264-273—Fiore, II. Nos. 1127-1143—Calvo, III. §§ 1480-1498—Martens, -II. § 11—Crouzet, "De l'inviolabilité ... des agents +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 80-107—Hall, §§ 50, 98*—Phillimore, II. §§ 154-175—Twiss, +I. §§ 216-217—Moore, IV. §§ 657-659—Ullmann, § 50—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, III. pp. 648-654—Rivier, I. § 38—Nys, II. pp. 372-374—Bonfils, +Nos. 684-699—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1382-1393—Mérignhac, II. +pp. 264-273—Fiore, II. Nos. 1127-1143—Calvo, III. §§ 1480-1498—Martens, +II. § 11—Crouzet, "De l'inviolabilité ... des agents diplomatiques" (1875).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protection due to Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 386. <a name="Diplomatic_envoys386" id="Diplomatic_envoys386"></a>Diplomatic envoys are just as sacrosanct as +<p>§ 386. <a name="Diplomatic_envoys386" id="Diplomatic_envoys386"></a>Diplomatic envoys are just as sacrosanct as heads of States. They must, therefore, on the one hand, be afforded special protection as regards the safety of their persons, and, on the other hand, they @@ -23879,16 +23838,16 @@ confided to the protection of another envoy.<a name="FNanchor_736_736" id="FNanc <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a> 7 Anne, c. 12, sect. 3-6. This statute, which was passed in 1708 in consequence of the Russian Ambassador in London having been -arrested for a debt of £50, has always been considered as declaratory of +arrested for a debt of £50, has always been considered as declaratory of the existing law in England, and not as creating new law.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_736_736" id="Footnote_736_736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_736_736"><span class="label">[736]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> (case of Montagnini), and - below, § <a href="#A_mission_may411">411</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> (case of Montagnini), and + below, § <a href="#A_mission_may411">411</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exemption from Criminal Jurisdiction.</p></div> -<p>§ 387. <a name="As_regards_the387" id="As_regards_the387"></a>As regards the exemption of diplomatic +<p>§ 387. <a name="As_regards_the387" id="As_regards_the387"></a>As regards the exemption of diplomatic envoys from criminal jurisdiction, theory and practice of International Law agree nowadays<a name="FNanchor_737_737" id="FNanchor_737_737"></a><a href="#Footnote_737_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> upon the fact that the receiving States have no right, under any circumstances @@ -23916,10 +23875,10 @@ latter will certainly request his recall or send him back at once.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_737_737" id="Footnote_737_737"></a><a href="#FNanchor_737_737"><span class="label">[737]</span></a> In former times there was no unanimity amongst publicists. -See Phillimore, II. § 154.</p></div> +See Phillimore, II. § 154.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_738_738" id="Footnote_738_738"></a><a href="#FNanchor_738_738"><span class="label">[738]</span></a> The point is thoroughly discussed by Beling, "Die -strafrechtliche Bedeutung der Exterritorialität" (1896), pp. 71-90.</p></div> +strafrechtliche Bedeutung der Exterritorialität" (1896), pp. 71-90.</p></div> <p>History records many cases of diplomatic envoys who have conspired against the receiving States, but @@ -23934,12 +23893,12 @@ in England, De Bass, conspired against the life of Cromwell; he was ordered to leave the country within twenty-four hours.<a name="FNanchor_739_739" id="FNanchor_739_739"></a><a href="#Footnote_739_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_739_739" id="Footnote_739_739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_739_739"><span class="label">[739]</span></a> These and other cases are discussed by Phillimore, II. §§ +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_739_739" id="Footnote_739_739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_739_739"><span class="label">[739]</span></a> These and other cases are discussed by Phillimore, II. §§ 160-165.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Limitation of Inviolability.</p></div> -<p>§ 388. As diplomatic envoys are sacrosanct, the +<p>§ 388. As diplomatic envoys are sacrosanct, the principle of their inviolability is generally recognised. But there is one exception. For if a diplomatic envoy commits an act of violence which disturbs the internal @@ -23964,7 +23923,7 @@ placing himself in dangerous or awkward positions, such as in a disorderly crowd.<a name="FNanchor_741_741" id="FNanchor_741_741"></a><a href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a> Details regarding these cases are given by Phillimore, II. -§§ 166 and 170.</p></div> +§§ 166 and 170.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a> See article 6 of the rules regarding diplomatic immunities @@ -23979,23 +23938,23 @@ Cambridge in 1895 (Annuaire, XIV. p. 240).</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 80-119—Hall, §§ 50, 52, 53—Westlake, I. pp. 263-273—Phillimore, -II. §§ 176-210—Taylor, §§ 299-315—Twiss, I. §§ 217-221—Moore, -II. §§ 291-304 and IV. §§ 660-669—Ullmann, § 50—Geffcken in +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 80-119—Hall, §§ 50, 52, 53—Westlake, I. pp. 263-273—Phillimore, +II. §§ 176-210—Taylor, §§ 299-315—Twiss, I. §§ 217-221—Moore, +II. §§ 291-304 and IV. §§ 660-669—Ullmann, § 50—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 654-659—Nys, II. pp. 353-385—Rivier, I. 38—Bonfils, -Nos. 700-721—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1396-1495—Mérignhac, II. -pp. 249-293—Fiore, II. Nos. 1145-1163—Calvo, III. §§ 1499-1531—Martens, -II. §§ 12-14—Gottschalck, "Die Exterritorialität der Gesandten" -(1878)—Heyking, "L'exterritorialité" (1889)—Odier, "Des privilèges et -immunités des agents diplomatiques" (1890)—Vercamer, "Des franchises -diplomatiques et spécialement de l'exterritorialité" (1891)—Droin, -"L'exterritorialité des agents diplomatiques" (1895)—Mirre, "Die -Stellung der völkerrechtlichen Literatur zur Lehre von den sogenannten -Nebenrechten der gesandschaftlichen Functionäre" (1904).</p> +Nos. 700-721—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1396-1495—Mérignhac, II. +pp. 249-293—Fiore, II. Nos. 1145-1163—Calvo, III. §§ 1499-1531—Martens, +II. §§ 12-14—Gottschalck, "Die Exterritorialität der Gesandten" +(1878)—Heyking, "L'exterritorialité" (1889)—Odier, "Des privilèges et +immunités des agents diplomatiques" (1890)—Vercamer, "Des franchises +diplomatiques et spécialement de l'exterritorialité" (1891)—Droin, +"L'exterritorialité des agents diplomatiques" (1895)—Mirre, "Die +Stellung der völkerrechtlichen Literatur zur Lehre von den sogenannten +Nebenrechten der gesandschaftlichen Functionäre" (1904).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reason and Fictional Character of Exterritoriality.</p></div> -<p>§ 389. The exterritoriality which must be granted +<p>§ 389. The exterritoriality which must be granted to diplomatic envoys by the Municipal Laws of all the members of the Family of Nations is not, as in the case of sovereign heads of States, based on the principle @@ -24014,14 +23973,14 @@ exterritoriality of envoys is actualised by a body of privileges which must be severally discussed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a> With a few exceptions (see - Droin, "L'exterritorialité des + Droin, "L'exterritorialité des agents diplomatiques" (1895), pp. 32-43), all publicists accept the term and the fiction of exterritoriality.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immunity of Domicile.</p></div> -<p>§ 390. <a name="The_first_of_these_privileges390" id="The_first_of_these_privileges390"></a>The first of these privileges is immunity of -domicile, the so-called <i>Franchise de l'hôtel</i>. The present +<p>§ 390. <a name="The_first_of_these_privileges390" id="The_first_of_these_privileges390"></a>The first of these privileges is immunity of +domicile, the so-called <i>Franchise de l'hôtel</i>. The present immunity of domicile has developed from the former condition of things, when the official residences of envoys were in every point considered to be outside the territory @@ -24066,21 +24025,21 @@ it.<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_7 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_743_743" id="Footnote_743_743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_743_743"><span class="label">[743]</span></a> Although this right of asylum was certainly recognised by the States in former centuries, it is of interest to note that Grotius did not consider it postulated by International Law, for he says of this -right (II. c. 18, § 8): "Ex concessione pendet ejus apud quem agit. +right (II. c. 18, § 8): "Ex concessione pendet ejus apud quem agit. Istud enim juris gentium non est." See also Bynkershoek, "De foro legat." c. 21.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_744_744" id="Footnote_744_744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_744_744"><span class="label">[744]</span></a> See - Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 178.</p></div> + Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 178.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_745_745" id="Footnote_745_745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_745_745"><span class="label">[745]</span></a> See - Martens, "Causes Célèbres," II. p. 52.</p></div> + Martens, "Causes Célèbres," II. p. 52.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_746_746" id="Footnote_746_746"></a><a href="#FNanchor_746_746"><span class="label">[746]</span></a> The South American States, Chili excepted, still grant the right to foreign envoys to afford asylum to political refugees in time of revolution. It is, however, acknowledged that this right is not based upon a rule of International Law, but merely upon <i>local</i> usage. See -Hall, § 52; Westlake, I. p. 272; Moore, II. §§ 291-304; Chilbert in A.J. +Hall, § 52; Westlake, I. p. 272; Moore, II. §§ 291-304; Chilbert in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 562-595; Robbin in R.G. XV. (1908), pp. 461-508; Moore, "Asylum in Legations and Consulates, and in Vessels" (1892). That actually in times of revolution and of persecution of certain classes of @@ -24090,7 +24049,7 @@ practice does not shake the validity of the general rule of International Law according to which there is no obligation on the part of the receiving State to grant to envoys the right of affording asylum to individuals not belonging to their suites. See, however, Moore, II. -§ 293.</p></div> +§ 293.</p></div> <p>Nowadays the official residences of envoys are <i>in a sense and in some respects only</i> considered as though @@ -24169,7 +24128,7 @@ afterwards executed at Memel.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exemption from Criminal and Civil Jurisdiction.</p></div> -<p>§ 391. The second privilege of envoys in reference +<p>§ 391. The second privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is their exemption from criminal and civil jurisdiction. As their exemption from criminal jurisdiction is also a consequence of their inviolability, @@ -24201,10 +24160,10 @@ regards mercantile<a name="FNanchor_749_749" id="FNanchor_749_749"></a><a href=" on the territory of the receiving State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_747_747" id="Footnote_747_747"></a><a href="#FNanchor_747_747"><span class="label">[747]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#As_regards_the387">387</a>-388.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#As_regards_the387">387</a>-388.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_748_748" id="Footnote_748_748"></a><a href="#FNanchor_748_748"><span class="label">[748]</span></a> See - Martens, "Causes Célèbres," II. p. 282.</p></div> + Martens, "Causes Célèbres," II. p. 282.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a> The statute of 7 Anne, c. 12, on which the exemption of diplomatic envoys from English jurisdiction is based, does not exclude @@ -24217,7 +24176,7 @@ also Westlake, I. p. 267.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exemption from Subpœna as witness.</p></div> -<p>§ 392. The third privilege of envoys in reference +<p>§ 392. The third privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is exemption from subpœna as witnesses. No envoy can be obliged, or even required, to appear as a witness in a civil or criminal or administrative @@ -24244,12 +24203,12 @@ was not taken, and the Government of the United States asked the Dutch Government to recall him.<a name="FNanchor_750_750" id="FNanchor_750_750"></a><a href="#Footnote_750_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a> See - Wharton, I. § 98; Moore, IV. § 662; and Calvo, III. § + Wharton, I. § 98; Moore, IV. § 662; and Calvo, III. § 1520.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exemption from Police.</p></div> -<p>§ 393. The fourth privilege of envoys in reference to +<p>§ 393. The fourth privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is exemption from the police of the receiving States. Orders and regulations of the police do in no way bind them. On the other hand, @@ -24278,7 +24237,7 @@ of reasonable pressure upon the envoy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exemption from Taxes and the like.</p></div> -<p>§ 394. The fifth privilege of envoys in reference to +<p>§ 394. The fifth privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is exemption from taxes and the like. As an envoy, through his exterritoriality, is considered not to be subjected to the territorial supremacy @@ -24310,7 +24269,7 @@ Garbutt, L.R. 24 Q.B. 368. See also Westlake, I. p. 268.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Right of Chapel.</p></div> -<p>§ 395. A sixth privilege of envoys in reference to +<p>§ 395. A sixth privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is the so-called Right of Chapel (<i>Droit de chapelle</i> or <i>Droit du culte</i>). This is the privilege of having a private chapel for the practice of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span> @@ -24336,7 +24295,7 @@ part therein.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Self-jurisdiction.</p></div> -<p>§ 396. The seventh and last privilege of envoys in +<p>§ 396. The seventh and last privilege of envoys in reference to their exterritoriality is self-jurisdiction within certain limits. As the members of his retinue are considered exterritorial, the receiving State has no @@ -24359,8 +24318,8 @@ man was handed over for execution to the English authorities, but James I. reprieved him.<a name="FNanchor_752_752" id="FNanchor_752_752"></a><a href="#Footnote_752_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_752_752" id="Footnote_752_752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_752_752"><span class="label">[752]</span></a> See - Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 391. See also the two -cases reported by Calvo, III. § 1545.</p></div> + Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 391. See also the two +cases reported by Calvo, III. § 1545.</p></div> @@ -24370,15 +24329,15 @@ cases reported by Calvo, III. § 1545.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 84-86—Hall, §§ 99-101—Phillimore, II. §§ 172-175—Taylor, -§§ 293-295—Moore, IV. §§ 643-644—Twiss, I. § 222—Wheaton, §§ 242-247—Ullmann, -§ 52—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 665-668—Heffter, -§ 207—Rivier, § 39—Nys, II. p. 390—Pradier-Fodéré, III. -§ 1394—Fiore, II. Nos. 1143-1144—Calvo, III. §§ 1532-1539.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 84-86—Hall, §§ 99-101—Phillimore, II. §§ 172-175—Taylor, +§§ 293-295—Moore, IV. §§ 643-644—Twiss, I. § 222—Wheaton, §§ 242-247—Ullmann, +§ 52—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 665-668—Heffter, +§ 207—Rivier, § 39—Nys, II. p. 390—Pradier-Fodéré, III. +§ 1394—Fiore, II. Nos. 1143-1144—Calvo, III. §§ 1532-1539.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Possible Cases.</p></div> -<p>§ 397. Although, when an individual is accredited +<p>§ 397. Although, when an individual is accredited as diplomatic envoy by one State to another, these two States only are directly concerned in his appointment, the question must be discussed, what position @@ -24395,7 +24354,7 @@ affairs of a third State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Envoy travelling through Territory of third State.</p></div> -<p>§ 398. If an envoy travels through the territory of +<p>§ 398. If an envoy travels through the territory of a third State incognito or for his pleasure only, there is no doubt that he cannot claim any special privileges whatever. He is in exactly the same position as any @@ -24417,7 +24376,7 @@ no other privileges,<a name="FNanchor_753_753" id="FNanchor_753_753"></a><a href and exterritoriality need be granted to the envoy. And the right of innocent passage does not include the right to stop on the territory longer than is necessary -for the passage. Thus, in 1854, Soulé, the envoy of +for the passage. Thus, in 1854, Soulé, the envoy of the United States of America at Madrid, who had landed at Calais, intending to return to Madrid <i>via</i> Paris, was provisionally stopped at Calais for the purpose @@ -24425,20 +24384,20 @@ of ascertaining whether he intended to make a stay in Paris, which the French Government wanted to prevent, because he was a French refugee naturalised in America and was reported to have made speeches -against the Emperor Napoleon. Soulé at once left +against the Emperor Napoleon. Soulé at once left Calais, and the French Government declared, during the correspondence with the United States in the -matter, that there was no objection to Soulé's traversing +matter, that there was no objection to Soulé's traversing France on his way to Madrid, but they would not allow him to make a sojourn in Paris or anywhere else in France.<a name="FNanchor_754_754" id="FNanchor_754_754"></a><a href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_753_753" id="Footnote_753_753"></a><a href="#FNanchor_753_753"><span class="label">[753]</span></a> The matter, which has always been disputed, is fully -discussed by Twiss, I. § 222, who also quotes the opinion of Grotius, +discussed by Twiss, I. § 222, who also quotes the opinion of Grotius, Bynkershoek, and Vattel.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_754_754" id="Footnote_754_754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_754_754"><span class="label">[754]</span></a> See - Wharton, I. § 97, and Moore, IV. § 643.</p></div> + Wharton, I. § 97, and Moore, IV. § 643.</p></div> <p>It must be specially remarked that no right of passage need be granted if the third State is at war with @@ -24446,7 +24405,7 @@ the sending or receiving State. The envoy of a belligerent,<span class="pagenum" who travels through the territory of the other belligerent to reach the place of his destination, may be seized and treated as a prisoner of war. Thus, in -1744, when the French Ambassador, Maréchal de Belle-Isle, +1744, when the French Ambassador, Maréchal de Belle-Isle, on his way to Berlin, passed through the territory of Hanover, which country was then, together with England, at war with France, he was made a prisoner @@ -24454,7 +24413,7 @@ of war and sent to England.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Envoy found by Belligerent on occupied Enemy Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 399. <a name="Wh399" id="Wh399"></a>When in time of war a belligerent occupies +<p>§ 399. <a name="Wh399" id="Wh399"></a>When in time of war a belligerent occupies the capital of an enemy State and finds there envoys of other States, these envoys do not lose their diplomatic privileges as long as the State to which they are accredited @@ -24485,11 +24444,11 @@ to grant that right, and did not alter their decision<span class="pagenum"><a na although the Government of the United States protested.<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Wi157">vol. II. § 157</a>, and Wharton, I. § 97.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Wi157">vol. II. § 157</a>, and Wharton, I. § 97.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Envoy interfering with affairs of a third State.</p></div> -<p>§ 400. There is no doubt that an envoy must not +<p>§ 400. There is no doubt that an envoy must not interfere with affairs concerning the State to which he is accredited and a third State. If nevertheless he does interfere, he enjoys no privileges whatever against such @@ -24500,7 +24459,7 @@ of war by the latter and not released till 1736, although France protested.<a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a><a href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_756_756" id="Footnote_756_756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_756_756"><span class="label">[756]</span></a> See - Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 207.</p></div> + Martens, "Causes Célèbres," I. p. 207.</p></div> @@ -24510,24 +24469,24 @@ although France protested.<a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a>< </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 120-124—Hall, § 51—Phillimore, II. §§ 186-193—Twiss, I. -§ 218—Moore, IV. §§ 664-665—Ullmann, §§ 47 and 51—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, III. pp. 660-661—Heffter, § 221—Rivier, I. pp. 458-461—Nys, -II. pp. 386-390—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1472-1486—Fiore, II. Nos. -1164-1168—Calvo, III. §§ 1348-1350—Martens, II. § 16—Roederer, -"De l'application des immunités de l'ambassadeur au personnel de +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 120-124—Hall, § 51—Phillimore, II. §§ 186-193—Twiss, I. +§ 218—Moore, IV. §§ 664-665—Ullmann, §§ 47 and 51—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, III. pp. 660-661—Heffter, § 221—Rivier, I. pp. 458-461—Nys, +II. pp. 386-390—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1472-1486—Fiore, II. Nos. +1164-1168—Calvo, III. §§ 1348-1350—Martens, II. § 16—Roederer, +"De l'application des immunités de l'ambassadeur au personnel de l'ambassade" (1904), pp. 22-84.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different Classes of Members of Retinue.</p></div> -<p>§ 401. <a name="The_individuals_accompanying401" id="The_individuals_accompanying401"></a>The individuals accompanying an envoy +<p>§ 401. <a name="The_individuals_accompanying401" id="The_individuals_accompanying401"></a>The individuals accompanying an envoy officially, or in his private service, or as members of his family, or as couriers, compose his retinue. The members of the retinue belong, therefore, to four different classes. All those individuals who are officially attached to an envoy are members of the legation and are appointed by the home State of the envoy. To -this first class belong the Councillors, Attachés, Secretaries +this first class belong the Councillors, Attachés, Secretaries of the Legation; the Chancellor of the Legation and his assistants; the interpreters, and the like; the chaplain, the doctor, and the legal advisers, provided @@ -24556,7 +24515,7 @@ secrecy of the despatches.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privileges of Members of Legation.</p></div> -<p>§ 402. It is a universally recognised<a name="FNanchor_757_757" id="FNanchor_757_757"></a><a href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a> rule of International +<p>§ 402. It is a universally recognised<a name="FNanchor_757_757" id="FNanchor_757_757"></a><a href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a> rule of International Law that all members of a legation are as inviolable and exterritorial as the envoy himself. They must, therefore, be granted by the receiving State @@ -24579,7 +24538,7 @@ being prosecuted in Chili; he was tried, found guilty, and executed at Santiago on July 5, 1910.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_757_757" id="Footnote_757_757"></a><a href="#FNanchor_757_757"><span class="label">[757]</span></a> Some authors, however, plead for an abrogation of this -rule. See Martens, II. § 16.</p></div> +rule. See Martens, II. § 16.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a> A case of this kind occurred in 1904 in the United States. Mr. Gurney, Secretary of the British Legation at Washington, was fined @@ -24589,7 +24548,7 @@ imposed remitted.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privileges of Private Servants.</p></div> -<p>§ 403. It is a customary rule of International Law +<p>§ 403. It is a customary rule of International Law that the receiving State must grant to all persons in the private service of the envoy and of the members of his legation, provided such persons are not subjects @@ -24608,12 +24567,12 @@ Britain. When, in 1827, a coachman of Mr. Gallatin, the American Minister in London, committed an assault outside the embassy, he was arrested in the stable of the embassy and charged before a local magistrate, and the British Foreign Office refused to recognise the -exemption of the coachman from the local jurisdiction. See Wharton, I. § -94, and Hall, § 50.</p></div> +exemption of the coachman from the local jurisdiction. See Wharton, I. § +94, and Hall, § 50.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privileges of Family of Envoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 404. Although the wife of the envoy, his children, +<p>§ 404. Although the wife of the envoy, his children, and such of his near relatives as live within his family and under his roof belong to his retinue, there is a distinction to be made as regards their privileges. His @@ -24624,7 +24583,7 @@ no general rule of International Law can safely be said to be generally recognised, but that they must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span> granted exemption from civil and criminal jurisdiction. But even this rule was formerly not generally recognised. -Thus, when in 1653 Don Pantaleon Sà, the brother of +Thus, when in 1653 Don Pantaleon Sà , the brother of the Portuguese Ambassador in London and a member of his suite, killed an Englishman named Greenway, he was arrested, tried in England, found guilty, and executed.<a name="FNanchor_760_760" id="FNanchor_760_760"></a><a href="#Footnote_760_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> @@ -24641,14 +24600,14 @@ agreed to the murderer being prosecuted in Belgium. The trial took place in July 1907, but Waddington was acquitted by the Belgian jury.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> The case is discussed by Phillimore, II. § 169.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a> The case is discussed by Phillimore, II. § 169.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_761_761" id="Footnote_761_761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_761_761"><span class="label">[761]</span></a> See R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. 159-165.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Privileges of Couriers of Envoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 405. <a name="To405" id="To405"></a>To insure the safety and secrecy of the diplomatic +<p>§ 405. <a name="To405" id="To405"></a>To insure the safety and secrecy of the diplomatic despatches they bear, couriers must be granted exemption from civil and criminal jurisdiction and afforded special protection during the exercise of their @@ -24668,15 +24627,15 @@ special passports for the purpose of their legitimation.<span class="pagenum"><a </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 125-126—Hall, § 98**—Phillimore, II. §§ 237-241—Moore, -IV. §§ 636, 639, 640, 666—Taylor, §§ 320-323—Wheaton, §§ 250-251—Ullmann, -§ 53—Heffter, §§ 223-226—Rivier, I. § 40—Nys, II. p. 392—Bonfils, -Nos. 730-732—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1515-1535—Fiore, II. -Nos. 1169-1175—Calvo, III. §§ 1363-1367—Martens, II. § 17.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, IV. §§ 125-126—Hall, § 98**—Phillimore, II. §§ 237-241—Moore, +IV. §§ 636, 639, 640, 666—Taylor, §§ 320-323—Wheaton, §§ 250-251—Ullmann, +§ 53—Heffter, §§ 223-226—Rivier, I. § 40—Nys, II. p. 392—Bonfils, +Nos. 730-732—Pradier-Fodéré, III. §§ 1515-1535—Fiore, II. +Nos. 1169-1175—Calvo, III. §§ 1363-1367—Martens, II. § 17.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Termination in contradistinction to Suspension.</p></div> -<p>§ 406. A diplomatic mission may come to an end +<p>§ 406. A diplomatic mission may come to an end from eleven different causes—namely, accomplishment of the object for which the mission was sent; expiration of such Letters of Credence as were given to an @@ -24705,7 +24664,7 @@ during the duration of the suspension.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Accomplishment of Object of Mission.</p></div> -<p>§ 407. A mission comes to an end through the fulfilment +<p>§ 407. A mission comes to an end through the fulfilment of its objects in all cases of missions for special<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> purposes. Such cases may be ceremonial functions like representations at weddings, funerals, coronations; or @@ -24717,7 +24676,7 @@ enjoy all their privileges on their way home.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expiration of Letter of Credence.</p></div> -<p>§ 408. If a Letter of Credence for a specified time +<p>§ 408. If a Letter of Credence for a specified time only is given to an envoy, his mission terminates with the expiration of such time. A temporary Letter of Credence may, for instance, be given to an individual @@ -24727,18 +24686,18 @@ and the appointment of his successor.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Recall.</p></div> -<p>§ 409. The mission of an envoy, be he permanently +<p>§ 409. The mission of an envoy, be he permanently or only temporarily appointed, terminates through his recall by the sending State. If this recall is not caused by unfriendly acts of the receiving State but by other circumstances, the envoy receives a Letter of Recall -from the head, or, in case he is only a Chargé d'Affaires, +from the head, or, in case he is only a Chargé d'Affaires, from the Foreign Secretary of his home State, and he<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a> hands this letter over to the head of the receiving State -in a solemn audience, or in the case of a Chargé d'Affaires +in a solemn audience, or in the case of a Chargé d'Affaires to the Foreign Secretary. In exchange for the Letter of Recall the envoy receives his passports and a so-called -<i>Lettre de récréance</i>, a letter in which the head of +<i>Lettre de récréance</i>, a letter in which the head of the receiving State (or the Foreign Secretary) acknowledges the Letter of Recall. Although therewith his mission ends, he enjoys nevertheless all his privileges @@ -24759,18 +24718,18 @@ not recognise the act of its envoy as misconduct.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a> But sometimes his successor presents the letter recalling his predecessor to the head of the receiving State, or to the Foreign -Secretary in the case of Chargés d'Affaires.</p></div> +Secretary in the case of Chargés d'Affaires.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a> See - the interesting cases discussed by Moore, IV. § 666.</p></div> + the interesting cases discussed by Moore, IV. § 666.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a> Notable cases of request of recall of envoys are reported -by Taylor, § 322; Hall, § 98**; Moore, IV. § 639.</p></div> +by Taylor, § 322; Hall, § 98**; Moore, IV. § 639.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Promotion to a higher Class.</p></div> -<p>§ 410. When an envoy remains at his post, but is -promoted to a higher class—for instance, when a Chargé +<p>§ 410. When an envoy remains at his post, but is +promoted to a higher class—for instance, when a Chargé d'Affaires is created a Minister Resident or a Minister Plenipotentiary is created an Ambassador—his original mission technically ends, and he receives therefore a @@ -24778,7 +24737,7 @@ new Letter of Credence.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Delivery of Passports.</p></div> -<p>§ 411. <a name="A_mission_may411" id="A_mission_may411"></a>A mission may terminate, further, through +<p>§ 411. <a name="A_mission_may411" id="A_mission_may411"></a>A mission may terminate, further, through the delivery of his passports to an envoy by the receiving State. The reason for such dismissal of an envoy may be either gross misconduct on his part or @@ -24793,19 +24752,19 @@ departing envoy and confided to the protection<a name="FNanchor_765_765" id="FNa some other foreign legation.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_765_765" id="Footnote_765_765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_765_765"><span class="label">[765]</span></a> As regards the case of Montagnini, see - above, §§ <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> + above, §§ <a href="#The_Law_of_Guaranty106">106</a> and <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys386">386</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Request for Passports.</p></div> -<p>§ 412. Without being recalled, an envoy may on his +<p>§ 412. Without being recalled, an envoy may on his own account ask for his passports and depart in consequence of ill-treatment by the receiving State. This may or may not lead to a rupture of diplomatic intercourse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span></p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Outbreak of War.</p></div> -<p>§ 413. <a name="Wh413" id="Wh413"></a>When war breaks out between the sending +<p>§ 413. <a name="Wh413" id="Wh413"></a>When war breaks out between the sending and the receiving State before their envoys accredited to each other are recalled, their mission nevertheless comes to an end. They receive their passports, but @@ -24813,11 +24772,11 @@ nevertheless they must be granted their privileges<a name="FNanchor_766_766" id= their way home.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_766_766" id="Footnote_766_766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_766_766"><span class="label">[766]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th98">vol. II. § 98</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th98">vol. II. § 98</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Constitutional Changes.</p></div> -<p>§ 414. If the head of the sending or receiving State +<p>§ 414. If the head of the sending or receiving State is a Sovereign, his death or abdication terminates the missions sent and received by him, and all envoys remaining at their posts must receive new Letters of @@ -24834,12 +24793,12 @@ received, no certain rule exists.<a name="FNanchor_767_767" id="FNanchor_767_767 therefore, upon the merits of the special case.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_767_767" id="Footnote_767_767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_767_767"><span class="label">[767]</span></a> Writers on International Law differ concerning this point. -See, for instance, Ullmann, § 53, in contradistinction to Rivier, I. p. +See, for instance, Ullmann, § 53, in contradistinction to Rivier, I. p. 517.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Revolutionary Changes of Government.</p></div> -<p>§ 415. A revolutionary movement in the sending +<p>§ 415. A revolutionary movement in the sending or receiving State which creates a new government, changing, for example, a republic into a monarchy or a monarchy into a republic, or deposing a Sovereign @@ -24862,11 +24821,11 @@ constitutional or revolutionary changes in the headship of a State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#It_is_universally438">438</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#It_is_universally438">438</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extinction of sending or receiving State.</p></div> -<p>§ 416. If the sending or receiving State of a mission +<p>§ 416. If the sending or receiving State of a mission is extinguished by voluntary merger into another State or through annexation in consequence of conquest, the mission terminates <i>ipso facto</i>. In case of annexation @@ -24887,11 +24846,11 @@ But as long as the annexation is not notified and recognised, the receiving States have no duty to interfere.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Death of Envoy.</p></div> -<p>§ 417. A mission ends, lastly, by the death of the +<p>§ 417. A mission ends, lastly, by the death of the envoy. As soon as an envoy is dead, his effects, and especially his papers, must be sealed. This is done by a member of the dead envoy's legation, or, if there be @@ -24924,15 +24883,15 @@ deceased envoy, and that no death duties can be demanded.<span class="pagenum">< </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 243-246—Halleck, I. p. 369—Taylor, §§ 325-326—Twiss, -I. § 223—Ullmann, §§ 54-55—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, -II. pp. 687-695—Heffter, §§ 241-242—Rivier, I. § 41—Nys, II. pp. 394-399—Calvo, -III. §§ 1368-1372—Bonfils, Nos. 731-743—Pradier-Fodéré, -IV. §§ 2034-2043—Martens, II. §§ 18-19—Fiore, II. Nos. 1176-1178—Warden, +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 243-246—Halleck, I. p. 369—Taylor, §§ 325-326—Twiss, +I. § 223—Ullmann, §§ 54-55—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, +II. pp. 687-695—Heffter, §§ 241-242—Rivier, I. § 41—Nys, II. pp. 394-399—Calvo, +III. §§ 1368-1372—Bonfils, Nos. 731-743—Pradier-Fodéré, +IV. §§ 2034-2043—Martens, II. §§ 18-19—Fiore, II. Nos. 1176-1178—Warden, "A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, &c., of the Consular Establishment" (1814)—Miltitz, Manuel des Consuls, 5 vols. (1837-1839)—Cussy, -"Règlements consulaires des principaux États maritimes" (1851)—H. B. -Oppenheim, "Handbuch der Consulate aller Länder" (1854)—Clercq +"Règlements consulaires des principaux États maritimes" (1851)—H. B. +Oppenheim, "Handbuch der Consulate aller Länder" (1854)—Clercq et Vallat, "Guide pratique des consulats" (5th ed. 1898)—Salles, "L'institution des consulats, son origine, &c." (1898)—Chester Lloyd Jones, "The Consular Service of the United States. Its History and @@ -24942,7 +24901,7 @@ in R.I. 2nd Ser. VIII. (1906), pp. 479-507 and 717-750.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Development of the Institution of Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 418. The roots of the consular institution go back +<p>§ 418. The roots of the consular institution go back to the second half of the Middle Ages. In the commercial towns of Italy, Spain, and France the merchants used to appoint by election one or more of their @@ -24994,15 +24953,15 @@ regarding the duties of their consuls abroad, such as the Consular Act passed by England in 1826.<a name="FNanchor_772_772" id="FNanchor_772_772"></a><a href="#Footnote_772_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_770_770" id="Footnote_770_770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_770_770"><span class="label">[770]</span></a> See - Twiss, I. §§ 253-263.</p></div> + Twiss, I. §§ 253-263.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> Phillimore, II. § 255, gives a list of such treaties.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a> Phillimore, II. § 255, gives a list of such treaties.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a> 6 Geo. IV. c. 87.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General Character of Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 419. Nowadays consuls are agents of States residing +<p>§ 419. Nowadays consuls are agents of States residing abroad for purposes of various kinds, but mainly in the interests of commerce and navigation of the appointing State. As they are not diplomatic representatives, @@ -25030,9 +24989,9 @@ envoys, although they may have the title of privileges, if such privileges are not specially provided for by treaties between the home State and the State in which they reside. Different, however, is the case in -which a consul is at the same time accredited as Chargé +which a consul is at the same time accredited as Chargé d'Affaires, and in which, therefore, he combines two -different offices; for as Chargé d'Affaires he is a diplomatic +different offices; for as Chargé d'Affaires he is a diplomatic envoy and enjoys all the privileges of such an envoy, provided he has received a Letter of Credence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span></p> @@ -25044,17 +25003,17 @@ envoy, provided he has received a Letter of Credence.<span class="pagenum"><a na </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 13—Phillimore, II. §§ 253-254—Halleck, -I. p. 371—Taylor, § 528—Moore, V. § 696—Ullmann, § 57—Bulmerincq -in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 695-701—Rivier, I. § 41—Calvo, -III. §§ 1373-1376—Bonfils, Nos. 743-748—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2050-2055—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 320-333—Martens, II. § 20—Stowell, "Le +<p class="indh1">Hall, "Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," § 13—Phillimore, II. §§ 253-254—Halleck, +I. p. 371—Taylor, § 528—Moore, V. § 696—Ullmann, § 57—Bulmerincq +in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 695-701—Rivier, I. § 41—Calvo, +III. §§ 1373-1376—Bonfils, Nos. 743-748—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2050-2055—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 320-333—Martens, II. § 20—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 186-206—"General Instructions for His Majesty's Consular Officers" (1907).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 420. Consuls are of two kinds. They are either +<p>§ 420. Consuls are of two kinds. They are either specially sent and paid for the administration of their consular office (<i>Consules missi</i>), or they are appointed from individuals, in most cases merchants, residing in @@ -25085,7 +25044,7 @@ special privileges for professional consuls.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consular Districts.</p></div> -<p>§ 421. As the functions of consuls are of a more or +<p>§ 421. As the functions of consuls are of a more or less local character, most States appoint several consuls on the territory of other larger States, limiting the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> duties of the several consuls within certain districts @@ -25106,7 +25065,7 @@ authorities have to grant the consular privileges, if any.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different Classes of Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 422. Four classes of consuls are generally distinguished +<p>§ 422. Four classes of consuls are generally distinguished according to rank: consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls, and agents-consular. Consuls-general are appointed either as the head of several consular districts, @@ -25143,7 +25102,7 @@ as a rule, the notarial functions of a consular officer.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consuls subordinate to Diplomatic Envoys.</p></div> -<p>§ 423. Although consuls conduct their correspondence +<p>§ 423. Although consuls conduct their correspondence directly with their home Government, they are nevertheless, subordinate to the diplomatic envoy of their home Government accredited to the State in which @@ -25165,15 +25124,15 @@ the local Government.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. § 250—Halleck, I. p. 371—Moore, V. §§ 697-700—Ullmann, -§ 58—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 702-706—Rivier, -I. § 41—Nys, II. p. 400—Calvo, III. §§ 1378-1384—Bonfils, Nos. 749-752—Pradier-Fodéré, -IV. §§ 2056-2067—Fiore, II. Nos. 1181-1182—Martens, -II. § 21—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 207-216.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. § 250—Halleck, I. p. 371—Moore, V. §§ 697-700—Ullmann, +§ 58—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 702-706—Rivier, +I. § 41—Nys, II. p. 400—Calvo, III. §§ 1378-1384—Bonfils, Nos. 749-752—Pradier-Fodéré, +IV. §§ 2056-2067—Fiore, II. Nos. 1181-1182—Martens, +II. § 21—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 207-216.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Qualification of Candidates.</p></div> -<p>§ 424. International Law has no rules in regard to +<p>§ 424. International Law has no rules in regard to the qualifications of an individual whom a State can appoint consul. Many States, however, possess such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> rules in their Municipal Law as far as professional @@ -25185,7 +25144,7 @@ would at present certainly refuse it.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No State obliged to admit Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 425. According to International Law a State is +<p>§ 425. According to International Law a State is not at all obliged to admit consuls. But the commercial interests of all the States are so powerful that practically every State must admit consuls of foreign @@ -25207,7 +25166,7 @@ admit consuls in Warsaw.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>What kind of States can appoint Consuls.</p></div> -<p>§ 426. There is no doubt that it is within the faculty +<p>§ 426. There is no doubt that it is within the faculty of every full-Sovereign State to appoint consuls. As regards not full-Sovereign States, everything depends upon the special case. As foreign States can appoint @@ -25226,11 +25185,11 @@ envoys who may be sent and received by every member-State of the German Empire.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mode of Appointment and of Admittance.</p></div> -<p>§ 427. <a name="Consuls_are_appointed427" id="Consuls_are_appointed427"></a>Consuls are appointed through a patent or +<p>§ 427. <a name="Consuls_are_appointed427" id="Consuls_are_appointed427"></a>Consuls are appointed through a patent or commission, the so-called <i>Lettre de provision</i>, of the State whose consular office they are intended to administer. Vice-consuls are sometimes, and agents-consular @@ -25255,12 +25214,12 @@ for the Carlists.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a> That, in case a consul is appointed for a State which is under the protectorate of another, it is within the competence of the -latter to grant or refuse the <i>exequatur</i>, has been pointed out above, § +latter to grant or refuse the <i>exequatur</i>, has been pointed out above, § 92, p. 144, note 4.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Appointment of Consuls includes Recognition.</p></div> -<p>§ 428. As the appointment of consuls takes place in +<p>§ 428. As the appointment of consuls takes place in the interests of commerce, industry, and navigation, and has merely local importance without political consequences, it is maintained<a name="FNanchor_776_776" id="FNanchor_776_776"></a><a href="#Footnote_776_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> that a State does not indirectly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span> @@ -25283,12 +25242,12 @@ therefrom. Such individuals are not really consuls, although the local State allows them for political reasons to exercise consular functions.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> Hall, §§ 26* and 105, and Moore, I. § 72.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a> Hall, §§ 26* and 105, and Moore, I. § 72.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_777_777" id="Footnote_777_777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_777_777"><span class="label">[777]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Recognition_is_the_act72">72</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Recognition_is_the_act72">72</a>.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> The case mentioned by Hall, § 26*, of Great Britain +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a> The case mentioned by Hall, § 26*, of Great Britain appointing, in 1823, consuls to the South American Republics, without gazetting the various consuls and—as must be presumed—without the individuals concerned asking formally for the <i>exequatur</i> of the various @@ -25302,15 +25261,15 @@ South American States, would seem to be a case of informal appointment.</p></div </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 257-260—Taylor, § 327—Halleck, I. pp. 380-385—Moore, -V. §§ 717-731—Ullmann, § 61—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, -III. pp. 738-749—Rivier, I. § 42—Calvo, III. §§ 1421-1429—Bonfils, Nos. -762-771—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2069-2113—Fiore, II. Nos. 1184-1185—Martens, -II. § 23—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 15-136.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 257-260—Taylor, § 327—Halleck, I. pp. 380-385—Moore, +V. §§ 717-731—Ullmann, § 61—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, +III. pp. 738-749—Rivier, I. § 42—Calvo, III. §§ 1421-1429—Bonfils, Nos. +762-771—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2069-2113—Fiore, II. Nos. 1184-1185—Martens, +II. § 23—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 15-136.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>On Consular Functions in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 429. Although consuls are appointed chiefly in +<p>§ 429. Although consuls are appointed chiefly in the interest of commerce, industry, and navigation, they are nevertheless charged with various functions for other purposes. Custom, commercial and consular @@ -25322,7 +25281,7 @@ navigation, protection, notarial functions.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Fosterage of Commerce and Industry.</p></div> -<p>§ 430. As consuls are appointed in the interest of +<p>§ 430. As consuls are appointed in the interest of commerce and industry, they must be allowed by the receiving State to watch over the execution of the commercial treaties of their home State, to send reports @@ -25342,7 +25301,7 @@ home States.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Supervision of Navigation.</p></div> -<p>§ 431. Another task of consuls consists in supervision +<p>§ 431. Another task of consuls consists in supervision of the navigation of the appointing State. A consul at a port must be allowed to keep his eye on all merchantmen sailing under the flag of his home State @@ -25365,7 +25324,7 @@ no power of supervision over such public vessels.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protection.</p></div> -<p>§ 432. The protection which consuls must be +<p>§ 432. The protection which consuls must be allowed by the receiving State to provide for subjects of the appointing State is a very important task. For that purpose consuls keep a register, in which these @@ -25387,7 +25346,7 @@ district.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Notarial Functions.</p></div> -<p>§ 433. Very important are the notarial and the +<p>§ 433. Very important are the notarial and the like functions with which consuls are charged. They attest and legalise signatures, examine witnesses and administer oaths for the purpose of procuring evidence @@ -25414,16 +25373,16 @@ States in the absence of treaty stipulations.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 261-271—Halleck, I. pp. 371-379—Taylor, §§ -326, 332-333—Moore, V. §§ 702-716—Ullmann, §§ 60 and 62—Bulmerincq -in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 710-720—Rivier, I. § 42—Calvo, III. §§ 1385-1420—Bonfils, -Nos. 753-761—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2114-2121—Fiore, -II. No. 1183—Martens, II. § 22—Bodin, "Les immunités consulaires" +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Phillimore, II. §§ 261-271—Halleck, I. pp. 371-379—Taylor, §§ +326, 332-333—Moore, V. §§ 702-716—Ullmann, §§ 60 and 62—Bulmerincq +in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 710-720—Rivier, I. § 42—Calvo, III. §§ 1385-1420—Bonfils, +Nos. 753-761—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. §§ 2114-2121—Fiore, +II. No. 1183—Martens, II. § 22—Bodin, "Les immunités consulaires" (1899)—Stowell, "Le Consul," pp. 137-185.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position.</p></div> -<p>§ 434. Like diplomatic envoys, consuls are simply +<p>§ 434. Like diplomatic envoys, consuls are simply objects of International Law. Such rights as they have are granted to them by Municipal Laws in compliance with rights of the appointing States according to @@ -25463,7 +25422,7 @@ can do so only through the diplomatic envoy, to whom they are subordinate.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys384">384</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_780_780" id="Footnote_780_780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_780_780"><span class="label">[780]</span></a> According to British and American practice a consul of a neutral Power accredited to the enemy State who embarks upon mercantile @@ -25474,7 +25433,7 @@ Indian Chief, 3 C. Rob. 12.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consular Privileges.</p></div> -<p>§ 435. From the undoubted official position of consuls +<p>§ 435. From the undoubted official position of consuls no universally recognised privileges of importance emanate as yet. Apart from the special protection due to consuls according to International Law, there is @@ -25492,7 +25451,7 @@ in the innumerable treaties between the several States in regard to consular privileges:</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_781_781" id="Footnote_781_781"></a><a href="#FNanchor_781_781"><span class="label">[781]</span></a> The Institute of International Law at its meeting at Venice -in 1896 adopted a <i>Règlement sur les immunités consulaires</i> comprising +in 1896 adopted a <i>Règlement sur les immunités consulaires</i> comprising twenty-one articles. See Annuaire, XV. p. 304.</p></div> <p>(1) A distinction is very often made between professional @@ -25538,27 +25497,27 @@ consular building and to hoist the national flag.<span class="pagenum"><a name=" <span class="smaller">TERMINATION OF CONSULAR OFFICE</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Moore, V. § 701—Ullmann, § 59—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, -III. p. 708—Rivier, I. § 41—Calvo, III. §§ 1382, 1383, 1450—Bonfils, No. -775—Fiore, II. No. 1187—Martens, II. § 21—Stowell "Le Consul," pp. +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 105—Moore, V. § 701—Ullmann, § 59—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, +III. p. 708—Rivier, I. § 41—Calvo, III. §§ 1382, 1383, 1450—Bonfils, No. +775—Fiore, II. No. 1187—Martens, II. § 21—Stowell "Le Consul," pp. 217-222.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Undoubted Causes of Termination.</p></div> -<p>§ 436. <a name="De436" id="De436"></a>Death of the consul, withdrawal of the <i>exequatur</i>, +<p>§ 436. <a name="De436" id="De436"></a>Death of the consul, withdrawal of the <i>exequatur</i>, recall or dismissal, and, lastly, war between the appointing and the admitting State, are universally recognised causes of termination of the consular office. When a consul dies or war breaks out, the consular archives must not be touched by the local authorities. -They remain either under the care of an <i>employé</i> of the +They remain either under the care of an <i>employé</i> of the consulate, or a consul of another State takes charge of them until the successor of the deceased arrives or peace is concluded.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Doubtful Causes of Termination.</p></div> -<p>§ 437. It is not certain in practice whether the office +<p>§ 437. It is not certain in practice whether the office of a consul terminates when his district, through cession, conquest followed by annexation, or revolt, becomes the property of another State. The question ought to @@ -25577,7 +25536,7 @@ legally correct.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Change in the Headship of States not Cause of Termination.</p></div> -<p>§ 438. <a name="It_is_universally438" id="It_is_universally438"></a>It is universally recognised that, in contradistinction +<p>§ 438. <a name="It_is_universally438" id="It_is_universally438"></a>It is universally recognised that, in contradistinction to a diplomatic mission, the consular office does not come to an end through a change in the headship of the appointing or the admitting State. Neither<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span> @@ -25594,30 +25553,30 @@ turns into a republic, or in any like case.</p> <p class="indh1">Tarring, "British Consular Jurisdiction in the East" (1887)—Hall, -"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 64-85—Halleck, I. pp. 385-398—Phillimore, -II. §§ 272-277—Taylor, §§ 331-333—Twiss, I. § 136—Wheaton, -§ 110—Ullmann, §§ 63-65—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 720-738—Rivier, -I. § 43—Nys, II. pp. 400-414—Calvo, III. §§ 1431-1449—Bonfils, -Nos. 776-791—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. 2122-2138—Mérignhac, II. -pp. 338-351—Martens, II. §§ 24-26—Martens, "Konsularwesen und +"Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction," §§ 64-85—Halleck, I. pp. 385-398—Phillimore, +II. §§ 272-277—Taylor, §§ 331-333—Twiss, I. § 136—Wheaton, +§ 110—Ullmann, §§ 63-65—Bulmerincq in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 720-738—Rivier, +I. § 43—Nys, II. pp. 400-414—Calvo, III. §§ 1431-1449—Bonfils, +Nos. 776-791—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. 2122-2138—Mérignhac, II. +pp. 338-351—Martens, II. §§ 24-26—Martens, "Konsularwesen und Konsularjurisdiction im Orient" (German translation from the Russian -original by Skerst, 1874)—Bruillat, "Étude historique et critique sur +original by Skerst, 1874)—Bruillat, "Étude historique et critique sur les juridictions consulaires" (1898)—Lippmann, "Die Konsularjurisdiction -im Orient" (1898)—Vergé, "Des consuls dans les pays +im Orient" (1898)—Vergé, "Des consuls dans les pays d'occident" (1903)—Hinckley, "American Consular Jurisdiction in the Orient" (1906)—Piggott, "Exterritoriality. The Law relating to Consular Jurisdiction, &c. in Oriental Countries" (new edition, 1907)—Mandelstam, "La justice ottomane dans ses rapports avec les -puissances étrangères" (1911), and in R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. 5 and 534, +puissances étrangères" (1911), and in R.G. XIV. (1907), pp. 5 and 534, and XV. (1908), pp. 329-384.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Consuls in non-Christian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 439. Fundamentally different from the regular +<p>§ 439. Fundamentally different from the regular position is that of consuls in non-Christian States, with the single exception of Japan. In the Christian countries of the West alone consuls have, as has been stated -before (§ 418), lost jurisdiction over the subjects of the +before (§ 418), lost jurisdiction over the subjects of the appointing States. In the Mohammedan States consuls not only retained their original jurisdiction, but the latter became by-and-by so extended through the so-called @@ -25638,7 +25597,7 @@ consuls in Christian States.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Consular Jurisdiction in non-Christian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 440. <a name="International_custom_and440" id="International_custom_and440"></a>International custom and treaties lay down +<p>§ 440. <a name="International_custom_and440" id="International_custom_and440"></a>International custom and treaties lay down the rule only that all the subjects of Christian States residing in non-Christian States shall remain under the jurisdiction of the home State as exercised by their @@ -25658,14 +25617,14 @@ another Christian State, and which are therefore called mixed cases.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_782_782" id="Footnote_782_782"></a><a href="#FNanchor_782_782"><span class="label">[782]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_rule_that_aliens318">318</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_rule_that_aliens318">318</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_783_783" id="Footnote_783_783"></a><a href="#FNanchor_783_783"><span class="label">[783]</span></a> See Piggott, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Courts in Egypt.</p></div> -<p>§ 441. To overcome in some points the disadvantages +<p>§ 441. To overcome in some points the disadvantages of the consular jurisdiction, an interesting experiment is being made in Egypt. On the initiative of the Khedive, most of the Powers in 1875 agreed upon an @@ -25689,7 +25648,7 @@ Review</i>, XXIII. (1907), pp. 409-413.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Exceptional Character of Consuls in non-Christian States.</p></div> -<p>§ 442. There is no doubt that the present position +<p>§ 442. There is no doubt that the present position of consuls in non-Christian States is in every point an exceptional one, which does not agree with the principles of International Law otherwise universally recognised. @@ -25715,14 +25674,14 @@ have reached a certain level of civilisation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page <span class="smaller">ARMED FORCES ON FOREIGN TERRITORY</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 54, 56, 102—Lawrence, § 107—Halleck, I. pp. 477-479—Phillimore, -I. § 341—Taylor, § 131—Twiss, I. § 165—Wheaton, § 99—Moore, II. -§ 251—Westlake, I. p. 255—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 664-666—Rivier, -I. pp. 333-335—Calvo, III. § 1560—Fiore, I. Nos. 528-529.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 54, 56, 102—Lawrence, § 107—Halleck, I. pp. 477-479—Phillimore, +I. § 341—Taylor, § 131—Twiss, I. § 165—Wheaton, § 99—Moore, II. +§ 251—Westlake, I. p. 255—Stoerk in Holtzendorff, II. pp. 664-666—Rivier, +I. pp. 333-335—Calvo, III. § 1560—Fiore, I. Nos. 528-529.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Armed Forces State Organs.</p></div> -<p>§ 443. Armed forces are organs of the State which +<p>§ 443. Armed forces are organs of the State which maintains them, because such forces are created for the purpose of maintaining the independence, authority, and safety of the State. And in this respect it matters @@ -25738,7 +25697,7 @@ no longer an organ of its State.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occasions for Armed Forces abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 444. Besides war, there are several occasions for +<p>§ 444. Besides war, there are several occasions for armed forces to be on foreign territory in the service of their home State. Thus, a State may have a right to keep troops in a foreign fortress or to send troops @@ -25756,12 +25715,12 @@ commit acts of violence there, such as the British did in the case of the <i>Caroline</i>.<a name="FNanchor_785_785" id="FNanchor_785_785"></a><a href="#Footnote_785_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_785_785" id="Footnote_785_785"></a><a href="#FNanchor_785_785"><span class="label">[785]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1837_during_the_Canadian133">133</a>, and - below, § <a href="#An_excellent_example446">446</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_1837_during_the_Canadian133">133</a>, and + below, § <a href="#An_excellent_example446">446</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Armed Forces abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 445. <a name="Wh445" id="Wh445"></a>Whenever armed forces are on foreign territory +<p>§ 445. <a name="Wh445" id="Wh445"></a>Whenever armed forces are on foreign territory in the service of their home State, they are considered exterritorial and remain, therefore, under the jurisdiction of the latter. A crime committed on foreign @@ -25784,7 +25743,7 @@ Strafrecht" (1892), p. 351), and Rivier (I. p. 333).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Case of McLeod.</p></div> -<p>§ 446. <a name="An_excellent_example446" id="An_excellent_example446"></a>An excellent example of the position of armed +<p>§ 446. <a name="An_excellent_example446" id="An_excellent_example446"></a>An excellent example of the position of armed forces abroad is furnished by the case of McLeod,<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> which occurred in 1841. Alexander McLeod, who was a member of the British force sent by the Canadian @@ -25814,11 +25773,11 @@ not ... to be holden personally responsible in the ordinary tribunals for their participation in it."</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a> See - Wharton, I. § 21, and Moore, II. § 179.</p></div> + Wharton, I. § 21, and Moore, II. § 179.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Casa Blanca Incident.</p></div> -<p>§ 446<i>a</i>. <a name="Another_interesting446a" id="Another_interesting446a"></a>Another interesting example is the Casa +<p>§ 446<i>a</i>. <a name="Another_interesting446a" id="Another_interesting446a"></a>Another interesting example is the Casa Blanca incident. On September 25, 1908, six soldiers—three of them Germans—belonging to the French Foreign Legion which formed part of the French troops @@ -25901,17 +25860,17 @@ arbitral decision. See A.J. III. (1909), pp. 698-701.</p></div> <span>MEN-OF-WAR IN FOREIGN WATERS</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 54-55—Halleck, I. pp. 215-230—Lawrence, §§ 107-109—Phillimore, -II. §§ 344-350—Westlake, pp. 256-259—Taylor, § 261—Moore, II. §§ -252-256—Twiss, I. § 165—Wheaton, § 100—Bluntschli, § 321—Stoerk in -Holtzendorff, II. pp. 434 and 446—Perels, §§ 11, 14, 15—Heilborn, -"System," pp. 248-279—Rivier, I. pp. 333-335—Bonfils, Nos. 614-623—Mérignhac, -II. pp. 554-564—Calvo, III. §§ 1550-1559—Fiore, I. Nos. +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 54-55—Halleck, I. pp. 215-230—Lawrence, §§ 107-109—Phillimore, +II. §§ 344-350—Westlake, pp. 256-259—Taylor, § 261—Moore, II. §§ +252-256—Twiss, I. § 165—Wheaton, § 100—Bluntschli, § 321—Stoerk in +Holtzendorff, II. pp. 434 and 446—Perels, §§ 11, 14, 15—Heilborn, +"System," pp. 248-279—Rivier, I. pp. 333-335—Bonfils, Nos. 614-623—Mérignhac, +II. pp. 554-564—Calvo, III. §§ 1550-1559—Fiore, I. Nos. 547-550—Testa, p. 86—Jordan, R.I. 2nd Ser. X. (1908), p. 343.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Men-of-war State Organs.</p></div> -<p>§ 447. <a name="Men-of-war_are_State_organs447" id="Men-of-war_are_State_organs447"></a>Men-of-war are State organs just as armed +<p>§ 447. <a name="Men-of-war_are_State_organs447" id="Men-of-war_are_State_organs447"></a>Men-of-war are State organs just as armed forces are, a man-of-war being in fact a part of the armed forces of a State. And respecting their character as State organs, it matters nought whether men-of-war @@ -25934,7 +25893,7 @@ treated as though they were men-of-war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Proof of Character as Men-of-war.</p></div> -<p>§ 448. The character of a man-of-war or of any +<p>§ 448. The character of a man-of-war or of any other vessel treated as a man-of-war is, in the first instance, proved by their outward appearance, such vessels flying the war flag and the pennant of their @@ -25974,7 +25933,7 @@ as men-of-war.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occasions for Men-of-war abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 449. <a name="Whereas_armed_forces449" id="Whereas_armed_forces449"></a>Whereas armed forces in time of peace have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span> +<p>§ 449. <a name="Whereas_armed_forces449" id="Whereas_armed_forces449"></a>Whereas armed forces in time of peace have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span> no occasion to be abroad, cases of a special right from a convention and cases of necessity excepted, men-of-war of all maritime States possessing a navy are constantly @@ -26005,12 +25964,12 @@ these conditions do not deny to men-of-war their universally recognised privileges.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_792_792" id="Footnote_792_792"></a><a href="#FNanchor_792_792"><span class="label">[792]</span></a> The matter is controversial. See - above, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>, and -Westlake, I. p. 192, in contradistinction to Hall, § 42.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_the_maritime188">188</a>, and +Westlake, I. p. 192, in contradistinction to Hall, § 42.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Men-of-war in foreign waters.</p></div> -<p>§ 450. <a name="Th450" id="Th450"></a>The position of men-of-war in foreign waters +<p>§ 450. <a name="Th450" id="Th450"></a>The position of men-of-war in foreign waters is characterised by the fact that they are called "floating" portions of the flag-State. For at the present time a customary rule of International Law is universally @@ -26038,8 +25997,8 @@ means of diplomacy from the home State.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_793_793" id="Footnote_793_793"></a><a href="#FNanchor_793_793"><span class="label">[793]</span></a> This rule became universally recognised during the nineteenth century only. On the change of doctrines formerly held in -this country and the United States of America, see Hall, § 54, and -Lawrence, § 107. English and American Courts now recognise the +this country and the United States of America, see Hall, § 54, and +Lawrence, § 107. English and American Courts now recognise the exterritoriality of foreign public vessels. Thus, in the case of the <i>Exchange</i> (7 Cranch, 116), the Supreme Court of the United States recognised the fact that the latter had no jurisdiction over this French @@ -26069,15 +26028,15 @@ littoral State. Only such measures are allowed against her as are necessary to prevent her from further acts of violence.<a name="FNanchor_794_794" id="FNanchor_794_794"></a><a href="#Footnote_794_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_794_794" id="Footnote_794_794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_794_794"><span class="label">[794]</span></a> Attention ought to be drawn to the "<i>Règlement sur le -régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans les ports -étrangers</i>," adopted by the Institute of International Law, in 1898, at +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_794_794" id="Footnote_794_794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_794_794"><span class="label">[794]</span></a> Attention ought to be drawn to the "<i>Règlement sur le +régime légal des navires et de leurs équipages dans les ports +étrangers</i>," adopted by the Institute of International Law, in 1898, at its meeting at the Hague of which articles 8-24 deal with men-of-war in foreign waters; see Annuaire, XVII. (1898), pp. 275-280.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Position of Crew when on Land abroad.</p></div> -<p>§ 451. Of some importance is the unsettled question +<p>§ 451. Of some importance is the unsettled question respecting the position of the commander and the crew of a man-of-war in foreign ports when they are on land.</p> @@ -26097,7 +26056,7 @@ territorial supremacy of the littoral State like any other foreigners, and they may be punished for crimes committed ashore.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a> So also Moore, II. § 256.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a> So also Moore, II. § 256.</p></div> <p>There are, however, a number of publicists<a name="FNanchor_796_796" id="FNanchor_796_796"></a><a href="#Footnote_796_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> who do not make this distinction, and who maintain that commanders @@ -26105,9 +26064,9 @@ or members of the crew whilst ashore are in every case under the local jurisdiction.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a> See, - for instance, Hall, § 55; Phillimore, I. § 346; Testa, -p. 109. See also art. 18 of the "<i>Règlement sur les régime légal des -navires et de leurs équipages dans les ports étrangers</i>," adopted by the + for instance, Hall, § 55; Phillimore, I. § 346; Testa, +p. 109. See also art. 18 of the "<i>Règlement sur les régime légal des +navires et de leurs équipages dans les ports étrangers</i>," adopted by the Institute of International Law, in 1898, at its meeting at the Hague (Annuaire, XVII. (1898), p. 278).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span></p></div> @@ -26118,14 +26077,14 @@ Institute of International Law, in 1898, at its meeting at the Hague </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 103-104*—Moore, IV. § 623—Bluntschli, §§ 241-243—Ullmann, §§ -66-67—Heffter, § 222—Rivier, I. § 44—Calvo, III. §§ 1337-1339—Fiore, -II. Nos. 1188-1191—Martens, II. § 5—Adler, "Die Spionage" (1906), pp. +<p class="indh1">Hall, §§ 103-104*—Moore, IV. § 623—Bluntschli, §§ 241-243—Ullmann, §§ +66-67—Heffter, § 222—Rivier, I. § 44—Calvo, III. §§ 1337-1339—Fiore, +II. Nos. 1188-1191—Martens, II. § 5—Adler, "Die Spionage" (1906), pp. 63-92.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Agents lacking diplomatic or consular character.</p></div> -<p>§ 452. Besides diplomatic envoys and consuls, States +<p>§ 452. Besides diplomatic envoys and consuls, States may and do send various kinds of agents abroad—namely, public political agents, secret political agents, spies, commissaries, bearers of despatches. Their position @@ -26135,7 +26094,7 @@ treated.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Public Political Agents.</p></div> -<p>§ 453. Public political agents are agents sent by one +<p>§ 453. Public political agents are agents sent by one Power to another for political negotiations of different kinds. They may be sent for a permanency or for a limited time only. As they are not invested with diplomatic @@ -26160,17 +26119,17 @@ granted to such agents seem to have grown up in practice. Inviolability of their persons and official papers ought to be granted to them.<a name="FNanchor_798_798" id="FNanchor_798_798"></a><a href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_797_797" id="Footnote_797_797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_797_797"><span class="label">[797]</span></a> Heffter, § 222, is, as far as I know, the only publicist +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_797_797" id="Footnote_797_797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_797_797"><span class="label">[797]</span></a> Heffter, § 222, is, as far as I know, the only publicist who maintains that agents not invested with diplomatic character must nevertheless be granted the privileges of diplomatic envoys.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> Ullmann, § 66, and Rivier, I. § 40, maintain that they +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a> Ullmann, § 66, and Rivier, I. § 40, maintain that they <i>must</i> be granted the privilege of inviolability to the same extent as diplomatic envoys.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Secret Political Agents.</p></div> -<p>§ 454. Secret political agents may be sent for the +<p>§ 454. Secret political agents may be sent for the same purposes as public political agents. But two kinds of secret political agents must be distinguished. An agent may be secretly sent to another Power with @@ -26200,7 +26159,7 @@ authorities will not interfere.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Spies.</p></div> -<p>§ 455. Spies are secret agents of a State sent abroad<a name="FNanchor_799_799" id="FNanchor_799_799"></a><a href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> +<p>§ 455. Spies are secret agents of a State sent abroad<a name="FNanchor_799_799" id="FNanchor_799_799"></a><a href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a> for the purpose of obtaining clandestinely information<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span> in regard to military or political secrets. Although all States constantly or occasionally send spies abroad, and @@ -26218,12 +26177,12 @@ hand, will never interfere, since it cannot officially confess to having commissioned a spy.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_799_799" id="Footnote_799_799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_799_799"><span class="label">[799]</span></a> Concerning spies in time of war, see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#War_cannot_be159">vol. II. §§ 159</a> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#War_cannot_be159">vol. II. §§ 159</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Es">210</a>, and Adler, "Die Spionage" (1906), pp. 7-62.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commissaries.</p></div> -<p>§ 456. Commissaries are agents sent with a letter +<p>§ 456. Commissaries are agents sent with a letter of recommendation or commission by one State to another for negotiations, not of a political but of a technical or administrative character only. Such commissaries @@ -26235,23 +26194,23 @@ certain privileges to such commissaries has not grown up, but inviolability of their persons and official papers ought to be granted to them, as they are officially sent and received for official purposes. Thus Germany, -in 1887, in the case of the French officer of police Schnaebélé, +in 1887, in the case of the French officer of police Schnaebélé, who was invited by local German functionaries to cross the German frontier for official purposes and then arrested, recognised the rule that a safe-conduct is tacitly granted to foreign officials when they enter officially the territory of a State with the consent of -the local authorities, although Schnaebélé was not a +the local authorities, although Schnaebélé was not a commissary sent by his Government to the German Government.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Bearers of Despatches.</p></div> -<p>§ 457. <a name="In457" id="In457"></a>Individuals commissioned to carry official<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> +<p>§ 457. <a name="In457" id="In457"></a>Individuals commissioned to carry official<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> despatches from a State to its head or to diplomatic envoys abroad are agents of such State. Despatch-bearers who belong to the retinue of diplomatic envoys -as their couriers must enjoy, as stated above (§ 405), +as their couriers must enjoy, as stated above (§ 405), exemption from civil and criminal jurisdiction and a special protection in the State to which the envoy is accredited, and a right of innocent passage through @@ -26273,12 +26232,12 @@ is temporarily abroad and his Government at home.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. pp. 564-566—Ullmann, § 68—Gareis, §§ 51-52—Liszt, § 16—Moore, -IV. § 623.</p> +<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. pp. 564-566—Ullmann, § 68—Gareis, §§ 51-52—Liszt, § 16—Moore, +IV. § 623.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Permanent in Contradistinction to Temporary Commissions.</p></div> -<p>§ 458. A distinction must be made between temporary +<p>§ 458. A distinction must be made between temporary and permanent international commissions. The former consist of commissaries delegated by two or more States to arrange all kinds of non-political matters, @@ -26294,7 +26253,7 @@ interest of the foreign creditors of several States unable to pay the interest on their stocks; and, lastly, concerning bounties on sugar.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_800_800" id="Footnote_800_800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_800_800"><span class="label">[800]</span></a> The position of their members has been discussed above, § +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_800_800" id="Footnote_800_800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_800_800"><span class="label">[800]</span></a> The position of their members has been discussed above, § 456. Quite novel institutions are the International Commissions of Inquiry recommended by the Hague Peace Conferences of 1890 and 1907. Articles 9 to 36 of the Hague Convention for the peaceful adjustment of @@ -26304,7 +26263,7 @@ difference of opinion on matters of fact, the parties should institute an International Commission of Inquiry; this commission to present a report to the parties, which shall be limited to a statement of the facts. See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th5">vol. II. § 5</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th5">vol. II. § 5</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_801_801" id="Footnote_801_801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_801_801"><span class="label">[801]</span></a> Only such permanent commissions are mentioned in the text as have been instituted by the Powers in conference. There are, however, @@ -26336,11 +26295,11 @@ claimed these privileges, Great Britain refused to concede them.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a> See - Moore, IV. § 623, p. 428.</p></div> + Moore, IV. § 623, p. 428.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commissions in the interest of Navigation.</p></div> -<p>§ 459. Four international commissions have been +<p>§ 459. Four international commissions have been instituted in the interest of navigation—namely, two for the river Danube, one for the Congo river, and one for the Suez Canal.</p> @@ -26359,7 +26318,7 @@ competence of the European Danube Commission comprehends the Danube from Ibraila downwards to its mouth.<a name="FNanchor_803_803" id="FNanchor_803_803"></a><a href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> Details in Twiss, I. §§ 150-152.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a> Details in Twiss, I. §§ 150-152.</p></div> <p>2. The above-mentioned London Conference of 1883 has sanctioned regulations<a name="FNanchor_804_804" id="FNanchor_804_804"></a><a href="#Footnote_804_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a> in regard to the navigation @@ -26373,7 +26332,7 @@ Commission—one member from each.<a name="FNanchor_805_805" id="FNanchor_80 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_804_804" id="Footnote_804_804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_804_804"><span class="label">[804]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. IX. p. 394.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_805_805" id="Footnote_805_805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_805_805"><span class="label">[805]</span></a> Details in Twiss, § 152.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_805_805" id="Footnote_805_805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_805_805"><span class="label">[805]</span></a> Details in Twiss, § 152.</p></div> <p>3. The Powers represented at the Berlin Congo Conference of 1884 have sanctioned certain regulations @@ -26386,7 +26345,7 @@ represented by one member, is totally independent of the territorial Governments, and its members, offices, and archives enjoy the privilege of inviolability.<a name="FNanchor_806_806" id="FNanchor_806_806"></a><a href="#Footnote_806_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_806_806" id="Footnote_806_806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_806_806"><span class="label">[806]</span></a> Details in Calvo, I. § 334. According to Liszt, § 16, II. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_806_806" id="Footnote_806_806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_806_806"><span class="label">[806]</span></a> Details in Calvo, I. § 334. According to Liszt, § 16, II. 3, this Commission has never been appointed.</p></div> <p>4. By article 8 of the Treaty of Constantinople of @@ -26396,53 +26355,53 @@ execution of that treaty. The Commission consists of all the consuls of the signatory Powers in Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_807_807" id="FNanchor_807_807"></a><a href="#Footnote_807_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_807_807" id="Footnote_807_807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_807_807"><span class="label">[807]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_most_important183">183</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_most_important183">183</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commissions in the interest of Sanitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 460. Three international commissions in the interest +<p>§ 460. Three international commissions in the interest of sanitation are in existence. For the purpose of supervising the sanitary arrangements in connection with the navigation on the lower part of the Danube, the International Council of Sanitation was instituted -at Bucharest in 1881.<a name="FNanchor_808_808" id="FNanchor_808_808"></a><a href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> The <i>Conseil supérieur de santé</i> +at Bucharest in 1881.<a name="FNanchor_808_808" id="FNanchor_808_808"></a><a href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> The <i>Conseil supérieur de santé</i> at Constantinople has the task of supervising the arrangements concerning cholera and plague. The <i>Conseil sanitaire maritime et quarantenaire</i> at Alexandria has similar -tasks and is subject to the control of the <i>Conseil supérieur -de santé</i> at Constantinople.<a name="FNanchor_809_809" id="FNanchor_809_809"></a><a href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> As regards the International +tasks and is subject to the control of the <i>Conseil supérieur +de santé</i> at Constantinople.<a name="FNanchor_809_809" id="FNanchor_809_809"></a><a href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> As regards the International Health Office at Paris, see - below, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_organising6of590">590, No. 6</a>.</p> + below, § <a href="#For_the_purpose_of_organising6of590">590, No. 6</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a> See - article 6 of the <i>Acte additionnel à l'Acte public du 2 + article 6 of the <i>Acte additionnel à l'Acte public du 2 novembre 1865 pour la navigation des embouchures du Danube</i>, signed on May 28, 1881; Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. VIII. p. 207.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> Details in Liszt, § 16, III., where likewise information is +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a> Details in Liszt, § 16, III., where likewise information is to be found as regards the <i>Conseil sanitaire</i> at Tangiers, which consists of all the foreign envoys in Morocco.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commissions in the Interest of Foreign Creditors.</p></div> -<p>§ 461. Three international commissions in the interest +<p>§ 461. Three international commissions in the interest of foreign creditors are in existence—namely, in Turkey since 1878, in Egypt since 1880, and in Greece since 1897.<a name="FNanchor_810_810" id="FNanchor_810_810"></a><a href="#Footnote_810_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a> See Kaufmann, "Das internationale Recht der aegyptischen -Staatsschuld" (1891), and Murat, "Le contrôle international sur les -finances de l'Egypte, de la Grèce et de la Turquie" (1899).</p></div> +Staatsschuld" (1891), and Murat, "Le contrôle international sur les +finances de l'Egypte, de la Grèce et de la Turquie" (1899).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Permanent Commission concerning Sugar.</p></div> -<p>§ 462. <a name="According_to_article462" id="According_to_article462"></a>According to article 7 of the Brussels Convention +<p>§ 462. <a name="According_to_article462" id="According_to_article462"></a>According to article 7 of the Brussels Convention concerning bounties on sugar, a permanent commission was instituted in 1902 at Brussels.<a name="FNanchor_811_811" id="FNanchor_811_811"></a><a href="#Footnote_811_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_March3of585">585, No. 3</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_March3of585">585, No. 3</a>.</p></div> @@ -26452,13 +26411,13 @@ commission was instituted in 1902 at Brussels.<a name="FNanchor_811_811" id="FNa </h4> -<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. pp. 564-566—Nys, II. pp. 264-270—Ullmann, § 58—Liszt, § 17—Gareis, -§ 52—Descamps, "Les offices internationaux et leur avenir" +<p class="indh1">Rivier, I. pp. 564-566—Nys, II. pp. 264-270—Ullmann, § 58—Liszt, § 17—Gareis, +§ 52—Descamps, "Les offices internationaux et leur avenir" (1894).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Character of International Offices.</p></div> -<p>§ 463. During the second half of the nineteenth century +<p>§ 463. During the second half of the nineteenth century a great number of general treaties were entered into by a greater or lesser number of States for the purpose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span> of settling in common certain non-political matters. @@ -26474,27 +26433,27 @@ although an international office, has no relation to those here discussed.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_International_Bureau474">474</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_International_Bureau474">474</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Telegraph Offices.</p></div> -<p>§ 464. <a name="In_1868_the_international464" id="In_1868_the_international464"></a>In 1868 the international telegraph office +<p>§ 464. <a name="In_1868_the_international464" id="In_1868_the_international464"></a>In 1868 the international telegraph office of the International Telegraph Union was created at Berne. It is administered by four functionaries under the supervision of the Swiss Bundesrath. It edits the -<i>Journal Télégraphique</i> in French.<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> Connected with +<i>Journal Télégraphique</i> in French.<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> Connected with this office is, since 1906, the International Office for Radiotelegraphy.<a name="FNanchor_814_814" id="FNanchor_814_814"></a><a href="#Footnote_814_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_general_telegraphic2of582">582, No. 2</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_general_telegraphic2of582">582, No. 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_general_radio4of582">582, No. 4</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_general_radio4of582">582, No. 4</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Post Office.</p></div> -<p>§ 465. The pendant of the international telegraph +<p>§ 465. The pendant of the international telegraph office is the international post office of the Universal Postal Union created at Berne in 1874. It is administered by seven functionaries under the supervision @@ -26502,11 +26461,11 @@ of the Swiss Bundesrath, and edits a monthly, <i>L'Union Postale</i>, in French, German, and English.<a name="FNanchor_815_815" id="FNanchor_815_815"></a><a href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_815_815" id="Footnote_815_815"></a><a href="#FNanchor_815_815"><span class="label">[815]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Whereas_previously582">582</a>, No. 1.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Whereas_previously582">582</a>, No. 1.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Office of Weights and Measures.</p></div> -<p>§ 466. <a name="The_States_which_have466" id="The_States_which_have466"></a>The States which have introduced the metric +<p>§ 466. <a name="The_States_which_have466" id="The_States_which_have466"></a>The States which have introduced the metric system of weights and measures created in 1875 the international office of weights and measures in Paris. Of functionaries there are a director and several assistants. @@ -26515,12 +26474,12 @@ prototypes of the metre and kilogramme and the comparison of the national prototypes with the international.<a name="FNanchor_816_816" id="FNanchor_816_816"></a><a href="#Footnote_816_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_816_816" id="Footnote_816_816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_816_816"><span class="label">[816]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_the_interest_of1of588">588, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_the_interest_of1of588">588, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Office for the Protection of Works of Literature and Art and of Industrial Property.</p></div> -<p>§ 467. <a name="In_1883_an_International_Union467" id="In_1883_an_International_Union467"></a>In 1883 an International Union for the Protection +<p>§ 467. <a name="In_1883_an_International_Union467" id="In_1883_an_International_Union467"></a>In 1883 an International Union for the Protection of Industrial Property, and in 1886 an International Union for the Protection of Works of Literature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span> and Art, were created, with an international office in @@ -26529,12 +26488,12 @@ who edit a monthly, <i>Le Droit d'Auteur</i>, in French.<a name="FNanchor_817_817" id="FNanchor_817_817"></a><a href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#On_September584">584</a> + below, §§ <a href="#On_September584">584</a> and <a href="#On_March2of585">585, No. 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Pan-American Union.</p></div> -<p>§ 467<i>a</i>. <a name="The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a" id="The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a"></a>The first Pan-American Conference of 1889 +<p>§ 467<i>a</i>. <a name="The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a" id="The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a"></a>The first Pan-American Conference of 1889 created "The American International Bureau," which, since the fourth Conference of 1910, bears the name "The Pan-American Union." There are a director, an @@ -26542,22 +26501,22 @@ assistant director, and several secretaries. This office<a name="FNanchor_818_81 publishes a "Monthly Bulletin."</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_818_818" id="Footnote_818_818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_818_818"><span class="label">[818]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#The_first_Pan595">595</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#The_first_Pan595">595</a>.</p></div> -<div class="sidenote"><p>Maritime Office at Zanzibar, and Bureau Spécial at Brussels.</p></div> +<div class="sidenote"><p>Maritime Office at Zanzibar, and Bureau Spécial at Brussels.</p></div> -<p>§ 468. <a name="In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468" id="In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468"></a>In accordance with the General Act of the +<p>§ 468. <a name="In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468" id="In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468"></a>In accordance with the General Act of the Anti-Slavery Conference of Brussels, 1890, the International Maritime Office at Zanzibar and the "Bureau -Spécial" at Brussels were established; the latter is +Spécial" at Brussels were established; the latter is attached to the Belgian Foreign Office at Brussels.<a name="FNanchor_819_819" id="FNanchor_819_819"></a><a href="#Footnote_819_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_treaty_concerning_slave1of592">592, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_treaty_concerning_slave1of592">592, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Office of Customs Tariffs.</p></div> -<p>§ 469. <a name="The_International_Union469" id="The_International_Union469"></a>The International Union for the Publication +<p>§ 469. <a name="The_International_Union469" id="The_International_Union469"></a>The International Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs, concluded in 1890, has created an international office<a name="FNanchor_820_820" id="FNanchor_820_820"></a><a href="#Footnote_820_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a> at Brussels. There are a director, a secretary, and ten translators. The office edits the @@ -26565,11 +26524,11 @@ a secretary, and ten translators. The office edits the Italian, and Spanish.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_820_820" id="Footnote_820_820"></a><a href="#FNanchor_820_820"><span class="label">[820]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_July1of585">585, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_July1of585">585, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Central Office of International Transports.</p></div> -<p>§ 470. <a name="Nine_States470" id="Nine_States470"></a>Nine States—namely, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, +<p>§ 470. <a name="Nine_States470" id="Nine_States470"></a>Nine States—namely, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Luxemburg, Russia, Switzerland—entered in 1890 into an international convention in regard to transports and freights @@ -26577,11 +26536,11 @@ on railways and have created the "Office Central des Transports<a name="FNanchor_821_821" id="FNanchor_821_821"></a><a href="#Footnote_821_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a> Internationaux" at Berne.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#A_general_convent1of583">583, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#A_general_convent1of583">583, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Permanent Office of the Sugar Convention.</p></div> -<p>§ 471. <a name="The_States_which471" id="The_States_which471"></a>The States which concluded on March 5, +<p>§ 471. <a name="The_States_which471" id="The_States_which471"></a>The States which concluded on March 5, 1902, at Brussels the Convention concerning bounties on sugar<a name="FNanchor_822_822" id="FNanchor_822_822"></a><a href="#Footnote_822_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a> have, in compliance with article 7 of this Convention, instituted a permanent office at Brussels. @@ -26591,29 +26550,29 @@ collect, translate, and publish information of all kinds respecting legislation on and statistics of sugar.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_March3of585">585, No. 3.</a></p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_March3of585">585, No. 3.</a></p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#According_to_article462">462</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#According_to_article462">462</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Agricultural Institute.</p></div> -<p>§ 471<i>a</i>. <a name="In_1905_the_Agricultural471a" id="In_1905_the_Agricultural471a"></a>In 1905 the Agricultural Institute<a name="FNanchor_824_824" id="FNanchor_824_824"></a><a href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> was +<p>§ 471<i>a</i>. <a name="In_1905_the_Agricultural471a" id="In_1905_the_Agricultural471a"></a>In 1905 the Agricultural Institute<a name="FNanchor_824_824" id="FNanchor_824_824"></a><a href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> was established at Rome. It consists of a General Assembly and a Permanent Committee with a general secretary.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#On_June1of586">586, No. 1</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#On_June1of586">586, No. 1</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>International Health Office.</p></div> -<p>§ 471<i>b</i>. <a name="In_1907_the_International_Health471b" id="In_1907_the_International_Health471b"></a>In 1907 the International Health Office<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> +<p>§ 471<i>b</i>. <a name="In_1907_the_International_Health471b" id="In_1907_the_International_Health471b"></a>In 1907 the International Health Office<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> was established at Paris. It consists of a director, a general secretary, and a number of clerks. It publishes at least once a month a bulletin in French.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#In_the_interest590">590</a>, No. 6.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#In_the_interest590">590</a>, No. 6.</p></div> @@ -26624,11 +26583,11 @@ at least once a month a bulletin in French.</p> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 221—Bonfils, No. 970<span class="topnum">8</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 736-740.</p> +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 221—Bonfils, No. 970<span class="topnum">8</span>—Despagnet, Nos. 736-740.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Organisation of Court in general.</p></div> -<p>§ 472. <a name="In472" id="In472"></a>In compliance with articles 20 to 29 of the +<p>§ 472. <a name="In472" id="In472"></a>In compliance with articles 20 to 29 of the Hague Convention for the peaceful adjustment of international differences, the signatory Powers in 1900 organised the International Court of Arbitration at @@ -26645,13 +26604,13 @@ of 1907.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Permanent Council.</p></div> -<p>§ 473. The Permanent Council (article 49) consists +<p>§ 473. The Permanent Council (article 49) consists of the diplomatic envoys of the contracting Powers accredited to Holland and the Dutch Secretary for Foreign Affairs, who acts as president of the Council. The task of the Council is the control of the International<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span> Bureau of the Court, the appointment, suspension, -and dismissal of the <i>employés</i> of the bureau, +and dismissal of the <i>employés</i> of the bureau, the fixing of the payments and salaries, the control of the general expenditure, and the decision of all questions of administration with regard to the business of @@ -26665,7 +26624,7 @@ majority of votes.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The International Bureau.</p></div> -<p>§ 474. <a name="The_International_Bureau474" id="The_International_Bureau474"></a>The International Bureau (article 43) serves +<p>§ 474. <a name="The_International_Bureau474" id="The_International_Bureau474"></a>The International Bureau (article 43) serves as the Registry for the Court. It is the intermediary for communications relating to the meetings of the Court. It has the custody of the archives and the @@ -26686,11 +26645,11 @@ signatory Powers in the proportion established for the International Office of the International Postal Union.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_826_826" id="Footnote_826_826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_826_826"><span class="label">[826]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Ac20">vol. II. § 20</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Ac20">vol. II. § 20</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Court of Arbitration.</p></div> -<p>§ 475. The Court of Arbitration (article 44) consists +<p>§ 475. The Court of Arbitration (article 44) consists of a large number of individuals "of recognised competence in questions of International Law, enjoying the highest moral reputation," selected and appointed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span> @@ -26714,7 +26673,7 @@ members of the Court (article 42).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Deciding Tribunal.</p></div> -<p>§ 476. <a name="Th476" id="Th476"></a>The Court of Arbitration does not as a body +<p>§ 476. <a name="Th476" id="Th476"></a>The Court of Arbitration does not as a body decide the cases brought before it, but a tribunal is created for every special case by selection of a number of arbitrators from the list of the members of the Court. @@ -26756,7 +26715,7 @@ equal shares, and each party pays its own expenses <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_827_827" id="Footnote_827_827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_827_827"><span class="label">[827]</span></a> The procedure to be followed by and before the Tribunal is -described below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Wa27">vol. II. § 27</a>.</p></div> +described below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Wa27">vol. II. § 27</a>.</p></div> <p>The following nine awards have hitherto been given @@ -26806,13 +26765,13 @@ concerning the British-Indian Savarkar; see Martens, N.R.G. <span class="smaller">THE INTERNATIONAL PRIZE COURT AND THE PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 192—Despagnet, No. 683^{<i>bis</i>}—Scott, "The Hague Peace Conferences" +<p class="indh1">Lawrence, § 192—Despagnet, No. 683^{<i>bis</i>}—Scott, "The Hague Peace Conferences" (1909), pp. 465-511 and 423-464, and in A.J. V. (1911), pp. 302-324—Gregory in A.J. II. (1908), pp. 458-475.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The International Prize Court.</p></div> -<p>§ 476<i>a</i>. <a name="The_International_Prize476a" id="The_International_Prize476a"></a>The International Prize Court will be established +<p>§ 476<i>a</i>. <a name="The_International_Prize476a" id="The_International_Prize476a"></a>The International Prize Court will be established at the Hague according to Convention XII. of the second Hague Peace Conference of 1907. The following are the more important stipulations of this @@ -26880,7 +26839,7 @@ will be given below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047 <div class="sidenote"><p>The proposed International Court of Justice.</p></div> -<p>§ 476<i>b</i>. <a name="Va476b" id="Va476b"></a>Valuable as is the Permanent Court of Arbitration +<p>§ 476<i>b</i>. <a name="Va476b" id="Va476b"></a>Valuable as is the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague, it must be pointed out that it is not a real Court of Justice. For, firstly, it is not itself a deciding tribunal, but only a list of names out of @@ -26963,13 +26922,13 @@ value, being the first Court of its kind.</p></div> <span class="smaller">NEGOTIATION</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Heffter, §§ 234-239—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 668-676—Liszt, § 20—Ullmann, -§ 71—Bonfils, Nos. 792-795—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. -1354-1362—Rivier, II. § 45—Calvo, III. §§ 1316-1320, 1670-1673.</p> +<p class="indh1">Heffter, §§ 234-239—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 668-676—Liszt, § 20—Ullmann, +§ 71—Bonfils, Nos. 792-795—Pradier-Fodéré, III. Nos. +1354-1362—Rivier, II. § 45—Calvo, III. §§ 1316-1320, 1670-1673.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 477. <a name="In477" id="In477"></a>International negotiation is the term for such +<p>§ 477. <a name="In477" id="In477"></a>International negotiation is the term for such intercourse between two or more States as is initiated and directed for the purpose of effecting an understanding between them on matters of interest. Since @@ -26985,14 +26944,14 @@ kind of negotiation, although it will be specially discussed in another part of this work.<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_830_830" id="Footnote_830_830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_830_830"><span class="label">[830]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#International_transaction486">486</a>-490.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#International_transaction486">486</a>-490.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_831_831" id="Footnote_831_831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_831_831"><span class="label">[831]</span></a> See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th4">vol. II. §§ 4</a>-6.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Th4">vol. II. §§ 4</a>-6.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Parties to Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 478. <a name="International_negotiations478" id="International_negotiations478"></a>International negotiations can be conducted +<p>§ 478. <a name="International_negotiations478" id="International_negotiations478"></a>International negotiations can be conducted by all such States as have a standing within the Family of Nations. Full-Sovereign States are, therefore, the regular subjects of international negotiation. But it @@ -27010,7 +26969,7 @@ for a colonial State must be conducted by the mother-State to which it internationally belongs.<a name="FNanchor_833_833" id="FNanchor_833_833"></a><a href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Th91">91</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a> The demand on the part of many influential Canadian politicians, expressed after the verdict of the Arbitration Court in the @@ -27033,7 +26992,7 @@ like, are not international negotiations.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Purpose of Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 479. Negotiations between States may have various +<p>§ 479. Negotiations between States may have various purposes. The purpose may be an exchange of views only on some political question; but it may also be an arrangement as to the line of action to be taken @@ -27051,11 +27010,11 @@ or abolishing rules of International Law have been frequently and very successfully conducted.<a name="FNanchor_834_834" id="FNanchor_834_834"></a><a href="#Footnote_834_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#La555">555</a>-568<i>b</i>.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#La555">555</a>-568<i>b</i>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Negotiations by whom conducted.</p></div> -<p>§ 480. International negotiations are conducted by +<p>§ 480. International negotiations are conducted by the agents which represent the negotiating States. The heads of these States may conduct the negotiations in person, either by letters or by a personal interview. @@ -27076,18 +27035,18 @@ the help either of their diplomatic envoys or of agents without diplomatic character and so-called commissaries.<a name="FNanchor_837_837" id="FNanchor_837_837"></a><a href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Th495">495</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Th495">495</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Ambassadors_form_the_first365">365</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Ambassadors_form_the_first365">365</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a> Negotiations between armed forces of belligerents are regularly conducted by soldiers. See - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Al220">vol. II. §§ 220</a>-240.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Al220">vol. II. §§ 220</a>-240.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form of Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 481. The Law of Nations does not prescribe any +<p>§ 481. The Law of Nations does not prescribe any particular form in which international negotiations must be conducted. Such negotiations may, therefore, take place <i>viva voce</i> or through the exchange of @@ -27100,7 +27059,7 @@ Of the greatest importance are the negotiations which take place through congresses and conferences.<a name="FNanchor_838_838" id="FNanchor_838_838"></a><a href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_838_838" id="Footnote_838_838"></a><a href="#FNanchor_838_838"><span class="label">[838]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#International_congresses483">483</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#International_congresses483">483</a>.</p></div> <p>During <i>viva voce</i> negotiations it happens sometimes that a diplomatic envoy negotiating with the Secretary @@ -27118,11 +27077,11 @@ the British Foreign Office.<a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a> As regards the language used during negotiation, see - above, § <a href="#The_rise_of_permanent359">359</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_rise_of_permanent359">359</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>End and Effect of Negotiation.</p></div> -<p>§ 482. Negotiations may and often do come to an +<p>§ 482. Negotiations may and often do come to an end without any effect whatever on account of the parties failing to agree. On the other hand, if negotiations lead to an understanding, the effect may be twofold. @@ -27136,7 +27095,7 @@ Treaties are of such importance that it is necessary to discuss them in a special chapter.<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_840_840" id="Footnote_840_840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_840_840"><span class="label">[840]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#International_treaties491">491</a>-554.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span></p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#International_treaties491">491</a>-554.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span></p></div> @@ -27146,20 +27105,20 @@ discuss them in a special chapter.<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_84 </h4> -<p class="indh1">Phillimore, II. §§ 39-40—Twiss, II. § 8—Taylor, §§ 34-36—Bluntschli, § 12—Heffter, -§ 242—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 679-684—Ullmann, -§§ 71-72—Bonfils, Nos. 796-814—Despagnet, Nos. 478-482—Pradier-Fodéré, -VI. Nos. 2593-2599—Rivier, II. § 46—Nys, III. pp. 7-17—Calvo, -III. §§ 1674-1681—Fiore, II. Nos. 1216-1224, and Code, Nos. -1206-1245—Martens, I. § 52—Charles de Martens, "Guide diplomatique," -vol. I. § 58—Pradier-Fodéré, "Cours de droit diplomatique" (1881), vol. -II. pp. 372-424—Zaleski, "Die völkerrechtliche Bedeutung der Congresse" -(1874)—Nippold, "Die Fortbildung des Verfahrens in völkerrechtlichen +<p class="indh1">Phillimore, II. §§ 39-40—Twiss, II. § 8—Taylor, §§ 34-36—Bluntschli, § 12—Heffter, +§ 242—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 679-684—Ullmann, +§§ 71-72—Bonfils, Nos. 796-814—Despagnet, Nos. 478-482—Pradier-Fodéré, +VI. Nos. 2593-2599—Rivier, II. § 46—Nys, III. pp. 7-17—Calvo, +III. §§ 1674-1681—Fiore, II. Nos. 1216-1224, and Code, Nos. +1206-1245—Martens, I. § 52—Charles de Martens, "Guide diplomatique," +vol. I. § 58—Pradier-Fodéré, "Cours de droit diplomatique" (1881), vol. +II. pp. 372-424—Zaleski, "Die völkerrechtliche Bedeutung der Congresse" +(1874)—Nippold, "Die Fortbildung des Verfahrens in völkerrechtlichen Streitigkeiten" (1907), pp. 480-526.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Congresses and Conferences.</p></div> -<p>§ 483. <a name="International_congresses483" id="International_congresses483"></a>International congresses and conferences are +<p>§ 483. <a name="International_congresses483" id="International_congresses483"></a>International congresses and conferences are formal meetings of the representatives of several States for the purpose of discussing matters of international interest and coming to an agreement concerning these @@ -27181,7 +27140,7 @@ for the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and conferences.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a> See, - for instance, Martens, I. § 52; Fiore, II. §§ + for instance, Martens, I. § 52; Fiore, II. §§ 1216-1224, and Code, No. 1231.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span></p></div> <p>Much more important than the mere terminological @@ -27200,7 +27159,7 @@ of diplomatic representatives of the Powers.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Parties to Congresses and Conferences.</p></div> -<p>§ 484. Congresses and conferences not being organised +<p>§ 484. Congresses and conferences not being organised by customary or conventional International Law, no rules exist with regard to the parties of a congress or conference. Everything depends upon the purpose for @@ -27237,7 +27196,7 @@ frequently asked to send representatives to such congresses and conferences as meet for non-political matters.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#International_negotiations478">478</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#International_negotiations478">478</a>.</p></div> <p>But no State can be a party which has not been invited, or admitted at its own request. If a Power @@ -27253,7 +27212,7 @@ for himself and his subordinates.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Procedure at Congresses and Conferences.</p></div> -<p>§ 485. After the place and time of meeting have +<p>§ 485. After the place and time of meeting have been arranged—such place may be neutralised for the purpose of securing the independence of the deliberations and discussions—the representatives meet and @@ -27295,21 +27254,21 @@ delegate was elected president.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Bluntschli, § 84—Hartmann, § 91; Gareis, § 77—Liszt, § 20.</p> +<p class="indh1">Bluntschli, § 84—Hartmann, § 91; Gareis, § 77—Liszt, § 20.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Transaction.</p></div> -<p>§ 486. <a name="International_transaction486" id="International_transaction486"></a>International transaction is the term for +<p>§ 486. <a name="International_transaction486" id="International_transaction486"></a>International transaction is the term for every act on the part of a State in its intercourse with other States. Besides negotiation, which has been -discussed above in §§ 477-482, there are eleven other +discussed above in §§ 477-482, there are eleven other kinds of international transactions which are of legal importance—namely, declaration, notification, protest, renunciation, recognition, intervention, retorsion, reprisals, pacific blockade, war, and subjugation. Recognition -has already been discussed above in §§ 71-75, -as has also intervention in §§ 134-138, and, further, -subjugation in §§ 236-241. Retorsion, reprisals, pacific +has already been discussed above in §§ 71-75, +as has also intervention in §§ 134-138, and, further, +subjugation in §§ 236-241. Retorsion, reprisals, pacific blockade, and war will be treated in the second volume of this work. There are, therefore, here to be discussed only the remaining four transactions—namely, declaration, @@ -27317,7 +27276,7 @@ notification, protest, and renunciation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Declaration.</p></div> -<p>§ 487. <a name="The_term487" id="The_term487"></a>The term "declaration" is used in three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span> +<p>§ 487. <a name="The_term487" id="The_term487"></a>The term "declaration" is used in three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span> different meanings. It is, first, sometimes used as the title of a body of stipulations of a treaty according to which the parties engage themselves to pursue in future @@ -27345,13 +27304,13 @@ the part of third States that they will remain neutral, and others.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#International_compacts508">508</a>, where is mentioned the attempt of the + below, § <a href="#International_compacts508">508</a>, where is mentioned the attempt of the British Foreign Office to give to the term "declaration" a specific meaning.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Notification.</p></div> -<p>§ 488. Notification is the technical term for the +<p>§ 488. Notification is the technical term for the communication to other States of the knowledge of certain facts and events of legal importance. But a distinction must be drawn between obligatory and @@ -27392,7 +27351,7 @@ of a new Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and the like.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protest.</p></div> -<p>§ 489. Protest is a formal communication on the +<p>§ 489. Protest is a formal communication on the part of a State to another that it objects to an act performed or contemplated by the latter. A protest serves the purpose of preservation of rights, or of @@ -27421,14 +27380,14 @@ had raised against the introduction of the Customs tariff established at Madagascar after the annexation to France.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_847_847" id="Footnote_847_847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_847_847"><span class="label">[847]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>, + below, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>, concerning the withdrawal of Russia from article 59 of the Treaty of Berlin, 1878, stipulating the freedom of the port of Batoum.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Renunciation.</p></div> -<p>§ 490. Renunciation is the deliberate abandonment +<p>§ 490. Renunciation is the deliberate abandonment of rights. It can be given <i>expressis verbis</i> or tacitly. If, for instance, a State by occupation takes possession of an island which has previously been occupied by @@ -27444,7 +27403,7 @@ only when a State remains silent, although a protest is necessary to preserve a claim.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Dereliction_as_a_mode247">247</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#Dereliction_as_a_mode247">247</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span></p></div> @@ -27458,20 +27417,20 @@ necessary to preserve a claim.</p> <span class="smaller">CHARACTER AND FUNCTION OF TREATIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 152, 153, 157, 163—Hall, § 107—Phillimore, II. § 44—Twiss, I. -§§ 224-233—Taylor, §§ 341-342—Bluntschli, § 402—Heffter, § 81—Despagnet, -Nos. 435-436—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 888-919—Rivier, II. -pp. 33-40—Nys, III. pp. 18-20 and 43-48—Calvo, III. §§ 1567-1584—Fiore, -II. Nos. 976-982—Martens, I. § 103—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge -und Gesetze als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877)—Jellinek, "Die -rechtliche Natur der Staatenverträge" (1880)—Laghi, "Teoria dei +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 152, 153, 157, 163—Hall, § 107—Phillimore, II. § 44—Twiss, I. +§§ 224-233—Taylor, §§ 341-342—Bluntschli, § 402—Heffter, § 81—Despagnet, +Nos. 435-436—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 888-919—Rivier, II. +pp. 33-40—Nys, III. pp. 18-20 and 43-48—Calvo, III. §§ 1567-1584—Fiore, +II. Nos. 976-982—Martens, I. § 103—Bergbohm, "Staatsverträge +und Gesetze als Quellen des Völkerrechts" (1877)—Jellinek, "Die +rechtliche Natur der Staatenverträge" (1880)—Laghi, "Teoria dei trattati internazionali" (1882)—Buonamici, "Dei trattati internazionali" -(1888)—Nippold, "Der völkerrechtliche Vertrag" (1894)—Triepel, -"Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899), pp. 27-90.</p> +(1888)—Nippold, "Der völkerrechtliche Vertrag" (1894)—Triepel, +"Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899), pp. 27-90.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 491. <a name="International_treaties491" id="International_treaties491"></a>International treaties are conventions or contracts +<p>§ 491. <a name="International_treaties491" id="International_treaties491"></a>International treaties are conventions or contracts between two or more States concerning various matters of interest. Even before a Law of Nations in the modern sense of the term was in existence, treaties @@ -27487,7 +27446,7 @@ they do now.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 492. <a name="These_important_functions492" id="These_important_functions492"></a>These important functions are manifest if +<p>§ 492. <a name="These_important_functions492" id="These_important_functions492"></a>These important functions are manifest if attention is given to the variety of international treaties which exist nowadays and are day by day concluded for innumerable purposes. In regard to State property,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span> @@ -27507,7 +27466,7 @@ Again, various purposes are served by treaties concerning warfare, mediation, arbitration, and so on.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_849_849" id="Footnote_849_849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_849_849"><span class="label">[849]</span></a> See - below, §§ <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a>-<a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a>-<a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>.</p></div> <p>I do not intend to discuss the question of classification of the different kinds of treaties, for hitherto @@ -27522,19 +27481,19 @@ Law of Nations. Treaties of this kind ought to be termed <i>law-making</i> treaties. On the other hand, treaties may be concluded for all kinds of other purposes. Law-making treaties as a source of rules of -International Law have been discussed above (§ <a href="#Treaties_are18">18</a>); +International Law have been discussed above (§ <a href="#Treaties_are18">18</a>); the most important of these treaties will be considered -below (§§ <a href="#The_Final_Act556">556</a>-568<i>b</i>).</p> +below (§§ <a href="#The_Final_Act556">556</a>-568<i>b</i>).</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_850_850" id="Footnote_850_850"></a><a href="#FNanchor_850_850"><span class="label">[850]</span></a> Since the time of Grotius the science of the Law of Nations has not ceased attempting a satisfactory classification of the different -kinds of treaties. See Heffter, §§ 88-91; Bluntschli, §§ 442-445; -Martens, I. § 113; Ullmann, § 82; Wheaton, § 268 (following Vattel, II. -§ 169); Rivier, II. pp. 106-118; Westlake, I. p. 283, and many others.</p></div> +kinds of treaties. See Heffter, §§ 88-91; Bluntschli, §§ 442-445; +Martens, I. § 113; Ullmann, § 82; Wheaton, § 268 (following Vattel, II. +§ 169); Rivier, II. pp. 106-118; Westlake, I. p. 283, and many others.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Binding Force of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 493. <a name="The_question_as_to493" id="The_question_as_to493"></a>The question as to the reason of the binding +<p>§ 493. <a name="The_question_as_to493" id="The_question_as_to493"></a>The question as to the reason of the binding force of international treaties always was, and still is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span> very much disputed. That all those publicists who deny the legal character of the Law of Nations deny @@ -27558,12 +27517,12 @@ that the question can satisfactorily be dealt with only by dividing it into several different questions and by answering those questions <i>seriatim</i>.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> So Hall, § 107; Jellinek, "Staatenverträge," p. 31; -Nippold, § 11.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a> So Hall, § 107; Jellinek, "Staatenverträge," p. 31; +Nippold, § 11.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> So Triepel, "Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899), p. 82.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a> So Triepel, "Völkerrecht und Landesrecht" (1899), p. 82.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> So Bluntschli, § 410.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a> So Bluntschli, § 410.</p></div> <p>First, the question is to be answered why treaties are legally binding. The answer must categorically be @@ -27596,7 +27555,7 @@ binding force because there is no judicial authority for the enforcement of their stipulations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#On_the_basis_of5">5</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#On_the_basis_of5">5</a>.</p></div> <h4> @@ -27605,18 +27564,18 @@ the enforcement of their stipulations.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 154-156, 206-212—Hall, § 108—Westlake, I. p. 279—Phillimore, -II. §§ 48-49—Halleck, I. pp. 275-278—Taylor, §§ 361-365—Wheaton, -§§ 265-267—Moore, V. §§ 734-737—Bluntschli, §§ 403-409—Heffter, §§ -84-85—Ullmann, § 75—Bonfils, No. 818—Despagnet, No. 446—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 154-156, 206-212—Hall, § 108—Westlake, I. p. 279—Phillimore, +II. §§ 48-49—Halleck, I. pp. 275-278—Taylor, §§ 361-365—Wheaton, +§§ 265-267—Moore, V. §§ 734-737—Bluntschli, §§ 403-409—Heffter, §§ +84-85—Ullmann, § 75—Bonfils, No. 818—Despagnet, No. 446—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1058-1068—Rivier, II. pp. 45-48—Nys, III. pp. 20-24—Calvo, -III. §§ 1616-1618—Fiore, II. Nos. 984-1000, and Code, Nos. 743-749—Martens, -I. § 104—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 104-112—Schoen in Z.V. V. +III. §§ 1616-1618—Fiore, II. Nos. 984-1000, and Code, Nos. 743-749—Martens, +I. § 104—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 104-112—Schoen in Z.V. V. (1911), pp. 400-431.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Treaty-making Power.</p></div> -<p>§ 494. The so-called right of making treaties is not +<p>§ 494. The so-called right of making treaties is not a right of a State in the technical meaning of the term, but a mere competence attaching to sovereignty. A State possesses, therefore, treating-making power only @@ -27654,7 +27613,7 @@ States.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty-making Power exercised by Heads of States.</p></div> -<p>§ 495. <a name="Th495" id="Th495"></a>The treaty-making power of all States is +<p>§ 495. <a name="Th495" id="Th495"></a>The treaty-making power of all States is exercised by their heads, either personally or through representatives appointed by these heads. The Holy Alliance of Paris, 1815, was personally concluded by @@ -27686,11 +27645,11 @@ If nowadays representatives exceed their powers, their States can simply refuse ratification of the <i>sponsio</i>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Ratification_is_the_term510">510</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Ratification_is_the_term510">510</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Minor Functionaries exercising Treaty-making Power.</p></div> -<p>§ 496. <a name="For_some_non-political496" id="For_some_non-political496"></a>For some non-political purposes of minor +<p>§ 496. <a name="For_some_non-political496" id="For_some_non-political496"></a>For some non-political purposes of minor importance, certain minor functionaries are recognised as competent to exercise the treaty-making power of their States. Such functionaries are <i>ipso facto</i> by their @@ -27709,7 +27668,7 @@ powers.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Constitutional Restrictions.</p></div> -<p>§ 497. <a name="Al497" id="Al497"></a>Although the heads of States are regularly, +<p>§ 497. <a name="Al497" id="Al497"></a>Although the heads of States are regularly, according to the Law of Nations, the organs that exercise the treaty-making power of the States, constitutional restrictions imposed upon the heads concerning @@ -27746,7 +27705,7 @@ Nippold, op. cit. pp. 127-164; see also Schoen, loc. cit.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mutual Consent of the Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 498. A treaty being a convention, mutual consent +<p>§ 498. A treaty being a convention, mutual consent of the parties is necessary. Mere proposals made by one party and not accepted by the other are, therefore, not binding upon the proposer. Without force are @@ -27773,7 +27732,7 @@ points by a treaty, whereas the former does not.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Freedom of Action of consenting Representatives.</p></div> -<p>§ 499. As a treaty will lack binding force without +<p>§ 499. As a treaty will lack binding force without real consent, absolute freedom of action on the part of the contracting parties is required. It must, however, be understood that circumstances of urgent distress, @@ -27801,11 +27760,11 @@ necessity in shaking off such obligations, but this does not alter the fact that such action is a breach of law.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a> See - examples in Moore, V. § 742.</p></div> + examples in Moore, V. § 742.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Delusion and Error in Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 500. <a name="Although_a_treaty500" id="Although_a_treaty500"></a>Although a treaty was concluded with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span> +<p>§ 500. <a name="Although_a_treaty500" id="Although_a_treaty500"></a>Although a treaty was concluded with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span> real consent of the parties, it is nevertheless not binding if the consent was given in error, or under a delusion produced by a fraud of the other contracting @@ -27823,17 +27782,17 @@ which prevent the treaty from being binding.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 160-162, 166—Hall, § 108—Phillimore, II. § 51—Walker, § 30—Bluntschli, -§§ 410-416—Heffter, § 83—Ullmann, § 97—Bonfils, No. 819—Despagnet, -No. 445—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1080-1083—Mérignhac, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 160-162, 166—Hall, § 108—Phillimore, II. § 51—Walker, § 30—Bluntschli, +§§ 410-416—Heffter, § 83—Ullmann, § 97—Bonfils, No. 819—Despagnet, +No. 445—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1080-1083—Mérignhac, II. p. 640—Rivier, II. pp. 57-63—Nys, III. p. 24—Fiore, II. Nos. 1001-1004, -and Code, Nos. 755-758—Martens, I. § 110—Jellinek, "Die -rechtliche Natur der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 59-60—Nippold, op. cit. +and Code, Nos. 755-758—Martens, I. § 110—Jellinek, "Die +rechtliche Natur der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 59-60—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 181-190.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Objects in general of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 501. The object of treaties is always an obligation, +<p>§ 501. The object of treaties is always an obligation, whether mutual between all the parties or unilateral on the part of one only. Speaking generally, the object of treaties can be an obligation concerning any matter @@ -27849,11 +27808,11 @@ beginning null and void.<a name="FNanchor_861_861" id="FNanchor_861_861"></a><a <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a> The voidance <i>ab origine</i> of these treaties must not be confounded with voidance of such treaties as are valid in their inception, but become afterwards void on some ground or other; see - below, §§ <a href="#All_treaties541">541</a>-544.</p></div> + below, §§ <a href="#All_treaties541">541</a>-544.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Obligations of Contracting Parties only can be Object.</p></div> -<p>§ 502. Obligations to be performed by a State other +<p>§ 502. Obligations to be performed by a State other than a contracting party cannot be the object of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span> treaty. A treaty stipulating such an obligation would be null and void. But this must not be confounded with @@ -27866,7 +27825,7 @@ States, and the treaty is therefore valid and binding.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>An Obligation inconsistent with other Obligations cannot be an Object.</p></div> -<p>§ 503. Such obligation as is inconsistent with obligations +<p>§ 503. Such obligation as is inconsistent with obligations under treaties previously concluded by one State with another cannot be the object of a treaty with a third State. Thus, in 1878, when after the war Russia @@ -27881,7 +27840,7 @@ of Berlin to arrange matters by mutual consent.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object must be physically possible.</p></div> -<p>§ 504. An obligation to perform a physical impossibility<a name="FNanchor_863_863" id="FNanchor_863_863"></a><a href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> +<p>§ 504. An obligation to perform a physical impossibility<a name="FNanchor_863_863" id="FNanchor_863_863"></a><a href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> cannot be the object of a treaty. If perchance a State entered into a convention stipulating an obligation of that kind, no right to claim damages for non-fulfilment @@ -27889,11 +27848,11 @@ of the obligation would arise for the other party, such treaty being legally null and void.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_863_863" id="Footnote_863_863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_863_863"><span class="label">[863]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#All_treaties_whose542">542</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#All_treaties_whose542">542</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Immoral Obligations.</p></div> -<p>§ 505. <a name="It_is_a_customarily_recognised505" id="It_is_a_customarily_recognised505"></a>It is a customarily recognised rule of the Law +<p>§ 505. <a name="It_is_a_customarily_recognised505" id="It_is_a_customarily_recognised505"></a>It is a customarily recognised rule of the Law of Nations that immoral obligations cannot be the object of an international treaty. Thus, an alliance for the purpose of attacking a third State without provocation @@ -27911,7 +27870,7 @@ decide the controversy.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Illegal Obligations.</p></div> -<p>§ 506. It is a unanimously recognised customary +<p>§ 506. It is a unanimously recognised customary rule of International Law that obligations which are at variance with universally recognised principles of International Law cannot be the object of a treaty. @@ -27931,17 +27890,17 @@ of piracy on the High Seas.</p> <span class="smaller">FORM AND PARTS OF TREATIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 15, § 5—Vattel, II. § 153—Hall, § 109—Westlake, I. pp. 279-281—Wheaton, -§ 253—Moore, V. § 740—Bluntschli, §§ 417-427—Hartmann, -§§ 46-47—Heffter, §§ 87-91—Ullmann, § 80—Bonfils, Nos. -821-823—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1084-1099—Mérignhac, II. p. 645—Rivier, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 15, § 5—Vattel, II. § 153—Hall, § 109—Westlake, I. pp. 279-281—Wheaton, +§ 253—Moore, V. § 740—Bluntschli, §§ 417-427—Hartmann, +§§ 46-47—Heffter, §§ 87-91—Ullmann, § 80—Bonfils, Nos. +821-823—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1084-1099—Mérignhac, II. p. 645—Rivier, II. pp. 64-68—Nys, III. pp. 25-28—Fiore, II. Nos. 1004-1006, and -Code, Nos. 759-763—Martens, I. § 112—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur -der Staatenverträge" (1880), p. 56—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 178-181.</p> +Code, Nos. 759-763—Martens, I. § 112—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur +der Staatenverträge" (1880), p. 56—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 178-181.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>No necessary Form of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 507. The Law of Nations includes no rule which +<p>§ 507. The Law of Nations includes no rule which prescribes a necessary form of treaties. A treaty is, therefore, concluded as soon as the mutual consent of the parties becomes clearly apparent. Such consent @@ -27967,10 +27926,10 @@ a written<a name="FNanchor_865_865" id="FNanchor_865_865"></a><a href="#Footnote of the contracting parties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a> See - Martens, I. § 112.</p></div> + Martens, I. § 112.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_865_865" id="Footnote_865_865"></a><a href="#FNanchor_865_865"><span class="label">[865]</span></a> The only writer who nowadays insists upon a <i>written</i> -agreement for a treaty to be valid is, as far as I know, Bulmerincq (§ +agreement for a treaty to be valid is, as far as I know, Bulmerincq (§ 56). But although all important treaties are naturally concluded in writing, the example of the agreements concluded between armed forces in time of war either orally or through symbols proves that the written @@ -27978,7 +27937,7 @@ form is not absolutely necessary.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Acts, Conventions, Declarations.</p></div> -<p>§ 508. <a name="International_compacts508" id="International_compacts508"></a>International compacts which take the form of +<p>§ 508. <a name="International_compacts508" id="International_compacts508"></a>International compacts which take the form of written contracts, are, besides <i>Agreements</i> or <i>Treaties</i>, sometimes termed <i>Acts</i>, sometimes <i>Conventions</i>, sometimes <i>Declarations</i>. But there is no essential difference @@ -28014,11 +27973,11 @@ Naval Conference held in London, December 1908-1909, p. 57.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_867_867" id="Footnote_867_867"></a><a href="#FNanchor_867_867"><span class="label">[867]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_term487">487</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_term487">487</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Parts of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 509. Since International Law lays down no rules +<p>§ 509. Since International Law lays down no rules concerning the form of treaties, there exist no rules concerning the arrangement of the parts of written treaties. But the following order is usually observed. @@ -28039,8 +27998,8 @@ It may also happen that a treaty contains secret stipulations in an additional part, which are not made public with the bulk of the stipulations.<a name="FNanchor_868_868" id="FNanchor_868_868"></a><a href="#Footnote_868_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_868_868" id="Footnote_868_868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_868_868"><span class="label">[868]</span></a> The matter is treated with all details by Pradier-Fodéré, -II. §§ 1086-1096.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span></p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_868_868" id="Footnote_868_868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_868_868"><span class="label">[868]</span></a> The matter is treated with all details by Pradier-Fodéré, +II. §§ 1086-1096.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span></p></div> @@ -28050,22 +28009,22 @@ II. §§ 1086-1096.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553] </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 11, § 12—Pufendorf, III. c. 9, § 2—Vattel, II. § 156—Hall, -§ 110—Westlake, I. pp. 279-280—Lawrence, § 132—Phillimore, II. § 52—Twiss, -I. § 214—Halleck, I. pp. 276-277—Taylor, §§ 364-367—Moore, V. -§§ 743-756—Walker, § 30—Wharton, II. §§ 131-131<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 256-263—Bluntschli, -§§ 420-421—Heffter, § 87—Gessner in Holtzendorff, -III. pp. 15-18—Ullmann, § 78—Bonfils, Nos. 824-831—Pradier-Fodéré, -II. Nos. 1100-1119—Mérignhac, II. pp. 652-666—Nys, III. pp. 28-36—Rivier, -II. § 50—Calvo, III. §§ 1627-1636—Fiore, II. No. 994, and Code, -No. 750—Martens, I. §§ 105-108—Wicquefort, "L'Ambassadeur et ses +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 11, § 12—Pufendorf, III. c. 9, § 2—Vattel, II. § 156—Hall, +§ 110—Westlake, I. pp. 279-280—Lawrence, § 132—Phillimore, II. § 52—Twiss, +I. § 214—Halleck, I. pp. 276-277—Taylor, §§ 364-367—Moore, V. +§§ 743-756—Walker, § 30—Wharton, II. §§ 131-131<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, §§ 256-263—Bluntschli, +§§ 420-421—Heffter, § 87—Gessner in Holtzendorff, +III. pp. 15-18—Ullmann, § 78—Bonfils, Nos. 824-831—Pradier-Fodéré, +II. Nos. 1100-1119—Mérignhac, II. pp. 652-666—Nys, III. pp. 28-36—Rivier, +II. § 50—Calvo, III. §§ 1627-1636—Fiore, II. No. 994, and Code, +No. 750—Martens, I. §§ 105-108—Wicquefort, "L'Ambassadeur et ses fonctions" (1680), II. Section XV.—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur -der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 53-56—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 123-125—Wegmann, -"Die Ratifikation von Staatsverträgen" (1892).</p> +der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 53-56—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 123-125—Wegmann, +"Die Ratifikation von Staatsverträgen" (1892).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and Function of Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 510. <a name="Ratification_is_the_term510" id="Ratification_is_the_term510"></a>Ratification is the term for the final confirmation +<p>§ 510. <a name="Ratification_is_the_term510" id="Ratification_is_the_term510"></a>Ratification is the term for the final confirmation given by the parties to an international treaty concluded by their representatives. Although a treaty is concluded as soon as the mutual consent is manifest @@ -28100,14 +28059,14 @@ that there is no essential difference between such treaties as want and such as do not want ratification.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_869_869" id="Footnote_869_869"></a><a href="#FNanchor_869_869"><span class="label">[869]</span></a> See, - for instance, Ullmann, § 78; Jellinek, p. 55; Nippold, + for instance, Ullmann, § 78; Jellinek, p. 55; Nippold, p. 123; Wegmann, p. 11.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_870_870" id="Footnote_870_870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_870_870"><span class="label">[870]</span></a> The matter is very ably discussed by Rivier, II. pp 74-76.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rationale for the Institution of Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 511. The rationale for the institution of ratification +<p>§ 511. The rationale for the institution of ratification is another argument for the contention that the conclusion of the treaty by the representatives is to be distinguished from the confirmation given by the @@ -28131,7 +28090,7 @@ ratification a necessity for International Law.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ratification regularly, but not absolutely, necessary.</p></div> -<p>§ 512. But ratification, although necessary in principle, +<p>§ 512. But ratification, although necessary in principle, is not always essential. Although it is now a universally recognised customary rule of International Law that treaties are regularly in need of ratification, @@ -28167,17 +28126,17 @@ with ratification, then renunciation is not binding upon the States which they represent.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_871_871" id="Footnote_871_871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_871_871"><span class="label">[871]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#For_some_non-political496">496</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#For_some_non-political496">496</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_873_873" id="Footnote_873_873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_873_873"><span class="label">[873]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. I. p. 163.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Length of Time for Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 513. No rule of International Law prescribes the +<p>§ 513. No rule of International Law prescribes the length of time within which ratification must be given or refused. If such length of time is not specially stipulated by the contracting parties in the very treaty, a @@ -28192,7 +28151,7 @@ ratification should take place.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Refusal of Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 514. The question now requires attention whether +<p>§ 514. The question now requires attention whether ratification can be refused on just grounds only or according to discretion. Formerly<a name="FNanchor_874_874" id="FNanchor_874_874"></a><a href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> it was maintained that ratification could not be refused in case the representatives @@ -28228,12 +28187,12 @@ the proposed Nicaragua Canal, signed on February 5, 1900, which was ratified with modifications by the Senate of the United States, this being equivalent to refusal of ratification. (See - below, § <a href="#It_follows_from517">517</a>.)</p> + below, § <a href="#It_follows_from517">517</a>.)</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_874_874" id="Footnote_874_874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_874_874"><span class="label">[874]</span></a> See - Grotius, II. c. 11, § 12; Bynkershoek, "Quaestiones + Grotius, II. c. 11, § 12; Bynkershoek, "Quaestiones juris publici," II. 7; Wicquefort, "L'Ambassadeur," II. 15; Vattel, II. -§ 156; G. F. von Martens, § 48.</p></div> +§ 156; G. F. von Martens, § 48.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a> This must be maintained in spite of Wegmann's (p. 32) assertion that a customary rule of the Law of Nations has to be @@ -28246,7 +28205,7 @@ ratification.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Form of Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 515. No rule of International Law exists which +<p>§ 515. No rule of International Law exists which prescribes a necessary form of ratification. Ratification can therefore be given as well tacitly as expressly. Tacit ratification takes place when a State begins the @@ -28274,7 +28233,7 @@ whole of the treaty ought to be recited <i>verbatim</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ratification by whom effected.</p></div> -<p>§ 516. Ratification is effected by those organs which +<p>§ 516. Ratification is effected by those organs which exercise the treaty-making power of the States. These organs are regularly the heads of the States, but they can, according to the Municipal Law of some States, @@ -28309,17 +28268,17 @@ upon payment because the French Government had admitted that such indemnity was due to her.<a name="FNanchor_878_878" id="FNanchor_878_878"></a><a href="#Footnote_878_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_876_876" id="Footnote_876_876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_876_876"><span class="label">[876]</span></a> See, - for instance, Martens, § 107, and Rivier, II. p. 85.</p></div> + for instance, Martens, § 107, and Rivier, II. p. 85.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_877_877" id="Footnote_877_877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_877_877"><span class="label">[877]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>, and Nippold, p. 147.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Al497">497</a>, and Nippold, p. 147.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_878_878" id="Footnote_878_878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_878_878"><span class="label">[878]</span></a> See - Wharton, II. § 131<span class="smcap">A</span>, p. 20.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span></p></div> + Wharton, II. § 131<span class="smcap">A</span>, p. 20.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Ratification can not be partial and conditional.</p></div> -<p>§ 517. <a name="It_follows_from517" id="It_follows_from517"></a>It follows from the nature of ratification +<p>§ 517. <a name="It_follows_from517" id="It_follows_from517"></a>It follows from the nature of ratification as a necessary confirmation of a treaty already concluded that ratification must be either given or refused, no conditional or partial ratification being possible. @@ -28346,7 +28305,7 @@ fallen to the ground.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_879_879" id="Footnote_879_879"></a><a href="#FNanchor_879_879"><span class="label">[879]</span></a> This is the correct explanation of the practice on the part of States, which sometimes prevails, of acquiescing, after some hesitation, in alterations proposed by a party to a treaty in ratifying -it; see examples in Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 1104, and Calvo, III. § +it; see examples in Pradier-Fodéré, II. No. 1104, and Calvo, III. § 1630.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a> It is of importance to emphasise that the United States' @@ -28384,7 +28343,7 @@ and it would be incorrect to speak in this case of a partial ratification.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_882_882" id="Footnote_882_882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_882_882"><span class="label">[882]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#By_a_treaty_the_contracting519">519</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#By_a_treaty_the_contracting519">519</a>.</p></div> <p>Again, it is quite legitimate—and one ought not in that case to speak of conditional ratification—for a @@ -28409,7 +28368,7 @@ clauses of the treaty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Ratification.</p></div> -<p>§ 518. <a name="The_effect_of_ratification518" id="The_effect_of_ratification518"></a>The effect of ratification is the binding force +<p>§ 518. <a name="The_effect_of_ratification518" id="The_effect_of_ratification518"></a>The effect of ratification is the binding force of the treaty. But the question arises whether the effect of ratification is retroactive, so that a treaty appears to be binding from the date when it is duly @@ -28435,7 +28394,7 @@ State knows that its representatives have exceeded their powers by concluding the treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Although_a_treaty500">500</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_a_treaty500">500</a>.</p></div> @@ -28445,17 +28404,17 @@ their powers by concluding the treaty.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 114—Lawrence, § 134—Halleck, I. pp. 279-281—Taylor, §§ 370-373—Wharton, -II. § 137—Wheaton, § 266—Bluntschli, §§ 415-416—Hartmann, -§ 49—Heffter, § 94—Bonfils, Nos. 845-848—Despagnet, Nos. 447-448—Pradier-Fodéré, -II. Nos. 1151-1155—Mérignhac, II. pp. 667-672—Rivier, -II. pp. 119-122—Calvo, III. §§ 1643-1648—Fiore, II. Nos. 1008-1009, -and Code, Nos. 768-778—Martens, I. §§ 65 and 114—Nippold, op. cit. +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 114—Lawrence, § 134—Halleck, I. pp. 279-281—Taylor, §§ 370-373—Wharton, +II. § 137—Wheaton, § 266—Bluntschli, §§ 415-416—Hartmann, +§ 49—Heffter, § 94—Bonfils, Nos. 845-848—Despagnet, Nos. 447-448—Pradier-Fodéré, +II. Nos. 1151-1155—Mérignhac, II. pp. 667-672—Rivier, +II. pp. 119-122—Calvo, III. §§ 1643-1648—Fiore, II. Nos. 1008-1009, +and Code, Nos. 768-778—Martens, I. §§ 65 and 114—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 151-160.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Treaties upon Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 519. <a name="By_a_treaty_the_contracting519" id="By_a_treaty_the_contracting519"></a>By a treaty the contracting parties in the first +<p>§ 519. <a name="By_a_treaty_the_contracting519" id="By_a_treaty_the_contracting519"></a>By a treaty the contracting parties in the first place are concerned. The effect of the treaty upon them is that they are bound by its stipulations, and that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span> they must execute it in all its parts. No distinction @@ -28470,11 +28429,11 @@ as regards certain articles, such party is not bound by these articles, although it ratifies<a name="FNanchor_884_884" id="FNanchor_884_884"></a><a href="#Footnote_884_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a> the treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_884_884" id="Footnote_884_884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_884_884"><span class="label">[884]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_effect_of_ratification518">518</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_effect_of_ratification518">518</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Treaties upon the Subjects of the Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 520. It must be specially observed that the binding +<p>§ 520. It must be specially observed that the binding force of a treaty concerns the contracting States only, and not their subjects. As International Law is a law between States only and exclusively, treaties can have @@ -28493,16 +28452,16 @@ for example, special statutes to be passed by the respective Parliaments.<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#No289">289</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#No289">289</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a> The distinction between International and Municipal Law as -discussed above, §§ 20-25, is the basis from which the question must be +discussed above, §§ 20-25, is the basis from which the question must be decided whether international treaties have a direct effect upon the officials and subjects of the contracting parties.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Changes in Government upon Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 521. <a name="As_treaties_are_binding521" id="As_treaties_are_binding521"></a>As treaties are binding upon the contracting +<p>§ 521. <a name="As_treaties_are_binding521" id="As_treaties_are_binding521"></a>As treaties are binding upon the contracting States, changes in the government or even in the form of government of one of the parties can as a rule have no influence whatever upon the binding force of treaties. @@ -28521,18 +28480,18 @@ then a change from such form makes such stipulation void, because its execution has become impossible.<a name="FNanchor_887_887" id="FNanchor_887_887"></a><a href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#All_treaties_whose542">542</a>. Not to be confounded with the effect of + below, § <a href="#All_treaties_whose542">542</a>. Not to be confounded with the effect of changes in government is the effect of a change in international status upon treaties, as, for instance, if a hitherto full-sovereign State becomes half- or part-Sovereign, or <i>vice versa</i>, or if a State merges entirely into another, and the like. This is a case of succession of States which has been discussed - above, §§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>-84; see also - below, § <a href="#A_cause_which548">548</a>.</p></div> + above, §§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>-84; see also + below, § <a href="#A_cause_which548">548</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Treaties upon third States.</p></div> -<p>§ 522. <a name="According_to_the_principle522" id="According_to_the_principle522"></a>According to the principle <i>pacta tertiis nec +<p>§ 522. <a name="According_to_the_principle522" id="According_to_the_principle522"></a>According to the principle <i>pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt</i>, a treaty concerns the contracting States only; neither rights nor duties, as a rule, arise under a treaty for third States which are not parties to @@ -28547,7 +28506,7 @@ treaties containing the so-called <i>most-favoured-nation clause</i><a name="FNanchor_888_888" id="FNanchor_888_888"></a><a href="#Footnote_888_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a> with one of the contracting parties.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>, but note the American interpretation of + below, § <a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>, but note the American interpretation of this clause.</p></div> <p>The question arises whether in exceptional cases @@ -28578,10 +28537,10 @@ such rights through the unanimous tacit consent of all concerned.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_889_889" id="Footnote_889_889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_889_889"><span class="label">[889]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Already_in184">184</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Already_in184">184</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a> See - above, <a href="#Footnote_386_386">§ 205, p. 277, note 2</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="#Footnote_386_386">§ 205, p. 277, note 2</a>.</p></div> <p>It must be emphasised that a treaty between two States can never invalidate a stipulation previously @@ -28606,10 +28565,10 @@ a third Power with whom one of the allies may have concluded a treaty of general arbitration.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Casus573">573</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Casus573">573</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Alliances_in_the_strict569">569</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Alliances_in_the_strict569">569</a>.</p></div> @@ -28619,16 +28578,16 @@ concluded a treaty of general arbitration.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 235-261—Hall, § 115—Lawrence, § 134—Phillimore, II. §§ 54-63<span class="smcap">A</span>—Bluntschli, -§§ 425-441—Heffter, §§ 96-99—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, -III. pp. 85-90—Ullmann, § 83—Bonfils, Nos. 838-844—Despagnet, Nos. -451-452—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1156-1169—Rivier, II. pp. 94-97—Nys, -III. pp. 36-41—Calvo, III. §§ 1638-1642—Fiore, II. Nos. 1018-1019, -and Code, Nos. 784-791—Martens, I. § 115—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 212-227.</p> +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 235-261—Hall, § 115—Lawrence, § 134—Phillimore, II. §§ 54-63<span class="smcap">A</span>—Bluntschli, +§§ 425-441—Heffter, §§ 96-99—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, +III. pp. 85-90—Ullmann, § 83—Bonfils, Nos. 838-844—Despagnet, Nos. +451-452—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1156-1169—Rivier, II. pp. 94-97—Nys, +III. pp. 36-41—Calvo, III. §§ 1638-1642—Fiore, II. Nos. 1018-1019, +and Code, Nos. 784-791—Martens, I. § 115—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 212-227.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>What means have been in use.</p></div> -<p>§ 523. As there is no international institution which +<p>§ 523. As there is no international institution which could enforce the performance of treaties, and as history teaches that treaties have frequently been broken, various means of securing performance of treaties have @@ -28642,7 +28601,7 @@ their treaty obligations than in former times.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Oaths.</p></div> -<p>§ 524. Oaths are a very old means of securing the +<p>§ 524. Oaths are a very old means of securing the performance of treaties, which was constantly made use of not only in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but also in modern times. For in the sixteenth and seventeenth @@ -28665,7 +28624,7 @@ on the State for which it is taken.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Hostages.</p></div> -<p>§ 525. Hostages are as old a means of securing +<p>§ 525. Hostages are as old a means of securing treaties as oaths, but they have likewise, for ordinary purposes<a name="FNanchor_893_893" id="FNanchor_893_893"></a><a href="#Footnote_893_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a> at least, become obsolete, because they have practically no value at all. The last case of a treaty @@ -28677,11 +28636,11 @@ hostages sent were Lords Sussex and Cathcart, who remained in France till July 1749.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a> Concerning hostages nowadays taken in time of war, see - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_practice_of_taking_hostages258">vol. II. §§ 258</a>-259.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_practice_of_taking_hostages258">vol. II. §§ 258</a>-259.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Pledge.</p></div> -<p>§ 526. <a name="Th526" id="Th526"></a>The pledging of movable property by one of +<p>§ 526. <a name="Th526" id="Th526"></a>The pledging of movable property by one of the contracting parties to the other for the purpose of securing the performance of a treaty is possible, but has not frequently occurred. Thus, Poland is said to @@ -28690,11 +28649,11 @@ pledging of movables is nowadays quite obsolete, although it might on occasion be revived.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_894_894" id="Footnote_894_894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_894_894"><span class="label">[894]</span></a> See - Phillimore, II. § 55.</p></div> + Phillimore, II. § 55.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Occupation of Territory.</p></div> -<p>§ 527. <a name="Oc527" id="Oc527"></a>Occupation of territory, such as a fort or even +<p>§ 527. <a name="Oc527" id="Oc527"></a>Occupation of territory, such as a fort or even a whole province, as a means of securing the performance of a treaty, has frequently been made use of with regard to the payment of large sums of money due to a State<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span> @@ -28708,7 +28667,7 @@ payment of the war indemnity of five milliards of francs.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Guarantee.</p></div> -<p>§ 528. <a name="The_best528" id="The_best528"></a>The best means of securing treaties, and one +<p>§ 528. <a name="The_best528" id="The_best528"></a>The best means of securing treaties, and one which is still in use generally, is the guarantee of such other States as are not directly affected by the treaty. Such guarantee is a kind of accession<a name="FNanchor_895_895" id="FNanchor_895_895"></a><a href="#Footnote_895_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a> to the guaranteed @@ -28717,10 +28676,10 @@ the guarantor eventually to do what is in his power to compel the contracting party or parties to execute the treaty.<a name="FNanchor_896_896" id="FNanchor_896_896"></a><a href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a> Guarantee of a treaty is a species only of guarantee in general, which will be discussed below, -§§ <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>-576<i>a</i>.</p> +§§ <a href="#Treaties_of_guarantee574">574</a>-576<i>a</i>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_895_895" id="Footnote_895_895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_895_895"><span class="label">[895]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532">532</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532">532</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_896_896" id="Footnote_896_896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_896_896"><span class="label">[896]</span></a> Nippold (p. 266) proposes that a universal treaty of guarantee should be concluded between all the members of the Family of @@ -28737,15 +28696,15 @@ treaties. I do not believe that this well-meant proposal is feasible.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Hall, § 114—Wheaton, § 288—Hartmann, § 51—Heffter, - § 88—Ullmann, § 81—Bonfils, -Nos. 832-834—Despagnet, No. 448—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. -1127-1150—Rivier, II. pp. 89-93—Calvo, III. §§ 1621-1626—Fiore, II. -Nos. 1025-1031—Martens, I. § 111.</p> +<p class="indh1">Hall, § 114—Wheaton, § 288—Hartmann, § 51—Heffter, + § 88—Ullmann, § 81—Bonfils, +Nos. 832-834—Despagnet, No. 448—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. +1127-1150—Rivier, II. pp. 89-93—Calvo, III. §§ 1621-1626—Fiore, II. +Nos. 1025-1031—Martens, I. § 111.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Interest and Participation to be distinguished.</p></div> -<p>§ 529. Ordinarily a treaty creates rights and duties +<p>§ 529. Ordinarily a treaty creates rights and duties between the contracting parties exclusively. Nevertheless, third States may be interested in such treaties, for the common interests of the members of the Family @@ -28766,7 +28725,7 @@ to contract on its behalf.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Good Offices and Mediation.</p></div> -<p>§ 530. A treaty may be concluded with the help of +<p>§ 530. A treaty may be concluded with the help of the good offices or through the mediation of a third State, whether these offices be asked for by the contracting parties or be exercised spontaneously by a @@ -28777,11 +28736,11 @@ might be the case. A great many of the most important treaties owe their existence to the good offices or mediation of third Powers. The difference between good offices and mediation will be discussed - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Di9">vol. II. § 9</a>.</p> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Di9">vol. II. § 9</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Intervention.</p></div> -<p>§ 531. A third State may participate in a treaty in +<p>§ 531. A third State may participate in a treaty in such a way that it interposes dictatorially between two States negotiating a treaty and requests them to drop or to insert certain stipulations. Such intervention @@ -28795,16 +28754,16 @@ France in 1895 against the peace treaty of Shimonoseki<a name="FNanchor_899_899" between Japan and China.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_898_898" id="Footnote_898_898"></a><a href="#FNanchor_898_898"><span class="label">[898]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#If_an_external_affair2of135">135, p. 190, No. 2</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#If_an_external_affair2of135">135, p. 190, No. 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_899_899" id="Footnote_899_899"></a><a href="#FNanchor_899_899"><span class="label">[899]</span></a> See R.G. II. pp. 457-463. Details concerning intervention -have been given above, § 134-138; see also - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In50">vol. II. § 50.</a></p></div> +have been given above, § 134-138; see also + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#In50">vol. II. § 50.</a></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Accession.</p></div> -<p>§ 532. <a name="Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532" id="Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532"></a>Of accession there are two kinds. Accession +<p>§ 532. <a name="Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532" id="Of_accession_there_are_two_kinds532"></a>Of accession there are two kinds. Accession means, firstly, the formal entrance of a third State into an existing treaty so that such State becomes a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span> party to the treaty with all rights and duties arising @@ -28828,11 +28787,11 @@ other parties, for the former is a guarantor only, whereas the latter are directly affected by the treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_900_900" id="Footnote_900_900"></a><a href="#FNanchor_900_900"><span class="label">[900]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_best528">528</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_best528">528</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Adhesion.</p></div> -<p>§ 533. Adhesion is defined as such entrance of a third +<p>§ 533. Adhesion is defined as such entrance of a third State into an existing treaty as takes place either with regard only to a part of the stipulations or with regard only to certain principles laid down in the treaty. @@ -28856,23 +28815,23 @@ Powers, although accession is meant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id= <span class="smaller">EXPIRATION AND DISSOLUTION OF TREATIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 198-205—Hall, § 116—Westlake, I. pp. 284-286—Lawrence, -§ 134—Halleck, I. pp. 293-296—Taylor, §§ 394-399—Wharton, II. § 137<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, -§ 275—Moore, V. §§ 770-778—Bluntschli, §§ 450-461—Heffter, -§ 99—Ullmann, § 85—Bonfils, Nos. 855-860—Despagnet, Nos. -453-455—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1200-1218—Mérignhac, II. p. 788—Rivier, -II. § 55—Nys, III. pp. 48-53—Calvo, III. §§ 1662-1668—Fiore, -II. Nos. 1047-1052—Martens, I. § 117—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur -der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 62-64—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 235-248—Olivi, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 198-205—Hall, § 116—Westlake, I. pp. 284-286—Lawrence, +§ 134—Halleck, I. pp. 293-296—Taylor, §§ 394-399—Wharton, II. § 137<span class="smcap">A</span>—Wheaton, +§ 275—Moore, V. §§ 770-778—Bluntschli, §§ 450-461—Heffter, +§ 99—Ullmann, § 85—Bonfils, Nos. 855-860—Despagnet, Nos. +453-455—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1200-1218—Mérignhac, II. p. 788—Rivier, +II. § 55—Nys, III. pp. 48-53—Calvo, III. §§ 1662-1668—Fiore, +II. Nos. 1047-1052—Martens, I. § 117—Jellinek, "Die rechtliche Natur +der Staatenverträge" (1880), pp. 62-64—Nippold, op. cit. pp. 235-248—Olivi, "Sull' estinzione dei trattati internazionali" (1883)—Schmidt, -"Ueber die völkerrechtliche <i>clausula rebus sic stantibus</i>, &c." (1907)—Kaufmann, -"Das Wesen des Völkerrechts und die <i>clausula rebus sic stantibus</i>" +"Ueber die völkerrechtliche <i>clausula rebus sic stantibus</i>, &c." (1907)—Kaufmann, +"Das Wesen des Völkerrechts und die <i>clausula rebus sic stantibus</i>" (1911)—Bonucci in Z.V. IV. (1910), pp. 449-471.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expiration and Dissolution in Contradistinction to Fulfilment.</p></div> -<p>§ 534. <a name="The_binding_force_of534" id="The_binding_force_of534"></a>The binding force of treaties may terminate +<p>§ 534. <a name="The_binding_force_of534" id="The_binding_force_of534"></a>The binding force of treaties may terminate in four different ways, because a treaty may either expire, or be dissolved, or become void, or be cancelled.<a name="FNanchor_901_901" id="FNanchor_901_901"></a><a href="#Footnote_901_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a> The grounds of expiration of treaties are, @@ -28891,12 +28850,12 @@ although it is now of historical interest only.</p> expiration, dissolution, voidance, and cancellation of treaties is, as far as I know, nowhere sharply drawn, although it would seem to be of considerable importance. Voidance and cancellation will be discussed - below, §§ <a href="#A_treaty_although540">540</a>-544 + below, §§ <a href="#A_treaty_although540">540</a>-544 and <a href="#A_treaty_although_it_has545">545</a>-549.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expiration through Expiration of Time.</p></div> -<p>§ 535. All such treaties as are concluded for a certain +<p>§ 535. All such treaties as are concluded for a certain period of time only, expire with the expiration of such time, unless they are renewed or prolonged for another period. Such time-expiring treaties are frequently @@ -28911,7 +28870,7 @@ parties gives notice in due time.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Expiration through Resolutive Condition.</p></div> -<p>§ 536. Different from time-expiring treaties are such +<p>§ 536. Different from time-expiring treaties are such as are concluded under a resolutive condition, which means under the condition that they shall at once expire with the occurrence of certain circumstances. @@ -28919,7 +28878,7 @@ As soon as these circumstances arise, the treaties expire.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Mutual Consent.</p></div> -<p>§ 537. A treaty, although concluded for ever or for +<p>§ 537. A treaty, although concluded for ever or for a period of time which has not yet expired, may nevertheless always be dissolved by mutual consent of the contracting parties. Such mutual consent can become @@ -28941,7 +28900,7 @@ of the renunciation is necessary.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Withdrawal by Notice.</p></div> -<p>§ 538. Treaties, provided they are not such as are +<p>§ 538. Treaties, provided they are not such as are concluded for ever, may also be dissolved by withdrawal, after notice by one of the parties. Many treaties stipulate expressly the possibility of such @@ -28978,7 +28937,7 @@ intended to create an everlasting condition of things.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Vital Change of Circumstances.</p></div> -<p>§ 539. <a name="Although_as_just_stated539" id="Although_as_just_stated539"></a>Although, as just stated, treaties concluded +<p>§ 539. <a name="Although_as_just_stated539" id="Although_as_just_stated539"></a>Although, as just stated, treaties concluded for a certain period of time, and such treaties as are apparently intended or expressly contracted for the purpose of setting up an everlasting condition of things, @@ -29020,8 +28979,8 @@ should nevertheless be notifiable.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a> See Bonucci in Z.V. IV. (1910), pp. 449-471. Many writers agree to it with great reluctance only and in a very limited sense, as, -for instance, Grotius, II. c. 16, § 25, No. 2; Vattel, II. § 296; -Klüber, § 165. Some few writers, however, disagree altogether, as, for +for instance, Grotius, II. c. 16, § 25, No. 2; Vattel, II. § 296; +Klüber, § 165. Some few writers, however, disagree altogether, as, for instance, Bynkershoek, "Quest. jur. public.," II. c. 10, and Wildman, "Institutes of International Law," I. (1849), p. 175. Schmidt, op. cit. pp. 97-118, would seem to reject the <i>clausula</i> altogether, but can @@ -29093,8 +29052,8 @@ with the wishes of Russia and abolished the neutralisation of the Black Sea, it adopted in a protocol<a name="FNanchor_903_903" id="FNanchor_903_903"></a><a href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a> of January 17, 1871, the following declaration:—"Que c'est un principe essentiel du droit des gens qu'aucune -Puissance ne peut se délier des engagements d'un -traité, ni en modifier les stipulations, qu'à la suite de +Puissance ne peut se délier des engagements d'un +traité, ni en modifier les stipulations, qu'à la suite de l'assentiment des parties contractantes, au moyen d'une entente amicale."</p> @@ -29121,7 +29080,7 @@ of London of 1871 has become doubtful again.</p> Rolin-Jaequemyns in R.I. XIX. (1887), pp. 37-49.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>, p. 76; Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. II. p. + above, § <a href="#Soon_after_the_Hague50">50</a>, p. 76; Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. II. p. 606; and Blociszewski in R.G. XVII. (1910), pp. 417-449. There is hardly any doubt that, if Austria-Hungary had not ignored the above-mentioned Declaration contained in the protocol of January 17, 1871, and had @@ -29141,11 +29100,11 @@ conference, consented to the abrogation of the Treaty of Berlin.</p></div> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted at the commencement of § <a href="#The_binding_force_of534">534</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted at the commencement of § <a href="#The_binding_force_of534">534</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Grounds of Voidance.</p></div> -<p>§ 540. <a name="A_treaty_although540" id="A_treaty_although540"></a>A treaty, although it has neither expired +<p>§ 540. <a name="A_treaty_although540" id="A_treaty_although540"></a>A treaty, although it has neither expired nor been dissolved, may nevertheless lose its binding force by becoming void.<a name="FNanchor_906_906" id="FNanchor_906_906"></a><a href="#Footnote_906_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a> And such voidance may have different grounds—namely, extinction of one of @@ -29156,23 +29115,23 @@ was concerned in a treaty.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a> But such voidance must not be confounded with the voidance of a treaty from its very beginning; see - above, § <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extinction of one of the two Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 541. <a name="All_treaties541" id="All_treaties541"></a>All treaties concluded between two States +<p>§ 541. <a name="All_treaties541" id="All_treaties541"></a>All treaties concluded between two States become void through the extinction of one of the contracting parties, provided they do not devolve upon such State as succeeds to the extinct State. That some treaties devolve upon the successor has been -shown above (§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>), but many treaties do not. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span> +shown above (§ <a href="#When_a_State_merges82">82</a>), but many treaties do not. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span> this ground all political treaties, such as treaties of alliance, guarantee, neutrality, and the like, become void.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Impossibility of Execution.</p></div> -<p>§ 542. <a name="All_treaties_whose542" id="All_treaties_whose542"></a>All treaties whose execution becomes impossible +<p>§ 542. <a name="All_treaties_whose542" id="All_treaties_whose542"></a>All treaties whose execution becomes impossible subsequent to their conclusion are thus rendered void. A frequently quoted example is that of three States concluding a treaty of alliance and @@ -29184,14 +29143,14 @@ execution may be temporary only, and that then the treaty is not void but merely suspended.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_907_907" id="Footnote_907_907"></a><a href="#FNanchor_907_907"><span class="label">[907]</span></a> See - also above, § <a href="#As_treaties_are_binding521">521</a>, where the case is mentioned that a + also above, § <a href="#As_treaties_are_binding521">521</a>, where the case is mentioned that a treaty essentially presupposes a certain form of government, and for this reason cannot be executed when this form of government undergoes a change.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Realisation of Purpose of Treaty other than by Fulfilment.</p></div> -<p>§ 543. All treaties whose purpose is realised otherwise +<p>§ 543. All treaties whose purpose is realised otherwise than by fulfilment become void. For example, a treaty concluded by two States for the purpose of inducing a third State to undertake a certain obligation @@ -29202,7 +29161,7 @@ third State with regard to the matter.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Extinction of such Object as was concerned in a Treaty.</p></div> -<p>§ 544. All treaties whose obligations concern a certain +<p>§ 544. All treaties whose obligations concern a certain object become void through the extinction of such object. Treaties, for example, concluded in regard to a certain island become void when such island disappears @@ -29219,11 +29178,11 @@ merges in another.</p> </h4> -<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted at the commencement of § <a href="#The_binding_force_of534">534</a>.</p> +<p class="indh1">See the literature quoted at the commencement of § <a href="#The_binding_force_of534">534</a>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Grounds of Cancellation.</p></div> -<p>§ 545. <a name="A_treaty_although_it_has545" id="A_treaty_although_it_has545"></a>A treaty, although it has neither expired, +<p>§ 545. <a name="A_treaty_although_it_has545" id="A_treaty_although_it_has545"></a>A treaty, although it has neither expired, nor been dissolved, nor become void, may nevertheless lose its binding force by cancellation. The causes of cancellation are four—namely, inconsistency with International @@ -29233,7 +29192,7 @@ subsequent change of status of one of them, and war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Inconsistency with subsequent International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 546. Just as treaties have no binding force when +<p>§ 546. Just as treaties have no binding force when concluded with reference to an illegal object, so they lose their binding force when through a progressive development of International Law they become inconsistent @@ -29252,23 +29211,23 @@ the other contracting party from these obligations.<a name="FNanchor_909_909" id <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a> This must be maintained in spite of the fact that Protocol No. 24—see Martens, N.R.G. XV. (1857), pp. 768-769—contains the -following: "Sur une observation faite par M.M. les Plénipotentiaires de -la Russie, le Congrès reconnaît que la présente résolution, ne pouvant +following: "Sur une observation faite par M.M. les Plénipotentiaires de +la Russie, le Congrès reconnaît que la présente résolution, ne pouvant avoir d'effet retroactif, ne saurait invalider les Conventions -antérieures." This expression of opinion can only mean that previous +antérieures." This expression of opinion can only mean that previous treaties with such States as were not and would not become parties to the Declaration of Paris are not <i>ipso facto</i> cancelled by the Declaration.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a> That Municipal Courts must apply the subsequent Municipal Law although it conflicts with previous treaty obligations, there is no -doubt, as has been pointed out above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>. See The Cherokee Tobacco, 11 +doubt, as has been pointed out above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>. See The Cherokee Tobacco, 11 Wall 616; Whitney <i>v.</i> Robertson, 124 United States 190; Botiller <i>v.</i> -Dominguez, 130 United States 238. See also Moore, V. § 774.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span></p></div> +Dominguez, 130 United States 238. See also Moore, V. § 774.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Violation by one of the Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 547. <a name="Vi547" id="Vi547"></a>Violation of a treaty by one of the contracting +<p>§ 547. <a name="Vi547" id="Vi547"></a>Violation of a treaty by one of the contracting States does not <i>ipso facto</i> cancel such treaty, but it is in the discretion of the other party to cancel it on the ground of violation. There is no unanimity among @@ -29302,7 +29261,7 @@ a cancellation nor reserves the right of cancellation.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Subsequent Change of Status of one of the Contracting Parties.</p></div> -<p>§ 548. <a name="A_cause_which548" id="A_cause_which548"></a>A cause which <i>ipso facto</i> cancels treaties is +<p>§ 548. <a name="A_cause_which548" id="A_cause_which548"></a>A cause which <i>ipso facto</i> cancels treaties is such subsequent change of status of one of the contracting States as transforms it into a dependency of another State. As everything depends upon the merits @@ -29330,16 +29289,16 @@ becoming members of the Federal State retain their binding force.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a> See - Moore, V. § 773, and - above, <a href="#Footnote_112_112">§ 82, p. 128, note 1</a>, - and § <a href="#As_treaties_are_binding521">521</a>.</p></div> + Moore, V. § 773, and + above, <a href="#Footnote_112_112">§ 82, p. 128, note 1</a>, + and § <a href="#As_treaties_are_binding521">521</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>War.</p></div> -<p>§ 549. How far war is a general ground of cancellation +<p>§ 549. How far war is a general ground of cancellation of treaties is not quite settled. Details on this point will be given - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_doctrine_was99">vol. II. § 99</a>.</p> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#The_doctrine_was99">vol. II. § 99</a>.</p> @@ -29349,15 +29308,15 @@ point will be given </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 199—Hall, § 117—Taylor, § 400—Hartmann, § -51—Ullmann, § 85—Bonfils, Nos. 851-854—Despagnet, No. -456—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1191-1199—Rivier, II. pp. -143-146—Calvo, III. §§ 1637, 1666, 1669—Fiore, II. Nos. +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. § 199—Hall, § 117—Taylor, § 400—Hartmann, § +51—Ullmann, § 85—Bonfils, Nos. 851-854—Despagnet, No. +456—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 1191-1199—Rivier, II. pp. +143-146—Calvo, III. §§ 1637, 1666, 1669—Fiore, II. Nos. 1048-1049, and Code, Nos. 835-838.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Renewal of Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 550. Renewal of treaties is the term for the prolongation +<p>§ 550. Renewal of treaties is the term for the prolongation of such treaties before their expiration as were concluded for a definite period of time only. Renewal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span> can take place through a new treaty, and the old treaty @@ -29370,7 +29329,7 @@ given notice.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Reconfirmation.</p></div> -<p>§ 551. Reconfirmation is the term for the express +<p>§ 551. Reconfirmation is the term for the express statement made in a new treaty that a certain previous treaty, whose validity has or might have become doubtful, is still, and remains, valid. Reconfirmation takes @@ -29390,7 +29349,7 @@ contracting parties only.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Redintegration.</p></div> -<p>§ 552. Treaties which have lost their binding force +<p>§ 552. Treaties which have lost their binding force through expiration or cancellation may regain it through redintegration. A treaty becomes redintegrated by the mutual consent of the contracting parties regularly @@ -29414,18 +29373,18 @@ any instance of such tacit redintegration.</p> <span class="smaller">INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 16—Vattel, II. §§ 262-322—Hall, §§ 111-112—Phillimore, II. -§§ 64-95—Halleck, I. pp. 296-304—Taylor, §§ 373-393—Walker, § 31—Wheaton, -§ 287—Moore, V. §§ 763-764—Heffter, § 95—Ullmann, § 84—Bonfils, -Nos. 835-837—Despagnet, No. 450—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. -1171-1189—Mérignhac, II. p. 678—Nys, III. pp. 41-43—Rivier, II. pp. 122-125—Calvo, -III. §§ 1649-1660—Fiore, II. Nos. 1032-1046, and Code, Nos. -792-816—Martens, I. § 116—Westlake, I. pp. 282-283—Pick in R.G. +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 16—Vattel, II. §§ 262-322—Hall, §§ 111-112—Phillimore, II. +§§ 64-95—Halleck, I. pp. 296-304—Taylor, §§ 373-393—Walker, § 31—Wheaton, +§ 287—Moore, V. §§ 763-764—Heffter, § 95—Ullmann, § 84—Bonfils, +Nos. 835-837—Despagnet, No. 450—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. +1171-1189—Mérignhac, II. p. 678—Nys, III. pp. 41-43—Rivier, II. pp. 122-125—Calvo, +III. §§ 1649-1660—Fiore, II. Nos. 1032-1046, and Code, Nos. +792-816—Martens, I. § 116—Westlake, I. pp. 282-283—Pick in R.G. XVII. (1907), pp. 5-35—Hyde in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 46-61.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Authentic Interpretation, and the Compromise Clause.</p></div> -<p>§ 553. <a name="Ne553" id="Ne553"></a>Neither customary nor conventional rules of +<p>§ 553. <a name="Ne553" id="Ne553"></a>Neither customary nor conventional rules of International Law exist concerning interpretation of treaties. Grotius and the later authorities applied the rules of Roman Law respecting interpretation in general @@ -29461,13 +29420,13 @@ in their treaties.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Rules of Interpretation which recommend themselves.</p></div> -<p>§ 554. <a name="It554" id="It554"></a>It is of importance to enumerate some rules +<p>§ 554. <a name="It554" id="It554"></a>It is of importance to enumerate some rules of interpretation<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a> which recommend themselves on account of their suitability.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a> The whole matter of interpretation of treaties is dealt -with in an admirable way by Phillimore, II. §§ 64-95; see also Moore, V. -§ 763, and Wharton, II. § 133.</p></div> +with in an admirable way by Phillimore, II. §§ 64-95; see also Moore, V. +§ 763, and Wharton, II. § 133.</p></div> <p>(1) All treaties must be interpreted according to their reasonable in contradistinction to their literal @@ -29561,7 +29520,7 @@ clause<a name="FNanchor_912_912" id="FNanchor_912_912"></a><a href="#Footnote_91 States attribute to this clause must prevail.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a> See - below, § <a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>.</p></div> + below, § <a href="#Most_of_the_commercial580">580</a>.</p></div> <p>(10) If the meaning of a stipulation is ambiguous and one of the contracting parties, at a time before a @@ -29624,11 +29583,11 @@ text of the language of the other party.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" <div class="sidenote"><p>Important Law-making Treaties a product of the Nineteenth Century.</p></div> -<p>§ 555. <a name="La555" id="La555"></a>Law-making treaties<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> have been concluded +<p>§ 555. <a name="La555" id="La555"></a>Law-making treaties<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> have been concluded ever since International Law came into existence. It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that such law-making treaties existed as are of world-wide importance. -Although at the Congress at Münster and Osnabrück +Although at the Congress at Münster and Osnabrück all the then existing European Powers, with the exception of Great Britain, Russia, and Poland, were represented, the Westphalian Peace of 1648, to which France, @@ -29649,12 +29608,12 @@ many contain other stipulations besides those which are law-making.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a> Concerning the conception of law-making treaties, see - above, §§ <a href="#Treaties_are18">18</a> + above, §§ <a href="#Treaties_are18">18</a> and <a href="#These_important_functions492">492</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span></p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Final Act of the Vienna Congress.</p></div> -<p>§ 556. <a name="The_Final_Act556" id="The_Final_Act556"></a>The Final Act of the Vienna Congress,<a name="FNanchor_914_914" id="FNanchor_914_914"></a><a href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a> signed +<p>§ 556. <a name="The_Final_Act556" id="The_Final_Act556"></a>The Final Act of the Vienna Congress,<a name="FNanchor_914_914" id="FNanchor_914_914"></a><a href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a> signed on June 9, 1815, by Great Britain, Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain, and Sweden-Norway, comprises law-making stipulations of world-wide importance @@ -29667,37 +29626,37 @@ fourthly, the different classes of diplomatic envoys (article 118, No. 16).</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_914_914" id="Footnote_914_914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_914_914"><span class="label">[914]</span></a> Martens, N.R. II. p. 379. See - Angeberg, "Le congrès de -Vienne et les traités de 1815" (4 vols., 1863).</p></div> + Angeberg, "Le congrès de +Vienne et les traités de 1815" (4 vols., 1863).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Protocol of the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle.</p></div> -<p>§ 557. The Protocol of November 21 of the Congress +<p>§ 557. The Protocol of November 21 of the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle,<a name="FNanchor_915_915" id="FNanchor_915_915"></a><a href="#Footnote_915_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a> 1818, signed by Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia, contains the important law-making stipulation concerning the establishment of a fourth class of diplomatic envoys, the so-called "Ministers Resident," to rank before the -Chargés d'Affaires.</p> +Chargés d'Affaires.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_915_915" id="Footnote_915_915"></a><a href="#FNanchor_915_915"><span class="label">[915]</span></a> Martens, N.R. IV. p. 648. See Angeberg, op. cit.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of London of 1831.</p></div> -<p>§ 558. The Treaty of London<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> of November 15, 1831, +<p>§ 558. The Treaty of London<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> of November 15, 1831, signed by Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia, comprises in its article 7 the important law-making stipulation concerning the perpetual neutralisation of Belgium.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_916_916" id="Footnote_916_916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_916_916"><span class="label">[916]</span></a> Martens, N.R. XI. p. 390. See - Descamps, "La neutralité de + Descamps, "La neutralité de la Belgique" (1902).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Declaration of Paris.</p></div> -<p>§ 559. <a name="Th559" id="Th559"></a>The Declaration of Paris<a name="FNanchor_917_917" id="FNanchor_917_917"></a><a href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> of April 13, 1856, +<p>§ 559. <a name="Th559" id="Th559"></a>The Declaration of Paris<a name="FNanchor_917_917" id="FNanchor_917_917"></a><a href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> of April 13, 1856, signed by Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, is a pure law-making treaty of the greatest importance, stipulating four rules @@ -29719,7 +29678,7 @@ Spain and Mexico in 1907.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Geneva Convention.</p></div> -<p>§ 560. <a name="Th560" id="Th560"></a>The Geneva Convention<a name="FNanchor_918_918" id="FNanchor_918_918"></a><a href="#Footnote_918_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> of August 22, 1864, +<p>§ 560. <a name="Th560" id="Th560"></a>The Geneva Convention<a name="FNanchor_918_918" id="FNanchor_918_918"></a><a href="#Footnote_918_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> of August 22, 1864, and that of July 6, 1906, are pure law-making treaties for the amelioration of the conditions of the wounded of armies in the field. The Geneva Convention of 1864 @@ -29746,7 +29705,7 @@ Convention.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_918_918" id="Footnote_918_918"></a><a href="#FNanchor_918_918"><span class="label">[918]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. XVIII. p. 607. See Lueder, "Die Genfer -Convention" (1876), and Münzel, "Untersuchungen über die Genfer +Convention" (1876), and Münzel, "Untersuchungen über die Genfer Convention" (1901).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_919_919" id="Footnote_919_919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_919_919"><span class="label">[919]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. XVIII. p. 612.</p></div> @@ -29755,7 +29714,7 @@ Convention" (1901).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of London of 1867.</p></div> -<p>§ 561. The Treaty of London<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNanchor_921_921"></a><a href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a> of May 11, 1867, +<p>§ 561. The Treaty of London<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNanchor_921_921"></a><a href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a> of May 11, 1867, signed by Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, France, Holland, Italy, Prussia, and Russia, comprises in its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span> article 2 the important law-making stipulation concerning @@ -29767,7 +29726,7 @@ Neutre" (1900).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Declaration of St. Petersburg.</p></div> -<p>§ 562. The Declaration of St. Petersburg<a name="FNanchor_922_922" id="FNanchor_922_922"></a><a href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a> of November +<p>§ 562. The Declaration of St. Petersburg<a name="FNanchor_922_922" id="FNanchor_922_922"></a><a href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a> of November 29, 1868, signed by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Holland, Italy, Persia, Portugal, Prussia and other German @@ -29782,7 +29741,7 @@ use of in war.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Berlin of 1878.</p></div> -<p>§ 563. The Treaty of Berlin<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> of July 13, 1878, +<p>§ 563. The Treaty of Berlin<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> of July 13, 1878, signed by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, is law-making with regard to Bulgaria, Montenegro, Roumania, and @@ -29797,7 +29756,7 @@ congresso di Berlino" (1878).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General Act of the Congo Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 564. The General Act of the Congo Conference<a name="FNanchor_924_924" id="FNanchor_924_924"></a><a href="#Footnote_924_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> +<p>§ 564. The General Act of the Congo Conference<a name="FNanchor_924_924" id="FNanchor_924_924"></a><a href="#Footnote_924_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> of Berlin of February 26, 1885, signed by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway, @@ -29817,7 +29776,7 @@ afrikanische Conferenz und der Congostaat" (1885).<span class="pagenum"><a name= <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Constantinople of 1888.</p></div> -<p>§ 565. The Treaty of Constantinople<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a> of October 29, +<p>§ 565. The Treaty of Constantinople<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a> of October 29, 1888, signed by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Russia, Spain, and Turkey, is a pure law-making treaty stipulating the permanent @@ -29825,11 +29784,11 @@ neutralisation of the Suez Canal and the freedom of navigation thereon for vessels of all nations.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XV. p. 557. See - above, § <a href="#The_most_important183">183</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_most_important183">183</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>General Act of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 566. The General Act of the Brussels Anti-Slavery +<p>§ 566. The General Act of the Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference,<a name="FNanchor_926_926" id="FNanchor_926_926"></a><a href="#Footnote_926_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a> signed on July 2, 1890, by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, the Congo Free State, Denmark, France,<a name="FNanchor_927_927" id="FNanchor_927_927"></a><a href="#Footnote_927_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a> Germany, Holland, Italy, Persia, @@ -29846,7 +29805,7 @@ Congo Free State, France, Italy, Holland, Portugal, Russia, and Sweden.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_926_926" id="Footnote_926_926"></a><a href="#FNanchor_926_926"><span class="label">[926]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XVI. p. 3, and XXV. p. 543. See - Lentner, "Der afrikanische Sklavenhandel und die Brüsseler Conferenzen" + Lentner, "Der afrikanische Sklavenhandel und die Brüsseler Conferenzen" (1891).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_927_927" id="Footnote_927_927"></a><a href="#FNanchor_927_927"><span class="label">[927]</span></a> But France only ratified this General Act with the @@ -29856,7 +29815,7 @@ exclusion of certain articles.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Two Declarations of the First Hague Peace Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 567. The Final Act of the Hague Peace Conference<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> +<p>§ 567. The Final Act of the Hague Peace Conference<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> of July 29, 1899, was a pure law-making treaty comprising three separate conventions—namely, a convention for the peaceful adjustment of international differences, @@ -29879,12 +29838,12 @@ declarations except the United States of America.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXVI. p. 920. See Holls, "The -Peace Conference at the Hague" (1900), and Mérignhac, "La Conférence +Peace Conference at the Hague" (1900), and Mérignhac, "La Conférence internationale de la Paix" (1900).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaty of Washington of 1901.</p></div> -<p>§ 568. <a name="The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568" id="The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568"></a>The so-called Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of +<p>§ 568. <a name="The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568" id="The_so-called_Hay-Pauncefote568"></a>The so-called Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of Washington<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a> between Great Britain and the United States of America, signed November 18, 1901, although law-making between the parties only, is nevertheless @@ -29902,12 +29861,12 @@ stipulation of world-wide importance, because it neutralises the Straits of Magellan for ever and declares them open to vessels of all nations. See above, <a href="#Footnote_358_358">p. 267, note 2</a>, and - below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">vol. II. § 72</a>.</p></div> + below, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41047/41047-h/41047-h.htm#Although_the_Open_Sea72">vol. II. § 72</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conventions and Declaration of Second Hague Peace Conference.</p></div> -<p>§ 568<i>a</i>. <a name="The_Final_Act568a" id="The_Final_Act568a"></a>The Final Act of the Second Hague Peace +<p>§ 568<i>a</i>. <a name="The_Final_Act568a" id="The_Final_Act568a"></a>The Final Act of the Second Hague Peace Conference of October 18, 1907, is a pure law-making treaty of enormous importance comprising the following thirteen conventions<a name="FNanchor_932_932" id="FNanchor_932_932"></a><a href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> and a declaration:—</p> @@ -30014,7 +29973,7 @@ later.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>The Declaration of London.</p></div> -<p>§ 568<i>b</i>. <a name="The_Declaration568b" id="The_Declaration568b"></a>The Declaration of London<a name="FNanchor_933_933" id="FNanchor_933_933"></a><a href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> of February +<p>§ 568<i>b</i>. <a name="The_Declaration568b" id="The_Declaration568b"></a>The Declaration of London<a name="FNanchor_933_933" id="FNanchor_933_933"></a><a href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a> of February 26, 1909, concerning the Laws of Naval War, is a pure law-making treaty of the greatest importance. All the ten Powers represented at the Conference of @@ -30044,18 +30003,18 @@ States concerned will in time accede to the Declaration of London.</p></div> <span class="smaller">ALLIANCES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 15—Vattel, III. §§ 78-102—Twiss, I. § 246—Taylor, §§ 347-349—Wheaton, -§§ 278-285—Bluntschli, §§ 446-449—Heffter, § 92—Geffcken in -Holtzendorff, III. pp. 115-139—Ullmann, § 82—Bonfils, Nos. 871-881—Despagnet, -No. 459—Mérignhac, II. p. 683—Nys, III. pp. 554-557—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Grotius, II. c. 15—Vattel, III. §§ 78-102—Twiss, I. § 246—Taylor, §§ 347-349—Wheaton, +§§ 278-285—Bluntschli, §§ 446-449—Heffter, § 92—Geffcken in +Holtzendorff, III. pp. 115-139—Ullmann, § 82—Bonfils, Nos. 871-881—Despagnet, +No. 459—Mérignhac, II. p. 683—Nys, III. pp. 554-557—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 934-967—Rivier, II. pp. 111-116—Calvo, III. -§§ 1587-1588—Fiore, II. No. 1094, and Code, Nos. 893-899—Martens, I. -§ 113—Rolin-Jaequemyns in R.I. XX. (1888), pp. 5-35—Erich, "Ueber -Allianzen und Allianzverhältnisse nach heutigem Völkerrecht" (1907).</p> +§§ 1587-1588—Fiore, II. No. 1094, and Code, Nos. 893-899—Martens, I. +§ 113—Rolin-Jaequemyns in R.I. XX. (1888), pp. 5-35—Erich, "Ueber +Allianzen und Allianzverhältnisse nach heutigem Völkerrecht" (1907).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception of Alliances.</p></div> -<p>§ 569. <a name="Alliances_in_the_strict569" id="Alliances_in_the_strict569"></a>Alliances in the strict sense of the term are +<p>§ 569. <a name="Alliances_in_the_strict569" id="Alliances_in_the_strict569"></a>Alliances in the strict sense of the term are treaties of union between two or more States for the purpose of defending each other against an attack in war, or of jointly attacking third States, or for both @@ -30165,7 +30124,7 @@ Done in duplicate at London, the 13th day of July 1911.<span class="pagenum"><a <div class="sidenote"><p>Parties to Alliance.</p></div> -<p>§ 570. <a name="Subjects_of_alliances570" id="Subjects_of_alliances570"></a>Subjects of alliances are said to be full-Sovereign +<p>§ 570. <a name="Subjects_of_alliances570" id="Subjects_of_alliances570"></a>Subjects of alliances are said to be full-Sovereign States only. But the fact cannot be denied that alliances have been concluded by States under suzerainty. Thus, the convention of April 16, 1877, @@ -30192,7 +30151,7 @@ involve a breach of its neutrality.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Different kinds of Alliances.</p></div> -<p>§ 571. As already mentioned, an alliance may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span> +<p>§ 571. As already mentioned, an alliance may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span> offensive or defensive, or both. All three kinds may be either general alliances, in which case the allies are united against any possible enemy whatever, or particular @@ -30204,11 +30163,11 @@ regards offensive alliances, it must be emphasised that they are valid only when their object is not immoral.<a name="FNanchor_938_938" id="FNanchor_938_938"></a><a href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_938_938" id="Footnote_938_938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_938_938"><span class="label">[938]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#It_is_a_customarily_recognised505">505</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#It_is_a_customarily_recognised505">505</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conditions of Alliances.</p></div> -<p>§ 572. Alliances may contain all sorts of conditions. +<p>§ 572. Alliances may contain all sorts of conditions. The most important are the conditions regarding the assistance to be rendered. It may be that assistance is to be rendered with the whole or a limited part of @@ -30238,11 +30197,11 @@ territory in case of war against Turkey was really a treaty of alliance.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_939_939" id="Footnote_939_939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_939_939"><span class="label">[939]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Subjects_of_alliances570">570</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Subjects_of_alliances570">570</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p><i>Casus Fœderis.</i></p></div> -<p>§ 573. <i><a name="Casus573" id="Casus573"></a>Casus fœderis</i> is the event upon the occurrence +<p>§ 573. <i><a name="Casus573" id="Casus573"></a>Casus fœderis</i> is the event upon the occurrence of which it becomes the duty of one of the allies to render the promised assistance to the other. Thus in case of a defensive alliance the <i>casus fœderis</i> occurs @@ -30258,7 +30217,7 @@ fœderis</i>.</p> <p>That the <i>casus fœderis</i> is not influenced by the fact that a State, subsequent to entering into an alliance, concludes a treaty of general arbitration with a third -State, has been pointed out above, § <a href="#According_to_the_principle522">522</a>.</p> +State, has been pointed out above, § <a href="#According_to_the_principle522">522</a>.</p> @@ -30268,21 +30227,21 @@ State, has been pointed out above, § <a href="#According_to_the_principle522">52 </h4> -<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 235-239—Hall, § 113—Phillimore, II. §§ 56-63—Twiss, I. § 249—Halleck, -I. p. 285—Taylor, §§ 350-353—Wheaton, § 278—Bluntschli, §§ -430-439—Heffter, § 97—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 85-112—Liszt, -§ 22—Ullmann, § 83—Fiore, Code, Nos. 787-791—Bonfils, Nos. -882-893—Despagnet, No. 461—Mérignhac, II. p. 681—Nys, III. pp. 36-41—Pradier-Fodéré, +<p class="indh1">Vattel, II. §§ 235-239—Hall, § 113—Phillimore, II. §§ 56-63—Twiss, I. § 249—Halleck, +I. p. 285—Taylor, §§ 350-353—Wheaton, § 278—Bluntschli, §§ +430-439—Heffter, § 97—Geffcken in Holtzendorff, III. pp. 85-112—Liszt, +§ 22—Ullmann, § 83—Fiore, Code, Nos. 787-791—Bonfils, Nos. +882-893—Despagnet, No. 461—Mérignhac, II. p. 681—Nys, III. pp. 36-41—Pradier-Fodéré, II. Nos. 969-1020—Rivier, II. pp. 97-105—Calvo, -III. §§ 1584-1585—Martens, I. § 115—Neyron, "Essai historique et -politique sur les garanties" (1779)—Milovanovitch, "Des traités de +III. §§ 1584-1585—Martens, I. § 115—Neyron, "Essai historique et +politique sur les garanties" (1779)—Milovanovitch, "Des traités de garantie en droit international" (1888)—Erich, "Ueber Allianzen und -Allianzverhältnisse nach heutigem Völkerrecht" (1907)—Quabbe, "Die -völkerrechtliche Garantie" (1911).</p> +Allianzverhältnisse nach heutigem Völkerrecht" (1907)—Quabbe, "Die +völkerrechtliche Garantie" (1911).</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Conception and Object of Guarantee Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 574. <a name="Treaties_of_guarantee574" id="Treaties_of_guarantee574"></a>Treaties of guarantee are conventions by +<p>§ 574. <a name="Treaties_of_guarantee574" id="Treaties_of_guarantee574"></a>Treaties of guarantee are conventions by which one of the parties engages to do what is in its power to secure a certain object to the other party. Guarantee treaties may be mutual or unilateral. They @@ -30309,7 +30268,7 @@ treaties. See Munro, "England's Treaties of Guarantee," in <i>The Law Magazine and Review</i>, VI. (1881), pp. 215-238.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_941_941" id="Footnote_941_941"></a><a href="#FNanchor_941_941"><span class="label">[941]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#A_neutralised_State95">95</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#A_neutralised_State95">95</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_942_942" id="Footnote_942_942"></a><a href="#FNanchor_942_942"><span class="label">[942]</span></a> Thus Great Britain, France, and Russia have guaranteed, by the Treaty with Denmark of July 13, 1863, the independence (but also the @@ -30327,7 +30286,7 @@ any foreign Power.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Treaties of Guarantee.</p></div> -<p>§ 575. The effect of guarantee treaties is the creation +<p>§ 575. The effect of guarantee treaties is the creation of the duty of the guarantors to do what is in their power in order to secure the guaranteed objects. The compulsion to be applied by a guarantor for that purpose @@ -30371,11 +30330,11 @@ would as a rule seem to extend to the early years only of its existence while the original conditions still obtain.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_944_944" id="Footnote_944_944"></a><a href="#FNanchor_944_944"><span class="label">[944]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Although_as_just_stated539">539</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Effect of Collective Guarantee.</p></div> -<p>§ 576. In contradistinction to treaties constituting +<p>§ 576. In contradistinction to treaties constituting a guarantee on the part of one or more States severally, the effect of treaties constituting a <i>collective</i> guarantee on the part of several States requires special consideration. @@ -30407,7 +30366,7 @@ them would not accrue to the minority.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_945_945" id="Footnote_945_945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_945_945"><span class="label">[945]</span></a> Hansard, vol. 183, p. 150.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_946_946" id="Footnote_946_946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_946_946"><span class="label">[946]</span></a> See - Hall, § 113; Bluntschli, § + Hall, § 113; Bluntschli, § 440; and Quabbe, op. cit. pp. 149-159.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_947_947" id="Footnote_947_947"></a><a href="#FNanchor_947_947"><span class="label">[947]</span></a> See @@ -30422,7 +30381,7 @@ the object of guarantee.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Pseudo-Guarantees.</p></div> -<p>§ 576<i>a</i>. <a name="Different_from_real576a" id="Different_from_real576a"></a>Different from real Guarantee Treaties are +<p>§ 576<i>a</i>. <a name="Different_from_real576a" id="Different_from_real576a"></a>Different from real Guarantee Treaties are such treaties as declare the policy of the parties with regard to the maintenance of their territorial <i>status quo</i>. Whereas treaties guaranteeing the maintenance of the @@ -30501,7 +30460,7 @@ North Sea and the Baltic real Guarantee Treaties.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Treaties of Protection.</p></div> -<p>§ 577. <a name="Different_from_guarantee577" id="Different_from_guarantee577"></a>Different from guarantee treaties are treaties +<p>§ 577. <a name="Different_from_guarantee577" id="Different_from_guarantee577"></a>Different from guarantee treaties are treaties of protection. Whereas the former constitute the guarantee of a certain object to the guaranteed, treaties of protection are treaties by which strong States simply @@ -30510,7 +30469,7 @@ whatever. A treaty of protection must, however, not be confounded with a treaty of protectorate.<a name="FNanchor_951_951" id="FNanchor_951_951"></a><a href="#Footnote_951_951" class="fnanchor">[951]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_951_951" id="Footnote_951_951"></a><a href="#FNanchor_951_951"><span class="label">[951]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Legally_and_materially92">92</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span></p></div> + above, § <a href="#Legally_and_materially92">92</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span></p></div> <h4> @@ -30518,18 +30477,18 @@ be confounded with a treaty of protectorate.<a name="FNanchor_951_951" id="FNanc <span class="smaller">COMMERCIAL TREATIES</span> </h4> -<p class="indh1">Taylor, 354—Moore, V. §§ 765-769—Melle in Holtzendorff, III. pp. -143-256—Liszt, § 28—Ullmann, § 145—Bonfils, No. 918—Despagnet, No. -462—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. Nos. 2005-2033—Mérignhac, II. pp. +<p class="indh1">Taylor, 354—Moore, V. §§ 765-769—Melle in Holtzendorff, III. pp. +143-256—Liszt, § 28—Ullmann, § 145—Bonfils, No. 918—Despagnet, No. +462—Pradier-Fodéré, IV. Nos. 2005-2033—Mérignhac, II. pp. 688-693—Rivier, I. pp. 370-374—Fiore, II. Nos. 1065-1077, and Code, -Nos. 848-854—Martens, II. §§ 52-55—Steck, "Versuch über Handels- und -Schiffahrtsverträge" (1782)—Schraut, "System der Handelsverträge und -der Meistbegünstigung" (1884)—Veillcovitch, "Les traités de commerce" +Nos. 848-854—Martens, II. §§ 52-55—Steck, "Versuch über Handels- und +Schiffahrtsverträge" (1782)—Schraut, "System der Handelsverträge und +der Meistbegünstigung" (1884)—Veillcovitch, "Les traités de commerce" (1892)—Nys, "Les origines du droit international" (1894), pp. 278-294—Herod, "Favoured Nation Treatment" (1901)—Calwer, "Die -Meistbegünstigung in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nord-America" -(1902)—Glier, "Die Meistbegünstigungs-Klausel" (1906)—Cavaretta, "La -clausola della natiozione più favorita" (1906)—Barclay, "Problems of +Meistbegünstigung in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nord-America" +(1902)—Glier, "Die Meistbegünstigungs-Klausel" (1906)—Cavaretta, "La +clausola della natiozione più favorita" (1906)—Barclay, "Problems of International Law and Diplomacy" (1907), pp. 137-142—Hornbeck, "The Most-Favoured Nation Clause" (1910), and in A.J. III. (1909), pp. 394-422, 619-647, and 798-827—Lehr in R.I. XXV. (1893), pp. @@ -30542,7 +30501,7 @@ Law Quarterly Review</i>, XXIV. (1908), pp. 328-334. <div class="sidenote"><p>Commercial Treaties in General.</p></div> -<p>§ 578. <a name="Commercial_treaties578" id="Commercial_treaties578"></a>Commercial treaties are treaties concerning +<p>§ 578. <a name="Commercial_treaties578" id="Commercial_treaties578"></a>Commercial treaties are treaties concerning the commerce and navigation of the contracting States and concerning the subjects of these States who are engaged in commerce and navigation. Incidentally, however, @@ -30579,7 +30538,7 @@ trade and of the most-favoured-nation clause.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of Coasting Trade in Commercial Treaties.</p></div> -<p>§ 579. <a name="The_meaning_of_the_term579" id="The_meaning_of_the_term579"></a>The meaning of the term coasting-trade<a name="FNanchor_952_952" id="FNanchor_952_952"></a><a href="#Footnote_952_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a> in +<p>§ 579. <a name="The_meaning_of_the_term579" id="The_meaning_of_the_term579"></a>The meaning of the term coasting-trade<a name="FNanchor_952_952" id="FNanchor_952_952"></a><a href="#Footnote_952_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a> in commercial treaties must not be confounded with its meaning in International Law generally. The meaning of the term in International Law becomes apparent @@ -30608,7 +30567,7 @@ under certain conditions only.</p> pp. 328-334.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_953_953" id="Footnote_953_953"></a><a href="#FNanchor_953_953"><span class="label">[953]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree187">187</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#Theory_and_practice_agree187">187</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_954_954" id="Footnote_954_954"></a><a href="#FNanchor_954_954"><span class="label">[954]</span></a> It must be emphasised that navigation and trade from abroad to several ports of the same coast successively—for instance, from @@ -30716,8 +30675,8 @@ coasting-trade and cabotage would have disappeared.</p> of value to draw attention here to a French statute of April 2, 1889. Whereas a statute of April 9, 1866, had thrown open the trade between France and Algeria to vessels of all nations, article 1 of the statute -of April 2, 1889, enacts: <i>La navigation entre la France et l'Algérie ne -pourra s'effectuer que sous pavillon français</i>. This French statute does +of April 2, 1889, enacts: <i>La navigation entre la France et l'Algérie ne +pourra s'effectuer que sous pavillon français</i>. This French statute does not, as is frequently maintained, declare the trade between France and Algeria to be coasting-trade, but it nevertheless reserves such trade exclusively for French vessels. The French Government, in bringing the @@ -30738,12 +30697,12 @@ the extension of the term coasting-trade to trade between any American port and Porto Rico, because this extension was recognised by section 9 of the Porto Rican Act, and because in case of a conflict between Municipal and International Law—see - above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>—the Courts are bound + above, § <a href="#If_the_Law21">21</a>—the Courts are bound to apply their Municipal Law.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Meaning of most-favoured-nation Clause.</p></div> -<p>§ 580. <a name="Most_of_the_commercial580" id="Most_of_the_commercial580"></a>Most of the commercial treaties of the nineteenth +<p>§ 580. <a name="Most_of_the_commercial580" id="Most_of_the_commercial580"></a>Most of the commercial treaties of the nineteenth century contain a stipulation which is characterised as the most-favoured-nation clause. The wording of this clause is by no means the same in all treaties, @@ -30823,7 +30782,7 @@ common knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_960_960" id="FNanchor_960_960"></a><a href="# Barclay, op. cit. pp. 142 and 159.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_959_959" id="Footnote_959_959"></a><a href="#FNanchor_959_959"><span class="label">[959]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#If_it_is_a_matter_of_common_knowledge9of554">554, No. 9</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#If_it_is_a_matter_of_common_knowledge9of554">554, No. 9</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_960_960" id="Footnote_960_960"></a><a href="#FNanchor_960_960"><span class="label">[960]</span></a> It is not possible in a general treatise on International Law to enter into the details of the history, the different forms, the @@ -30831,7 +30790,7 @@ application, and the interpretation of the most-favoured-nation clause. Readers must be referred for further information to the works and articles of Calwer, Herod, Glier, Cavaretta, Visser, Melle, and others quoted - above before § <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a>. See also Moore, V. §§ 765-769.</p></div> + above before § <a href="#Commercial_treaties578">578</a>. See also Moore, V. §§ 765-769.</p></div> <p>V</p> @@ -30839,7 +30798,7 @@ quoted <p>UNIONS CONCERNING COMMON NON-POLITICAL INTERESTS</p> -<p class="indh1">Nys, II. pp. 264-270—Mérignhac, II. pp. 694-731—Descamps, "Les offices +<p class="indh1">Nys, II. pp. 264-270—Mérignhac, II. pp. 694-731—Descamps, "Les offices internationaux et leur avenir" (1894)—Moynier, "Les Bureaux internationaux des unions universelles" (1892)—Poinsard, "Les Unions et ententes internationales" (2nd ed. 1901)—Renault in R.G. @@ -30848,7 +30807,7 @@ and in A.J. I. pp. 579-623, and III. pp. 1-45.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Object of the Unions.</p></div> -<p>§ 581. The development of international intercourse +<p>§ 581. The development of international intercourse has called into existence innumerable treaties for the purpose of satisfying economic and other non-political interests of the several States. Each nation concludes @@ -30891,7 +30850,7 @@ See also Reinsch, "Public International Unions" (1911).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Post and Telegraphs.</p></div> -<p>§ 582. <a name="Whereas_previously582" id="Whereas_previously582"></a>Whereas previously the States severally +<p>§ 582. <a name="Whereas_previously582" id="Whereas_previously582"></a>Whereas previously the States severally concluded treaties concerning postal and telegraphic arrangements, they entered into Unions for this purpose during the second part of the nineteenth @@ -30922,8 +30881,8 @@ Union possesses an International Office seated at Berne.<a name="FNanchor_965_96 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_965_965" id="Footnote_965_965"></a><a href="#FNanchor_965_965"><span class="label">[965]</span></a> See Fischer, "Post und Telegraphie im Weltverkehr" (1879); -Schröter, "Der Weltpostverein" (1900); Rolland, "De la correspondance -postale et télégraphique dans les relations internationales" (1901).</p></div> +Schröter, "Der Weltpostverein" (1900); Rolland, "De la correspondance +postale et télégraphique dans les relations internationales" (1901).</p></div> <p>(2) <a name="A_general_telegraphic2of582" id="A_general_telegraphic2of582"></a>A general telegraphic convention was concluded at Paris already on May 17, 1865, and in 1868 an @@ -30937,15 +30896,15 @@ but as yet, although called "Universal" Telegraphic Union, only about thirty States are members.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_966_966" id="Footnote_966_966"></a><a href="#FNanchor_966_966"><span class="label">[966]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1868_the_international464">464</a>, and Fischer "Die Telegraphie und das -Völkerrecht" (1876).</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_1868_the_international464">464</a>, and Fischer "Die Telegraphie und das +Völkerrecht" (1876).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_967_967" id="Footnote_967_967"></a><a href="#FNanchor_967_967"><span class="label">[967]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. III. p. 614.</p></div> <p>(3) Concerning the general treaty of March 14, 1884, for the protection of submarine telegraph cables,<a name="FNanchor_968_968" id="FNanchor_968_968"></a><a href="#Footnote_968_968" class="fnanchor">[968]</a> see - above, § <a href="#Th287">287</a>.</p> + above, § <a href="#Th287">287</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_968_968" id="Footnote_968_968"></a><a href="#FNanchor_968_968"><span class="label">[968]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XI. p. 281.</p></div> @@ -30957,13 +30916,13 @@ Berne which is combined with that of the Universal Telegraph Union.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_969_969" id="Footnote_969_969"></a><a href="#FNanchor_969_969"><span class="label">[969]</span></a> See - Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. III. p. 147, and above, § 174, -No. 2, and §§ <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i> and <a href="#To_secure_radio287b">287<i>b</i></a>, where the literature concerned is also + Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. III. p. 147, and above, § 174, +No. 2, and §§ <a href="#Th287">287</a><i>a</i> and <a href="#To_secure_radio287b">287<i>b</i></a>, where the literature concerned is also to be found.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Transport and Communication.</p></div> -<p>§ 583. Two general conventions are in existence in +<p>§ 583. Two general conventions are in existence in the interest of transport and communication:—</p> <p>(1) <a name="A_general_convent1of583" id="A_general_convent1of583"></a>A general convention<a name="FNanchor_970_970" id="FNanchor_970_970"></a><a href="#Footnote_970_970" class="fnanchor">[970]</a> was concluded on October @@ -30973,7 +30932,7 @@ France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Luxemburg, Russia, and Switzerland—form a Union for this purpose, although the term "Union" is not made use of.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span> The Union possesses an International Office<a name="FNanchor_971_971" id="FNanchor_971_971"></a><a href="#Footnote_971_971" class="fnanchor">[971]</a> at Berne, -which issues the <i>Zeitschrift für den internationalen +which issues the <i>Zeitschrift für den internationalen Eisenbahn transport</i> and the <i>Bulletin des transports internationaux par chemins de fer</i>. Denmark, Roumania, and Sweden acceded to this Union some time @@ -30983,11 +30942,11 @@ after its conclusion.</p> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XIX. p. 289.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_971_971" id="Footnote_971_971"></a><a href="#FNanchor_971_971"><span class="label">[971]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#Nine_States470">470</a>, and Kaufmann, "Die mitteleuropäischen -Eisenbahnen und das internationale öffentliche Recht" (1893); Rosenthal, + above, § <a href="#Nine_States470">470</a>, and Kaufmann, "Die mitteleuropäischen +Eisenbahnen und das internationale öffentliche Recht" (1893); Rosenthal, "Internationales Eisenbahnfrachtrecht" (1894); Magne, "Des raccordements internationaux de chemins de fer, &c." (1901); Eger, "Das internationale -Uebereinkommen über den Eisenbahnfrachtverkehr" (2nd ed. 1903).</p></div> +Uebereinkommen über den Eisenbahnfrachtverkehr" (2nd ed. 1903).</p></div> <p>(2) A general convention concerning the International Circulation of Motor Vehicles<a name="FNanchor_972_972" id="FNanchor_972_972"></a><a href="#Footnote_972_972" class="fnanchor">[972]</a> was concluded on @@ -31012,7 +30971,7 @@ Council, 1910.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Copyright.</p></div> -<p>§ 584. <a name="On_September584" id="On_September584"></a>On September 9, 1886, the Convention of +<p>§ 584. <a name="On_September584" id="On_September584"></a>On September 9, 1886, the Convention of Berne was signed for the purpose of creating an international Union for the Protection of Works of Art and Literature. The Union has an International Office<a name="FNanchor_974_974" id="FNanchor_974_974"></a><a href="#Footnote_974_974" class="fnanchor">[974]</a> @@ -31036,20 +30995,20 @@ and sections 30 and 31 of the latter Act now deal with International Copyright.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_974_974" id="Footnote_974_974"></a><a href="#FNanchor_974_974"><span class="label">[974]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1883_an_International_Union467">467</a>, and Orelli, "Der internationale Schutz -des Urheberrechts" (1887); Thomas, "La convention littéraire et + above, § <a href="#In_1883_an_International_Union467">467</a>, and Orelli, "Der internationale Schutz +des Urheberrechts" (1887); Thomas, "La convention littéraire et artistique internationale, &c." (1894); Briggs, "The Law of -International Copyright" (1906); Röthlisberger, "Die Berner Übereinkunft +International Copyright" (1906); Röthlisberger, "Die Berner Ãœbereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst" (1906).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_975_975" id="Footnote_975_975"></a><a href="#FNanchor_975_975"><span class="label">[975]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. IV. p. 590; Wauwermans, "La -convention de Berne (revisée à Berlin) pour la protection des œuvres -littéraires et artistiques" (1910).</p></div> +convention de Berne (revisée à Berlin) pour la protection des œuvres +littéraires et artistiques" (1910).</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Commerce and Industry.</p></div> -<p>§ 585. In the interests of commerce and industry +<p>§ 585. In the interests of commerce and industry three Unions are in existence:—</p> <p>(1) <a name="On_July1of585" id="On_July1of585"></a>On July 5, 1890, the Convention of Brussels was @@ -31072,7 +31031,7 @@ States of America, Uruguay, and Venezuela.</p> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XVIII. p. 558.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_977_977" id="Footnote_977_977"></a><a href="#FNanchor_977_977"><span class="label">[977]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_International_Union469">469</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_International_Union469">469</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) <a name="On_March2of585" id="On_March2of585"></a>On March 20, 1883, the Convention of Paris<a name="FNanchor_978_978" id="FNanchor_978_978"></a><a href="#Footnote_978_978" class="fnanchor">[978]</a> was signed for the purpose of creating an international @@ -31097,13 +31056,13 @@ is a party to the former but not to the latter.</p> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. X. p. 133.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_979_979" id="Footnote_979_979"></a><a href="#FNanchor_979_979"><span class="label">[979]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1883_an_International_Union467">467</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_1883_an_International_Union467">467</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_980_980" id="Footnote_980_980"></a><a href="#FNanchor_980_980"><span class="label">[980]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXII. p. 208, and Pelletier et -Vidal-Noguet, "La convention d'union pour la protection de la propriété -industrielle du 20 mars 1883 et les conférences de révision -postérieures" (1902).</p></div> +Vidal-Noguet, "La convention d'union pour la protection de la propriété +industrielle du 20 mars 1883 et les conférences de révision +postérieures" (1902).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_981_981" id="Footnote_981_981"></a><a href="#FNanchor_981_981"><span class="label">[981]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXX. p. 475.</p></div> @@ -31124,7 +31083,7 @@ Act<a name="FNanchor_984_984" id="FNanchor_984_984"></a><a href="#Footnote_984_9 "Welt-Zuckerindustrie und internationales und coloniales Recht" (1904).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_983_983" id="Footnote_983_983"></a><a href="#FNanchor_983_983"><span class="label">[983]</span></a> See - above, §§ <a href="#According_to_article462">462</a> + above, §§ <a href="#According_to_article462">462</a> and <a href="#The_States_which471">471</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_984_984" id="Footnote_984_984"></a><a href="#FNanchor_984_984"><span class="label">[984]</span></a> See @@ -31132,7 +31091,7 @@ Act<a name="FNanchor_984_984" id="FNanchor_984_984"></a><a href="#Footnote_984_9 <div class="sidenote"><p>Agriculture.</p></div> -<p>§ 586. Three general conventions are in existence in +<p>§ 586. Three general conventions are in existence in the interest of Agriculture:—</p> <p>(1) <a name="On_June1of586" id="On_June1of586"></a>On June 7, 1905, the Convention for the Creation @@ -31141,7 +31100,7 @@ at Rome by forty States. The Institute has its seat at Rome.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_985_985" id="Footnote_985_985"></a><a href="#FNanchor_985_985"><span class="label">[985]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1905_the_Agricultural471a">471<i>a</i></a>, and Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. II. p. + above, § <a href="#In_1905_the_Agricultural471a">471<i>a</i></a>, and Martens, N.R.G. 3rd Ser. II. p. 238, and Treaty Series, 1910, No. 17.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span></p></div> <p>(2) Owing to the great damage done to grapes @@ -31171,7 +31130,7 @@ Luxemburg, Monaco, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Welfare of Working Classes.</p></div> -<p>§ 587. Two general treaties are in existence with +<p>§ 587. Two general treaties are in existence with regard to the welfare of the working classes:—</p> <p>(1) On September 26, 1906, was signed at Berne a @@ -31203,7 +31162,7 @@ in 1910.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Weights, Measures, Coinage.</p></div> -<p>§ 588. One Union concerning weights and measures +<p>§ 588. One Union concerning weights and measures and two monetary Unions are in existence.</p> <p>(1) <a name="In_the_interest_of1of588" id="In_the_interest_of1of588"></a>In the interest of the unification and improvement @@ -31222,7 +31181,7 @@ Servia acceded later.</p> Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. I. p. 663.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_992_992" id="Footnote_992_992"></a><a href="#FNanchor_992_992"><span class="label">[992]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_States_which_have466">466</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_States_which_have466">466</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) On December 23, 1865, Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland signed the Convention of Paris which @@ -31259,7 +31218,7 @@ had no practical result.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Official Publications.</p></div> -<p>§ 589. On March 15, 1886, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, +<p>§ 589. On March 15, 1886, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States of America signed at Brussels a convention<a name="FNanchor_997_997" id="FNanchor_997_997"></a><a href="#Footnote_997_997" class="fnanchor">[997]</a> concerning the exchange of their official documents @@ -31278,7 +31237,7 @@ parlementaires</i>.</p> <div class="sidenote"><p>Sanitation.</p></div> -<p>§ 590. <a name="In_the_interest590" id="In_the_interest590"></a>In the interest of public health as endangered +<p>§ 590. <a name="In_the_interest590" id="In_the_interest590"></a>In the interest of public health as endangered by cholera and plague a number of so-called sanitary conventions have been concluded:—</p> @@ -31369,11 +31328,11 @@ later.</p> 1909, No. 6.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1005_1005" id="Footnote_1005_1005"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1005_1005"><span class="label">[1005]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1907_the_International_Health471b">471<i>b</i></a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_1907_the_International_Health471b">471<i>b</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Pharmacopœia.</p></div> -<p>§ 591. On November 29, 1906, Great Britain, Germany, +<p>§ 591. On November 29, 1906, Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Spain, the United States of America, France, Greece, Italy, Luxemburg, Norway, Holland, Russia, Servia, @@ -31387,7 +31346,7 @@ Formulas for Potent Drugs.<a name="FNanchor_1006_1006" id="FNanchor_1006_1006">< <div class="sidenote"><p>Humanity.</p></div> -<p>§ 592. In the interest of humanity two Unions—although +<p>§ 592. In the interest of humanity two Unions—although the term "Union" is not made use of in the treaties—are in existence, namely, that concerning Slave Trade and that concerning the so-called White Slave @@ -31403,7 +31362,7 @@ trade came into existence. This Union was established by the General Act<a name="FNanchor_1008_1008" id="FNanchor_1008_1008"></a><a href="#Footnote_1008_1008" class="fnanchor">[1008]</a> of the Brussels Conference, signed on July 2, 1890, and possesses two International Offices,<a name="FNanchor_1009_1009" id="FNanchor_1009_1009"></a><a href="#Footnote_1009_1009" class="fnanchor">[1009]</a> namely, the International Maritime Office at Zanzibar -and the Bureau Spécial attached to the Foreign Office +and the Bureau Spécial attached to the Foreign Office at Brussels. The signatory Powers are:—Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Congo Free State, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Persia, Portugal, @@ -31412,13 +31371,13 @@ America, Turkey, and Zanzibar. Liberia acceded later.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1007_1007" id="Footnote_1007_1007"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1007_1007"><span class="label">[1007]</span></a> See - above, <a href="#Footnote_608_608">§ 292, p. 368, note 2</a>.</p></div> + above, <a href="#Footnote_608_608">§ 292, p. 368, note 2</a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1008_1008" id="Footnote_1008_1008"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1008_1008"><span class="label">[1008]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XVI. p. 3.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1009_1009" id="Footnote_1009_1009"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1009_1009"><span class="label">[1009]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468">468</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_accordance_with_the_General_Act468">468</a>.</p></div> <p>(2) On May 18, 1904, an Agreement for the Suppression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span> of the White Slave Traffic<a name="FNanchor_1010_1010" id="FNanchor_1010_1010"></a><a href="#Footnote_1010_1010" class="fnanchor">[1010]</a> was signed at Paris by @@ -31431,12 +31390,12 @@ States, but has not yet been ratified.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1010_1010" id="Footnote_1010_1010"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1010_1010"><span class="label">[1010]</span></a> See Martens, N.R.G. 2nd Ser. XXXII. p. 160, and Treaty -Series, 1905, No. 24—See also Butz, "Die Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels +Series, 1905, No. 24—See also Butz, "Die Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels im internationalen Recht" (1908); Rehm in Z.V. I. (1907), pp. 446-453.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Preservation of Animal World.</p></div> -<p>§ 593. Two general treaties are in existence for the +<p>§ 593. Two general treaties are in existence for the purpose of preserving certain animals in certain parts of the world:—</p> @@ -31457,11 +31416,11 @@ by Great Britain, the United States of America, Japan, and Russia, but has not yet been ratified.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1012_1012" id="Footnote_1012_1012"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1012_1012"><span class="label">[1012]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#In_1886_a_conflict284">284</a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#In_1886_a_conflict284">284</a>.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Private International Law.</p></div> -<p>§ 594. Various general treaties have been concluded +<p>§ 594. Various general treaties have been concluded for the purpose of establishing uniform rules concerning subjects of the so-called Private International Law:—</p> @@ -31502,7 +31461,7 @@ digest of all the Hague Conventions concerned.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>American Republics.</p></div> -<p>§ 595. <a name="The_first_Pan595" id="The_first_Pan595"></a>The first Pan-American Conference held at +<p>§ 595. <a name="The_first_Pan595" id="The_first_Pan595"></a>The first Pan-American Conference held at Washington in 1889 created the International Union of the American Republics for prompt collection and distribution of commercial information.<a name="FNanchor_1016_1016" id="FNanchor_1016_1016"></a><a href="#Footnote_1016_1016" class="fnanchor">[1016]</a> This Union @@ -31527,14 +31486,14 @@ conference.</p> Barrett, "The Pan-American Union" (1911).</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1017_1017" id="Footnote_1017_1017"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1017_1017"><span class="label">[1017]</span></a> See - above, § <a href="#The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a">467<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> + above, § <a href="#The_first_Pan-American_Conference467a">467<i>a</i></a>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1018_1018" id="Footnote_1018_1018"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1018_1018"><span class="label">[1018]</span></a> See Reinsch, "Public International Unions" (1911), p. 117.</p></div> <div class="sidenote"><p>Science.</p></div> -<p>§ 596. <a name="In_the_interest_of596" id="In_the_interest_of596"></a>In the interest of scientific research the following +<p>§ 596. <a name="In_the_interest_of596" id="In_the_interest_of596"></a>In the interest of scientific research the following Unions<a name="FNanchor_1019_1019" id="FNanchor_1019_1019"></a><a href="#Footnote_1019_1019" class="fnanchor">[1019]</a> have been established:—</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1019_1019" id="Footnote_1019_1019"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1019_1019"><span class="label">[1019]</span></a> The conventions which have created these Unions would seem @@ -31772,12 +31731,12 @@ the text of this Convention, see <i>Annuaire de la Vie Internationale</i>, 1908- <p class="indh">Asylum of criminals:</p> <p class="indh4"> in foreign countries, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> in hôtels of diplomatic envoys, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> in hôtels of diplomatic envoys, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> <p class="indh4"> in men-of-war and other public vessels abroad, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></p> <p class="indh">Atmosphere, territorial, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p> -<p class="indh">Attachés of Legation, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p> +<p class="indh">Attachés of Legation, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p> <p class="indh">Attentat clause, the Belgian, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></p> @@ -31850,7 +31809,7 @@ the text of this Convention, see <i>Annuaire de la Vie Internationale</i>, 1908- <p class="indh">Belgium, independence of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></p> <p class="indh4"> neutralisation of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></p> -<p class="indh">Belle-Isle, case of Maréchal de, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> +<p class="indh">Belle-Isle, case of Maréchal de, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p> <p class="indh">Belli, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></p> @@ -32064,9 +32023,9 @@ International Law, <a href="#Page_578">578</a></p> <p class="indh"><i>Chapelle, droit de</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Chargés d'Affaires</i>, 445-481. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys">Diplomatic envoys</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Chargés d'Affaires</i>, 445-481. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Diplomatic_envoys">Diplomatic envoys</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Chargés des Affaires</i>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Chargés des Affaires</i>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> <p class="indh">Charkieh, case of the, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></p> @@ -32168,7 +32127,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh"><i>Conseil sanitaire maritime et quarantenaire</i> at Alexandria, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Conseil supérieur de santé</i> at Constantinople, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Conseil supérieur de santé</i> at Constantinople, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></p> <p class="indh"><i>Consolato del mare</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> @@ -32283,7 +32242,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Cromwell, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p> -<p class="indh">Crucée, Émeric, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></p> +<p class="indh">Crucée, Émeric, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></p> <p class="indh">Cruchaga, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></p> @@ -32355,7 +32314,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Delinquency, international, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Délits complexes</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Délits complexes</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></p> <p class="indh">Delta, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></p> @@ -32455,7 +32414,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh4"> of envoys abroad, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></p> <p class="indh4"> through naturalisation, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></p> -<p class="indh">Domin-Petrushévecz, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> +<p class="indh">Domin-Petrushévecz, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> <p class="indh">Doyen of the diplomatic corps, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p> @@ -32465,9 +32424,9 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>d'aubaine</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>de chapelle</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>de convenance</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>d'enquête</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>d'étape</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>de préséance</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>d'enquête</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>d'étape</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>de préséance</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>de recousse</i>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>de renvoi</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>du culte</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></p> @@ -32522,7 +32481,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Enemy goods covered by neutral flag, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Enquête, droit d'</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Enquête, droit d'</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></p> <p class="indh">Envoys extraordinary, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p> @@ -32536,7 +32495,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Estate duty, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Étape, droit d'</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Étape, droit d'</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p> <p class="indh">European Concert, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></p> @@ -32605,7 +32564,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh4"> definition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></p> <p class="indh4"> position of States in the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></p> -<p class="indh">Faröe Island Fisheries, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> +<p class="indh">Faröe Island Fisheries, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> <p class="indh">Fauchille, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></p> @@ -32635,7 +32594,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Fiore, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></p> <p class="indh">Fisheries:</p> -<p class="indh4"> around the Faröe Islands, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> around the Faröe Islands, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p> <p class="indh4"> as servitudes, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p> <p class="indh4"> in gulfs and bays, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p> <p class="indh4"> in straits, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p> @@ -32675,7 +32634,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">France, as an International person, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Franchise de l'hôtel</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Franchise de l'hôtel</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> <p class="indh4"> <i>du quartier</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> <p class="indh">Franconia, case of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> @@ -32753,7 +32712,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh">Greeks, their rules for international relations, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> -<p class="indh">Gregoire, Abbé, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></p> +<p class="indh">Gregoire, Abbé, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></p> <p class="indh">Grotians, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></p> @@ -32770,7 +32729,7 @@ negotiation, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></p> <p class="indh4"> effect of, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></p> <p class="indh4"> pseudo-guarantees, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>-604</p> -<p class="indh">Guébriant, Madame de, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> +<p class="indh">Guébriant, Madame de, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> <p class="indh">Gulfs, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></p> @@ -32886,7 +32845,7 @@ servitudes in the, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></p> <p class="indh">Humbert of Italy, assassination of King, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></p> -<p class="indh">Hüningen, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></p> +<p class="indh">Hüningen, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></p> <p class="indh">Huron, Lake of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></p> @@ -32935,10 +32894,10 @@ servitudes in the, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></p> <p class="indh">Inquiry, international commissions of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a></p> <p class="indh">Institute of International Law, the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning acts of insurgents, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning consuls, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning men-of-war in foreign ports, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning utilisation of flow of rivers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning acts of insurgents, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning consuls, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning men-of-war in foreign ports, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></p> +<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> concerning utilisation of flow of rivers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></p> <p class="indh4"> rules concerning aliens, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></p> <p class="indh4"> rules concerning double and absent nationality, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></p> <p class="indh4"> rules concerning extradition, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></p> @@ -32951,7 +32910,7 @@ servitudes in the, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></p> <p class="indh">Insurgents recognised as a belligerent Power, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></p> <p class="indh4"> do not possess the right of legation, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> -<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> of the Institute +<p class="indh4"> <i>règlement</i> of the Institute of International Law concerning acts of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> <p class="indh4"> send public political agents, <a href="#Page_509">509</a></p> @@ -33127,7 +33086,7 @@ of commissioners, <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> <p class="indh">Johann Friederich, case of the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Journal Télégraphique</i>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Journal Télégraphique</i>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a></p> <p class="indh"><i>Juges Consuls</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></p> @@ -33199,7 +33158,7 @@ of commissioners, <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> <p class="indh">King's Chamber, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p> -<p class="indh">Klüber, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></p> +<p class="indh">Klüber, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></p> <p class="indh">Kohler, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></p> @@ -33260,7 +33219,7 @@ of commissioners, <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> <p class="indh">Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Lèse-majesté</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Lèse-majesté</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></p> <p class="indh">Letters:</p> <p class="indh"> of credence, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a></p> @@ -33269,9 +33228,9 @@ of commissioners, <a href="#Page_513">513</a></p> <p class="indh"> of recommendation, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a></p> <p class="indh"><i>Lettre:</i></p> -<p class="indh"> <i>de créance</i>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> +<p class="indh"> <i>de créance</i>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p> <p class="indh"> <i>de provision</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></p> -<p class="indh"> <i>de récréance</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></p> +<p class="indh"> <i>de récréance</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></p> <p class="indh">Levi, Leone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></p> @@ -33451,7 +33410,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Merger of States, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></p> -<p class="indh">Mérignhac, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></p> +<p class="indh">Mérignhac, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></p> <p class="indh">Metternich, Prince, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></p> @@ -33730,7 +33689,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Official publications, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></p> -<p class="indh">Oléron, Laws of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> +<p class="indh">Oléron, Laws of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> <p class="indh">Oliva, Peace Treaty of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p> @@ -33781,7 +33740,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Oregon Boundary dispute, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> -<p class="indh">Ottoman law (1863), concerning protégés, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></p> +<p class="indh">Ottoman law (1863), concerning protégés, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></p> </div> @@ -33921,7 +33880,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Physically impossible obligations, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></p> -<p class="indh">Piédelièvre, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> +<p class="indh">Piédelièvre, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> <p class="indh">Pierantoni, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></p> @@ -33993,7 +33952,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Powers of men-of-war over merchantmen of all nations, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p> -<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> +<p class="indh">Pradier-Fodéré, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> <p class="indh">Prague, Peace Treaty of (1866), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p> @@ -34037,7 +33996,7 @@ Convention concerning, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p> <p class="indh">Protectorate as precursor of occupation, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></p> -<p class="indh">Protégés, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></p> +<p class="indh">Protégés, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></p> <p class="indh">Protest as an international transaction, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></p> @@ -34223,7 +34182,7 @@ recognised as a belligerent Power, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Rights of Nations, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> -<p class="indh">Rioters, <i>règlement</i> of the Institute of International Law concerning Acts of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> +<p class="indh">Rioters, <i>règlement</i> of the Institute of International Law concerning Acts of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> <p class="indh">Ripperda, case of the Duke of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></p> @@ -34278,7 +34237,7 @@ recognised as a belligerent Power, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">S</p> -<p class="indh">Sà, case of Don Pantaleon, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> +<p class="indh">Sà , case of Don Pantaleon, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p> <p class="indh">Saalfeld, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></p> @@ -34326,7 +34285,7 @@ recognised as a belligerent Power, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Schmauss, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p> -<p class="indh">Schnaebélé, case of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></p> +<p class="indh">Schnaebélé, case of, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></p> <p class="indh">Schools of International Jurists, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></p> @@ -34406,7 +34365,7 @@ recognised as a belligerent Power, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p> <p class="indh">Soudan, international position of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p> -<p class="indh">Soulé, case of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></p> +<p class="indh">Soulé, case of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></p> <p class="indh">Sound dues, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></p> @@ -34840,7 +34799,7 @@ through Peace Treaty of Paris (1856), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_ <p class="indh4"> through impossibility of execution, <a href="#Page_577">577</a></p> <p class="indh4"> through realisation of purpose, <a href="#Page_577">577</a></p> -<p class="indh"><i>Völkerrechts-Indigenat</i>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></p> +<p class="indh"><i>Völkerrechts-Indigenat</i>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></p> </div> @@ -34973,389 +34932,6 @@ Edinburgh & London</p> </div> - - - - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Law. 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