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diff --git a/40924-0.txt b/40924-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a7b0562 --- /dev/null +++ b/40924-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9198 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40924 *** + + By Alois Senefelder + + Translated from the Original German + by J. W. MULLER + + THE INVENTION OF LITHOGRAPHY + + Cloth 4to $5.00 Postpaid + + THE FUCHS & LANG MANUFACTURING CO. + + NEW YORK + + + + + THE INVENTION OF LITHOGRAPHY + + [Illustration: SENEFELDER] + + + + + THE INVENTION OF + LITHOGRAPHY + + BY + + ALOIS SENEFELDER + + TRANSLATED + FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN BY + + J. W. MULLER + + [Illustration] + + NEW YORK: THE FUCHS & LANG + MANUFACTURING COMPANY + 1911 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1911, + BY THE FUCHS & LANG MANUFACTURING COMPANY + NEW YORK AND LONDON + + _Entered at Stationers' Hall, London_ + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + + +Alois Senefelder, not only the inventor, but the father and perfecter of +Lithography, wrote this story of his life and his invention in 1817. The +translator has followed his style closely, because he felt that the +readers would prefer to have this English edition represent Senefelder's +original German faithfully. + +When Senefelder wrote, he had to invent many names for the processes, +manipulation-methods, and tools. These terms have been translated +literally even where modern practice has adopted other names. + +The original German edition carried the following title-page:-- + + "COMPLETE | TEXT-BOOK OF STONE-PRINTING | CONTAINING | A CORRECT + AND LUCID INSTRUCTION | FOR ALL | VARIOUS MANIPULATIONS IN ALL + ITS BRANCHES AND METHODS | AND ALSO A | FULL HISTORY OF THIS ART + | FROM ITS ORIGIN TO THE PRESENT DAY. | WRITTEN AND PUBLISHED | + BY THE INVENTOR OF LITHOGRAPHY AND CHEMICAL PRINTING, | ALOIS + SENEFELDER. | WITH A PREFACE BY THE GENERAL-SECRETARY OF THE + ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES IN | MUNICH, THE DIRECTOR | FRIEDERICH + VON SCHLICHTEGROLL | MUNICH, 1821 | OBTAINABLE FROM THE AUTHOR + AND FROM E. A. FLEISCHMANN" | + +The book was dedicated by Senefelder to Maximilian Joseph, then King +of Bavaria. + +_July, 1911._ + + J. W. M. + + + + +PREFACE + + +A book like this requires no preface; it makes its own way, supported by +its contents. But the famous author deems that his acquaintance with me +gave him the direct impulse for producing this work, which has been +desired so long and from all sides; and he wishes that I shall say +something about the history of its production. I seize the opportunity +gladly to prove the esteem and the friendship that the talent of this +honorable contemporary and fellow countryman, a talent combined with the +utmost ambition and with childlike good nature and unselfishness, have +inspired in me. + +One may not declare that his contemporaries showed indifference to the +invention of lithography to which his fortunate star led Herr Alois +Senefelder, and to the improvements that he sought with thousands of +experiments and restless labor. On the contrary, the invention has +spread itself with surprising speed through Europe and beyond, and has +been received with admiration everywhere. But the lack of proper +instruction, due to the many who had learned it only partially and +introduced it only for the sake of a small, passing profit, has hampered +its perfect success. + +Therefore the inventor, who, happily, still lives among us, has been +urged from near and far to tell the story of his important, many-sided +discovery, and to give instructions for its use, that is, to produce +such a work as is before us now. + +But the artistic genius, full of his subject, would far rather work, +experiment, strive, than write! Many times Herr Senefelder decided to +set down how he happened on this art, how the successive steps of its +development were reached, and at what point of development its various +processes now stand; but always his ceaselessly striving spirit showed +him something new that might be achieved, and forced him back again into +his element,--experimentation. + +Thus the "Pattern Book," begun in 1809, remained unfinished and without +text; and the other work, announced two years ago by Herr Andre, in +Offenbach, as being undertaken by him with Herr Alois Senefelder, hardly +would have seen the light. + +A forceful impetus from without was needed to compel Herr Senefelder to +fulfill the general request of the public. It came as follows. Many +statements in print attracted my attention. They credited the invention +of lithography to Paris, to London; and in Munich there were various +contradictory legends, some alleging that Herr Alois Senefelder had made +the very first experiments and others crediting them to Herr Schmidt in +Miesbach, at that time Professor in Munich. I considered it my duty to +clear away this uncertainty and to prepare a critical history of this +invention while it still was possible. + +The weekly _Anzeiger für Kunst und Gewerbfleiss_ in the kingdom of +Bavaria, which has appeared since 1815, exists for the purpose of +producing annals of the art and industrial history of Bavaria. +Therefore, toward the end of 1816 and early in 1817, I inserted some +letters about the invention of lithography and called on all friends of +native art history to point out any inaccuracies and send proofs to the +contrary, that the truth might thus be ascertained about a subject of +great literary value for this generation and for posterity. More than +all, I urged Herr Alois Senefelder, then absent, "to produce a detailed +history of his invention as soon as possible, with a text-book +embellished by specimen plates, in which the full use of the art might +be truly and clearly explained." I sent this printed letter to Herr +Senefelder in Vienna. + +The first object of my request has been without much result. Hardly a +single voice has been raised to uncover the correct and the incorrect in +the various stories with strictly historical accuracy, and thus to bring +the truth to light, that lithography may not experience what our +Klopstock sings: "Too oft in eternal night is cloaked the inventor's +great name!" + +I have been more fortunate in my second object. Herr Alois Senefelder +recognized my good intention and my pure pleasure in this important art +that will give our Bavaria unending fame and spreading celebrity. Since +his return to Munich, it has been the subject of many conversations +between us, and I have endeavored to enliven the courage and +self-confidence of this remarkable man, who often was depressed by the +failure of many an enterprise. + +My three endeavors--to win the gracious attention of our most high royal +family for the latest improvements in chemical printing attained through +Herr Senefelder's work; to impel the venerable national institution to +which I belong to investigate the art scientifically; and the +publication of the text-book and the history of the inventor--these have +been not without result. + +His Majesty, our most gracious King, this all-honored Father of his +nation and his people, and long a gracious promoter of lithography, has +taken gracious cognizance of the newest, amazing experiments in +metallography and papyrography with which Herr Senefelder busied himself +last winter, has encouraged him magnanimously to publish the present +work, and has permitted that it shall be dedicated to his noble name. +Her Majesty, our supremely honored Queen, herself a connoisseur in the +creative arts, also has honored these experiments with her gracious +attention, and thus has enlivened the courage and the energy of the +artist. + +The most celebrated technicians in the Royal Academy have examined these +processes and also the various small presses lately invented by Herr +Senefelder in order to make stone-printing, and also metal and paper +printing available for private use and business, and have given him the +most flattering testimonials. The Polytechnic Association of Bavaria +also has aided, through its before-mentioned weekly publication, in +making Herr Senefelder and his art, and especially his most recent +achievements, known in a wider field than might otherwise be possible, +and to bring him to the attention of his fellow citizens and interested +travelers. + +At last, Herr Alois Senefelder has used the hours that he could spare +from his continuous experiments and investigations to write down the +history of his labors out of his faithful memory; and also to give a +full description of all methods invented by him to this time, +accompanied by highly instructive specimen pages, partly made by himself +and partly by artistic friends, but all printed either with his own +hand or under his direct supervision. + +Thus with the past winter there developed a new, still more busy life of +this rare, useful man; and thus there originated the present work that I +do not hesitate to declare as belonging among the most noteworthy +productions of the present Leipsic Book Fair. + +The book is in two parts: (1) the history of the invention and of the +various applications of the new art: (2) the description of the methods +for writing, drawing, engraving, transferring, etching, and printing, +stated with all the clearness possible, and accompanied with +object-lessons in the form of wonderfully successful and instructive +specimen plates. + +With the great candor inherent in the character of the author he tells +faithfully how he came to make his first experiments, what mistakes he +made, with what inner and outer difficulties he contended, how one idea +led to another, what combinations he tried, what plans, successful and +unsuccessful, he made, and under what unrest and embarrassments he lived +for many years. + +The minute detail of the history and the interpolation of the personal +relations of the author and his acquaintances may surprise many readers +at first sight; but many of these are intimately connected with the +development of stone-printing, and in the cases of others, the author +did not have time to re-write what really had been written as only the +first draft, because his original intention of re-writing would have +prevented the appearance of the book in the present Easter Book Fair. + +In the history of an important invention, minuteness hardly can be +called a fault. How gladly would we read all the family circumstances of +Johann Gutenberg and Johann Fust, if there were such a history of the +beginnings of typography as now is before us about lithography! + +Thus there has been fulfilled the desire that Herr Alois Senefelder tell +openly and plainly how he came to discover stone-printing. Now that his +testimony and claims lie open to all eyes, it is possible to compare it +with the other stories that are told, and to bring the necessary +accuracy into the investigation by sharply defining those things that +properly may be called stone-print. It is time to urge contemporaries +once more to declare anything known to them that is in contradiction of +this history, so that a critical history of stone-printing may be +produced, with a chronicle of what was done in the early years of the +art, how and by whom, so that we may learn if several minds had the idea +simultaneously, and thus to do justice to all. It is to be desired that +a writer equipped for the purpose with total non-partisanship, utter +truthfulness, and clearness of perception and judgment may do this not +unimportant service to literature very soon! + +As to the text-book, forming the second part of this publication, it has +been demanded even more than the history. + +Stone-printing has spread so much in recent years that a few certain +lithographers could no doubt give satisfactory instruction. But there +is only one voice among those who are acquainted with the matter +thoroughly, and that is, that Herr Alois Senefelder made not only the +earliest but the most numerous and various experiments, and therefore is +the foremost man to give instruction. + +He is of an upright spirit, and I can assert with full conviction that +in this text-book his aim was not only to tell everything fully, but +also with the utmost accuracy. Already he has instructed many in +the art, trained many others, and thus has learned what are the +circumstances that ordinarily hinder the efforts of a beginner. + +Even recently, according to his statement and that of Professor +Mitterer, whom I consider the best expert in lithography next to +Senefelder, there still have been phenomena that surprised lithographers +most unpleasantly in the midst of a piece of work, and ruined results as +if by witchcraft,--cases wherein, in two apparently perfectly similar +manipulations, there would not succeed to-day that which had succeeded +yesterday, nay, even an hour before. The text-book gives all +explanations and remedies for such cases that the wide experiences of +Senefelder have made known to him. Therefore, if an artist proceeds +exactly according to the instructions given here, and yet meets +obstacles, he need merely look for the reason in some small, unnoticed +detail or in the quality of his materials. He need not become +discouraged, for if he has faith in his faithful and candid teacher, he +will attain the goal. + +Besides the branches and methods already known and practiced with +success outside of Munich, as in Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, Berlin, London, +Paris, etc., this text-book teaches several methods that had not been +made public by the inventor till now; and the fundamental principles of +those methods already known are stated here solidly. He gives +information also of his most recent attempts to use metal plates as well +as the stone paper recently invented by him. + +Although the procedure in these two latter methods resembles +stone-printing largely, it differs so much in some points from real +lithography that Herr Senefelder proposes to publish a work about these +processes especially, which may then serve as a supplement to this one. + +So may this work go forth in the world under good auspices, to increase +the fame of its author, secure for him the respect of all friends of art +in and outside of Germany, and become an encouragement for him to +dedicate his life further to his greatly promising art and its fullest +development! + +Honor in rich measure has come to him already through his art. A worldly +wise man in his place would have become a wealthy one. That he is not; +but our magnanimous King has made him secure against want during his +remaining life, and my knowledge of his character assures me that he +will utilize this, and any other advantage that may accrue to him in +time to come through this work or his art, for perfecting it, and then +to train his only son, now five years old, to the art, so that he may +practice it in future with honor to his father's name. + + FRIEDRICH VON SCHLICHTEGROLL. + +MUNICH, EASTER DAY, 1818. + + + + +SECTION I + +HISTORY OF STONE-PRINTING + + + + +PART I + +FROM 1796 TO 1800 + + +As my father, Peter Senefelder of Königshofen in Franken, was court +actor in Munich, I had ample opportunity in early youth to see and read +many theatrical pieces. Thus I developed such a love for this branch of +literature and for the theatre that I would have become an actor myself +had I been permitted to obey my inclination. But my father, who was +determined not to permit any of his children to choose the stage, +compelled me to study law. I could satisfy my longings only occasionally +by playing a few times in private theatricals and by venturing on a few +dramatic writings in my hours of recreation. In my eighteenth year +(1789) the question arose, at a gathering of youngsters, as to how we +should entertain ourselves in the approaching Carnival time. We decided +to give a little private play. + +Many pieces were proposed, but none seemed suitable, because each one +wished to play a good and suitable part, and, besides, we could not fill +most of the parts, as we lacked women. We were almost giving up hope +when Herr Kuerzinger, now court actor, proposed to me to write a play, +as I had begun one shortly before that happened to suit each of my +friends. + +I finished the little piece, _Die Mädchen Kenner_, in a short time. It +was ready for production, when through accident we were disappointed +about securing the private theatre on which we had counted. We were +emboldened to request leave to produce it in the Kurfürst's Court +Theatre and succeeded, thanks to my father's aid. The over-kind praise +which it won encouraged me to have the play printed. Although I was +pretty generous with free copies among my friends, I received so much +from Lentner, the book-dealer in Munich, that a net profit of fifty +gulden remained to me. + +I had not worked eight days on the little thing, and had made all this +money, without counting the pleasure of the work. No wonder that now I +feared no longer for my future! My love for the theatre became +overpowering, and as my father died soon afterward (1791), and I found +no further assistance toward completing my studies in Ingolstadt, I +resolved to become a dramatic author and actor. + +I found no place for me in the Court Theatre. Its leaders were opposed +to my family, because my mother with her large family received a larger +pension, through the favor of the Kurfürst, than she could have expected +in ordinary course. In a few strolling theatres, such as Regensburg, +Nürnberg, Erlangen, and Augsburg, where I endured privation and +misfortune enough, my enthusiasm was well dampened in the course of two +years. I decided, as I could see no other prospects for the moment +despite my not inconsiderable attainments, to support myself in future +as author. + +I had written several dramatic pieces already that had won sufficient +applause. Therefore I decided to have some of these printed in order to +meet my immediate expenses. I gave one of them to the printing +establishment of Herr Hübschmann, in Munich, and when the first folio +was finished, I made the proposition to Herr Lentner to take some or all +of the copies. He told me that I would have done better to let him have +the manuscript; but since it had been begun, he told me to make sure +that it be finished before the beginning of the Leipsic Easter Fair, in +which case he promised to obtain for me one hundred gulden net, after +deducting all costs. I begged Herr Hübschmann to finish the printing, +but, as he assured me that it was impossible, I took the remaining +folios to another printer. Despite this the play was not printed till +two weeks after the fair, and I received from Herr Lentner barely enough +to pay the printing cost. + +My hope of profit was lost. I had, however, seen the entire procedure of +printing, because I had spent many a day in the establishments. I found +that it would not be hard for me to learn, and could not withstand the +desire to own a small printing establishment myself. "Thus," thought I, +"I can print my productions myself, and so alternate healthfully between +mental and physical activities." I could earn a decent living, too, and +thus become an independent man. + +This idea controlled me so that I studied all sorts of ways to realize +it. If I had possessed the necessary money, I would have bought types, a +press and paper, and printing on stone probably would not have been +invented so soon. The lack of funds, however, forced me to other +expedients. At first I thought of etching letters in steel. These +matrices I planned then to impress on pear wood, in which the letters +would show in relief, somewhat like the cast type of the book printers, +and they could have been printed like a wood-cut. A few experiments +showed me the possibility of this, and I could easily have invented a +machine with which the moulding could have been done more quickly than a +printer could set his type. I reserve the right to use this possibly +fruitful idea in future with improvements. At the time, however, I had +to give up the whole thing through lack of implements and sufficient +skill in engraving. + +Then it struck me that if I had only enough types to set one column or +folio, I could press this into a soft material, transfer the impression +to a board covered with soft sealing-wax, and reproduce the relief plate +thus obtained in stereotype form. The attempt succeeded perfectly. I +made a sort of dough of clay, fine sand, flour, and coal-dust, which, +being firmly kneaded, took the impression very well, and was so dry in a +quarter of an hour that I could print warmed sealing-wax thoroughly well +with a small press. I inked these letters of sealing-wax relief with +printing-ink laid on with a leather roller stuffed with horse-hair and +obtained a result as clean as any obtained from ordinary types. By +mixing finely powdered gypsum with the sealing-wax I made the latter +harder than the ordinary type composition. Thus there was nothing in the +way of my making stereotype plates (which I did not know by this name at +that time), except a few minor appliances and a small stock of types. +But even this exceeded my financial power and I gave up the plan, +especially as I had conceived a new one during my experiments. + +This was to learn to write out ordinary type letters exactly, but +reversed. I planned that as soon as I attained the skill, I would write +them with an elastic steel pen on a copper plate covered in ordinary +manner with etching surface, etch, and let the copper-plate printers +print them. In a few days I had such skill in reverse writing that I +attacked the etching on copper bravely. Here, to be sure, I met greater +difficulties. Writing on copper over the etching surface was far more +difficult than writing on paper. Then the preparation of the plate, the +etching, etc., demanded some practice; but all this I hoped to conquer +in time. The one thing that troubled me was that I could not correct the +errors made during writing. The accessories of copper-plate engravers, +especially the so-called cover varnish, were quite unknown to me. I knew +no remedy except to paint the faulty places over with molten wax, but +the covering generally became so thick that I could not work through it +properly and had to leave the corrections for the graving stilus, which, +however, I could not handle at the time. + +As, however, the proofs were thoroughly satisfactory to me, I labored +desperately to overcome the difficulty. During my student years I had +attained much chemical knowledge, and I knew that most of the resinous +products which withstand acid, as well as the fats, wax, tallow, and so +forth, can be dissolved and diluted partly in etheric oils and spirits +of wine, and partly in alkalies. My problem was to obtain a thin mass +which would permit itself to be spread very thinly in cold condition +over the copper etching surface, dry quickly, become sufficiently firm +after drying without getting tough, and, above all, be something that +would not attack the etching surface. A few trials with spirits of wine +and various resinous forms gave no satisfaction. The one experiment that +I made with oil of turpentine and wax also failed, presumably because I +diluted the mixture more than necessary, which caused it to flow too +much and dissolve the etching surface, at which time several well-done +parts of the engraving were ruined. Besides, this mixture dried only +slowly to the degree necessary for working. Fortunately I made no +further experiments with this material, because then I should not have +invented stone-printing, as I know now how to make a cover varnish that +is quite satisfactory. + +I turned, instead, to an experiment with wax and soap, which succeeded +beyond all expectations. A mixture of three parts of wax with one part +of common tallow soap, melted over the fire, mixed with some fine +lampblack, and then dissolved in rainwater, gave me a sort of black ink +with which I could correct faulty spots most easily. + +Now I needed only practice in order to carry out my project of etching +my literary productions in copper. This presented a new difficulty. +After I had written on my single little copper plate, etched it, and +pulled proofs at the house of a friend who possessed a copper-plate +press, I had to spend some hours again laboriously grinding and +polishing the plate, a process which also wore away the copper fast. + +This led me to practice on zinc, which was easier to scrape and polish. +An old zinc plate of my mother's was requisitioned at once, but the +results were very unsatisfactory, because the zinc probably was mixed +with lead, and I had used only aqua fortis instead of more powerful +acid. + +I did not continue trials with zinc, because just then I obtained a +handsome piece of Kellheimer stone for the purpose of rubbing down my +colors on it; and it occurred to me that if I painted this stone plate +with my wax ink, it would serve as well for practicing as copper or +zinc, with very little labor in grinding and polishing. The experiments +succeeded, and though I had not thought originally that the stone itself +might be used for printing (the samples I had seen hitherto of this +Kellheim limestone were too thin to withstand the pressure exerted in +printing), I soon began to believe that it was possible. It was much +easier to do good work on the stone than on the copper. I observed also +that I needed weaker and much diluted aqua fortis. + +A stone mason told me that he could provide me with this sort of +limestone in plates from one inch to eight inches thick. Thus I needed +not to fear cracking of the stone; and the only thing that I needed to +invent, in order to use the stone just like copper, was either a way to +give the stone a better polish, or else a tint which would be easier to +rub away than the ordinary copper-plate printing-ink. The stone will not +take the polish that is demanded with ordinary printer's ink,--and +perhaps this is the reason why the stone has not been used long before +my time as substitute for copper, for I imagine that such attempts must +have been made. + +I tried all possible kinds of polishing and grinding without attaining +my purpose completely. The result was best when I poured a mixture of +one part of concentrated oil of vitriol and four or five parts of water +over the stone after polishing it. This mixture, which is very sharp, +has the property of boiling immediately when poured over the stone, but +ceasing instantly, so that one is tempted to believe that the vitriol +has sated itself and lost its power. This is not so, however; for the +same fluid, placed on an untouched part of the stone, boils again at +once. The reason is that a firm skin of gypsum forms at once on the +stone, and this remains impervious to the fluid. If now the etching +fluid is poured off and the stone is rubbed lightly with a rag, it +attains a shining polish. Unfortunately this is so thin and weak that +one can make barely fifty impressions without repeating the process, +which involves some loss to the drawing. But if one desires to print in +the present chemical style, that is, wet, and the stone is polished +before the drawing, one can make several thousand imprints, which will +be described in the proper place. + +All experiments to find a color easy to wipe away showed me that on a +stone prepared with oil of vitriol none was better than a light oil +varnish with fine Frankfurter black and some tartar. This mixture could +be washed off with a weak solution in spring water of potash and common +salt. However, it happened often that slight carelessness in washing +destroyed designed parts which took color again afterward only after +much trouble. Recollection of this occurrence, which I could not +understand clearly at the time, led me some years later to the invention +of the chemical stone-printing of to-day. + +I have told all these things fully in order to prove to the reader that +I did not invent stone-printing through lucky accident, but that I +arrived at it by a way pointed out by industrious thought. It will be +seen that I knew the ink, before I thought of its use on stone. The +stone I used at first only to practice writing. The ease of writing on +stone lured me then to try to make it available for direct printing. To +do this, I had to discover a way to rub away the black as completely +from all unetched parts of the stone as the copper-plate printer can do +it from his surface, in comparison with which the stone was but slightly +smooth. + +At this time my further experiments with this etched form of +stone-printing were entirely checked by a new, accidental discovery. +Until now I had invented little that was new, but simply had applied the +copper-plate etching method to stone. But this new discovery founded an +entirely new form of printing, which basically became the foundation of +all succeeding methods. + +Had the stone merely proved available as substitute for copper, I would +have returned to copper as soon as I could afford it, despite several +advantages of stone, and for the following reasons: first, the necessary +weight and thickness of the stones; second, because the printing process +was slower than with copper; third, because probably I never would have +become sufficiently skilled in the difficult manipulation of washing +off; but chiefly, because the necessary spur, the originality of the +discovery, would have been lacking, since I remembered that as a child +of five or six I had seen a music-printery in Frankfurt or Mainz where +the notes were etched in black slate-stone. I had played often with the +broken stones, which lay in a heap near our house. Enough, I was not the +first discoverer of stone-etching, nor of stone-printing; and only after +I made this new discovery which I will describe now, which led me from +the engraved to the relief process, with my new ink, might I call myself +the inventor of an art. + +At that time I could not guess that I was to invent a form of printing +different even from this new and original form, a method which was to be +based not on mechanical but purely chemical properties. Even this +method, new in 1796, still was purely mechanical in its purpose, whereas +the present printing method, which I began in 1799, may be called purely +chemical. + +I had just ground a stone plate smooth in order to treat it with etching +fluid and to pursue on it my practice in reverse writing, when my mother +asked me to write a laundry list for her. The laundress was waiting, but +we could find no paper. My own supply had been used up by pulling +proofs. Even the writing-ink was dried up. Without bothering to look +for writing materials, I wrote the list hastily on the clean stone, with +my prepared stone ink of wax, soap, and lampblack, intending to copy it +as soon as paper was supplied. + +As I was preparing afterward to wash the writing from the stone, I +became curious to see what would happen with writing made thus of +prepared ink, if the stone were now etched with aqua fortis. I thought +that possibly the letters would be left in relief and admit of being +inked and printed like book-types or wood-cuts. My experience in +etching, which had showed me that the fluid acted in all directions, did +not encourage me to hope that the writing would be left in much relief. +But the work was coarse, and therefore not so likely to be under-cut as +ordinary work, so I made the trial. I poured a mixture of one part aqua +fortis and ten parts of water over the plate and let it stand two inches +deep for about five minutes. Then I examined the result and found the +writing about one tenth of a line or the thickness of a playing-card in +relief. + +A few finer strokes had been injured slightly, but the others had hardly +lost breadth noticeably and not at all in depth, so that I had good +reason to hope that a well-written plate, particularly in type letter, +would be susceptible of much better relief. + +Eagerly I began inking in. I used a fine leather ball, stuffed with +horsehair, and inked it very gently with thick linseed oil varnish and +lampblack. I patted the inscription many times with this ball. The +letters all took the color well, but it also went into all spaces +greater than half a line. That this was due to the over-great elasticity +of the ball was clear to me. So I cleansed my plate with soap and water, +made the leather tense, and used less color. Now I found color only in +such spaces as were two or more lines apart. + +I saw that I could attain my purpose better with a dauber of stiffer +material. I tried at once with a piece of glass from a broken mirror, +and as this succeeded fairly well, I tried elastic metal plates. Finally +I made an entirely satisfactory appliance out of a thin board, very +smoothly planed and covered with a fine cloth. + +My further experiments with this relief plate succeeded far better than +my previous ones with etched letters. The inking in was much easier, and +hardly one quarter of the force was necessary for making impressions. +Thus the stones were not so liable to crack, and, what was the most +important for me, this method of printing was entirely new, and I might +hope to obtain a franchise and even financial aid. This hope grew when I +learned that Riegel of Munich, who had invented a new sort of +Frankfurter black, had received ten thousand gulden to erect a factory, +although no human being could use it as a sufficient substitute, as I +proved by many trials. I saw the great field for my stone-printing art +and did not doubt that I would obtain assistance, even should it be only +a twentieth part of what Herr Riegel had received for his entirely +worthless process. + +The new art was invented, and soon was sufficiently practiced; but again +came the need for a little capital, to buy a press, some stones, paper, +tools, and so forth. If I did not wish to give up my hopes again, I must +seek some way to obtain the necessary means. All my endeavors were +fruitless. Only one way showed itself. An acquaintance, who served in +the artillery, had offered to pay two hundred gulden for a substitute. +In my helplessness I offered myself. I thought: "Once you are in the +artillery and have mastered the exercises, you can get furlough and the +permission to do your printing. You can pay others to do your sentry +goes, and thus there will be only a few weeks a year in which the +regiment will demand your presence. As soon as you have earned a few +hundred gulden you can get a substitute yourself, or, at worst--how soon +six years will pass! Perhaps you can make your fortune in the artillery, +too! You will display zeal, and your knowledge is such that probably few +in the corps will be superior to you. Mathematics, and especially +mechanics and geography, were ever your favorite studies; you were one +of the first of the Munich Lyceum in these branches; therefore it is +certain that you will be noticed and promoted"--and other such +chimerical hopes. + +On the third day I went with a transport of recruits to Ingolstadt, +which then was the quarters of the Bavarian artillery. I entered that +city with feelings different from those with which I had left it as +Academician. But the thought of my invention elevated my spirit to a +certain dignity and comforted me with the prophecy of a better future. I +was presented to the chief of company and slept a night in the barracks, +where unpleasant remarks and the conduct of a vulgar corporal cast heavy +shadows over the coming soldiering. Next morning, when I was to be +enrolled and named Prague as my birth-place, I was informed that a +recent royal order shut out all foreigners from the Bavarian service. So +I started on my return, poorer by a hope, but not in entire despair. As +I looked down from the Danube bridge into the majestic stream, where as +a student I was nearly drowned once, I could not quite prevent the +thought that my rescue at that time had not been fortunate, since a too +unkind fate seemed to deny me even the one means of support, open to the +most helpless, that of the army. + +Still, though cheated by hope a thousand times, I ever followed her +lures again, and a new plan instantly formed itself to replace the one +that had just gone to wreck. I decided to give up my literary work for +the time being and work as a printer for wages. + +Some very badly printed music that I bought in Ingolstadt awakened the +idea that with my new printing process I could furnish much better work. +I decided to go at once to Herr Falter, the music-dealer of Munich, to +interest him in my invention and obtain a small advance of money. Had I +done this, my art might have been more thoroughly perfected long ago; +but, again, it might never have been developed as it has been, for it +was amply sufficient already for music-printing. My shyness, however, +prevented me from addressing Herr Falter. Twice I was at his door, and +each time I retreated. The second time I met a good acquaintance, a +musician named Schrott. In reply to my inquiry if he knew Herr Falter, +he said "No," but he told me that the court musician, Gleissner, had +paid recently to have several masses printed and intended to publish +some more church music soon. Who was happier than I over this news! + +Herr Gleissner was a good friend of old. While I was in the theatre I +had engaged him to compose several songs, and had found him a humane and +righteous man. Within half an hour I was in his house and explaining my +invention to his wife, he being absent. I aroused her interest so much +that she seemed thoroughly eager to have me hurry back with a little +press model, in order to show them both the working of the process. + +The entire behavior of the woman was so open and artless that I +dismissed my first thought, "I might be cheated out of my invention," +and hurried to Herr Gleissner in the afternoon with my simple apparatus. + +My printing succeeded absolutely. Gleissner marveled at the swiftness +and beauty of the impressions, and, knowing my penniless condition, he +offered of his own free will to pay for a small printery. + +My mother had given me a press already. It was the ordinary copper-plate +press with two cylinders. True, it was very roughly made, being a house +carpenter's work, but it had cost only six gulden. However, one could +make very pretty impressions from stone with it. To spare Herr +Gleissner's treasury, I contented myself with it for the time. I bought +a small stock of stones, paper, and other necessary articles. + +Herr Gleissner composed twelve songs with clavier accompaniment. I wrote +them rapidly on stone and made one hundred and twenty impressions with +the aid of a day laborer. Everything, composition, writing on stone and +printing, was finished in fourteen days. From Herr Falter, who bought +one hundred copies, Herr Gleissner received the sum of one hundred +gulden. Stones, which could be used over and over again, paper, color, +and wages had cost barely thirty gulden; thus we had a clear profit of +seventy gulden, earned in fourteen days, and I gained so much happy hope +that I thought myself richer than Croesus. + +We were gay and merry. Through his patron, Count von Törring, then +President of the Royal Chamber, Herr Gleissner had presented an +impression of our first work to the Kurfürst Karl Theodor, and had +received one hundred gulden out of the Cabinet Treasury, with the +promise of a franchise. + +A succeeding little piece of work, "Duets for Two Flutes, by Gleissner," +brought forty gulden more into our chest, and finally our finances, as +well as a bright success for our institution, seemed assured by a +contract closed with the Countess von Herting to print a cantata on the +death of Mozart by Cannabich, the musical director, which promised us a +profit of one hundred and fifty gulden for two or three weeks' work. + +During this time I had presented specimens of work to the Royal Academy +of Sciences, with a description of the advantages of the art, in which I +named particularly the cheapness, and said that the impression had been +made on a press costing not more than six gulden. To my amazement, +instead of the expected honorable mention, I received a sum of twelve +gulden from the vice-president of the Academy, Herr von Vachiery, with +the information that the members had voted favorably for my invention, +and that, as my expenses amounted to only six gulden, according to my +own statement, I would, no doubt, be satisfied with a sum double this. I +had expected an entirely different appreciation from the sentinels of +the arts and sciences, whose office was to test the value of this new +discovery and call the Government's attention to it if favorable. A mere +monetary reward, therefore, especially so small a one, could not +possibly give me much pleasure. + +Promising as our beginning was (1793), there came a sad period soon +enough for the art, for me, and also for Herr Gleissner. We had ordered +a new press as soon as our income permitted. I expected to produce a +masterpiece with the first impression. Instead of that, there appeared +the very opposite, a dirty and smeared imprint. We suspected that we had +made some mistake in method. The second attempt, however, was worse than +the first, if possible. To be brief, of twenty trials, made with the +greatest industry and toil, we obtained only two or three that were even +average. + +As long as I live I shall be unable to understand how we could have been +so blind at that time. We sought the cause of failure in everything +except the true thing,--an alteration that made the new press different +from the old one, which unfortunately had been already destroyed. Later, +after I had invented the so-called lever or gallows press, the thing was +clear to me at once. But by that time it had cost me and Herr Gleissner +two years full of toil, worry, and sorrow. In the contract with the +Countess von Herting the date of completion of the work had been +stipulated, because she wished to surprise Herr Cannabich with it on his +birthday. We had barely four weeks left and not a single sheet had been +finished. With press alterations, trial impressions, and so forth, we +had wasted money and time, and paper by the ream. Our loss amounted to +more than one hundred and fifty gulden, and still there was no prospect +of final success. Pressed for results by the Countess, our entire +reputation and the honor of my invention were at stake. Added to this +came many other annoyances, especially the complaints of Frau Gleissner, +who charged that I had destroyed the original, perfectly satisfactory +press against her will. These tested my courage sadly. + +The cause of all this trouble was so petty that I really must have been +half-stupefied by the fear of not keeping our pledges, otherwise I must +have perceived it at once. + +To make my first imperfect press I had bought a piece of wood from a +wheelwright in order to have it turned into two cylinders. Hardly had +the two been in the house a day before each one split so that a +longitudinal crack of two inches width appeared. As the upper cylinder +was thick enough to make an impression of a whole folio of sheet music +without revolving so far as to let the crack reach the stone, I +contented myself with it temporarily. Now, in order not to spoil the +impressions, I had to begin each revolution of the cylinder at the +crack, for otherwise the crack might have come at the middle or end of +the impression and given no imprint of that part. Therefore, as the +stone was pushed under the cylinder at the crack, it was already gripped +before the impression began, and was drawn through at once. With the new +press, however, the upper cylinder had to draw the stone between both +cylinders in order to bring it under its pressure. But in doing this, +the new press first pulled the linen stretched over the printing-frame +till it would yield no more and forced the stone powerfully under the +cylinder, during which of course the paper under the linen was pulled +over the inked stone and smeared. + +Several attempts to rectify this trouble were unsuccessful. Probably I +would have discovered the remedy finally,--either that the upper +cylinder must not first be pressed on the stone, which must be under it +before each impression began, or that I need only use tightly stretched +leather instead of linen. But I decided, instead, in order to complete +our work if possible, to have a press made in all haste by a carpenter, +of a style like the book-printers' press, wherein the force is applied +instantly from above. + +As everything was very rough, the new press was ready in eight days. The +first experiment, with a small stone, seemed to succeed. But the larger +stones would not give thorough impressions, probably because of the +uneven surface of the press, which was merely of wood. I increased the +power enormously. A stone of three hundredweight was elevated with +pulleys and released suddenly to fall ten feet. It forced a lever down +on the press with a pressure of more than ten thousand pounds. The +plates gave fair impressions by this means, but generally they were +cracked after the first, second, or third impression. + +To determine how much downward force was needed to print a sheet of +music, I took a well-ground stone a square inch in area, laid moistened +paper on an inked printing-stone, over this a sixfold layer of paper, +then a double layer of fine cloth, finally the square inch of stone, and +then weights ranging from one to three hundredweight. + +This experience taught me that the square inch of surface demanded three +hundredweights of force to make a good impression in a few seconds, and +almost less than half that weight when I allowed it to act for a whole +minute. According to this calculation the entire sheet, which contained +about one hundred square inches, would have demanded thirty thousand +pounds; and the stone could have withstood this without cracking, had I +been able to apply the pressure evenly. But the imperfections of the +press made it necessary to apply a pressure three times as great, and +this the stones could not bear. + +To correct the defects of this press was more than I cared about, +after I was nearly killed by the three hundredweights, which fell +accidentally, and, as I stood immediately under it, would have beaten +out my brains had not a miracle caused the load to catch and hold. The +thought that a similar accident might cause the death of one of my men +made me hate the whole press, all the more so as I had conceived what +seemed to me at the time an exceedingly happy idea for a very simple +and not costly printing-machine. + +Before I possessed a press of my own, I used to pull proofs of my work +in the following manner, in order to avoid the constant trips to a +printer. I laid the dampened paper on the inked stone. Over it I laid +some heavy paper, and then a sheet of stiff, carefully smoothed dry +paper. Then I took a piece of polished wood and rubbed this over the +upper sheet of paper, holding the latter firmly to prevent slipping. I +continued the rubbing, using more or less power according to whether I +wanted the impressions deep or pale. Thus I obtained impressions very +often that could not have been better. + +I wondered why this could not be done on a large scale, and proceeded to +try at once. I stretched a piece of linen firmly over a wooden frame two +feet long and wide. On this linen I pasted a sheet of strong paper, +polished on the upper side with wax. Then with two bands the frame was +fastened to an ordinary wooden table. Then the stone was fastened on the +table under the frame. Inside of the printing-frame was a smaller frame +with cords, to hold the paper, which had a layer of gray blotting-paper +under it. With a piece of polished wood, or a piece of glass such as is +used by polishers, I rubbed the upper waxed paper thoroughly, making +sure that every spot was touched. + +The first proof, and several succeeding ones, which I made myself, +turned out so excellent that probably few better impressions ever +have been made since. Two more presses were made at once, and six +printers hired. The work might still be finished in the stipulated +time. New hopes thrilled us. Hastily I inscribed the stones and the +printing began. But--oh, human weakness! Does it seem credible that +of my six helpers not one could master the extremely simple method of +manipulation, the mere matter of rubbing evenly and thoroughly? Of six +impressions hardly one ever reached perfection. There were blank spaces +here and there. Yes, even when, accidentally, they produced three +sections of a sheet correctly, the fourth invariably was a flat failure, +and thus ruined the entire sheet. We would have been glad enough had we +lost even one half the paper, if only we could have saved our credit by +completing the work, regardless of our money loss. But of three reams of +paper only thirty-three impressions were won in the end. + +I will merely touch on the painful scenes that ensued. The stipulated +time had almost expired and no prospect of results. The manuscript and +the paper remaining in stock were taken away from us and given to Herr +Falter, while we had to suffer severe censure from the Countess, and in +her name from others. Herr Gleissner had to pay for new paper, which +made a monthly deduction from his salary necessary. The grant of our +privilege was endangered, for the Kurfürst had obtained a poor opinion +of our process. Indeed, so long as the Kurfürst Karl Theodor lived, all +our efforts to obtain a privilege were fruitless. We could not even +succeed in having it proposed, although the referee, Herr von +Stubenrauch, made us promises from month to month. + +All the money we had earned was lost; debts burdened us; and a monthly +deduction of pay, with the mocking laughter of those who had been made +envious by our first successes, was the entire reward for our endeavors +to make a new art. As it was only the lack of a good press that had +caused our failure, I went to Herr Falter, with whom I had become +acquainted through Herr Gleissner, and told him the reasons for not +finishing the cantata in time. I told him that if he were willing to +have a proper press built, I was willing to print his works for him, in +his own residence, which was his stipulation, provided I could prepare +the stones at home. We agreed, and I ordered a great cylinder press made +at his expense. To avoid the old trouble I had both cylinders fitted +with cogs, which gave satisfactory results if both printers who handled +the press were careful to begin turning the cylinders at the same +moment. The double friction of the two rollers made them both pull on +the printing-frame and the stone, where, before, the lower cylinder had +done just the opposite. The greater periphery of the upper cylinder, +which was almost fifteen inches thick, helped also. And to this day I +consider this form of press the best for all methods, especially if the +stones are thick enough, if one has not to consider the very greatest +speed; for in speed this press is decidedly inferior to the lever press +and other styles. On the other hand, the pressure is much more gentle, +more perpendicular, and less liable to pull the paper out of place than +is possible with even the best so-called friction presses. Only there +should be added to the cogs an appliance by which the upper cylinder has +a screw adjusted over its centre, so that it can be forced down for each +impression after the stone is under it. Figure 1, plate I, is the +picture of such a cylinder press, made for stone-printing. + +As soon as the press was ready and erected, I began to inscribe on stone +the music of _Die Zauberflöte_, arranged for quartette by Herr Danzy, +and with Herr Gleissner we began the printing. + +But Herr Gleissner became dangerously ill. I trained two soldiers to do +the printing, left the entire printing process to Herr Falter, and +limited myself to the work of delivering the stones to him. The workers +ruined so much paper that Herr Falter could not make it pay, and +returned to etching on copper. + +During this time Herr Schmidt, professor at the military academy, had +begun to etch on stone. As I discovered long afterwards, he was a good +acquaintance of Herr Gleissner, who visited him often. Within the last +year there is a strenuous attempt to make this Herr Schmidt appear to be +the inventor of printing from stone, though probably he never desired +this. There have been publications about it already. I shall not notice +what has been said, and will let the matter speak for itself. From the +foregoing the reader will have seen the natural but laborious way in +which fate led me to this invention. If Herr Schmidt made a similar +discovery at that time, he was much more fortunate than I. According to +his own letter, printed in the _Anzeiger für Kunst und Gewerbfleiss_, +the course of his invention was as follows. He saw a gravestone in the +Frauen-Kirche, in Munich, on which letters and pictures were in relief. +"That must have been done with acid; it would be possible to print from +it!" thought he, and the invention was completed. + +If it is so easy to gain the honor of an invention, then, indeed, I was +unlucky to have undergone so much toil. But according to my opinion, +there was nothing new in the whole discovery. The thought that "this +was etched" assumed the invention and the use of etching beforehand. +That such coarse, thick, and highly relieved inscriptions as those on +gravestones could be inked and used for printing would strike anybody +who knew even a little of printing. If, however, Herr Schmidt added to +his idea the second, that fine and, therefore, only slightly elevated +inscriptions and illustrations could be inked and printed with the aid +of appliances to be invented for the purpose,--if he did this and +executed it before me, or, at least, before he had knowledge of my work, +then indeed the honor belongs to him of having invented mechanical +printing from stone, either before me or simultaneously. But as a matter +of fact, neither he nor I can claim to be the first who thought of using +stones for printing. Only the "how?" is the new thing in the case. + +At that time (1796) I had not invented stone-printing, but, firstly, an +ink available for writing on stone and resistant to acid, which ink I +invented out of my brains and not, like Herr Schmidt, out of an old +Nürnberg book: secondly, I invented a practical tool for inking the +slightly elevated letters: and thirdly, the so-called gallows or lever +press, of which I shall speak later. + +As I do not know what were the circumstances surrounding Herr Schmidt at +the time, and I cannot, therefore, make any inquiries, I am willing to +take his word if he will declare as an honest man that he printed from +stone before July, 1796. That his method of printing was different from +mine, and that he had absolutely not the slightest knowledge of chemical +printing from stone, which I invented in 1798, I know from indubitable +evidence. + +He made many attempts with his pupils to produce drawings on stones, but +presumably his impressions were not successful, for those stones that I +saw afterward at Herr Schulrath Steiner's had been etched first and the +spaces then engraved away very deeply with all sorts of steel +instruments, after the manner of wood-cuts, so that they might properly +be called stone-cuts in relief. He had these stones printed in the +Schul-fond's book-printery, and I hear that the impressions were very +good. I saw none myself. + +However, Professor Schmidt's experiments were the means of making me +acquainted with Herr Schulrath Steiner, who encouraged me so much that I +conceived many ideas in order to fulfill his wishes, so that at last the +art of printing from stone achieved its present honorable position. + +Herr Schulrath Steiner, an intimate friend of Professor Schmidt, was +director of the Schul-fond's printery. As such he was concerned with +many prints. Herr Schmidt's idea of publishing stone-etched pictures of +poisonous plants for school use was approved by him; and as the attempts +did not satisfy him, he decided to turn to me. At that time the +Schul-fond was to print some church songs. This gave him the opportunity +of visiting me. He asked me if the musical notes could not be so etched +or cut in relief in stone that they could be made up with ordinary +book-types and thus printed in the ordinary book-presses. I promised to +try it. However, the necessary deep engraving of the spaces was too +laborious, so that it would have been easier to do it in wood. As an +expedient we printed the text first with ordinary types in the +book-press and then printed in the music with stones in the stone-press. + +Meantime I tried to attain our purpose in other ways, connected with +some of my early experiments. My best success was with the following +method. On a stone polished with sand I painted a layer, equal to two or +three card-thicknesses, of burned, finely powdered gypsum, butter, and +alum, mixed with a proper amount of water. As soon as it was dry I +inscribed the music with steel needles of various sizes on the surface +of the stone, which was of a somewhat dark, almost gray color, so that I +could see it more easily through the soft, white mass. Having finished +the drawing I took warm sealing-wax smeared on wood, and applied it to +the stone while it was warm with a hand-press. After cooling, the white +mass was fast to the sealing-wax and quite loose from the stone, and it +was scrubbed away clean with water and a brush, after which the drawing +appeared on the wood in elevated wax extremely clear and clean, like a +wood-cut. The spaces were so deep that the plate could be printed in +regular book-printing manner. + +Later I made trial of a composition of lead, zinc, and bismuth, and +this succeeds thoroughly with proper care. So here we would have still +another printing process, which has the advantage over all others that +the inscription need not be made reversed, as the impression on the wax +or lead reverses it automatically. + +If the white mass is laid on more thickly, one can make the handsomest +patterns for calico much more quickly than has been possible heretofore +with wood-cuts. A little more care is necessary, because no stroke must +be made entirely through the mass, when it is laid on thick. My +experiments in that direction all exceeded expectations, and it is to be +regretted that I had no opportunity thereafter to perfect this invention +more, or use it practically. The experiments had no value even for Herr +Schulrath Steiner, for whom I made them, as he never had use for the +process afterward. Indeed, I would have forgotten the matter almost +entirely, if it had not been brought back to mind by this work of +writing my story. In the second part of this book, in describing +stone-printing itself, I will show various methods of making patterns +for work on cotton, such as I conceived later in Vienna where I busied +myself very much with cotton-printing. + +I happened to print for Herr Lentner a little song about the great fire +of Neuötting in Bavaria and used a little vignette showing a burning +house. This induced Herr Steiner to let me etch a few small pictures for +a catechism. So far as execution of drawing goes, they were very +ordinary; but he continued to encourage me to try if the new printing +process would not be available for art work. With the exception of Herr +Andre of Offenbach, he was the only one who reasoned thus: "These +strokes and points, of such great fineness and again of such great +strength, can evidently be made on the stone, therefore it is possible +to make drawings similar to copper-plate etchings. That this cannot be +done yet is due not to a fault in the art of stone-printing, but to the +insufficient skill of the artists." + +Even at that time he did not say: "The art is still in its infancy," as +many a would-be wise man does to-day, thus exposing his lack of +knowledge of the entire matter. Even at that time he was convinced, more +so even than I, that the art of stone-printing had reached its climax +when I gave him the first specimens of stone-printing improved by the +chemical process. Artists might cultivate and perfect themselves, +manipulation be simplified and processes be increased in number and +variety, but the art itself could not be improved greatly. + +To be sure, when I glance hurriedly over the manifold results of the +last twenty years, all that I have done myself for perfection, the +brilliant achievements of which this book will furnish proof, I am +tempted to think for a moment that the Now and the Then cannot be +compared. But considered correctly, I had invented and discovered the +entire art at that time. Everything that I and others have done since +then are only improvements. Everything rests still on the same +principle: ink of wax, soap, etc., then gum, aqua fortis or another acid +of which none has an advantage over the others, further oil varnish and +lampblack,--these are, ever and in the same manner, the chief elements +of stone-printing as they were then. Not the slightest thing has been +changed, improved, or invented in the fundamental principle. No +illustration has been published by any lithographer containing cleaner, +stronger, or blacker lines and points than my first proofs had in part. + +Therefore, those people are wrong who seek to excuse the lack of +assistance that I received in the beginning, by alleging that at the +time no one knew if the process could be used to any great extent. They +declare many productions of the present day to be far better, simply +because the illustrator is more skillful, though in truth the printing +is not so good as many of the first ones made by me. It has even +happened that the assertion has found its way into print that I had +invented only the rough part of the art, and never had been able to use +it for more than music-printing, whereas this one or that one are the +true artists, having succeeded in producing pictures. + +These gentlemen, who are so quick with verdicts, should inform +themselves a little. They would discover that aside from me (with the +exception of Professor Mitterer's invention of the cylinder press), +nobody has made a noteworthy improvement in the branches of lithography +without having received it primarily or indirectly through me. Further +they would have learned that these illustrators either made their first +attempts under my personal direction, or else owe their skill to persons +whom I taught; and lastly, that none of my critics can boast of having +penetrated into the very inmost spirit of the art like only Herr Rapp of +Munich, the venerable author of the work published by Cotta, _The Secret +of Lithography_. If they learned all this, they might feel a little +ashamed. But then, they would have much to do. + +Had my skill in writing and drawing on stone been greater at that time, +Herr Steiner would have given me opportunity enough and manifold. He +permitted me to do a small book, _Rules for Girls_, in German script, +which, on the whole, turned out of only average quality, as I had not +practiced this style sufficiently. + +Then he wanted me to draw Biblical pictures on stone or to let others +draw them. At that time he was having Herr Schön in Augsburg etch the +Seven Holy Sacraments after Poussin. As the etching was expensive, the +impressions could not be sold for less than four kreuzer each. Herr +Steiner wished to circulate these pictures so generally that they could +serve as gifts from the country preachers to their little Christian +pupils. He wished, also, to ornament various school-books with pictures +of this kind, and thus, gradually, to replace the miserably drawn +species of saints that generally fill the prayer-books of the pious +households. + +Only the utmost cheapness could make this possible, and this naturally +suggested the stone process to him. Even if the pictures were not so +fine as those etched on copper, they would serve amply if they were +correctly drawn, noble in design, and handsomely printed. It was +necessary either to draw myself and practice faithfully, or to train a +skilled artist to draw with fatty ink on stone. We preferred the latter +method and trained several young men, who produced various works, +sometimes good, sometimes inferior. + +Through all this I ran more and more danger of losing my secret. Indeed, +it was lost already except perhaps so far as concerned the exact +composition of the ink. But I hoped still to obtain the privilege for +Bavaria, toward which end the Schulrath promised me his best aid, and so +I let the matter proceed, and trained the men. But among all these +young men there was not one who did not desire a substantial reward for +his very first attempts, and when they found that they were expected +first to learn, they stayed away, one by one. Herr Steiner was hurt. I, +however, was indifferent, for I was just beginning to plan to use a new +and important discovery in such a manner that my stone-printing would be +greatly improved and we could hope to carry out our idea of +illustrations without the aid of artists. + +I had been assigned to write a prayer-book on stone for the Schul-fond. +It was mostly in a style of writing in which I was least expert. When I +wrote music notes, our method, proved best by experience, had been to +write the entire sheet in reverse on the stone with lead pencil to serve +as pattern. This was mostly Herr Gleissner's work, and being a musician +he had achieved great perfection. For me this preparatory work was far +less agreeable than the final execution with the stone-ink. Therefore, +as ever in my life, when a difficulty or a burden was before me, I +studied for some way to make it easier for me. Previously I had found +that if one wrote on paper with good English lead pencils, then +moistened the paper, laid it on a polished stone and passed it through a +powerful press, a good impression was the result. I had used the method +on various occasions. I wished that I possessed an ink that could be +used the same way. Trials showed that fine red chalk needed merely to be +rubbed down gently in a solution of gum, and that even the ordinary +writing-ink of nut gall and vitriol of iron would serve when mixed with +a little sugar. But this did not satisfy my ambition, which always +demanded the best and most perfect. The gum in one and the vitriol in +the other did not agree well with the stone-ink. In addition, the +impression often squashed. Therefore I tried a mixture in water of +linseed oil, soap, and lampblack which met my demands better. I had a +music-writer write notes correctly on note-paper with this ink, printed +it on the stone, and thus had an accurate pattern, which was at the same +time reversed, as was necessary. + +I now planned to do this with the book. But why could I not invent an +ink that would serve on the stone without making it necessary to trace +over it with the stone-ink? Why not make an ink that would leave the +paper under pressure and transfer itself to the stone entirely? Could +one give the paper itself some property so that it would let go of the +ink under given conditions? So reflected I, and it seemed to me not +impossible. At once I began to experiment. I had observed that the +stone-ink at once began to congeal and stiffen when it came into contact +with ordinary writing-ink, because of the action of the vitriol of iron, +which devoured the alkali that the stone-ink needed to keep it in +solution. Therefore I wrote with ordinary ink, into which I put still +more vitriol of iron. After it was dry, I dipped the sheet into a weak +solution in water of my stone-ink. After a few seconds I withdrew it and +washed it very gently in rainwater. I found that the ink had fastened +itself on the written places, and pretty thickly, too. I allowed the +paper to dry slightly and transferred the writing to the stone. The +impression was fair, but not sufficiently complete. I tried it +repeatedly but could obtain no transfers that were sharp and uniform +enough to represent a handsome script. So I tried another way. I painted +the paper with gum solution in which vitriol of iron was dissolved. +After it dried I wrote on it with my ordinary stone-ink and dried it +again. Then I dampened the paper and let it lie a while to soften, after +which I transferred it to the stone, which had been treated with strong +oil varnish diluted in oil of turpentine, laid on so lightly that it was +only like the blurring from a breath. + +These attempts were far more successful, but it was impossible to write +as delicately on this paper as I desired. Therefore I made new +experiments. I changed the mixture of my ink. I tried to make it more +adhesive with mixtures of resin, oil varnish, gum elastic, turpentine, +mastic, and similar substances. In short, I do not exaggerate when I +declare that this matter cost me several thousands of experiments. I was +rewarded sufficiently by succeeding. And at the same time through these +investigations I discovered the chemical printing on stone of to-day. + +As the transfer from paper to stone depended mainly on the greater or +lesser powers of adhesion between one material and another, it was +natural that in my many experiments with such various ingredients I +should observe that a mucous fluid, as, for instance, the gum solution, +resisted the adhesion of the greasy ink. Nearer still to the new +invention did the following experiment bring me: I noticed that if there +happened to be a few drops of oil in the water into which I dipped paper +inscribed with my greasy stone-ink, the oil would distribute itself +evenly over all parts of the writing, whereas the rest of the paper +would take no oil, and especially so if it had been treated with gum +solution or very thin starch paste. This fact led me to investigate the +behavior of paper printed with common printing-ink. + +A sheet of an old book was drawn through thin gum solution, then laid on +a stone and touched carefully everywhere with a sponge that had been +dipped into a thin oil color. The printed letters took the color well +everywhere and the paper itself remained white. Now I laid another clean +white sheet on this, put both through the press, and obtained a very +good transfer, in reverse, of course. In this manner, if I used great +care, I found I could make fifty and more transfers from the same sheet. +If I allowed such a transfer to dry thoroughly and then treated it like +the original sheet, why should it not produce transfers that are like +the original, not reversed? So thought I, and the result showed that I +had not been wrong! Only for the first transfer I needed to use a +somewhat stiffer color that had been dried more with litharge of silver, +and then to let the transfer dry for at least four or six days. + +So I came to find that I could print without a stone, from the paper +alone; and this process, depending solely on chemical action, was +totally, fundamentally different from all other processes of printing. + +Old books could be republished in this manner easily and without great +cost. New ones also. I needed only to invent a fatty ink, similar to the +printing-ink and drying thoroughly, and I could use every sheet of +printed paper instead of type. I invented this ink soon. Resin, finely +pulverized litharge of silver, lampblack, thick oil varnish, and potash +properly diluted with water gave me a good ink for the purpose. The only +obstacle that prevented me from using this process at once on a large +scale was the fragility of the paper, which tore into pieces under the +slightest carelessness in handling. The natural and simple thought that +was bound to come to me under the circumstances was this, Could not a +stronger material, perhaps the stone plate itself, be so prepared that +it would take ink or color only on the parts covered with fatty ink, +while the wet parts of the stone resisted it? I feared that the stone +might not absorb the grease sufficiently, and this really is the case +with many stones, such as slate, pebble, grindstone, glass, porcelain, +etc.; but experiments showed that exactly the opposite is true in the +case of the Solenhofer limestone. This stone has a great affinity for +fat, which often is absorbed so deeply that in many cases even extensive +grinding will not remove it. + +I took a cleanly polished stone, inscribed it with a piece of soap, +poured thin gum solution over it and passed over all with a sponge +dipped in oil color. All the places marked with the fat became black at +once, the rest remained white. I could make as many impressions as I +pleased; simply wetting the stone after each impression and treating it +again with the sponge produced the same result each time. The +impressions became somewhat pale, because the color on the sponge was +too thin; but I obtained perfectly black and handsome impressions as +soon as I used an ink roller of leather stuffed with horse-hair. + +I hurried to write a sheet of note music at once to print it in the new +way; but the ink flowed too much on the polished stone. Previously I had +corrected this by rubbing the stone with linseed oil or soap-water, +which checked the trouble entirely. But I knew that I could not do that +in this new method, because then the stone would have a coating of +grease all over, and would take color on the entire surface. However, I +was able to take this coating away after writing, by etching with aqua +fortis, though etching would not have been necessary otherwise in this +chemical form of printing. However, it was easy to see that a drawing +etched into relief would be easier to print from than one not etched at +all. It did not require much etching, and I saved a great deal of acid, +while the stone, also, remained useful for new work for a much longer +period. Therefore, without making further experiments, I adhered to my +old method, first washing the stone lightly with soap-water, drying it +well, writing on it with wax ink, and then etching with acid before I +finished it for printing by pouring gum solution over it. + +At first I imagined that I might do without the gum entirely; but I +found soon that it really formed a sort of chemical union with the +stone, making its pores more receptive to the grease and closing them +more effectively against water. I found also that neither aqua fortis +nor gum was so valuable alone as when both were used in the process. + +I needed to make only a few more experiments to obtain the proper +consistency of ink, and the new process would be practically perfect so +far as the fundamental principle was concerned. And, in fact, I made +such handsome, clean, and strong impressions after three days of trial +that few better ones have been made since. Now it was necessary merely +to train skillful workmen and artists as quickly as possible for this +new art, that was susceptible of innumerable valuable uses, as I could +see at once. + +It made no difference now whether the design was worked in relief or +intaglio, as good impressions could be obtained even when the drawing +was perfectly level with the surface of the stone. But all three methods +could be combined on one stone, if desired. If I reversed the method, by +rubbing oil over the stone instead of water, while for printing I used +an ink prepared with gum solution (of which I will describe the best +composition afterward), then the greasy places would resist color while +the wet ones took it, and thus I could print with all water colors, and +this is necessary sometimes with colored pictures because of the greater +height of the colors. The inscription with dry soap gave me the logical +idea toward crayon work, which I used afterward. My previous experiments +with etching, that recurred to my memory, now assumed entirely different +aspects and I could understand many things that had puzzled me then. + +It was a simple step now to the etched method, in which the stone is +prepared first with aqua fortis and gum, after which the design is +engraved in intaglio without first being treated with aqua fortis. +Indeed, this method was used for the first work that I undertook. + +A piece of music by Herr Gleissner (which afterward was greatly praised +in the musical paper) had been completed before I invented the new +process. Only the title-page remained to do. As I wished to make this as +handsome as possible, since Herr Gleissner intended to dedicate the work +to Count von Törring, I chose this new intaglio style, because I hoped +to do my best work in it. Any one who still possesses a copy of this +symphony can see by slight examination that the printing was done from +an etched engraving. Therefore Herr Rapp in Stuttgart is mistaken when +he assumes that he is the first who treated the stone in this manner. As +early as the year 1800 I deposited in the archives of the Patent Office +in London a full description of this and several other methods, some of +which have not been used yet generally, and in 1803 I had to submit my +descriptions to the Austrian Government when they gave me a franchise. + +A year before this, I had invented the lever press, with which I could +make several thousand of the handsomest impressions during a day. This, +combined with the new treatment of the stone, enabled me to enlarge my +operations greatly. I took in two of my brothers, Theobald and George, +who had been in the theatre hitherto, and taught them to write and etch +on stone. Also I took in two boy apprentices, sons of poor parents, to +train them properly. Herr Schulrath Steiner and Herr Falter, with +several others, gave me various orders, and a pretty good outlook began +to appear for me and Herr Gleissner. + +Until now we had been forced to suffer much grief, disappointment, +deprivation, and poverty. Herr Gleissner's salary was only three hundred +gulden a year. A yearly deduction of one hundred gulden was being made +from this by the Government to pay debts. Then there were new expenses +to repair the printery and keep it in some sort of order. My support and +that of the family Gleissner,--which consisted of five persons,--then a +larger residence, on account of the room needed for stones and for +printing, also had to be paid for. My own yearly earnings were barely a +few hundred gulden, as most of my time was used for experiments. It is +no wonder, then, that during this sad period of two years, we spent +almost all that could be spent of Herr Gleissner's estate, and still +made new debts, despite all imaginable economies. + +I can say for the honor of this man, and especially his wife, that, +despite all their losses and despite the warnings and inciting of their +friends and relatives, they remained unshaken, and by making all kinds +of sacrifices they enabled me to win at last. On my part they saw +faithful and eager will, and a restless endeavor that went so far that I +hardly took any time for eating or sleeping, but thought only of +improving my art. + +Now, however, our condition was changed at once. Many days we earned as +much as ten to twelve gulden; and at the same time we received an +exclusive franchise for fifteen years through the favor of King +Maximilian Joseph, who began his glorious reign then. This privilege +gave us the right to print and sell exclusively in all of Bavaria, while +infringers were liable to a fine of one hundred gulden and confiscation +of all stock and apparatus. + +We were determined to do our utmost, to work day and night, to establish +an honorable reputation for our printery at last, though we foresaw many +obstacles, owing to the entire lack of assistance. Already I had +half-determined to contract with the Schul-fond, permitting it to +establish a lithographic press for its own use, when an accidental +circumstance gave our whole undertaking a new direction. + +Depending on the protection given to us by our franchise, we were making +no further secret of any part of our process. We were quite content with +having the monopoly in Bavaria, and cared little that other printeries +might arise in other countries. Indeed, this expectation flattered my +vanity as inventor, and I thought that in time I might make commercial +connections with such establishments. For this reason I was very +hospitable toward every stranger who came to visit us. I hoped that +perhaps I might induce some such visitor to participate in our +undertaking, and therefore I exhibited all the advantages of the process +and permitted them to see the manipulations with their own eyes. + +Just then Herr Andre of Offenbach visited Munich on business. He read +about the grant of our franchise and asked his friend Falter about the +process. That gentleman showed him some sheets of music printed by us +and offered to introduce him to our printery, where, as technical +expert, he could decide for himself as to the value or worthlessness of +the new art. + +Herr Andre, who possessed an extensive musical publishing institution +and owned a large zinc-plate printing-plant, was delighted with the +beauty of our print, and was especially impressed by the fact that the +color did not off-set when rubbed with the hand, as was the case with +zinc printing. He accepted Herr Falter's offer at once and was +introduced as a merchant. The attention with which he noted even the +slightest operations led me to conclude at once that this man had some +especial interest in printing. I took particular pains to display the +whole process to the best advantage. + +Several plates that were already inscribed were etched and printed with +beautiful results. The speed (seventy-five sheets in a quarter-hour, two +being printed simultaneously each time), the quickness of drying, the +economy in color, were things that increased his interest to a high +pitch. He told who he was and proposed to me that I teach him the entire +art for an adequate remuneration. I accepted at once and agreed to go to +Offenbach within a few months, erect a press, and train men in all +branches of the process. For this he promised me the sum of two thousand +gulden, of which he paid down three hundred gulden on the spot. + +This change from poverty to comfort made me happy mainly on Herr +Gleissner's account. We could furnish our printery properly now and pay +our old debts. We were assured, also, of enough work to permit +enlargement of the establishment in future. What was there left to wish? + +In the very beginning, however, the behavior of my own family gave me +great displeasure. My mother demanded that I share my profit with my +brothers, as they had a better right than Herr Gleissner and his family. +I could not quite see this; therefore my mother ordered a press for my +brothers and bought the necessary stones. They went to Herr Falter and +asked him for his work, representing that I had made my fortune through +Herr Andre, whereas they were unprovided for. They offered at the same +time to furnish each plate for thirty kreuzer less than I charged. Herr +Falter permitted himself to be convinced, and when Madame Gleissner +discovered it she was intensely angry, and did not rest till the +Government ordered my brothers to refrain from utilizing the process in +Bavaria for their own account. + +My brothers went to Augsburg to erect a stone-press for Herr Gombart. +They must have been unequal to the attempt or there must have been other +difficulties: in brief, I know only that, after Herr Gombart had +incurred many useless expenses, he discarded printing from stone. + +During the three months before my journey to Offenbach I practiced my +art busily, and especially studied to attain thoroughness in one branch +that was of importance to Herr Schulrath Steiner. I have spoken already +of his idea for pictures for children. As soon as I had invented the new +chemical printing, I thought of inking an etched copper plate with a +composition of tallow, soap, lampblack, and oil varnish, making an +impression, laying this on stone, and putting it through the press. The +picture transferred itself to the stone as I had expected. Then I poured +the water and gum solution over it and inked it with the ink roller. The +design took the color well; and thus, if the stone was very clean in the +beginning and the proof from the copper had been made very carefully +indeed, I could print several thousands of copies which resembled the +original so closely that only a slightly greater degree of sharpness, +clearness, and strength gave the copper etching an advantage over the +stone impressions. At last I succeeded in perfecting the process so that +actually my best impressions from the stone were better than those that +had been made with less care from the original copper plate. + +The main requisite in this process was that the ink be firm enough not +to spread in printing, and still so greasy and tender that the very +finest lines would come out. The copper plate had to be washed with +extraordinary care, for the least bit of grease that should off-set on +the white paper would, of course, transfer itself to the stone and make +that part take color. + +This latter circumstance was intensely difficult to overcome. It +occurred to me to treat the copper plate chemically, like the stone, so +that its surface would resist the ink. I succeeded, as, in future, I +succeeded with other metals. The fundamental principle in each case +remained the same. Only in the choice of materials for each metal was +there a difference. I discovered soon that there are two kinds of +preparations, one acid and one alkaline, for all solid bodies which have +the property of taking and absorbing oil colors. The alkalines seemed to +be best for use on copper plate, and I obtained such clean impressions +that the stone did not take on even a vestige of ink in any spot except +the design. At the same time I found that chemical printing does not +limit itself to stone, but can be done on wood and metal, as well as on +paper, as stated already. Yes, though apparently it is incredible--even +fats, such as wax, shellac, resin, etc., can acquire the attribute, +under certain circumstances, of resisting color, and, therefore, are +available for chemical printing. This fact gave me hopes of discovering +a sort of artificial stone some day, which might be less costly, less +massive, and less fragile; and, as a matter of fact, I succeeded in +inventing an artificial stone-paper in 1813, a stony mass that is +smeared on paper or linen and looks somewhat like parchment. + +Since the illustrations on etched copper plates were so readily +transferable to the stone, Herr Schulrath Steiner could now let the best +masters etch his pictures. The sales of the original impressions as +works of art always covered the costs. He paid me five gulden for each +transfer that I made from the copper to stone. For this extremely small +sum he obtained a stone plate from which there could be made countless +impressions, which, although not so fine as those from the copper, +answered his purpose of circulating good pictures by making them +extremely cheap. Lively prosecution of this process was prevented only +by the delays of copper etchers, so that we were able to utilize it only +five times on a large scale before I had to leave Munich. + +Herr Gleissner, who wished to visit a friend in Frankfurt, accompanied +me on my way to Offenbach. I started at once on the new work and within +fourteen days I pulled the first proof on Herr Andre's own press. He was +so well satisfied, and, besides, had so thoroughly considered the +advantages of stone-printing, that he proposed to me to leave Munich +entirely and, with him as associate, extend the art in the best possible +way. He had three brothers, none of whom was engaged in a fixed +occupation. He intended to bring these into the partnership. Two were +in London, the youngest and the eldest. The latter was to return soon. +One brother had lived long in Paris, and was well acquainted with that +city as well as with French affairs. So he laid out the following plan. +We would try to obtain exclusive franchises in Paris, London, Berlin, +and Vienna. Then a stone-printery and art publication house was to be +opened in each city. His brothers should manage affairs, one each in +London, Paris, and Berlin, while I was to take the management in Vienna. +Offenbach and Frankfurt would remain under Herr Andre's management and +be the centre of control and union. + +The plan seemed to be easy to realize, as there was no lack of means. I +could look for one fifth of the profits which would be earned by the +combined, very considerable capital of the Andre family. In addition, +Herr Andre possessed all the requisite knowledge and owned a great +business already. Therefore I agreed gladly, after making the condition +that Herr Gleissner was to remain a partner of mine and receive a decent +remuneration till the business was in working order. + +Herr Andre was well content, for Herr Gleissner could be used as +compositor, corrector, and writer in the business, which was to consist +largely of music publication in the beginning. + +Herr Gleissner and I returned to Munich to arrange our affairs there. He +intended to ask for three years' leave of absence. I planned, in order +to save Herr Steiner any embarrassment, and also to maintain our +privilege in Bavaria, since one could not tell how the Andre undertaking +might turn out, to so arrange that our work could be printed properly +during our absence, whether done by the Schul-fond, the Government, or +private persons. It gratified me also to have an opportunity to satisfy +my mother's wishes in regard to my brothers; and I gave my brothers, +Theobald and George, my press, my stones, and everything else that was +on hand, also the two trained apprentices, and only stipulated for +myself that I should have one fourth of the net profits, leaving the +accounting entirely to their sense of honor. They promised to keep +accurate books and work steadily and economically, and they received +from me minute instructions about transferring from the copper for Herr +Steiner. I taught them also how to handle the crayon process, which +promised an early harvest. + +As soon as all was done I went to Offenbach with the whole Gleissner +family. A good quantity of stones had arrived there, and a few men, +previously trained, had been practicing in transcribing music. We were +able to begin on a large scale at once. Herr Andre had ten copper- and +zinc-plate presses at work. He stopped five and used the workmen for +stone-printing. He went to London, partly for business, partly to get +his youngest brother and to inform himself thoroughly about the +procedure necessary to obtain English patents. + +One of our chief speculations in England was to be the application of +stone-printing to cotton. Once, when Herr Steiner conceived the idea of +illuminating pictures with stencils in the way used by card-makers, I +had made many experiments in that line. I cut out the parts to be +colored in oil-soaked paper, laid this on the picture, and passed a +roller over it with the desired color. The color was more even than with +a brush, but not everything could be cut out, because the stencils had +to have the necessary connection. Therefore I needed two stencils for +every color shade. Again, these thin stencils easily slipped out of +place, a defect that displeased me. Now, it happened that at times when +I was a little careless, the whole stencil would roll itself up on the +ink-roller. I found that it was possible to work even more surely when +this happened, provided one found the exact beginning of the stencil and +applied it minutely. But it was not possible to make more than twelve +impressions. Then the stencil had to be taken from the roller that the +latter might be inked again. + +In this work the stencil paper often tore. To overcome this there was +only one remedy, which was to make the roller hollow and feed it with +color from inside. I did not have the time to try this and worked out +another plan. I cut out the places to be colored in felt or leather, +applied paste to their obverse sides, laid them face down on the exact +parts of the picture which were to be colored, rolled a perfectly round +roller over them, and the pieces adhered to the roller in their right +places. Then the roller was inked with the required color, and of course +took it only in the elevated parts. At both ends the roller had a strip +of leather of the same thickness as the cut-outs, thus making it certain +that it would not touch the ink except in the proper places. In this way +pictures could be illuminated very quickly, and several shades of color +could be obtained if the pieces were of different qualities of leather, +or of leather, cloth, and cotton, according to the shades desired. A +very moderate pressure sufficed for good and even work. + +What could be more natural than that I should deduce that this sort of +printing might be utilized for cotton? Once inked, the roller was good +for ten to twelve impressions, if the operator merely used a little more +pressure as he proceeded. I saw also that the roller could easily be +colored by attaching another to revolve with it and convey the ink. That +would give us a form of cotton-printing that would proceed +automatically. + +The idea was too important to be left untried. I took a little roller, +two inches in diameter and six inches long. I glued a piece of calfskin +completely around it and then cut a design into it. Then this roller was +so adjusted with relation to another of exactly the same dimensions that +both touched perfectly. On this second one, which was to convey the +color to the other, there rested a little box without a bottom, so that +the roller itself represented the bottom as soon as the box was pressed +on it, which was most easily done with two screws. The color was poured +into this box. Now when the lower roller was passed over linen or cotton +which was stretched on an evenly planed board with an under layer of +cloth, a continuous print was obtained, without off-set, and with such +celerity that it could be reckoned easily that with this process several +thousand yards a day could be produced. + +When I invented the chemical printing afterward, I held that a stone +roller could be used for this work as well as a wooden one. I had too +little knowledge of the industry at that time and believed that cotton +print was done with oil-colors; for I thought that water-colors would +wash out. I was a complete stranger to this work. Therefore, I drew a +pretty cotton pattern on a stone plate and printed from it with oil +varnish and finely pulverized indigo. The impressions turned out very +handsome, so that I considered the matter settled and made no further +experiments. I imparted this idea to Herr Andre, who saw its importance +at once and determined to obtain a patent for it specially. + +However, we had much to learn. As soon as he arrived in England he +discovered that rollers with the design on them were in general use in +England. So I had imagined mistakenly that my invention was new. +However, printing from stone was in itself valuable for a patent, but +Herr Andre unfortunately received the incorrect information that the +inventor himself must appear in England, and he decided to send me +there. I did not care to go; firstly, because I was vexed at the failure +of my hopes in regard to cotton-printing; and secondly, because I wished +to go to Vienna. However, I yielded to his representations, and within a +few weeks journeyed to London with one of his brothers who spoke +English. + +We went through Hamburg to Cuxhafen and thence in an English packet-boat +to Yarmouth, where we landed after a six days' stormy passage. + +My sojourn in London did not achieve its purpose, which was to establish +printing from stone. The exaggerated caution and precision of Herr +Philip Andre, who had been named as the man who was to manage the London +negotiations, caused a waste of seven months, during which nothing was +done to reach our object. + +We lived with Herr Philip and he kept me at home most of the time, for +fear that I might betray our purpose, in which case some speculative +spirit might take out a patent before us and then compel us to buy him +off for some heavy sum. He did not reflect that a mere declaration is +not sufficient in England, but that an exact description of a process +must be deposited with the Patent Office. + +As he could have rendered all these fears unnecessary by simply taking +out the patent, I could not understand why he delayed from month to +month, and at last I voiced my suspicion that he was not honest with me +and had some unknown designs. I declared that nothing would keep me +longer in England, which had become wearisome to me owing to my constant +seclusion; and my suspicions were increased by the entire lack of all +news from the Gleissners and from my family. When Herr Philip Andre +realized that I could be held back no longer, he went to work at last, +and in twelve days we had the patent in our hands. As I had trained Herr +Philip already in the art of stone-work, there was nothing to keep me +longer, and I began my homeward voyage at once with my former companion, +Herr Friedrich Andre. + +My seven months' sojourn in London had the following results for myself +and for lithography:-- + +First, I had decided in Offenbach to use my spare time entirely for the +study of chemistry. Particularly did I want to learn everything that was +known about color, that I might use stone for cotton-printing. I bought +the best books and worked steadily, testing the teachings by experiment. + +Second, I made many experiments with stone-ink, to find the very best +composition. The ingredients which I utilized in course of the time were +about as follows:-- + + Soap--_a_, common tallow soaps; _b_, Venetian soap. + B, wax. + C, tallow, butter, and other animal fats. + D, spermaceti. + E, shellac. + F, resins and Venetian turpentine. + G, gum elastic. + H, linseed oil. + I, the fat contained in chocolate. + L, various resinous products, such as mastic, copal, dragon's + blood, gum elemi, quajac pensoe, etc. + +Then I used various solvents besides the soap, such as-- + + M, vegetable alkalies, among them tartaric acid. + N, similar mineral alkalies. + O, animal lyes, spirits of sal ammoniac, and sal volatile with + spirits of ammonia. + P, borax. + Q, various metallic solutions. + +It is evident that with these substances an endless number of +experiments can be made, not to count the variety of proportions. +Certainly it is not exaggeration when I say that during that time and +later I made many thousands of experiments, only to confirm my +experience that accidentally I had discovered the best compositions +during the first twenty or thirty investigations, and that my time after +that had been wasted, unless I counted the knowledge I had gained of +chemistry. + +Thirdly, I made my first attempts at that time in the aqua-tint style, +and also practiced printing with several plates, which I had begun +previously under suggestion of Herr Steiner. The son of the Swiss +idyllic poet, Gessner, was in London at that time and was a good friend +of Herr Philip. He made some neat sketches for us in the crayon process, +which I had invented in Munich immediately after my invention of +chemical printing. I had exhibited the process to Professor Mitterer at +that time, and he thought that it might become valuable for art. + +Thus my residence in London was not unimportant for lithography. The +complete lack of disturbance, the adequacy of all needed material, +enabled me to discover more than I might have learned in Offenbach. I +left England with a certain satisfaction, gained from the certainty that +I had raised my art to a high degree of perfection. + +I am satisfied even to this day that the world would have many +masterpieces as the result, had I come into contact at that time with an +enterprising art publisher who would have engaged the needed artists and +undertaken interesting works. As it was, however, and as I shall show, +circumstances forced me into untoward positions, so that little or no +opportunity was left me to use my knowledge practically and in an +important way. + +Immediately on my arrival in Offenbach, I received the displeasing news +that Herr Andre had sent Madame Gleissner to Vienna to claim the +exclusive franchise for the new printing process, and to enter lawsuit +against my mother, who had gone to Vienna with the same purpose. + +The reason for this was as follows: My two brothers, Theobald and +George, who could not earn enough in Munich, had been engaged as +lithographers by Herr Andre in Offenbach on my request. In a +confidential mood I told them that I hoped to go to Vienna and open a +great printing establishment and art publication house with assistance +of Herr Andre, and that this establishment should make my fortune as +well as that of my family. + +Probably they did not believe my promise, or they did not care to depend +on my fraternal feeling for something which they believed they could get +for themselves: enough, they wrote to my mother that it was unfair to +let Herr Andre become exclusive proprietor of the new process +everywhere, and as I was well established in London anyway, she would +better travel to Vienna and ask for a franchise. They sent her several +good proofs from the Andre press. + +Would to Heaven this plan of theirs had succeeded! I should have been +spared many a succeeding sorrow, and I would have been glad for their +sakes. The world was large enough for me, and certainly it was not +thoroughly fair that they, the nearest relatives of the inventor, should +be shut out by the far-reaching plans of Herr Andre to obtain exclusive +franchises everywhere. To be sure, I had told them that I would give +them the Bavarian franchise; but as they had enjoyed it for several +months with little profit, this did not seem to them a tempting +equivalent. + +The news of my mother's journey to Vienna had been brought to Madame +Gleissner quite accidentally, and it made her almost frantic. + +When she used to charge me with depending so completely on Herr Andre's +promises, without possessing anything in writing, I used to comfort her +by pointing out his righteous character, and also by reminding her that +it was all agreed that I and Herr Gleissner should undertake the +printery in Vienna as part of the general enterprise, and that we were +to obtain the necessary advance funds as soon as I returned from +England. The repeated complaints that she made, many of them in the +presence of my brothers, possibly helped to give them the idea of trying +themselves for a franchise in Austria. They may have thought, "If our +brother is careless enough to depend on empty words, we will be wise +enough to obtain a certainty. It remains open to us always to share our +fortune with the inventor." + +Madame Gleissner had entertained great hopes about living in splendid +Vienna and having means enough to take part in its brilliant life. This +made the news about my mother's errand all the more irritating. She did +not consider that an Imperial franchise is not easily obtained by women +who are not even well informed on the case at issue. She succeeded in +imparting her fears to Herr Andre, and as he himself was prevented from +going, he entered into her fool's counsel to send her to Vienna at once. +She had strong hopes of success, because as a matter of fact the +Bavarian franchise had been obtained entirely through her efforts, and +she also calculated that the Austrian Government would pay more heed to +the inventor himself than to his brothers, who could not equal his +attainments. + +Herr Andre had kept it all, even to the journey of Madame Gleissner, a +secret from me, presumably because he wanted to save me annoyance and +also to prevent my hasty return from England. + +Unfortunately I had conceived some suspicions in England, and these were +increased when I received this unexpected news on my arrival in +Offenbach. What was worse, Herr Gleissner gave me a letter from his +wife, in which she adjured me to hurry to Vienna with all speed, as +Andre was planning to deceive me and set me aside as a mere tool as soon +as I had founded his own fortune. + +This letter, which contained no evidence but only lamentations, was +accompanied by another from her landlord in Vienna, a very reputable +merchant. It seemed to bear her out, for he warned me in it to be +cautious in my relations with Andre and to hurry to Vienna if I wished +to obtain the franchise, which could not escape me as a most influential +man had come to our support and it depended merely on the evidence to be +furnished by me. + +Greatly as my suspicions were increased by this, I hoped that everything +was due merely to misunderstanding, and I proposed to Herr Andre to let +me go to Vienna, where I would inform myself thoroughly and make strong +efforts to obtain the franchise. He denied my request, saying that there +was nothing more to do in Vienna, as the Government had turned both +women away, and the whole plan was spoiled as the whole art and +copper-etching trade had become apprehensive and was united in +opposition to the new process. He said that I should rather go quickly +to work to transfer his music from zinc plates to the stone, because he +had an excellent opportunity to sell his entire stock of zincs, which +would give us a new capital of forty thousand gulden for the greater +enterprises. + +I realized the good sense of this, but would not admit that a delay of +three or four weeks could interfere with it, as the entire transfers +could not be completed in less than a year, and the slight delay, +therefore, could be made up by additional work or by engaging a few more +assistants. I insisted on my demand, all the more as I had spent seven +months in England on his account. In the heat of the succeeding dispute +he reminded me of the helpless position in which he had found me, and +said that as partner in his business, I owed him all my present fortune. +Conscious as I was of my honest intention to help him to the best of my +ability, and also of the unbounded trustfulness with which I had +imparted to him far more than was called for in our contract, I was so +deeply hurt that I forgot myself and tore up our agreement, which had +been signed only the day before and which assured for me one fifth of +all profits of the Andre business. I threw the pieces down with the +exclamation that I did not wish to make my fortune through his means. + +This was one of the most important moments in my life, and in the +process of lithography. It gave my work an entirely new direction, +hurled me into a mass of troubles, and brought it about that Herr Andre +himself did not gain anything like the expected profits from the new +art. Indeed, he lost heavily in London and France, whereas, had we +remained together, lithography might now be highly perfected in both +these countries and produce no small wealth for its users. + +When Andre saw that I was determined to go to Vienna, he yielded, but +assured me that I would go in vain and achieve no result. + +The lawsuit between Madame Gleissner and my mother, which Herr Andre +considered the greatest obstacle in his way, still continued; and in +order to get it out of the way once and for all, I took my brothers, +George and Theobald, who had been dismissed by Herr Andre, to Vienna +with me to combine with me. Andre told me afterward, after our +relations had reached final rupture, that this act had annoyed him most, +and that it was the main reason for giving up all dealings with me, +because it was inconceivable to him how any one, without the utmost +weakness of character, could forgive such treachery as theirs. He did +not reflect that I, who knew selfishness only by name, had not felt +their affront so keenly, and that my brotherly affection excused it and +made me trust that it never had been their intention to shut me out +entirely from any gains they might make. + + + + +PART II + +FROM 1800 TO 1806 + + +It was in August, 1800, that I went to Vienna with my brothers. In +Regensburg we met my mother, who had come to visit one of her daughters +because the decision of the Imperial Austrian Government had been +delayed too long for her patience. She assured me that when she +petitioned for the privilege she had named not only my brothers but me, +too, and had asked it for us three. + +This assurance gave me great joy, and I determined absolutely to urge +Madame Gleissner to accept my brothers as partners. I thought that if we +three worked industriously and unitedly, we would succeed much better +and more quickly. I entered Vienna with excellent hopes, based mostly on +a letter from Madame Gleissner, saying that the influential man who was +interested in our cause had promised to advance us six thousand gulden. +But these fine things retired into dark shadows when I learned, in my +first conversation with her, that all these promises were made dependent +on conditions. + +The whole understanding rested on the following: Madame Gleissner lodged +with a prominent family. Andre himself had told her that she was to live +well and exhibit no lack of money, because she was much more likely to +obtain the franchise if the Government were led to expect that it would +bring wealthy people into the country. Therefore Madame Gleissner +considered it necessary to take part in all amusements and fashions of +her hosts. Her monthly expenditures were beyond the sum considered +necessary by Herr Andre's friend in Vienna, who had been authorized to +pay her an allowance. Friendly solicitude caused him to write to +Offenbach that Madame Gleissner knew nothing of economy, and that it was +to be feared if the franchise were not granted in Herr Andre's name, he +would have too little power to check her extravagance in the future. He +added that judging from her utterances and her present behavior, with +the franchise still in question, it was only too likely that she +intended to spend Herr Andre's money for show and society instead of for +the business. + +Therefore, he advised that, unless Andre was sure that Senefelder had +enough character to oppose her with the necessary firmness, we be +treated solely as subordinates and thus be prevented from using his +credit to his loss. + +Well meant as this counsel was, it simply furnishes an addition to the +thousands of cases where exaggerated timidity, coupled with secrecy, +does more harm than good. + +Andre knew my intense gratitude to Herr Gleissner and his family, and he +suspected that I would always live in a certain dependence on them and +would pay little attention to their financial doings. The Gleissners had +awakened a fear of their extravagance in him before this time. He knew, +for instance, that I had kept little of the money he had paid me for the +secret of our process, but had turned almost all over to them. Again, he +had granted us the sum of one thousand six hundred gulden for our +support in Offenbach until the business should be in operation. Of this +Herr Gleissner was to draw six hundred gulden and I one thousand gulden. +I was a bachelor and did not need so much as a family. Therefore I +reversed this, and gave Herr Gleissner one thousand gulden, keeping six +hundred for myself. But the latter also went into the Gleissner +treasury, because Herr Andre, who had come to like me very much, made me +live in his house and eat with him. He even kept a horse for me, that I +might have the exercise necessary for my health, and if he bought +himself a new article of dress I was sure to get one like it; and I had +to take part in all the amusements of his home, though many times I +would rather have worked. + +Thus I had absolutely no needs and did not require money. All the more +did Madame Gleissner require. She strained everything to be very elegant +and could not get along with the money she received, but asked for +further, quite considerable advances while I was in London, and Herr +Andre granted these willingly through friendship for me. + +Therefore Andre's suspicions seemed well founded; and as in his heart he +was firmly determined to treat me as a brother, he believed that a mere +outward formality and my hitherto quite unknown name would make no real +difference, but rather that the Vienna undertaking would benefit if it +had his own well-known name and excellent credit at its head in the very +beginning. + +So he wrote to his friend in Vienna that he agreed with him, and he gave +authority to him to act as he thought best for the mutual good. + +This gentleman told Madame Gleissner at once that Herr Andre had decided +to ask for the franchise in his own name to give value to the +undertaking, and that she was to appear before court and declare that +she withdrew her petition and turned it over to him. She suspected a +trick and refused. A dispute followed, and there came rebukes for her +heavy expenditures. The climax was reached with the threat that, if she +insisted on her refusal, Herr Andre would cease from that moment to let +her have any money and would let her support herself. + +This last, which Madame Gleissner wrote me in a very bitter letter, +outraged me; for I held it cruel to send a woman to a strange city where +she had no relatives or friends, and then to tell her: "Now do my will, +or I will leave it to bitter necessity and your own helplessness to tame +you." To be sure, it was only a threat, and surely it never lay in Herr +Andre's mind. His friend never ceased to give her money. But the harm +had been done. + +Madame Gleissner appeared at her host's table with signs of tears that +aroused the sympathy of her host, Herr von Bogner, a most worthy and +reputable merchant. She told him everything, complained bitterly about +my gullibility, and generally painted everything in such colors that +Herr Bogner could not well help thinking that Herr Andre did not +consider promises any too sincerely. It was only then that he learned +Madame Gleissner's business and was told that the new art promised a +great profit. + +Herr Andre's far-reaching plans for foreign exploitation seemed to him +to confirm what she said. Herr Bogner thought that Herr Andre would not +invest so much money if stone-print were not a valuable invention, and +he asked Madame Gleissner, point-blank: "Why do you need Herr Andre at +all? Try to obtain the Austrian franchise for yourself, and then, if you +choose, you can take him into the company. Then he will be obligated to +you and will have to meet your wishes, whereas now the reverse is the +case." + +Madame Gleissner interposed that Herr Andre had the capital necessary +for establishing the process on a large scale, to which Herr Bogner +responded that it was better to begin modestly. "A good thing," said he, +"grows of itself. And you must not imagine that we here in Austria have +no appreciation of useful inventions and undertakings. There are many +who will assist the arts and industries. There is even a special fund +from which as much as one thousand gulden may be advanced to develop an +invention that has proved itself to be of merit. I myself might not be +disinclined to become a partner after I have examined the matter +properly; also I can recommend a very enterprising, active man, who has +much weight with the Ministers and even with His Majesty the Emperor, +and who has obtained exclusive franchises for others. He is named von +Hartl, is Imperial Court Agent, and is a very sensible and honorable +man, who will surely tell you at once whether or not anything can be +done here with the process." + +Herr von Bogner kept his promise, and introduced Madame Gleissner the +very next day to Herr von Hartl. She explained our relations with Andre +and described the new invention, wherein, to be sure, she did not fail +to boast of its advantages and beauties. Among other specimens she +produced a piece of cotton which I had printed in Offenbach. + +This was very pretty, the print being so sharp and clear that it seemed +to exceed the best English work. It happened that just then a great +company with a capital of one and one half million gulden had been +formed by Herr von Hartl to introduce English machine-spinning in +Austria. They had secured a very skillful English mechanic named +Thornton, who had been under contract to erect similar machines for a +Hamburg merchant. They had paid a great sum to have him released from +this contract, had bought his machines, and had done enough sample work +so that it had been resolved to push the enterprise through even if +several more millions were needed. The chief objection that was urged at +that time was that an adequate sale of the products was doubtful because +of the widespread business that the English controlled. The reply was +that they must seek to work up a great part of their product +themselves,--that is, combine with their spinnery the industries of +weaving, dyeing, and cotton-printing. + +As soon as Herr von Hartl heard that the new invention promised great +advantages for cotton-printing, he pledged himself to lay the matter +before His Majesty at once, and he promised that if I would come to +Vienna and produce the necessary proofs he would surely get the +exclusive franchise for me. Furthermore, when Madame Gleissner told him, +in reply to a question, that we would need about six thousand gulden in +the beginning, he announced his readiness to furnish that sum himself if +I could convince him that a real benefit was to be produced by the new +art. + +Madame Gleissner wrote to me, but withheld the condition of Herr von +Hartl that I must convince him. I would have taken care not to give such +greedy heed to her, for I knew from experience how difficult it is to +convince most people. But, I was determined to show my friend Andre that +I and my art were by no means at a loss without him. Besides, I always +had the royal Bavarian franchise to fall back on. His secrecy had shaken +my confidence, and I was determined to find out everything for myself. + +Many years later, when I reviewed everything calmly, I was sufficiently +convinced that Herr Andre always had meant honestly by me; and I count +myself fortunate to have him still as my friend. But at that time +various misunderstandings brought it about that he did not give me full +knowledge of everything, before he took steps contrary to our agreement +and without my cognizance that could not fail to impress me as strange, +since I was ignorant of the circumstances. Besides, he defended himself +against my accusations in a manner that affronted my vanity deeply, for +he gave me to understand plainly that my past weakness in the matter of +the Gleissners' extravagance proved that I should always have to dance +to their tune. It angered me that he should turn against me, as +weakness, my recognition of the patient faithfulness of the Gleissners +through the many sorrows that had overwhelmed us since the beginning of +the process; and the more so as I was giving them merely that which I +did not require and which was my own undisputed property. According to +that, I would have earned the reputation of being a firm, strong man had +I used my superfluous earnings to buy a few watches, a ring, or some +garments, rather than to use it to pay a debt of gratitude! Besides, +whatever Herr Andre had advanced to them was something that had been +done without my knowledge; therefore I accounted all his charges as +being only empty words, used to cover a proposed piece of trickery. + +After my first conversation with Madame Gleissner, but more especially +with Herr Andre's representative in Vienna, I realized that the latter +could not be censured for his measures of prudence, and I repented that +I had so easily given way to my quick sensitiveness. The _franchise_ +evidently was very uncertain. The only hope for it lay in the assistance +of Herr von Hartl, and, therefore, depended on my ability to convince +him. I had spent my money traveling, and instead of finding Madame +Gleissner in funds, as I had assumed from her letter, I found her ill +with only a few guldens, and in addition I had two brothers on my hands +who also were penniless and looked to me for their support. + +Madame Gleissner assured me that Herr von Hartl would assist us and that +I could reckon also on help from her host, who had counseled her to part +from Herr Andre and seek the privilege for herself. I mustered up +sufficient courage to explain our situation to the latter gentleman and +to ask him if we could count on his help for the beginning. This request +must have been unexpected by Herr von Bogner, as Madame Gleissner's +manner of living had indicated anything rather than lack of wealth. +However, he liked my frankness, and promised active aid. He gave me a +handsome room, and I and Madame Gleissner ate at his own table. He paid, +also, for the lodging of my brothers in another house. + +Two days after our arrival, I and my brothers visited Herr von Hartl in +his country residence in Dornbach. We were received most kindly, and he +promised me his aid if I could give satisfactory proofs. So far as the +franchise was concerned, however, he showed me that it could be taken +out only in my name, and this, he explained, would be difficult enough, +as all the art dealers were against it. To ask for it in the name of +three brothers was out of the question. Neither, said he, would it be +necessary, as I could make a separate contract with them through which +they could be partners with me. + +Herr von Hartl, who, as Court Agent, naturally knew all that was to be +done, would not have said this without good reason. My brothers, +however, were highly incensed, and declared that they would not be +dependent on me, but would be their own masters. Had they possessed the +money necessary to travel they would, no doubt, have carried out this +resolve at once, for they had been angered already by the fact that Herr +von Bogner kept only me as his guest. My representations were without +effect. They told me that they would return to Munich and practice the +Bavarian privilege in my name if Herr von Hartl would give them the +journey money; otherwise they would be forced to listen to the +proposition of several Viennese art dealers and sell them the secret of +the stone-printing art. + +As this would have destroyed all chance for getting an exclusive +privilege, Herr von Hartl gave them the money, and Theobald and George +Senefelder returned to Munich, after making a contract with me which +permitted them to establish a printing business and, if possible, an art +business, my share in which was to be one third of the net profit after +deducting the cost of their own support. This contract was necessary to +authorize them to practice under my privilege. + +Meantime I had a small hand-press made and produced several pieces of +work for Herr von Hartl, which gave him a clearer idea of the new art, +and convinced him finally that it was worth while to risk something on +it. He made a full contract with me, in which he bound himself to +furnish money and everything necessary, and use all his influence to +further the business, while I was to give all my time and knowledge. The +profits were to be divided into two equal parts, one of which was to be +his, while the other was to be divided between myself and Herr +Gleissner. He allotted a proper sum for my support, told me to rent a +comfortable residence, and authorized me to buy some large presses. He +told me frankly that the use of stone for cotton-printing had the most +interest for him, and that he cared about the other forms of printing +only as paying for our expenditures. When the big spinning-shops were +ready, said he, he would give me so great an opportunity that I could +let Herr Gleissner have all the art- and music-printing to himself. + +What glorious prospects opened themselves to me! What could I think +except that it would require merely industry to become a famous, happy +man in a short period? + +Here I must interpolate the account of a happening that brought about a +total rupture with Andre. Until now our relations had not been wholly +severed. His last word was that I would, no doubt, go to Vienna in vain, +and in that case I should return to him, as he would receive me with +open arms. When I saw his correspondent in Vienna and learned from him +that he had orders to let me have money if I wanted it; when I perceived +further that Madame Gleissner had been too hasty, and that all the +tangle was caused by misunderstandings, I dismissed all anger and wrote +to my friend Andre at once, telling him that I had found things not +nearly so bad in Vienna as he imagined. It was true, I said, that the +two women had failed to obtain the franchise, but mostly because they +could give no demonstrations. It was quite different, now that the +inventor himself was petitioning for it, especially as Herr von Hartl +had promised absolutely to take our part. If, therefore, Andre were +willing to spend at most one thousand gulden for a press and to pay for +our support and necessary working expenses for six months, there would +be absolutely no doubt of fortunate outcome. + +Had I had the happy thought to ask Herr von Hartl to add a few lines, my +letter might have had the intended result. But I considered my word +sufficient, and unluckily my letter reached Offenbach when Andre was +absent, and was answered by his brother in about the following fashion: + +His brother, he said, was absent; but as he knew his opinion exactly, +he would not keep me waiting. I must not be offended, but he believed +that my ready trustfulness, caused by my good-heartedness, had played me +a prank again. He was completely convinced from the advices of their +Vienna friends that the privilege would be granted only if his brother +removed bag and baggage to Vienna and had himself naturalized there, +something which his affairs did not permit. I would discover, soon +enough, that the lovely promises made me were nothing but air. + +Then he went on to say that even if the sum of one thousand gulden +really were only a trifle, it would not produce the desired result. +Madame Gleissner, said he, had incurred debts of one hundred and fifty +gulden since she had broken with his brother, and as she had used this +sum not for his good but rather for his harm, it was only fair that she +pay it herself. I, probably, would be in debt nearly one hundred gulden, +now that I had been in Vienna some weeks with my brothers. If I wanted +to build a press in Vienna where wood is dear, it would cost easily one +hundred and fifty gulden. Then there would be one hundred gulden for +stones, etc. I would need a dwelling, for which I would have to pay at +least one hundred gulden in advance. This would leave only four hundred +gulden. The winter was at hand, neither my brothers nor Madame Gleissner +had the necessary clothing, everything would be needed. In brief, he +assured me, before many weeks the one thousand gulden would be spent and +in the end there would be no press, no stones, and no specimen work. + +Therefore, he concluded, I should not feel affronted if he told me his +heartfelt thoughts. The aspect of the Vienna matter would, probably, be +different if my over-great good-heartedness did not put fetters upon me +that must prevent anybody from placing full confidence in my advice. I +would better, therefore, dismiss the plans, and be sure that nobody +meant it more sincerely with me than, etc. + +It may be supposed that this letter gave me little pleasure; and I made +up my mind to show Herr Andre that he had made a mistake and had thrown +away a great profit idly. I made the contract with Herr von Hartl, and +we went to work actively at once. I had a large lever press built and +asked the Austrian Government to appoint a commission to examine the +process. This was done, and besides the Mayor, there appeared the +factory inspector, Herr von Jaquin, who was a Professor of Chemistry, +and the director of the academy of copper-plate engravers, Herr +Schmutzer. I showed them the various methods of printing from stone on +paper, cotton, and calico, and explained the difference of my process +from all others. My demonstrations were applauded, and the commission +certified most heartily in favor of my petition for the exclusive +privilege. + +In addition, Herr von Hartl went with me to a meeting of the Imperial +Councilors, then to the Imperial Counsel of State, von Gruber, to Count +Lazansky, and, finally, to His Majesty, the Emperor himself. Everywhere +I had to make demonstrations with my little hand-press, at which time +Herr von Hartl, to my great joy, always acted as cicerone and eagerly +described the manifold advantage which the new art had for so many +branches of the arts and sciences. + +Everywhere we received praise and were promised the speedy issuance of +the privilege. As, however, the matter had to take a regular course, and +it was evident that some time must elapse, we petitioned meantime for a +mere license to work, which we received within a few weeks, so that I +was able to begin printing without further delay. + +Herr von Hartl became more friendly each day, and opened for me the most +beautiful outlook on the future. My easily moved imagination interpreted +his speeches as brightly as possible, and I imagined that I saw fortune +and position close at hand. I worked all the harder, therefore, to +fulfill his expectations; and as his chief object was printing on cotton +I threw myself zealously into the study of color, as absolute permanence +was needed besides beauty of printing. + +During this time Herr Gleissner had left Offenbach and had returned to +Munich with his children. As I was in partnership with him, and he could +make himself useful in the printing of music, Herr von Hartl decided to +have him come to Vienna, and his wife took it on herself to get him and +arrange for an extension of his leave of absence. She found him in the +saddest of circumstances. In his ignorance of such things, he had sold +all the furniture in Offenbach for a mere joke of a sum. Most of this +money had been used to defray his traveling expenses, and she found the +family stripped of even necessaries. What was to be done? Her husband +and children needed clothing that they might not make a bad impression +in Vienna, her husband's debts had to be paid, and then came the +traveling expenses. The money advanced by Herr von Hartl was not nearly +enough for all this. She wrote to me to ask him for an additional sum of +three or four hundred gulden. + +This was exceedingly unpleasant for me. I should have to tell him the +truth, and thus place Herr Gleissner in a bad light right in the +beginning. Furthermore, he had received no too favorable a report about +the domestic management of the two, either from Herr Andre's friend in +Vienna or perhaps from Herr Andre himself. It was torture for me to ask +him for money, especially if it was to be used for something not +absolutely necessary for the business in hand, as I knew his opinions in +that respect. Willingly as Herr von Hartl gave money when it was needed +to achieve a useful object, so reluctant was he if he deemed that it was +to be wasted. In my embarrassment I dropped a hint as to the situation +to our hostess, Madame von Tannenberg. She counseled me at once not to +ask, as the family would lose the respect of Herr von Hartl entirely, +and offered voluntarily to advance Madame Gleissner four hundred gulden +herself, if I would guarantee the payment of it in half a year. Nothing +seemed more certain to me than that I could save such a sum in that +time. I accepted her offer and sent the money to Munich on the same day. +I would not mention this apparently trivial matter, if it were not for +the fact that in the end it was the cause of the ruin of all my hopes in +Vienna. + +The dealers had spared no pains to oppose my franchise in the beginning, +before they knew of my connection with Herr von Hartl, and while they +still considered me an unimportant foreigner, who had neither friends +nor influence. When they discovered the truth, their noise became +clamorous, for they had to fear in earnest now that their trade would +suffer, since so eminent and rich a man was associated with the new art. +The more important art dealers feared it less than the smaller ones, +among whom Herr Sauer and the new Industrie-Komptoir were my most active +enemies. Despite this, there opened a way suddenly by which I could +make peace with the art dealers and even draw considerable profit from +them. + +Through Herr von Hartl, I became acquainted with a skillful +clavier-player, Teuber, who was also a composer, and at once showed +great interest in my invention. He spoke to his acquaintances, Herr +Sonnleithner and Herr Ricci. Through their intervention the art dealers +asked me if I would abstain from establishing a music-printery of my +own, providing they guaranteed me a sufficient amount of work. I +calculated that I could print six thousand sheets of music a day with +the three presses that I had planned. This, at the low price of +twenty-five kreuzer per hundred impressions, would amount in all to a +sum of twenty-five gulden. Also if I accepted, say, work that would +average three hundred impressions, there would be needed ten stones, +counting two sheets to each stone. Thus there would be a further +engraving profit of ten gulden, because I received fifty kreuzer for +each sheet, but paid my note-writer only twenty kreuzer. For house, +color, acids, polisher's wages, etc., there must be reckoned four gulden +a day. The six printers to operate the three presses would cost four +gulden a day also. Now if I reckoned two gulden a day for possible +accidental errors, etc., there would still remain twenty-five gulden a +day profit. This meant seven thousand and five hundred gulden clear +profit in the three hundred working days of a year, without the least +risk. + +As I considered this a satisfactory profit for one single branch of my +art, I told Herr Sonnleithner that I would attempt to induce Herr von +Hartl to give up the idea of establishing his own publishing house, +provided that the united art dealers would guarantee me that amount of +work and agree also to reimburse me if the presses were not kept busy, +excepting through my own fault. Herr Sonnleithner welcomed the proposal, +not doubting that the dealers would need all the work stipulated, and, +indeed, declaring that the Art and Industrie-Komptoir alone might give +me twice that much. + +I knew that Herr von Hartl had entertained little regard for this branch +of work. Therefore I thought it would delight him to find that he could +not only relieve himself from further expense in this line, but gain +several thousand gulden. I was mistaken. He deduced that music-printing +was not so unimportant as he had imagined; and he told me to inform the +dealers that I would take as much work as they offered at low prices, +but that we could not make ourselves dependent on them. + +As the dealers refused decidedly to give me the means with their own +hands of building up a great establishment, the project fell entirely. + +However, Herr von Hartl now had declared himself in favor of +establishing a music-printery; and a few days later there came a highly +favorable opportunity to start one at once under happy auspices, +together with a complete art publishing establishment. + +An acquaintance of my landlady, to whom I had showed my printery, sent +for me to tell me that Herr Eder, an art dealer, wished to give up his +business because of illness and was willing to sell reasonably. This +friend enlarged on the luck it would be to obtain this well-situated +shop, which earned several thousand gulden by printing birthday and New +Year's cards alone, at the very easy terms which Herr Eder had suggested +provisionally. He desired me to see him at once, under the pledge of +secrecy, which pledge Herr von Hartl was to give also, as Herr Eder did +not wish to injure his credit by offering his establishment openly for +sale. + +Herr Eder did, indeed, offer most favorable terms, according to my +opinion. He showed me that on the average the net profit of his business +had been ten thousand gulden annually during the last ten years. (At +that time the gulden notes stood at par.) Furthermore he estimated the +value of all his printed stock only at the cost of manufacture, and the +great stock of copper plates, many newly etched, at merely their value +as copper. The large stock of different papers, with the many writing +and drawing materials, were estimated at cost value, also. For his +trading rights, and for his excellent rental contract which had many +years to run, he did not ask anything. The sum that he asked for +everything was forty thousand gulden, of which only ten thousand gulden +were to be paid at once, the rest being paid in annual installments +during the following ten years. + +If Herr von Hartl had accepted this, there would have been four thousand +gulden net profit a year in it. And by combining with it the advantages +of the new process, the profit was certain to be greater. To begin a +new publishing house without mercantile knowledge, without knowing what +the public wanted, would be far more difficult than to continue one that +already was in operation, especially so as Herr Eder had offered to +remain for a year as associate to teach me the business. + +I cannot yet understand why Herr von Hartl discarded this proposition. +Perhaps he feared that he would be overreached in some way. He might +have been more receptive had he been able to foresee that his new +establishment would cost him a sum of twenty thousand gulden within a +very few years without advancing toward being even the ghost of a +business. Perhaps I did not possess the gift of convincing others. At +any rate, both projects failed to meet with approval. That Herr von +Hartl could be convinced, however, even to his plain injury, I will +prove later. For lithography the failure of this plan was a great loss, +because it would have given me opportunity to get into the art line ten +years earlier than I did, and make useful application of my inventions. + +The family Gleissner now arrived in Vienna and brought one of my former +apprentices, Mathias Grünewald. Meantime some presses had been +completed, and we could begin to print. Gleissner's symphonies recently +had been much praised in a musical paper of Leipsic, and he proposed to +us to begin with a few of his works. Of course it would have been wiser +to begin with a good work by a famous man, whose name was sufficiently +popular in Vienna. I did visit Herr Doctor Haydn, but received the reply +that he could not compose any more and would only review old works +thenceforth. + +Immediately at the commencement a stock of stones was needed. As we +could foresee that we should need some thousands of stones in the course +of time, Herr von Hartl decided to make a trip with me, by way of Munich +and Augsburg, to the quarries of Solenhofen that we might inform +ourselves on the spot about the best way to get stones. + +A further inducement to make this journey was that he wished to examine +the estate of Niedau, which had been described as being very favorably +situated for the erection of manufactories. Herr von Hartl already had a +large spinnery in operation. This, and perhaps the printery, he planned +to establish in Niedau, because there both workers and property were +cheaper. He intended to leave only the business offices in Vienna. + +The establishment of this spinnery had so important an effect on my fate +as well as on the future of lithography that I must describe it here. +When I arrived in Vienna, Count von Saurau had just gone to Petersburg +as Austrian Ambassador. Being a patron of home industries, he had +advanced ten thousand gulden some time before to an expert spinner named +Mistelbauer, to erect looms for manufacturing fine English and French +stuffs in Austria, a work for which Mistelbauer was perfectly qualified. +When the Count departed, Herr von Hartl took charge of several of his +interests, among them the Mistelbauer spinnery. Thus at the next Vienna +Messe (market-fair), Mistelbauer visited Herr von Hartl to make an +accounting. The goods that Mistelbauer had brought convinced Herr von +Hartl of his skill and technical capacity. The details of his processes, +and his ingenuity in operating so many looms with so little capital, +indicated to Herr von Hartl that increased capital would bring +enormously increased results. As the spinnery company had as good as +decided that a good part of their own products should be further worked +by themselves, Herr von Hartl considered it a lucky circumstance to meet +a particularly good weaver and also a cotton-printer, who alleged that +he could print the home-made cottons exactly as well as the English +printers and possibly at smaller cost. + +He wrote to Count von Saurau that he was willing to assist Mistelbauer +with more money. Count Saurau agreed, and Herr von Hartl advanced money +to Mistelbauer till it reached a sum of forty thousand gulden. He +appeared only as a creditor, however, and held a mortgage on the entire +spinnery, with all its present and future stock, in order to be covered +should the operations fail. + +Now Mistelbauer was a man who had little or no mercantile talent. He did +not understand book-keeping, and though he had managed the original +small establishment pretty well, he was not equal to the bigger one. A +factor should have been appointed to manage the commercial end and the +accounts. Another trouble was that Herr von Hartl, in order to satisfy +himself, continually demanded new sample work from him, which, on the +other hand, pleased Mistelbauer, as it enabled him to show his skill. + +Thus, instead of working steadily along the original sound lines, he +kept going into new things. Among others he erected looms to make color, +and print Manchester fabrics. Regardless of the fact that I (as he well +knew) was working at cotton-printing, and that Herr von Hartl intended +to work my inventions, he managed to induce that gentleman to let him +erect a cotton-printery, a matter which he did not understand in the +least. + +Mistelbauer had been a poor peasant boy of Helmannsöd by Linz. He had +gone into foreign lands in his youth, but when he obtained the ten +thousand gulden from Count Saurau, he selected his native place for the +works. Even at that time his improved condition aroused the envy of the +village; but he lived in a poor hut and differed in nothing from the +other inhabitants. When Herr von Hartl assisted him, he succeeded soon +in convincing him that they needed more room, and obtained his consent +for building. Instead of erecting a factory, he erected a considerable +dwelling, the cost of which was far beyond the original estimates. On +account of all the other work undertaken at the same time, nothing could +be finished in time, and Mistelbauer was continually too late for the +markets with his product. As a result, instead of being punctual with +all his payments as he had been heretofore, he could not even pay his +interest, and Herr von Hartl had to make new advances all the time. +Naturally Herr von Hartl began to feel apprehensive, and he decided to +visit Mistelbauer on the occasion of our journey to Solenhofen. + +When we reached Helmannsöd, Herr von Hartl shook his head dubiously, +especially when he found the accounts in the greatest disorder. But the +great stock of goods, though most of them were only half finished, and +the thought that everything could be made to go smoothly again with +better management, encouraged him, and he instructed Mistelbauer, +showing him how to establish order in his works as well as in the +accounts. + +Then we continued our journey. In Munich, where we remained three days, +I visited my mother and my brothers, who all lived together and were +operating a press that worked mostly for Herr Falter. According to their +assurances, their income had hardly sufficed to support them. + +In Augsburg, Herr von Hartl contracted with a paper dealer for the paper +necessary for music-printing, and in Solenhofen he bought several +hundred stones for this work and made arrangements for future supplies. +Then we returned through Regensburg and Passau. This whole journey was +one of the greatest pleasures of my life. The weather was excellent, and +Herr von Hartl was so kind to me that I was more than ever convinced of +his sincere desire for my success. + +We engaged two writers of music immediately on our return to Vienna. One +was J. Held, a young man recently married, who earned his living by +teaching and copying. The second was his brother-in-law. They +comprehended the process quickly and soon were so skillful that each +earned twelve gulden and more a week, despite the fact that we rarely +paid them more than twenty and twenty-four kreuzer for each sheet. + +The new smaller works of Herr Gleissner were finished very soon, and it +became necessary to find more work to keep my etchers and four printers +busy. I asked Herr von Hartl to buy some compositions from Vienna's best +musicians, such as Krommer, Beethoven, etc. He was willing, but desired +to wait for a proper opportunity to speak to Herr Krommer. Thus some +weeks passed, and in order to keep the force busy, Herr Gleissner +composed continually and printed his work. Nearly a whole year passed +that way, and still Herr von Hartl had found no opportunity (owing to +his many affairs) to arrange with Herr Krommer or other composers. + +So it happened that, with the exception of a few overtures, our whole +stock of paper and a whole year's work were used solely to print Herr +Gleissner's compositions. I myself had hardly anything to do with this +printing, which was managed entirely by Herr Gleissner; for I devoted +all my time to the study of color and to the necessary thousands of +experiments. + +Here I had made the unpleasant discovery that most of what was in the +books was incorrect, or so incompletely stated that, before one could +understand the instructions, one needed to know the entire process of +cotton-making and printing. I cannot understand now why it never struck +Herr von Hartl or me that I did not need this knowledge at all, and that +all that was necessary in order to apply my method to cotton-printing +was for me to demonstrate how the printing could be done well and +quickly. To get color results it was necessary merely to engage a good +color expert, who could analyze colors and decide if they were available +for my process. That would have saved us a year and a considerable sum +of money which my experiments had cost. I confess that I had a mistaken +ambition on this point, wishing to understand everything myself. Then +the study of chemistry was most attractive to me, because I found myself +discovering new things of importance for my art all the time. + +When at last I was completely informed in the matter of color, I went +with Herr von Hartl to the great machine-spinnery in Pottendorf. Here I +became acquainted with Herr Thornton and his remarkably complete +installation. With his assistance we made a stone-press for cotton, to +print the cotton from large plates. But the correct register of each +impression made so much trouble for us that I foresaw the need for many +further experiments and inventions. Besides, Herr Thornton was too +partial to the English process of cylinder-printing to feel particularly +favorable to the stone-process; and in the end it was considered best to +order a great piece of stone from Solenhofen from which we might make an +eight-inch cylinder. + +It was six months before we obtained the requisite stone. During this +period it struck me that perhaps the cylinder did not need to be stone, +but that we might use copper cylinders, as in England. Herr Thornton +objected that copper cylinders must be engraved with the graving tool, +and that patterns for cotton should not be etched, since, if etching +were practical, the English, who understand etching perfectly, no doubt +would etch the cylinders. + +To be sure, I could not answer this argument, but I was convinced that a +deep-etched stone would print as perfectly and handsomely as the best +copper plate. Why, then, could it not be done with copper, since copper +permitted itself to be etched so well? I made a little experiment at +once, and it succeeded perfectly. Herr Thornton proposed to make +completely sure. He had a small model press from England, the cylinder +of which had been engraved by the best cotton copper engraver of +England. Though it was only six inches long and three inches thick it +had cost twenty pounds to engrave. He proposed to have an exactly +similar cylinder made, which I was to etch in the same design, so that +competitive impressions could be made with both cylinders. The +proposition was accepted. To save money, it was decided to make a +cylinder from zinc instead of from copper. + +After a few days it was ready and I drove with Herr von Hartl to +Pottendorf, where we arrived at half-past ten o'clock in the morning. I +started eagerly to do the drawing. As I perceived immediately, it +consisted purely of circular lines, and therefore I succeeded in +preparing the cylinder, drawing the design, and etching it before two +o'clock, at which time we were to have luncheon. + +Mr. Thornton, who had expected that I would need at least eight days, +was astonished by my speed. To all appearances, the etched cylinder was +as good as the engraved one, and now it was merely a question of the +printing. He made the first impression with the copper cylinder, which, +of course, produced a very pretty piece of work. But when mine was +adjusted and the first impression came out, the astonishment of all +present reached its maximum, for the impressions were exactly as clear, +but at least twice as strong and therefore more beautiful. The reason +for this was that the engraving became narrower at the bottom, and +therefore held hardly half as much color as the etched lines. + +The practicability of my etching process was settled; and Herr von Hartl +waited only to lay the matter before the society at the next general +meeting before proceeding to its exploitation on a large scale. + +Truly it was high time for him to get some returns for his many +expenses. The stone-printery had cost him at least six thousand gulden +to this date. In return for this investment he had a good quantity of +stones, several presses, and a great stock of Gleissner's music, which +represented an income of twenty thousand gulden, if it could be sold. + +At last we obtained the long-sought franchise (in 1803), and Herr von +Hartl decided to begin the business. I proposed to him to rent a shop +and engage an experienced man to manage it. But he replied that I was +merely suggesting another burden of nearly two thousand gulden a year, +with no certain prospect of a penny's income. Rather, said he, I was to +give the finished work to the dealers and let them sell them on a +percentage, so that we could see how the public liked stone-printing. + +Herr von Hartl was trying at this time to rid himself of all expenses +that were not absolutely necessary. He was growing more and more +dissatisfied with Mistelbauer, his health was poor, and irritating +business troubles were anything but good for him. He expressed his +regret many times because he had undertaken so many things. His many +enterprises, which up to this time had proved anything but profitable, +took so much of his time that he had to give up his far more +advantageous interests as Imperial Court Agent, and thus lost heavily in +that direction also. The stock of spun wool kept piling up in the +company's magazines, and this, too, seemed to promise no greatly +satisfactory results. + +However, I could see that I could expect only small sales in Vienna if I +depended on the dealers, who were my opponents and would hardly be very +eager to aid my success. Therefore, I conceived the thought, equally +unpractical, as it turned out, of putting our work into the hands of a +book publisher; and as I had just observed much empty space in the shop +of Peter Rehm's widow, I agreed with her to turn over our stock to her +at twenty-five per cent discount. + +It was arranged that there be an accounting each month, and I looked +forward to the end of the first month with great impatience, because I +hoped for a considerable income. It was highly necessary, to help me pay +off the debt that I had loaded on myself to defray Herr Gleissner's +traveling expenses,--a debt that now had stood for two years, and that +the skillful manipulations of my dear landlady and her faithful legal +adviser had increased from four hundred gulden to two thousand. Many +times during the month I inquired as to the sales and received the +answer that they were good. I was satisfied, and did not require further +statements, as I did not wish to anticipate the pleasant surprise that +I expected when the month's accounting was made. But alas! How I was +shocked at the end of the month when the sum of ten gulden and +forty-eight kreuzer turned out to be all! I did not know how I could +appear before Herr von Hartl with the news. My walk to his house was one +of the bitterest of my life. I was not received as badly as I had +expected. On the contrary, Herr von Hartl comforted me and advised me to +have patience, that all beginnings were slow, etc. In short, I enjoyed +the most pleasant anticipations again. Unhappily, at the end of the +second month the accounting gave us one gulden, thirty-six kreuzer. Now +the patience of Herr von Hartl reached its end. + +He had just lost heavily again in the Mistelbauer affair. It worried him +seriously, and as his health continued poor, he inclined to listen to +the advice of his wife, who represented to him that he did not need to +burden himself thus, and that he would better pocket his losses and +retire from all the matters that worried him. + +Therefore, when his secretary, Steiner, advised him to send a certain +Grasnitzky to Helmannsöd, he accepted the suggestion, and Grasnitzky +went there with unlimited power to do what he thought best. Now of +course it was vital that Grasnitzky be absolutely honest, as otherwise +it was certain that he would make the worst possible report in order to +get everything into his own hands. Hardly had he made a superficial +inspection before he reported that Herr von Hartl was being cheated by +Mistelbauer. As soon as he had driven the man and his family out of the +house and had gained possession of the finished stock that was on hand, +he took away everything that was in the hands of the local weavers, and +transported it to Linz to be finished and sold. + +Hardly had Herr von Hartl received the alarming news that only the +highest degree of commercial talent could save the capital that he had +invested in this business, before worse news came. While Grasnitzky was +in Linz, fire started in Helmannsöd and spread to Mistelbauer's house, +which Grasnitzky had locked up. The peasants saved their own houses and +were not at all displeased to let the handsome new building, with all +its machinery and stock, burn down. + +The hard blows were too much for poor Mistelbauer, who was now reduced +to total beggary. He became ill and died soon afterward in great misery. +Nothing was left now except for Grasnitzky to finish the goods he had +saved, and to sell them as well as possible. + +Naturally the loss was considerable, despite all efforts; and of course +it was an unfavorable circumstance for me that this affair should be +contemporary with my failure to sell the sheet-music. Herr von Hartl +lost all hope of success with stone-printing, and probably would have +given it up entirely, had his secretary, Steiner, not advised him to +continue. He pointed out that the small sales were due not to the +printing, but to the unwise selection of work, which was almost wholly +the composition of a composer quite unknown in Vienna. He said that they +needed a man as manager who had the necessary knowledge and who also had +a good shop for making sales, and that thus stone-printing would become +a veritable gold mine. He proposed the antiquarian Grund, who had a shop +in the same street as Herr von Hartl's house. Herr von Hartl agreed. + +I was informed that hereafter I was to communicate only with Herr Grund +about work, and that he would make all payments in Herr von Hartl's +name, select the works to be published, and make quarterly accountings, +at which he would deduct thirty per cent for himself. + +I was glad, because it relieved me of many cares and I foresaw success +once more. New life came into the work. We hired two more writers, and +printed bravely. Grund succeeded in inducing Herr von Hartl to increase +his investment during the first year so that the original capital of six +thousand gulden that was already sunk in the work had grown to twenty +thousand gulden. But when at last the fourth quarter passed without an +accounting from Grund, and still there was no dividend, he lost patience +again, and no doubt Steiner had to bear some censure because of his +unfortunate suggestion. To soothe his master he proposed to take +everything out of Grund's hands and establish a publishing house. As +this would demand more capital, Herr von Hartl declined, being quite +sated. Then Steiner came out with the project: he would seek to induce +Grasnitzky, who had done so much already, to undertake this business +also; he added that he himself was disposed to put in some capital and +take a personal part in the business, for a third part of the profits. + +Just then I was in fatal embarrassment. The legal adviser of our +landlady pressed harshly for payment. He even went to Herr von Hartl. +That gentleman sent for me immediately and declared that he would try +Steiner's plan, and that it would be his last attempt, and that I could +see myself that there was nothing else to do. Since he promised to pay +my debt, and I hoped for good results anyway from Herr Steiner's +coöperation, I agreed willingly. + +Now passed another year, during which a number of pieces of music were +printed under Grasnitzky's and Steiner's directions, and some +experiments made in art work. An artist, Karl Müller, learned to draw +nicely on stone partly with the pen, partly with the brush. Among many, +often very excellent efforts, one of his most successful was a copy of +Preissler's drawing-lessons. The first number was printed under my +direction and came out very well. The other numbers, which were printed +when I was in Munich again, were reported as not having been so good. +The reason probably was that they were printed with a new press ordered +by Herr Grasnitzky, which did not have the power necessary for printing +from stone, thus making necessary a softer color not satisfactory for +pen-drawing. In the end Herr Steiner is credited with having improved +this press very much. I shall describe it in its most complete form in +my description of presses which will follow. + +Judging from the amount of printing done, Steiner and Grasnitzky +appeared to understand their business. In a short time they actually +printed a second impression of some of the Gleissner compositions, which +met with good sales, especially in Poland. + +I was delighted with this activity, especially as I hoped for a part of +the profit for myself at the end of the year; but Herr Steiner, instead +of accounting to me, assured me that I could entertain no hopes for ten +years, as Herr von Hartl's investment of twenty thousand gulden would +have to be repaid before there could be any question of dividing +profits. I realized what this meant; and to avoid bringing a lawsuit, +for which I lacked the means anyway, I decided to sell Herr Steiner my +interests. He offered me six hundred gulden, and when, at last, I +accepted it, he paid me fifty gulden because he had a claim on Herr +Gleissner for five hundred and fifty gulden, something of which I had +been in ignorance. + +The loss of this business pained me, but Herr von Hartl comforted me +with the example of other inventors, who had received no better returns. + +Now the cotton-printery was my only hope. A third of the Pottendorf +Company had declared itself in favor of erecting a factory, and in fact +one thousand two hundred gulden had been appropriated to make a trial on +a large scale. I went to Pottendorf and ordered a machine in which the +cylinders were of cast-iron instead of copper, because Herr Thornton had +two very handsome iron cylinders, two yards long and eight inches in +diameter, which had been intended for another purpose but were +sufficient for my trials. + +As soon as the printing-machine was ready, Herr Thornton had it +connected with the water-wheel of the cotton-spinnery, so that one +needed only to pull a cord to set the cylinders in motion and see the +printing of the cotton proceed without human help, as if of itself. +Nothing was needed now except to etch the design in the upper cylinder. + +The design consisted of a simple little flower, many times repeated, and +it seemed to me to be anything except difficult. But after I had covered +the cylinder with the etching surface and started to work with the +graver, I saw, after a very few strokes, why it had not been possible +before this to produce cotton patterns by etching and why engraving had +been necessary. + +It was not possible for me to draw even three of the little flowers into +the etching surface with the free hand so firmly and evenly as this sort +of printing demanded if it was to appear thoroughly accurate to the eye. +This was in spite of the fact that I had first drawn the design +carefully in measured squares on stone and transferred it in red to the +black cylinder. My strokes were too trembling and uneven, so that I +nearly gave up the hope of ever doing anything excellent in this way, +unless I were to expend as much or more time than would be needed for +the regular process of engraving. + +The failure of this attempt, and the disgrace that would come to me as a +result, spurred me on to invent some method to overcome the difficulty +of drawing. I succeeded so unexpectedly that the very failure became the +means to greater perfection. + +To cover the entire surface of the cylinder it would be necessary to +draw thirty thousand flowers. Had I not experienced the slightest +difficulty, I still would have needed half a minute for each flower, and +thus I would scarcely have been able to finish an entire cylinder inside +of a month. But I invented a drawing-machine with which, though I was +not a skillful draftsman, I could draw the entire design within two +days, and with an accuracy that hardly could be attained by the +engraving-tool. With this instrument I drew the design on the black +etching surface of the cylinder, etched it and made a sample printing +which, when it was repeated afterward in presence of Fürst von Esterhazy +and other members of the company, earned universal praise. + +Herr von Hartl planned to obtain an exclusive franchise for this +cylinder cotton-printing, sell it to the company, and have me appointed +as director, something like Herr Thornton, who drew not only a decent +salary but also a fourth part of the profit from the entire spinnery. As +I could see readily that a company with such enormous resources could +soon bring a cotton-print establishment to a great stage, it did not +seem impossible to me that the annual income might rise to a million, as +in the Ebreichsdorfer factory. If the net profits were only five per +cent, there still would be more than twelve thousand gulden annually for +me, and I was sure to be a rich man in a short time. So I thanked Herr +von Hartl heartily and continued to perfect my process in every tiny +detail. + +The fear had arisen that iron cylinders might affect the handsome reds +and other fine colors. Herr Thornton, who had become my friend, promised +to make for me cast copper cylinders with iron cores: and his +preparations for this work were almost completed when again fate ruined +all my hopes. + +Napoleon had just completed the Continental blockade; and the English +cotton stuffs were not to be had anywhere. This forced all the weavers +and manufacturers of the inland to buy from the Pottendorfer Works, and +the sale of their output became so great that the formerly overcrowded +storehouses were emptied in a short time. "Why should we erect a new, +different factory? Rather let us enlarge the present one." This was the +general and entirely sensible decision of the company. Herr von Hartl +would not interest himself further in the process, because our hope of +an exclusive franchise had been ruined through the treachery of a +foreman in the spinnery, who had made drawings of our machine and sold +them to various cotton-making establishments, who were already imitating +the process. So there was nothing left for me except to seek my fortune +elsewhere. + +In my pain over my oft-ruined hopes I complained to a good friend, Herr +Madlener, a tinner in Pottendorf, and this noble man was ready at once +to seek another opportunity for me. The very next day he told me that a +cotton-printer in Vienna, Herr Blumauer, would pay me five hundred +gulden for a small model press for cylinder printing on cotton. This +turned out true. Fourteen days later he made me acquainted with the +brothers Faber, who had a cotton-works in St. Polten, and who, on +Madlener's recommendation, made an extremely satisfactory contract with +me for the erection of a complete cylinder printery. + +I thought myself happy to come into relations with this firm at whose +head were two of the noblest of men, and was just ready to go to St. +Polten, when my destinies received a new direction through a strange +chain of circumstances, that opened for me an excellent prospect again +of making great advances in improving my lithographic invention. + +My brothers had written to me several times while I was in Vienna, +complaining about scarcity of work and their resultant poverty. +Therefore it is not to be wondered at that I did not exactly long to +return to Munich, despite the fact that my hopes in Vienna had become +steadily less. Probably I should have returned again to Herr Andre in +Offenbach, as Gleissner and his family were pretty well placed with +Steiner and Grasnitzky, had not Madame Gleissner conceived the idea of +making personal inquiries about the conditions in Munich. + +Shortly before, a Bavarian court musician had visited Vienna and had +visited his friend Gleissner. From him we learned that my brothers were +doing very well. They had good positions with the Feyertag School and +had sold their franchise for stone-printing to the Royal Government. It +was even reported that they had formed a company with Herr von Hazzi to +establish a press and publishing house, and that they expected to get a +comfortable building from the Government. + +Madame Gleissner went to Munich at once and ascertained that the report +was true. She also met our old apprentice, Grünewald, who had left +Vienna in 1804 with one of our note-writers, Held, to erect a +stone-printing establishment for Breitkopf and Härtl in Leipsic. He had +just returned to Munich, and he induced Madame Gleissner to join him in +erecting a small printing-house, which she did all the more willingly, +since she hoped that it would earn her expenses for her in Munich. This +occasion led to her acquaintance with Abt Vogler, who gave her several +pieces of music to print. + +Stone-printing pleased Abt Vogler so much that he proposed to Freiherr +Christoph von Aretin, Royal Court and Central Library Director, to +establish a printery and take into partnership the inventor as well as +Herr Gleissner. Freiherr von Aretin was willing, and they made a +provisional contract with Madame Gleissner, under which I and her +husband were to go to Munich and establish a stone-press, for which +Freiherr von Aretin and Abt Vogler would furnish the money. + +I was pleasantly surprised when Madame Gleissner returned to Vienna with +this news. Freiherr von Aretin was one of my old schoolmates in the +Munich Gymnasium; and as he always used to gain the first prize in +everything from the lowest class to the highest, I had entertained the +greatest respect for him since youth. I would have thought myself +fortunate even then to make his nearer acquaintance, because I ever have +had a decided admiration for remarkable persons. + +In later days it happened once that my mother dwelled in his house and +could not pay her rent, owing to certain misfortunes, and when she asked +him to excuse the delay he made her a present of the entire sum. This +proof of a noble soul was not calculated to lessen my regard for him. +Therefore I snatched at the proposal with joy. + +She had been urged earnestly to hurry matters, as Abt Vogler had various +works which he wished to have printed as soon as possible. Unfortunately +my contract with the brothers Faber, which I had signed the day before, +would have delayed me for many months. I tried, therefore, if I could +induce them to permit me to spend a few months in Munich before I +started their work in St. Polten. The excellent men agreed gladly, and +even advanced money to me that I might have various copper cylinders +made in Munich, so that I would be able to go ahead without delay later +in St. Polten. + + + + +PART III + +FROM 1806 TO 1817 + + +I left Vienna with Herr Gleissner and his family in October, 1806. First +we traveled to Cloister Atl near Wasserburg in Bavaria, which Freiherr +von Aretin had bought recently, and where Abt Vogler awaited us. He +proposed to erect the printery in the cloister; but when he saw that I +was not at all pleased with the idea, he started with us for Munich. + +Hardly had we arrived there before Abt Vogler suggested several plans +which all contemplated only his own profit, and which would have +redounded to Freiherr von Aretin's disadvantage. When he realized at +last that we would not agree to his demands, and when Freiherr von +Aretin insisted that Herr Vogler pay his share of the capital at once +and in cash, instead of paying it by furnishing music whose value he set +very high, he severed his connection with our company. There was also +the added reason that the Royal Academy of Sciences did not reëlect him +as a member, a fact which made him wish to leave Munich as soon as +possible. + +At this time a former workman of my younger brother Karl, a man named +Strohhofer, commenced a printery. Madame Gleissner stopped this unlawful +violation of our rights with the aid of the royal police, and this +impelled Strohhofer to seek Abt Vogler, probably in order to gain his +intercession with Freiherr von Aretin. + +Vogler thought that he had made an important discovery, as the man knew +how to speak very impressively of his knowledge and skill. He imagined +that he could publish his works without our aid, perhaps even without +cost. Therefore he promised to assist Strohhofer, made an appointment +with him for a future day, and suggested to him how he could support +himself meantime by selling the secret of the art. + +Stuttgart was one of the towns suggested to him. Strohhofer circulated a +pompous proclamation there, boasting of his talents and offering his +services to anybody and everybody. Thus he came into communication with +Herr Cotta. The inferiority and incompleteness of his knowledge were +perceived very soon; but as even the imperfect results hinted at the +importance of the new printing process, the result was that finally, +through the assistance of an art-lover, Herr Rapp, the book, _The Secret +of Stone-Printing_, was published by Herr Cotta. It was the first +publication that showed true appreciation publicly of the art. + +Immediately in the beginning of our establishment in Munich, our +enterprise gained brilliant aspects through Freiherr von Aretin's +activity. Several presses were operated, for music, for governmental +work, and even for art. Then came the publication of Albrecht Dürer's +_Prayer-Book_, which gave us an honorable reputation. This work was +acclaimed by all art-lovers, and the conviction gained ground everywhere +that the new process which hitherto had possessed few friends, was not +so unimportant as had been believed generally. + +The professor of the Feyertag School, Herr Mitterer, had done important +preparatory work in Munich to gain a favorable decision. My brothers had +imparted to him the entire process. He had found that the so-called +crayon process, of which I had shown proofs as early as 1799, was best +adapted for his purpose of reproducing elementary drawing-lessons, and +he had succeeded in inducing the Government to establish a lithographic +institute under his direction, in which my brothers were employed as +lithographers. To be sure, this was a violation of my franchise; but the +reason was that the authorities supposed my brothers to be the owners of +the franchise, both on account of the name and because they had +conducted the Munich printery for some years in my name. + +Freiherr von Aretin counted on the sole use of the franchise, which he +had believed to be unassailable when he formed our company and advanced +the necessary money; but when in time he complained because the Royal +Government as well as private persons established printeries, he +received the reply that the art had long ceased to be a secret,--as if a +condition of the franchise had been that a useful process must be kept +secret. In that case I could not have employed any man either for +drawing or printing, as that would have involved the loss of secrecy and +thus the loss of the franchise. + +My connection with Freiherr von Aretin lasted four years. During this +time I turned out a great amount of government work, such as circulars, +statistical tables, charts, etc., besides many specimens in various +forms of art. At that time the idea was first conceived for the present +text-book of lithography, and, indeed, we published the first +installment of the sample plates. Still, our enterprise was far less +successful than Freiherr von Aretin and I had hoped. + +It was very difficult to obtain skillful workmen, especially writers and +artists. Even Strixner and Pilotti, whom we had engaged and who worked +at producing facsimiles of the Royal Manual Drawing Cabinet, were very +slow to gain the necessary perfection and speed. And again we lacked the +manager, namely, a man who understood business and knew what to produce +and how to sell it. + +I myself was heavily burdened, as I had not only to exercise continual +supervision of the five presses, but also was practically the only one +who could prepare the plates for those presses. Added to this was the +fact that the printers were almost all uneducated men, some of whom +could not even read, and they spoiled many plates that I had to +reproduce. This caused so much loss of time that already was +insufficient, that it is no wonder that several presses came to a +standstill frequently. Luckily there were government jobs at times that +demanded fifteen thousand and more impressions. This enabled me to +prepare new material while the presses were busy. On the whole, however, +this work had the disadvantage of demanding such speed that usually all +the five presses had to work at it, so that, when it was done, they were +all at a standstill together, sometimes for weeks; and then the wages, +etc., consumed the previous profit, so that in the end little or nothing +was left. + +Thus it was natural that Herr von Aretin, who was being annoyed at this +time by other affairs, began to lose his enthusiasm for lithography. +Therefore, when he had to go to Neuburg as Governmental-Director, and +could not participate personally any more, and when, at the same time, +Herr Gleissner and I obtained situations with the Royal Tax Service, he +sold the establishment to Herr von Manlich, the Director of the Royal +Gallery, and to Herr Zeller, a merchant. + +Although our connection was broken in this manner, and despite the fact +that we had not won the expected results, still stone-printing had +attained respect and support through Freiherr von Aretin's patronage. We +had to thank him for the fact that our institution was praised by the +most celebrated native and foreign statesmen, and even by their Royal +Highnesses, the Crown Prince of Bavaria and his most noble sister +Charlotte, present Empress of Austria. Our beloved Crown Prince wrote on +paper with the so-called chemical or stone-ink, "Lithography is one of +the most important inventions of the century." And his noble sister +wrote the short but eloquent words, "I honor the Bavarians!" These lines +were printed on the stone in their presence. + +His Royal Highness the Crown Prince exhibited so much interest in this +Bavarian invention that he condescended to order the sculptor, +Kirchmeier, of Munich, to model my bust in plaster, so that in the +future, when lithography should have attained an honorable place in the +whole public estimation, it could be carved in stone and erected among +the most celebrated artists of Bavaria. + +In general my connection with Freiherr von Aretin had given me several +well-founded prospects for an active and honorable future. He promised +that, when his circumstances permitted, he would put me into position to +use my entire time only for making useful inventions, for which purpose +I should have all the material and workers that I might need. We would +then investigate all branches of art and industry, to discover +possibilities of improvement. He possessed the true viewpoint, +appreciating how I could best be useful to the fatherland, and perhaps +to all humanity. I shall ever consider it as my greatest misfortune that +circumstances made it impossible to carry out this plan, and thus to +justify the great confidence that he reposed in my inventiveness and +ability. + +A second beautiful hope arose in France, where I was encouraged by +Freiherr von Aretin to expect the management of an imperial lithographic +institute, with a great financial allowance, Herr von Manlich, and the +French artist, Herr Denon, who was in high favor with Napoleon, having +made strong efforts to that end. This hope also met disappointment owing +to the circumstances of the times. + +A third hope of no less importance was to erect a cotton-printery in +Munich or Augsburg in association with His Excellency Count von Arco, +Court Chamberlain of Her Royal Highness the widowed Kurfürstin of +Bavaria. This was ruined by the clumsiness of a Munich wood-turner, who +made such uneven cylinders that we could not produce any satisfactory +specimens. Although I made arrangements at once for a large English +machine, like those used by Mr. Thornton, its manufacture was so slow +that two years elapsed, and during this time our entire lithographic +establishment was dissolved. + +The idea of a cotton-printery was an unfortunate one, which not only +cost much time and a great sum of money, but also had the unpleasant +result that I could not fulfill my contract with the Faber brothers and +thus, in addition to the resultant personal financial loss, had the pain +of appearing before these most noble men in a poor light. + +All this trouble was caused as follows. On invitation of Count von Arco, +his brother-in-law, Count von Montgelas, Royal Minister of State, +visited our institution and examined our work. At the request of +Freiherr von Aretin I made an experimental printing with the little +model cotton-printing press that I had brought from Vienna. It won his +approval. Freiherr von Aretin intended to ask for a franchise for this +process in Bavaria, where it had not yet been introduced. The Minister +promised this and also held out the hope of a considerable financial +assistance from the Government. Then I was foolish enough to try to +increase his interest by telling him of the value that foreign lands set +on this process, and thus I informed him of my contract with the Fabers. +But this had an unexpected result. His Excellency heard the information +most ungraciously, and said that I must not hope for the least +assistance in Bavaria if I permitted myself to be used for the +advantage of another state. He even declared that there was a royal +rescript forbidding Bavarian subjects from using an art in foreign lands +if its exclusive use were of importance for Bavaria. This rescript, said +he, fitted my case exactly, and it was forbidden to me, under pain of +highest disfavor, to proceed farther with the Austrians. + +This embarrassed me mightily. Freiherr von Aretin and Count von Arco +promised to urge the Minister to permit me to go to Vienna, on the +ground that this method of printing cotton was no invention of mine, +having been used long ago in England and for some time in Austria. But +Freiherr von Aretin was not very desirous that I should absent myself +for several months in the very beginning of our enterprise, and thus +time passed without the hoped-for permission. + +As the Fabers pressed me earnestly to fulfill my agreement, I devised a +subterfuge that might permit me to keep my promise and still not lay +myself open to too great a responsibility. I wrote to them advising them +to have their correspondent in Munich demand through the court that I be +forced to fulfill the contract. I considered that the city courts in +Munich would have no particular knowledge of the royal rescript or, at +least, that they would not immediately remember it, and that, when I +admitted the existence of the contract, they would command me to keep it +at once. Then I would obey immediately, and afterward could justify +myself with the Bavarian Government by pointing to the court's decree. + +It would surely have succeeded had not the correspondent of the Fabers +failed in business after bringing suit, owing to which the matter got +into another lawyer's hands. This man immediately adopted a new strange +course. Instead of demanding a fulfillment of the contract, he sued for +twelve thousand gulden damages for their loss of time. Of course I had +to fight for my skin now; and as he refused to content himself with my +agreement to fulfill the contract, I was forced at last to defend myself +by falling back on the royal rescript. Thus I escaped by merely repaying +the money already advanced; but I lost the considerable sum that would +have been assured to me had I been permitted to spend only two months in +St. Polten. + +Thus none of the good prospects that opened themselves through my +connection with Freiherr von Aretin proved so good as I had been +justified in hoping: nay, it seemed as if I had only labored day and +night to give others the benefits accruing from my painful labors, while +I barely supported existence. + +Freiherr von Aretin wished that the management of the business be in the +hands of a man who possessed his own fullest confidence, but whom I did +not consider at all suitable, as he was a royal official and as such +could not do business in a public shop. Consequently the trade was +carried on in his own residence, which was known to only few people and +where nobody looked for the manifold things that we could have produced +to good profit. This at last lowered our establishment to a mere job +printery, which finally could not maintain itself, because more and more +similar establishments were started in Munich, and the prices for work +became lower and lower through their hungry competition. + +It may not be uninteresting to tell briefly how so many printeries +happened to be undertaken. + +The first was established by Gleissner and myself, and was continued +afterward in my name by my brothers Theobald and George, until 1805. +They sold the secret to the Feyertag School, where an excellent art +institute developed gradually under Herr Mitterer. + +Strohhofer learned the elements of the process from my brother Karl, and +associated himself, in 1806, with Herr Sidler, royal court musician, who +had studied first with my brothers, then with Madame Gleissner, and then +in the Aretin printery. When Strohhofer left Munich, Sidler erected a +stone-printery for the Government, and after he had obtained an official +permit before the expiration of my franchise, he established his own +institution, producing very good work. + +During this time Madame Gleissner had petitioned the Government +frequently for sufficient work to assist her, and had obtained the +promise through His Excellency the Minister of State, von Montgelas. +Then it happened that the chief of a newly organized bureau, Freiherr +von Hartmann, having a great deal of writing to do in beginning his new +work, decided to introduce lithography for the purpose of saving labor. +His intention was to have it all done in our institution. No doubt he +had communicated this plan to von Montgelas; for as he met Madame +Gleissner about this time, and she asked again for work, he said that he +had given Senefelder enough work to keep ten presses busy, and if he had +not yet received it, he would get it soon through Freiherr von Hartmann. +There evidently was a misunderstanding here on account of the name. When +Freiherr von Hartmann sent one of his subordinates to call Senefelder to +him, he brought my brother Theobald, who immediately got orders to +establish a lithographic office, and shortly afterward was appointed +Inspector of Lithography. Beside a considerable salary, he received the +following other incomes, first, excellent pay for all work that was +turned in; second, an agreement that if his ten presses could not be +sufficiently employed by the bureau, he might work for other +governmental bureaus and for private persons. Thus he received a great +deal of work, among other jobs the printing of passports for the +Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which earned large sums for him in a short +time and placed him in very good circumstances. + +He could not conceal his good luck, and so it came that many people +imagined that stone-printing was a means for getting rich quickly, which +resulted in a disproportionate growth of new shops. Out of his own there +sprang two, namely, those of Helmle and Roth, who erected their own +printeries under the permit of the police. + +At the same time a lithographic institution was erected in the Royal +Asylum for the Poor on the Anger; and a Herr Dietrich, of a government +bureau, also established one. + +My own prospects became worse and worse toward the year 1810. Though I +may flatter myself that I perfected myself very greatly through +unceasing practice and thousands of experiments, still, without a +fortunate accident, it might well have happened that I would have been +forced to think it lucky if I could obtain work under one of my former +apprentices. + +I even suffered the insult of having the papers declare that though I +had invented the art roughly, I had kept it secret for a long time +through selfishness, and had never understood how to use it for anything +except merely printing music. The falsity and humiliating character of +this statement were bound to pain me the more bitterly, since all other +stone-artists and stone-printers had learned only from me, and not one +(not even Herr Mitterer, the most expert and, perhaps because of that, +the most modest) possessed the art as a whole, in all its parts, as +perfectly as I did. I hope that my text-book will prove this. + +So far as the secret was concerned, the statement was an evident +falsehood. Since the moment when I received the exclusive franchise in +Bavaria, in the year 1799, I had made no secret of any part of my +process toward any living being. I showed the whole manipulation to my +workmen as well as to all strangers. Those who knew me more intimately +and realized, therefore, that I could not resist the desire for +communicating anything that I discovered to benefit mankind, often +censured me severely for my frankness, saying that I could have been a +millionaire had I kept my art a secret. But this was equally erroneous. +I never could have succeeded to any degree with my own means. + +The false belief that I desired exclusive enjoyment of the results of +stone-printing, is in direct contradiction of the fact that the lack of +secrecy was held to invalidate my exclusive franchise. The idea may have +arisen, at least partly, through the circumstance that several of my +former workmen, or others who learned something of the art, made a +wonderful secret of it, in order to be considered more important. This +was carried to such an extent that some traveled from place to place and +sold their knowledge to many people for large sums under the seal of +confidence. I pity those who thus received in exchange for their money +something of little or no use, when they could have learned from me for +practically nothing, as it always was my greatest delight to converse +with intelligent men about those subjects that interested me so deeply +as inventor. + +After making this little excursion, which was needed for my +justification, I return to my story. + +There were, then, in 1809, six public printeries in Munich besides mine, +without reckoning those which several artists had made for their own +use. The foremost among the latter was Herr Mettenleithner, Royal +Copper Plate Engraver. He was one of the first to whom I had shown +specimens, as early as 1796, of the new process, but he had paid little +attention to it. Partly through various very excellent specimens from +Herr Mitterer's print, and partly through the work of Strixner and +Pilotti, he was induced to make experiments. A son of Herr von Dall' +Armi, who was taking lessons just then in drawing and copper etching for +his own pleasure, interested himself in the process. As a result, the +latter established a lithographic institution in Rome, which, so far as +I know, never achieved any decided success. + +Soon afterward Herr Mettenleithner, in association with one of the best +of the Aretin printers, a man named Weishaupt, laid the foundation for +the stone-printery of the Royal Tax Commission (Königliche Unmittelbare +Steuer-Kataster-Kommission), which is now the most important of all the +lithographic institutions of Munich. A little later a similar +institution was founded for reproduction purposes by the Royal Privy +Council, through Herr Mettenleithner's son-in-law, Herr Winter. + +Herr Mettenleithner was appointed director of the great establishment, +which employed some thirty engravers, to etch the plans of the +Steuer-Kataster, which received fifteen to twenty thousand impressions +each. At this time the Kingdom of Bavaria was being charted in great +detail for tax-regulation purposes, under the management of Privy +Councilor von Utzschneider, the man who has done so much for Bavaria's +home industries. There were required at least two exact copies of each +map, and close calculation proved that it would be possible to etch the +charts on stone and make several hundred impressions for the money that +these two copies would cost if done by hand. In addition, each of these +impressions was good enough to serve as an original. + +The lithographic institution of the Royal Steuer-Kataster had been in +operation for some time when a trivial occurrence had the most important +effect on my fate. + +It became necessary to print a sheet of such great size that there +happened to be no stone in Munich large enough. Weishaupt remembered +that he had seen stones in my possession which I had purchased partly +for map-work and partly for printing cotton and tapestries. He sent a +printer to me with a letter from Royal Tax Councilor von Badhauser, +requesting that I sell the Government a stone of the necessary +dimensions. Herr von Badhauser was a friend of my father, and I myself +always had entertained the highest respect for him. He was also a friend +of Herr Gleissner, and had done many things to oblige him. I embraced +the opportunity of doing him a favor with joy, and the matter probably +would have had no further consequences, had not Madame Gleissner arrived +just as the stone was being taken away. + +She suspected that the stone might be desired for a purpose other than +the one stated, and sought Herr von Badhauser to ascertain the truth. On +this occasion she complained to him that the Government, not content +with infringing our franchise by erecting its own printeries, also took +away our workmen after I had trained them with much labor and expense. + +Herr von Badhauser was surprised. He said that Privy Councilor von +Utzschneider had wished to turn work over to me, but that my reply to +his proposal, which had been laid before me by a designer named Schiesl, +had been that it was against my arrangements to collaborate with any +other establishment, and that, on the contrary, it was my intention, +with the assistance of Freiherr von Aretin, to press our suit against +the Government for infringement. + +This Herr Schiesl, a pupil of Herr Methleithner, had worked for us +occasionally, and, indeed, was one of the first to use the new process +for drawings, especially pen-drawings. As he was rather adept and showed +great interest, I gave him full instructions in everything, and he knew +all my circumstances exactly. Thus he understood thoroughly that my +future depended on the turn that Freiherr von Aretin's affairs might +take, and that our situation was precarious, owing to the competition of +so many establishments. Therefore, I cannot understand how he came to +utter a statement so contrary to the truth. + +Madame Gleissner hurried to Herr von Utzschneider and explained my real +intentions to him. He promised to consider the matter earnestly. + +Herr Professor Schiegg, an excellent geometrician and astronomer, was +member of the Steuer-Kataster-Kommission, and had the supervision over +the entire institution. He was not well satisfied. Too many costly +proof-prints were being made, and the impressions did not please him. +Accidentally he saw my receipt for payment for the stone which I had +furnished, and he observed that I did not ask more for it than the +Commission had to pay for stones only half as large. Also I charged only +twenty-four kreuzer for polishing, whereas the Commission had been +paying one gulden for stones of four square feet. He took occasion to +represent to the Commission that it might be well to give me the +management of the establishment. + +Herr von Utzschneider sent for me and asked for a proposition. After +discussion with Freiherr von Aretin I proposed that the Commission let +me print their etched plates for two kreuzer per impression, in return +for which I would pay the workmen, defray the cost of all printing +material, and also keep the presses in repair, pull necessary proofs +without charge, and bear the cost of all imperfect work. + +This plan seemed very fair to me, as the Royal Commission would save two +thirds of the expenses it had defrayed hitherto; but it met with such +opposition that Herr von Utzschneider advised me to make another +proposition, preferably one that involved a good salary for myself and +Herr Gleissner, which, probably, would be received with more favor. He +added the flattering statement that the Royal Commission would be proud +to have me, the inventor of the art, in its employ, and thus to reward +my struggles in the name of the fatherland. The excellent man fulfilled +the expectations thus raised, and became my greatest benefactor and +founder of my fortune; for through him I won the prospect of an unvexed +old age, and was placed in a position where I did not need any longer to +consider my art merely as a livelihood. Everything useful that I have +invented since then, and I hope it is not inconsiderable, is due to the +serene and happy position in which I was placed through his goodness. + +At the time I thought also that, if we were both employed by the Royal +Steuer-Kataster-Kommission, it would save Freiherr von Aretin the burden +of supporting us, without causing him damage, as according to the +preliminary promise of the Commission we should have time enough left to +manage his institution. So I agreed to assume supervision over the +Commission's printery, to give it my best knowledge, and give the +workmen complete instructions and training, for which there was to be a +salary for life of one thousand five hundred gulden for me and one +thousand gulden for my friend Gleissner, with the rank of Royal +Inspector of Lithography, and with the right to maintain and conduct our +own printery. My terms were graciously accepted, and in October, 1809, +we received our appointment. + +Only in the beginning were my personal services especially necessary. +Later, as the workmen grew equal to their tasks, I found more and more +leisure for dedicating myself to inventing improvements. I was rather +fortunate in this endeavor, and the various processes invented since +1809 would now be generally known through the publication of many +interesting works, had Freiherr von Aretin not been forced to leave +Munich to assume his new duties in the Royal Service. This left my art +without his assistance, and our partnership reached its end just as it +was beginning to attain fruit. My own circumstances did not permit me to +continue the establishment on its former scale; therefore, Freiherr von +Aretin turned over part of it, especially the art-branches, to von +Manlich, the Director of the Royal Gallery, and another part to Herr +Zeller. The latter soon gave up the printing business as incompatible +with his other interests, but he did a great deal for domestic art and +industry later by opening a warehouse for its products, also by +publishing a paper and issuing many lithographic art productions. + +I kept one or two presses for myself, and as I married the daughter of +the Royal Chief Auditor Versch in January, 1810, I hoped to teach my +wife to manage a small business. In the very beginning I obtained a +large order for passports from the Royal Commission of the Isar, which +kept the presses busy for a month. At the same time I contracted with +the Royal War Economy Council to furnish all their printing. Besides +this, I had many orders from another Royal Commission and from Herr +Falter, so that my little establishment was very busy. Unfortunately it +happened that I was not paid at once by the Royal Commission of the +Isar, but only after four years. Added to this, after some months I had +to support my workmen in idleness for several weeks, because there +happened to be no work for them. This gave my wife so ill an idea of the +business that she kept at me till I promised her to give up the whole +thing. + +Madame Gleissner was not so timid. She offered to take over my men if I +would turn over to her the government work that I had. At first she did +very well, because just then orders came from many directions. She might +have made a great success, had her husband not been stricken with +paralysis, which rendered him so miserable that at last he lost his +mind. Then came the ever-growing competition and at last the government +bureau installed its own plant. Her daughter lost her eyesight almost +wholly at this time, so that the family fell into a woeful condition, +which would be still worse now if they were not sustained by faith in +the mercy and grace of our best of kings, who will surely reward their +efforts for lithography, which art, according to the belief of all +experts, will ever remain a beautiful flower in the shining wreath of +the noble Maximilian. + +As soon as I did not need any longer to give up my time to earning a +mere livelihood, I began seriously to plan publication of my +lithographic text-book, the first number of which had appeared +previously and been well received. But the skill of the various +lithographers made noticeable advances every day, so that I was not +content with the specimen pages that had seemed so satisfactory a year +earlier. At last I fell under the delusion that it was absolutely vital +to my honor that everything that might appear in my text-book must +represent the _non plus ultra_ of the process. Therefore I decided to +suppress the first number entirely, because there were sample pages in +it that represented a style which had been done much better since then. + +However, many obstacles opposed me. For instance, good artists are very +costly, especially if they must learn new methods and practice them. I +felt, also, that many of my inventions still demanded many improvements +before I could intrust them to the hands of any artists. Still, I hoped +finally to accomplish my plan for publishing a splendid work which +should be unique, because I invented improvements and perfections +daily. When my dear friend Andre came to Munich in 1811, I laid my +project before him and he was so taken with it that he offered his +cordial coöperation. We agreed that the work was to be done by +Frankfurter artists and printed there. But when I journeyed to Offenbach +some months later, I discovered that the right kind of artists were not +so easy to find as Andre had led me to hope. Some, who might have been +competent, demanded such exorbitant terms that the work would +necessarily have been published only at a huge loss. "Copper-etching," +said they, "we understand. Stone-etching we must learn. The latter seems +to us, who are unpracticed in it, three times as difficult. Therefore it +is but fair that we shall be paid three times as much." This sort of +reasoning led me to return to Munich to print the work there. + +Now two years passed with many experiments. Many a plate was made, +printed, and discarded because meantime I had found something better. +Then I lost my beloved wife in child-bed, and in my anguish over this +loss, irredeemable as I thought at the time, I forgot all my projects +till my second wife, a niece of our worthy Choir-Master Ritter von +Winter, reconciled me with Providence, notably through her truly +motherly behavior toward the son left behind by my first wife. I +considered it my duty now to publish my work, that in case of my death +their claims to honor should be established. Without this incentive, it +would have been much more indifferent to me what men might think of my +art or its inventor. + +In 1816, Herr Andre came to Munich again, and I imparted to him many of +my recent inventions in regard to lithography. On this occasion we +decided ultimately which of our plates should be put into the work and +which should be discarded. I promised to get seriously to work and we +looked forward so confidently to the completion of the entire +publication that Herr Andre circulated a preliminary notice of it in the +Easter-Messe at Leipsic, whither he went after leaving Munich. + +Despite this, there came many delays, the chief one being caused by my +meeting Herr Gerold, book-dealer and printer of Vienna, who invited me +to establish a printery for him. As my presence in Vienna would be +needed for only three months, I believed that this would cause no delay +in the publication of the text-book, because the plates ordered from the +Munich artists could be completed during that time, while I could +furnish the text as well in Vienna as in Munich. But I had the +misfortune of becoming seriously ill soon after reaching Vienna. A great +weakness remained as result, and this made it impossible for me to +undertake the return voyage in the bad weather that marked the winter of +1816-17. + +Lithography did not progress particularly with Herr Gerold during my +stay, because he could not obtain the franchise, though he had +petitioned for it a year ago. The greatest blame for this was due to +Herr Steiner's opposition. This man, who had done but little for the art +in the entire time during which he enjoyed the exclusive Austrian +franchise that I had turned over to him, did this from pure ill-will, +because he had suffered similar ill-luck, as he said. + +So Gerold could not establish so complete a printery as I wished, +without going into expenses based on an uncertainty. However, various +drawings were made that served to show art-lovers what could be done +with lithography. It would be easy to perfect this art immensely in +Vienna, because there is no lack of excellent artists. Among those who +interested themselves at the very beginning in Herr Gerold's undertaking +were Herr Colonel von Aurach, Herr Captain Kohl, and Herr Kunike, the +drawing-master for the family of Prince von Schwarzenberg. They +convinced themselves with many experiments that lithography was +eminently suitable for the easy reproduction of many styles of drawing, +and recommended the method to all their acquaintances. Through the +experiments of Herr Kunike I gained the conviction that one could print +true originals by using a method of touching up the impressions. + +The crayon method in combination with one or two tint plates is the +method that is easiest for the artist to handle. Now this method is very +difficult to print, demanding great practice if good, strong, and clear +impressions are to be produced. Since there are as yet no complete +printeries where an artist can have his own plates printed without +danger of damage, there is nothing left except to print them himself, +which causes many imperfect impressions that must be destroyed for the +credit of the artist. Herr Kunike had this experience; but he took his +imperfect impressions, when they were not entirely spoiled, and worked +them over with black crayon. It developed that twelve impressions could +be so well touched up by hand that they would fittingly pass as +originals, in the time which would be required to copy a single picture +properly. As this treatment of illustrations produces their value only +by merit of the final finishing, they may be considered as being the +same as copies that are made by an artist of his own work, wherein it +happens often that the copy turns out better than the original. + +Just as I was preparing to leave Vienna I received several numbers of +the _Anzeiger für Kunst und Gewerbfleiss_, in which Herr Direktor von +Schlichtegroll, General Secretary of the Royal Bavarian Academy of +Sciences, had inserted several letters suggesting an inquiry into the +invention of lithography. He had used the information obtained from my +brothers and from other inhabitants of Munich. On my arrival there I +visited him at once to thank him for his patriotic endeavors, and to +make some corrections of the story told by him. I had the fortune to win +him as a steady friend, who became continually interested in giving my +work a greater field. + +The completion of this text-book is due to his steadfast encouragement. +He furnished me with the opportunity to meet many worthy men and also to +demonstrate my many improvements before the Royal Academy of Sciences, +the Polytechnical Union, and at last even before their majesties, our +most gracious King and his most highly venerated spouse, that +illustrious connoisseur and protectress of the arts. Never to be +forgotten by me will be the moment when the gracious applause of the +royal pair rewarded me for all the exertions of my life. Oh! If only +human life were not so limited, if it were granted to me to execute only +one tenth part of my designs, I would make myself worthy of this great +honor by making many another useful invention! But the time passes +swiftly during our helpless wishing and striving; and when twenty or +thirty years have been lived, there remains for us only amazement at +beholding how little has been done of all that which glowing +imagination and fiery energy painted as being so easy to carry out. + +When I saw before me the first successful impressions from a stone, and +conceived the plan of making the invention useful for myself, I did not +think that it would demand the greatest part of my life. Rather, because +it seemed to be a cheap process, I considered it merely a first step +toward putting me into a position where I would be able to make +inventions far more useful and important. I must, however, count myself +fortunate among thousands, because my invention received such thorough +recognition during my lifetime, and because I myself was able to bring +it to a degree of perfection such as other inventions generally attained +only after many years and long after the inventor himself was dead. + +Herr von Manlich, the Director of the Royal Gallery, has had his skilled +pupils, Strixner and Pilotti, copy many collections in the Royal Drawing +Cabinet (Königliche Zeichnungs Kabinett), and many of these sheets are +so good that competent critics have declared them to be perfect +facsimiles. + +But on the whole the publication of the Royal Gallery of Paintings is +still more excellent and has aroused general attention, which would be +even greater if the printers had been as expert as the artists were. +Many of these pages would leave nothing to be desired if the pictures +appeared on the paper in perfection equal to the perfection of the +drawings on the stone. + +The method used for these illustrations is the crayon method, with one +or more tint plates. It is the easiest method for the artists because it +demands little previous experience. To give it its correct emphasis, +however, one must know especially how to get the best effect out of the +tint plates. If this is done just right, and if, of course, the drawing +bears the impress of a masterly hand, and if the printer understands his +art, the impression will be perfectly like an original drawing, so that +the most skilled etcher in copper hardly can attain the same effect. +Therefore this method, which has the further advantage of being a quick +one, is excellently well adapted for copying paintings. + +Hereby I wish to express my deepest gratitude publicly to the worthy +Herr Direktor von Manlich and his industrious pupils for the service +they have done for the fame of lithography by utilizing my inventions. +To their labors, as well as to those of Herr Professor Mitterer, is due +the ever-growing sympathy and interest of the public. + +Herr Mitterer now has attained such perfection, especially in the simple +crayon method, that many of his productions probably will remain the +_non plus ultra_ of this method. Lithography also owes to his unresting +energy the triumph of having been become the mother of many useful works +of instruction, which are so cheap that they only require the active +work of a good art-dealer or book-dealer to become widely circulated. + +Besides this, Herr Mitterer is the inventor of the so-called cylinder or +pilot-wheel press, which he has improved so much lately that it does +almost everything that one can demand from a perfect press in point of +power, speed, and ease of operation. + +Since 1809, I have dedicated myself almost uninterruptedly to +improvements, and to the work of reducing all manipulation and processes +in all branches to their simple elementary principles. Thus some of my +earlier inventions--such as transfers from paper which has been +inscribed with fatty inks, and the transfers from new and old books and +copper-plate impressions--have been brought to a high degree of +excellence through my manifold experiments, so that one can make +lithographic stereotypes in the easiest manner. + +Furthermore I have made such progress in color printing that, besides +pictures illuminated with colors, I can also produce pictures quite +similar to oil paintings, so that nobody can discover that they have +been printed, because they possess all the distinguishing points of +paintings. + +At the same time I have invented a new method for printing pictures, +wall tapestry, playing-cards, and even cotton, which enables two men to +make two thousand impressions of the size of a sheet of letter-paper +daily, even though the picture may contain a hundred or more colors. +Incredible as this may seem, I surely shall produce extraordinary and +amazing proofs of this in a few years if I remain alive and well. + +Among the other methods that I have invented since this time the most +excellent are some aqua tint processes, the spatter-work method, the +intaglio crayon method, the conversion of the relief method into +intaglio and vice versa, and the machine-written text for editions de +luxe. + +Among other things I also sought to remedy the difficulty which arises +from the great dependence on the skill and industry of the printers. +Therefore I planned a printing-machine wherein the dampening and inking +of the stones should be done not by hands but by the mechanism of the +press itself, which, in addition, could be operated by water and thus +work almost without human intervention. With this invention I believed +that I had set my art on the pinnacle of completion; and when in 1817 I +exhibited a model of this press (which also was adapted by me for +utilizing the principles of stone or chemical printing on metal plates) +before the Royal Academy of Sciences in Munich, I was so fortunate as to +receive its golden medal in sign of universal approval. + +But the most important of all my inventions since my employment in the +service of the Royal Government was, without question, the invention of +a sufficient substitute for the natural limestone plates, which often +incurred well-founded censure because of their unevenness, weight, and +fragility, and have the further fault of demanding a great deal of +storage room. + +Before the Royal Academy of Sciences, and also before the Polytechnical +Society of Bavaria, I demonstrated that chemical printing could be +utilized with advantage on metal plates; but that still more useful was +a composition of artificial stone which could be painted on metal, wood, +stone, and even on plain paper or linen, and used in all processes +exactly like the natural Solenhofen stone. + +The countless experiments that I have made in the past four years with +this substitute (or, as some call it, stone-paper), in order to prove +its usefulness under all circumstances, have filled me with the absolute +conviction that it replaces the natural stone completely without having +the many faults that in the nature of the case are inseparable from the +use of the latter. In many respects it is far superior. The fragility of +the Solenhofen stone requires the use of thick slabs for printing. If +the impression is to be letter-sheet size, the stone must be at least +one and one half inches thick if it is not to crack under pressure. If +the stone is to be used for more than one job, the thickness must be two +to three inches. To be sure, it can be ground and used over again some +hundreds of times, a valuable consideration in view of the capital +invested in a stone. But such a stone weighs from sixty to eighty +pounds, sometimes more, and occupies considerable space. Add the +investment necessary for laying in any great number of stones, and it +becomes a difficult matter financially to undertake work that requires +that the stones be held for a number of years, to be used for new +impressions according to the sales of the work. Therefore it is +necessary, generally, to print a maximum quantity at once, so that the +stones may be ground and used for new work. + +If the stones are of thickness correctly proportioned to their area, the +danger of cracking under the press is fairly remote; still, it does +happen occasionally that a stone incurs damage through clumsiness of +workmen. It can occur also through careless warming, or through sharp +frost. In such cases even a strong stone will crack, especially if the +workmen apply undue pressure. + +Besides, the necessary stones are not to be found in all places, so that +the cost of transportation prevents the establishment of lithographic +shops in many regions. + +All these objections are overcome by the invention of stone-paper. The +material advantages of it are as follows: (1) The cost is much smaller +than that of a stone of equal size. (2) The weight is inconsiderable; a +plate of letter-sheet size weighs scarcely four ounces. (3) Hundreds of +such plates piled on each other require scarcely as much space as a +single stone, and can, therefore, be stored or shipped easily. (4) They +resist the most powerful press better than do stone, copper, and even +iron plates. Their inner elasticity supports the most extreme pressure +without alteration if only they are handled properly. (5) The +application of fatty inks, and also engraving with the steel graver is +easier. Indeed, because of the great toughness of the stone-paper, the +engraving process approaches copper engraving more closely. (6) Inking +and printing are easier, and demand no such powerful pressure, because +the artificial stone receives and imparts color more readily, than does +the natural stone. (7) Finally, they are so excellent for all methods of +printing that it is possible to reproduce the original plates at will +merely by transferring a fresh imprint to another plate. And this can be +done with such accuracy that none of these plates can be distinguished +from the original, so that the stone-paper surely must become of +enormous importance for stereotyping in the book-printing trade. + +These advantages, and others to be described on suitable occasion, +elevate this invention unquestionably to the highest importance in the +art of chemical printing, despite all that may have been said recently +by a certain writer whose lack of knowledge forbade correct judgment. +The matter already has attained a degree of perfection that makes every +further improvement unnecessary, nay, almost impossible. + +My many employments, mostly caused by the publication of this text-book, +thus far have prevented the erection of my own manufactory for making +these artificial stone-plates or stone-paper. I hope to do it soon, and +then everybody can convince himself of the truth of my assertions, if he +will use the material according to my instructions. + +This invention will facilitate the introduction of lithography in all +places, because one can make the stones himself. However, lithography +has expanded very considerably in its present form, and has been brought +into use in the foremost cities of Europe. For instance, it was +introduced into France and England, first by Herr Andre, in latter days +by the Count von Lasterie in Paris and Herr Ackermann in London, being +utilized for many kinds of printed work. In Berlin, Herr Major von +Reiche has erected a great institution. In Petersburg the art has +existed for some years, and is being especially well cultivated now by +Freiherr von Schilling. The art has entered even Philadelphia, and, more +extraordinarily, Astrakan, and, so far as I can learn, has been welcomed +heartily. + +I desire that soon it shall be spread over the whole world, bringing +much good to humanity through many excellent productions, and that it +may work toward man's greater culture, but never be misused for evil +purposes. This grant the Almighty! Then may the hour be blessed in which +I invented it! + + + + +SECTION II + +TEXT-BOOK OF PRINTING FROM THE STONE + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION + +EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES AND THE PECULIARITIES OF STONE-PRINTING +AND OF CHEMICAL-PRINTING IN GENERAL + + +PART I + +General objects and principles governing-- + + (1) the stone. + (2) the ink, crayon, etching surface and color. + (3) the acids and other preparing materials. + (4) the necessary tools. + (5) the paper. + (6) the presses. + + +PART II + +Enumeration and description of the various processes and particular +objects in manipulating them, such as:-- + + RELIEF PROCESS-- + to which belong-- + + (1) Pen and brush designs. + (2) Crayon drawing, simple and with several plates. + (3) Transfer and Tracing. + (4) Woodcut style. + (5) Two kinds of Touche drawing, one of which is similar to the + Scraped style, while the other is done in the usual way with + the brush. + (6) Spatter-Work. + (7) Touche drawing. + (8) Color printing with several plates. + (9) Gold and silver print. + + INTAGLIO PROCESS-- + + (1) Carved or engraved. + (2) Etched. + (3) Drawn with prepared ink; with spattered aquatint. + (4) Aquatint in copper engraved style, and with etching ground. + (5) Aquatint through crayon ground. + (6) Intaglio crayon through tracing. + (7) Touche drawing with etching color and citric acid. + + MIXED METHOD: RELIEF AND INTAGLIO UNITED-- + + (1) Pen drawing combined with engraving. + (2) Intaglio drawing with relief tint. + (3) Intaglio and relief with several plates. + (4) Transformation of relief into intaglio, and vice versa. + + +APPENDIX + + (1) Printing simultaneously with water colors and oil colors. + (2) Simultaneous chemical and mechanical printing. + (3) Application of the stone for cotton-printing through wiping--a + unique printing method. + (4) Color print through wiping. + (5) Oil painting print through transfers. + (6) Stone-paper. + (7) Applying the chemical printing process to metal plates, etc. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Printing from stone is a branch of a new process, different in +fundamental principle from all others, namely, the chemical process. + +Heretofore there have been two leading printing processes for +manifolding writings and drawings, one working with characters in +relief, the other with sunken characters. + +Of the first kind is the ordinary book-printing, in which the characters +are made of metal or wood in such form that only those lines and points +are elevated that are to take color, everything else being depressed. +The wooden forms for cotton-printing are made thus also. + +Of the second kind are all copper and zinc plates, and the cotton-print +process with copper plates or cylinders. In this method the lines and +points to be printed are depressed, being either engraved, etched, or +stamped. + +As is well known, the first method of printing is as follows: The +letters, which are all at the same elevation and, therefore, furnish a +plane surface, are inked with a leather ball, stuffed with horsehair. +As the ball is so firm and elastic that it can touch only the +elevated parts, these alone can take the color, which adheres because +of its sticky nature. The same is true of the carved wood used in +cotton-printing, with only the difference that, instead of rubbing with +a leather ball, the wooden plate itself is laid on a cushion covered +with the color, and then, being placed face down on the cloth, is +hammered gently to produce the imprint. + +In copper and zinc printing the method is reversed. In order to force +the color into the depressed parts, which alone are to be printed, the +entire plate is coated with color, and then the elevated surface is +cleansed again carefully. The cleaning rag cannot reach the depressed +grooves, so that more or less color adheres to these according to their +various depths. Under the powerful press, which forces the paper into +all the engraved parts, this color transfers itself and thus gives the +desired impression. + +It is evident that both methods rest on purely mechanical principles: +book-printing being based on the fact that the color adheres only on +those places that it can reach, and copper-plate printing depending on +the fact that the color remains only in those places from which it +cannot be removed by cleansing. + +It is different with the chemical print. This does not depend on either +elevation or depression of the design. It depends on the fact that the +design is coated with a preparation of such nature that afterward the +printing color, which is made from a related substance, adheres because +of its chemical similarity; and furthermore, because all parts of the +plate that are to remain white, have been so treated that they repel the +color. These two purely chemical objects are attained fully with the new +process. Daily experience proves that all fatty bodies, such as oil, +butter, tallow, fish oils, etc., and all such as easily dissolve in oil, +like wax, resin, etc., refuse to unite with any watery substance without +the aid of some third body that will bring about such union. The chief +solvent for this purpose is alkali, which, under proper manipulation, +always produces a sort of soap that then is soluble in water. Sometimes, +to be sure, an apparent union can be produced by violent shaking or +mixing, without the use of the alkali, but at the first opportunity the +fatty substances separate themselves again from the watery ones. + +It is on this fact that the entire method of the new process is based. +It is termed chemical printing with perfect propriety, as the reason why +a fatty color, say, linseed oil varnish, will adhere only on the +designed parts of the plate and is repelled by the rest of the surface, +is due to the chemical properties of the materials. + +It might be maintained that in the other forms of printing, color +adheres from the same reason. This is true, to be sure; for it is a +general law that water and oil will adhere to all bodies that are dry. +But it is not the case with these fluids mutually; and in this fact lies +the unique difference between the older and the new processes. A dry +plate would take color over its entire surface. If, however, it is +dampened, it will take oil color only on those places that are in a +condition opposite to dampness. Therefore, the repelling of the color +from those parts that are to remain white is the novelty. + +It must not be imagined, however, that to print chemically it suffices +to dampen certain parts of the plate and to coat others with fatty +substance. With most of the materials available for printing, mere water +does not suffice to produce a sufficiently repelling obstacle between +the plate and the color. + +With flinty and clayey bodies,--for example, glass, porcelain, slate, +etc.,--one can manage with mere water; but then the slight adherence of +the fatty color to the plate produces an opposite difficulty, by +preventing any large number of impressions. Still, by using very firm +and readily drying fatty substances, such as linseed oil varnish dried +with litharge of silver it is possible, in case of need, to succeed +fairly well. + +But with such bodies as attract the color powerfully, such as all +metals, wood, limestone, artificial stone-paper, etc., it is necessary +so to treat all the parts of the plate that are to remain white that +they attain an especial resistance to color, and thus change their +natures, so to speak. + +That this is possible under certain circumstances and with the proper +means, with all bodies belonging to this class, I have proved by many +experiments, and I shall describe the methods in this book. + +Thus the new process is not to be used only on limestone, but is +applicable to metal, etc.; and stone-printing or lithography is to be +considered only as a branch of general chemical printing. However, as +this book is to teach mainly lithography, I will occupy myself chiefly +with it. + +Among the bodies available for chemical printing, limestone maintains an +eminent place. Not only has it an especial property of uniting with +fats,--sucking them in and holding them,--but it has, also, the same +propensity for taking all fluids that repel fats. Indeed, its surface +unites so thoroughly with many of the latter that it forms a chemical +union with them, becoming practically impenetrable for oil colors and +remaining constant thereafter in repelling them so that they cannot +adhere perfectly. Therefore when a plate thus prepared is dry and +covered entirely with oil color, it still remains an easy matter to wash +it completely, using merely water for the purpose. + +This good property, combined with the low cost and the ease of obtaining +the stone in Bavaria; then the advantage that it is easily polished and +prepared; the further advantage that a stone of medium thickness can be +ground as often as a hundred times and utilized for new work--all these +properties combined made me willing to overlook a few faults, such as +their weight, great volume, frequent unevenness of quality, and lastly +the occasional danger of cracking. Thus I came to use these stones as +the principal means for making my countless experiments, whose happy +result has been to elevate stone-printing to an art by itself. + +Having stated the process and the character of this form of printing, it +remains only to say a few words about its value. + +With every new invention there arises the question if it is useful, and +if so, in how far, for science, arts, and industry. Therefore all who +have no sufficient knowledge of lithography, will ask justly: What is +its value? What advantages does it give that are not to be found in any +other forms of printing? + +To answer this, let me say the following merely in advance till later +descriptions of the various processes will convince in themselves. + +It is the nature of earthly being and of human imperfection that rarely +is anything found that combines in itself everything to be wished for +and required. So it may be said of stone-printing that it makes neither +book-printing nor copper-plate printing entirely superfluous. It is +possible that in the future, by perfecting the presses, lithography may +equal book-printing in point of speed, as it does not now; but the +convenience of the latter, enabling the printer, by merely setting cast +characters side by side, to do with speed, accuracy, and symmetry what +the writer can hardly do with all his skill and industry, gives +book-printing its own eminent value. When, however, we come to many +things produced hitherto by book-printing, such as statistical tables, +letters, circulars, letters of exchange, bills of lading, visiting-cards +and addresses, and other similar work, we find that these can be +produced more conveniently, more readily, more cheaply, and faster and +handsomer with lithography. + +As to copper-printing: in the future, as lithography extends, there +probably will remain an advantage with the copper in the case of only +two styles, the engraving done with the engraving needle, and the +etching, the latter being worked up with the graver and the cold needle. +In this respect, however, the skill of the artist must be taken into +account, for a good man can produce better work on stone, even in those +two styles, than a less skillful man can produce on copper. We can +declare the same of the stipple style in copper, when done in the style +of Herr Bartolozzi, or even like the very foremost of the copper +engravers in this style, Herr John of Vienna. + +All other methods (and even these three if done with less care or skill +on copper) must yield place to a good design on stone; especially if one +takes into account the ease of execution, the lesser need for skill, the +greater speed of printing, and the almost countless impressions that are +possible. + +For instance, printing music from the stone has a decided advantage over +zinc plates, both because of smaller cost and greater beauty. It is +easier to produce all kinds of script on stone, both with fatty inks and +with the engraving needle. Therefore lithography serves excellently for +charts and similar work, which can be done at least three times faster +on stone than on copper. + +If copper-printing is to reach a high degree of perfection, the printing +itself must be done by very excellent workmen. Indeed, some persons +allege that the very best German copper-plate printers do not yet equal +the Parisians. Printing from stone is not so difficult, and only a few +particular methods demand especial care or unusual knowledge. Because of +the greater ease of inking, the speed of stone-printing may be assumed +to be at least five times as great, often ten times, and especially so +when large plates are to be printed. Besides, it is much easier to make +corrections on stone than on copper and zinc. + +From all this it appears that lithography makes it much easier to write +and design and then to print swiftly and produce any desired number of +impressions, of all those works that heretofore could be produced only +on copper or zinc, providing they do not demand the very greatest degree +of delicacy, strength, and sharpness obtainable with copper; in a word, +so long as it is not vital to attain the utmost possible artistic +beauty. Further, most of these works done on stone, by only average +artists and printers, usually are more beautiful than if they had been +done by the same men in copper or zinc. + +This property alone gives lithography a preëminent value, the more so as +no great expense is incurred in establishing a plant. But in addition to +this, there are several art methods peculiar to it, which cannot be +imitated by book-printing or copper-print, and which make it possible +for almost every writer or artist to manifold his works without any +especial skill. + +I will mention now only the crayon process, which enables every artist +or painter to make several thousand impressions of his original +drawings; also the transfer method, by means of which all that is +written or drawn with fatty ink on ordinary paper can be transferred to +the stone, giving countless faithful impressions. This latter process is +particularly useful for government bureaus, and is being used already +with great profit. + +All this I believe that I can claim for lithography with fullest +confidence, and I hope that everybody who becomes sufficiently +conversant with it will share my belief. Thus, besides the properties +of the art, we have stated its uses, and I proceed to the real +instructions, through which I hope to make good artists and printers on +stone. + + + + +PART I + +GENERAL PROVISIONS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +OF THE STONES + + +I + +The stone that has been used exclusively hitherto in Munich for printing +is a stratified limestone, found in the territory from Dietfurt to +Pappenheim, and along the Danube down to Kellheim; hence the name +Kellheimer plates, presumably because in past times the stone was +quarried there first, or else found in its best quality. Now the +Kellheimer quarry is exhausted, and the trade in the stones has +transferred itself to Solenhofen, a village in the judicial district of +Mannheim, three hours distant from Neuberg-on-the-Danube. All the +inhabitants of Solenhofen are quarrymen, and the entire surrounding +country seems to have a surplus of the stone, so that even with the +greatest demand no scarcity is to be feared for centuries. + +When the upper layer of earth is removed to the depth of six to ten feet +in Solenhofen, the stones are found in strata lying horizontally on each +other. First come strata of brittle stone, which often are composed of +hundreds of plates as thin as paper. With proper care, each plate can be +loosened and lifted whole. These layers are useless, being too brittle, +and yet being too firm and not white enough to permit their possible use +as chalk. + +The Solenhofen stone consists chemically mostly of lime earth and +carbonate. It is almost wholly soluble in nitric and other acids, the +carbonate being liberated in gaseous form and disappearing. Since the +various kinds of marble have almost the same component parts, one might +suppose that marble should be available for lithography. But the many +dark, uneven colors of marble and chiefly the many cracks and veins make +considerable difficulty. However, I have found many evenly colored +greenish, gray, bluish, and brownish Bavarian and Tyrolean marbles very +useful for some methods, especially because of their superior hardness. +Still, the Solenhofen stone will retain the advantage because of its +light color and its greater cheapness. + +The white Parian or Carrara marble is still lighter in color, to be +sure, and really is rather useful for pen and crayon work. But though in +part it is harder, on the whole it is much more porous and not so finely +grained as the Solenhofen stone, and therefore not at all available for +the intaglio method. + +Since lithography began to arouse general interest, there have been +attempts to find a stone similar to the Solenhofen, and there has been +some fair success in France, Italy, England, and lately in the Kingdom +of Prussia. With the enormous masses of limestone which cover the +surface of the earth, it is not unlikely that this stone will be found +in many places, either in layers of plates one, two, or more inches +thick, or in great blocks which can be cut into plates. + +In the Solenhofen stones one layer is not as good as another, and even +in the same layer there may be a decided difference. Therefore, if one +would produce perfectly beautiful work, it is necessary to obtain +selected and perfect stones. This should be stipulated beforehand with +the quarrymen, who now know pretty well how the best stones should be +constituted. + +A good stone must have the following properties:-- + +(1) _The proper thickness._ Thickness must be proportionate to the size. +Smaller plates will resist the pressure of printing even if they are not +so thick as the larger ones must be. But it is best to buy no stone less +than one and one half or more than three and one half inches thick, +because the thinner ones will not bear frequent grinding and the thicker +ones are too heavy and inconvenient, besides taking up too much room. +The best thickness of a stone is two to two and one half inches. + +(2) _Good mass._ There are soft and hard stones. Sometimes the same +stone is hard above and soft underneath, or the reverse. Often, also, a +stone may consist of several thin and unequal layers. In the latter +case, if the union is good and the layers are not easily separated, it +will make no difference, so long as the stone is good in other respects. +On the whole, however, it may be assumed that the harder stones are the +best for all methods, so long as their mass is entirely uniform and they +are not marred, as is the case with many, with white dots and patches. +Then, to be sure, they are not worth much for any process, and at best +can be used only for pen designs or for such of the intaglio processes +where the lines need no particular sharpness. Such stones, generally +gray, very hard, with softer, somewhat lighter patches or specks, are +very hard to grind evenly because the softer parts are most powerfully +attacked by the grinding material and become depressed. This produces +the following defects:-- + +(_a_) In pen work, the pen will catch often, whenever it comes to such a +place. This, however, is not so important: but + +(_b_) In the crayon method there will be defects and lights in the +shadings on the softer places, which are very hard to correct. + +(_c_) In the etched or engraved methods, the needle will sink in much +deeper when it passes over such softer spots, making a deeper and +broader line which injures the clearness of the drawing. In etching, +also, the softer places are more affected by the acid; and it is better, +therefore, to use a soft stone whose entire surface is uniform, than to +have a stone that is hard but uneven. + +A very soft stone cracks easily in the press, unless it consists of +several layers, the lower of which are hard. But it is easier to +engrave, and as a rule gives blacker impressions, because it sucks more +color in, and holds it because of its greater porosity. Printing, +however, is somewhat more difficult, because these stones take dirt +readily; nor is it possible to get so many impressions. They are not +useful for crayon work because the finest shadings are too easily etched +away; and pen work is difficult on them, because the steel pen easily +cuts into the stone, fills its point with fine dust, and thus gives no +ink flow. This softest stone in Solenhofen generally looks yellow, or +is marbled with red and white or has many yellow veins. + +Even those stones whose uniformity, thickness, and hardness make them +best for all methods, often have defects, such as so-called glass spots +or tiny, sometimes invisible holes, broad veins and cracks. All these +must be avoided when selecting stone. Very small deep veins, which often +are fine as hairs, yellowish and grayish spots, impressions of fossil +plants and fishes, etc., are not harmful. It is rare to find a stone as +large as a sheet of note-paper that is entirely free from these little +defects. + +(3) The form of the stones also is to be considered, and must be +selected according to need. To be sure, a small design can be drawn on a +large stone; but apart from the inconvenience, the construction of the +press demands that the stone be not much larger than the drawing. +However, at the end where the impression begins and stops, there must be +at least an inch margin to give sufficient room for the roller to take +hold, as will be explained more particularly later. + +When one has to print small things like visiting-cards, etc., it will +not be profitable to use large stones, especially if they are to be +saved for future use. Small stones of the size of an octavo sheet are +better. Therefore it will be wise to have stones cut to various sizes in +the beginning. It would be well also that one of the printers, or the +polisher, strive to attain skill in cutting stones to size. Sometimes +polishing discloses defects in a stone, making it useless for a design +of any size. But it is possible to cut it up into many small ones that +are perfect. Sometimes a stone cracks under the press or breaks through +accident. Skill in cutting will enable one to make small and good stones +out of the pieces. + +It is essential for good work in the press that the stones be cut very +true. The stones that are used for flooring in churches, etc., usually +are cut so that the upper face is larger than the lower. This is done to +make them set better in the mortar and to enable the stone-cutters to +fit them closely together on the top. But this must not be done with +stones for printing, because such stones could not be tightened properly +in the press and would lift during the printing. Printing-stones must be +cut absolutely true vertically. Indeed, in work where several plates +are to be used to make one complete impression, and where steel +guide-points in the frame are used instead of laying the paper on the +plate, it is beneficial to cut the stones conically, so that the base is +one fourth inch greater than the top. The plate can be tightened better +and is less likely to be moved from its place during the impressions. + +Despite their hardness the stones are brittle, and a single light but +sudden blow with any hard body, such as a steel tool, may cause a crack +in the thickest stone. It is necessary to exercise great care to avoid +all shocks. + +This property of the stone is used in Solenhofen to cut the stones +according to desire. A small hammer of hard steel, weighing scarcely two +ounces, is used. Its end is somewhat like a stone-chisel, but not nearly +so sharp. With this hammer, which is set on a thin handle two or three +feet long, the workman strikes light but very swift blows along the line +of desired cleavage, each tap being about an inch from the preceding +one. The stone is so laid that its greater part is free, resting on +nothing. This light operation is sufficient to cleave the largest +stones. + +The cleavage is not always uniform and true. Therefore the stone usually +is finished with a sharp stone-chisel. It is possible also to divide a +stone as desired by supporting it at both ends so that there is nothing +under the part to be split, and then cutting along the line with a +chisel of hardened steel, not too sharp, which is tapped lightly with a +light hammer. The varying sound tells at once when the stone cracks, and +then a few light taps with the hammer on the other side suffice to +separate it. Before one attains the necessary skill, however, he will +smash many a stone. Therefore it is not advisable to try this on a stone +that has a design on it, for a single incorrect or over-heavy blow often +will split the stone in the wrong direction. Blows that are too light, +on the other hand, often make it almost impossible in the end to cause a +cleavage along the desired lines. + + +II + +POLISHING + +The stone plates that come from Solenhofen, even if polished according +to stipulations, rarely are available for printing, but must be +specially polished by one who understands the work thoroughly. + +The first requisite for this is a straightedge of iron or brass, as true +as possible. This ruler must be laid on the stone in various directions, +and the lithographer must note all parts where there is space between +the straightedge and the stone. The greater the space, the greater the +unevenness of the stone; and those that show especial unevenness should +be set aside from those that have little. + +When this has been done, the very uneven stones must be ground with a +coarse sandstone and plenty of water applied to the elevated places till +the straightedge can be applied in all directions without showing any +material interstices. Then these ground stones may be placed with the +others that were fairly even in the beginning. + +Now we take one of these stones, and lay it on a strong, firm table, the +best being one to be described later. Finely grained sand is sprinkled +over its surface. In the absence of sand, a substitute can be made by +powdering a common sandstone of the kind used for coarse grindstones. A +spoonful of water is poured over this. A little soap may be mixed with +the sand. It facilitates the grinding and makes the sand take hold of +the stone better. Now another stone is laid on the first one, and is +moved back and forth continually in all directions. The sand and water +must be renewed often. Thus both stones, the upper and lower, will be +ground simultaneously, and very evenly and true, if the work is done +right. + +One must take care never to draw the upper stone far beyond the lower +one, because that would throw the centre of gravity of the upper plate +too near its ends, as a result of which the upper plate would become +concave and the lower plate convex. To avoid this defect, the upper +plate should be moved around only in small circles. It is good also to +change the plates around frequently, so that the upper shall be the +lower. Another good plan is not to use two stones of equal size, but to +take for the upper stone one only half as large as the lower. It is +necessary also that the straightedge be applied frequently. The stone +must always be cleansed thoroughly before this test. + +Once one has the proper experience, it is possible to tell by mere touch +if the plates have been sufficiently ground. So long as they still have +uneven spots, a certain resistance is noticeable, so strongly sometimes +that it is impossible to move the upper plate further without lifting it +and sprinkling new sand. Sometimes this friction is so great that manual +strength does not suffice to separate the stones, especially if they +happen to dry. If tools are used to separate them, it happens often that +pieces are torn from the stones, because they adhere so mightily. In +this case a very simple and convenient remedy is the best. An ordinary +table-knife is inserted gently and then tapped very lightly, when the +stones will separate at once. + +Whenever sand is applied, water must be applied also, but not too much, +as in that case it would only wash away the sand. Here, too, practice +must teach the exact proportions. + +From the stone-cutter's work, as well as from the primary grinding with +sandstone, the plates will have visible furrows and scratches made by +the coarser grains of sand. Under the polishing all these disappear bit +by bit, and there appears a fine grain, consisting entirely of fine +dots; and this is the finer in proportion as the sand is crushed by the +process of polishing and also according as less fresh sand has been +used. + +When the marks of the sand have vanished completely, it is fairly +certain that the stones are polished sufficiently. To make sure, the +straightedge can be applied again. It must not be imagined, however, +that it is necessary or possible to polish a plate so perfectly that +there will be absolutely no spaces between any part of its surface and +the straightedge. A perfect and mathematically level plane surface is +hardly likely ever to be produced. If the stone is almost level, and the +unevennesses do not exceed the thickness of letter-paper, it is quite +sufficient. + +Although this sort of polishing, with two plates at once, is not used +in all lithographies, some preferring to polish with small pieces of +sandstone, I give it here as the best, because it demands little skill +and is quicker, so that one can grind off four stones in the time +required for one under other methods. + +In this matter of smoothness of the stone it is impossible to be too +careful. The beauty of the imprint depends upon it. Errors in the +polishing cause great trouble afterward. Therefore the manager of a +lithography must pay close attention to this work. In the Lithographic +Institute in Berlin the rule has been adopted that no engraver shall +accept a plate that he has not found thoroughly good, under penalty of +reimbursing the printers for all extra trouble and work. + +This first polishing, however, is only the general preparation of the +stone. Afterward they must be polished and prepared especially for each +particular method, as will be explained in the proper place. + + +III + +SORTING AND STORING + +When the plates have been polished, they are cleansed with water and +sorted for their various uses. Now it is easier to see just what quality +the stones have, their defects, and consequently, what work they are +best for. Those not uniform are best for coarse pen work. Those of +uneven coloring, but hard and thick mass, can be used for the finer pen +drawings, for etching and engraving, or for transfer work. For crayon +work the clearest and most evenly colored stones of extreme hardness are +to be selected. + +They can be stored anywhere that is not too damp and not too much +exposed to winter cold. Dry cold does not hurt them; but if they are wet +through and through and then freeze, they will crack. In constant +dampness, too, saltpetre and other salts enter them and they crumble. In +clean water they do not undergo any changes. + +I will describe the storage of etched and designed stones later. + +If the stones are to be used after being stored in any damp place, they +should be kept for several days in a temperate and dry place till they +have dried thoroughly, as otherwise they are not easy to work in any +style. This is not necessary if their place of storage has been +perfectly dry. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +OF INK, CRAYON, ETCHING, AND COLOR + + +I + +CHEMICAL INK + +The first and most necessary material in a stone printery is the +so-called chemical ink, which would better be named fatty or alkaline +ink, since it is a mixture of fatty and resinous materials with alkali. +It is used partly to write or draw directly on the stone, partly to +cover the stone as with an etching surface, and partly to transfer to +the stone from paper. + +The purpose of this ink is, first, to cause a mass of oily, fatty +substances to soak into the pores of the stone and also make certain +portions of its surface fatty; and secondly, to resist acids according +to requirement in such degree that the stone shall remain fat where +needed, that thus the design, applied with this ink, shall be left +untouched by acid. + +I have remarked before that countless different mixtures can be made, +most of which fulfill the purpose. But there enters the consideration +that it must be an ink easy to use, that handsome work may be done by +the artists with perfect ease. + +Various mixtures answer this purpose very well, and I have found +sometimes that men could work better with mixtures made by themselves +than they could with those that I used for my own work. Perhaps this was +a matter of imagination, or the real reason lay in the pen-cutting, it +being well known that one man can use a pen that is absolutely worthless +for another. + +I myself have tested the values of some mixtures so thoroughly that I +can declare almost positively that it will not be easy to find better +ones for any purposes. I will describe these fully. + +First of all, stone-ink is divided into two great classes. One is +thicker, being used for drawing on stone. The other is more fluid, being +used for transfers. + +The following mixtures of the first kind are the best:-- + + (1) White Wax 8 parts + Soap 2 parts + Lampblack 1 part + +This ink does not really serve for writing or drawing on the stone, but +is used mostly for coating those places that are to be protected from +the etching fluid. If this ink is needed in a thickened form, the wax +should be heated in an iron pan till it burns and the combustion should +continue till one half of it is consumed. The longer it burns, the +harder will be the remnant. + + (2) White Wax 12 parts + Tallow (Ox Fats) 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + (3) Wax 12 parts + Shellac 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + (4) Tallow 8 parts + Shellac 8 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + (5) Wax 8 parts + Shellac 4 parts + Mastic 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + (6) Wax 8 parts + Tallow 4 parts + Shellac 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + (7) Wax and Gum quajak 12 parts + Tallow 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampbblack 1 part + +The wax and gum are melted in equal proportions, the undissolved portion +is discarded and of the mixture twelve parts is used as above. + + (8) Wax 6 parts + Shellac 4 parts + Tallow 2 parts + Mastic 3 parts + Venetian turpentine 1 part + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + +There is no important difference between the inks in the seven last +formulas. Those that contain shellac remain fluid a little longer but +are harder to prepare. It is not necessary to be painfully minute about +the proportions of the various materials, providing the proportions of +soap and lampblack be correct. The soap is about one fifth and the +lampblack about one twentieth part of the whole. If too much soap is +used, the ink will dissolve more readily, but the solution will become +slimy more quickly. Too much lampblack would make the ink run. + + +MAKING THE CHEMICAL INK + +In making any of the inks mentioned, first divide the required quantity +of soap into two equal parts. Put one part into an iron pan with the +other substances, and heat till the mass begins to burn. Let it burn +till almost one half is consumed. Then cover the pan with an iron lid, +or place it very carefully into a basin of water to extinguish and cool +the mixture. + +One part of the soap is mixed in at once, that the combustion may make +it mix well with the other substances. But it loses some of its strength +and sates itself with carbonic acid, so that it is not quite so powerful +as before to attack the fats. Therefore a second part is added after the +combustion. Then the complete mixture is heated again, but only to a +degree sufficient to melt the soap. + +Now take up a bit of the mass with a clean knife and see if it is easily +soluble in river or rain water. If the soap was good (something not +always the case), the quantity named in the formulas always suffices. If +it does not contain enough alkali, little pieces of soap must be added +till the mass is soluble. Then the lampblack is added while the mass is +being stirred without cessation. + +The lampblack must be of the finest sort, and should be roasted and +burned in a closed vessel until it ceases to give off any yellow smoke. + +When everything has been stirred till the mass is nearly cold, it is +kneaded into any desired shape, sticks being the best, and so saved for +use. + +The following remarks are to be noted especially:-- + +(1) The soap is to be the ordinary soap made from ox fat and lye. In the +formulas its weight is calculated in fresh form, which, of course, +includes considerable water. If the soap is very dry, less must be used. + +Venetian or vegetable oil soap is not so good because the ink easily +becomes slimy afterward when dissolved in water. It does not resist +acids so well, either. If, however, the other kind is not to be had, or +to be had only in poor quality, the Venetian soap will do. It will be +necessary merely to make frequent fresh solutions in water of the ink. + +(2) Lampblack is not the only substance available for giving color to +the ink. Vermilion, red chalk, indigo, blue lake of logwood, and several +other colors can be used, so long as they do not consist of acids or +other salts, and thus have properties that could alter the nature of the +soap. The finer kinds of ordinary lampblack can be used without burning, +but then a part of the soap always is rendered inactive, because the +lampblack usually contains a considerable quantity of inflammable wood +acid which unites with the alkali, neutralizes it, and thus destroys +its effectiveness against fats. Therefore, if it is not roasted +beforehand, it may be necessary to mix more soap with the ink after it +is made, and this does not completely remedy the trouble. Lampblack can +be purified by rubbing down with strong lye and then boiling in +sufficient water till no trace of alkali remains, if roasting and +burning be undesirable for any reason. + +Better even than this purified lampblack is one that one makes for +himself from ox or other animal fat, from wax, or better still, from a +mixture of ox fat and resin. The fat is melted and poured into an +earthen lamp similar to those used for city lighting, with a cotton +wick. The lamp is lit and placed under a plate of iron or brass, so that +the smoke must settle on it. The plate must be close to the flame. The +soot is scraped off from time to time and dropped into a glass, which is +kept covered. This process continues, the lamp being refilled till one +has the desired quantity. This soot is very fine and bland, and so good +that one can do more with an ounce of it than with three ounces of the +ordinary kind. The ink made from it is extraordinarily fine and good. + +It is to be noted in conclusion that the more soot is used, the blacker +will be the ink, but the coarser will be the work, because the ink will +have the tendency to spread. The less soot is used, the finer will be +the work; but it is not easy then to see what one is doing or to judge +if the design is strong enough. The quantities given in the formulas +appear to me to be the best, especially if the self-manufactured soot is +used. + +(3) To dissolve the ink, rain water or pure soft river water is best. +The rain water must not be very old or stale, otherwise the solution +will get slimy. + +(4) The severe combustion is not vital for making the ink, but helps +very much in making it easy to use. + +(5) When shellac is part of the mixture, it is vital to burn the mass +well, as only thus will shellac dissolve properly. + +Shellac, which is made in China and East India from an insect belonging +to the bee family, will melt under moderate heat, but will not dissolve +in any animal fat or oil unless it has previously lost its inherent +acid, which occurs only under combustion. If shellac is melted with oil +or fat, it covers the bottom of the vessel in the beginning. With heat +increased till it causes combustion, it begins to swell, rises to the +surface, and at last covers the surface in the form of a spongy mass. If +the heat still increases, it begins to dissolve into foam. Then it is +time to remove the mass from the fire and to cover it with a tight lid, +that the flame may be extinguished. + +If shellac has been once melted and has hardened, it dissolves only +slowly even under severe combustion. It is better, therefore, to bring +the other substances to combustion first, and then to mix the shellac in +small portions, which will dissolve much more readily because they will +be attacked by the great heat in the moment of melting and will not have +time to swell first and get hard. + +As soon as the mass has cooled a little, the second part of soap is +added, and the whole heated, without burning, merely enough to melt the +soap. + +(6) None of these mixtures can be kept well any length of time in fluid +form, that is, dissolved in water, because it becomes slimy after a very +few days, sometimes sooner. It can be liquefied again by mixing with +water, but not without affecting its durability. Therefore the ink must +be stored dry, in which form it lasts for years without change. When +required, a small quantity, about the size of two peas, is rubbed down +in a very clean small earthen or porcelain vessel, such as a saucer. +Those mixtures that contain tallow rub the easiest. The others, +containing harder substances, require more pressure. The ink should be +spread evenly over the bottom of the vessel. Then a coffee-spoonful of +rain or other soft water is poured in, and the mixture is rubbed with +the finger till the solution is perfect. Then it is put into a small, +very clean pot of glass or porcelain and is ready for use. + +(7) A great deal depends on the proper quantity of water. A good ink +must be completely dissolved, with no solid particles left. It should be +about as fluid as a good, fat milk or vegetable oil. If it is too thick, +it makes the work difficult. If it is too thin, it will not withstand +the etching fluid. A few experiments will teach the proper proportions. +Even a good ink will make poor lines if it is laid on too thinly and not +firmly enough. This, however, is due to the artist's lack of skill or to +defective pens, of which I will treat hereafter. + +With this quantity of ink it is possible to work for a whole day. Thus +each day fresh ink can be mixed; and it is to be noted that the vessels +must be cleansed scrupulously that no trace of the previous day's ink be +left in them. The ink will dry during the work, and as soon as this +begins to interfere with its use, one or two drops of water will thin it +again sufficiently. + +This is about all that need be said about the chemical fatty or alkaline +stone-ink in general. Particular remarks will be found in the +description of its use for particular methods. + + +II + +HARD BORAX INK + +Besides the inks described, it is well to make the following and keep it +in stock for uses whose great value will be explained later. + + Shellac 4 parts + Borax 1 part + Water 16 parts + +Borax and shellac must be put into a clean pot filled two thirds with +water and boiled for an hour. As the water boils away it must be +replaced. When the shellac has been mostly dissolved, the mass is +removed from the fire, cooled, and filtered through a clean cloth to +separate the undissolved portions of the shellac. + +This solution can be kept for years in a tightly closed glass. To color +it, a portion is to be cooked in a copper or iron ladle till it is thick +as honey. Fine lampblack or vermilion is stirred in till the mass is +thoroughly united. Then water is added, and the composition boiled again +till it is a perfect solution. This black or red ink is first-class and +can be kept well in tightly closed glass. + + +III + +FLUID INK + +Herr Andre, in Offenbach, uses an ink which has the useful property of +remaining good for years in fluid form. I do not find it so good for the +very finest work as those I have described, but for music and script it +is excellent. It consists of:-- + + 12 parts shellac + 4 parts mastic + 1 part pure ox-fat soap + 1 part purified crystallized soda + 1 part lampblack + +This is mixed with water and boiled in a clean vessel, being constantly +stirred till it is dissolved. Then the boiling is continued till the +water has disappeared almost entirely. Fresh water is added and the +boiling continued till everything has dissolved anew. Then the mixture +is filtered through a cloth and kept in a vessel where it is secure +against dust. If it is seen on cooling that it is too thick it can be +thinned easily with water. Also, when it dries during use it can be +liquefied by adding water, unless dust has entered it. + + +IV + +TRANSFER INK + +All the above-named inks are intended for use directly on stone. If it +is desired to write on paper and transfer this writing to the stone, +those inks mostly prove too hard, unless one would use warmed stones, as +described later. This, however, makes added work: therefore, I give here +the recipe for an ink excellent for cold transfers. + + Shellac 3 parts + Wax 1 part + Tallow 6 parts + Mastic 5 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 1 part + +The mode of preparation is exactly like that of the rest. The mass can +be kept only in dried form, not mixed with water. The evidence that this +ink is good for transfer work is that, after it has stood for some days, +it still manifests stickiness when touched with the finger. If the ink +does not transfer well to the stone under moderate pressure, it is too +hard, and can be improved by mixing in a little butter or vegetable oil, +but it is necessary to dissolve the whole mass again over the fire. If +the design squashes under pressure, the ink is too soft. It is necessary +to consider the temperature of the place where it is kept, and even the +time of year, in order to produce the proper consistency of ink for the +best transfer work. + + +V + +HARD ETCHING GROUND + +Certain methods of stone-printing demand, besides the ink, a fatty, +acid-resisting mass to coat the plates. It is either the same as the +material used by copper-plate etchers, or, at least, is very similar to +it. + +Etching Ground for stone is as follows:-- + + Wax 12 parts + Mastic 6 parts + Asphalt 4 parts + Resin 2 parts + Tallow 1 part + +This is melted in an iron pan over a fire hot enough to melt the asphalt +perfectly. Combustion is allowed to ensue till a third of the mixture +has been consumed. When thoroughly cooled, it may be shaped in any +desired form and saved for use. + +A good surface is made also by common wax, boiled and burned till almost +five parts of it have been consumed. + + +VI + +SOFT ETCHING GROUND + +For some processes there is needed an etching ground which has the +property of not coating the entire surface, permitting the etching fluid +to penetrate at many spots uniformly, or, if it resists the etching +fluid, still so easily affected by manipulation that it will admit the +acid according to such manipulation. There are two ways to make it. + + (1) Thick linseed oil varnish 1 part + Tallow 2 parts + (2) Wax 1 part + Tallow 5 parts + Linseed oil varnish 3 parts + +The application will be described in the instructions about aquatints, +etc. + + +VII + +ACID PROOF INK + +So I name a color which has the property of resisting acid when the +stone is inked with it. It is useful in many cases, and even necessary. +It is well, therefore, to make a supply of it. + + 2 parts thick linseed oil varnish + 4 parts tallow + 1 part Venetian turpentine + 1 part wax + +All must be well melted, mixed with four parts lampblack, well rubbed +down and kept in a closed tin vessel. + + +VIII + +CRAYON + +Chemical or fatty crayon is a composition intended to be used on the +stone plate in dry form like Spanish or Parisian chalk. The inks +described previously have the property of soaking into the stone and +making it greasy where applied. The same happens if they are applied +dry, the degree of their penetration and adherence merely being less. + +The mixtures that may be used to make crayons are countless. Wax and +soaps, however, are better than resinous materials. Therefore it is +likely that the compositions here named will be pretty nearly the best. + + (2) Wax 4 parts + Soap 6 parts + Lampblack 2 parts, roasted, or better still, + made as explained before. + +The wax and soap are melted together. The lampblack is added then. All +is rubbed down fine on a hot plate, and then placed on the fire again +till it is fluid once more. Then it is poured on a stone plate coated +with a little oil, so that it forms a cake of about one eighth inch +thickness. When this has cooled a little, it is cut into thin pieces and +put away till needed. + + (2) Wax 8 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 2 parts + +Burn the wax till one half is consumed, then melt the soap with it, and +treat the mixture as before. + + (3) Wax 4 parts + Spermaceti 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 2 parts + +The first three materials are melted together, the lampblack is added, +and then the whole is treated as before. + + (4) Wax 8 parts + Spermaceti 4 parts + Soap 4 parts + Lampblack 2 parts + +The wax is to be half burned away, then the spermaceti and soap are to +be melted into it, and the whole treated as the other formulas. + + (5) Shellac 4 parts + Wax 8 parts + Soap 5 parts + Lampblack 3 parts + +The shellac is to be completely dissolved with the wax by means of +combustion after which the rest of the treatment is the same as before. + + (6) Shellac 4 parts + Wax 8 parts + Tallow 2 parts + Soap 5 parts + Lampblack 3 parts + +The same treatment, except that the tallow is to be mixed in after the +shellac has dissolved. This crayon is a little softer than the others. +The same is true of the following two. + + (7) Wax 8 parts + Tallow 4 parts + Soap 6 parts + Lampblack 3 parts + +Wax, tallow, and soap are melted together and burned till one third of +the mass has been consumed. Then the lampblack is added and the rest of +the process is as before. + + (8) Wax 2 parts + Tallow 6 parts + Mennig 2 parts + Lampblack 2 parts + +Wax, mennig, and lampblack are heated and constantly stirred till the +mennig dissolves in froth and changes from red to brown. Then the +lampblack is rubbed in thoroughly, the whole warmed again properly and +shaped into sticks. + +These are the best compositions, thoroughly tested by me, and it is very +good to make a stock of all or most of them. In the case of the recipes +for chemical ink, the differences are not great, and it is largely a +matter of taste as to which kind one may use. But in the case of the +crayons, each of them produces a different grain which creates a +particular effect; so that by using various kinds of crayon one will +gain greater perfection of work, or, at least, find execution easier +than with only one crayon. Also, they are in proportion to the greater +or lesser roughness of the stones; and the darker shadings are easier to +produce with soft crayons than with hard ones, while the hard ones are +best for fine shading and outlines. + +The lampblack used for crayons must be burned out first, else it will +develop blisters, which is the case also if the composition is poured on +the plates too hot. + +Crayon that contains much shellac is likely to soften in damp air; +therefore it should be kept in tightly closed vessels. + + +IX + +CONCERNING COLOR FOR PRINTING + +The manufacture of printing-ink or color is very difficult and dangerous +on a large scale. I counsel all to take lessons from a book printer when +he makes it. + +The varnish must be prepared in the open, far from buildings, because of +its combustibility. The best utensils and skilled workmen are required, +because otherwise terrible accidents may occur, and even life be lost +through explosion of the copper receptacle. Whoever does not require as +much as one or more hundredweight of varnish in a year, would better buy +it from printers or make only a small quantity, one or two pounds, and +in an open vessel. For this purpose I will describe the process. + +One, or at most two pounds of good old but not rancid linseed oil are +poured into a clean iron pan which has a long, strong handle and is so +large that the oil takes up only one half or, better, one third of the +space. This is heated over a good fire till it burns, which is +facilitated by applying flame to it. Oil that is too new has much water +and other impurities that make it froth and run over. In that case the +oil must be poured into the pan only in small quantities, when one must +take great care to avoid spattering. As soon as the oil burns, the pan +is removed from the fire and placed in a safe spot. If it is hot enough, +it will continue to burn. It must now be stirred from time to time with +an iron rod. Usually the flame increases under this stirring, but sinks +again immediately at its cessation. So long as it does this, there is no +danger that the flame cannot be easily extinguished if need be. But when +it begins to continue burning with a great flame after the stirring +stops, and at the same time to bubble and froth, it is high time to +cover the pan with a close lid and leave it covered till the oil no +longer takes fire when exposed again to the air. Then a dry knife is +introduced and as much oil removed as will adhere to its point. If it +does not permit itself to be pulled into long threads when cool, but is +too thin, it must be heated again until it gets the required +consistency. + +A good varnish dries very readily of itself, and it is not only +unnecessary but inadvisable to mix a drier with it, as varnish so +treated is too likely to off-set on the stone. + +Several strengths of printing-varnish are needed for the various methods +of lithography. Therefore a stock of thin, medium, and thick varnish is +needed. + +In making the thin, the oil has been reduced to about two thirds through +combustion. It is somewhat like fluid honey and does not pull into +threads. + +Only a little more than half the oil is left in the case of medium +varnish. It is thick as old honey and can be pulled into threads a foot +long. + +In the thick varnish the mass is not much less, but it can be pulled +into threads of a yard in length; and further boiling makes it thick and +tough like gum elastic. In the latter case it can be used with advantage +when rubbed down with oil and properly thinned. But as soon as it has +obtained the last-mentioned degree of thickness and toughness, it must +be cooled quickly, for then it is not far from hardening completely and +becoming worthless. In the beginning it requires a long while for the +oil to reach the first degree of thickness, an hour or more for a pound. +But after that period the thickening progresses rapidly, so that a +quarter of the time will bring it to the point of total toughness. + +To make printing color of the varnish, the proper amount of lampblack +must be mixed in. The roasted or burned-out is best in this also, +because the ordinary lampblack delays the drying and turns yellow with +time. + +The more lampblack is mixed in, and the more thoroughly they are +combined by rubbing down, the better will be the color. But lampblack +must not be added in such quantities that the color becomes dough-like. + +In describing the various styles of printing I will describe the best +printing-inks also. I will merely make the general note here that +designs on stone take the ink best when it is thin and fluid, but that +there is less danger of off-set on the parts of the stone that are to +remain white, if the ink is tougher or contains more lampblack. + +Too much lampblack and too tough a varnish endanger the finer strokes +and dots, however, so that they will not take ink, being, as +lithographers say, rubbed out. The rubbing or grinding effect of too +tough an ink is like that of pumice or other grinding material. With +tougher varnish, clearer imprints can be made and they do not become +yellow easily. But the inking is more difficult and demands greater +skill, as well as heavier pressure in the press. + +The varnish can be mixed not only with lampblack but with many other +colors, which will be described when I reach color printing in this +essay. Sometimes black lacquer is used with advantage instead of +lampblack; and Frankfurter black is successful in the intaglio and +aquatint methods. + + +X + +RUBBING-UP INK + +It happens often that weak parts of a design cannot withstand the +etching fluid and are cut away; also, that fine lines are rubbed away +through unskilled treatment during printing. Then frequently a very +simple remedy is to ink the plate with the so-called rubbing-up ink. + +This color consists of a thin varnish in which a portion of litharge of +silver or mennig or white lead has been dissolved thoroughly over the +fire, and a proper amount of lampblack added. Often it is good to add +some finely powdered sand or powdered pumice stone. + +To prepare this, a portion of the thinnest varnish is heated in a pan +till it burns. Then about an ounce of finely powdered mennig (or another +lead oxide) is stirred in to each sixteen ounces of varnish till all is +thoroughly mixed. + +A rubbing-up ink can be made also by mixing common printer's ink with +vegetable oil, tallow, and a very little soap. + +Each of these colors adheres to all those places that have a trace of +fat and thus gradually makes faint places in a design receptive again. + +Later I will describe how to use care in applying this color, so that +the entire stone shall not be smutted and spoiled. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CONCERNING ACIDS AND OTHER MATERIALS + + +I + +GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS + +Probably most lithographers still believe, as I did once, that the +etching with acids prepares the stone, and that the succeeding +application of gum merely increases this preparation. Countless +experiments have taught me that the exact reverse is true. Gum arabic +and a few other similar bodies are the true factors in preparation, and +the acids simply make the stone more receptive for them. Only sulphuric +acid, which changes the surface of the stone into gypsum, prepares it +without gum; but this is available only for a few intaglio methods. + +The stone used for lithography consists mostly of limestone sated with +carbonic acid. Most acids, and even the salts, possess more affinity for +limestone than the carbonic acid, which latter is freed and escapes in +gaseous form as soon as another acid touches the stone. If aquafortis, +muriatic acid, vinegar, etc., is poured on the stone, there rise a +number of air blisters, which are nothing except the escaping carbonic +acid, and the applied fluid seems to boil, in degree according to its +strength. The boiling and bubbling last till the fluid has sated itself +with lime, after which it becomes still, and is impotent for further +etching. + +The direct effect is the solution and destruction of parts of the +surface of the stone. If it has been coated in parts with a fatty +substance that resists the etching fluid, the places so coated are left +untouched, so that, when the stone is cleaned, all the fat-coated lines +and dots are in relief. + +If the stone is coated with fatty matter, but not so thickly that the +acid is entirely resisted, it will pierce the covering and eat away more +or less of the stone. If the etching is continued or if the acid is +strong, the fatty coat will be destroyed entirely, the surface of the +stone will be clean, and ready for the ensuing preparation. The +preparation of the stone for pen drawings with oil or soap-water and +several aquatint methods, is based on this principle, that a very thin +coating of grease can be etched away partly or wholly, at will. + +After eating away the surface of the stone the acids have the property +of giving it a fine polish. + +Therefore if the stone has been covered with a design, and then etched +with an acid, it could be inked and printed many times, as long as it is +kept properly dampened and not too much pressure is used in applying the +ink. However, this could be done also with a thoroughly clean stone, +using only water, though the polish obtained from etching makes it much +easier. But this apparent preparation is not by any means sufficient to +print with certainty; and it becomes perfect only if the stone is coated +with a solution of gum arabic in water after being etched. If a plate +that has been merely etched and not treated with gum becomes dry during +printing, or even if too much pressure be used in applying ink or in +cleaning with the more or less smutty cleaning rags, it generally takes +color and smut which are extremely hard to remove. + +We may assume, therefore, that the acids have the following effects on +the stone:-- + +(1) They will not attack the parts coated with grease. + +(2) They will penetrate more or less if the fatty coating is only thin. + +(3) Where they touch the stone they dissolve it and eat it away. + +(4) They give it a polish that facilitates printing. This polish +disappears after a time on account of the cleaning with sponge or rag, +but is replaced by a new polish produced by this very means. + +(5) They do not prevent the adherence of fatty material later, as soon +as the stone is dry, for which reason the parts prepared in the +beginning with acid and gum arabic must be prepared again by renewed +etching, to take the ink. + +(6) Finally the acids have the property of giving to prepared stones +that have been used for impressions, a rough surface instead of a polish +when they are applied again, because they attack some parts more than +others, producing little pores with sharp edges which catch the ink. +This fact, as I will show more clearly later, makes necessary +extraordinary care if one wishes to clean prepared plates or correct +defects with new etching, because unskilled handling will often make +them worse. + + +II + +THE ACIDS SPECIFICALLY + +Nitric acid or aquafortis, muriatic acid, vinegar, tartaric acid, and +acid of wood sorrel, all have nearly similar effects, but aquafortis and +muriatic acid are used because of their greater cheapness. + +Oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid, very much diluted with water, is +available for light but not for extensive etching, because it transforms +the surface of the stone into gypsum and deposits it again, so that +after that the acid cannot penetrate at all, or only partially. If a +part of vitriol, say diluted with twelve parts of water, is poured on a +cleanly ground stone, there ensues a violent action which, however, is +only brief. It might be supposed that the acid is sated with lime when +it ceases to act, but if it is moved to another part of the stone it +etches anew. + +If the acid is washed from the stone and a woolen rag be used to rub it +after it is dry, it takes on a mirror-like polish. In this dry condition +it can be cleansed of color as easily as a copper plate, and if a stone +thus polished is engraved with a steel tool, it is possible to make +several impressions from it just as from copper. The polish is not +lasting, however, because the skin of gypsum is very thin. But it is a +useful method if it is desired to engrave the stone and ink it +frequently to see the effect. + +All the acids named have the property, previously mentioned, of etching +the stone rough if it has been prepared before or used for impressions. +It seems that the gum unites more strongly with some parts of the stone +than with others, admitting the acid in these latter places. Possibly, +also, the bubbles caused by etching may help to produce this roughness +by hindering the uniform action of the acid. This seems to be confirmed +by the fact that an etched stone, prepared with gum, does not get nearly +so rough when etched again with very weak acid as it does when stronger +fluid is used. + +In still greater degree does this appear when using citric acid or a +solution of alum in water. Take a finely ground stone, pour diluted +aquafortis over it, prepare it with the gum solution, and then dry it +thoroughly with a clean rag. Now pour a little citric acid or alum +solution on parts of it and let it dry. Then paint the parts so treated +with a fat or printing-ink. If the color is rubbed off with a wet rag, +it will be seen that the stone has become white again in all places +except those where the citric acid or alum are. Those parts will have +taken the color exactly as if they had been painted with chemical ink. +The same occurs when applying other acids, but in a lesser degree. This +effect will be mentioned in future for many methods. Here I will remark +only:-- + +It happens often that the stone takes color on places where it should +remain clean. This is caused by clumsy handling, unclean rags, etc., and +occurs particularly at the ends, because they dry first and are more +exposed to careless manipulation. These smutted places usually can be +cleansed with a clean woolen rag and gum solution or even with a wetted +clean finger. But sometimes the defect will not yield so easily, +especially if the printing-color is soft. Then the only remedy is to +prepare the stone over again, and that is the time when one must have +regard to the roughening that ensues, if the stone is not to be rendered +worse instead of better. + +Therefore it is best in such cases to polish the ends of the stone with +pumice stone till all dirt is gone, and then to etch with diluted acid +and prepare anew with gum arabic. + +To be sure, it is possible to dip a clean woolen rag in strong, even +pure acid, and thus etch dirt away from the ends; but great care is +necessary that no drop may touch the design, as the ink that adheres to +the latter is not strong enough to resist the acid. In thus cleansing +the plate, the roughening is etched away by the violent action, and a +new polish is obtained. + +Still, in either method of cleaning dirty places, great care must be +taken not to touch roughly, press, or rub with dirty fatty rags or with +dirty, fatty fingers before the gum arabic is on it. The acid eats away +all the previous material used in preparation, and leaves the plate +practically in its clean, natural state. Consequently it will take on +grease readily, and the application of gum is essential. + +It is feasible to mix the gum directly with the acid solution, but this +mixture must be made fresh again each day, as otherwise it loses much of +its value. + +The following points are important:-- + +_First_: If the grease remain long on a stone that, though prepared, has +lost its coating of gum, it will penetrate the surface, and according to +its amount and fluidity, will sink more or less into the stone, which +will retain its polish on the surface but become more inclined to take +dirt. It is better, therefore, to leave a small amount of gum coating on +the stone in such cases. + +_Second_: As only the extreme outer surface of the stone is prepared by +the gum, and this is rubbed away gradually by wiping during the +printing, so in the same proportion of wear and tear the original +preparation would become lost, if it were not renewed from time to time, +that is, if the stone were not again coated with gum. Twice a day, +however, is enough. + +_Third_: Because of this susceptibility of the surface to injury, a +prepared stone must not be rubbed strongly with fatty material, because +this damages the surface and the stone would readily soak up the fat. + +_Fourth_: If a prepared plate is totally denuded of gum, and has been +dry for a time, especially if it has already lost a part of the +preparation through printing, it will incline very much to take color +and smut. Therefore, when it is necessary to stop printing, it is well +to coat the plate at once with gum, but only with a very thin coat. If +this has not been done, and it is desired to use the plate again, great +care must be taken to wet it with the very purest water, or, better +still, with diluted etching fluid, for instance one part aquafortis to +five hundred parts of water; and then to coat it with gum. To neglect +this precaution may cause the total ruin of the plate. For safe-keeping +of the plates, if they are to be used again for printing, the coating +with gum is, therefore, absolutely necessary. + +_Fifth_: Gum can prepare only a thoroughly clean stone or one properly +etched. Therefore, if the surface of the stone has even the least trace +of grease, it will take color, no matter how thickly it may be coated +with gum. On this fact is based the method of transferring copper-plate +impressions and other printed subjects, as will be described later. + +_Sixth_: If the stone has had fat on its surface, and this fat has been +etched away again, the power of the gum asserts itself, and the stone +will be thoroughly prepared even if the fat has soaked considerably into +the body of the stone. + +_Seventh_: Mere grinding of the stone is not sufficient to attain a +complete preparation through gum alone. Therefore, if an otherwise clean +stone has some places after grinding where the fat has soaked in deeply, +and one coats it with gum, the stone will take color after a time on +these fatty places, as soon as the inked rag has been rubbed over the +stone many times. However, this taking-on of color is only slight if the +gum solution is thick, and long-continued cleaning will transform it +into complete preparation. + +_Eighth_: From both preceding observations we learn:-- + +Printing forces the color to sink considerably into the stone. If such a +stone is required for new designs, it is not practicable to grind it so +much that all the fatty places can be ground away. Therefore it is +ground only till it is thoroughly even again. Then it must be well +etched; otherwise it may happen that in printing the surface will rub +away and the entire previous writing or design will appear again, a +trouble hardly to be remedied. + +If the stone is dirty in the middle, it can be cleaned in many cases by +pouring on a few drops of oil of turpentine and the same quantity of gum +solution, and rubbing it clean with a woolen rag. Then it must be washed +with a wet sponge, after which it is inked. If it has not lost the smut, +the only remedy is new preparation. As this must be done differently for +each different lithographic style, it will be described in its place. + +If fat has soaked well into the stone in places where it is not desired, +it is always very difficult to remove it without injuring adjoining +parts. Correction of crayon work, if it has been etched and used for +printing, is especially difficult. It is true that the defective parts +can be cut out easily with a sharp instrument, but then these places +must be prepared again. If weak etching fluid is used, it will not +suffice. If strong fluid is used, the fine parts are easily attacked, +and at the same time the surface will become roughened so that the stone +often blackens entirely in the corrected parts. To avoid this trouble, +and to facilitate corrections, I made many experiments to discover an +acid composition that should prepare a stone anew and perfectly and yet +not roughen the surface. I found the best material in phosphoric acid, +especially when mixed with finely crushed nutgall. + +Water in which phosphorus has been kept a long time becomes acid and +etches the stone. The acid can be obtained more quickly by burning the +phosphorus and catching the smoke. This method is somewhat expensive, +but one does not need much, as it is used only for correcting defects. + +If a few drops of aquafortis or other acid are poured on a clean ground +stone, it will be etched. Now wipe the etching fluid off clean and coat +the plate with soap-water or chemical ink. As soon as it is dry, clean +it of the fatty coating with a few drops of oil of turpentine. If it is +dampened then with water and inked, it will take color everywhere, even +at the etched places. If gum is mixed with the acid, the same result +occurs, though the stone has been thoroughly prepared where this mixture +touched it. From this it appears that soap-water (and the alkalis in +general) can destroy the preparation given to the stone and make it +receptive again to fats. It is different if phosphoric acid is used. +This makes a preparation that can be destroyed only by very frequent +coating of soapy water. + +Still more durable and resistant to soap is the preparation if fine +nutgall is mixed with the phosphoric acid and water solution. Nutgall +gives even the other acids the property of resisting soap more than +ordinarily. The study of this effect led me to invent the method of +transforming a relief design into intaglio. Also, it is only by the use +of phosphoric acid that one can do thoroughly that style of lithographic +work which resembles the scraped style in copper, or the so-called black +art. + + +III + +GUM AS THE REAL PREPARATION + +If a cleanly polished plate is sprinkled with a few drops of gum arabic +dissolved in water, the sprinkled places will take no color so long as +they are wet. When they dry, color will adhere, but can be washed away +easily with a wet sponge. This shows that the gum alone will prepare the +stone. The preparation will become more durable, however, if the stone +is etched first. + +In both cases, however, the preparation extends only over the outermost +surface of the stone, penetrating only slightly, so that the least +injury will make it take color as soon as it is dry. On this fact is +founded the intaglio style of lithography. Therefore, if a clean ground +stone is etched, then prepared with gum and dried clean, it can be +coated with printing-ink or other fat substance (excepting soap and all +alkaline compositions), and there will be no danger that it will lose +its preparation. The thicker the gum coating, the less can the fat +penetrate. + +In printing, during which the stone must be kept wet, only the original +coating of gum is necessary; but as the surface thus prepared soon +diminishes under the frequent wiping, it is necessary in some forms of +work to mix gum with the printing-color or with the water used to dampen +the stone. More of this will be explained in the proper place. + +Here I will add only that the domestic gum of cherry and plum trees is +good for preparing stones some years and worthless in others, when it +cannot be dissolved in water. In possessing the properties for preparing +stone, the juice of many plants and fruits, sugar, and most mucous +materials of the vegetable and animal kingdom, such as white of egg, +approach gum arabic more or less. The latter, however, is to be +preferred because of its reliability. + + +IV + +CONCERNING PARTIAL PREPARATION + +Here I impart my experiences in regard to an astonishing phenomenon that +occurs often in lithography and gives much trouble, especially to +beginners. It is the so-called imperfect or semi-preparation, wherein +the stone betrays a strong inclination to take color, and still will not +do it or will do it only partially. + +(_a_) If a cleanly ground stone is marked with chemical ink, etched, and +prepared, the marked places will take the printing-color and produce +impressions. If, after the stone is inked, one rubs strongly with the +wetted finger, the color can be wiped from the design, especially if it +has not been on the stone long and has been standing in a damp place. A +place whence the color thus has been removed does not take it readily +when the inking-roller is applied again; and the reluctance is the +greater in proportion to the length and violence of the rubbing and the +toughness of the printing-color. The stone shows clearly the traces of +the penetrating fat; indeed, if the stone is rubbed with a wet linen rag +that is inky from previous use, the design will reappear in black. But +as soon as the roller is used, instead of inking these places, it takes +the color off; and whatever means may be tried to make the defective +places receptive again to color, it remains difficult, often impossible. + +What has happened is that the wet rubbing has cleansed the surface of +the stone of all its fat and at the same time has polished it and made +it slippery. It is a sort of preparation; and though the fat of the ink +has penetrated into the interior of the stone, the accidental +preparation still offers an obstacle which prevents the printing-ink +from adhering to the fat in those places. As I will show, these places +can be prepared again thoroughly. + +(_b_) Another case is when the design is too weak, and has been attacked +by the etching-fluid too powerfully, though without being destroyed. +Here the printing-color usually is removed by the ink-roller, even +though it adheres pretty well when being wiped. + +(_c_) A third kind of imperfect preparation is when a stone inclines to +take color or smut on prepared places. This happens sometimes in part, +sometimes over the whole surface, which latter effect is described by +saying that the stone has acquired a tone. + +The cause of this phenomenon may be one of many. It is either due to the +appearance of a fat that has been in the stone, or to the fact that +unskilled manipulation has destroyed the preparation partially. + +Thence follow several observations again:-- + +(1) Mere wiping with clean water will give the stone a sort of +preparation if the material used for wiping is suitable. This +preparation is incomplete, but can be transformed very easily into a +complete one. This incomplete preparation is according to the strength +with which the rubbing material affects the stone. Linen and cotton +stuffs have the least effect. More potent are animal wools and hair, +silk or wet leather. The printing-color itself has a preparing property +if it is made of very tough varnish or contains much lampblack. This +effect is increased if Frankfurter black or powdered charcoal is mixed +with the color, and the stone is kept very wet. + +(2) The partial preparation is produced more quickly and made more +durable if the water contains gum or gummy stuffs. + +(3) The operation is still quicker if a weak etching fluid is used. A +stronger fluid would make the preparation a complete one, but would also +injure the good spots. Then again one must remember that the second +etching produces the roughness discussed already. + +(4) Grinding with sand, pumice, and other grinding materials also +produces partial preparation, which is transformed easily into complete +preparation by applying gum. Here, however, the circumstance is +noteworthy that a plate that has been blemished by rubbing can be made +to do the reverse, namely, to take color, by means of light grinding +with water. Assume, for instance, that a plate designed and prepared +in relief style has been spoiled by handling so that the design refuses +to take color. It is necessary merely to rub it all over with water +and fine sand or to clean it with oil of turpentine so that all +printing-color is removed from the surface. Then place it in a +receptacle containing a great deal of very clean water. If it is ground +delicately then with a very clean pumice stone, without destroying the +traces of the fatty material that has soaked in, it can be brought to +take color again as well as ever. Take a little of the before-mentioned +acid-proof ink, smear it on the color-stone, and apply a clean linen or +cotton rag. Wipe the stone that is lying in the water very gently with +this rag, and the color will fix itself bit by bit on all parts of the +design, even if the entire relief produced by the etching should have +been ground away. It is necessary only that the fat shall have soaked in +sufficiently; and this usually is produced soon enough by the printing. +After the plate has accepted color completely, it is to be completely +prepared by light etching and with gum, and then it will take the color +properly from the ink-roller. + +If this experiment is to succeed, it is to be noted that in grinding +there must be no trace of fat on the stone or the pumice, because the +rubbing during grinding might transfer this greasiness to those parts of +the stone that are to remain white. Care must be taken, also, not to +press too hard in applying the etching color, because the places that +have been cleansed of all gum by the water, and thus are inclined to +accept color, will smut easily. Finally, the stone must not be permitted +to dry before it is fully prepared again by etching and gum coating, for +it might easily become entirely smutted and useless. + +This experiment leads to the conclusion, which has been proved correct +in many ways, that a soft rubbing in clean water with printing-color, +especially if it contains tallow, is very well adapted for transforming +the incomplete preparation into a condition of accepting fat perfectly, +and of giving injured places new potency. Also, that the contrary +effect can be produced by violent rubbing, especially with wool, +leather, or tough colors, because this prepares the wet stone and makes +it useless for accepting fat. The first method may be used with +advantage, therefore, for reëstablishing a vanished design. The second +method is good for getting rid of smut. If the smut has occurred in +previously clean and thoroughly prepared places, it can be destroyed +entirely. But if it is only that the deeper fat has lost its superficial +polish, and has appeared again, the stone will be only partially +prepared by this last method and must be newly prepared on the desired +places with weak etching-fluid and gum, for durability's sake. It is +easy to see how important this circumstance is. With the one and the +same process in various degrees of manipulation, opposite results can be +produced; and I may declare that only he is to be termed a perfect +lithographer who has exact knowledge of this especial matter. + +(5) It has been mentioned already that every sort of preparation can be +destroyed by a renewed etching, and particularly with alum and citric +acid. The same is caused by soap and alkaline compositions; therefore +also by chemical ink if it contains a sufficient amount of alkali. + +(6) Simply letting the stone plate rest produces important, often +contradictory, phenomena. If smeared parts refuse color, clean water +poured over these places runs from them as quickly as it does from the +fatty parts. This is the surest sign that they still have fat, though it +is not sufficient to attract the color. If such a stone is permitted to +lie idle a few days, even if coated with gum, it will often take the +color thereafter. On the contrary, if a stone plate has taken on color +at the well-prepared places (usually readily removable by wiping with +oil of turpentine and gum solution, but generally reappearing), it need +merely be inked after such cleansing, coated with gum and left idle, and +in a few days it loses the readiness to take dirt. + +The cause of both phenomena is that in the first case the fats that lie +deep gradually work upward into the partly prepared surface and +practically reëstablish their interrupted communication with the +printing-color. In the second case, the small quantity of fat that has +adhered merely to the surface has penetrated into the stone, so that it +loses its effectiveness. Added to this, in the latter case, is the fact +that the linseed oil, and the varnish prepared from it, acquire the +property of losing their fats when they are dried in the air, and thus +will take color poorly or not at all. This observation led to the +invention of an artificial stone or stone-paper. + +(7) In contrast with preparation by wet wiping there is the wiping with +dry and fatty bodies, which produces full acceptance of color on the +partially prepared plate, while in the case of the fully prepared plate +there occurs at least partial color acceptance or semi-preparation. As +every property of the stone can be used for good impressions just as +well as it serves in unskilled hands to ruin a design, so in this case; +the lost parts can be restored through proper use of rubbing with a dry, +fatty substance, and the clean, prepared portions of the plate can be +smutted. There will be more about this. + + +V + +SHORT REVIEW OF THE PRECEDING + +As the entire art of stone-printing depends on proper preparation, it +will not be out of place to express my views as to the nature of the +process. This will serve also as recapitulation. + +(1) Limestone has countless little pores. These can soak up fatty as +well as watery substances. + +(2) These can adhere easily to the limestone particles, but are easily +separated again, as long as the nature of the stone is not altered. This +alteration is produced most readily by sulphuric acid, tartaric acid and +phosphoric acid. + +(3) Water evaporates from the pores as the stone dries. Gum and other +slimy substances do not. + +(4) Fats soak into the stone more and more. There is no means of +destroying them except to remove the limestone itself by grinding or +etching. + +(5) Printing-color cannot adhere to the stone so long as a proper amount +of moisture forms a wall between it and the stone. Under any +circumstances it adheres only poorly to the lime particles, and assumes +great power of adherence only when the pores of the stone are filled +with fat, which are pinched in them, so to speak, and with which the +printing-color strives to unite because of mutual affinity. + +(6) This stronger adherence (or complete color reception) thus happens +only when the outer color can reach and touch the inner fat. If the +latter is deep in the stone, so that the communication is broken, it +becomes difficult and the communication must be restored. + +(7) This interruption occurs either if the color is rubbed away by force +and with help of moisture, or if a substance that closes the pores +unites with the stone. + +(8) The rougher, sharper, and more angular the pores are, the more +readily does the color find adhering points. It adheres at first to the +surface by virtue of merely mechanical conditions. But when the moisture +which hinders a complete union and greater penetration has dried, the +color begins to penetrate deeper into the stone and to fill its pores. +The most color will always adhere to rough spots. Therefore, it happens +often, in some styles of work, that a stone too highly polished will +seem perfectly black when inked, and still fail to yield a strong +impression. For the same reason the impressions from soft stones usually +are the stronger, especially if the mode of printing demands the use of +thin printing-color. + +(9) The effect of the etching fluid is in part a greater polishing of +the surface, in part a filling of pores. Both make the stone reluctant +to take color. + +(10) If the stone has been prepared and polished already, it can be made +rough again and receptive to color by being reëtched. At the same time +the prepared surface can be destroyed by etching, and a communication +established with the fat lying in the interior. The result is according +to the manipulation. + +So much in general. In describing the various styles I will make +everything clearer. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE NECESSARY TOOLS AND APPLIANCES + +In lithography there is use for many various tools and utensils. I will +mention here merely those that are made primarily and exclusively for +the art. + + +I + +CONCERNING STEEL PENS + +One of the most necessary tools of lithography is the steel pen for +writing and drawing on the stone. Simple as its manufacture is in +principle, it demands much care and skill. The beauty of the work +depends largely on a good and well-cut pen. The best artist, using the +best chemical ink on a perfectly prepared plate, cannot do good work +unless the pen is good and cut to suit his hand. Therefore it is +necessary to learn how to make these pens, because, apart from their +costliness, it is difficult to get a suitable one from a worker in +steel. The ordinary steel pens that can be bought ready-made from +stationers are fairly available for coarser writing and drawing; but for +better work one must have much finer pens. + +Following is the way to make them:-- + +Take the spring of a pocket watch, not too small nor too broad; one and +a half to two lines in breadth is best. Clean off all fat by polishing +with sand or chalk. Lay it in a glass or porcelain vessel, and cover it +with a solution of aquafortis and water in equal parts. Let the acid +etch the steel till it has lost about three fourths of its thickness, +and has become as pliable as a similar strip of letter-paper. From time +to time the steel must be removed from the fluid and dried with tissue +paper. This produces uniformity of etching. The steel rarely is quite +uniform, and it has happened to me often that it is attacked unequally +and that holes are eaten into it before it has been etched away +sufficiently. That this, however, is due mainly to the quality of the +acid, I learned because I found that the same steel would be attacked +clean and uniformly as soon as I obtained aquafortis from some other +source. + +A pen is poorly etched if it has many elevated points or pits and holes. +The former appears to result from insufficient cleansing, the latter is +due to the quality of the acid. + +Oil of vitriol diluted with water, or nitric acid can be used. + +Those who have a very light touch may etch their pens to great thinness, +and will be enabled to do very delicate work. For a heavy touch they +must be firmer, otherwise fine strokes will look shaky. + +When the steel is thin enough, it is removed and cleansed with fine sand +that it may not become rusty in future. Then it is cut into pieces two +inches long with good English shears. Now these must be shaped +half-round. To do this, lay them on a flat stone and beat them +lengthwise till they bend, using a small watchmaker's hammer, whose +faces are pretty thin but well rounded. Two or three sheets of paper +laid under the steel facilitate the work. + +Another way to give it the half-round form is to file a groove into a +stone, giving it the exact shape the pen is to have. Into this groove +lay the piece of steel, put in a drop of vegetable oil, and polish with +a steel instrument whose end resembles a broken but well-rounded nail. +Use sufficient pressure, and the steel will gradually assume the desired +shape. + +Either of these methods may be used, according to preference. It is to +be noted that the degree of roundness depends on the artist's need, one +finding a well-rounded pen better, another preferring one not so +well-rounded. The less the pen is rounded, the more it will resemble a +brush when used, but the points will not spread so well without +considerable pressure. The more they are hollowed, the stiffer are the +pens and the more easily will the points spread when pressed. + +After the pen is curved, it must be cut. With small, well-sharpened +scissors cut a slit about one line in length into one end. Then cut away +from the two sides as much as necessary till the point is sufficiently +fine. Do not cut away too much at once, as the pen bends easily and then +must be straightened out again, which demands especial skill. It is +well to do the cutting from the point toward the sides. + +A good pen must have both points very uniform, so that they touch +perfectly and lie on the stone evenly in the position given them by the +hand when working. The cutting alone will do this, but a small, very +fine whetstone may be used to aid. + +A newly cut pen is somewhat rough at times and cuts into the stone, thus +gathering powder that hinders the work. This defect generally cures +itself after a few strokes on the stone. Beginners generally spoil their +pens by bending them every few moments. Then they must be straightened +out, which demands practice and judgment. It cannot be described, +because the bending may assume a thousand shapes. It may be mentioned, +however, that the points must always touch, but must under no +circumstances interfere, one being forced behind the other. It is good, +sometimes, if one can see through the slit when looking backward from +the point. Some even cut a tiny bit out of the middle for this purpose, +but that demands great skill and extremely good scissors, as otherwise +the opening will be too large, which will spoil the pen entirely. + +The ordinary drawing-pens, which can be loosened or tightened with +screws, can be used very readily for drawing lines, if their points are +made from very good steel that can be ground very fine and thin. +However, for much line-work, for instance the background of a picture +which consists of lines hatched crosswise, it is better to use the other +pens. The ordinary drawing-pens are too likely to catch a little dust or +dirt between their points, and then will spoil the lines. + +Of all work of the pen style in lithography, the most difficult is to +draw very fine and even lines with a ruler. I have succeeded best by +using a pen previously so cut or ground that both points touched in the +position in which I was accustomed to hold the pen when guiding it with +the ruler. It is evident that the pen must be held to the ruler on its +side, so that the groove that contains the ink does not point in the +direction of the ruler, but away from it. It is well if there is a tiny +space in the slit, as it helps the free supply of ink. + + +II + +CONCERNING BRUSHES + +Brushes are used for various purposes, as to prepare the plates, +cleanse, etch, etc. Here, however, we speak chiefly of the small brushes +required for writing and designing. For this are used the very smallest +and best miniature brushes, and they must be especially treated. + +If it is desired that the brush make thicker strokes under pressure, the +ordinary condition of it, in which all the bristles come to a point, is +quite sufficient. But it is very difficult to lay on strokes of uniform +thickness with them. Press the brush on the table, spread the bristles +fanwise with a knife and cut away from each side about a half-line deep. +Turn the pencil to the other side, stroke it again to spread it, and cut +the same amount as before from each side. Continue this till there +remain only ten or twelve bristles of the original length in the brush. +Then cut these even at the ends. These should not be altogether the +middle ones if the pencil is to be first-class. Neither should they be +too far apart. They should hang together well when the brush is dipped +into the ink, but not so closely that they will not let the ink pass +well. With a brush successfully trimmed thus, the handsomest drawings, +resembling copper plate, can be done with ease. + +For coarser strokes, coarser brushes are needed. More bristles are +permitted to remain in them. + + +III + +CONCERNING ENGRAVING NEEDLES + +These serve for the intaglio process, to draw into the stone, and must +be of the best and hardest steel. In Munich there are also used the +little five-angled watchmakers' borers, which are glued between two +pieces of wood planed round in form of a pencil and so cut at the end +that only a bit of the tool is visible. In using very thin needles one +has the advantage that they are ground and sharpened easily. + +For coarser strokes, coarser needles are needed. For fine strokes, +especially if they are to go in all directions, the needles are best +ground perfectly round. + + +IV + +CONCERNING THE DRAWING-MACHINE + +To transfer drawings very accurately and reversed on the stone, which is +necessary especially in the case of charts and plans, a pantograph is +used in Munich, which is so arranged that the stone is upside down and +elevated. The inscribing-needle is just opposite the one that is managed +by the hand, and when one follows the lines of the original exactly, +there results a perfect but reversed copy on the stone. Such +drawing-machines can be obtained from Herr Liebherr and Company in +Munich. This skilled mechanician also makes a sort of pantograph of his +own invention, with which drawings can be transferred to stone, reversed +or otherwise, and in any desired proportion. Pictures of such machines +may be obtained from him. + + +V + +CONCERNING OTHER APPLIANCES + +These are: a grinding-table, an etching-trough, some rulers, a +writing-table, some music-writing pens and rastrums for those who wish +to print music, small brush for spatter-work, a wiping-machine for the +wiping method, several rollers and balls for inking, and some presses +for wetting and pressing the paper. + +Any firm table may be used for grinding, but it is better to have one +made heavy enough to resist the strain of the powerful friction, and so +made that the stones can be fastened on it readily. If this work is done +in a room, it must have a depression in the middle and a hole, that the +water may run off into a receptacle. Along the sides should be a low +rim, that the sand and dust may not drip all over the floor. + +The etching-trough is a square, well-pitched box whose bottom is +depressed toward the middle, that the etching fluid may gather there and +run through a hole into a receptacle, so that it can be poured over the +stone again. The trough must be large enough to accommodate the stones +easily. These must not, however, touch the bottom, but must rest on +little pieces of wood or cross-pieces. + +Besides the ordinary rulers, a large, broad one is required, about three +to four feet long, five inches wide, and so shaped that on one side it +is one-half inch thick, on the other only two lines thick. On this +latter side a strip of pear wood must be glued and very truly planed +off. Thus it can be used for drawing lines, although the real purpose of +this ruler is only for supporting the hands when working on stone, that +they may not touch the prepared surface. + +If the work-table is made with high pieces at the ends so that the ruler +can rest on them without touching the stone, no ruler supports are +required. Otherwise one must have these two pieces, a little higher than +the stone, so that the ruler may rest on them. + +A specially made work-table has another advantage. In the middle there +can be a turntable on which the stone rests, so that it can be moved +easily into any position, something that is very difficult with large +stones without this arrangement. + +Music-writing pens are brass or silver tubes which have the shape of +musical notes underneath, and which take up such a quantity of chemical +ink that one can make about twenty notes without re-dipping. That they +shall not take up too much ink, a fine wire is fastened in the centre. +These instruments must be very exactly ground and their use demands some +skill if the notes are to be uniform. + +Instead of this instrument a piece of wood may be used, but this must be +inked anew for each note. To avoid dipping too deep, it is best to +spread some ink on a little stone and ink the instrument from this. It +must be wetted in the beginning, that the ink may be sucked up about +three lines high. After that the ink on the stone need merely be touched +with it, and this makes the work very uniform. Beginners find this easy +to use. But one works more swiftly with the other. + +Of the rastrums, there is nothing to say except that they are of steel +and very even at the ends so that they touch the stone in all places. +They serve to draw the five lines for music. For making the broad +strokes for notes, one can use coarse drawing-pens, or coarsely cut +steel pens; but the best are those adjustable drawing-pens that are made +from three blades. + +The brush for spatter-work, the wiping-machine, and the dauber will be +described in the description of the styles of work for which they are +used. + +Ink-rollers and balls are for laying on the printing-color. The latter +are made from soft leather, stuffed with horsehair, like the ordinary +book-printer's balls. The former are wooden cylinders with thin handles, +of any requisite length and about four to five inches thick. They are +wound with two or three thicknesses of woolen cloth and then covered +very firmly and evenly with leather. Usually there is used sheep's +leather from which the grease has not been entirely removed. Calfskin, +worked white, is good and more durable. Dogskin is considered best. Some +printers use soft red calfskin, turning the inner side out. The leather +must not be stitched with linen but with silk thread, because linen does +not take the ink as well as leather and silk do. The leather must be +dampened when being drawn over the cylinder. + +A fair stock of these rollers is required, because they are liable to +become water-soaked during use, when they lose much elasticity and fail +to give good service, so that dry ones must be on hand. + +It is not well to have movable handles on the rollers, because then they +are likely to roll over the stone too lightly and it is not within one's +power to lay on the ink thoroughly. To prevent blistering the hands, +thick leather covers may be used. Then it is possible to use any desired +pressure. + +Paper presses are needed both to obtain a uniform dampening of the paper +as also to restore the proper flatness to the printed paper. Models are +to be seen at the shops of all book-printers and binders. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CONCERNING PAPER + + +Three kinds of paper are used mainly in lithography. They are:-- + + (_a_) the transparent, oiled or varnished paper; + (_b_) underlay or waste paper; and + (_c_) the printing-paper. + + +I + +TRANSPARENT PAPER, AND THE TRANSFER OF OUTLINES TO THE STONE + +Oiled paper is used for tracing a drawing accurately and then +transferring it to the stone either by transferring or by re-tracing it +on the stone. It must have the following properties:-- + +(1) It must not smut the original drawing on which it is laid. +Consequently it must be absolutely dry. + +(2) It must be very transparent, like glass, so that the underlying +drawing or painting can be seen perfectly. + +(3) The ink or lead crayon used for copying must lie on it easily and +plainly. + +It is at its best if it is easy to work on it with a fine brush, using +Chinese ink, or, (if the drawing is to be transferred directly to the +stone), with the soft chemical ink described under the caption "Transfer +Ink." Generally this can be done without further preparation in the case +of most papers made transparent by oiling. Varnished paper, however, +which is far more transparent, generally must be well washed with milk +and dried again beforehand, that it may take the ink well and permit +work with the finest strokes. + +(4) Finally, a good tracing-paper must be very fine, pliable, tender and +yet not in the least brittle. There is some very transparent varnished +paper, but it breaks at the first attempt to bend it, so that it is hard +to trace the drawing afterward on stone with the tracing-needle, +because nearly every stroke tears the paper and the lines and outlines +become coarse. + +Very good transparent paper may be made as follows:-- + +Take the finest writing or vellum paper and soak it with nut or poppy +oil, mixed with a little sugar of lead to make it dry more readily. When +well soaked with oil, dry it a bit between waste paper and hang it up. +Usually it is available in a few days. This paper is cheaper than the +paper sold by stationers under the names of straw paper, etc., and about +equally transparent. Still more transparent will it be if instead of the +oil a varnish cooked from the oils is used. In this also the sugar of +lead is an excellent drier. To make the varnish easier to manipulate and +more readily penetrative for the paper, it may be thinned down with oil +of turpentine. If it is desired to manufacture a greater quantity of +this paper, one sheet is laid on another and painted with varnish. Then +the whole mass is left for some time covered with a stone plate or a +board, that the varnish may soak properly and evenly into all the +sheets. Afterward the sheets are hung up singly to dry. The more varnish +they have, the more transparent will they be; but too much is not good. +Care must be taken that no drops of varnish adhere. It is best to brush +the varnish evenly over each sheet before hanging it up. + +Silk paper, such as is used in copper-printing to lay between +impressions to prevent off-set, is still better for varnishing because +it is finer. Only it must be very even and have no holes. The very +greatest fineness of paper is desirable, for the reason that then the +strokes made by the needle on the stone are fine and not coarse. + +Instead of varnish made by boiling down nut or poppy oil, one can use +Venetian turpentine, which merely has been thinned down with one half as +much oil of turpentine. Such paper generally is dry enough after +twenty-four hours. Too large a quantity must not be made at one time, +because it becomes tough and brittle after a while. + +Even with the most transparent paper it occurs that certain delicate +drawings, and especially color pictures, will not show through +sufficiently. Then the drawing must be fastened to a window pane to +obtain added illumination. This manner of work is very uncomfortable, +however, and the arms hurt one soon, so that it is necessary to stop. It +is better to have a tracing-board made with a strong, clear pane of +glass in the centre. Under it is a mirror so adjusted that it reflects +light upward through the drawing. + +It is understood, of course, that in tracing only the outlines are +copied and not every stroke of shading, etc. Although the final work is +greatly facilitated by the observation of the utmost care in tracing, +the tracing of every little detail will merely make the work involved +and perplexing. Practice must show the proper degree of exactness. A +very good and skillful artist often needs only a few main outlines, to +reproduce the original picture with the greatest accuracy. + +Once the drawing has been traced sufficiently, the transfer paper must +be coated very lightly and evenly with red chalk. Then it is fastened to +the stone with wax and all the lines are traced under moderate pressure +with a well-polished needle whose point is not sharp but rounded. Where +the needle presses the tracing-paper, the color that is on the other +side will take hold of the stone and thus transfer the drawing to it. If +the needle is too sharp, it will injure the paper, and often the stone +and the etching surface. The color on the paper must be rubbed off very +carefully with a soft rag. If it is too thick, it will transfer itself +coarsely to the stone. The red chalk may be put on the side of the paper +that has the drawing on it, or on the reverse. This is decided according +as the picture is to be on the stone in the same position as the +original or reversed. If the impression is to be like the original, the +drawing on the stone must be reversed; therefore in that case the +tracing-paper is coated on the same side as the drawing. This side is +laid on the stone, and the picture, which shows through, is traced. + +In some cases it is good to transfer the drawing from the tracing +immediately to the stone without tracing it with the needle. In this +case, the paper is not coated with red chalk. The paper is merely laid +on the prepared stone, drawing face down, and put through the press. If +the drawing has been made with the chemical transfer ink, blackened with +lampblack or colored with vermilion according to need, it will transfer +itself to the stone. This will occur also in the case of a clean stone +prepared for pen drawing if the drawing is made with lead pencil or with +red chalk, wet or dry. Even the ordinary ink made from nutgall and +vitriol of iron will transfer if it contains a little sugar or gum, but +the paper must be well dampened and good pressure must be applied to the +press. + +In the pen-drawing process, the stone must be cleansed of possible +surplus of color after the transfer. This is done by light rubbing with +sand. It is not necessary in other processes. Any surplus of color that +may have fixed itself to the stone is removed by gentle dusting with a +soft brush. + + +II + +WASTE PAPER + +This is used partly for cleansing plates, partly and chiefly as underlay +in printing. + +If sheets are to be printed on both sides, usually a little of the first +impression off-sets on the underlay paper, and if it were used again at +once, it would off-set on the next impression. Therefore a fresh +underlay paper must be used for each impression of the second side. + +This must not be coarse, for fear of causing unevenness or holes in the +leather in the printing-frame or in the so-called scraper-wood that +makes the impression. A good quantity of this must be on hand, that +fresh paper may always be available while the used paper is drying +again. Each sheet that has been used should be hung up at once, and not +more than three or four sheets should be hung over each other, to +facilitate the drying. A special appliance is needed for this as well as +for drying the impressions. A number of slats are fastened to the +ceiling, leaving a space under it of about two feet, and about one foot +distant from each other; and the sheets are hung on these with a pole +made for the purpose, such as may be seen in any printery. + + +III + +PRINTING-PAPER + +Not all kinds of paper are equally good for lithography. On the whole, +however, it may be assumed that this form of printing is very similar to +copper-printing and book-printing, and that the paper that is good for +these branches is suitable also for the stone, if only it does not +contain too many impurities, grains of sand and other substances that +make any considerable roughnesses. Such roughnesses, if considerable, +have an ill effect not only on the impression, but chiefly on the +leather in the printing frame. If the scraper is of wood, the leather +will suffer less, but there will be caused grooves in the scraper that +must be planed out again, because otherwise each following impression +will show a more or less plain streak. If the scraper is of metal, the +leather may tear or the stone itself may be injured if the foreign +substance in the paper is very hard. Therefore it is well to hold the +paper to the light before dampening or printing and to remove any +apparent defect of magnitude with a little knife. + +Usually the paper considered most excellent for copper-plate work is +thick, tender, uniform paper, half-sized or not sized at all. It may be +the same for lithography. However, it must not be supposed that good +impressions cannot be obtained with sized paper. I have seen some that +were as good as, and even better than, impressions made at the same time +on unsized paper. Much depends on the dampening of the paper, on its +make, and chiefly on the manner of sizing it. On the best sized English +vellum paper, I have made blacker impressions than I could make on the +best Swiss copper-plate printing-paper, so that I had to use fifty per +cent less printing-color. On the contrary, in using an indubitably +genuine English vellum paper with a bluish tinge, which had been sized +only too well, I could not get good impressions despite all efforts. It +was very hard to dampen also. Every sheet must be dampened singly, +turned frequently and manipulated to smooth out the thousand +irregularities that are caused by the moisture. Equally difficult to use +were some sorts of genuine Holland paper, because they took color +reluctantly. If, however, the correct degree of moisture is attained, +if the paper takes it well, and, finally, if the color is right for it, +it can be used with thorough success. + +I must mention a circumstance that may defeat all efforts of a beginner +should he try to use a certain kind of paper which is very handsome, +durable, very white, well sized, but a little rough and possessing an +odor somewhat resembling honey as well as urine. Sometimes it is called +_Kühnel_, and comes from a French factory. This paper has the property +of depriving the stone of its preparation, and consequently to smut it. +This paper can be used only for dry printing, where it does not require +any dampening at all. + +It is said that this property of smutting the stone is due to the +chemical bleaching. Others ascribe it to a peculiar kind of size. +Perhaps it is both. The same defect is found in many sorts of colored +papers if there is much alum in the coloring-matter, or if the tints are +made from alkaline colors or those that contain soapy matter, or if it +has been smoothed with soap. This, however, is readily understood after +my explanation of the chemistry of the stone. + + +IV + +DAMPENING THE PAPER + +Dry paper may be used for printing. In certain work it is necessary, in +order not to spoil the paper. As a rule, however, paper is moistened in +lithography as well as in other forms of printing, to make it softer and +more receptive to the printing-color. + +After what I have said of chemical printing, it would seem that, as +dampness is antagonistic to the reception of color, the moisture of the +paper would hinder, rather than aid, printing. But experience proves the +opposite. A damp paper takes color better than a dry one. + +But this is not because damp paper is an exception to the rule. On close +study, we see that here, too, it only proves all that I said about the +stone. + +Perfectly clean, and especially unsized paper, refuses color like the +prepared stone, when it has been wetted thoroughly so that it is +saturated. But here, too, mere water is not a complete preparation. +Under strong pressure it is forced away readily from the paper, the +printed places are dried and the color adheres. If the pressure is not +sufficient to force all the water away, the impression will be +imperfect. The tougher the printing-color is, the more will it resist +the dampness and the greater must be the pressure. + +Experience has taught me the following:-- + +(1) Every paper not spoiled with fat will permit itself to be prepared, +like the stone, with water so that it will take no color. In the case of +entirely clean, unsized paper, water alone is sufficient. Mucous, gummy, +and acid substances increase its power. Unsized printed paper need +merely be dipped in water, laid on a stone, and coated with oily color, +and the printed parts will all take the color while the rest of the +paper remains white. + +(2) Any great pressure will remove this preparation and the whole paper +will take color. + +(3) The oil color must be very thin and fluid, because a tougher one +will take hold of the fibres of the paper and tear them off. + +The foregoing experiences applied to the theory of the print itself lead +to the following conclusions:-- + +(_a_) The paper to be used for printing must never be too wet, because +the most powerful pressure could not remove the water sufficiently. + +(_b_) Paper that is too wet is prone to adhere to the stone with its +printed parts, which are likely then to tear away easily, thus damaging +or ruining the work. This happens the more readily if the pressure be +not sufficient. If the scraper or the stone is not uniform and even, it +is very prone indeed to tear at the places subjected to the least +pressure, because there, where the water has not been sufficiently +squeezed away, the paper remains soft and fragile, while the pressure +still is great enough to grip the fibres of the paper. + +(_c_) Therefore the paper must be only slightly dampened if the color is +very tough, partly to prevent tearing, partly to oppose no undue +obstacle to the reception of the color. + +(_d_) Paper dampened too much stretches in printing and produces uneven +and dirty impressions. + +(_e_) The quality of the water is not important so long as it is not +dirty or putrid, in which latter case it may infect the paper and rot +it. + +(_f_) Just how much the paper must be dampened can be learned only from +experience, because papers vary very much and in the case of sized +papers it depends chiefly on the kind of sizing. On the average, we may +calculate one wet sheet to eight dry ones in sized papers and one wet +one to ten or twelve dry ones in unsized papers. + +The following is the best way to dampen paper: Lay two or three dry +sheets on a straight board. Then dip a sheet into water. Let the water +drip off a little and lay the damp sheet carefully on the others. Now +lay eight or ten dry sheets on top of this. Then put on another wet one +and then eight or ten dry ones and so on till all the sheets destined +for printing have been so piled up. Put over all a board weighted with a +medium heavy stone plate. After half an hour increase the weight to +several hundredweight or squeeze the paper in a press. Leave it thus at +least twelve hours. Then it is generally ready for print. In aquatint it +must be dampened more, about six dry sheets coming to one wet one. + +Very thoroughly sized paper is easier to moisten if each sheet, or at +least each second one, is wetted with a sponge. + +Sometimes it is necessary to turn the dampened paper in order to remove +the creases. Separate the sheets into two piles and lay a few sheets +from one to the other so that the altered positions will press the +sheets flat again. + +With many papers, especially the unsized, it is possible to use the +method of book-printers, who immerse a whole book in water and then lay +the sheets in two equal parts. This would be best studied at a +printer's. It requires much practice. + +If dampened paper is permitted to lie some hours without being weighted +down, the margins will become too dry, and then there will be creases +during printing, which can be remedied only by a second dampening. The +reason is that dry paper is not so large as wet paper, so that the dry +margins form a kind of frame which is too small for the inner wet +portion. + +In printing-processes that require many plates, and especially if the +sheets are large, only dry paper can be used, as otherwise the register +will be imperfect. To be sure, it can be done by using great care, but +too much practice and attentiveness is needed. + +With the exception of the aquatint processes, good printing can be done +with dry but unsized paper. But the press must have twice or thrice the +pressure. This makes the printing more difficult and endangers the stone +if it is not thick. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +PRESSES + + +An exact description of all presses used hitherto for lithography would +demand a book that would nearly equal the present one in magnitude. Many +drawings would be necessary, which would increase the cost of this +text-book without adequate benefit, as I have learned that one rarely +can find a mechanician skillful enough to make a machine even when he +has the very best description and a perfect illustration before him. I +advise all who intend to enter lithography to send for a model to Munich +or some other place where the art is being practiced with success. I +myself am willing to furnish exact models for the price of one louis +d'or, which must be remitted with the order. + +There is no press as yet that is so perfect for lithography that it +leaves nothing to be desired. The press whose plan I laid before the +Royal Academy of Sciences in Bavaria, which does its own inking-in and +which can be worked by water-power, has not yet been built on a large +scale, so that its value cannot be stated exactly. + +I am only too well aware, however, of a grave defect in lithography, +which is that the beauty and even the number of impressions depend +mainly on the skill and the industry of the printers. A good press is +necessary, to be sure; but even with the best a poor workman will +produce nothing but trash, because in this respect lithography is far +more difficult than any other printing-process. I shall not admit that +lithography has made a great step toward the utmost perfection until the +erring work of the human hand has been dispensed with as much as +possible and the printing is done almost entirely by machinery. +Therefore I am determined to realize the ideas I have in this direction +and I shall inform the friends of the art of my success at once. + + +I + +PROPERTIES OF A GOOD PRESS + +It has been observed that inscriptions, and particularly drawings, look +better on the stone than on the impression afterward made from the +stone. Partly this may be due to the color of the stone which softens +the picture, because an impression made on yellow paper resembling the +stone color looks very much like the drawing on the stone. But the great +cause of the difference is that the color does not transfer itself to +the paper with the degree of strength and clearness that it possesses on +the stone. That this perfect degree can be attained, none the less, +there are many successful impressions to prove. + +If the plate is well designed and well prepared, it will take the color +well and clearly, but the printer may apply too much or too little, the +color may be too hard or too soft, or, even if the stone is properly +inked, the paper may accept color poorly or be too damp or dry. Chiefly, +however, it is the press, according to my experience, that most affects +the quality of an impression. + +In most lithographic presses the printing is done by the so-called +scraper. This is a thin slat of hard wood, mostly maple, pear, or +boxwood. It is one line thick on the side intended to do the printing, +and the mechanism of the press forces it on the paper, which is on the +stone and covered with an overlay of waste paper and tensely stretched +leather. This pressure forces the color against the paper along the +whole length of the slat, and only one line broad. The scraper is forced +bit by bit over the entire plate, or it remains motionless and the plate +is drawn underneath it. + +It will be observed that this kind of press does not produce the entire +impression vertically and at once as in book-printing, but that it is +successive, as in copper-plate printing, with the difference that the +copper-plate press uses a roller instead of a scraper. + +As the scraper must be pressed down with great force (often as much as +sixty and more hundredweight) and must pass over the leather with this +immense pressure, there is a tremendous friction, and despite the fact +that the leather is tensely stretched and lubricated with fat, it is +considerably pulled and strained by the scraper. This pulling and +straining communicates itself to the paper under the leather. Thus all +the lines of the design become a little bit squashed in the direction +described by the scraper. If, however, the leather is very good and very +tensely stretched in the frame, if it is well lubricated, and if the +printing-paper with its underlay is not too wet, the pulling is +inconsiderable so that scripts and drawings in broad effects are not +affected noticeably. Drawings in detail, however, and crayon work +wherein there is hardly a perceptible space between the dots, are so +affected by the slightest displacement that they produce a smeared, +sooty impression. + +The scraper has a second fault. If the paper has impurities, it injures +the scraper readily. A groove scratched into the scraper will prevent +any further good impression if the injury is considerable, because it +will leave a streak. The only remedy is to take the scraper off and +plane it, fashioning it accurately to the surface of the stone. I have +tried to remedy this by making a scraper of metal. As this causes even +more friction than wood, I laid a strip of strong paper over the +scraper, which generally was good for three hundred impressions before +it was worn out. Then I merely needed to move it forward a bit; so that +a strip of paper as long as the scraper and six inches wide was +available for some thousands of impressions. The pressure attained with +a metal scraper is greater than with wood; but it has the disadvantage +that it is hard to print a stone whose surface is not absolutely level, +whereas a wooden scraper can be planed to suit any irregularity in the +stone. + +The foregoing shows that a good lithographic press must have these two +properties:-- + +(1) It must not pull or shift the paper in the least. + +(2) It must produce a uniform impression without weak spots or streaks. + +The other properties it needs in common with other presses, such as:-- + +(3) It must be powerful enough to produce the necessary pressure. + +(4) It must combine the greatest possible speed with this power. + +(5) It must be easily operated, to save the workman. + +All these qualities combined are not to be found in any press hitherto +applied to lithography. + + +II + +APPLICATION OF BOOK- AND COPPER-PLATE PRESSES TO LITHOGRAPHY + +If we consider the peculiarities of book and copper print, we find a +decided difference between them that affects printing importantly. + +The letters of book-type are raised, the engraving in copper is +depressed. It is evident that the former requires no such power for +making impressions as the latter. Therefore the presses are so different +that copper plates cannot be printed on a book-press and vice versa. +Now, as the stone combines both the elevated and the depressed +principles, the natural idea would be to combine the fundamental +principles of both presses as nearly as possible for stone-printing. In +book-print, only the types are exposed to the pressure, and in the +average printed sheet these are only one fourth part of the entire +surface. The remaining white space is not affected at all by the press. +In the stone, however, the elevation of any part of a design is so +slight that the entire surface is affected, and consequently a stone +plate offers four times as much resistance. A book-press therefore would +print a stone only if it were arranged for a pressure four times +greater. Now, for a stone of the size of a letter-sheet the power +required to print with one vertical pressure would be five or six +hundred hundredweight, a pressure that could be supported only by a +thick stone laid very exactly on a perfect foundation. + +An ordinary copper-plate press increases the pulling of the paper so +much in the case of a stone plate that the impression would be +worthless. This pulling is not caused, as in the case of the scraper, +during the impression itself, as already described, but it is caused +before the impression through the endeavor of the cylinder to force the +plate along under it. Once the stone is under the cylinder, the paper is +not pulled noticeably, because the cylinder glides over the leather much +more gently and with much less friction than the scraper. + +This defect might be corrected:-- + +(_a_) By supporting the cylinder so that it would come down on the stone +only at the point where the print is to begin. But as the stone must be +drawn pretty well forward for convenience in inking, this would demand +that the cylinder be revolved forward and backward again as far as is +needed for the impression, which means a great demand on the strength of +the printers, not to count the loss of time. + +(_b_) A second way would be to plane off a piece two inches wide from +the cylinder at the point where the impression is to begin. The stone +could be forced under this space readily, and when the cylinder +revolves, it presses forcibly at once without pulling the paper very +much. + +(_c_) The press might be fitted with iron wheels with cog teeth to +engage similar cogs on the cylinder. This would prevent pulling, but the +mechanical work would need to be very accurate. + +(_d_) The best arrangement will be the following: Set the upper cylinder +so high that the stone can be brought under it without touching. Then +bring it down with a screw, or better still, with a lever that can be +operated by the foot. + +The first figure in the plate showing presses represents about how a +copper-plate press is to be fitted for this work. On the whole, this is +an ordinary copper-plate press, but the upper roller is set with its two +axles or spindles in two iron levers, each of which is fastened to a +piece of wood with iron screws one inch thick. Each of these pieces of +wood is covered with strong sheet iron and can be adjusted higher or +lower with two screws or with underlay of pasteboard. This is necessary +that the press may be adjusted to varying pressures. The two other ends +of the two levers, in which the cylinder sits, can be raised or +lowered, so that the cylinder also can rise or sink. Now two springs or +two weights are so adjusted that the cylinder with the levers always +remains elevated. To force it down on the stone, an iron beam enters +both sides of the press with two pegs so adjusted that when the beam is +turned ninety degrees the levers are depressed at least two inches. As +the cylinder is about in the middle of the two levers, it will thus be +depressed one inch, which suffices to permit the stone to pass under it +freely while it is elevated and gives the greatest pressure when it is +depressed. However, the upper cylinder must not be one inch distant from +the stone, but at the most only one fourth inch, for the remaining space +of three fourths inch is required to provide margin for the elasticity +of the various materials, and also to give margin for increased pressure +whenever demanded. + +On one end of the iron beam with the two pegs is an arm or lever which +is joined to a thin stick with a treadle. This tread is so arranged that +it remains elevated of itself. If the pressure is to reach sixty or more +hundredweight, it must not be fastened directly to the treadle, but a +second lever is required which is affixed to the side of the press. + +Without going into tedious detail I cannot further describe this press. +Mechanicians will understand me readily and perhaps be able to add many +improvements. My belief is that a copper press so arranged would +diminish all danger of squashing and pulling the impression, furnish +powerful pressure, permit overlays of felt or fine cloth, and make +possible considerable facility and celerity, which is a great advantage, +because impressions always are better if too much time is not lost +between inking and printing. + +To safeguard the stone against cracking in such a press, the following +points are to be noted:-- + +(1) The stone must be ground very true on the under side as well as the +upper. + +(2) Both cylinders must be perfectly true, and care is to be taken +particularly that one cylinder is not thin toward the middle and the +other thick, as this would easily crack the stone lengthwise. + +The board on which the stone rests must be equally true and uniformly +thick. At the same time it must be very thin, only one half inch thick +at most. It will get very heavily squeezed during the printing, and the +more the impression approaches the centre, the more concave will it +become. The parts farthest from the point of pressure then resist unduly +if the board is thick, and thus become the chief cause of cracking the +stone. If the rollers are very true and the stone is very uniform, it is +almost impossible to crack it if it is passed between the two rollers +without a board underneath. If the board is thin, it is as if it were +not there. + +I believe that competent mechanicians can improve the present presses +greatly. + + +III + +LITHOGRAPHIC PRESSES USED HITHERTO + +Most owners of lithographic printeries have tried their hands at +inventing presses, but in the end it has always been something based on +the scraper or the cylinder principle. I myself have made more than +twenty designs. Some were very useful and had advantages either in power +or convenience, but generally were handicapped by some defect, so that I +cannot even say with certainty which was the best of them all. So much +depends on the mechanic's execution of one's plans, and a perfect design +can be so spoiled by a workman that it is worthless. + +I will, however, recount the best that has been done so far for +lithography. + +In Munich two kinds of stone presses are mostly used. They are:-- + +(1) The lever press, or, as the workmen generally call it because of its +form, the Gallows Press. + +(2) The Cylinder or so-called Star Press, the latter term being used +because a star-shaped lever is commonly used instead of a crank to turn +the rollers. + +I have tried and found good the following:-- + +(3) A press with double levers. + +(4) A gyrating or sliding press. + +I know also-- + +(5) The roller press used by Herr Andre. + +(6) And the press of Herr Steiner in Vienna. + +Herr Müller in Karlsruhe and Herr Ackermann in London have a press with +paper cylinders the construction of which is unknown to me. + + +IV + +THE LEVER PRESS + +This was the first press that I used with advantage, and it is used +still in Munich in all important establishments for work that demands +speed particularly. It would be an excellent printing-machine in all +respects if it did not have the defect that its power cannot be +increased much more than six hundredweight without forcing the workmen +to undue exertions. Therefore it is no longer available for large plates +or for works that require immense power. It is very good for pen designs +not larger than a letter-sheet, and two workmen, one to ink-in and the +other to print, can produce twelve hundred impressions in a day without +hardship. + +The pressure is produced by a lever six to twelve feet long, fastened to +the scraper below and to a spring (an elastic board) above. It is +connected with a tread, and when forced down, presses with the desired +force on the scraper and so on the plate. The board holding the lever +overhead must be partially movable like a spring because the lever +describes a part of a circle on the plate below. Hence the pressure at +the beginning and end of the impression is not so great as in the +middle, and great care in choice of wood and manufacture is demanded to +give the spring board the necessary elasticity and power combined. I +have found a board of young dried pine the best, the dimensions being +six feet long, eight inches wide, and two inches thick, provided that +the fibres all ran lengthwise. It is not always possible to find a good +board at once. Often I have found that the difference between two boards +made a great difference in the effectiveness of two presses otherwise +exactly the same. + +The scraper arm consists of two parts, of which the shorter one, to +which the scraper is fastened with a screw, is only one and one quarter +feet long. The other part is as long as the height of the press permits. +The higher a lever press is, the better is it, because then the circular +motion described by the scraper wood approaches a straight line more and +more, so that the press exercises a more uniform pressure during all +stages of the impression and is easier to handle. The second +illustration shows this kind of press in the moment when the impression +has been finished, the printing-frame opened, and the scraper arm swung +back again. + +The printing-frame is much like a book-printing frame, and is furnished +inside with a second small frame which holds the paper, being furnished +with small springs or strings. When the frame has been turned over the +stone, the paper must be at least half an inch from the stone to avoid +smutting, which will occur if it touches. The paper must not touch the +stone till pressure is applied, and then only on the spot pressed +downward by the scraper. + +As soon as both parts of the scraper arm are in a straight line, so that +they form practically one piece, the scraper wood is pulled down and the +printer draws it toward himself over the printing-frame and the stone +plate. At this time the following is to be observed:-- + +(1) Both parts of the arm must be so fastened to each other that they +may be bent like a knee, but once they are straight in line, they must +stay in that position. It is well, therefore, so to adjust the parts +that they will not be directly over each other, but rather exceed a +straight line under pressure, and bend a little inward. The position of +the scraper must be considered also. On the whole the following rule +holds good: the point where both parts are united with a nail or a screw +must not be in a perfectly straight line between the point where the +scraper rests and the point where the arm is fastened above, but should +be at least two and a half inches forward of that point. Otherwise the +arm may spring outwards toward the workman and injure him severely. The +third illustration shows the construction of the scraper arm and the +scraper. + +(2) The arm must be grasped as low as possible when being drawn toward +one's self, in order to diminish the danger of springing outward. + +(3) The workman must press his body tightly to the table of the press to +get proper leverage. Standing free, a man of moderate strength could not +move the scraper at all when the pressure is on, but a man standing in +correct position can do it without difficulty. + +(4) Under very heavy pressure the inker-in, who stands on the other side +of the press, can help by pushing. + +The scraper is a piece of pear wood as long as the size of the plate +demands. Its height is about four inches, its thickness one inch. The +end that rests on the leather is trimmed down so that it has a thickness +of only one line. This end must be especially true and planed to fit the +stone, also neatly rounded off. It should be so fastened to the arm that +it may be adjusted to the position of the stone. The stone does not +always lie truly horizontal in the press, sometimes because it is not +uniformly thick, sometimes because the underlay is not quite even, and +sometimes because the press itself has been a little strained. If the +scraper has been made properly, it will adjust itself to the stone, even +if the scraper arm is not quite plumb on the stone, a condition that +often occurs with small work, such as titles and other things that are +at the end of a stone. + +(5) For every press a number of scrapers of different dimensions must be +in stock. Generally a lever press is so made that the printing-frame can +be raised or lowered according to the thickness of the stone. Then the +scraper must be changed accordingly. + +(6) The connection of the upper board with the tread is made by a thin +stick that is fastened to a lever below, by means of a small iron piece +which contains several holes that serve to adjust the height of the +tread according to need. + +(7) The leather in the printing-frame is strong calfskin. It must be +stretched very evenly and tensely and must be smeared from time to time +very thoroughly with tallow. + +(8) On the outer side of the frame there are four wooden strips that can +be adjusted as desired. One serves to show the point where the +impression is to begin. Another shows where it is to end. Both must be +so strong that they can resist the scraper. The other two are adjusted +at the sides and guide the scraper. + + +V + +THE CYLINDER PRESSES + +When Herr Professor Mitterer installed a lithographic institution for +the Feyertags-Schule, the lever press appeared to him to demand too much +labor, especially when powerful pressures were desired. He invented the +so-called Cylinder or Star Press, which has its place in most +establishments, especially those in other countries. It has had minor +changes made in it by many persons, but on the whole, nobody has +succeeded in improving it notably, except for a considerable improvement +made by Herr Mitterer himself. My description will include this +improvement. + +The cylinder press might almost be called a reversed lever press. Herr +Mitterer borrowed from it the idea of effecting the impression with a +scraper, but he did not let it move over the plate, as in the lever +press. He gave the scraper a fixed, immovable position while the stone +was drawn through underneath, thus making his press resemble a +copper-plate printing-press somewhat. + +Illustration number 4 shows this machine in the moment when the +impression has been made. In the middle of the machine is a cylinder ten +to twelve inches thick and as long as the breadth of the press. It has +strong iron spindles that revolve in well-lubricated brass bearings. +Above the cylinder is a board on which is fastened the stone with the +printing-frame. The scraper is on a strong lever that is held up by a +counterpoise. When everything is ready for printing, the scraper is +forced down. By means of a strong iron hook it engages the treadle and +thus can be pulled down with the utmost tension. Then the cylinder is +turned by means of two levers affixed to the crank, and this draws the +stone and printing-frame through under the scraper. One workman alone +can do this under ordinary pressure, but an appliance at the other end +of the press enables a second workman to help. + + +VI + +GYRATING SCRAPER AND DOUBLE LEVER PRESSES + +I have already mentioned the gyrating scraper press. I have improved it +considerably. It has the form of the ordinary lever press, but all the +parts can be much lighter. For instance, the lever is only one and a +half inches thick. The spring (the elastic board) is very elastic and +need exert a pressure of only one hundred pounds. The little scraper is +only an inch long and presses on the plate with a force of fifty pounds. +The press is useful for very thin stones that might crack under greater +pressure. The pressure, nevertheless, is great, because it is all +exerted on such a small area. The press has two defects. It is easy to +miss many parts of the design with the small scraper, and the paper is +likely to stick to the leather, producing poor register. I have obviated +these faults with the following invention: A large scraper is fastened +to the lever to press on the plate with a force of one hundred pounds. A +small one is fastened to this in such a manner that it can be moved to +and fro easily. While one workman rubs to and fro with the small +scraper, another draws the entire stone and printing-frame slowly along +under the large one. If good underlays are used in addition, this +process will produce beautiful work that cannot be produced so well with +any other machine. However, a large field is left in this form for +improvement. + +The fact that the concentric motion produced by a single lever can be +transformed into an almost straight motion by use of a second lever, led +me to design a double lever press, which has turned out very successful, +giving great force with speed. As its description would demand much +space, and since on the whole it ranks equally with the improved +cylinder press, I offer to send models to those who desire to have +everything useful for the art. + + +VII + +THE OTHER STONE PRINTING-PRESSES + +The cylinder press of the Chemical Printery in Vienna would, without +question, be of excellent service for the art if it were more powerful. +Its construction is as follows: The stone is fastened to a table with +the printing-frame which has fine felt instead of leather. To make the +impression a brass cylinder eight inches thick is rolled over it. As +this cylinder would not produce enough pressure from itself, despite its +massive make, two iron beams are fastened to the axles. They pass +through the table and are fastened to a box that contains iron or leaden +weights. Unfortunately the space prevents the use of more than five or +six hundredweights, and this is too little for the large surface of the +cylinder, thus forbidding any sharp, clear impressions. + +This kind of press could be greatly improved if it were built higher to +give more room below for weights, or the beams could be lengthened and +passed through the floor into a lower room, thus giving space enough to +add weights up to fifty and more hundredweight. + +The press of Herr Andre is much like this, except that its cylinder is +only three inches in diameter and that it is forced on the stone not +with weights, but with a lower cylinder that presses upwards. It prints +fast, like the other, but does not possess enough power. + +In conclusion, I must remark that the concentration of ideas caused by +writing this chapter has led me to begin experiments toward making a +lithographic press which shall leave nothing to be desired. As soon as +my affairs permit, I shall execute this on a large scale, and if the +result fulfills my hopes, it will be a pleasure to describe it +accurately to all friends of my art, or to furnish them models at cost. + + + + +PART II + +CONCERNING THE VARIOUS METHODS + + +There are two principal methods of stone-printing, Relief and Intaglio. + +In the former, the fatty parts of the stone are not attacked by the +etching fluid, while the rest of the stone is dissolved more or less. +Therefore the fatty places are left in relief. + +In the second method, the design is either engraved into the stone with +a sharp steel instrument or etched-in with acid. + +The relief method has the advantage of greater speed and, generally, a +greater number of impressions. It is easy for the artist to apply, +especially in crayon work. The intaglio, however, makes possible finer +and more powerful work, and again, in many cases, is the easier of the +two for the artist. Therefore it is impossible to say in a general way +which is the better. It depends on the work to be done. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RELIEF METHOD + + +To this method belong principally: (_a_) Brush and pen designs; (_b_) +the crayon method; (_c_) the transfer method; (_d_) the wood-cut method; +(_e_) a sort of scraped style; and (_f_) spatter-work. + + +I + +BRUSH AND PEN WORK + +This is one of the best in lithography, and perhaps the best, because it +touches daily needs most directly. It can be used not only for all +kinds of writings, but also for illustration that does not demand the +supreme perfection of copper plate. The ease of manipulation, the speed +and the almost countless number of impressions recommend it especially. +It may even be prophesied that in future, when true artists have become +better acquainted with it, it will be used for high forms of art. + +Much as this method has to recommend it, it has been used mainly for +script and music, and it is difficult to gain adherents and followers +for it. The reason is an apparently trivial thing, but it has made most +artists averse to it. Since stone-printing exists I have found only two +persons who could do anything with the steel pen at the first attempt. +These were my brother Klemens, and a Herr Porner, who works now in the +establishment of Herr Müller in Karlsruhe. All others have had to +struggle more or less with this slight trouble, and yet it does not +demand more than a few days of patience and study. + +For pen work one must not be too particular in selecting stones, as the +less perfect ones are more available for this than for any other method. +However, the general rule holds good here, too, that the purest and +hardest stones are best. + +If they have been used previously, so that the fatty inks have +penetrated pretty well, they still need not be ground too deeply, but it +will suffice to grind them merely till all depressions and elevations of +the previous design have vanished. They may be ground with sand or +pumice, so long as they are made smooth so that no roughness can be +perceived. The smoother and finer the surface is, the easier will it be +to work on it with the pen. + +To design well on stone with chemical ink, the stone must be prepared +after grinding so that the ink shall not flow and spread. Dissolve one +part of tallow in three parts of oil of turpentine and coat the dry +stone very quickly. With a clean rag or tissue paper wipe it at once so +thoroughly that the coating vanishes again almost entirely, leaving only +a thin film that can be easily devoured and removed when the etching +fluid is applied later. It is well to do this some hours before +beginning work on the stone, partly to give the turpentine odor time to +evaporate and partly because it is easier to work after a little while +than immediately after coating the stone. The stone can be prepared far +in advance, even so long as some months before using. In that case it is +necessary merely to clean the dust away with a cloth or fine brush. This +should be done anyway at intervals during the work, or it will clog the +pen. + +I prefer another way of preparing the stone for designing, because +it is one that insures the stone against containing any hidden +preparation, which can easily occur in grinding owing to carelessness or +uncleanliness on the part of the workman, especially if many old plates +are being reground, when the gum which most of them contain from +previous use will mix with water during grinding and thus form a partial +preparation of the stone. + +I coat the plate with strong soap-water containing many soapy particles, +and dry it off as well as possible. Now, there will be too much alkali +on the plate, which will not be good for fine work. I pour a few drops +of clean water on the stone, make it quite wet with this and dry it +again thoroughly. The fat of the soap will then have precipitated itself +on the stone and at the same time has lost all alkali. The soap-water +must not be too thin, as in that case it will precipitate too much fat +on the plate at once and the etching fluid will not be able later to +destroy it properly. This would mean the total destruction of the +design. To make quite sure, I advise beginners, after applying +soap-water and drying it, to coat the stone with the tallow and +turpentine solution, clean it quickly, and thus be absolutely assured +that the plate is thoroughly prepared for the design. + +It must not be imagined that this preparation for work is not very +important. I am convinced that less depends on the quality of the ink +than on a surface freed from all acid and mucous substances and provided +with a sufficient amount of fat. + +On the stone thus prepared the rough design may be done with lead crayon +or red chalk or by tracings or transfers. Any surplus of lead or red +chalk would make trouble during the succeeding completion of the design +with chemical ink, and must be removed carefully. If the design has +been laid on by transfer, the resultant fattiness must be lightly rubbed +away with a fine sand, but not so as to injure the design. + +This method, of first drafting the design on paper with soft chemical +transfer ink and then transferring to stone, offers such advantages that +it pays to practice it. Care must be taken to remove all surplus of +color, as otherwise all lines that should not appear will resist the +etching fluid and gradually show again. Those who fear destruction of +the design by the use of sand can effect the same purpose by printing +off on clean waste paper a few times, or the design may be printed off +on paper before being transferred, thus cleansing it of surplus fat. + +When the design has been laid on the stone clean and strongly with +chemical ink, the plate can be etched and prepared, but not till the +whole design is perfectly dry, because otherwise it cannot resist the +action of the fluid. + +The parts finished first usually are dry long before the entire work is +finished. A trained eye can recognize the proper degree of dryness from +the sheen, which varies with different kinds of ink, but on the whole is +always duller when the design is dry than while it still is wet. It is +highly necessary that the design be thoroughly dry. It is possible to +keep a designed plate for years without etching it, so long as it is +protected against injury. + +Etching is done in two ways, painting the fluid on and pouring it on. + +The former method is less circumstantial, but is used only in coarser +work, because there is always danger of damaging delicate parts of the +design. It has the advantage, however, that any dirt caused by +corrections will be removed. A mixture of three or four parts of water +with one part of aquafortis is painted over the stone with a soft brush +of fox- or badger-hair. The brush must be dipped continually because the +fluid loses its power. + +For the second method the stone is placed in a large wooden trough or +box, provided with cross-pieces to keep the stone from the bottom. The +acid, thinned down with thirty or forty parts of water, is poured over +it. It is rather immaterial how much one may dilute the acid. Very weak +solutions simply mean that the pouring must be repeated oftener. The +fluid acts on stones according to their degree of hardness. Regard must +be had, too, to the delicacy of the design, very fine lines being unable +to resist etching that does not affect coarse lines. + +Only slight experience is needed to recognize the effect of the acid. By +looking at the stone sidewise and against the light, the growing +elevation of the design can be perceived easily. When the fatty coating +caused by the soap or turpentine wash has been etched away completely, +and the water adheres equally everywhere, the stone generally is +sufficiently etched to be ready for preparation and printing. + +For the sake of easier printing, and also so that future grinding and +any desired improvement may be done on the stone, there should be a +little more etching, if the design is not too delicate. But if the +design is very fine, the etching absolutely must not be more than +strictly necessary, because the fine lines might easily be eaten away. +Coarser designs can bear strong etching which often may reach the depth +of a thick paper. But an inordinate amount of etching is not to be +recommended, even if the design can bear it, because the edges of a +deeply etched line are rough and take the color so strongly that it +works into the cavities and is very hard to get out. + +When the stone has been properly etched, clean water is poured over it +to wash away the free acid. Then the work of preparing the plate with a +solution of gum arabic in four or five parts of water can begin at once, +or the stone may be set aside to dry, thus giving the finer parts of the +design, that may have been most affected by the acid, time to adhere +again to the stone and soak in, which can occur only in the dry state. +This is entirely unnecessary with most pen drawings, but with brush and +especially with crayon work it is of great value. + +When the stone has been prepared with gum, it is set aside to rest for a +few minutes. Then pour a few drops of water and exactly the same +quantity of oil of turpentine on it, spread it in all directions +uniformly and wipe the entire design off clean with a woolen rag. Hard +ink, especially if it has been on the stone for some time, is more +difficult to remove and a little more turpentine is required. + +The stone should now be inked-in at once, because the turpentine, and +with it all the fattiness, is liable to extensive evaporation, and then +the stone will not take color well. + +Inking-in of the pen designs is done as follows: A clean linen or woolen +rag is soaked in clean water and wrung out till it is damp rather than +wet. This is passed over the whole stone so that it becomes a little wet +everywhere. Immediately after this dampening, the well-inked +printing-roller is passed to and fro over the plate several times. The +roller must be lifted frequently during this work so that the points of +contact change. To lay the color on well and quickly, the roller should +be held rather firmly in the beginning, well pressed down and used with +a certain rubbing motion that will tend to lay color on the design +sideways, so to speak. Then the roller must be allowed to roll to and +fro a few times without much pressure, to spread the color and take away +any surplus. Do not roll too long, till the stone dries, because then it +will take dirt immediately. Should this occur, it must be wiped +instantly with the damp cloth till it is clean again. If dirt is left +too long, it will be extremely hard to remove. + +Beginners usually wet their plates excessively to counteract this +trouble of drying during the inking-in. This results in wiping away fine +strokes, and the roller gets so wet that no good impression can be made +till it has been dried sufficiently again. For this reason beginners +should not use bath-sponge, because, though it is excellent, it leaves +too much water on the stone unless one knows exactly how to use it. + +Some printers put a little gum, others a little aquafortis into the +water to wet the stone. Others use stale beer, or even urine. I consider +all this unnecessary, if the stone has been prepared correctly and the +color is good. + +I have described the ink-rollers. I repeat that they must be uniform, +soft, and elastic. + +As to the inking-in color, I am not able yet to lay down a strict rule. +All that I can say, as a result of my experiments and experiences, +is:-- + +(1) The firmer the varnish in a color is, the cleaner is the work of +inking-in. + +(2) The same is true the more lampblack it contains. + +But in both cases the finer parts of the work are easily rubbed away, +and too much lampblack makes the lines squash the impression. + +(3) The toughness or fluidity of the color must bear correct proportion +to the power of the press. The harder the varnish, the more power is +required in the press. + +(4) Tough varnish is not so liable to squash under pressure, but if it +has once been pressed into the spaces between the lines of the design it +is not readily removed by the mere action of the inking-roller, and this +causes more and more smutting and, finally, total ruin to the stone. +Generally when a tough color has adhered too much, there is no other +remedy than to clean the stone well with gum and oil of turpentine; and +this, if done too often, damages the preparation and makes the +impressions continuously poorer. + +(5) Soft color spreads more readily under pressure, but is removable +after each impression by merely dampening the plate. + +(6) In using soft color, the paper may be kept damper than with hard +colors. + +(7) Soft as well as hard printing-color, if not mixed with the proper +amount of varnish, has the property of producing poor, sooty impressions +because of a defect called shading. Shading is caused as follows: If a +drop of oil falls into a basin of clean water, a part of the oil will +spread immediately. Now, a stone is wetted before inking-in. After the +inking a considerable portion of dampness remains. If the ink is very +fluid, it will happen often that a part of it will spread away from the +design to the surrounding moisture, producing something that looks like +a shadow around every part of the design. This does not occur instantly, +as in the case of the pure oil, but gradually, so that it is not as +noticeable when the swifter lever press is used as with the slower +cylinder press or if the workmen are slow. If a stone can be dampened so +exactly that with the last touch of the ink-roller the last vestige of +dampness is removed, this is not likely to happen. But it is difficult +to arrive at such accuracy. It is better to add enough lampblack +gradually to the varnish to make it lose its elasticity, when the +shading effect will cease. + +(8) While shading is obviated largely through enough intermixture of +lampblack or other coloring substances to take away the fluidity of the +printing-color, this intermixture will cause other troubles. The finer +places will not take the harder color so well, whereas at other places +too much will be taken. Also an impression made with much lampblack will +off-set more than one made with color in which varnish predominates. +Neither will the impressions be so black. Experience teaches that a +printing-color that has less lampblack will be blacker, because the +sheen of the varnish will make the color strong and lacquer-like. I have +tried to invent a kind of varnish that would not be so liable to shading +and thus would permit a greater fluidity with safety, but lack of time +has prevented me from exhausting the possibilities. I am sure, however, +that it can be done, for I have found that the common linseed oil +varnish can be made to lose its property of shading by admixture of +fatty and resinous bodies. For instance, the addition of a slight amount +of Venetian turpentine permits a greater fluidity. Very good is the +following composition: Six parts linseed oil, two parts tallow, one part +wax, melted together and thickened by boiling down and burning like the +ordinary linseed oil varnish. + +(9) The inner composition of the stone and the temperature have a +considerable effect on the print and also react on the color. A stone, +especially a porous one, has much less internal moisture on very warm, +dry days. Then the dampening done before each impression often +evaporates instantly and unequally, so that it is difficult to ink-in +uniformly with a soft color or one lacking varnish, unless one wets the +stone unduly, which, again, injures the impressions. In that case one +must use a color that is firmer than should be used according to +ordinary rule. It is also well, before printing from the stone, to lay +it in clean water for a few hours, or overnight, so that it may soak in +enough moisture to make it easier to dampen. + +(10) If the drying of the printing-color is to be hastened, as is +necessary with some work, a little finely powdered mennig may be mixed +in. Finely powdered litharge of silver dries still better, but only a +small amount of printing-color must be mixed with it, because it +toughens within an hour. It will not keep for another day, because the +mennig will dissolve after a while. + +In printing from the pen design, the following must be observed:-- + +Even if the stone has been inked-in uniformly and well with a good +color, the impression can be spoiled in various ways: if the paper has +not been dampened as required by the nature of the color and the power +of the press; if the pressure is not in proportion to the consistency of +the color; if the scraper is not even, and if the leather is not +properly stretched. + +Therefore care must be taken in printing pen designs:-- + +(1) The paper must not touch the inked design till the scraper forces it +down. It is not advisable to lay the paper directly on the stone. It +should be in the printing-frame, which, as already described, should be +so arranged that it will keep the paper at least one fourth inch away +from the stone. + +(2) The proper dampening of the paper is not a matter of the greatest +importance in pen designs, so long as it is not too wet, in which case +it causes squashed impressions, does not take color uniformly, and, if +the printing-color is tough, will stick to the stone. In general, the +rule holds good that the degree of dampening must be in proportion to +the firmness of the varnish, and that a softer varnish permits increased +dampening. Dampening is done chiefly to soften the paper, and the +qualities of the paper dictate the amount necessary to a large extent. + +(3) The tension of the press must be more powerful with hard +printing-color and carefully graduated with soft color. Besides this, it +depends-- + +(4) On the structure of the scraper. If it is not absolutely uniform and +well fitted to the stone, more power is needed. Thus the defect often is +corrected; but this may make the color squash and spread in other spots, +therefore it always is better to correct any defects in the scraper. The +sharper the scraper is, the clearer are the impressions, because then +the whole force of the pressure concentrates on the smallest area. But +usually the scraper soon becomes dull, and then the press must have +more power. + +(5) Insufficient tension of the leather also may produce poor +impressions, especially if the color is soft and the paper very wet. +Therefore as soon as impressions appear blurred and squashed, the +leather should be tautened and well lubricated with tallow. + +Now we come to an important matter, namely, the correction of errors. It +does not happen often that a drawing or inscription can be made entirely +without error, and it would be a great imperfection in lithography if +these mistakes could not be corrected at once. + +Errors may be observed before etching or afterward. Different ways of +making corrections are required. + +It is very easy to make corrections before etching. If the error is +observed as soon as it is made, while the ink still is wet, it may be +corrected by merely wiping out the defect with the finger. If the ink is +dry, oil of turpentine is required. In each case the ink must be well +removed so that it will not resist the etching fluid later. If only tiny +spots are defective they can be corrected by delicate use of a sharp +eraser. Defects that need merely to be destroyed without drawing +anything else in their place may be scraped off with a knife or with +pumice stone. + +After the plate is etched, errors demand treatments that differ +according to whether a defect or blemish is merely to be removed, +whether something else is to be drawn in place of the removed part, or +if something has been forgotten and is to be added. The area of the +correction also makes a difference. + +If it is only a matter of removing small defects or places, delicate +erasure will do. The same, or polishing with pumice, is done if the area +is larger. Then the corrected spots must be coated with a mixture of gum +and aquafortis, using a soft brush very carefully that it may not touch +any of the sound places. + +If something new is to be drawn in, the process is different. Ink-in the +stone very clean, and coat it with gum and water that is very thin and +delicate. Let it dry. Then scrape the defective places away very +carefully or grind them away by rubbing with pumice stone. Coat the +spots cautiously with soap-water or oil of turpentine and clean off +again as thoroughly as possible. (This coating is not necessary in the +case of a few isolated small lines or points.) Now draw in your new +design with chemical ink, and as soon as this is dry, etch the +corrections carefully with a small brush and then prepare with gum. + +The third case, where something has been forgotten, is treated almost +the same way. If it is only a very small thing, the stone need merely be +scraped carefully. Then the drawing may be put in, preferably with a +thicker ink. If the area is large, the stone must be ground where the +design is to be added, coated with soap-water or oil of turpentine, and +then treated as explained before. + +When the stone has been corrected and prepared for printing, it can be +used at once or set aside for some length of time. In the latter case it +should be inked with a firm color and coated delicately with gum +solution. Then it can be held as long as desired. Coating with gum +solution is advisable not merely for storing away, but for every +interruption of printing that lasts more than five minutes. + +If a stone has stood longer than a day without being freshly inked, it +must be wiped off first of all with gum solution and oil of turpentine, +that it may take the color well, so that the very first impression may +be perfect. During the progress of printing, the following points are +important: Uniform distribution of water, the same of printing-color, +frequent inking of the inking-roller, and the very greatest speed +possible. + +In the main points the brush process is like that of the pen. The chief +difference is that it is not possible to make the brush strokes as +strong as those with the pen. Therefore, brush work does not resist +etching so well and must not be treated too powerfully. Much depends on +the treatment of the brush and the consistency of the ink. The brush +does not permit such a flow of ink as does the pen, and generally +requires one that is more fluid. A good brush ink is made as follows:-- + +Mix two parts of pure white wax and one part of good tallow soap into a +mass not larger than a hazel nut. The ink loses its good properties +quickly and should be made fresh day by day. Mix the two materials with +a thick knife on a lukewarm (but positively not warm) stone, separate +into small parts and moisten with rain water. As soon as the water has +softened the mass a trifle, add as much lampblack as will lie on two +knife points and mix the whole mass together once more till it is +thoroughly mixed and quite firm. When required, a bit of this is rubbed +down in a clean saucer with rain water. + +As a better flow of ink is needed for brush work than for pen work, it +is evident that it would not be requisite to treat the stone with +soap-water and oil of turpentine, as for pen work. However, it often +pays to make certain fine lines with the pen, and therefore it is better +to combine both processes and prepare the stone as for pen work. It is +well, however, after drying the coating, to rub it very gently with dry +sand, which will not make the pen strokes flow to any extent and still +will prepare the stone so that it will take the brush strokes well and +not make necessary such strong etching. + +If a brush design is to be etched in high relief, for ease in printing +or for durability, it must be etched only to the extent absolutely +required at first. Then it must be prepared with gum and inked-in with +good acid-proof color. Set it aside for a while, that the color may +concentrate so that it will resist the acid well, and then etch the +stone to the desired degree. After etching, wash with water, coat with +gum and put aside to dry. Owing to this latter procedure any fine parts +that may have been unduly affected by the acid will adhere to the plate +anew and it can be printed then like a pen design. + +If pen and brush work are to be combined on a stone, and absolute +certainty is desired, that even the very finest lines shall not suffer +from etching, the following process will serve:-- + +Over the cleanly ground plate pour a solution of weakened but pure +aquafortis, about forty parts of water to one part of aquafortis. Repeat +this several times. Then pour a great deal of water over the stone, to +wash off all acid, and let it dry. Pen as well as brush work is easy on +such a stone, by using the proper ink for each method. When the work is +finished and dry, the stone is merely coated with gum solution. After a +few minutes it can be inked-in with acid-proof ink and treated as +described before. + + +II + +THE CRAYON METHOD + +The fat of the chemical ink penetrates the stone in dry form as well as +in fluid form, and makes the plate receptive to printing-color. If the +dry ink is cut into long pieces and sharpened, it can be used much like +lead or black crayon. If the stone is ground very smooth, the work can +be made quite fine and resembles that done with fluid ink. The crayon, +however, wears away too quickly. If the stone is ground rough, so that +instead of a polished surface it has one resembling rough paper, the +crayon work appears as a mass of dots that are coarser or finer +according to pressure with the crayon, and produce an effect similar to +crayon designs on paper. As almost every artist and painter knows how to +use crayon, no particular practice is required for working on stone, and +there are no obstacles such as the difficulty of using the steel pen. + +That crayon work on stone is capable of high perfection, and that it can +represent the essentials of a painting in a manner scarcely to be +excelled by the best copper-plate engraver, has been demonstrated by +many successful productions. Add to this that in no other style can one +work equally fast, either on copper or stone, and we see that the crayon +method is a genuine advantage for the art. + +For crayon work the stones must be uniform and hard. They must either be +new, or, if they have been used, they must be ground so thoroughly that +all traces of fat are destroyed and removed absolutely to a degree where +it is certain that they will not appear again and take color, even if +the stone is etched only lightly. As soon as the plates have been ground +true, they must be grained by strewing some fine sand or powdered +sandstone on them and rubbing in all directions with a small piece of +limestone. The work can be done dry or wet. Soap-water is best. It gives +the stone a handsome grain. Practice is demanded to get good results +without scratching the stone. The artist must decide for himself what +grain he needs. I think that it would be good if the artist himself were +to grain the stone in varying degrees according to the need of his +design. For instance, a coarser grain might be good for foregrounds. + +As soon as the stone has been grained, it must be cleansed perfectly +from dust and dirt. It is best to pour clean water over it and wash it +with a clean rag. The dust and sand must all be removed, otherwise they +will not let the crayon reach the stone where it is used delicately. + +When the design is finished, it should be set aside for a day, that it +may take good hold of the stone. It does no harm to let plates rest for +years before etching. Etching must be done by pouring. Painting the +etching fluid on is dangerous because of the danger of taking away fine +spots. About one hundred parts of water are used to one part of +aquafortis. Everything depends on not etching a bit more than necessary. +It is best to etch the coarser parts specially with a small brush and +stronger etching solution, and it is very good to wash the stone with +clean water after etching and let it dry completely before coating with +gum. + +When the stone has been prepared, it should not be cleansed at once with +oil of turpentine, but should be inked-in first with a light +printing-color. Only after it has taken this well should it be cleansed +of the crayon and treated to a firmer color. In the first inking-in +there should be very little pressure with the sponge or wet cloth when +dampening it, as the lightest parts of the design are easily rubbed away +before they have taken color. If such parts should vanish, the easiest +way to restore them is as follows:-- + +Coat the plate with gum solution and wipe with a clean dry cloth till it +is perfectly dry. Then take a flat, knife-like instrument of steel, +which is cleanly ground so that it has no nicks or other defects that +might injure the stone. Scrape with moderate pressure to and fro over +the defective places, but only so that it touches the elevated points +and not the surface of the stone itself. Smear a little fat, such as +linseed oil varnish, over it and wash this away again instantly with gum +solution. Generally the parts all reappear very nicely when the stone is +inked-in again. + +A second kind of correction is as follows: Ink the stone with firm +color, wash it well with plenty of pure water and let it dry. Now redraw +the lost places with crayon. + +Printing crayon work is the most difficult of all lithography, but can +be done perfectly if all necessary precautions are taken. These are +mainly: (_a_) proper dampening of the paper; (_b_) perfect dampening of +the stone;--too much meaning that the fine points will not take color +well, too little making the stone smut easily; (_c_) good stretching of +the leather, industrious lubrication, and an underlay of taffeta; (_d_) +a good, finely mixed inking-color that will not shade off in printing +and yet does not contain too much lampblack; (_e_) soft and well-dried +ink-rollers; (_f_) proper tension of the press; (_g_) utmost possible +speed in printing. The latter aids enormously, because the stone does +not get so much time to dry out. + +Aside from the spreading and running-together of the darker parts, one +of the commonest faults of crayon work is that it is very liable to get +a tone, which spreads over the whole design like a veil; or that the +designs lose their firmness and appear "monotonic" because the shadings +spread and thicken. The first fault comes from weak etching or from oil +that was rancid when it was used to prepare the varnish. The latter +fault makes the color adhere and smut the stone. The same fault is +developed if the printing-color contains soap, which some printers mix +into it for better adherence. It can occur also if the stone has lost +its preparation owing to frequent cleansing and strong rubbing with a +dry rag that is inky. Even strong rubbing with clean water can cause it +if the rag contains fats. + +As to the "monotonic" effect, it is frequent, and I have learned that it +can be caused in two ways, namely, if the color is squashed continually +during the print, which makes the stone sooty; or if the color spreads, +as, for instance, during the night or during the noonday rest. The stone +is prepared only on the surface. In the pen style, all lines are +prepared on the sides also, so that they cannot spread because they are +considerably more elevated than the crayon designs. + +If a crayon design dries after printing and is not coated properly with +gum, the color is liable to spread away from the design and give the +plate the before-mentioned tone. Even if it is coated with gum, the +color will spread, at least in the inner parts of the stone; and as soon +as the very thin surface has been at all wiped away by rough usage, the +underlying fattiness will appear gradually, and begin to take color. + +Both faults of crayon work, namely, the taking of tone and the +development of a "monotonic" condition, can be remedied by inking the +plate for a while with a firmer color. If this does not help, the +following must be resorted to: Ink-in the plate as well as possible, lay +it in the etching-trough and pour over it very weak aquafortis once or +twice. Then wash it with pure water and paint the gum solution over it. +The etching must be done with great caution, with a solution so weak +that the acid is scarcely perceptible. If the plate is to be saved at +all without extensive corrections and re-drawing, this is the best way. +If it is done correctly, it harms the design so little that I advise it +even when the plate looks quite well, but has been standing very long +after the first printing. + +I have etched several crayon designs over again, and rather extensively, +to make them more durable and facilitate printing, and with good +success. This gives the further advantage that corrections can be made +at the same time. + +The correction of crayon designs, that have been etched already and used +for printing, always has been so difficult a task that few have +succeeded. This has led me to give the matter my best attention; and I +hope that the following rules, based on many experiments, will show the +way, at least, even if they do not produce absolute results. + +When a copper-plate engraver has partially finished his plate, he can +have a proof pulled to enable him to study his work. Then he can make +corrections as he pleases,--an advantage that the stone worker has +lacked hitherto. + +To produce an impression that shall be faithful to all the beauties of a +crayon design is a matter dependent on so many trivial details that of +the many hundred crayon designs that have been produced by lithographers +since the origin of the art, hardly one has realized the designer's +hopes and ambitions. The commonest fault is that the more delicate +parts of the design print too light and the heavier ones too dark, +thus destroying the balance of tones. The lightening occurs because +the finest parts of the design have lost their power of taking +printing-color. The darkening occurs because the closely shaded parts +flow together, either because the etching has not made enough white +space between the points and lines or because they are squashed in the +pressure of printing. + +From this, two other faults may arise, that become visible after +inking-in the plate: The first is the appearance of white dots, +sometimes pretty large. The second is that black dots and smut-marks +appear. + +The white dots are caused by speaking during the work, and thus dropping +spittle on the plate. If the spittle is mucous, the plate covers itself +there with a fine crust that resists the chemical crayon so that it does +not soak into the stone and is wiped away by the inking-in. If the +spittle is fatty,--for instance, if one has eaten anything greasy,--the +dots that appear will be black. The same results from touching the plate +with fatty hands. Sometimes a whole picture of the fingers and skin will +appear on the impression. + +Let us suppose that after inking-in, a plate shows all these faults: the +finest shadings vanished entirely, the darker places run together, white +and black dots and smut-marks so that the plate has become useless in +every respect. Can this be remedied? If so, how? + +I answer that it can be remedied in every point; but that the artist +himself must decide if it will not pay better to do the whole design +anew. + +The second question I answer as follows:-- + +Before everything else, it is necessary to remove all that should not be +on the stone, all smut-marks and black dots; and where the design has +darkened, white points or lights must be graved-in. To accomplish this, +the stone is inked-in first with a firm acid-proof color, and over this +with a lighter one. Then erase or grind away the dirt that is outside of +the design and that would dirty the margin of the printing-paper. No +erasing or grinding must be done within the design itself because then +the grain would be destroyed and the necessary drawing could not be done +as it should be. Therefore the faulty parts must be removed by +engraving, with a more or less sharp needle of good steel, so that what +remains looks quite like a good grain. A little practice will show that +this work is not at all difficult and can be done quickly. Places that +have run together can be cleared and made transparent and clean in a few +minutes. If certain points have become too large, they can be corrected +by engraving a white point in their centre or by engraving a line +through them. + +Here I must note that parts of crayon designs thicken sometimes because +the crayon has slipped in drawing, without leaving traces perceptible at +the time. If the etching is weak, it may happen easily that this place +takes printing-color. Skillful engraving may not only correct the +defect, but actually gives the design a beautiful tone and power such as +cannot be easily produced by the crayon itself. + +When the plate has been cleansed thus of all surplus and blemishes, weak +aquafortis is poured over it several times and then it is coated with +gum. After a few minutes it is inked-in with fairly firm color. Then it +will be seen that the design is clean, but that all the parts that were +too light are not darker, but perhaps even lighter, having been affected +by the etching. To remedy this, coat the stone with gum solution and +then wipe it off with a dry clean rag so thoroughly that only a thin +film of gum remains behind. To judge this better, it is well to mix a +little red chalk with the gum. When the plate is wholly dry, take a +knife-like tool of steel as described before, and scrape the defective +parts under moderate pressure, without injuring the elevated points of +the design. Great care must be taken during this process to let no +moisture, not even the breath, touch the stone, because that would +produce the very opposite of what is aimed at. When all faulty places +have been treated, a little tallow or linseed oil is smeared over the +plate and then washed away well but gently with thin gum and water. If +this manipulation has been done accurately, the lost parts of the design +will appear when the plate is inked with a somewhat softer color. + +Those who fear that they do not possess the skill necessary for this +rubbing-up of the defective parts may attain the object by re-drawing +them. The stone must be washed off first with a great deal of very pure +water and the crayon must contain much soap. This kind of correction +must be finished as quickly as possible and the stone should not be set +aside for any length of time without a gum coating. If the corrections +are extensive, it is better first to ink the stone well with acid-proof +color and then to wash it in pure water and let it dry. Then if it is +inked-in after the design is finished, and if weak aquafortis is poured +over it and it is prepared with gum, it will keep for several months. + +Slight blemishes, white specks, etc., can best be corrected by gentle +touching-up with crayon during the proof-printing on the wet plate. It +is understood, of course, that one can also work with pen or brush in a +crayon design that has been already etched. Parts that are too dark can +be made lighter by passing over them a few times with a brush dipped in +weak aquafortis and then re-coating with gum. + +These are about the best ways for correcting a crayon design that proves +after etching to be imperfect. + +I close with the following:-- + +(1) The tanners of Munich manufacture an inking-ball, made especially +for printing, of sheepskin, such as I could not obtain in other places, +like London, Offenbach, and Vienna. It is not white like alum-dressed +leather, but yellowish, and the oil has not been completely washed out. +I have had dogskin and thin calfskin worked in the same way and have +found them even better, because of their greater durability. If a roller +is covered with this leather, so that the side that was hairy comes +outermost (not innermost as many do), it develops a decided property of +taking-on color, probably because of its smoothness and elasticity. This +aids much in spreading the color uniformly over the stone. The property +is increased if the roller is dampened slightly before being inked; but +on the contrary, if the stone is kept too wet, the constant moisture +will gradually prepare the roller, so to speak, and it will take less +color and let it go quickly, thus inking the stone badly. + +If a roller has been used a long time, it loses its elasticity and +softness and becomes useless for fine work. Still worse is a roller that +has hardened from the drying of the ink. It is surprising to see what a +difference it makes if one has worked for a time with a poor roller and +then replaces it with a good one. It is almost impossible to believe +that the new impressions come from the same stone. I am inclined, +therefore, to believe that the quality of the ink-roller has more effect +on good impressions of crayon and fine pen work than even the quality of +the printing-color. + +As stated, it is well to change rollers frequently, and it is wise to +clean them with linseed oil or butter after use to keep them soft and +tender. In working on crayon designs of superior value I advise the use +of new rollers. + +(2) It has been remarked before that the color of the stone often +deceives the artist as to the values and proportions of his work and +that the designs always look better on the soft-colored stone than they +do on the glaring white paper. This observation led to printing on paper +tinted like the stone, and the results fulfilled expectations. There +were difficulties however. The very best quality of this paper is +extremely dear, and other qualities had the property of dirtying the +stone, on account of the coloring-matter used for tinting them. +Therefore the attempt was made to print the design on white paper and to +color it afterwards. Here, too, there arose many inconveniences, so that +at last there came the thought of laying a yellow tint over the +impression by means of a second printing. This method proved to be not +only the most economical and quick, but it had the further advantage +that the margins of the paper could be left white, thus enhancing the +value of the design. Hardly had it been used with success a few times +before Herr Piloty conceived the idea of printing the high lights into +the design with white printing-color, so that the impressions would +resemble actual drawings. My experiments toward that end did not result +satisfactorily, because no white oil color will print well enough; and I +proposed that the high lights be engraved into the tint plate and thus +permit the original white of the paper to show. So there came that kind +of crayon impression with one or more tint plates, which has become so +popular that various art connoisseurs hold it to be the triumph of the +lithographic art. + +To make and print these tone plates, I have thought out many ways; but +as I am sure that they will suggest themselves to those who have grasped +my text-book, I will describe only the best of them all. + +Take a stone of good average quality, the best not being essential, and +grind it as for crayon work with a grain not too coarse. When it is +clean and dry, cover it uniformly with the following chemical ink, which +must be laid on so thickly that it surely will resist the aquafortis +sufficiently, yet not so very thickly that it will hinder the drawing-in +of the lights later on. + +The chemical ink for use on the tone plates is made of four parts wax, +one part soap, and two parts vermilion. The two first materials are +melted in a clean vessel over a moderate fire and then the vermilion is +stirred in. + +A piece of ink as large as a hazel nut is rubbed down in a clean coffee +cup and then dissolved in rain water till it is just fluid enough to lie +evenly and nicely on the plate when applied with a soft brush. + +When the stone thus has been painted red, it must be permitted to dry +thoroughly. When it is dry, a strong impression of the design is made on +sized but well-dampened paper with a printing-color rather soft than +firm. Before the paper has a chance to dry and thus to shrink, the red +stone is placed in the press and the impression is laid on it face down. +Use moderate pressure. The drawing will transfer itself to the red +surface, but the paper will stick. Wet it with weak aquafortis till it +is completely softened and permits itself to be removed. Care must be +taken not to spoil the drawing by violent wiping and rubbing. + +This method is easier if a special transfer paper is used. Coat +well-sized, very clean paper with a thin paste of starch such as +laundresses use for stiffening linen. This paper must not be dampened +very much, because then it will not take the impression well. It also is +removed from the tone plate by washing with weak aquafortis and it +yields very easily, because the paste lets go of the color readily. + +When the design has been transferred to the tone plate, take good iron +instruments and remove the wax surface wherever the high lights are +desired. As the stone is ground rough, the scraping will produce only +small specks at first, because the instrument will touch only the relief +points. The more the scraping proceeds, the deeper it will go, till at +last one reaches the bottom of the coating and thus obtains a white +light. Experts can so manipulate the tint plates that the lights will be +graduated from the softest to the most glaring. + +As soon as the lights are drawn in, the margins of the drawing are +scraped the same way. Then the plate is treated to several washings of +pretty strong aquafortis, about twenty parts of water to one part of +aquafortis. After coating with gum, it is ready for printing. + +The most important requisite for this printing is a good arrangement +that will insure an exact register of the second impression with the +first, that the lights may appear exactly where they belong. + +To achieve this, the practice used to be to draw two register marks on +the stone holding the original design, which were transferred to the +tint plate with the rest of the design. When the first impression was +made, the printed paper was cut away exactly at the marked points, and +laid accurately, on the tone plate, being guided by the two marks there. +This was effective, but it had the fault that the paper had to be +trimmed off carefully for each impression and that the slightest +inaccuracy spoiled the register. However, it is very useful for printing +proofs. + +It is far better to have a printing-frame that is so fixed that it will +never shift its position in the slightest degree. To this is fastened a +little movable frame that has two steel needles whose position is +adjustable at will. Lubricate the leather inside with wax and lay a +sheet of white paper on it. See that the tint plate is so fastened in +the press that it cannot stir out of place. Make an impression and take +care especially that the two register marks print off well. Now set the +needles in the little frame so that they will be exactly over these two +marks. If, then, an impression of the design is laid on so that the two +guiding-marks on it come exactly under the two needles, it will, of +course, register perfectly. Of course the little frame must be so +adjusted that it can be folded back out of the way before each +impression, and the printing-frame must hold the sheets of paper so that +they cannot move. + +To color the tint plate, use a firm varnish tinted with umber, or any +other color that will give the desired effect. New rollers are best, +insuring a fine, even, unspotted tone. + +(3) In rough-grinding the stones, it is difficult to prevent scratches +and furrows caused by the coarse sand. No design of value should be made +on such a stone, but if one is used, the defects should be touched up +with chemical ink and a fine brush, as crayon will hardly do it. + +(4) As the delicate places in crayon work are not durable, etching +having the property of reducing the light portions and darkening the +darker ones, I tried the method of drawing the lighter portions on a +separate stone in rather stronger manner and printing from it with paler +ink. The success was so great that I hope in time to produce true +masterpieces with the aid of skilled artists, and here call attention to +it in advance. + +(5) After learning how to make a second impression over a first one, it +is not difficult to pass on to printing with several stones and from +that going on to color-printing. In the early days of my invention I +tried color-printing with a crayon plate and had the best success by +using stencils such as are used by the painters of cards. On oiled stiff +paper I made as many impressions of a design as there were to be colors. +Then all that was to be red was cut out from one stencil, green from +another, and so forth. Then the stone was wetted, the stencil laid on it +and the uncovered parts of the stones inked-in with the right color. +After all the colors had been applied, I made the impression, which +generally looked neat enough, but still resembled a sketchy drawing +rather than a painting, because no color except black, zinc red, and +dark blue permitted itself to be printed strongly enough. But by using +several stones, each of which can be designed and treated according to +the necessities of color, impressions can be made that resemble the +English colored copper prints very closely, especially if the crayon and +pen or brush methods are united. + +(6) A stone plate may be etched so that it will have the roughness +needed for crayon work. Grind it as clean and smooth as possible with +pumice, pour aquafortis over it and coat with gum. Wash it well in water +and dry with a clean cloth. Coat it very thinly but uniformly with +tallow into which is mixed a little lampblack, so that one can see if +the coating is perfectly even. With a small ball or roller covered with +fine cloth, roll or pat the stone till it has a very uniform tone. Now +pour a little diluted aquafortis on one end as a test to see if it +penetrates uniformly through the fatty coating. Practice is needed to +hit just the right thickness that the tallow coating must be. It must be +thin, and yet sufficiently thick to resist the aquafortis somewhat, so +that it yields only at those places where the roughness of the cloth on +the roller has removed it more or less. + +If the test is satisfactory, make a raised border of wax around the +stone and pour the aquafortis solution on it. A solution of forty parts +of water to one part of aquafortis is better than a stronger one because +the stones are more equally attacked. As soon as the resulting bubbles +are as large as the head of a small pin, the etching fluid is poured +away quickly and replaced with pure water to get rid of the bubbles. +Pour away the water and apply etching fluid again. Repeat this four or +five times, according to the grain desired, and in the end wash the +stone well with oil of turpentine to remove all fattiness. Then it must +be washed with weak but very pure aquafortis, followed by a great deal +of very pure water. After cleaning and drying very carefully with a +clean rag, it is ready for use; and if the work has been well done, a +grain will have been produced that is prettier and much more even than +can be produced by rubbing with sand. + +(7) The instructions given here teach how to draw on a stone that has +been prepared beforehand with aquafortis and gum. This is not in the +least inimical to the durability of the design if only the union of the +gum with the stone has been destroyed again by washing afterward with +diluted but pure aquafortis and every trace of this acid again has been +removed by copious washing with pure water. If there is a considerable +amount of the soap in the crayon, the good result will be greater than +with an entirely clean stone, because, since it has already been etched +twice, the etching after the design may be very limited, so that it is +not harmful to even the most delicate shadings in the design. + +(8) Some attempts made by me to etch crayon designs more powerfully than +usual proved that the more delicate places would suffer, but if I +rubbed them up with a flat knife as described before, they appeared +again and I had the advantage that the whole plate was much better +prepared than it is with weak etching. + +(9) If a crayon plate is spoiled in printing through carelessness or +lack of skill, the rules for remedying the trouble are the same as those +named for pen work, and the judgment of the worker must decide which +method is the most applicable. In general, it may be assumed that the +best remedy for blurred spots is to draw them over again with crayon; +and for smutted parts the best is to apply firmer printing-color, or to +cleanse with oil of turpentine and gum and afterward ink-in with +acid-proof ink, and then use light etching with weak aquafortis followed +always by coating with gum and water. + + +III + +TRANSFER AND TRACING + +In the pen and crayon method all the lines that are to take +printing-color are drawn directly on the stone with a fatty preparation. +But lithography has a unique way of transferring to the stone a drawing +or inscription that is first put on paper with the fatty substance. This +is possible only for lithography, and I incline to the belief that it is +the most important of all my inventions. It makes it unnecessary to +learn reverse writing. Everybody who can write on paper with ordinary +ink can do so with the chemical transfer ink, and this writing can then +be transferred to the stone and manifolded indefinitely. In Munich and +Petersburg this method has been introduced for government work. The +measures adopted in council are written during the session by the +secretary, with chemical ink on paper, and sent to the printery. Within +an hour impressions are ready to distribute among the members. I am +convinced that within ten years every European Government will have a +lithographic establishment. + +In war the method would have a great value. It would replace the field +printery, and it permits greater speed and secrecy. The commander need +merely write his orders himself and have them printed in his presence by +a man who cannot read, to be sure that his plans will not be betrayed. +The engineer officers can draw plans and have them circulated among the +officers who need them. + +Authors and scientists will find the method to be the means of +circulating their works in manuscript very cheaply. + +Even artists will respect the method when its gradual perfection enables +them to draw their pictures on paper with ink or crayon and reproduce +them. + +Not from boastfulness, but from conviction of the importance of the +method, have I thus recounted its advantages. I could fill a whole book +with detailed explanations. I wish to gain friends for the method, that +it may be improved to its ultimate degree by skilled artists. + +The chemical ink used for the paper may be soft or firm. The paper may +be specially prepared or not. The stone may be warm or cold. The design +leaves the paper entirely and clings to the stone, or does so only +partly. To describe all this would take too much space. I will describe +only the method that I consider best, namely, a method under which the +work is done with a soft ink, and transferred to an unwarmed stone. This +is the quickest and surest, and has the advantage of not spoiling the +original. + +In a clean coffee cup rub down a piece, as large as a hazel nut, of the +chemical ink described under the heading "Transfer Ink" in an earlier +part of this work. Dissolve with rain water or soft river water. The +amount of water is determined according to the need for fine or coarse +work. In the latter case, the ink should be thinner, that there may not +be too much ink in the design after it dries. + +While the writing or design is drying, select a stone that either has +not been used before or at least has been thoroughly ground off, and +grind it down once more with pure and dry pumice stone without water, +until it is certain that all parts of the surface have been rubbed down +so thoroughly that the stone may properly be considered a new one. Clean +away the dust with clean paper, fasten the stone in the press, examine +the scraper to make sure that it is even, adjust the press for the +proper pressure; in a word, do all that is necessary for good +impressions. From this time on the greatest care must be taken not to +touch the polished stone with as much as a finger, not to mention +keeping grease and dirt away from it. + +As soon as every point in the design on the paper is perfectly dry, wet +it on the reverse side with a sponge dipped into weak but pure +aquafortis until the paper is quite soft. Lay it between waste paper +sheets for a time, to prevent it from pulling out of shape and to remove +the excess moisture. It must be soft, but not wet, when the impression +is made. + +Lay the paper face down on the stone. On it lay two sheets of dry waste +paper, then an equally large piece of taffeta, another sheet of waste +paper and make the transfer print with a moderately swift motion of the +press, which must have more tension than is used for ordinary +impressions. The power of a lever press is insufficient for larger +stones, and a cylinder press is required. + +After a few minutes the stone is withdrawn from the press, the paper is +lifted off and the stone permitted to dry for a minute. It is better if +one can wait longer. Then put it into the etching-trough, and pour over +it, quickly and only once, a clean but weak solution of one hundred +parts of water to one part of aquafortis. It is necessary to be skillful +enough to cover the whole surface with one application. Then the stone +is washed by pouring pure water over it, and, if time permits, set aside +to dry. If time is limited, the gum solution to prepare the stone can be +put on at once. Now the transfer is on the stone, properly etched and +prepared. To make clean impressions, however, the printing-color must +first be rubbed on, then the stone must be inked-in with acid-proof +color and after that undergo another etching, a trifle stronger. + +To rub on the printing-color, rub a little acid-proof color into a piece +of clean linen or cotton, so that it is well permeated but not thickly +covered. Rub this rag gently to and fro over the transfer while the gum +is still on it, till every part of the design is nicely inked. This +rubbing-in of color is an important part of many of the processes that +will be described later. + +Now clean the stone well with water, ink-in with acid-proof ink, and +etch it again as has been described several times. Then it is ready for +printing. The last etching is not necessary if only a few impressions +are desired. + +Transfer is applicable not only for pen designs but also for crayon. The +crayon used for the purpose should be softened a little with tallow, or, +if the harder crayon is used, the stone should be warmed when making the +transfer. But it must not be inked-in or have color rubbed on, until it +is quite cold again. For crayon transfer the paper used generally is +fine drawing-paper. It must be wetted with somewhat stronger aquafortis +that it may release the crayon more readily. The rest of the process is +the same. + +Besides these two methods, the transfer process can be used for all +products of the book-printer's art, type as well as wood-cut. A freshly +printed sheet can be transferred directly to a stone, especially if the +printer has used our before-mentioned acid-proof ink instead of his +ordinary printer's ink. To get a perfectly clear transfer it is +necessary merely to see that the printer does not use too much overlay, +which would stamp the type too deeply into the paper; and that before +trying to transfer the printed sheet to the stone it is subjected to +gentle pressure in the press to free it from all inequalities. To do +this without at the same time risking any loss of ink which might +subsequently weaken the transfer, the sheet is well wetted, laid on a +clean, wet stone that has been prepared so that it will not have any +inclination to take color, and subjected to a very slight pressure, the +press being used with almost no tension. This makes the printed sheet +beautifully even. Then if it is transferred to a stone properly prepared +as described before, the transfer will be perfect. + +Even old book pages can be freshened up and transferred. I have spoken +already of those that are on unsized paper. With prints on sized paper +the method is as follows:-- + +Make a paint-like mixture of fine chalk and starch paste. Thin it down +with water and paint the sheet. Dip a bit of linen rag into a thin color +made of thin varnish and tallow tinted with vermilion. Touch-up the wet +paper with the rag till every bit of type has taken red color. Pour +clean water over it and touch-up the paper everywhere with a ball of +fine cloth stuffed with horsehair. This will remove all surplus color. +Continue this till the type matter is only faintly red. Then the paper +must be washed very thoroughly with many pourings of water and laid +between waste paper sheets to remove all surplus moisture. The transfer +and so on must be done then as in the other cases. + +Good transfers can be made also from a copper-plate engraving if the +copper-plate impression is made with our acid-proof ink. The ordinary +copper-plate ink is not so good. It will be self-evident that designs on +stone can be transferred and reproduced the same way. + +The tracing process has the property in common with the transfer process +that it transmits only a small amount of fattiness to the stone and +requires subsequent rubbing-in of color to give it strength. + +Coat a piece of thin and clean vellum paper with tallow and lampblack +and wipe it off again as neatly as possible, so that there remains only +a thin film, which will not smut the stone when laid face down, unless +pressure is exerted. Now draw on this with a clean English lead pencil +that contains no sand, or with a composition of lead, zinc, and bismuth, +and the pressure will force the design on the stone and transfer its +fat, which then penetrates the stone and will give impressions. In +preparing a stone thus made, greater care in etching is necessary than +even in the transfer process. Very weak aquafortis solution must be +used. + +The process is something between pen and crayon work. It is quite +applicable for sketches and pictures that are to be illuminated. + + +IV + +CONCERNING THE WOOD-CUT STYLE + +For this purpose, the stone is coated completely with chemical ink on +the places where this style is to be used. As soon as it is dry, the +lights are drawn into it with a steel engraving-needle that is ground to +a sharp or broad point according to requirement. Those parts that are to +be very white, with fine lines and specks, are best drawn in with the +pen. Thus the wood-cut style differs from the ordinary pen design +chiefly in character and in the treatment of the darker parts. Its +practice is much easier on the stone than on wood, and it can be +combined with crayon work. Etching, preparation, and printing are the +same as with other styles. + + +V + +TWO KINDS OF TOUCHE DRAWING + +One of these resembles the wood-cut style in method but in effect +approaches copper-plate work. The stone is grained as for crayon, +etched, prepared with gum, cleansed with water, coated well with +soap-water, wiped, dried, and finally coated with a thin, colored +covering of fat, by either coating with acid-proof ink or with hard +chemical ink. + +This first etching and preparation are required to prevent the fat to be +applied afterward from penetrating too deeply into the stone, so that it +may adhere only to the surface. + +Now the design is made on it with a steel scraper. The manipulation is +like that for making tint plates. It demands greater care, however, and +better etching. + +The completed design is etched (phosphoric acid being best) and coated +with gum. A few drops of oil of turpentine are poured on and all the +color is wiped away with a woolen rag, but without any rough rubbing. +Then the plate can be inked-in with fairly firm acid-proof ink. + +The second method would excel crayon work if it were perfected. I have +advanced pretty far with it. It is an imitation of the ordinary wash +drawing which is done with a brush and dissolved Chinese ink on paper. + +The stone, which must be very clean and free from all fat, is grained, +coated with soap-water, cleaned with oil of turpentine, and dried. Then +a hard chemical ink, which may contain a little more soap than usual, or +the ink described for brush work, is dissolved in pure rain water and +used on the stone with a brush just as it would be used on paper. + +When the design is finished and very well dried, the entire surface of +the stone is rubbed gently with a fine cloth, in order to perforate the +color with tiny holes everywhere. As it will perforate more readily in +the parts where the ink has been laid on thinly, the succeeding +aquafortis will eat through there more easily, and thus the etching will +correspond nicely with the tones of the design. It is necessary, +however, to know the strength of the acid and the resisting power of the +ink very accurately. It is well to experiment and write down the best +proportions. In any case, the etching fluid must not be too strong and +the etching must not be done by pouring or brushing, but in the copper +etcher's manner, by framing the stone with wax so that the fluid will +lie on the stone. As soon as the resulting bubbles reach the magnitude +of a pin's head, the fluid is poured off instantly and then poured on +again till the bubbles reappear. How long this must be continued depends +on the strength of the ink. + +It is understood, of course, that the etched stone must then be coated +with gum. + + +VI + +THE SPATTER METHOD + +This speedy and easily executed style surely will come into wide use +soon. It is done as follows:-- + +The outlines of a design are laid on a stone prepared for pen work, by +tracing. Then they are traced again, say four times, on sheets of paper. +On each sheet everything that falls into the category of one of the four +chief tones is cut out with a sharp penknife so that the four sheets are +like the stencils of card painters. Now the chief lines of the design +are made on the stone with chemical ink, using either brush or pen. Lay +one of the stencils on it exactly, weight it that it may not move, and +perform the operation of spattering. + +This is done by dipping a small brush, such as a clean toothbrush, into +chemical ink and scraping it with a knife so that the ink is spattered +over the stone. Care must be exercised not to have too much ink in the +brush, for fear of blots or over-large spattering. After practice it +will be possible to produce such fine and uniform dots as cannot +possibly be produced by the pen. After the desired grade of shading has +been achieved, the stone is permitted to dry. Then the second stencil is +laid on and the operation repeated till all have been used. If enough +stencils are made, the whole design can be made by spattering. It is not +necessary, however, to make many, as the design has to be finished up by +hand afterward anyway. + +This finishing-up is done first with the engraving-needle, which opens +and decreases all dots that are too large, and then with the pen, which +brings out the true proportions of the various tones. + + +VII + +TOUCHE WITH SEVERAL PLATES + +This really is only a process of using many tint plates. It makes +splendid effects possible, equal to any produced by an artist with +Chinese ink, and deserves the attention of all artists, especially as it +is the easiest and quickest of all methods, even though it is a little +circumstantial in the printing. + +Draw the outlines of a design on the stone in chemical ink with pen or +brush, and then make four, five, or six transfers on stone plates +prepared for pen work. Register marks must be on the design. Now draw-in +the darkest parts on the first plate, the less dark ones on the second, +the lighter ones on the third, and so on till the whole design is +finished. The work is best done with a brush. One or more of the stones +may be designed with crayon; but the number of stones designed with ink +must be greater, in order to make the grain of the crayon designs +unnoticeable. + +The etching is done as in pen work. For each stone the printing-color is +chosen according to the tone of its design. Of course particular +accuracy is vital; but the artist should not permit the apparent +difficulties to frighten him, as he will see very soon after trial that +no other method produces such beautiful results. + + +VIII + +COLOR-PRINTING WITH MANY PLATES + +This method, in which the various colors are drawn on several stones, +either with pen or crayon, resembles the one just described. + +According to treatment the impressions will resemble a painting, a +copper-plate engraving in color, or an illuminated copper-plate +engraving, if the color stones are used merely to lay colors over a +design already printed in its entirety in black. + +The whole process is so like the preceding one that I need merely +recount the colors that I have found serviceable for the purpose. + +RED. Vermilion, red lake of cochineal, fine madder lake, and finally +carmine if it is mixed first with Venetian turpentine before being +combined with varnish, as otherwise it inclines to separate from the +varnish and unite with water, staining the whole printing-paper red. + +BLUE. Berlin blue and mineral blue. Use only a small amount, sufficient +for a few hours. These colors dry quickly, and, besides, make the +varnish too tough, so that they must be thinned down from time to time +with a little linseed oil. Fine indigo is very good, also a blue lake +that is made of logwood and verdigris. This latter is not durable in +sunlight. + +I have had no success as yet with green or yellow. + +Verdigris is difficult to manipulate because it smuts the stone easily +and does not tolerate many mixtures. Schweinfurther green, one of the +new colors, is much better in all respects, but not dark enough. +Mixtures of yellow lake with indigo or mineral blue are not very +durable. Golden yellow ochre with mineral blue or indigo does not +produce a pretty green, and King's yellow mixed with blue is handsome +but not durable. Neapolitan yellow and the newer chrome yellow with blue +produce a green that is not dark enough. + +I have obtained the handsomest and darkest green by printing the design +blue first and then printing over it a yellow plate, so that the yellow +lay over the blue. By using Berlin blue and fine ochre a fairly handsome +color is produced. On account of its loss of color in water, ochre +cannot be used unless Venetian turpentine is first mixed with the +varnish. + +A handsome and at the same time dark yellow is equally hard to obtain. +Till a good color is invented, we must content ourselves with ochre, +Terra de Sienna, Neapolitan yellow, mineral yellow or chrome. + +This printing with various colors is a process for which the stone is +superior; and it is susceptible of such perfection that in future true +paintings will be produced by its means. My experience convinces me of +this. + + +IX + +GOLD AND SILVER PRINTING + +This process is useful for decoration. + +Those parts of the design that are to appear in gold or silver are drawn +with chemical ink on a stone prepared for pen work. After the drawing is +dry, it is etched and prepared in the usual way. The printing is done +with a silver gray color of firm varnish, fine crayon and a very little +lampblack. The paper must be entirely dry and very smooth. Soon after +the impression has been made, the printed parts are covered with silver +or gold leaf such as is used by gilders. It is pressed on slightly with +cotton, that it may adhere, and then a sheet of paper is laid over it. +Then the second impression is made, treated the same way, and so on. + +No more impressions must be made than one can cover with silver or gold +in two hours. If the ink is on the paper too long, it will draw in and +not take the metal well. After gilding or silvering, the sheets must lie +for some hours or till the next day, that the ink may take perfect hold +of the paper, so that, in the succeeding pressing, it will not penetrate +the metal and make it look sooty. The pressing is done by laying six or +eight impressions on a clean stone under the press and passing them +through as for printing, with the proper tension. This tension must be +adjusted according to the firmness of the printing-color; therefore it +is best to make test with one sheet. Then, if the metal does not adhere +sufficiently, the pressure can be increased. + +In the end all surplus gold or silver is removed by gentle wiping with +clean cotton. This is easy, as it will have fastened itself only to the +printed parts. If the impressions can be set aside for some days without +being wiped, it is better, and there is not so much danger of injuring +the brilliancy of the metal. + +If gold and silver are to be printed on designs where there is other +color also, or where there is black, the print on which the metal is to +be applied must always be made first. Only when the sheets have been +gilded or silvered, pressed, wiped, and cleaned, is the black design to +be printed on from the next plate. That all this must be done with the +register marks previously described is, of course, self-evident. + +So I close my description of the Relief method; and I hope that I have +made it all so clear that good results will come to all who follow my +directions. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +INTAGLIO METHOD + + +This differs from the other in that the fat, which is to attract the +printing-color, is under the surface of the stone, the design having +been either engraved-in or etched, and then filled with fat. + +Like the preceding method, it has several branches. The best are +these:-- + + +I + +THE LINE ENGRAVED STYLE + +This is one of the most useful branches of lithography, and if the +artist has attained enough skill and the printer knows his trade, it +approaches very near to the handsomest copper plates, and at the same +time is about three times easier and quicker than work on copper. It is +splendidly adapted for writings and charts. + +Choose a hard, uniform stone of the best kind. Grind it as finely as +possible. Etch with aquafortis and prepare with gum. This, at least, was +my early method, and it has remained in use in all printeries. Later, +however, I discovered that it is almost better to coat the stone with +gum without previous etching, because it can be more easily worked then. +Only in that case it must be perfectly clean and contain no concealed +fattiness. Immediately after the stone has been coated with gum (not +some hours later, as many do) the gum must be removed with water, that +it may not penetrate too deeply and thus cause a condition which will +prevent the finest lines from taking on color subsequently. + +Then coat the plate with a tint made of gum solution and lampblack or +red chalk. Use a soft brush to make the coating very thin and uniform. +It has the double purpose, first, of giving the stone a color so that +the engraver can see his work, and of covering the prepared surface of +the stone with a protective coat that later will admit the fatty +printing-color only where it has been pierced by the engraving-tool. It +is evident that this latter property is increased according to the +amount of gum in it, yet only little gum must be used in it, the +permissible amount being only just enough to insure that the coating +shall not be easily wiped away during the work of engraving. + +The stone must be absolutely dry before any work is done on it. Then the +design is traced on it, or drafted directly on it with lead. Transfer by +printing from paper is not advisable, because the resulting fattiness of +the design makes the graver slip. + +For the actual work of engraving there is no counsel to be given except +to choose good and sharp needles of the very best steel, hard enough to +cut glass; and that all lines must be graved clean. There must be no +excessive pressure, and in wide strokes there must be no excessive +depths. In making very fine lines the stone should merely be touched by +the tool. If they appear white, and a little fine dust is observed, one +may be certain that they will appear properly in the printing. Broad +lines often can be made with one stroke of a flat needle, but generally +they are made by continued, gradual scraping. If the stone is to be only +lightly wiped during printing, the broad lines must not be deeper than +strictly necessary to make them clear, as otherwise they will squash. In +true art works, however, which are to be printed with firm color and +under more powerful rubbing and wiping, the depths of all lines must be +considered carefully, as they will print darker or lighter according to +depth. + +Of all things the worker must take heed against touching the stone with +dirty or greasy hands, for a plate thus blemished is not only difficult +to engrave, but the grease finally may penetrate through the slightly +gummed coating and enter the stone, making much consequent trouble when +the printing begins. + +It is more harmful still to wet the stone in any way, because then the +coating gum will dissolve, penetrate into the engraved lines and give +them a preparation, so that they cannot take color afterward. Therefore, +especially in winter, a very cold stone must be warmed before working on +it with the design, as otherwise the moisture in the room will +precipitate itself on the stone. Even the perspiration of the hands or +the moisture of the breath may cause damage. Therefore a good but +careful warming is very advisable. + +If a plate has become moistened, as, for instance, from a breath, it +must be permitted to dry before doing any further work on it, and +especially it must not be wiped. + +The dust resulting from the engraving is to be removed either with a +soft brush or by blowing it away. + +Faulty lines that are noticed during the engraving may be scraped flat +very carefully so that no furrows are made, or they may be rubbed off +with fine pumice, after which those places must be prepared again, and +coated with gum applied with a small brush. Then the corrections can be +made. If only tiny places are faulty, they need merely be coated with a +mixture of weak phosphoric acid, gum, and lampblack or red chalk. This +prepares them. Thus they will not take color during the print, and so +are practically removed. + +When the design is finished, the stone must be very dry that it may take +color well. But it must not be warmed, as this would incline it to take +smut. A color consisting of thin varnish, a little tallow, and lampblack +is now rubbed swiftly into all the depressions, and immediately wiped +away again with a woolen rag wetted with gum solution. This removes the +original red or black coating also. + +Thus the hitherto colored stone becomes perfectly white, while the +engraved design, which has appeared white, is now black. The first +impression that the eye will gain will be that now the design appears +much finer than it did before. That is because every white line on a +dark background looks wider than a black line of the same thickness on a +white background. Therefore, while engraving, the artist should aim to +make his lines a trifle bigger than his eye would suggest. + +In printing the stone the usual precautions required in every form of +lithographic printing must be observed. Beyond that, the matter of chief +importance is the proper composition of the printing-color. + +Stone plates made in this way can be inked-in (1) by rubbing-in the +color and light wiping, and (2) by harder wiping, and (3) by the +ink-roller. + +For the first method, a color can be made of thin varnish and burned +lampblack, the latter being present in fairly large quantity but very +finely rubbed-down. Into this color is mixed a quantity, equivalent to +one half the mass, of gum solution that is almost as thick as the color +itself. Everything must be mixed perfectly. If the solution is too +watery, it is not easy to mix it. + +Three clean rags of cotton or linen are needed for inking. The first is +used to wet the stone and to clean it again in the end. The second is +colored with a small quantity of printing-color and rubbed in by +thorough wiping to and fro. The third rag is used to clean away any +surplus that may adhere. Then the first clean rag is used to cleanse the +stone thoroughly. + +All three rags must be wetted with gum solution, and the first and third +must be washed several times during the day. + +The stone plate is harder to clean at first than after some fifty +impressions have been made. Often there will remain little specks of +color on the prepared places, which are easy enough to wipe away but are +inclined to reappear. To remedy this it may be necessary to use more +clean rags in the beginning or more gum solution. If the stone has been +polished very well in grinding, this trouble will not be very noticeable +if at all. Under any circumstances, it will disappear gradually during +the printing, so that at last it will be possible to clean the surface +with the very same rag that lays the color on and is permeated with ink. + +In the second method, the wiping is harder in order to take more color +away from the shallower lines, so that they will be pale compared with +the deep ones which then will appear very black and strong. + +If the full beauty of a well-made copper plate is to be equaled, care +must be taken, as said before, to achieve the proper depth of +engraving, and the stone must be wiped harder. Otherwise the method is +the same, except that beautiful, shining impressions often can be made +by using a firm color, if the stone can bear the necessary tension. + +The inking-in with the ink-roller is like the same process in other +methods, except that the color must be softer and the roller well filled +with it. It is necessary, also, to learn by practice how to work the +color into all the deep lines. + +The impression must be made immediately after inking, as otherwise the +color will sink too deeply into the stone and not give a strong +impression without renewed inking. + +The paper must be wetted a little more than in the other method. + +The tension of the press is according to the size of the plates, but on +the whole must be two or three times greater than for the other methods. +More pressure still may be needed for very fine work, as the finer lines +often are harder to print than the coarse ones. + +As soon as the first clean proof is pulled, it must be examined for +errors or faults in the design. If there are any, the stone is removed +from the press after being delicately coated with gum, and the +correction is made as follows: Before anything else, all such faults as +are to be removed entirely are either scraped away with a very sharp +knife or rubbed away with a very fine stone. The manipulation must be +very delicate to avoid grooves and furrows or sharp edges that afterward +will hold dirt. Then the parts thus corrected are coated with a mixture +of about six parts water, two parts gum, and one part aquafortis to +prepare them anew. + +If anything new is to be added to the design or drawn in place of an +error, the stone is washed with water throughout, or, if the correction +is to be made only in a very small part, washed at the desired place. +Then it is coated with the red chalk as described in the beginning, but +so thinly that the design can be seen plainly through the red coat. Now +all that is desired can be engraved, filled again with the rubbing-in +color, and turned over to the printer, who cleanses it with gum water +and proceeds to print. + +Only a few more useful suggestions:-- + +(1) It happens often that after the first rubbing-in of fat color and +the succeeding cleansing with water, the stone gets a "tone" over its +whole surface; that is, it takes color at least partly, and thus seems +to have lost its original preparation. This may be due to the fact that +not enough gum has been used in the original coating, or that the +rubbing-in was rough enough to injure the protective coating, or that +the rubbing-in-color was left on too long before being washed away with +gum solution. + +A similar fault may develop with the second rubbing-in, after +corrections, and from the following causes: Poor color containing sand; +too much pressure with the greasy rags; the use of rags not sufficiently +cleansed of any soap used in washing them; rubbing-in of color with too +dry a color rag; in brief, from anything that may destroy the stone's +preparation wholly or in part. + +Sometimes this defect may be remedied by mixing more gum into the +printing-color and into the water with which the cleaning-rags are +wetted. A firmer color may aid, if it is rubbed away by fairly strong +pressure of the rag as soon as it has adhered. This operates as a remedy +because the firm color takes hold of the dirt that has set itself into +the pores of the stones, and when it is removed, takes the dirt with it. +If none of these have results, there is nothing left except to grind off +the plate very slightly and carefully with an exceedingly fine stone and +gum solution. In the case of very delicate designs, this is not +applicable, because the finest lines have practically no depth. +Therefore they must be washed instead, a rag being dipped into weak +aquafortis or very much diluted phosphoric acid, and passed carefully +over the stone till the dirt disappears. It is well to mix in a little +gum, and also to rub acid-proof ink into the stone first, that the +etching fluid may not attack the design too much. + +After this cleansing the tone will disappear, but another fault often +appears in place of it. The color, after rubbing-in, will not permit +itself to be wiped away readily, because the etching has caused some +roughnesses to which the color adheres in the form of little specks. A +number of clean rags with gum solution must then be used, or the stone +should be lightly rolled a few times with the ink-roller after being +rubbed-in. The roller will take the specks. Indeed, the fault hardly +ever appears if the inking-in is done with the roller, as suggested in +the remarks about the third form of inking-in. + +As soon as some few impressions have been made, the roughness of the +plate disappears gradually and it can be wiped off without leaving +specks behind. Gentle rubbing with pumice finely powdered and mixed with +gum solution will remove the defect in the very beginning, but care is +needed lest the design be injured. + +(2) A line that has so little depth that it is almost level with the +surface of the stone can be made as black as a deeply engraved one by +continued rubbing with the color rag. In using a firmer color the lines, +especially the wider ones, can be so overloaded after a while that the +ink will squash under the press. This surplus can be removed again by +the use of the ink-roller, but it is merely adding unnecessary work, as +proper practice in inking-in and the use of exactly the right +consistency of color will prevent the trouble. + +(3) The best way to ink-in an intaglio design is to rub it in at first +with a somewhat firm color that however, contains enough gum, then to +wipe it a bit, and after that to rub gently to and fro over the stone +under gentle pressure, with a rag containing a less heavy color. A +firmer color does not adhere well to the more delicate lines, or, at +least, is hard to print; but by applying it first, the printing of the +wider and deeper lines is facilitated, while the succeeding rubbing with +softer color brings out the perfection of the finer lines. + +The second rag with the lighter color must not be filled with it in +mass, but should merely be made sooty with it, so to speak. Otherwise +the lighter color would penetrate the deeper lines also and mix there +with the heavier color. + +In the end the stone must be wiped again with an entirely clean rag, as +will be understood, of course, and thoroughly cleansed of all the +color. + + +II + +THE ETCHED METHOD + +In this the design is not engraved into the stone by pressure of the +hand, but with aquafortis or other acid, and only so much pressure is +exerted in making the design as is required to cut through the thin +coating of varnish with which the stone is covered. Therefore this +method permits great freedom of action and is applicable especially for +landscape work and for drawings in Rembrandt's style. In treatment as in +effect it resembles copper plate, and has its own advantage in that the +lines may be strengthened gradually by stronger pressure on the +engraving-needle. They may even be engraved a little into the stone so +that afterward the lines will become stronger under etching. This cannot +be done with copper at all or only with great difficulty. + +These considerations and the quicker printing permitted by it recommend +the method to artists. In other respects it is not different from +working on copper. But it is necessary that a good lithographer should +be a master of this form of stone work, as it may be used for excellent +work, not only by itself but in combination with the other methods. + +The stone must be ground as smoothly as possible, then treated with +aquafortis and coated with gum, so that its surface thus is completely +prepared. The aquafortis may be as strong as that used for etching pen +work. It suffices, also, to wipe the plate merely with a sponge dipped +in stronger aquafortis, the chief point being that no roughnesses shall +be caused by uneven etching. + +A few minutes after this first operation is finished, the stone is +rinsed with water, dried and coated with etching-ground. This can be +best done as follows:-- + +(1) Warm the stone till an ordinary copper etcher's etching-ground will +become so fluid on it that it can be worked with a leather ball like a +varnish, and can be spread very thin and very evenly. Great care must be +exercised lest uneven warming crack the stone. If one can put it into a +nearby baker's oven, it will obviate the necessity for an especial +apparatus, which otherwise is demanded. + +After coating the stone with the etching-ground, it is reversed while +still warm, and blackened by applying the flame of a tallow or wax +candle, as the copper-plate etchers do with their plates. Then the stone +is set aside to cool, with great precautions against dust. After it is +cool, dust will not harm it, and it can be kept indefinitely before use, +so long as the coating is protected against injury. + +(2) The method given is the best; but if the warming of the stone +is difficult, there is a method applicable to cold stones. The +etching-ground is dissolved in oil of turpentine and laid on the stone +with a clean ball. A stone so treated must be put away for at least a +day in a place safe from dust that the oil of turpentine may evaporate. + +To tint this etching-ground, it may be blackened by smoking with a +candle, as in the first case; or color, such as lampblack or vermilion, +may be mixed-in before it is applied. If one wishes to be very certain +that the stone will bear the etching well, it may be coated, very thinly +indeed, with a solution of very firm chemical ink after applying the +etching-ground. + +The design is traced through this coating to the stone. It may be +transferred, also, but in that case, as soon as the transfer is on +the stone, it must be coated thinly once more with a solution of +chemical ink that does not, however, contain any lampblack or other +coloring-matter, but is transparent. This is necessary to fill out +any little holes and other injuries that may have been caused by the +pressure during transfer or by the inequalities in the transfer paper. + +The designing with the needle is done as in the engraved manner, except +that the design is merely cut into the coating. + +When the design is complete, the stone is laid into the etching-trough +and diluted aquafortis, muriatic acid, or strong wine vinegar is poured +over it repeatedly, according to the depth that the lines are to have. + +If it is desired to etch so as to produce various tones,--some strong +and some delicate,--after the manner of the copper-plate etchers, the +pouring of acid should cease as soon as the very finest lines of the +design have been etched sufficiently. Wash away every bit of acid with +clean water and let it dry. Then, with a small brush and chemical ink, +coat all parts that are not to be etched further. It is well if the +chemical ink used for this purpose contains a little more soap than +usual, so that it can penetrate well into all the depressions and leave +no little holes. The coating must be done very cautiously, and it is +better to paint on too much ink rather than too little, as the design +will appear very dirty if etching fluid should penetrate here or there +through the coated portions. + +When the ink is dry, etching is resumed till the second tones have been +etched as far as desired. Then the procedure is repeated, these second +tones being coated. Thus one continues till all gradations of shading +have been reached. + +When the stone is fully etched, clean water is poured over it, and then +all the parts that have not been coated with chemical ink are treated to +a covering. The object of the previous coatings was to prevent access of +acid to the parts; but at the same time the ink prepared the parts. +Therefore the remaining portions of the design also must be sated with +ink before the stone is inked-in for printing. + +Let the stone dry and then pour on it as much oil of turpentine as may +be necessary to dissolve this whole ground coating, which then is wiped +off with a woolen rag wet with gum solution. Then the stone maybe +inked-in and printed. + +If an error is observed before etching begins, the first question is if +the defect is deeply engraved in the stone or if it has been drawn +merely through the ground coating without affecting the stone itself +materially. In the latter case it is necessary merely to cover the +defective place with chemical ink and draw into it the correction. If +the error has been graved deeply into the stone, it must be covered for +the time being, but nothing new can be drawn there. To do this, one must +wait till the plate has been etched and rubbed-in with color. Then the +incorrect part is scraped or ground off as evenly as possible, the place +prepared anew with aquafortis and gum, and the correction made with the +steel needle. + +An intaglio design often is greatly beautified by being printed with a +tint plate like a crayon design. It can be done with a second stone, but +it can be obtained also with the one plate that has the design on it. +Wash the designed stone with clean water and then paint a thick coat of +chemical ink containing more soap than usual over the whole stone or +over only such parts as one desires to improve by adding a tone. If +lights are to be worked into this tone, it can be done, after inking-in, +with a small brush dipped into weak aquafortis. + +In printing a stone thus toned, it must be rubbed-in thoroughly with the +black color and then cleaned as well as possible. The tint that shows on +the surface then is usually too dark, and the firmer the color the +darker it is. Then a second rag must be used with a much softer color, +which may even be thinned-down with plain oil or butter. It may also +contain another coloring substance. Rub this rag very gently to and fro +without much pressure till it is apparent that the dark tone has been +replaced by a light one. Then the stone is ready for printing. + +Stones to be treated to a tint in this manner must be etched somewhat +deeper than others, because the lines do not appear so dark against a +tone. + +In all intaglio methods there is the advantage that parts that turn out +too dark can be modified by fine scraping or grinding. The stone merely +must be rubbed with acid-proof ink beforehand, that the necessary +preparation of the corrected places with aquafortis or phosphoric acid +and gum may not attack the rest of the design. Those who attain skill in +scraping or grinding with a small piece of black slate can make the +softest gradations of shade in uniformly etched designs, and more easily +and quickly than by drawing or coating and etching. If the stone has +been rubbed-in with color for the first time only a short time +previously, the ground or scraped surfaces do not even need to be +etched. It is sufficient to wash them with a rag wetted in gum solution, +because the color will not have penetrated the stone so deeply that it +is likely to reappear. + + +III + +DESIGN WITH PREPARING INK, COMBINED WITH SPATTERED AQUATINT + +If a little dissolved gum is painted on a clean stone that then is inked +over its whole surface with printing-ink, none will adhere where the gum +is. In other words, the stone will have been prepared there. If the gum +is permitted to dry before the ink is applied, those parts will become +black, too; but as soon as a few drops of water are poured on and the +ink-roller passes over the stone, all the gummed parts will show up +white at once. This led me to make a color mixed with gum, with which +one can design on stone and that would have the property of preparing it +so that, on printing, the design or inscription will print white. + +Some drops of gum arabic dissolved in water are mixed with an equal +amount of lampblack and rubbed very fine. This makes an ink similar to +Chinese ink, and keeps well when dried. It is rubbed down in a saucer +with a little water and then is ready for use. + +It can be used on a clean stone, but is likely to flow, for which reason +the stone must be painted with a little weak aquafortis mixed with a +little nutgall, and then well cleaned again. Still better is it to paint +a clean stone some days before with oil of turpentine which is cleaned +off again immediately. In that case, however, it is well to mix a little +phosphoric acid into the drawing-ink, that the designed parts will be +prepared the more surely. + +When the design is dry, the whole stone is inked with printing-color, +care being taken that not a drop of water touches it before it is +perfectly black. Then a little water is poured on, after which there +must be a little more rolling with the ink-roller till all the design +that is drawn with the preparing-ink is very white and clean. Now the +stone can be used for printing, being used in the manner used for pen +work. To make the design more durable, that it may not in time thicken +in its finer parts, the stone may be well inked-in with acid-proof ink +and after a few hours, during which it draws together well, the drawing +is etched in intaglio with aquafortis. Then it is coated with gum and +the printing is not likely to damage the design. + +Here we have an intaglio design which is prepared and prints white. + +The case may be reversed, and the black plate may be made white again +while the design will print black. This is because a stone treated with +preparing-ink gives almost the same result, once it is grounded with +acid-proof ink and etched as if the design had been engraved into +etching-ground. The etched lines need simply be filled with chemical ink +as in engraved work, to make them take color instead of coating them +with gum. Then there remains only the obstacle that the stone is not +prepared over its whole surface and takes color everywhere. However, it +is not difficult to clean the plate and prepare it perfectly, especially +if the stone is finely polished. It must be rubbed well with color, and +wiped clean at once without rubbing too much of it away from the etched +design. To make the color easier to wipe out, Frankfurter black and +tallow may be mixed in it. Then the rag that has been used for inking-in +is dipped into a mixture of twenty parts water, two parts gum, and one +part aquafortis, or better still, phosphoric acid, and rubbed back and +forth. The rag must not be too dirty and heavy with color, but it must +contain some so that the delicate parts of the design shall not be wiped +out and thus rendered susceptible to the acid. The next thing is to try +with the finger to see whether the color on top can be easily rubbed +away or not. In the latter case the wiping must be repeated till the +cleansing mixture has so far prepared the surface that the wet hand or a +wet piece of leather can cleanse it perfectly and free it from the dark +tone. Now the stone is inked-in with firmer color (acid-proof ink is +best). This is wiped off again thoroughly. Very weak aquafortis (or +phosphoric acid if it has been used for the work) is then poured over it +a few times, and this generally prepares it so well that it can be inked +and cleaned easily during the printing. + +This method is useful for many kinds of art, and it must not be imagined +that it is superfluous because the other ways are quicker. + +The engraving-needle is very good for drawing the finer parts of the +design through the etching-ground, but the coarser ones cause much +trouble, while with the pen, these are the very ones that are easiest to +produce. By using this method, both advantages can be combined and only +that is drawn with the pen which is most readily produced that way. + +Thus the whole design, with the exception of the finest parts, is drawn +on the white plate with the black preparing ink touche. Then, when it +has been covered with acid-proof ink and made white, the finer parts are +worked-in with the needle. Or they may be left till the end, when they +are engraved-in. + +For grounding or blackening the plate, one may use a substitute for the +acid-proof ink if the ground is to be firmer. Use the etching-ground +(mentioned several times before) of wax, mastic, pitch, and resin, +dissolved in oil of turpentine and mixed with fine lampblack. It will +then be susceptible of being laid beautifully uniform on the stone with +the ink-roller like printing-ink. + +The spattered aquatint method resembles this. + +The outlines of the design are engraved or etched into the stone very +delicately. After rubbing-in with black printing-ink and cleaning again +thoroughly, it is rinsed with a great deal of clean water to take away +every trace of gum. When it is dry a small brush is dipped into the +preparing-ink, and the stone is spattered as described in the article on +spatter-work. After drying, the dots that are too large are treated with +the needle, and missing ones are drawn in with the pen. Now apply the +roller with the dissolved etching-ground, that must, however, have only +enough color so that the outlines of the design can show through it. +Then the spattered work is brought out by rolling with water. Now coat +the lighter parts of the design and etch. Coat again and etch again, in +short do as already described for the method of successive etching till +the required gradations of shade have been attained. Then proceed as +usual with the inking-in and printing. + + +IV + +AQUATINT IN COPPER-PLATE STYLES AND WITH ETCHING-GROUND + +Any one who has the necessary appliances of the copper-plate worker for +making the aquatint ground used by them, and who has the necessary +skill, can do so, although the stone is endangered by the heat, and the +process is not advisable. The stone is dusted with fine resin. A flame +of spirits is applied below until the stone is so hot that the resin +melts and forms the ground. + +Better is that copper-plate method in which the resin is dissolved in +highly rectified spirits of wine and poured quickly over the whole +stone. By breathing on this, the resin is made to separate from the +spirits and form tiny pellets, which thus make the required aquatint +ground. + +Both methods are better for very coarse work than for fine designs. +Etching-ground, dissolved in oil of turpentine, or consisting simply of +tallow and put on the stone very uniformly with a cotton ball, is much +better, and produces an effect similar to wash drawing. However, it is +better suited to the lighter parts of a design, because it will bear +long and powerful etching only if one hits exactly the proper +proportions between ground and etching fluid. Therefore, it is well, +after the first tones have been etched and printed, to spatter +cautiously with chemical ink all those parts that are to be darker than +half-tones. Thus these dots will prepare the design so well at those +places that they can withstand the most powerful etching. + + +V + +AQUATINT THROUGH CRAYON GROUND + +This is a sort of middle process between aquatint and the scraped style. +It has the advantage of great speediness. + +A stone that has been grained for crayon work is coated with the black +or red gum ground described for the engraved method, but without +previous etching, which would not do harm but is unnecessary. The +outlines are drawn in with the needle very lightly, because they are to +serve only to make the design visible. Those lines, however, that are +not to disappear in the aquatint tone, but are to show plainly, must be +cut as deeply as necessary for greater or lesser blackness. Then the +stone is rubbed with color and washed with water as in the engraved +method. + +When it is entirely clean and dry, all the design will be black and the +stone white. The design must be examined carefully, and the various +gradations of shading should be separated in the mind into about eight +leading classes, of which four are numbered upwards to the lightest +parts, and four numbered downwards to the darkest. Everything in the +category of the four dark parts now is worked strongly with chemical +crayon. The purpose is to mass a number of evenly separated points over +these parts of the design that shall withstand the etching fluid like an +aquatint ground, between which the etching fluid may eat the stone and +thus form a coarser grain than could be attained merely by rough +grinding. + +Then the four lighter parts must be coated with chemical ink. The very +lightest parts, and all that is to remain white, must be left white on +the plate and neither touched with crayon or ink. + +Then the stone is etched for the first time. Following this pour clean +water over it and let it dry. Then of the four dark parts the lightest +are coated with chemical ink, and when it is dry the etching fluid is +applied again. After washing and drying, the next lighter portions of +the dark sections are coated, and so on till at last the very darkest +shadows have been coated. Then a clean brush is dipped into gum solution +and everything that should remain white is painted. + +If a little oil of turpentine is now poured on the stone, and the crayon +and chemical ink are dissolved and wiped off, the stone can be inked +with soft inking-color and wiped again with a woolen rag. Then the +design will look as if a black veil were over it, because the lightest +parts of it and the half-shadows are not worked out at all. Wet a rag +with gum solution and a little phosphoric acid, and hold it in one hand +while with a fine scraper you scrape in the lights according to their +gradation or grind them in with a fine stone, for instance, a slate +pencil. As you scrape wipe over the design with the wet rag; and you +will see exactly what you are doing as the various gradations will +appear bit by bit. The printing in this as in other aquatint methods is +done with soft and thin printing-color, and the paper may be more +dampened than in other forms of lithography. The press needs +considerable tension and the stones must be thick. + + +VI + +INTAGLIO CRAYON AND TRACED DESIGNS + +The difficulty of getting impressions from crayon that shall not differ +from the original design on the stone led me to consider the use of the +grained style of the copper-plate engravers. A crayon-like design in +intaglio would have a greater strength in the dark parts and greater +delicacy in the lighter; be more durable and more easily corrected. I +saw at once that if I could attain some perfection, it would mean a +great step forward in color printing, also. Thus there were originated +the following two processes, which no doubt will in time interest +artists to a high degree. + +A stone grained for crayon work is prepared with aquafortis and gum. +Then it is cleansed with water and covered with etching-ground when dry, +as is prescribed for the etched process. The ground must be laid on so +thinly and evenly that the design can be put in easily and that it still +will resist the etching. + +When the stone is cold and the outlines of the design have been traced +on it, a scraper of the best steel is used to scrape in the lights and +shadows. The scraper touches only the most elevated points of the +grained surface at first, and produces larger points only after +continued work, just as chemical crayon does. When the whole stone is +finished, it is etched as in the etched process and then cleansed and +printed in the same way. + +If the stone is etched a little more strongly in all its gradations, it +can afterward be ground down gently with very soft pumice, or, better +still, with black slate and a gum solution, once it has been rubbed-in +with color. This destroys all roughnesses that may remain from the first +manipulations. Parts that have turned out too dark can be lightened by +this polishing, and the over-light ones can be improved with the needle. + +The designs made in this manner possess more delicacy as well as more +strength than the ordinary crayon designs, and there remains to be +desired only that they might have the advantage of the latter of being +worked black on white, as it is so much easier for the artist to judge +his work on the stone. + +Of trials made in this direction, the two following ones met my views +the best. + +One way is to grind the stone rough, pour diluted aquafortis and nutgall +over it, clean it with water and dry it. Then the design is drawn on it +with a black chalk made of oil of vitriol, tartar, and lampblack. The +further treatment is the same as that in the case of designs done with +preparing-ink. + +I have not been able to give enough time to this process to invent +a preparing-crayon that shall be very hard without losing its +preparing-property. However, the compound mentioned will produce a +crayon with which one can work well after a few days. It has the +advantage that it may be rubbed on a shading-stump made of rolled paper, +which will prove excellent for working the finest shadings into the +plate. + +The other way is as follows: A colorless chemical ink is made of one +part wax, two parts tallow, and one part soap. This I dissolved in water +and with it I coated the stone, which had been ground rough and prepared +with phosphoric acid, nutgall, and gum, and then washed with water. The +coating was applied very lightly, but enough so that it could bear the +succeeding etching. + +As soon as it was dry, I drew the design on it with a black crayon made +of tartar, gum, a little sugar, and a good amount of lampblack, or I +used the ordinary black Paris crayon or a fine English lead pencil. Then +the design was etched, after which alum water was poured over it, and it +was set aside to dry. + +As soon as it was absolutely dry, I coated it with fatty color, and then +cleaned the stone with oil of turpentine and gum solution. If I wanted +an exceedingly smooth surface, I ground the stone gently; but then the +design had to be etched deeply. + +The good results of these two experiments led me to the following +process: By following my instructions exactly the worker can produce +striking imitations of wash as well as crayon drawings, and at the same +time unite the greatest possible ease of drawing as well as certainty of +good impressions, so that this process really deserves to be called one +of the very best of all printing-methods. + +The outlines of the drawing must be drawn on the finest and thinnest +paper that can be obtained. Then a very finely polished stone is +prepared with aquafortis and gum, or, better still, with phosphoric +acid, nutgall, and gum, cleansed with water and dried. Then it is coated +very thinly with tallow, which is patted with a very clean leather ball +or with the hand, so that it shall be very uniformly laid over the +stone. Everything depends on the thinness and uniformity of this tallow +coating. Then the stone must be smoked with a wax torch or a tallow +candle. The durability of the ground depends on this smoking, as without +it a very thin coating of tallow would be penetrated by the acid. + +Now the stone is ready for the design. It must not be touched by so much +as a finger. The designed paper is pasted to the stone at the ends, +without pulling, as the least motion would injure the stone's surface. +The arrangement of elevated supports for the hand (previously described) +is needed for the succeeding work. The drawing is then done on the paper +with Paris chalk, delicate Spanish chalk, an English lead pencil, or +with a small piece of lead. All that is drawn on the paper will impress +itself on the stone underneath and remove the ground at those places, +thus opening the surface for etching. + +When the drawing is finished, it is etched and covered as with the +etched process, and afterward is printed as in that process. + +When sufficient practice has made one a master of this style, it will be +amazing what great perfection, what miniature-like delicacy, and also +what strength can be obtained by proper etching. + +Besides, this latter process is applicable in combination with the +etched process. + + +VII + +TOUCHE DRAWING WITH ETCHING INK + +This method is very useful for filling-out etched or engraved designs, +also for correcting and completing the various aquatint processes. + +Dip a little brush into lemon juice mixed with a little lampblack and +draw the design on the finely polished and prepared stone. The acid +will eat little holes into it, which will take color if the lemon juice +is washed away as soon as it has completed its etching, and the etched +part has been dried and rubbed-in with fat color. To produce darker +shadings it can be laid on the same place twice, and for lighter +shadings the acid either is washed away sooner or diluted with water. + +I do not doubt that a skillful chemist could invent an etching ink which +would be even more perfect, and then a drawing could be washed on the +stone as easily as on paper, which would mean immense advance for the +art. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MIXED METHODS + + +Stone-printing has the unique property, owned by no other process, that +it is possible to print relief and intaglio simultaneously. This +property makes possible so many combinations of the two processes that a +book might be filled with their description. I assume, however, that the +reader will have understood the entire science of the new art from what +I have said, and that his own reflection will tell him what methods to +use or to combine for each of his purposes. I limit myself, therefore, +to a few leading methods, thus giving some fundamental idea of the +manipulations. + + +I + +PEN DESIGN COMBINED WITH ENGRAVING + +This can be utilized in two ways:-- + +When the pen drawing is finished and etched, the stone may be coated +with red gum covering and the needle used to draw-in the finest lines. +The printing is the same as with pen work. The second way is to make the +engraved or etched part of the design first, and after the stone has +been rubbed-in with acid-proof ink, cleansed and dried, to draw-in the +rest with the pen and chemical ink. As soon as the design is properly +dried, it is etched a little and prepared, and otherwise handled like an +ordinary pen drawing. + +Both ways carry the advantage that the pen can be used for those parts +best done with the pen, and the engraving-tool for those parts best done +with it. The latter is especially excellent for very fine and elegant +script, such as title-pages, the finest strokes being made first with +the needle and the broader ones with the pen. + + +II + +INTAGLIO DESIGN WITH RELIEF TINT + +This has been described thoroughly in our chapter on etched work. + + +III + +INTAGLIO AND RELIEF WITH SEVERAL PLATES + +As already shown, intaglio and relief can be printed on one stone. +Therefore it is evident that the two methods can be utilized still +better for several plates, for instance, printing on an etched design +with one or more plates that are tinted in relief, or by printing over a +crayon or pen design in relief a tone plate in aquatint in intaglio. + +How to do this has been explained in the descriptions of relief and +intaglio methods. + + +IV + +TRANSFORMING RELIEF INTO INTAGLIO AND VICE VERSA + +This is, so to speak, the test of a good lithographer, as it is the most +difficult of all methods, and demands exact knowledge of all +manipulations. I will try to explain it with a few examples. + +EXAMPLE I + +_To etch a transfer into intaglio_ + +Prepare a finely ground plate with phosphoric acid and gum, wash very +well with water, and let it dry. Now transfer to it a design made with +soft ink or crayon, or a fresh copper-plate impression. Let the stone +rest for a few hours, that the fatty colors may take hold well. Coat it +with clean gum water, and with a rag dipped into acid-proof ink try to +rub about as much color on the design as appears to be required to make +it withstand some etching. This etching is done with pure aquafortis +which in addition has a little alum mixed with it. Etch only enough to +eat away the uppermost parts of the prepared surface that have not been +permeated with fat. Pour clean water over the whole stone and coat it +with strong soap-water that is permitted to dry on it. Finally, clean +away the soap with oil of turpentine. Ink-in with acid-proof color which +will color the whole stone. Now as soon as it is wiped gently with a rag +dipped in gum solution and weak phosphoric acid, the whole design will +appear in white as if it had been made with preparing-ink. If the stone +is inked now with acid-proof ink and treated exactly as instructed in +the article on the use of preparing-ink, the design that was in relief +originally will be found in intaglio. + +This process is capable of great perfection and can produce true +masterpieces especially if the stone is treated finally with the +engraving tool. + +EXAMPLE II + +_To etch into intaglio a design made with chemical fatty ink or crayon_ + +Etch and prepare the clean stone with phosphoric acid and gum. Then put +on the design with ink or crayon, and perform the succeeding etching and +other manipulations exactly as in the preceding case. + +EXAMPLE III + +_To etch into intaglio any design etched into relief_ + +In the two examples given, the plate is etched with phosphoric acid +before transfers or designs are made on it. As the weak etching with +aquafortis and alum does not penetrate the places where there is fat, +these retain their phosphorus-preparation, and thus are not so readily +destroyed by the succeeding application of soap, whereas the etched +parts immediately drink in the fat as soon as the soap touches them. + +In stones designed in the ordinary way, where the design does not lie on +the prepared surface, but has really penetrated well into the stone, the +transforming is somewhat more difficult, but can always be done after +practice by using the following means:-- + +Wash the stone with water and then coat chemical ink or strong +soap-water over it and let it dry. Then clean the stone with oil of +turpentine and ink-in well with acid-proof color. Dip a linen rag into +gum water and phosphoric acid and endeavor to wipe away the color from +the relief design. After wiping to and fro quickly a few times, try with +the finger if the design will not whiten, or if the wiping with the acid +must be continued. Care must be taken not to injure the ground through +too much pressure. When the design gets pretty white, ink the stone with +firm acid-proof ink, and then treat as in the preceding cases. + +In this way designs in relief that have not turned out as desired can be +changed into intaglio, and then, by the use of successive coatings and +etchings, as described before, improved by making gradations of tones. +But it requires great skill, lacking which one may destroy his plates +utterly. + +EXAMPLE IV + +_To change an intaglio design into relief for easier printing_ + +Many kinds of scripts and designs are easier to engrave with a needle +than to do in relief with a pen; or one may have workmen who can use the +engraving tool better than the pen, as the use of the latter requires +more industry and skill than the use of the etching- or +engraving-needle. + +If one wishes to transform such a design into one in relief, because +then it can be printed more quickly and easily and also will give more +impressions, the following method will prove useful:-- + +Ink the stone with good acid-proof ink, and after a few hours etch it +like a pen design till it is apparent that the design is showing up. Let +it rest again a few hours after etching and become quite dry. Then coat +with gum. Otherwise treat it for printing like an ordinary pen design. + + * * * * * + +Now I believe that I have described faithfully and as clearly as I can +all the lithographic methods to which unceasing research and endless +experimentation have led me. In the following Appendix I merely make a +few useful remarks, which do not pertain exclusively to lithography, yet +are intimately connected with it and surely will not be unwelcome to art +lovers. + +[Illustration] + + + + +APPENDIX + + +I + +PRINTING WITH WATER AND OIL COLORS SIMULTANEOUSLY + +When a plate, whether intaglio or relief, has been inked-in with oil +color, it may be coated with one water color, or it may be illuminated +with several, and then printed-off in one impression. Two parts of gum +and one part of sugar are used for this. They can be dissolved with any +water color. Care need be taken merely that the colors are well dried +before the impression is made. + +If, however, it is desired that the colors have shades so that the +impressions may resemble English or French colored copper-plate prints, +the process is as follows:-- + +Etch all shades of the color pretty deeply in any of the stippled or +aquatint styles. After this, coat the stone with gum solution, that it +shall take no color in these depressions. Clean off the chemical ink or +the ground with oil of turpentine, and prepare the whole plate if it has +not been prepared already on its surface. Then coat it with red gum +surface, and into this inscribe all those lines that are to remain +black. Then the color is rubbed-in and the stone cleansed so that it +will be white everywhere except in the engraved parts. When it is +inked-in now, it can take color there only, and the other depressions +(namely the various shades of the color) will remain white because they +have been prepared. Now it is necessary only to coat each part with the +desired water color and it will be denser, and therefore darker, +wherever there are more and greater depressions. + + +II + +SIMULTANEOUS CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL PRINTING + +When a pen drawing is so constituted that the various lines are close +together and there is no white space on it that is greater than at most +one half inch in diameter, it will permit printing in a purely +mechanical way without being prepared. It need merely be etched into +all the relief possible without under-eating the lines. All that is +needed then is a color-board or a so-called dauber, made as follows:-- + +A thin board of soft wood, about eight inches long and six inches wide, +is planed down till it is not more than one line in thickness. Glue on +it a piece of fine cloth or felt almost as large as it. Over this glue +another board, of the same area as the first, but one quarter inch +thick. It must be very well-dried wood, and must be made very true with +the plane, or better still, by rubbing on a perfectly level stone with +sand. This latter board is provided with a handle; and when all is dry +this dauber is ground off true again with fine sand and oil on a stone. + +Lay the printing-color on this utensil very gently and uniformly with a +leather ball. Tap and pat the stone, which has first been cleaned with +oil of turpentine over its whole surface, very carefully with the +appliance, holding it as horizontal as possible and taking great pains +to distribute the color evenly. + +As compared with chemical printing, this process in itself has no +advantages, but can be united with it and thus used to print three +colors from one plate. This is shown by the following + +EXAMPLE + +Suppose that a design shall be colored black, blue, and red, and that +all these colors shall be put simultaneously on one plate. Take a stone +made ready for pen work, and prepare it first of all with phosphoric +acid, nutgall, and gum, then wash it with water, and let it dry. Now +draw-in all that is to be red with chemical ink, that must, however, +contain only just enough soap to permit its solution. When this drawing +is dry, etch it into pretty high relief, the higher the better. After +this prepare the stone with gum, wash it, and let it dry again. Then +coat it with etching-ground that has been dissolved in oil of +turpentine, and draw-in all that is to be black, between and over the +high etched parts. Then etch this design pretty powerfully into +intaglio, after which wash with water, rinse with alum solution, and +dry. When the plate is thoroughly dry, rub-in printing-color, and clean +with a woolen rag dipped into gum solution and oil of turpentine. Then +it will become white everywhere except in the deep lines where it will +have taken color. After cleansing again with water and drying, draw-in +all parts that are to be blue, using a chemical ink that contains a +great deal of soap. Let this dry well, and cleanse the plate with gum +and oil of turpentine again. Then it is ready for inking-in. + +To lay on the color, proceed as follows:-- + +First the black is rubbed-in, as prescribed in the article on the +intaglio style. In the very deep parts the stone will get very black. In +the parts last drawn, that are level with the surface, it will be only +gray, if the color permits ready wiping, which can be facilitated by the +use of gum and a woolen rag. Then the tone remaining on the level parts +drawn with the chemical ink will be so pale that it will not affect the +blue color. Now wipe a rag dipped in blue color gently to and fro till +everything that is to be blue has taken the color well. Then take the +dauber which has been filled with red color, and pat the stone, which +should be dry by that time. Then the parts of the design in high relief +will take the red color, and thus an impression can be made with the +three colors at once. Each inking-in must be done the same way. + + +III + +USE OF THE STONE FOR COTTON-PRINTING THROUGH WIPING. A UNIQUE PRINTING +PROCESS + +Etched copper plates have been used for some considerable time for +cotton-printing, and as the ordinary oil colors were not suitable for +this, while the suitable colors were too fluid, so that they were always +wiped out of the engravings, another method was devised. The plate was +covered with color and then a kind of straight edge was scraped across +it, which removed all color from the surface, leaving it only in the +depressions. + +This same sort of wiping is applicable to stone, and it is necessary +merely to see that the stone is very even and highly polished. The color +must be one that permits itself to be wiped off clean, and the wiper +must be very uniform and sharp. + +Starch-paste or gum with some caustic material is easily scraped off. + + +IV + +COLOR PRINT WITH WIPING + +This process is also useful for printing papers such as cotton papers, +tapestry, etc. Almost all intaglio designs permit good printing in this +way, if a handsome color is used. + +Fresh cheese, or drops of congealed milk, mixed with soap, potash, +linseed oil varnish, and the desired tint, make an excellent +composition, with which all intaglio designs, even aquatints, can be +printed handsomely if the plate is very smooth. + +If the design is made well, the various colors can be laid on quite +roughly, care being taken merely that each color shall be laid only +where it is desired. Then the stone should be permitted to dry, after +which all the surplus colors can be scraped away with one manipulation, +without danger that one will mix with the other in the design. + + +V + +OIL-PAINTING PRINT THROUGH TRANSFER + +Colored impressions resembling oil paintings can be made by printing +with colors and several plates on paper grounded with oil color. But +perfect oil paintings are produced only as follows:-- + +Make a considerable quantity of special paper by coating unsized paper +thinly with starch-paste or glue. On this make the separate impressions +from each color plate. If the painting itself is to be produced from +these separate parts, take a canvas that has been prepared for oil +painting and lay on it a wetted impression of one of the colors, let us +say, red. Print this off under light tension of the press, and when the +paper is pulled away, it will be seen that the color has been +transferred to the canvas. Then a wet impression of another color is +laid carefully in place so that it will register exactly, and the +process is repeated, till all the colors have been transferred to the +canvas. + +The transferring can be done with the hand or with any other method, as +no great power is needed, since the color transfers itself readily. + + +VI + +STONE-PAPER + +This is the name already generally adopted for a substitute invented by +me for the Solenhofen stones. + +I had been trying for a long time to invent some stone-like mixture that +would be equally suitable for printing. The ordinary parchment of the +writing-tablets would do if its surface were not soluble in water. I +made considerable progress with a composition of lime and freshly +congealed milk after the mixture had aged enough so that the lime could +sate itself with oxygen. Then I made a composition of chalk, gypsum, and +glue, which I dipped into a solution of nutgall and alum, and I was able +to use this for coarser work, at least, if not too many impressions were +required. + +I did not get a wholly satisfactory idea, however, until I observed that +fat spots that were caused on a stone by oil, and also designs that had +been transferred to the stone with mere oil color, refused to take color +after a few weeks if they were prepared in only the slightest degree. + +I reasoned from this that oil suffered a change from exposure to air, +and by combining itself presumably with oxygen acquired a more earthy +character. This deduction may be correct or not; but it led me to +experiment with oil as a binder for various earthy substances, because I +reasoned that such a composition would be insoluble in water. The only +question, then, would be if despite the intermixed oil it would permit +itself to be prepared, that is, if it could be made resistant to other +fats. + +The result justified my hopes so thoroughly that I am convinced now that +with various compositions of clay, chalk, linseed oil, and metallic +oxides a stone-like mass can be made that is excellent for coating +paper, linen, wood, metal, etc., and thus for making plates that not +only replace the stone for printing, but in many cases are far superior +to it. + +I shall give the world a book soon about these fortunate attempts of +mine, and thus perhaps give expert chemists an opportunity to perfect my +invention still more. + + +VII + +CHEMICAL PRINT ON METAL PLATES + +All metals have great inclination for fats; but if they are quite clean, +being ground with pumice, for instance, or rubbed-down with chalk, they +can be prepared like a stone, that is, they acquire the property of +resisting oil color, thus becoming available for chemical printing. + +Iron and zinc can be prepared like the stone with aquafortis and gum. + +To prepare zinc and lead, aquafortis with nutgall and gum will serve, +but a slight admixture of blue vitriol will make still a better +preparation, and this in a degree that improves according to the amount +of copper that the surface acquires from the coating. The most durable +preparation for lead and zinc is a mixture of aquafortis, gum, and +nitrate of copper. + +Brass and copper are best prepared with aquafortis, gum, and nitrate of +lime, all mixed in proper proportions. + +Lime and gum are a good preparation for all metals; also potash with +salt and gum. + +This alkaline preparation, however, is applicable only for the intaglio +style. For the relief style, the acids are better. + +Recently I have applied chemical printing from metal plates to a new +form of copying-machines, with which everything written or drawn with +chemical ink or crayon on paper can be transferred in a few moments and +manifolded several hundred times. His Royal Majesty of Bavaria has had +the supreme condescension to grant me a six years' patent on this +invention. + +Until now I have not been able to give this matter the necessary +attention because the work of publishing this book hindered me; but now +I shall make such a stock of these simple, convenient, and so widely +useful hand-presses that it will be worth while to open a subscription, +which would enable me to sell them for a low price. This would please me +best, as my highest reward would be the general use of my inventions, to +fulfill which desire I have taken the utmost pains in this work. + +In the last parts of the book I have gone less into details, merely +because I assume that those who have mastered the first parts of this +work will not need many words to understand the rest. + +If the demand for this perhaps prematurely announced book had not become +so vehement lately that I could not possibly delay its publication any +longer, I should have tried to produce sample illustrations that combine +inner art value with good printing. As it is, I postpone this for a +supplementary volume soon to appear, in which I shall occupy myself +mainly with processes and methods not yet generally known, representing +each by means of a true work of art. With which I now end my text-book, +with the hearty wish that it will find many friends and create many good +lithographers. This may God grant! + + + The Riverside Press + + PRINTED BY H. O. HOUGHTON & CO. + CAMBRIDGE, MASS. + U.S.A. + + + * * * * * + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + +Punctuation and spelling standardized. + +Inconsistent hyphenation retained. + +This book has no Table of Contents for Section I. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Invention of Lithography, by Alois Senefelder + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40924 *** |