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diff --git a/40911-0.txt b/40911-0.txt index 358031e..8f769ab 100644 --- a/40911-0.txt +++ b/40911-0.txt @@ -1,37 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ether of Space, by Oliver Lodge - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Ether of Space - -Author: Oliver Lodge - -Release Date: October 2, 2012 [EBook #40911] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHER OF SPACE *** - - - - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Mark Young, Bill Tozier and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40911 *** HARPER'S LIBRARY _of_ LIVING THOUGHT @@ -4611,360 +4578,4 @@ _Forthcoming_: End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ether of Space, by Oliver Lodge -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHER OF SPACE *** - -***** This file should be named 40911-0.txt or 40911-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/9/1/40911/ - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Mark Young, Bill Tozier and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Ether of Space - -Author: Oliver Lodge - -Release Date: October 2, 2012 [EBook #40911] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHER OF SPACE *** - - - - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Mark Young, Bill Tozier and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40911 ***</div> <h3><span class="smcap">Harper's Library</span> <i>of</i> <span class="smcap">Living Thought</span></h3> @@ -409,14 +369,14 @@ THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED</p> <h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> -<p class="noin"><span class="first">"E</span><span class="smcap">ther</span> or Æther (αιθηρ probably from +<p class="noin"><span class="first">"E</span><span class="smcap">ther</span> or Æther (αιθηρ probably from αιθω I burn,) a material substance of a more subtle kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of space which are apparently empty."</p> <p>So begins the article "Ether," written for the -ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, by +ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, by James Clerk Maxwell.</p> <p>The derivation of the word seems to indicate @@ -424,7 +384,7 @@ some connexion in men's minds with the idea of Fire: the other three "elements," Earth, Water, Air, representing the solid, liquid, and gaseous conditions of ordinary matter respectively. The -name Æther suggests a far more subtle or penetrating +name Æther suggests a far more subtle or penetrating and ultra-material kind of substance.</p> <p>Newton employs the term for the medium @@ -473,12 +433,12 @@ expanded through all the Heavens?"</p> <p>"Qu. 22. May not Planets and Comets, and all gross Bodies, perform their motions more freely, and with less resistance in this -Æthereal Medium than in any Fluid, which +Æthereal Medium than in any Fluid, which fills all Space adequately without leaving any Pores, and by consequence is much denser than Quick-silver and Gold? And may not its resistance be so small, as to be -inconsiderable? For instance; if this <i>Æther</i> +inconsiderable? For instance; if this <i>Æther</i> (for so I will call it) should be supposed 700000 times more elastic than our Air, and above 700000 times more rare; its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> @@ -541,7 +501,7 @@ been quoted:—</p> <blockquote><p>"Whatever difficulties we may have in forming a consistent idea of the constitution -of the æther, there can be no doubt that the +of the æther, there can be no doubt that the interplanetary and interstellar spaces are not empty, but are occupied by a material substance or body, which is certainly the largest, @@ -617,8 +577,8 @@ means by a wave, he will probably reply that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="P most general wave is such a function of <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> and <i>t</i> as to satisfy the differential equation</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num">d²y</span> / <span class="denom">dt²</span> - = <span class="num">(v²) d²y</span> / <span class="denom">dx²</span>;</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num">d²y</span> / <span class="denom">dt²</span> + = <span class="num">(v²) d²y</span> / <span class="denom">dx²</span>;</p> <p class="noin">while the simplest wave is</p> @@ -775,7 +735,7 @@ ether; and we have just seen that the ether possesses the two properties requisite for the generation and transmission of waves, viz.: elasticity, and inertia or density; hence just as -a tuning fork vibrating in air excites aërial waves, +a tuning fork vibrating in air excites aërial waves, or sound, so a discharging Leyden jar in ether excites etherial waves, or light.</p> @@ -923,7 +883,7 @@ means, so soon as we have learnt how to attain the necessary frequency of vibration, will have most important practical consequences; and that matter is initially dealt with in a section on -the Manufacture of Light, § 149, in Chapter XIV +the Manufacture of Light, § 149, in Chapter XIV of <i>Modern Views of Electricity</i>. But here we abandon further consideration of this aspect of our great subject.</p> @@ -2307,7 +2267,7 @@ concerning the behaviour of ether inside matter.</p> μ, that means that the speed of light inside it is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>μ</sub>th of the speed outside or in vacuo. And that is only another way of saying that the virtual -etherial density inside it is represented by μ², +etherial density inside it is represented by μ², since the velocity of waves is inversely as the square root of the density of the medium which conveys them;—the elasticity being reckoned as @@ -2328,18 +2288,18 @@ of density, but a virtual increase, which is really due to the addition of a certain fraction of material inertia to the inertia of the ether itself. The density of ether outside being 1, and that of -the loaded ether inside being μ², the effect of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -load is expressible as μ²−1, while the free ether is +the loaded ether inside being μ², the effect of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +load is expressible as μ²−1, while the free ether is the same inside as out.</p> <p>Suppose now that the matter is moved along. The extra loading, being part of the matter, of course travels with it, and thereby affects the speed of light to the extent of the load,—that is to say, by an -amount proportional to μ²−1 as contrasted with μ².</p> +amount proportional to μ²−1 as contrasted with μ².</p> -<p>This is Fresnel's predicted ratio (μ²−1): μ², or -1 − <sup>1</sup>/<sub>μ²</sub>; and in Fizeau's experiment with running +<p>This is Fresnel's predicted ratio (μ²−1): μ², or +1 − <sup>1</sup>/<sub>μ²</sub>; and in Fizeau's experiment with running water—especially as repeated later, with modern accuracy, by Michelson—this represents exactly the amount of observed effect upon the light.</p> @@ -2347,7 +2307,7 @@ the amount of observed effect upon the light.</p> <p>But if, instead of running water, stagnant water is used—that is stationary with respect to the earth, though still moving violently through -the ether—then the (μ²−1) effect of the load will +the ether—then the (μ²−1) effect of the load will be fixed to the matter, and can produce no extra or motile effect. The only part that could produce an effect of that kind would be the free ether, @@ -2499,7 +2459,7 @@ of light, of which one has been sent to and fro <i>across</i> the line of ether drift, and the other has been sent to and fro <i>along</i> the line of ether drift.</p> -<p>A semi-transparent mirror set at 45° is employed +<p>A semi-transparent mirror set at 45° is employed to split the beam, and a pair of normal and ordinary mirrors, set perpendicular to the two half-beams, are employed to return them back @@ -2579,14 +2539,14 @@ and fro journey S M, inclined at angle θ to the direction of the drift, is increased, above what it would be if there were no drift, in the ratio</p> -<p class="cen">√<span class="num">(1 − α² sin² θ)</span> / <span class="denom">1 − α²</span></p> +<p class="cen">√<span class="num">(1 − α² sin² θ)</span> / <span class="denom">1 − α²</span></p> <p class="noin">This follows from merely geometrical considerations.</p> <p>Hence if a ray is split, and half sent so that θ=0 while the other half is sent so that θ=90 (as in Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>), the one will lag behind the other by a -distance ½α² times the distance travelled; which, +distance ½α² times the distance travelled; which, though very small, may be a perceptible fraction of a wave-length, and therefore may cause a perceptible shift of the bands.</p> @@ -2721,7 +2681,7 @@ round between the disks are shown in Fig. <a href="#fig11">11</a>. If they form an accurate square the last two images will coincide, but if the mirrors are the least inclined to one another at any unaliquot part of -360° the last image splits into two, as in the +360° the last image splits into two, as in the kaleidoscope is well known, and the interference bands may be regarded as resulting from those two sources. The central white band bisects @@ -3120,7 +3080,7 @@ Magnetic Drift.</span></p> <p>Later I tried a longitudinal magnetic field also; arranging a series of four large electric bobbins or long coils along the sides of a square inscribed at -45° in the optical square, Figs. <a href="#fig11">11</a> and <a href="#fig13">13</a>; so that +45° in the optical square, Figs. <a href="#fig11">11</a> and <a href="#fig13">13</a>; so that the light went along their axes.</p> <p>The details of this experiment have been only @@ -3335,7 +3295,7 @@ greater than observation shows it to be.</p> <sup>1</sup>/<sub>1000</sub> second of arc, is estimated by Lord Kelvin as the equivalent of a thousand million of our suns; and this amount of matter, distributed as -it is, would have an average density of 1·6 × 10<sup>−23</sup> +it is, would have an average density of 1·6 × 10<sup>−23</sup> grammes per c.c. It is noteworthy how exceedingly small is this average or aggregate density of matter in the visible region of space. The estimated @@ -3462,18 +3422,18 @@ contains, is filled, or is an equal quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa powerful body in the world contains no more materia than that which we conceive to be the rarest, thinnest, lightest, or least powerful body -of all; as gold for instance, and <i>æther</i>, or the +of all; as gold for instance, and <i>æther</i>, or the substance that fills the cavity of an exhausted vessel, or cavity of the glass of a barometer above the quicksilver. Nay, as I shall afterwards prove, this cavity is more full, or a more dense body of -æther, in the common sense or acceptation of the +æther, in the common sense or acceptation of the word, than gold is of gold, bulk for bulk; and -that because the one, viz. the mass of æther, is all -æther: but the mass of gold, which we conceive, +that because the one, viz. the mass of æther, is all +æther: but the mass of gold, which we conceive, is not all gold; but there is an intermixture, and that vastly more than is commonly supposed, of -æther with it; so that vacuity, as it is commonly +æther with it; so that vacuity, as it is commonly thought, or erroneously supposed, is a more dense body than the gold as gold. But if we consider the whole content of the one with that of the other, @@ -3589,10 +3549,10 @@ through it,—except by theory.</p> <p>As for the elasticity of the ether, that is ascertainable at once from the speed at which it transmits waves. That speed—the velocity of light—is -accurately known, 3 × 10<sup>10</sup> centimetres per +accurately known, 3 × 10<sup>10</sup> centimetres per second. And the ratio of the elasticity or rigidity to the density is equal to the square of this speed;—that -is to say, the elasticity must be 9 × 10<sup>20</sup> +is to say, the elasticity must be 9 × 10<sup>20</sup> times the density; or, in other words, 10<sup>33</sup> C.G.S. units. That is an immediate consequence of the estimate of density and the fact of the velocity of @@ -3633,7 +3593,7 @@ circulating internally, every part of it, with a velocity comparable to the velocity of light, and therefore containing—stored away in that small region of space—an amount of energy of the order -10<sup>29</sup> ergs, or, what is the samething, 3 × 10<sup>11</sup> kilowatt +10<sup>29</sup> ergs, or, what is the samething, 3 × 10<sup>11</sup> kilowatt centuries; which is otherwise expressible as equal to the energy of a million horse-power station working continuously for forty million years.</p> @@ -3980,8 +3940,8 @@ to the notion that in the transmission of the force there is such an action, external to the magnet, than that the effects are merely attraction and repulsion at a distance. Such an action may be a -function of the æther; for it is not unlikely that, -if there be an æther, it should have other uses +function of the æther; for it is not unlikely that, +if there be an æther, it should have other uses than simply the conveyance of radiation."</p> <p>This conjecture has been amply strengthened @@ -4285,7 +4245,7 @@ all round.</p> gravitational attraction, for equal spheres, depends on the temperature of the spheres and on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> their density; but at the ordinary temperature -to which we are accustomed, say 60° Fahrenheit +to which we are accustomed, say 60° Fahrenheit or thereabouts, equality between the two forces will obtain for two wooden spheres in space if each is about a foot in diameter; according to @@ -4303,7 +4263,7 @@ within molecular distance of each other.</p> distance, attract each other gravitationally with a force of the order</p> -<p class="cen">γ<a class="num">(10 <sup>-22</sup> x 10<sup>-22</sup>)</a> / <a class="denom">(10<sup>-8</sup>)²</a> = <span class="num">10<sup>-44</sup></span>/<span class="denom">10<sup>-16</sup></span> x 10<sup>-7</sup> = 10<sup>-35</sup> dyne;</p> +<p class="cen">γ<a class="num">(10 <sup>-22</sup> x 10<sup>-22</sup>)</a> / <a class="denom">(10<sup>-8</sup>)²</a> = <span class="num">10<sup>-44</sup></span>/<span class="denom">10<sup>-16</sup></span> x 10<sup>-7</sup> = 10<sup>-35</sup> dyne;</p> <p class="noin">which would cause no perceptible acceleration at all.</p> @@ -4334,17 +4294,17 @@ amount.</p> <p class="cen"><i>Arithmetical Calculation of the Pull of the Earth on the Moon.</i></p> -<p>The mass of the earth is 6000 trillion (6 × 10<sup>21</sup>) +<p>The mass of the earth is 6000 trillion (6 × 10<sup>21</sup>) tons. The mass of the moon is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>80</sub>th that of the earth. Terrestrial gravity at the moon's distance (which is 60 earth radii) must be reduced in the -ratio 1:60²; that is, it must be <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3600</sub>th of what +ratio 1:60²; that is, it must be <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3600</sub>th of what it is here.</p> <p>Consequently the pull of the earth on the moon is</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num">6 × 10<sup>21</sup></span> / <span class="denom">80 × 3600</span> tons weight.</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num">6 × 10<sup>21</sup></span> / <span class="denom">80 × 3600</span> tons weight.</p> <p>A pillar of steel which could transmit this force, provided it could sustain a tension of 40 tons to @@ -4361,7 +4321,7 @@ million of them.</p> <p><i>Arithmetical Calculation of the Pull of the Sun on the Earth.</i></p> -<p>The mass of the earth is 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons. The +<p>The mass of the earth is 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons. The intensity of solar gravity at the sun's surface is 25 times ordinary terrestrial gravity.</p> @@ -4372,10 +4332,10 @@ ratio of 1:200 squared.</p> <p>Hence the force exerted by the sun on the earth is</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num">25 × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup></span> / <span class="denom">(200)²</span> tons weight.</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num">25 × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup></span> / <span class="denom">(200)²</span> tons weight.</p> <p>That is to say, it is approximately equal to the -weight of 37 × 10<sup>17</sup> ordinary tons upon the earth's +weight of 37 × 10<sup>17</sup> ordinary tons upon the earth's surface.</p> <p>Now steel may readily be found which can @@ -4386,7 +4346,7 @@ earth, would therefore have to be</p> <p class="cen">10<sup>17</sup> square inches,<br /> -or say 700 × 10<sup>12</sup> square feet.</p> +or say 700 × 10<sup>12</sup> square feet.</p> <p>And this is equivalent to a million million round<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> rods or pillars each 30 feet in diameter.</p> @@ -4414,10 +4374,10 @@ earth radii.</p> <p>Hence the weight or pull of the sun by the earth is</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num">316000</span> / <span class="denom">(23000)²</span> × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons weight.</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num">316000</span> / <span class="denom">(23000)²</span> × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons weight.</p> <p>In other words, it is approximately equal to the -ordinary commercial weight of 36 × 10<sup>17</sup> tons, as +ordinary commercial weight of 36 × 10<sup>17</sup> tons, as already calculated.</p> @@ -4429,7 +4389,7 @@ force of the earth; namely, its mass, multiplied<span class="pagenum"><a name="P by the square of its angular velocity, multiplied by the radius of its orbit;—that is to say,</p> -<p class="cen">F = M (<span class="num">2π</span> / <span class="denom">T</span>)² <i>r</i></p> +<p class="cen">F = M (<span class="num">2π</span> / <span class="denom">T</span>)² <i>r</i></p> <p class="noin">where T is the length of a year.</p> @@ -4437,16 +4397,16 @@ by the radius of its orbit;—that is to say,</p> owing to the manipulation of units which it involves:—</p> -<p class="cen">F = 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons × <span class="num">(4π² × 92 × 10<sup>6</sup> miles)</span> / <span class="denom">(365 ¼ days)²</span></p> +<p class="cen">F = 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons × <span class="num">(4π² × 92 × 10<sup>6</sup> miles)</span> / <span class="denom">(365 ¼ days)²</span></p> <p class="noin">which of course is a mass multiplied by an acceleration. The acceleration is—</p> -<p><span class="num">(40 × 92 × 10<sup>6</sup>)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × (24)²</span> miles per hour per hour</p> +<p><span class="num">(40 × 92 × 10<sup>6</sup>)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × (24)²</span> miles per hour per hour</p> -<p>= <span class="num">(3680 × 10<sup>6</sup> × 5280)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × 576 × (3600)²</span> feet per sec. per sec.</p> +<p>= <span class="num">(3680 × 10<sup>6</sup> × 5280)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × 576 × (3600)²</span> feet per sec. per sec.</p> -<p>= <span class="num">(115 × 5280)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × 576 × 12·96</span> × 32 feet per sec. per sec.</p> +<p>= <span class="num">(115 × 5280)</span> / <span class="denom">133300 × 576 × 12·96</span> × 32 feet per sec. per sec.</p> <p>= <span class="num"><i>g</i></span> / <span class="denom">1640</span></p> @@ -4456,11 +4416,11 @@ acceleration equal to the <sup>1</sup>/<sub>1640</sub>th part of what ordinary terrestrial gravity can produce in falling bodies; or</p> -<p class="cen">F = 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons × <span class="num"><i>g</i></span> / <span class="denom">1640</span></p> +<p class="cen">F = 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons × <span class="num"><i>g</i></span> / <span class="denom">1640</span></p> -<p class="cen">= <span class="num">6</span> / <span class="denom">1640</span> × 10<sup>21</sup> tons weight; </p> +<p class="cen">= <span class="num">6</span> / <span class="denom">1640</span> × 10<sup>21</sup> tons weight; </p> -<p class="noin">which is the ordinary weight of 37 × 10<sup>17</sup> tons, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +<p class="noin">which is the ordinary weight of 37 × 10<sup>17</sup> tons, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> before.</p> <p>The slight numerical discrepancy between the @@ -4525,7 +4485,7 @@ together must be enormous.</p> <p>Perhaps the most striking case, for which we have substantially accurate data, is the star -β Aurigæ; which, during the general spectroscopic +β Aurigæ; which, during the general spectroscopic survey of the heavens undertaken by Professor Pickering of Harvard, in connexion with the Draper Memorial, was discovered to show @@ -4571,10 +4531,10 @@ miles.</p> <p>Equating centrifugal and centripetal forces</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>mv</i>²</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i></span> = γ <span class="num"><i>m</i>²</span> / <span class="denom">(2<i>r</i>)²</span></p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>mv</i>²</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i></span> = γ <span class="num"><i>m</i>²</span> / <span class="denom">(2<i>r</i>)²</span></p> -<p class="noin">and comparing the value of 4r³ / T² so obtained -with the r³ / T² of the earth, we find the mass of +<p class="noin">and comparing the value of 4r³ / T² so obtained +with the r³ / T² of the earth, we find the mass of each body must be about 30,000 times that of the earth, or about <sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub>th that of the sun.</p> @@ -4588,7 +4548,7 @@ portions as they revolve. If they are of something like solar density their diameter will be comparable to half a million miles, and the natural periods of their near and far portions will differ -in the ratio (<sup>17</sup>/<sub>16</sub>)<sup>3/2</sup> = 1·1 approximately. Tenacity +in the ratio (<sup>17</sup>/<sub>16</sub>)<sup>3/2</sup> = 1·1 approximately. Tenacity could not hold the parts together, but gravitational coherence would.)</p> @@ -4597,23 +4557,23 @@ coherence would.)</p> <p>This, however, is a digression. Let us continue the calculation of the gravitative pull.</p> -<p>We have masses of 3 × 10<sup>4</sup> × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons, revolving -with angular velocity 2π ÷ 4 days, in a -circle of radius 8 × 10<sup>6</sup> miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> +<p>We have masses of 3 × 10<sup>4</sup> × 6 × 10<sup>21</sup> tons, revolving +with angular velocity 2π ÷ 4 days, in a +circle of radius 8 × 10<sup>6</sup> miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> <p>Consequently the centripetal acceleration is -<span class="num">4 π² × 8 × 10<sup>6</sup></span> / <span class="denom">16</span> miles per day per day; which -comes out <sup>32</sup> / <sub>2·2</sub> ft. per sec. per sec., or nearly half +<span class="num">4 π² × 8 × 10<sup>6</sup></span> / <span class="denom">16</span> miles per day per day; which +comes out <sup>32</sup> / <sub>2·2</sub> ft. per sec. per sec., or nearly half ordinary terrestrial gravity.</p> <p>Consequently the pull between the two components -of the double star β Aurigæ is</p> +of the double star β Aurigæ is</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>g</i></span> / <span class="denom">2.2</span> × 18 × 10<sup>25</sup> tons,</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>g</i></span> / <span class="denom">2.2</span> × 18 × 10<sup>25</sup> tons,</p> <p class="noin">or equal to the weight of</p> -<p class="cen">80 × 10<sup>24</sup> tons on the earth,</p> +<p class="cen">80 × 10<sup>24</sup> tons on the earth,</p> <p class="noin">which is more than twenty million times as great as is the pull between the earth and our sun.</p> @@ -4762,7 +4722,7 @@ Time of journey = <p class="cen">= <span class="intbig">∫<sub class="intbot">A</sub><sup class="inttop">B</sup></span> <span class="num">(V cos ε − <i>v</i> cos θ)</span> / -<span class="denom">V²(1 − α²)</span> <i>ds</i> = minimum</p> +<span class="denom">V²(1 − α²)</span> <i>ds</i> = minimum</p> <p class="noin">where α is the ratio <i>v</i>/V.</p> @@ -4776,14 +4736,14 @@ equation to a ray, that is putting</p> <p class="cen"><i>v</i> cos θ = <span class="num">δφ</span> / <span class="denom">δ<i>s</i></span>,</p> <p class="noin">and ignoring possible variations in the minute -correction factor 1−α² between the points A +correction factor 1−α² between the points A and B, it becomes</p> <p class="cen">Time of journey = <span class="intbig">∫<sub class="intbot">A</sub><sup class="inttop">B</sup></span> -<span class="num">cos ε</span> / <span class="denom">(1 − α²)</span> · +<span class="num">cos ε</span> / <span class="denom">(1 − α²)</span> · <span class="num"><i>ds</i></span> / <span class="denom">V</span> − -<span class="num">(φB − φA)</span> / <span class="denom">V²( 1−α²)</span> = minimum.</p> +<span class="num">(φB − φA)</span> / <span class="denom">V²( 1−α²)</span> = minimum.</p> <p>Now the second term depends only on end points, and therefore has no effect on path. The @@ -4794,11 +4754,11 @@ A ray that was straight, will remain straight in spite of motion. Whatever shape it had, that it will retain.</p> -<p>Only cos ε, and variations in α², can produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +<p>Only cos ε, and variations in α², can produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> any effect on path; and effects so produced must be very small, since the value of cos ε is</p> -<p class="cen">√(1−α²sin²θ).</p> +<p class="cen">√(1−α²sin²θ).</p> <p>A second-order effect on direction may therefore be produced by irrotational motion, but not @@ -4818,9 +4778,9 @@ at angle θ to a constant drift is, from the above expression,</p> <p class="cen">T<sub>1</sub> + T<sub>2</sub> = -<span class="num">2T cos ε</span> / <span class="denom">1−α²</span> = -<span class="num">√(1−α²sin²θ)</span> / -<span class="denom">(1 − α²)</span> × 2T,</p> +<span class="num">2T cos ε</span> / <span class="denom">1−α²</span> = +<span class="num">√(1−α²sin²θ)</span> / +<span class="denom">(1 − α²)</span> × 2T,</p> <p class="noin">where 2T is the ordinary time of the double journey without any drift.</p> @@ -4836,7 +4796,7 @@ remarkable experiment<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="# to and fro, half along and half across the line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> the earth's motion; and is, in fact, a theory of it. There ought to be an effect due to the difference -between θ = 0 and θ = 90°. But none can be +between θ = 0 and θ = 90°. But none can be detected. Hence, either something else happens, or the ether near the earth is dragged with it so as not to stream through our instruments.</p> @@ -5072,14 +5032,14 @@ affect its course?</p> <p>If the matter is moved relatively to source and receiver, as in Fizeau's experiment with running water, most certainly it will; to the full effect of -the loading or extra or travelling density, (μ²-1), -compared with the total density μ².</p> +the loading or extra or travelling density, (μ²-1), +compared with the total density μ².</p> <p>This fraction of the velocity of the material medium must directly influence the velocity of light, for the waves will be conveyed in the sense of the material motion <i>u</i>, with the additional speed -<i>u</i>(μ²-1) / μ². (See also Appendix <a href="#APPENDIX_3">3</a>.)</p> +<i>u</i>(μ²-1) / μ². (See also Appendix <a href="#APPENDIX_3">3</a>.)</p> <p>But if the transparent matter through which the light is going is stationary with respect to @@ -5099,7 +5059,7 @@ Stationary Bodies.</i></p> Fresnel's etherial motion may proceed thus:—A dense slab of thickness <i>z</i>, which would naturally be traversed with the velocity V/μ, is traversed -with the velocity (V/μ) cos ε + (<i>v</i>/μ²) cos θ; where +with the velocity (V/μ) cos ε + (<i>v</i>/μ²) cos θ; where <i>v</i> is the relative velocity of the ether in its neighbourhood; whence the time of journey through it is</p> @@ -5113,9 +5073,9 @@ it is</p> <p class="cen"><span class="num">μ<i>z</i></span> / <span class="denom">cos ε + <sup>α</sup>/<sub>μ</sub> cos θ</span> − <i>z</i> = (<span class="num">μ cos ε − α cos θ</span> / -<span class="denom">(1 − <sup>α</sup>/<sub>μ</sub>)²</span> − 1)<i>z</i>,</p> +<span class="denom">(1 − <sup>α</sup>/<sub>μ</sub>)²</span> − 1)<i>z</i>,</p> -<p class="noin">or, to the first order of minutiæ,</p> +<p class="noin">or, to the first order of minutiæ,</p> <p class="cen">(μ − 1)<i>z</i> − α<i>z</i> cos θ;</p> @@ -5150,7 +5110,7 @@ effect, even when assisted by dense matter.</p> that the behaviour of ether inside matter is such as to enable a potential-function,</p> -<p class="cen"><span class="intbig">∫</span> μ²<i>v</i> cos θ<i>ds</i>,</p> +<p class="cen"><span class="intbig">∫</span> μ²<i>v</i> cos θ<i>ds</i>,</p> <p class="noin">to exist throughout all transparent space, so far as motion of ether alone is concerned. (See Appendix @@ -5246,29 +5206,29 @@ integrated all through an attracted body.</p> any spherical mass; and if the radius be R and the gravitational intensity is <i>g</i>, the tension at the surface is T<sub>0</sub> = <i>g</i>R. At any distance <i>r</i>, further away, the -tension is T = <i>g</i>R²/<i>r</i>.</p> +tension is T = <i>g</i>R²/<i>r</i>.</p> <p>This follows at once thus:—</p> -<p>Stating the law of gravitation as F = γ<span class="num"><i>mm´</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>, the +<p>Stating the law of gravitation as F = γ<span class="num"><i>mm´</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>, the meaning here adopted for etherial tension at the surface of the earth is</p> <p class="cen">T = <span class="num"><span class="intbig">∫<sub class="intbot">R</sub><sup class="inttop">∞</sup></span> γE</span> / -<span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span> <i>dr</i> = +<span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span> <i>dr</i> = <span class="num">γE</span> / <span class="denom">R</span>;</p> <p class="noin">so that the ordinary intensity of gravity is</p> <p class="cen"><i>g</i> = −<span class="num">dT</span> / <span class="denom">dR</span> = -<span class="num">γE</span> / <span class="denom">R²</span> = +<span class="num">γE</span> / <span class="denom">R²</span> = <span class="num">4</span> / <span class="denom">3</span>πργR.</p> <p>Accordingly, near the surface of a planet the tension<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> is T<sub>0</sub> = <i>g</i>R, or for different planets is proportional to -ρR².</p> +ρR².</p> <p>The velocity of free fall from infinity to such a planet is √(2T<sub>0</sub>); the velocity of free fall from circumference @@ -5280,7 +5240,7 @@ is √(3T<sub>0</sub>).</p> <p>The etherial tension near the earth's surface, required to explain gravity by its rate of variation, is -of the order 6 × 10<sup>11</sup> c.g.s. units. The tension near +of the order 6 × 10<sup>11</sup> c.g.s. units. The tension near the sun is 2500 times as great (p. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>). With different spheres in general, it is proportional to the density and to the superficial area. Hence, near a bullet @@ -5311,7 +5271,7 @@ a globe of the earth's density would have to be equal in radius to the distance of the earth from the sun, or say 26,000 times the earth's radius. If the density were less, the superficial area would have to be increased -in proportion, so as to keep ρ R² constant.</p> +in proportion, so as to keep ρ R² constant.</p> <p>The whole visible universe within a parallax of <sup>1</sup>/<sub>1000</sub> second of arc, estimated by Lord Kelvin as the @@ -5322,7 +5282,7 @@ it could generate the velocity of light with a density comparable to that of water, if <i>mass</i> were constant.</p> <p>If the average density of the above visible universe -(which may be taken as 1.6 × 10<sup>-23</sup> grammes per c.c.) +(which may be taken as 1.6 × 10<sup>-23</sup> grammes per c.c.) continued without limit, a disruptive tension of the ether would be reached when the radius was comparable to 10<sup>13</sup> light years; and the velocity of light @@ -5364,7 +5324,7 @@ turbulence, conferring on it gyrostatic properties.</p> <p>Optically, its rigidity and density are both felt, since optical disturbances are essentially electromotive. Matter loads the ether optically, in accordance -with the recognised fraction <span class="num">μ²−1</span> / <span class="denom">μ²</span>; and this +with the recognised fraction <span class="num">μ²−1</span> / <span class="denom">μ²</span>; and this loading, being part and parcel of the <i>matter</i>, of course travels with it. It is the only part amenable to mechanical force.</p> @@ -5375,11 +5335,11 @@ optical or electrical density of matter—being really that of ether affected by the intrinsic or constitutional electricity of matter—is not so small. The relative optical virtual density of the ether inside matter -is measured by μ²; but it may be really a defect +is measured by μ²; but it may be really a defect of elasticity, at least in non-magnetic materials.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> <p>Electrical and optical effects depend upon <i>e</i>. -Mechanical or inertia effects depend upon <i>e</i>². Electric +Mechanical or inertia effects depend upon <i>e</i>². Electric charges can load the ether optically, quite appreciably; but as regards mechanical loading, the densest matter known is trivial and gossamer-like compared with @@ -5404,7 +5364,7 @@ inside and outside an electron must be the same. So, dealing with it in this simplest fashion, the resultant inertia is half as great again as that of the volume of fluid corresponding to the electron: that -is to say the effective mass is 2πρα³, where ρ is the +is to say the effective mass is 2πρα³, where ρ is the uniform density. If an electron is of some other shape than a sphere, then the numerical part is modified, but remains of the same order of magnitude, @@ -5425,10 +5385,10 @@ thus:—</p> moderate speed <i>u</i>, so that the magnetic field at any point, <i>r</i>θ, outside, is</p> -<p class="cen">H = <span class="num"><i>eu</i> sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r²</i></span>,</p> +<p class="cen">H = <span class="num"><i>eu</i> sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r²</i></span>,</p> <p class="noin">and the energy per unit volume everywhere is -μH²/8π.</p> +μH²/8π.</p> <p>But a magnetic field has been thought of by many mathematicians as a circulation of fluid along the @@ -5438,16 +5398,16 @@ curves—at some unknown velocity <i>w</i>.</p> <p>So consider the energy per unit volume anywhere: it can be represented by the equivalent expressions</p> -<p class="cen">½ρw² = -<span class="num">μH²</span> / <span class="denom">8π</span> = -<span class="num">μ</span> / <span class="denom">8π</span> · -<span class="num"><i>e</i>²<i>u</i>² sin²θ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>;</p> +<p class="cen">½ρw² = +<span class="num">μH²</span> / <span class="denom">8π</span> = +<span class="num">μ</span> / <span class="denom">8π</span> · +<span class="num"><i>e</i>²<i>u</i>² sin²θ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>;</p> <p class="noin">wherefore</p> <p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>w</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>u</i></span> = -√(<span class="num">μ</span> / <span class="denom">4πρ</span>) · -<span class="num"><i>e</i> sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>.</p> +√(<span class="num">μ</span> / <span class="denom">4πρ</span>) · +<span class="num"><i>e</i> sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span>.</p> <p>The velocity of the hypothetical circulation must be a maximum at the equator of the sphere, where @@ -5455,12 +5415,12 @@ be a maximum at the equator of the sphere, where <p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>w</i><sub>0</sub></span> / <span class="denom"><i>u</i></span> = √(<span class="num">μ</span> / <span class="denom">4πρ</span>) -<span class="num"><i>e</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>a</i>²</span>,</p> +<span class="num"><i>e</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>a</i>²</span>,</p> <p class="noin">and</p> <p class="cen"><span class="num"><i>w</i></span> / <span class="denom"><i>w</i>ₒ</span> = -<span class="num"><i>a</i>² sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span></p> +<span class="num"><i>a</i>² sinθ</span> / <span class="denom"><i>r</i>²</span></p> <p class="noin">wherefore the major part of the circulation is limited @@ -5472,17 +5432,17 @@ electron.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> <p class="cen">½ρ <span class="intbig">∫<sub class="intbot">0</sub><sup class="inttop">π</sup></span> <span class="intbig">∫<sub class="intbot"><i>a</i></sub><sup class="inttop">∞</sup></span> -<i>w</i>² · 2π <i>r</i> sin θ · <i>rd</i>θ · <i>dr</i>,</p> +<i>w</i>² · 2π <i>r</i> sin θ · <i>rd</i>θ · <i>dr</i>,</p> <p class="noin">whence, substituting the above value of <i>w</i>, the energy -comes out equal to <span class="num">4</span>/<span class="denom">3</span>πρ<i>a</i>³<i>w</i><sub>0</sub>².</p> +comes out equal to <span class="num">4</span>/<span class="denom">3</span>πρ<i>a</i>³<i>w</i><sub>0</sub>².</p> <p>Comparing this with a mass moving with speed <i>u</i>,</p> -<p class="cen"><i>m</i> = (<span class="num">8</span> / <span class="denom">3</span>)πρ<i>a</i>³(<span class="num"><i>w</i><sub>0</sub></span> / <span class="denom"><i>u</i></span>)².</p> +<p class="cen"><i>m</i> = (<span class="num">8</span> / <span class="denom">3</span>)πρ<i>a</i>³(<span class="num"><i>w</i><sub>0</sub></span> / <span class="denom"><i>u</i></span>)².</p> <p>This agrees with the simple hydrodynamic estimate -of effective inertia if <i>w</i><sub>0</sub> = ½ √3·<i>u</i>; that is to say, if +of effective inertia if <i>w</i><sub>0</sub> = ½ √3·<i>u</i>; that is to say, if the whirl in contact with the equator of the sphere is of the same order of magnitude as the velocity of the sphere.</p> @@ -5500,7 +5460,7 @@ is difficult to suppose the equatorial circulation <i>w</i><sub>0</sub> most reasonable to treat them both as of the same order of magnitude. So, taking them as equal,</p> -<p class="cen"><i>e</i> = <i>a</i>² √(<span class="num">4πρ</span> / <span class="denom">μ</span>)</p> +<p class="cen"><i>e</i> = <i>a</i>² √(<span class="num">4πρ</span> / <span class="denom">μ</span>)</p> <p class="noin">and <i>m</i> = twice the spherical mass.</p> @@ -5543,7 +5503,7 @@ of Electricity</i>.</p> <p>The supposed magnetic etherial drift, along the axis of a solenoid or other magnetic field, if it exist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -is comparable to ·003 centim. per sec., or 4 inches an +is comparable to ·003 centim. per sec., or 4 inches an hour, for a field of intensity 12,000 c.g.s.</p> <p>But it is not to be supposed that this hypothetical @@ -5603,17 +5563,17 @@ space, acting in analogy with weights distributed along a flexible cord. Thus they reduce the velocity of light in the ratio of the refractive index μ:1, and therefore may be taken as increasing the virtual -density of the ether in the ratio 1:μ².</p> +density of the ether in the ratio 1:μ².</p> <p>That is to say, their loading makes the ether behave to optical waves as if—being a homogeneous medium without these discontinuous loads—it had -a density μ² times that which it has in space outside +a density μ² times that which it has in space outside matter. Calling the density outside 1, the extra -density inside must be μ²−1, so as to make up the -total to μ².</p> +density inside must be μ²−1, so as to make up the +total to μ².</p> -<p>The μ²−1 portion is that which we call "matter," +<p>The μ²−1 portion is that which we call "matter," and this portion is readily susceptible to locomotion, being subject to—that is, accelerated by—mechanical force. The free portion of normal density 1 is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> @@ -5638,7 +5598,7 @@ accelerated or retarded by a stream of water, according as it travelled with or against the stream. And he found the magnitude of the effect precisely in accordance with the ratio of the locomotive portion -of the ether to the whole,—the fraction (μ²−1)/μ² of +of the ether to the whole,—the fraction (μ²−1)/μ² of the speed of the water being added to or subtracted from the velocity of light, when a beam was sent down or up the stream.</p> @@ -5662,12 +5622,12 @@ the body in its condensed condition at a pace such that what is equivalent to the normal quantity of ether in space may remain absolutely stationary. To this end its speed backwards relative to the body must -be <i>u</i>/μ² and accordingly its speed forward in space -must be <i>u</i>(1 − 1/μ²).</p> +be <i>u</i>/μ² and accordingly its speed forward in space +must be <i>u</i>(1 − 1/μ²).</p> <p>For consider a slab of matter moving flatways with velocity <i>u</i>; let its internal etherial density be -μ², and let the external ether of density 1 be stationary. +μ², and let the external ether of density 1 be stationary. Let the forward speed of the internal ether through space be <i>xu</i>, so that a beam of light therein would be hurried forward with this velocity. Then @@ -5683,9 +5643,9 @@ will be (<i>u</i> − <i>xu</i>) times the internal density. But this latter amount must equal the former amount. In other words,</p> -<p class="cen"><i>u</i> × 1 must equal (<i>u</i> − <i>xu</i>) × μ².</p> +<p class="cen"><i>u</i> × 1 must equal (<i>u</i> − <i>xu</i>) × μ².</p> -<p>Consequently <i>x</i> comes out <i>x</i> = (μ² − 1) / μ²; which +<p>Consequently <i>x</i> comes out <i>x</i> = (μ² − 1) / μ²; which is Fresnel's incontrovertible law for the convective effect of moving transparent matter on light inside it.</p> @@ -5696,30 +5656,30 @@ lines of Chapter <a href="#Page_127">X</a>, thus:<span class="pagenum"><a name=" <p>Inside a transparent body light travels at a speed V/μ; and the ether, which outside drifts at velocity <i>v</i>, making an angle θ with the ray, inside -may be drifting with velocity <i>v</i>´ and angle θ´.</p> +may be drifting with velocity <i>v</i>´ and angle θ´.</p> <p>Hence the equation to a ray inside such matter is</p> -<p class="cen">T´ = <span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num"><i>ds</i></span> / -<span class="denom">((V/μ) cos ε´ + <i>v</i>´ cos θ´)</span> = min.,</p> +<p class="cen">T´ = <span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num"><i>ds</i></span> / +<span class="denom">((V/μ) cos ε´ + <i>v</i>´ cos θ´)</span> = min.,</p> -<p class="cen">where <span class="num">sin ε´</span> / <span class="denom">sin θ´</span> = -<span class="num"><i>v</i>´</span> / <span class="denom">(V/μ)</span> = α´.</p> +<p class="cen">where <span class="num">sin ε´</span> / <span class="denom">sin θ´</span> = +<span class="num"><i>v</i>´</span> / <span class="denom">(V/μ)</span> = α´.</p> <p>This may be written</p> -<p class="cen">T´ = <span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num">cos ε´ <i>ds</i></span> / -<span class="denom">V/μ (1 − α´²)</span> − -<span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num"><i>v</i>´ cos θ´ <i>ds</i></span> / -<span class="denom">V²/μ² (1 − α´²)</span>;</p> +<p class="cen">T´ = <span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num">cos ε´ <i>ds</i></span> / +<span class="denom">V/μ (1 − α´²)</span> − +<span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num"><i>v</i>´ cos θ´ <i>ds</i></span> / +<span class="denom">V²/μ² (1 − α´²)</span>;</p> <p class="noin">the second term alone involves the first power of the -motion, and assuming that μ²<i>v</i>´ cos θ´ = <i>d</i>φ´/<i>ds</i>, and -treating α´ as a quantity too small for its possible +motion, and assuming that μ²<i>v</i>´ cos θ´ = <i>d</i>φ´/<i>ds</i>, and +treating α´ as a quantity too small for its possible variations to need attention, the expression becomes</p> -<p class="cen">T´ = μT <span class="num">cos ε´</span> / <span class="denom">(1 − α´²)</span> − -<span class="num">(φ´B − φ´A)</span> / <span class="denom">V²(1 − α´²)</span>,</p> +<p class="cen">T´ = μT <span class="num">cos ε´</span> / <span class="denom">(1 − α´²)</span> − +<span class="num">(φ´B − φ´A)</span> / <span class="denom">V²(1 − α´²)</span>,</p> <p>T being the time of travel through the same space when empty. Now, if the time of journey and course @@ -5731,26 +5691,26 @@ two points A and B should be the same whether the space between is filled with dense matter or not (or, say, whether the ray-path is taken through or outside a portion of dense medium). In other -words (calling φ the outside and φ´ the inside potential -function), in order to secure that T´ shall not differ +words (calling φ the outside and φ´ the inside potential +function), in order to secure that T´ shall not differ from μT by anything depending on the first power of -motion, it is necessary that φ´<span class="smcap">B</span>−φ´<span class="smcap">A</span> shall equal +motion, it is necessary that φ´<span class="smcap">B</span>−φ´<span class="smcap">A</span> shall equal φ<span class="smcap">B</span>−φ<span class="smcap">A</span>: i.e. that the potential inside and outside matter shall be the same up to a constant, or that -μ²<i>v</i>´ cos θ´ = <i>v</i> cos θ; which for the case of drift along +μ²<i>v</i>´ cos θ´ = <i>v</i> cos θ; which for the case of drift along a ray is precisely Fresnel's hypothesis.</p> <p>Another way of putting the matter is to say that to the first power of drift velocity</p> -<p class="cen">T´ = μ T − <span class="intbig">∫</span> -(μ² <i>v</i>´ cos θ´ − <i>v</i> cos θ) <i>ds</i> / V²,</p> +<p class="cen">T´ = μ T − <span class="intbig">∫</span> +(μ² <i>v</i>´ cos θ´ − <i>v</i> cos θ) <i>ds</i> / V²,</p> <p class="noin">and that the second or disturbing term must vanish.</p> <p>Hence Fresnel's hypothesis as to the behaviour of ether inside matter is equivalent to the assumption -that a potential function, ∫ μ² <i>v</i> cos θ <i>ds</i> , exists throughout +that a potential function, ∫ μ² <i>v</i> cos θ <i>ds</i> , exists throughout all transparent space, so far as motion of ether alone is concerned.</p> @@ -5767,7 +5727,7 @@ with velocity <i>u</i> in a direction φ, and subject to an independent ether drift of speed <i>v</i> in direction θ, is</p> <p class="cen"><span class="intbig">∫</span> <span class="num"><i>ds</i></span> / -<span class="denom">(V/μ cos ε + <i>v</i>/μ² cos θ + <i>u</i>[1 − (1/μ²)] cos φ)</span> = const.</p> +<span class="denom">(V/μ cos ε + <i>v</i>/μ² cos θ + <i>u</i>[1 − (1/μ²)] cos φ)</span> = const.</p> <p class="cen" style="margin-top:3em;"> WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.<br /> @@ -5786,8 +5746,8 @@ PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH<br /> Arrhenius</span>, of the Nobel Institute, Stockholm. Illustrated. 6<i>s.</i> net</p> -<p class="noin">Explains the origin of nebulæ from suns and suns from -nebulæ, the universal distribution of life, the conservation +<p class="noin">Explains the origin of nebulæ from suns and suns from +nebulæ, the universal distribution of life, the conservation of energy, etc., and shows how all may be accounted for by the newly developed principle of the pressure of light</p></blockquote> @@ -6005,7 +5965,7 @@ July, 1889. See also <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, August, 1888, page 229.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Radian</i> is the name given by Prof. James Thomson to a unit angle of circular measure, an angle whose arc -equals its radius, or about 57°.</p></div> +equals its radius, or about 57°.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The word "stationary" is ambiguous. I propose to use "stagnant," as meaning stationary with respect to @@ -6032,7 +5992,7 @@ Appendix <a href="#APPENDIX_2">2</a> below.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, Dec., 1887.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Archives Néerlandaises</i> (1869), Vol. IV, p. 443, or <i>Nature</i>, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Archives Néerlandaises</i> (1869), Vol. IV, p. 443, or <i>Nature</i>, Vol XXVI, p. 500. Also Chapter <a href="#Page_44">IV</a> above.</p></div> </div> @@ -6062,382 +6022,6 @@ will be displayed.</p> </div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ether of Space, by Oliver Lodge - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHER OF SPACE *** - -***** This file should be named 40911-h.htm or 40911-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/9/1/40911/ - -Produced by Barbara Tozier, Mark Young, Bill Tozier and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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