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diff --git a/40896-8.txt b/40896-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ec678ee..0000000 --- a/40896-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5033 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elementary Color, by Milton Bradley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Elementary Color - -Author: Milton Bradley - -Release Date: September 29, 2012 [EBook #40896] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY COLOR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: (_See Page 41._)] - - - - - ELEMENTARY - COLOR - - - BY - MILTON BRADLEY. - - Author of "Color in the Schoolroom" - and "Color in the Kindergarten." - - - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY - HENRY LEFAVOUR, Ph.D., - Professor of Physics, Williams College. - - - - Third Edition. - - - - - MILTON BRADLEY CO., - SPRINGFIELD, MASS. - - - - COPYRIGHTED, 1895, - BY MILTON BRADLEY CO., - SPRINGFIELD, MASS. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - PAGE. - THE THEORY OF COLOR 9 - Why Artists and Scientists Have Disagreed 10 - The Speculations of the Past 12 - What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider 13 - Concerning the Solar Spectrum 15 - Six Spectrum Standards of Color 17 - The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks 18 - The Bradley System of Color Instruction 20 - - COLOR DEFINITIONS 23 - - PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 31 - The Color Wheel 31 - The Color Top 32 - Use of the Disks 32 - How to Begin the Experiments 34 - The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments 45 - Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top 46 - Concerning the Complementary Colors 50 - Citrines and Russets 54 - Olives 55 - Vermilion, Burnt Sienna, Raw Sienna and Indian Red 55 - Classification of Harmonies 56 - The Work of Chevreul Reviewed 58 - Simultaneous, Successive and Mixed Contrast 61 - Contrasted Harmony 64 - Color with White 64 - Black with White 64 - Color with Black 65 - Colors with Gray 65 - Contrast of Colors 67 - Dominant Harmonies 67 - Complementary Harmonies 69 - Analogous Harmonies 70 - Perfected Harmonies 70 - Field's Chromatic Equivalents 73 - Colored Papers 74 - - COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM 76 - The Glass Prism 78 - How the Bradley Color Standards Were Chosen 79 - Paper Color Tablets 80 - Color Wheel or Top 82 - The Study of Tones 85 - Neutral Grays 89 - Explanation of Broken Colors 91 - An Exercise in Broken Colors 92 - Formulas for a Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales 95 - Certain Color Puzzles 96 - Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed 98 - The Work of Cutting and Pasting 99 - A Variety of Designs 101 - Analysis of Color Materials 106 - The Bradley Colored Papers 112 - Engine Colored Papers 116 - Water Colors 118 - Color Blindness 121 - - OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION 124 - The Solar Spectrum 125 - Pigmentary Spectrum Colors 125 - Study of Tones 126 - Broken Colors 127 - Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones 127 - Advanced Study of Harmonies 128 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The movement in educational reform at present is in the direction of -unification. It is held that in framing the programme for any grade the -interest not only of the next higher but of all higher grades must be -considered. This is done not solely that those who are to enter the -higher grades may be directly prepared for their more advanced studies, -but especially because it is felt that better work will thus be done for -those whose school training is soon to terminate. For the child's -education is never finished and a mind rightly directed at the start -will gather from its practical experience that with which it may develop -and augment the resources and the ideas already received. No education -can be sound which teaches anything that is inconsistent with the more -advanced truths, however complex and profound those truths may be. There -should be no unlearning in the course of an education nor any -expenditure of time on that which has no permanent value. - -It is of importance therefore to consider in connection with the study -of any special subject what the problems are which lie at the end of the -educational journey and what basis will be needed in the child's maturer -thought. There will thus be the inspiration of the goal to be attained -and guidance in the selection of the most helpful methods. - -There is scarcely any subject that has so many practical and scientific -aspects as the subject of color. Its great importance in the arts and -its contribution to the enjoyment of life are matched by the -multiplicity of problems in the physical and philosophical sciences with -which it is connected. Without attempting to enumerate all of the -scientific problems related to this subject, it may be of interest to -briefly summarize those which are most prominent. At the outset we have -such purely physical questions as the nature of light, the cause of its -emission, the mode of its propagation, the difference in the waves which -give rise to the various color sensations, the principles of absorption, -of reflection and of refraction, and the nature of material surfaces -whereby they acquire their characteristic colors. Then comes the -physiology of the eye, including its structure and its function and -involving the much discussed questions of primary and secondary colors, -and these are closely related to the psychological or psycho-physical -study of the nature, duration and delicacy of color vision and color -judgment. Next to these comes the study of pigments and of the chromatic -effects of their mixture, essentially a chemical and technical question, -and finally, the most important of all, the purely psychological or -æsthetic problem touching the harmonization and grouping of the various -colors and their modifications. The recent advance made in experimental -psychology has given an impetus to the study of the whole subject and we -may reasonably expect that rational explanations may be found for -questions in æsthetics hitherto considered purely arbitrary. - -It will be readily seen that there must be a well developed and -carefully trained color sense at the basis of an education which is to -lead to the consideration of these and similar chromatic problems. As in -the development of any special perceptive power, a great deal depends -upon making a beginning early in life, when the mind is most receptive -and there are no preconceptions to be overcome. Every means should be -employed that will help the child to distinguish between principal -colors and between modifications of principal colors. His attention -should be directed at as early a stage as possible to the analysis of -composite colors and the effects obtained by the combination of colored -lights and the results of irradiant light. The principles of chromatic -harmony are perhaps not simple, but a child, before whom right standards -of color combinations are constantly presented, will acquire a correct -æsthetic judgment that may become intuitive. The effect of such a -training on the higher development of our people and on their -appreciation of true art would be of the greatest value. - -If the instruction in color is to be systematic and efficient, it is -unquestionable that there must be a simple nomenclature for the standard -colors; and for the teacher's guidance at least as well as for the use -of the older pupils, a scientifically accurate system of describing any -required modification of these recognized standards. The system -presented in this book is based on the well-known principle of the -Maxwell wheel and has been elaborated by one who has had in view not -only the theory of the subject but also the practical possibilities of -its use in preparing educational material. This fact, I feel sure, -greatly enhances the value of the conclusions at which he arrives. - - HENRY LEFAVOUR. -Williams College, December 20, 1894. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Ever since Newton discovered the solar spectrum it has been referred to -in a poetic way as Nature's standard of color. But as soon as the author -attempted, some twelve years ago, to use it practically by making -pigmentary imitations of the spectrum colors as standards they were -decried as vulgar and inartistic. Under such circumstances it was a -great pleasure to him to hear a celebrated art professor answer his -inquiry if the solar spectrum is the proper place to look for standards -of color with the emphatic assertion, "Certainly, there is no other -place to go." - -Where there are no standards there can be no measurements, and if in -color we have no measurements of effects, no records can be made, and -hence no comparisons of results at various places and times, and -consequently no discussion and little progress. Because there have been -no accepted standards and no measurements of color very little has thus -far been decided regarding psychological color effects. - -In drawing, as at present taught in our best schools from the -kindergarten to the university, the foundation of art in black and white -is laid in form study. From the drawing teachers we learn that a good -touch and a fine sense for light and shade in all their subtle relations -to each other are without value, unless due care has been given to the -commonplace consideration of lengths and directions of lines, that is to -say to the measurement of lines and angles, and to the laws of -perspective. We cannot have measurements without standards. By the foot -or the metre we measure lines and by the divided circle we measure -angles. - -Geometrical forms have already been so definitely analyzed by -the science of mathematics that if destroyed to-day these solids and -surfaces could be reconstructed at any future time from written or -printed directions. But suppose all material samples of color to be -lost, it would be impossible by the ordinary system of color -nomenclature to even approximately restore a single one from written or -verbal descriptions. - -Color is one of the first things to attract the attention of the infant, -almost as soon as a sound and long before form appeals to him, so that a -collection of colored papers will often prove more interesting and -instructive than a picture book to the baby, while the graduate from a -two year's course in the kindergarten may have a better color sense than -is at present enjoyed by the average business or professional man. - -If we could determine the colors used by the great masters in the past, -we could add much to our knowledge of the fine arts; and if we knew what -colors Chevreul, the master dyer of the Gobelins Tapestry works, refers -to in his writings, and which he indicated by hundreds of numbered -samples filed away in his cabinet, we should in this generation have a -wonderful fund of information to increase our knowledge of harmonies, on -which to base our study of color in the industrial arts. - -But alas! the paintings of the old masters have faded and the great dyer -had no language in which to describe his colors in his writings, and -therefore it is claimed that little or no advance in color perception -has been made in modern times, if indeed we have held our own. The -further assertion is made that those semi-civilized nations whose -drawings are the least artistic greatly surpass us in natural color -perceptions. If color is the one thing in which we are deficient and in -which we are making no advance, is it not necessary that we adopt a new -line of operations for our color instruction in the primary grades? It -is self-evident that in primary work highest art is not expected in -either literature, music, drawing or painting, but as has been the aim -in literature for a long time and in drawing and music more recently, so -in coloring, our instruction should be based on those principles on -which highest art must rest. - -When through the introduction of colored papers in the kindergartens and -primary schools the teachers began to call for better assortments of -colors in their papers than were to be found in the market, and some of -us in the field attempted to meet their wants, the solution of the -problem seemed almost a hopeless task, because no two wanted the same -colors; each teacher was a law to herself and one thought a color "just -lovely" which another declared "perfectly horrid." According to the -early theories then in vogue the first colors called for were red, -yellow and blue for primaries, but no two persons were sure just what -they wanted for either of these, and there was no authority to be -referred to for a decision. - -In this strait, which was practically a serious difficulty, the artists -were appealed to for a decision as to the three "primary colors," and -also for examples showing in what proportions the "ideal primaries" must -be mixed to produce the "ideal secondaries." But in this there was no -satisfaction because hardly two agreed in the primaries and necessarily -the secondaries were much less definite, which was the result that -should have been expected. - -It is a self-evident proposition that if two indefinite primaries are -combined in indefinite proportions the possible secondaries which may -thus be produced must be exceedingly numerous, and if this idea is -carried out in the production of tertiaries by the combination of the -secondaries the resulting colors may be almost infinite. In view of the -indifference of the artists and the popular ignorance regarding the -subject the solution of this question and the discovery of any solid -basis on which to formulate a system of elementary color instruction -seemed very problematical. But after much experimenting and many -conferences with artists and scientists a basis for operation was -decided upon and at the end of fifteen years the efforts begun in doubt -have resulted in a definite system of color instruction which it is the -purpose of this book to concisely set forth. - -It is prepared in response to inquiries from primary school teachers for -a clear and condensed explanation of the Bradley System of Color -Instruction. The aim is to offer a definite scheme and suitable material -for a logical presentation of the truths regarding color in nature and -art to the children of the primary schools. Much of this instruction is -so simple that it should be familiar to children who have had -kindergarten training and has therefore already been explained in -substantially the same form in "Color in the Kindergarten." - -A few years ago it might well have been thought necessary to preface a -treatise on the subject with arguments to prove that color is a -legitimate object for school instruction, but to-day this is not a -question with thoughtful educators, whether considered from the -practical, industrial or æsthetic standpoint. With the establishment of -professorships of practical psychology and the equipment of -laboratories, provided with delicate and expensive apparatus for making -and recording tests, there comes with increasing force the demand for -some means by which the experiments in color made in various localities -may be unified both as to the colors used and the terms and measurements -for recording the result. It is the hope of the author that the system -here outlined may be the initial step in gathering together such facts -regarding color effects as will form a fund of knowledge little dreamed -of at the present day. - -[Illustration] - - - - -The Theory of Color. - - -In order to place the study of color on a broad and safe foundation, the -work must commence at the bottom with a rational presentation of the -subject, based on experiments and the use of color material. We must -intelligently consider the relation that exists between the pure science -of light which is the source of all color and the use of color materials -with their effect on our color perceptions. While it is true in all -study that there is here and there found a natural genius in some line -of work who seems to have such inborn perceptions as to require little -or no logical instruction in his special line, it is also manifest that -the masses must gain their knowledge through a systematic presentation -of the subject, if they secure it at all. Therefore with the growth of -modern pedagogics the laboratory work of the psychologist has become a -necessity. This consists in collecting and tabulating the results of -hundreds and thousands of experiments regarding any subject under -investigation, and the averaging of these to form theories and laws. In -making these experiments there must be standards and measurements on -which they may be based and some nomenclature in which to make the -records; and the standards, measurements and nomenclature adopted must -be common to those who desire to compare their results made in different -places at different times. - -From the results of many physical experiments properly measured and -recorded certain psychological theories are deduced. These experiments -are tried on hundreds and thousands of individuals and the average -results establish the theories, which will ultimately stand or fall -according to the truth and accuracy with which the experiments have -been made. Experiments are useless for formulating any exact theories -unless they can be recorded in some generally accepted terms for -comparison with other experiments made under similar conditions and -recorded in the same terms. - -So in color perceptions it is not necessary that we know anything of the -theories of color in order to see colors, and if endowed by nature with -a natural genius for color, education in color may not be necessary, but -if there is to be education in color which can be transmitted to a -second party there must be some standards of colors and some measurement -of color effects which can be recorded in accepted terms. - - -Why Artists and Scientists Have Disagreed. - -In the realm of art there is no necessity for any purely scientific -analysis of sunlight, which is the origin of natural colors, because all -the practical value of color is found in its æsthetic effects on the -mind, and in order to enjoy these even in the highest degree it is not -necessary that we understand the scientific origin of the colors, any -more than it is necessary for the artist to know the chemical -composition of his pigments in order to produce best effects with them -on his canvas. Because of this almost self-evident fact, artists have as -a rule been very impatient when any reference has been made to the -science of color in connection with color education, believing that -color is an exception to the general subjects of study to such a degree -that it lies outside of all scientific investigations. Consequently they -have not been in sympathy with the physio-psychological investigations -which have been prosecuted with such promising results in other lines, -when such investigations have been proposed regarding color. While it is -not essential for best results in his own work that an expert artist -shall know anything of the science of color, still if he is to -communicate his knowledge of art to any others except his personal -pupils, he must have some language in which to make known his ideas, and -on the same grounds if any psychological tests are to be made regarding -color, it is evident that there must be some accepted terms in which to -record the results, which has not hitherto been the case. - -When the well known Newton and Brewster theory of three primary colors -red, yellow and blue, was advocated by those scientists there appeared -to be something of interest and value in it for the artists also, -because with the three pigments red, yellow and blue, they seemed to be -able to confirm the truth of the scientific theories regarding the -spectrum colors. But the scientists have long been convinced that there -is no truth in this theory and have quite generally accepted the -Young-Helmholtz idea of three other color perceptions red, green and -violet, from which they claim all color vision is produced, and which -they call fundamental colors. - -This more modern theory has seemed so far removed from the realm of the -artists and the colorists that they have not been able to see anything -in it of truth or value to them, and so have continued to repeat the -old, old story of the three primaries red, yellow and blue, from which -the secondaries orange, green and purple are made etc., etc., all of -which is the more pernicious when accepted as a correct theory because -of its seeming approximation to the facts. And yet there is not in it -all any scientific truth on which to build a logical system of color -education, and some of the effects which are considered prominent -arguments for the system are directly opposed to well known facts in the -science of color. Consequently, the artist has failed to gain from the -investigations of the scientists anything to aid him in his pigmentary -work, and the scientist has not been interested in the æsthetic ideas of -the artists which in fact he has generally been unable to fully -appreciate, from lack of training and associations. - -The system of color instruction here presented for primary grades is -based on the results of careful study and experiment for many years in -which the attempt has been made to bring the scientist and the artist on -to common ground, where they may work in sympathy with each other -instead of at cross purposes as has been the case heretofore, and the -results with children have already been such as to testify fully to the -efficiency of this line of work. - -Thus the feeling for color which every true artist has, may be to a -certain extent analyzed so that it can be understood by the scientist -and recorded for the benefit of fellow artists one hundred or a thousand -miles away and in time an aggregation of facts regarding the -psychological effects of color collected which will form the beginning -of a valuable fund of color knowledge to be increased from age to age. - - -The Speculations of the Past. - -Ever since Newton produced the prismatic solar spectrum, the so-called -science of color as applied to pigments and coloring, has been a most -curious mixture of truth, error and speculation. It was supposed by -Newton and Brewster that in the solar spectrum the colors were produced -by the over-lapping of three sets of colored rays red, yellow and blue. -The red rays at one end were supposed to overlap or mix with the yellow -rays to make the orange, and on the other side of the yellow the blue -rays were supposed to combine with the yellow to produce green. - -Following the same theory in pigmentary colors, it has been claimed that -all colors in nature may be produced by the combination of pigments in -these three colors red, yellow and blue, and hence they have been called -primary colors. It is still claimed by the advocates of this theory that -from the three primaries red, yellow and blue the so-called secondaries -orange, green and purple can be made, and that the secondaries are -complementary to the primaries in pairs; the orange to the blue, the -green to the red and the purple to the yellow. - -By similar combinations of the secondaries it is claimed that three -other colors, in themselves peculiar, and different from the first six, -may be made, the orange and green forming citrines, orange and violet -russets, and green and violet olives and these are called tertiaries. -After having accepted this fiction as a scientific theory for so many -years, it is very difficult to convince the artists and colorists that -in it all there is nothing of value to any one, but such is practically -a fact, because from no three pigmentary effects in red, yellow and blue -can the three colors orange, green and purple of corresponding purity be -produced, neither are the primary colors complementary to the -secondaries as claimed nor are the so-called tertiaries new and distinct -colors but simply gray spectrum colors. - -Because the red, yellow and blue theory would not stand the test of -scientific investigation the Young-Helmholtz theory of three other -primaries red, green and violet, has been quite generally adopted by the -scientists of the past generation. - - -What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider. - -All these discussions of the scientists are intensely interesting and no -doubt of great importance in the line to which they pertain, but -practically neither the artists nor the primary school teachers care for -all these theories and discussions and because the scientists have -closely confined themselves to these lines, the artists and teachers -have seen nothing of value to them in their theories. - -In going to the solar spectrum for standards on which to base pigmentary -standards, we have given little attention to these various theories in -their details, but the one fact of science has received careful -attention, namely, that all color effects in nature and art are produced -by light reflected from material surfaces. Therefore, inasmuch as the -light reflected from any surface must be affected by both the material -color of the surface and the color of the light which illuminates the -surface, it is necessary that every one having to do with this subject -be informed as to what color must be expected to result from given -conditions. - -In order that this phase of the subject be discussed and thus more fully -understood, there must be a terminology or nomenclature in which to -express the results produced by given conditions, and also standards by -which to analyze, measure and record these results. In selecting these -standards more regard must be given to the æsthetic or psychical effect -of the pigmentary standards than to the purely scientific or physical -properties of colored light. This selection is of great interest to the -physiological psychologist because it is only by the comparison and -averaging of thousands of experiments made on different people that -valuable theories can be formulated. - -With standards and a nomenclature, color will be placed on an equal -footing with other subjects, so that perceptions of color effects may be -recorded and discussed with much of the definiteness with which we treat -form and tone. Because this has not heretofore been possible, -comparatively little advance has been made during the last two decades -in the æsthetic consideration of material color _which is the only -practical phase of the subject_, and if any greater progress is to be -achieved in the future it evidently must be along new lines. - -From the nursery to the university we are constantly asking two -questions, "What is it?" and "Why is it?" and this is what the educator -from the Kindergarten to the College is called upon to answer. In his -laboratory the psychologist is collecting physical facts by tests -regarding the powers of the eye and the ear, the sense of touch, weight, -memory, etc., and these experiments when classified, arranged and -averaged, furnish a basis for formulating theories, all of which is -called psychology. - -In vision, form and color play the principal parts, in fact cover the -whole ground if we include light and shade in color where it belongs. - -Experiments regarding form can be and have long been very definitely -recorded but this has not been true with color. - -To Froebel must be given the honor of introducing logical form study -into primary education, and on this has been built the present admirable -system of drawing in our higher grades of schools, and the introduction -of the standard forms in solids and surfaces has brought about a -definite use of geometrical terms by young children which would have -seemed very unnaturally mature a generation ago. But in color no -corresponding advance has been made because there have been no generally -accepted standards in color to correspond to the sphere, cube, cylinder, -circle, ellipse and triangle in form, nor any means for measurements to -take the place of the foot or metre for lengths and the divided circle -for angles. - -It is not expected that the children in the lowest grades will learn -much of the science of color, but it is desirable that the teachers have -such knowledge of it that they will not unconsciously convey to the -children erroneous impressions which must be unlearned later in life. - - -Concerning the Solar Spectrum. - -More than two hundred years ago Sir Isaac Newton discovered that a -triangular glass prism would transform a beam of sunlight into a -beautiful band of color. If the prism is held in a beam of sunlight -which enters a moderately lighted room, there will appear on the walls, -ceiling or floor, here and there, as the glass is moved, beautiful spots -in rainbow colors. If the room is darkened by shutters, and only a small -beam of light is admitted through a very narrow slit and the prism -properly adjusted to receive this beam of light, a beautiful band of -variegated colors may be thrown on to a white ceiling or screen, and -this effect is called a prismatic solar spectrum. A perfect solar -spectrum once seen under favorable conditions in a dark room is a sight -never to be forgotten. - -The accompanying illustration shows the relative positions of the parts -named. A is the beam of light as it enters the room. B is the triangular -prism. The dotted lines represent groups of rays extending to the -vertical band of colors indicated by the letters V for violet at the -top, then blue, green, yellow, orange to red at the bottom. - -The explanation of this phenomenon is that the beam of sunlight is -composed of a great number of different kinds of rays, which in passing -through the prism are refracted or bent from their direct course, and -some are bent more than others, the red least of all and the violet -most. It is supposed that light is propagated by waves or undulations in -an extremely rare substance termed ether which is supposed to occupy all -space and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be similar to -sound waves in the air or the ripples on the smooth surface of a pond -when a pebble is thrown into it. Because so many of the phenomena of -light can be satisfactorily explained by this theory, it has been very -generally adopted by the scientists. The amount that rays of light are -refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in -proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second, and in -inverse proportion to the length of the waves. The red waves are -refracted the least and are the longest, while the violet rays are -refracted the most and are the shortest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -Whether this theory of the spectrum formation is absolutely correct or -not, the fact is established that the colors found in a prismatic solar -spectrum are always the same under the same conditions and the order of -their arrangement is never changed. By means of the quality of spectrum -colors called the wave length, a given color can always be located in -the spectrum, and hence if a spectrum color is selected as a standard it -can always be determined by its recorded wave length. - - -Six Spectrum Standards of Color. - -Therefore it seems possible to establish certain standards of color by a -series of definitely located portions of the solar spectrum and in the -system here presented six have been chosen, namely red, orange, yellow, -green, blue and violet. These six are more distinctly recognized than -the others, and from them by combination in pairs of colors adjacent in -the spectrum all the other colors can be very closely imitated, and -hence these six are selected as the spectrum standards. In these -standards the most intense expression of each color is chosen i.e. the -reddest red, greenest green, etc. which by the closest scientific -investigation have been located by their wave lengths so that if they -are in doubt in future they can be re-determined by individuals or if -disputed, may be corrected by any authoritatively established congress, -selected for the purpose. The wave lengths of our six standards are -represented by the following numbers in ten millionths of a millimeter. -Red, 6571; Orange, 6085; Yellow, 5793; Green, 5164; Blue, 4695; violet, -4210. Having thus scientifically established these unchangeable -standards the attempt is made to secure the best possible pigmentary -imitation of each. - -To any one who has ever compared a piece of colored material with a good -presentation of a spectrum color, it is unnecessary to say that the -result in an attempt to match the spectrum color with the material or -pigmentary color is a very weak approximation, but the one thing aimed -at is to secure nearly as possible the same kind of color. For example -in the red, it is the aim to obtain the same _kind_ of red, by which we -mean the same location in the spectrum, i.e. a red neither more orange -nor more violet than the reddest spot in the spectrum. This selection -must be based on a purely æsthetic perception or impression of color. -The same is true of each of the six standard colors, as for example, for -orange we select the location which has seemed to a large number of good -judges to best represent the feeling of orange as between the quite -well defined red on one hand and the equally definite narrow band of -yellow on the other, and it is quite wonderful what unanimity of opinion -there is on this particular color which would naturally seem to be the -one most doubtful in its location. On the other side of the yellow the -green seems to offer little difficulty and the pure Paris or emerald -green is very nearly the standard. The violet being at the other end of -the spectrum is as easily decided as the red, but the blue between the -green and violet is not so easily determined, because, from the best -blue the hue runs so imperceptibly into the violet on one side and the -green on the other. Pure ultramarine blue is the nearest approach to the -spectrum standard of blue of any of the permanent pigments, but even -this is a trifle too violet. - -For educational purposes papers coated with pigments afford at once the -purest colors and the most economical and useful material, and on this -plan a line of colored papers has been prepared for color instruction in -the kindergartens and primary schools in imitation of the above -described spectrum standards. - -From the pure spectrum standards it is possible by reflected light to -combine the two standards to produce a color between them, for example -if two small mirrors are held in a spectrum one at the "red" and the -other at the "orange" and the two reflected on to the same spot on a -white surface, the result is a color between the red and the orange. So -also if we mix red and orange pigments together we may produce colors -between the two which may be termed orange-red or red-orange; but -unfortunately there is no means known by which we can measure the -proportion of the red and orange color-effect which is produced by any -given mixture of these two pigments, because color-effect cannot be -measured by the pint of mixed paint or the ounce of dry pigment. - - -The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks. - -We, however, have another means for measuring color effect which just in -this emergency seems providential. It is a fact well known to every boy -that if he rapidly whirls a lighted stick the fire at the end produces -the effect of a circle of light, which phenomenon is explained by a -quality of the eye called retention of vision, by which the impression -made by the point of light remains on the retina of the eye during an -entire rotation. It is a fact, based on the same quality of vision, that -if one color is presented to the eye, and instantly replaced by another -the effect is a combination of the two colors. Therefore if one-quarter -of the surface of a disk of cardboard is covered with orange paper and -three-quarters with red paper, and then the disk placed on a rapidly -rotating spindle, the color effect is a mixture of red and orange, and -the effect is exactly in proportion to the angular measurements of the -two sectors, so that if the circumference is divided into 100 equal -parts the resultant color will be definitely represented by the formula -"Red, 75; Orange, 25." - -Less than forty years ago an English scientist named J. Clerk Maxwell -while making experiments with such painted disks happily conceived the -idea of cutting a radial slit in each of two disks from the -circumference to the center so that by joining the disks they could be -made to show any desired proportion of each and hence they are called -Maxwell disks. With such disks made in the six pigmentary standards red, -orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, the intermediate pigmentary -spectrum colors may be very accurately determined by combination and -rotation. If we give to each of these standards a symbol as R. for red, -O. for orange, Y. for yellow, G. for green, B. for blue, V. for violet, -we then have the basis for a definite nomenclature of colors in -imitation of the pure spectrum colors. As all pigmentary or material -colors are modified by light and shade thus producing in high light -tints and in shadow shades of the colors, we must seek for some means of -imitating these effects, and fortunately find them in white and black -disks. If with a standard color disk we combine a white disk we may have -a line of tints of that color, and with a black disk, shades. Giving -this white disk a symbol of W. and the black disk N. we complete our -nomenclature. We cannot use B for black because B has already been used -for blue, and therefore we use N. for _niger_, the Latin word for black. - - -The Bradley System of Color Instruction. - -Briefly stated then this system of color instruction is comprised under -the six general heads: Spectrum Standards; Pigmentary Standards based on -the spectrum standards; Maxwell Rotating Disks in the pigmentary -standards and Black and White; a Color Nomenclature based on the -accepted standards and their disk combinations; and Colored Papers and -Water Colors made in accordance with these standards. - -For spectrum standards, six definite locations expressing the natural -æsthetic or psychological impressions of red, orange, yellow, green, -blue and violet are selected. Six standards are chosen instead of a -larger number as for example twelve, because for the purpose of a -nomenclature the smaller number is more convenient than a greater -number. The six are selected rather than three, four or five, because -while in the consideration of colored light alone the smaller number -would possibly suffice to form by combinations imitations of all other -colors, any number smaller than six is entirely inadequate to form by -pigmentary or disk combinations fairly good expressions of the -corresponding spectrum color combinations. - -In selecting the spectrum standards special prominence has been given to -the psychological color perceptions of experts in determining those -locations in the spectrum best expressing the color feeling of red, -orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, while the purely scientific -consideration of these several questions has not been ignored or lightly -treated. - -For pigmentary standards the best possible pigmentary imitations of the -six spectrum standards are secured and to these are added the nearest -approach to white and black that can be produced in pigments. - -Pigmentary standards on which to base a nomenclature are valueless -without some means by which measurements of standards embraced in a -given compound color can be expressed. - -The Maxwell color disks are the only known means by which we may measure -the relative proportions of color effect embodied in a given color, and -therefore the eight color disks are the foundation of the original color -nomenclature herein advocated. - -Colored papers are chosen for primary color instruction because paper is -a valuable medium for simple schoolroom manual training and because no -other pigmentary medium is at once so economical and affords such pure -colors as may be secured in specially prepared colored papers, without a -glazed surface. - -Before leaving this part of the subject we do well to remember that in -the present conditions of chemistry as applied to the preparation of -pigments it is not possible to establish any absolutely definite science -of such color combinations. Nor is it possible to establish permanent -pigmentary standards without great expense, but if the locations of the -standard colors in the spectrum are established by wave lengths the -pigmentary standards may be re-determined at any time and produced, in -the purest pigments available at the time. In art or harmony effects, -the purity of the pigmentary standard is not so important as its hue, -i.e. its location in the spectrum, which may always be determined by the -established wave length. This last statement may be illustrated by the -investigations regarding complementary harmonies. Scientifically one -color is not considered complementary to another unless when combined in -equal quantities they produce white light, or in other words when -combined by the rotation of disks each color must occupy a half circle -and the result must be a neutral gray. But this is not essential in -considering a complementary harmony, as harmonies in different tones and -in various proportions are pleasing and as yet the proportions and tones -which produce the best combinations have not been determined. - -The entire question of harmonies or pleasing color effects is dependent -on individual color perception, and the establishment of rules and laws -on these points can result only from a comparison of the opinions of -many experts in various localities and at different times. This cannot -occur without some means for recording these opinions in generally -accepted terms. It is too late for any individual opinion to be accepted -as authority regarding the relative values of two different harmonies in -color and this will be still less possible as we become better educated -in color and able to sense finer distinctions in color combinations. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Color Definitions. - - -Among other advantages to be gained by a logical study of the psychology -of color is the establishment of more accurate color terms and -definitions. If experiments and discussions based on accepted standards -and methods of comparisons can be carried on we may hope in time to have -as definite expressions of color terms as we now have in music and -literature. - -All color terms used by artists, naturalists, manufacturers, tradesmen, -milliners and the members of our households are as indefinite as one -might naturally expect from the utter lack of a logical basis for the -whole subject. - -Without definitions or means for intelligently naming any color, it is -not strange that the terms used in speaking of colors and color effects -are so contradictory as to lose much of their force, if perchance they -retain anything of their original meaning. For example, probably most -people apply the term SHADE to any modification of a color, either a -hue, tint or shade. - -It is true that a concise and reasonably full dictionary of color terms -must be the outcome of long experience in the logical study of the -science of color and its use in our every-day lives, and at the best -only suggestions can be made at present. But as there must be a -beginning and some terms seem to be fairly well established, the -following incomplete list of definitions is offered, always subject to -amendment by the majority vote, for whenever such changes indicate -advance they should be welcomed. - -_Ray of Light._--The finest supposable element of light impression in -the eye. - -_Beam of Light._--A number of rays. _Standard Colors._--As used in this -system of color nomenclature, the best pigmentary imitation of each of -the six spectrum colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet and -black and white. These are more specifically called _Pigmentary -Standards_ in distinction from spectrum standards. - -_Spectrum Standards._--The six colors found in the solar spectrum and -definitely located by their wave lengths, as follows in the ten -millionths of a millimeter. Red, 6571; Orange, 6085; Yellow, 5793; -Green, 5164; Blue, 4695; Violet, 4210. - -_Pigmentary Colors._--All colors used and produced in the arts and -sciences. This is in distinction from colors seen in nature, as in -flowers and the solar spectrum. The term refers not only to pigments in -the strictest sense but to all surfaces coated, painted or dyed -artificially. - -_Pure Colors._--A pure or full color, also called a saturated color, is -the most intense expression of that color without the admixture of white -or black or gray. All spectrum colors are pure, while no pigmentary -color is absolutely pure, but the pigmentary color which approaches most -nearly to the corresponding color in the spectrum must be selected as -the pigmentary type of purity of that color. For example, the standard -for green must be the best possible pigmentary imitation of the spot in -the spectrum which by general consent is called green, and so not only -for the six standards but for all their combinations which produce the -other colors in nature. - -In pigmentary colors the term pure is entirely one of relative degree. -As processes of manufacture are improved and new chemical discoveries -made, there is good reason to believe that we shall have much more -intense colors and hence much better imitations of spectrum colors than -are at present possible. Therefore as our pigments become purer those -now accepted as full colors will in time become tints or broken colors -and new standards will be adopted. - -_Hue._--The hue of a given color is that color with the admixture of a -smaller quantity of another color. An orange hue of red is the standard -red mixed with a smaller quantity of orange. With the disks, pure hues -are secured only by mixing two standards _adjacent_ in the spectrum -circuit. - -For convenience in speaking and writing about colors in this system of -color instruction, all the spectrum colors other than the six standard -spectrum colors are designated as intermediate spectrum hues, and often -for convenience in speaking of them they are called simply spectrum -hues. To these are also added the colors between red and violet which -are not in the spectrum. When so used the term must be considered as -purely technical in this particular relation, because a color between -the standard blue and the standard green is in the abstract no more a -hue than either of these colors. If two standards not adjacent in the -spectrum circuit are combined the result is not a _pure_ spectrum hue -but always some _broken_ spectrum color. - -_Local Color._--A term applied to the natural color of an object when -seen in ordinarily good daylight and at a convenient distance, as a -sheet of paper at arms length, a tree at twice its height, etc. - -_Tint._--Any pure or full color mixed with white, or reduced by strong -sunlight. In the disk combinations a spectrum color combined with white. - -_Shade._--A full color in shadow, i.e., with a low degree of -illumination. In disk combinations a spectrum color combined with a -black disk produces by rotation a shade of that color. In pigments the -admixture of black does not usually produce as satisfactory shades of a -color as may be secured with some other pigments, and each artist has -his own preferences in making shades of the various colors on his -palette. - -_Scale._--A scale of color is a series of colors consisting of a pure or -full color at the center and graduated by a succession of steps to a -light tint on one side and a deep shade on the other. - -_Tone._--Each step in a color scale is a tone of that color, and the -full color may be called the normal tone in that scale. In art this word -has had such a variety of meaning as to render it very convenient for -Amateur Art Critics, together with such terms as breadth, atmosphere, -quality, values, etc., but in the consideration of color it should have -this one definite meaning. - -_Warm Colors._--Red, orange and yellow, and combinations in which they -predominate. - -_Cool Colors._--Usually considered to be green, blue and violet, and the -combinations in which they predominate. But it is, perhaps, questionable -whether green and violet may properly be termed either warm or cool. The -term cool as applied to colors is quite indefinite, except in a general -way, but red, orange and yellow are universally considered as warm, and -blue and green-blue as cool. - -_Neutral Gray._--White in shade or shadow. Pure black and white mixed by -disk rotation. Black and white pigments mixed do not usually produce a -neutral gray, but rather a blue gray. - -_Warm Gray._--A neutral gray with the admixture of a small quantity of -red, orange or yellow. - -_Cool Gray._--A neutral gray with a small quantity of blue or -green-blue. - -_Green Gray._--A neutral gray having combined with it a small quantity -of green. As this color could hardly be classed with either warm or cool -grays this fourth class of grays is suggested as helpful in giving -definiteness to the more general color expressions. - -_Broken Colors._--Gray colors, often improperly called broken tints. For -simplicity, a tint of a color is described as the pure color mixed with -white and a shade as the color mixed with black, and the corresponding -broken color is the same color mixed with both white and black or with -neutral gray. A tint of a color thrown into a shadow or a shade of a -color in bright sunlight gives a broken color. For various reasons a -very large proportion of the colors in nature are broken. Broken colors -are much easier to combine harmoniously than full colors, or even tints -and shades. - -In disk combinations when a pure color is combined with both a white and -black disk the result will be a broken color. When a color is mixed with -both black and white, i.e., with gray, and becomes thereby a broken -color, it then belongs to a broken scale and educationally has no place -in any pure scale, i.e., a scale in which the key tone is a pure color. -Neither has a broken scale of a color any place in a chart of pure -scales or spectrum scales. - -_Neutral Colors._--A term often improperly applied to grays, white, -black, silver and gold. See passive colors. - -_Passive Colors._--A term suggested as covering black, white, silver, -gold and very gray colors. The term "neutral colors" is often used in -this sense but this is evidently improper if we are to confine the term -"neutral gray" to the representation of white in shadow because as soon -as a gray has any color in it, it is no longer neutral. - -_Active Colors._--Those colors neither passive or neutral. Necessarily -both the terms "active" and "passive" used in relation to colors must be -quite indefinite. - -_Complementary Colors._--As white light is the sum of all color if we -take from white light a given color the remaining color is the -complement of the given color. When the eye has been fatigued by looking -intently for a few seconds at a red spot on a white wall and is then -slightly turned to the wall, a faint tint of a bluish green is seen, and -this is called the accidental color of the red, and is supposed to be -identical with its complementary color. If with the disks we determine a -color which with a given color will produce by rotation a neutral gray, -we have the complementary color more accurately than by any other means -at present known in the use of pigmentary colors. - -_Harmony._--Two colors are said to be in harmony or to combine -harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in juxtaposition or -are used in a composition. - -_Spectrum Circuit._--If a pigmentary imitation of the solar spectrum -with the addition of violet red at the red end and red violet at the -violet end be made, and the two ends joined, we shall have a spectrum -circuit. This may be in the form of a circle, an ellipse or an oval. - -_Primary Colors._--In the Brewster theory red, yellow and blue. In the -Young-Helmholtz theory red, green and violet are termed primary colors -because it is supposed that from these three sensations all color -perceptions are experienced. In purely scientific investigations of -color perceptions these last three or others which are supposed to serve -the same purpose are also called fundamental colors. Practically every -spectrum color is a primary, because each has its own wave length. - -_Secondary Colors._--In the Brewster theory orange, green and purple -have been called secondary because it is claimed that they are produced -by the combination of primary colors in pairs. - -_Tertiary Colors._--A term used in the Brewster theory to denote three -classes of colors called russet, citrine and olive, made by mixing the -secondaries in pairs. These are all broken spectrum colors. The orange -and purple produce russet; the orange and green form citrine; the green -and purple, olive. There seems to be no good reason for perpetuating the -indefinite terms secondaries and tertiaries as applied to color. - -_Values._--This word is very freely used in discussing effects in works -of art, both in color and in black and white. At present it seems to be -a very difficult term to define, and yet each artist is quite sure that -he can "feel" it, although few will attempt to put into words a -definition satisfactory even to themselves. When an engraver, who is -also an artist, attempts to interpret nature in black and white on the -metal plate or wooden block, he endeavors to reproduce the "values" of -the various parts of the subject before him. In doing this he, for one -thing, attempts to produce a variety of neutral grays which will express -to the eye by means of black and white lines the same tones of color -effect as are seen in the several parts of the subject under -investigation. If this were the whole problem the matter would be -easily expressed by the disk nomenclature. For instance, if we are to -consider a certain red object which may be represented by the standard -red disk, we place a medium sized disk of that color on the spindle, and -in front of it, smaller disks of white and black united. By rotation the -white and black disks become a neutral gray at the center of the red -disk. If this gray is made nearly white all observers will agree that -the gray is lighter than the red, and if it is nearly black the opinion -will be equally unanimous that it is darker than the red. Consequently -there evidently must be a gray somewhere between these two extremes -which a large majority of experts may agree to be equal in depth or tone -to the red, i.e., neither lighter nor darker. But the artist-engraver -will insist that to him the term "value" expresses much more than this -and that he must use different lines in the sky or distance from those -which he uses in the foreground; and some engravers will also insist -that two different colors in the foreground must receive different -treatment with the graver in order to express their true values. We know -that true values of colors are not expressed in a photograph, as the -warm colors are too dark and the blue far too light. If the term "value -of a color" is to be used as expressing something more than a neutral -gray of such a tone as to seem equal to it, then possibly this latter -quality must be expressed by the word tone, and yet this use of that -word will seem to enlarge its scope beyond its present limits as it now -is used to express the relations between the different localities in -_one_ scale of color, while this new use will extend to the comparison -of tones in various color scales, including neutral grays. - -_Luminosity._--The luminosity of a color is determined by comparing it -with a neutral gray. When a color seems to be of the same brightness as -a given neutral gray, i.e., not lighter nor darker, then that gray is -its measure of luminosity. - -A noted authority says: "No colored object can have the luminosity of a -white object reflecting practically the whole of the light impinging -upon it. Therefore if we take absolute reflection as 100 a fraction of -100 will give the relative luminosity of any body." Luminosity is -another expression of the quality above described as forming a prominent -feature in the term values. - -_Potentiality._--The ability or strength of a color to affect other -colors by combinations with them. For example, white has a greater -potentiality than black, yellow greater than red, and violet the least -of all the spectrum colors. - -It is a pertinent question whether any quality is involved in this term -which is not found in value, tone and luminosity, but it expresses a -somewhat different phase of a line of color effects. - -_Quality._--This term seems to be used rather indefinitely when applied -to color, but perhaps it is not far removed from the term hue or kind of -color. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Practical Experiments -Illustrating the Theory of Color. - - -In the foregoing pages an attempt is made to explain clearly and as -briefly as possible the principles on which the Bradley system of color -instruction is based, and also to suggest a few definitions necessary to -an intelligent discussion of the general subject of Color. Owing to the -peculiar nature of the questions involved, demonstration by actual -experiment is more convincing than the mere statement of theories can -possibly be, and therefore a few of the following pages will be devoted -to the explanation of some valuable experiments, all of which may be -tried by the teacher in private, while many of them can be shown the -pupils with great advantage. - -In this system the Maxwell color disks are the means for color -combinations and the basis for measurements, and therefore for a color -nomenclature. For this reason the present chapter treats largely of the -proper use of the wheel and incidentally the theory of red, yellow and -blue primaries with combinations to produce secondaries and tertiaries. -No teacher using the material connected with this color scheme can hope -to meet with success without a knowledge of the principles on which it -is based, and in this subject as in all others, it is essential that the -teacher shall know much more of it than he or she is ever required to -teach. - -[Illustration: FIG 2.] - - -The Color Wheel. - -For most convenient use the machine should be clamped to the front of a -table and near one end, so that the speaker using it can stand at the -end of the table and operate it with the right hand. Fig. 2 represents -the Normal School Color Wheel showing the face of the disks as seen by -the audience. Facility in the operation of the Color Wheel is rapidly -acquired by practice and the exact position is easily determined by the -operator after a few trials. - -Fig. 3 shows the Primary School Color Wheel, which has only two sizes of -disks, while the largest machine has four sizes and is much finer in -construction. The smaller machine does not require clamping to a table, -but may be steadied by the left hand while being operated by the right -hand. - -[Illustration] - - -The Color Top. - -Many of the experiments of the color wheel can be produced with a small -toy called a Color Top, which is shown in Fig. 4. It is composed of a -thick cardboard disk forming the body of the top and a central wooden -spindle on which the disk closely fits. A number of colored paper disks -are provided with this top so that very many of the experiments -performed before a class can be repeated individually by the pupils and -in this way the facts which may have been demonstrated to the class with -the color wheel can be fixed in the minds of the pupils by their own -experiments with the top. Also as a home toy in the hands of the pupils -it can be of value, not only to the children, but to the parents as -well. - -[Illustration] - - -Use of the Disks. - -Fig. 5 shows the method of joining two Maxwell disks and Fig. 6 their -appearance when properly joined to be placed on the rotating spindle of -the color wheel. In joining two or more disks for use on a color wheel -or top, care should be taken to place them in such relation to each -other that when rotated the radial edges exposed on the face toward the -audience will not "catch the wind." With small disks on the color wheel -this is not important, and if there is no whole graduated disk on the -arbor behind the slitted disks there is no advantage, but in using the -larger disks it is well to put the graduated disk behind the others for -this purpose, as at best it is quite laborious to keep up speed when -using several of the large disks, even with the best possible -conditions. With the thin paper disks of the color top this is an -important matter. It will be noticed that the method of joining the -disks for use on the Color Top is the reverse of that to be observed -with the disks of the Color Wheel as shown in Fig. 5. - -[Illustration] - -Fig. 7 shows the same two color disks placed in front of a large white -disk having its edge graduated to one hundred parts, so that the -relative proportions of two or more colors to be combined can be -determined accurately. - -As the smaller disks offer so much less resistance in rotation than the -larger ones they are most desirable in private experiments or before a -small class, and the largest disks of the Normal School Wheel are -necessary only when more than three expressions of color are required to -be shown at the same time. In making experiments before an audience -those persons in front should if possible be at least ten feet from the -color wheel. From ten to forty feet there seems to be but little -difference in the color perception, but for best tests fifteen to twenty -feet is the most desirable position. - -For private practice with the color wheel a small mirror may be placed -five or six feet in front of the wheel in such position as to furnish an -image of the disks to the person operating the machine. Owing to a -slight loss of light by reflection the closest criticism may not be -possible when working with a mirror in this way, but if a plate mirror -is used the results are very good and a bevel plate mirror about 7 x 9 -inches without frame, can usually be procured at small cost; this method -is much more satisfactory for personal experimenting than an assistant -to turn the wheel. - -These disks have heretofore been used as a curious piece of -philosophical apparatus rather than because they have been supposed to -have any practical value in color training, but in establishing a color -nomenclature based on six spectrum colors the disks at once assume a -great value and are indispensable in a system of color instruction -founded on the science of color and on the psychological perception of -colors. - -Let us suppose that the two disks shown in Fig. 7 are yellow and green, -80 parts yellow and 20 parts green; then by rotation we shall have a -green yellow indicated by the symbol Y. 80, G. 20. No argument is -necessary to prove that when an exact expression of color effect is -required this is better than the simple statement that it is a greenish -yellow. - - -How to Begin the Experiments. - -For practice it is profitable to commence with the red and orange disks -combined on the spindle, with a smaller red disk in front of them, the -smallest being preferable. Begin by introducing say five per cent of -orange and notice that a change from the standard red at the center is -visible. Gradually increase the orange until it seems difficult to say -whether the resulting color is more like red or orange, and then -exchange the small red disk for an orange disk of the same size, and -continue adding orange in the larger disks until the difference cannot -be detected between the small disk and the larger combined disks. - -The standards may be combined in pairs, as has been indicated with the -red and orange, to produce all the intermediate hues throughout the -spectrum, but it must be remembered that these combinations are to be -made by joining in pairs, colors adjacent in the spectrum, red and -orange, orange and yellow, yellow and green, green and blue, blue and -violet. We then shall have representations of all the spectrum colors, -but there are still the colors between violet and red, known in nature -and art as purples, which must be produced by uniting the red and violet -disks, thus completing a circuit of colors containing all the pure -colors in nature. - -In nature all colors are modified by light and shade, strong light -producing tints and shadows more or less deep forming shades. - -These effects are imitated on the color wheel by the use of a white disk -combined with a disk of a standard color for tints and a black disk for -shades, and can be tested in the same order as indicated for the hues, -by combining each standard disk with a white or a black disk in varying -proportions. It will be noticed early in disk experiments that a very -small amount of white produces a decided effect in the tone of a color -while a comparatively large amount of black is necessary to produce a -marked change. As this is exactly the reverse of the effects of white -and black pigments it is always a subject of remark. In pigments these -effects are imitated by the mixture of white with a color to produce -tints, and black for shades, or more generally instead of black some -dark natural pigment approaching the hue of the color, may be preferred -because a black pigment will too often impart an unexpected and -undesirable hue to the color. As for example, in making shades of red -some natural brown pigment is better than black, and so various dark -browns and grays are used for different colors. Even with the disks it -is impossible to imitate purest tints of all the standard colors, -because in some of the colors, as peculiarly in red and blue, the -rotation of the white disk seems to develop a slightly violet gray, for -which effect there has as yet been no scientific explanation. This gray -dulls the purity of the tint as compared with that which is found in the -color under a bright illumination, but on the whole both tints and -shades as well as the hues can be better illustrated with the disks than -in any other way, and in addition, the advantage is secured of being -able to measure and record the tone by the graduated disk in the same -way as the hues are measured and recorded. A further advantage is -secured in the use of disks in color instruction because with pigments, -the only other method by which colors can be combined, much time must be -lost not only in the mixing and applying of the colors but in the delay -necessary to allow them to dry before the true results can be seen. - -The shades of yellow as shown on the wheel will not be generally -accepted without criticism, but careful comparison with yellow paper in -shadow will prove the substantial truth of the disk results. This -experiment may be tried as follows: Join two cards with a hinge of paper -or cloth to form a folding screen like the covers of a book as in Fig. -8. On the surface A, paste a piece of standard yellow paper and on B, a -piece of yellow shade No. 1. Hold these two surfaces toward the class in -such a position that the strong light will fall on B, which is the -yellow shade, and thus bring the face A, which is a standard yellow, in -a position to be shaded from the light. By varying the angle of the -covers with each other and turning them as a whole from side to side, a -position will be secured in which the two faces will seem so nearly -alike as to convince the class that this color which they may have -thought to be green, is not green, but a color peculiar to itself, a -shade of yellow; because the darker paper when in full light appears -substantially the same as the standard yellow in the shade or shadow. - -[Illustration] - -In our experiments thus far with the wheel we have combined the -standards in pairs to produce the colors of the spectrum between the -standards, which for convenience may be called intermediate spectrum -hues, and also have combined a white disk with each of the standards to -produce tints of the standards and a black disk to make shades. - -By combining a white disk with an orange and a yellow disk, for example, -forming a trio of disks, a variety of tints of orange yellow and yellow -orange may be made. Also by the use of the black disk instead of the -white a series of shades of the intermediate hues may be produced, and -thus a great variety of tints and shades of many spectrum colors shown. - -Now if the white and black disks are combined with each other the result -will be a shade of white, i.e., a white in shadow, which is an -absolutely neutral gray. As the experiments progress it will be seen -that this neutral gray is a very important feature in the study of -color, and therefore it may be well at this point to make sure that the -disk combinations give the true gray of a white in shadow by a test -similar to the one used for the shade of yellow, thus disarming -criticism. Such a test may conveniently be made by covering the reverse -sides of the folding covers with white on one cover and "neutral gray -paper No. 1" on the other. As the neutral gray papers are made in -imitation of combinations of black and white disks this experiment is as -convincing as the one regarding the yellow shade. This is but one of -many examples of the value of disk combinations in the classification -and analysis of colors. - -In an elaborate chart of colors highly recommended for primary color -instruction a dozen years ago no correct understanding of the -classification of colors is shown, the tints and shades being indicated -by a very decided change of hue rather than a consistent modification -of tone. For example, in the red scale the standard or normal red is -vermilion, i.e., an orange red; shade No. 1 is simply a red less orange -in hue than the standard, and shade No. 2 a shade of the standard red -advocated in this system; while tint No. 1 is a broken yellow orange and -tint No. 2 is much more yellow and more broken than No. 1. - -Similar inconsistencies occur in all the other scales, showing that the -author had no correct knowledge of the analysis of colors, and yet this -was the best and practically the only aid offered for instruction in -color at that time. - -Neither were there any true standards for neutral grays and the term -"neutral" was used in such an indefinite way as to rob it of all actual -value, until by the aid of disk combinations it came to be confined to -white in shadow as closely imitated by the combinations of white and -black disks. - -[Illustration] - -With colored papers made in imitation of the six standards and two tints -and two shades of each, six scales of colors may be produced by -arranging the five different tones of each color in a row, as in Fig. 9, -which represents the orange scale with tints at the left and shades at -the right. If, in addition to these six scales, we have two scales -between each two of the standards, we may have between the orange scale -and the yellow scale a yellow orange scale and an orange yellow scale, -and if we thus introduce the intermediate scales between each of the -other two standards, and include the red violet and violet red, we shall -have eighteen scales of five tones each. - -The eighteen scales as above named may be arranged as shown in Fig. 10 -to form a chart of pure spectrum scales which is very valuable for study -and comparison and especially so in the study of the theory of -harmonies. All these tones are called pure tones and this chart is -therefore called a chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. - -The idea that soft, dull, broken colors produce best harmonies when used -in combination may or may not be a universally accepted truth, but there -is a general belief that it is much easier to make acceptable -combinations with broken colors than with pure spectrum colors and their -tints and shades, and therefore the temptation has been strong to select -a general assortment of colors which easily harmonize because of the -pleasing effect, instead of having regard solely to the educational -value of colors. - -Truth in education requires that when colors are classified as spectrum -colors they shall all be the nearest approach possible to the true -spectrum colors, and in the spectrum there are no broken or impure -colors. Therefore, whenever the spectrum is set up as nature's standard -or chart of colors and an imitation is made in pigments or papers, great -care should be used to secure the most accurate imitation possible, but -in the past this has not been the case, because of the prevailing idea -that the colors must all be possible combinations of three primaries, -and hence the orange, green and violet have often been very broken -colors. While pure colors and their tints and shades may be -advantageously combined with various tones of broken colors in one -composition for artistic effect, they should be definitely divided when -classified for educational purposes, and their differences clearly -explained to students. - -In a scale of tones in any color the several papers will harmonize more -easily if the tints and shades are not too far removed from the -standard, but it is thought by many good judges that the educational -advantage in learning to see the relationship of color in the more -extreme tones is of greater importance in the elementary grades than the -facility for making most pleasing combinations. Consequently in the -Bradley colored papers the tints are very light and the shades quite -dark. - -If, instead of adding either a white disk or a black disk to a spectrum -color, by which we make pure tints and shades, we add both white and -black, a line of gray colors or so-called broken colors is formed. This -is most beautifully shown with the disks, and in this way a line of -_true broken colors_ is secured, because in each case a true neutral -gray has been added to the color, which cannot be insured in the mixture -of gray pigments. As an example, this may be shown with the three -smaller sizes of the orange disks. With the medium size of these three -make the combination Orange, 35; White, 10; Black 55. With the larger -size disks make the proportions Orange, 16; White, 5; Black, 79, and -with the smallest size Orange, 43; White, 33; Black, 24. Place these -three sets of disks on the spindle at one time and you have the three -tones of a broken orange scale. - -With similar combinations applied to the six standards and one -intermediate hue between each two, there will be material for a chart of -Broken Spectrum Scales, as shown in Fig. 11, including twelve scales of -three tones each. These are the most beautiful colors in art or nature -when combined harmoniously. Because of the loss of color in broken -colors it is not advisable to attempt so many different hues or so many -tones of each hue as in pure colors, for slight differences in either -hues or tones are not as readily perceived. - -In these two charts of color scales two distinct classes of colors are -represented, namely, pure colors and broken colors. The pure colors -consist of the purest possible pigmentary imitations of spectrum colors, -with their tints and shades, and the broken colors are these pure colors -dulled by the admixture of neutral grays in various tones. This -distinction is readily recognized under proper training, so that if a -broken color is introduced into a combination of colors from a pure -scale it will be readily detected, which always occurs when the attempt -is made to produce a series of spectrum scales by the combination of -the three primary colors red, yellow and blue. By this method, if -logically carried out, the orange, green and violet are dark broken -colors, and hence to a less extent the intermediate colors also, because -each of these is a mixture of a pure color with a broken color. The -usual result, however, is that the orange made from the red and yellow -seem so out of place in the warm end of the spectrum that it is modified -and made much nearer the pure color, usually, however, too yellow, while -the greens and violets, which are deep and rich broken colors, may seem -more harmonious, but are so dark as to be out of place among spectrum -colors. - -[Illustration] - -If light broken colors are properly combined a beautiful imitation -rainbow is produced, which is more harmonious than the spectrum made -from full colors. A series of such colors combined in spectrum order -produce a more pleasing effect when separated by a small space of white, -black, gray, silver or gold. The reason for this may be found in the -discussion of simultaneous contrasts. - -In nature nearly all colors are broken. First, there is always more or -less vapor together with other impurities in the air, so that even in a -clear day objects a few hundred feet from us are seen through a gray -veil, as it were, and in a misty or hazy day this is very evident. In -the case of somewhat distant foliage the general color effect is -produced by the light reflected from the aggregation of leaves, some of -which may be in bright sunlight and others in shadow, with a mixture of -brown twigs. All these tints and shades of green and brown are mingled -in one general effect in the eye. Also, owing to the rounded forms and -irregular illumination of objects, we see very little full or local -color in nature. - -Therefore the study of broken colors becomes the most fascinating branch -of this whole subject, and it also has an added interest because nearly -all the colors found in tapestries, hangings, carpets, ladies' dress -goods, etc., come under this head. In fact it would be hazardous for an -artisan or an artist to use any full spectrum color in his work, except -in threads, lines or dots. A considerable quantity of pure standard -green, for instance, would mar the effect of any landscape. - -It is a very interesting diversion to analyze samples of the dress goods -sold each season under the most wonderful names. For example:-- - -"Ecru," a color sold a few seasons ago, is a broken orange yellow with a -nomenclature O. 12, Y. 15, W. 17, N. 56, while this year "Leghorn" and -"Furet" are two of the "new" colors, the former having a nomenclature of -O. 16, Y. 54, W. 19, N. 11, and the latter O. 18, Y. 18, W. 8, N. 56, -all of which are very beautiful broken orange yellows. - -"Ashes of Roses" of past years is a broken violet red which can be -analyzed as follows: R. 8-1/2, V. 2-1/4, W. 15-1/4, N. 74. - -"Anemon" of this season is R. 28, V. 7, W. 5, N. 60, which is another -broken violet red. - -"Old Rose" is a broken red: R. 65-1/2, W. 24-1/2, N. 10. - -"Empire" of past seasons is G. 18-1/2, B. 11, W. 16-1/2, N. 54, while -"Neptune" of this season is G. 13-1/2, B. 2-1/2, W. 11, N. 73, both -being broken blue greens. - -"Topia," a beautiful brown, is O. 10, N. 90, a pure shade of orange, -while "Bolide" is a lighter yellow orange with a nomenclature of O. -18-1/2, Y. 2-1/2, W. 1-1/2, N. 77-1/2. - -We might analyze "Elephant's Breath," "Baby Blue," "Nile Green," -"Crushed Strawberry" and others common in the market, but while the -names will no doubt occur each season the colors will change with the -fickle demands of the goddess of fashion and the interests of the -manufacturers and dealers. In writing any color nomenclature the letters -should be used in the following order: R.-O.-Y.-G.-B.-V.-W.-N., thus -always listing the standard colors before the white or black. For -example, never place Y. before O. or R., and never use N. before W. If -this order is strictly adhered to the habit is soon acquired and a -valuable point gained. - -It has been shown that combined white and black disks form neutral -gray, which is a white in shadow or under a low degree of illumination. -If to such a gray a very small amount of color is added, as orange for -example, by the introduction of an orange disk, this neutral gray -becomes an orange gray, but unless the amount is considerable it can not -be detected as an orange, but the gray may be termed a warm gray, -denoting that it is affected by some one of the colors near the red end -of the spectrum. If blue instead of orange is added to the neutral gray, -a cool gray is produced. When green is added to a gray the result can -not fairly be called either warm or cool, and hence we have termed it a -green gray. According to this plan we have four classes of grays, -Neutral, Warm, Cool and Green grays. As there may be many tones of each, -and many intermediate combinations from red to green, or green to blue, -the number of grays in nature is infinite, but these four classes with -two tones of each in the papers form what may be called standards or -stations from which to think of the grays, the same as the six standards -in the spectrum constitute points from which to think of pure colors. - -A careful consideration of the foregoing pages, accompanied with a color -wheel or even a color top, can hardly fail to give a student who will -make the experiments a clear idea of the use of the disks in the system -of color education in which they form such an important feature, and -therefore the old theory of three primaries, red, yellow and blue, and -all that it leads to can be very intelligently considered and tested by -them in the experiments which follow. - -This old theory briefly restated is as follows: It is said "there are in -nature three primary colors, red, yellow and blue; and by the mixture of -these primary colors in pairs, orange, green and violet may be made." In -fact leading educators have said that "in the solar spectrum, which is -nature's chart of colors, the principal colors are red, orange, yellow, -green, blue and violet; _of these_ red, yellow and blue are primaries -from which may be made the secondaries, orange, green and violet." All -such statements as heretofore made in any popular treatment of the -subject are understood to mean that in a pigmentary imitation of a -spectrum the secondaries as enumerated may be produced by the mixtures -of the primary pigments, because pigmentary mixtures are the only -combinations generally recognized. - -This theory has also included the statement that the primaries are -complementary to the secondaries in pairs, and that the combination of -the secondaries in pairs may produce a distinct class of colors called -tertiaries. - -It will be the aim of the following pages to demonstrate that in all -this there is neither scientific or æsthetic truth nor educational -value. - - -The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments. - -Experiments in mixing the three pigments, red, yellow and blue, to -produce the secondaries, orange, green and violet, have been very -carefully made with interesting and instructive results. All such -experiments are valueless unless made with one accepted set of primaries -for the three combinations, because it is self-evident that if we select -a vermilion red which is very decidedly an orange red, and choose for -our yellow one of the orange yellows, the mixture will more nearly -approach a true orange than if a standard red and standard yellow are -used. Also in making a violet, if we mix a carmine, which is a violet -red, with a decidedly violet blue, of which there are many, the result -will be a better violet than the combination of the standard red and -blue. So also in the mixing of blue and yellow to make green, a greenish -yellow and a greenish blue will necessarily produce better results than -the standards. Therefore, to test the matter fairly, the same pigments -which are used to coat the standard red, yellow and blue papers have -been combined so as to produce the best possible orange, green and -violet, and these results when analyzed on the color wheel are as -follows:-- - -The orange made by mixing standard red and yellow pigments in the best -proportions is equal to O. 46, W. 2, N. 52. The violet is equal to V. -20, W. 1, N. 79, and the nearest approach to a standard green is shown -by disk analysis to be G. 37, W. 7, N. 56, which is better than the -violet and nearly as good as the orange. - -These experiments show that heretofore when a line of standards of six -colors has been prepared from three primaries, red, yellow and blue, -even though the purest possible colors may have been selected for the -primaries, the secondaries have not been in the same class of colors, -and that all of them are very dark broken colors. Therefore, in using -educational colored papers based on such a scheme, the pupil has -received no correct impressions of the relative values of the several -colors involved in pure spectrum scales, but has been shown at the -outset a mixture of pure and broken colors _as standards_. - -This is not a matter of opinion regarding best harmonies, because it is -easy to demonstrate that less skill is required to combine broken colors -harmoniously than pure colors, but it is a choice between truth and -error in the early education of color perception. - - -Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top. - -While it may be impossible for the reader to secure pigments exactly -like the standards, red, yellow and blue, used in the above experiments, -and therefore the statement here made can not be accurately verified, -any one having a color wheel or even a color top may test the same -combinations by use of disks. If it is true, as claimed, that a good -standard orange can be made by mixing red and yellow, then it should -follow that when a red and yellow disk are combined and a smaller orange -disk placed in front of them, that it ought to be possible to so adjust -the proportion of red to yellow that by rotation the outer ring of color -will match the central orange disk. - -A trial of this experiment will show that while the color resulting from -the best possible combination of red and yellow is a kind of orange, it -is not even an approximation to the standard orange, but is a shade of -orange which may be matched by combining the smaller orange disk with a -black disk in the proportion of O. 45, N. 55, the larger disks being R. -89, Y. 11. - -In combining red and blue disks to make a violet the result is more -satisfactory, while if we attempt to produce a green by combining the -yellow and blue disks the result will be surprising, but probably not -convincing, because the statement that yellow and blue make green has -been so persistently reiterated as a fundamental axiom that people who -have given the subject but little attention will feel that to doubt it -is rank heresy. In a text book treating of color is found the following -passage: "Green substances reflect the green, i.e., the blue and yellow -rays of the sunlight and absorb all the others." It is a fact, however, -that in the mixture of blue and yellow light there is little or no trace -of green, as a single experiment with a color top or color wheel will -readily demonstrate. - -In response to this convincing experiment a colorist of the "old -school," (and there are few others) will doubtless say, "Such an -assertion seems to be true when applied to these rotating disks, but we -see no practical value in experiments of this kind, because in the use -of color we must depend on pigmentary combinations, and in pigments -yellow and blue do make green." The author of a statement of this kind -is always honest in making it, and yet it is absolutely untrue, because -as has already been shown, the green resulting from the mixture of -yellow and blue can not be placed even approximately in the same class -as the yellow and blue of which it is composed. - -In accepting the disk combinations of standard pigmentary colors we are -assuming a system of color investigation based on the combination of -colored light rather than the mixture of pigments, and to an artist who -has given the subject little thought this seems quite radical, not to -say startling. But, logically, why is it not the most natural as well as -the correct basis for this work? - -Art in color must be based on the imitation of natural color effects. -We must first learn to see color correctly and to know what we see, and -after that it is a very simple matter to learn which pigments to combine -for producing any desired result which is already clearly defined in the -mind. In fact the best selection of pigments must often be based on -their chemical and mechanical qualities as much as on their peculiar -hues. - -All color impressions of material substances are produced by colored -light reflected from a material surface to the retina of the eye, -through which by some unknown means it is conveyed to the brain. When -the white sunlight falls on a material substance a portion of the rays -are absorbed and others are reflected to the eye, thereby conveying -impressions of color. If on a surface of yellow material we throw a -strong orange light through a colored glass, some of the orange rays -from the glass will mingle with the yellow rays and the two are -reflected to the eye, thereby producing an orange yellow or yellow -orange effect where before it was yellow. So in a summer evening -landscape when there is a so-called red sunset, everything is -illuminated by an orange light and each color in the landscape is -affected by the orange rays which mingle with the rays of the local -color and are reflected to the eyes of the observer, producing the -effect of local colors mixed with orange. - -In a room where the windows open on to a green lawn with many trees in -close proximity to the house, nearly all the light is reflected from -green surfaces, and hence is green light. In such a case a correct -painting of objects in that room would have a general green effect. - -The afternoon light in a room on the west side of a city street may be -nearly all red light, reflected from an opposite red brick wall, and -such a room would be ill-adapted to showing fine dress goods, because -the hues of the more delicate colors would be entirely changed, and -hence would give a false impression as to the relations of the several -colors in combination as seen in white or clear daylight. If a piece of -light blue silk is illuminated by sunlight passing through a bit of -yellow glass, no trace of green effect will be produced, but a gray -either slightly yellow or blue, according to the relative strength of -the colors in the glass and the silk. This same effect would be secured -if the yellow light of the setting sun illuminated the same material, -but under such conditions everything else would be similarly affected so -that the effect would not be so apparent. - -The idea that all color is derived from the three primaries, red, yellow -and blue, is so generally believed that our best writers among artists, -colorists and educators have repeated it for many years. George Barnard, -an English artist, in a very valuable book on water color painting, -speaking of the colors of the spectrum which may be re-combined to form -white light, says that if the yellow and blue rays are combined they -produce green. - -Chevreul also states in his invaluable book on color contrasts that -yellow and blue threads woven into a texture, side by side, produce -green. This statement is the more remarkable because the writer was a -very careful investigator and is but another evidence of the strong hold -which the Newton and Brewster theory has had on the public mind for so -many years. - -The story is told of an artist who wished to introduce into a -composition of still life a blue vase with a bit of yellow lace thrown -over a portion of it, and having been educated to believe that yellow -and blue made green, gave a green effect to the portion of the vase -covered by the lace. Had he known that blue and yellow light combined -make gray instead of green he would have avoided the error. - -The fact that gray is the product of blue and yellow light is sometimes -taken advantage of in forming backgrounds in lithographic printing, in -which a stippling of alternate dots of yellow and blue, very close -together but not overlapping, is used to produce a beautifully -transparent gray much more pleasing than any one tint of gray. This -result is due to the blending of the two colors in the eye with the same -effect as the colors of two rotating disks are mingled. The fact that -there is a difference between the color effects produced by mixing two -pigments and the mixing of the light reflected from similar colored -surfaces is a very strong argument for a system of color instruction -based on disk combinations, rather than on pigmentary mixtures. - -In order to obtain the most truthful effects of color in nature the -artist should have sufficient knowledge of the principles which govern -the combination of colors by reflected light, so that his reason may aid -his eyes. - -A little experimenting with the rotating disks and with pigments will -convince any one that the disk combinations form the only possible basis -at present known for logical color instruction. - - -Concerning the Complementary Colors. - -Having shown that the three colors, red, yellow and blue, can not be -combined to make an orange, a green or a violet of a corresponding -degree of purity, we will consider the other claim which is set up by -the advocates of the Brewster theory, namely, that the secondaries are -complementary to the primaries in pairs, the green to the red, the -violet to the yellow and the orange to the blue. - -As all color is contained in white light, if we take from white light -any given color, the color remaining is the complementary. If a small -disk of standard red paper is placed on a white wall and the eyes fixed -intently on it for a few seconds, and then the eyes slightly moved back -and forth, a ring of a bluish green tint will be seen surrounding the -red paper, or if the eyes are fixed intently on the disk for a short -time and the paper suddenly removed, a disk of the same blue green tint -will be seen in place of the red disk. This is called the accidental -color and is supposed to be identical with the complementary color, -although the image is too faint to give any very exact effect, but it is -sufficient to furnish a clue to the complementary, and we may infer that -a color between green and blue is that which is required. Now if we can -determine in what proportions red, blue and green must be united to -produce white light we may solve the problem. This is not possible in -the use of any pigmentary colors, because of the impurity of all -pigments as compared with spectrum colors. Although the mixture of -colored light reflected from the disks, which are made of pigmentary -colors, gives much purer color than the actual mechanical mixture of the -two pigments, still, because it is a reflection of pigmentary colors, it -is far lower in tone than the corresponding mixture of spectrum colors. -Therefore it can not be a pure white, but may be white in shade or a -neutral gray, which, as already shown, can be produced by the -combination of a white and a black disk. - -Therefore if red, blue and green disks of medium size are joined on the -wheel and in front of them small white and black disks are combined, we -have a means for solving this problem. If these various disks can be so -adjusted that when rotated the effect of the three colored disks is a -neutral gray, (or white under a low degree of illumination) exactly -matching a gray that may be obtained by adjusting the small black and -white disks, then one step in the solution is taken, as shown in Fig. -12. - -[Illustration] - -With such an arrangement a very close match is produced, when the -combined disks show the proportions to be R. 41-1/2, B. 22-1/2, G. 36 -for the larger disks, and for the small disks W. 15, and N. 85. Now if -blue and green are combined in the same proportions, as indicated above -and in quantities sufficient when added together to fill the entire -circle of 100 parts, blue will contain 38.3 parts and green, 61.7 parts, -as shown in Fig. 13, and the disks when rotated will give the color -which is the complementary of red: namely, a blue green. - -In the same way the complementary of each of the other standard colors, -and in fact of any color, may be obtained. - -The complementary of orange is another color between the green and blue, -but more largely blue. The complementary of green is a violet red, and -of violet a color between yellow and green, while yellow and blue are -very nearly complementary to each other. - -These figures furnish the results in a very well-lighted room, with a -perfectly white interior. It is a well-established fact that this -experiment is somewhat affected by the degrees of illumination, and also -that colored light from the walls and ceiling of a room must of -necessity have its effect, but all these matters are so insignificant as -to be of no material consequence in the æsthetic study of the subject, -and they can be very nearly eliminated when necessary by a careful -selection of conditions. Whenever accurate experiments in pigmentary -color comparisons are to be made, either by the use of rotating disks or -otherwise, it is desirable to have a very well-lighted room, with a -northern exposure and to select a morning or noonday light from a -slightly overcast sky. These conditions obviate the unpleasant effect of -direct sunlight in the room and also the very slightly blue effect of -the clear sky. These precautions are unnecessary in experiments relating -to the ordinary æsthetic consideration of color combinations, but even -in such work it is important to exclude all light reflected from -neighboring trees or colored buildings. Also the interior of the room -should be as free from color as possible; a clean white surface is -especially desirable. - -A Chart of Complementary Colors, shown in Fig. 14, has been found very -valuable in fixing in the minds of teacher and pupils the -complementaries of the six standards. In this chart, which is about -eighteen inches in diameter, the circles at the ends of the six -diameters are colored papers selected from the Bradley coated papers, as -approximating the true complementaries. In the majority of cases they -are not far from correct, but are least satisfactory in the blue and -yellow. Theoretically the complementary of the ideal standard blue is a -slightly orange yellow, and of the standard yellow a slightly violet -blue. But there is as yet no blue pigment in the market suitable for -commercial use which is free from a slightly violet effect. Therefore -the standard blue paper is practically as good a complementary for the -standard yellow as the violet blue paper. But notwithstanding these -slight imperfections which are at present unavoidable, the chart is a -valuable aid in fixing in the mind the positions of the complementary -pairs in the spectrum circuit. - -[Illustration] - -Each of the foregoing experiments furnishes an interesting class -exercise, and may be very closely repeated by the pupils with their -tops. Also the computation of the proportion of green and blue when -raised to the full circle may form a practical problem in proportion for -pupils of the higher grades. Taken together, these experiments prove -that the complementaries of the old primaries are not found in the -secondaries. - -The last claim of the Brewster theory is that the secondaries by -combination form three lines of colors peculiar to themselves, called -citrines, russets and olives. It is asserted that the mixture of orange -and green makes citrine; orange and violet russet; green and violet -olive. Although these names may be very convenient terms to express -three general classes of colors, they must of necessity be too general -and indefinite to be of value for accurate expression of color effects, -and are in fact so vague that hardly two persons can be found in a large -company who will agree as to the best expression of either of them. The -following are formulas for a number of colors in each class, as made -from analyses of colors coming under these names. It is an interesting -exercise to produce some of these colors by means of the rotating color -disks and test the opinions of the different members of a company as to -which best represents to each one of them a tertiary color, as citrine, -for example. For this purpose three different formulas may be shown at -the same time, with three sizes of disks. - - - Citrines. - - O. 7. Y. 13. W. 3-1/2. N. 76-1/2. - Y. 15. W. 4. N. 81. - Y. 13. W. 5. N. 76. G. 6. - O. 6. Y. 20. W. 4. N. 70. - O. 3. Y. 6. W. 8. N. 83. - - - Russets. - - R. 37. O. 8. W. 8. N. 47. - R. 79. W. 10-1/2. N. 10-1/2. - R. 33. O. 20. W. 6. N. 41. - R. 36. O. 4. W. 9. N. 51. - R. 47. O. 7. W. 8. N. 38. - - - Olives. - - G. 19. B. 11-1/2. W. 10-1/2. N. 59. - G. 13. B. 6. W. 12. N. 69. - G. 14. B. 12. W. 8. N. 66. - G. 10-1/2. B. 15. W. 8. N. 66-1/2. - G. 12-1/2. B. 5-1/2. W. 4. N. 78. - -The term citrine theoretically covers all possible combinations of -orange and green, but as generally understood those colors which are so -near the orange or the green as to very decidedly approach either the -one or the other are not included, and, as shown in the above analyses, -a citrine is a very broken color ranging from an orange yellow through -yellow to a green yellow. - -Although the russets would theoretically range from violet to orange, -yet the general conception of russet will hardly accept a violet red, -but will cover only the red and orange reds as above indicated, while -olives are confined to blue greens and green blues. - -These tests are based on combinations of the Bradley standard orange, -green and violet pigments, and therefore are far stronger in color than -those colors usually termed citrine, russet and olive, made by mixing -the pigmentary secondaries. For example, if a yellow and blue pigment -are mixed to form a green, and red and yellow pigments to make an -orange, and then this green and orange are mixed to produce a citrine, -the result will be very much darker and more broken than the mixture of -the purer orange and green colors used as standards. - -Restricted to these limits these names may become very useful terms for -general color expressions, as covering three different classes of broken -colors. If any one believes that these color formulas do not correctly -represent the three classes of colors indicated, a series of experiments -with even the small color top will prove very convincing. - -When the subject of standards as a means for identifying colors is -mentioned artists frequently express the feeling that the names of -pigments are good enough for them, such as Ultramarine Blue, Prussian -Blue, Vermilions, the Siennas, Indian Red, etc. The following are the -analyses of several samples of Vermilion, Burnt Sienna, Raw Sienna, and -Indian Red of the best tube oil colors in the market:-- - - - Vermilion. - - R. 80. O. 14. W. 6. - R. 87. O. 8. W. 5. - R. 50. O. 24. W. 26. - - - Burnt Sienna. - - R. 1-1/4. O. 6. W. 3. N. 89-1/2. - R. 22-1/2. O. 11-1/2. W. 2. N. 64. - R. 25. O. 12-1/2. W. 5-1/2. N. 57. - - - Raw Sienna. - - O. 18-1/2. Y. 6-1/2. N. 75. - O. 17. Y. 14. W. 1. N. 68. - O. 8-1/2. Y. 3-1/2. W. 2. N. 86. - - - Indian Red. - - R. 11-1/2. O. 7. W. 4. N. 77-1/2. - R. 13-1/2. O. 13-1/2. W. 2-1/2. N. 70-1/2. - -A careful examination of these formulas and a reproduction and -comparison of the colors on the color top will convince any one that in -no case does the commercial name determine the color with a degree of -accuracy sufficient for any valuable nomenclature. - - -Classification of Harmonies. - -The theory of the harmonies of colors is a subject which awaits very -careful investigation and a general discussion by artists and expert -colorists. Such investigations must include many experiments based on -common standards and uniform methods of measurements and records. - -Harmonies naturally seem to fall into a few general classes which are -convenient for comparison and discussion as well as for elementary -instruction, but no one person can set himself or herself up to decide -which are the _best_ harmonies. The practices and recommendations of -noted artists who have appeared to be gifted with intuitive perceptions -regarding color combinations have frequently included those for which -there seemed to be no recognized authority, and yet their beauty could -not be questioned. As the rules of grammar are but the correlation of -the practices of the best scholars, so the rules governing color -combinations must be the summary of the practices and recommendations of -the best artists, if they are to be generally accepted as final, and -hence we must patiently await the growth of similarly established laws -by the comparison of the opinions of critics of acknowledged ability in -various departments of the world of art. This has not been possible in -the past and can never occur until there is a language of color through -which color facts can be somewhat accurately expressed in verbal and -written language, and this language cannot exist until there is an -accepted alphabet of color on which it can be based. This alphabet is -now in part furnished by the spectrum standards and completed by the -pigmentary standards and the rotating disks made like them. Together -they form the basis for a nomenclature by the use of which the questions -involved in harmonies can be discussed and the results expressed in -written language. - -In the investigation of any subject with a view to elementary -instruction, classification is an important factor, but one which -heretofore has been almost ignored as regards color education. -Consequently at present the more definite division of harmonies into -classes is very much a matter of personal opinion, but Mr. Henry T. -Bailey, State Supervisor of Drawing in Massachusetts, has suggested a -very useful classification in which he arranges all harmonies under -these five heads: Contrasted, Dominant, Complementary, Analogous and -Perfected. - -_Contrasted._--The contrasted harmonies are those in which color is -contrasted with non-color, or more accurately in which an active color, -that is a tone from the spectrum circuit, is contrasted with a passive -color, white, black, gray or silver and gold; for example, a blue green -tint with white, or green blue with warm gray No. 1. - -_Dominant._--By dominant harmonies we mean those in which are combined -different tones from one color scale. For example, red tint No. 1, and -red shade No. 1, or a green blue tint, green blue, and a green blue -shade. A dominant harmony composed of grays, or white, gray and black, -is sometimes called a neutral harmony. - -_Complementary._--This term refers to those harmonies in which are -combined opposite or complementary colors in the spectrum circuit. The -best of them show not only opposition in color but also opposition in -tone. Thus, tints of one color with shades of its complementary produce -a more pleasing effect than do complementaries of equal value. The best -complementary harmonies contain one or more passive colors. - -_Analogous._--This name is applied to those harmonies in which are -combined tones from scales of neighboring colors in the spectrum -circuit. - -For example, in a composition of colors from that part of the spectrum -containing yellow, green yellow and yellow green the following simple -combination may be made: Yellow tint No. 1, green yellow and yellow -green shade No. 2. - -_Perfected._--By perfected harmonies we mean those in which the general -effect of one analogous harmony is complementary to that of another. - -The above classification of harmonies is very valuable for fixing in the -mind the various effects of color combinations, and yet they may seem to -somewhat merge into each other in their application, until the -underlying principles which govern them are understood. It is unwise to -suppose that because the above classification of harmonies is based on -the science of color we can infer that it furnishes definite rules for -producing best effects. - - -The Work of Chevreul Reviewed. - -The good or bad effect of two or more colors in combination in -decorative designs or fine art depends very largely upon phenomena -which are elaborately explained in a book entitled "The principles of -Harmony and Contrasts of Colours" by M. Chevreul.[A] The first edition -of this book was prepared in 1835 and published in 1838. The author had -at that time been employed for a number of years as superintendent of -the manufactory of Gobelin Tapestries in Paris under the control of the -French government. - -[A] The Principles of Harmony and Contrasts of Colours and their -Application to the Arts. By M. E. Chevreul. Translated from the French -by Charles Martel. Third Edition. London. George Bell and Sons. 1890. - -In this book are described in detail the results of a great number of -experiments which were instigated by complaints regarding certain colors -produced in the dyeing department of the manufactory, and which afford -the most elaborate exposition of the subject ever published. - -One of the first things which led Chevreul to make his investigation was -the complaint that certain black yarns used as shades in blue draperies -were not a full black but more or less gray. - -The author says in his preface, "The work I now publish is the result of -my researches on Simultaneous Contrasts of Colours; researches which -have been greatly extended since the lectures I gave on this subject at -the institute on the 7th April, 1828. In reflecting on the relations -these facts have together, in seeking the principle of which they are -the consequence, I have been led to the discovery of the one which I -have named the _Law of Simultaneous Contrast of Colours_." - -The closing sentence of the preface to the first edition and dated 1835 -is as follows:-- - -"I beg the reader never to forget when it is asserted of the phenomena -of simultaneous contrast, _that one colour placed beside another -receives such a modification from it_, that this manner of speaking does -not mean that two colours, or rather the two material objects that -present them to us, have a mutual action, either physical or chemical; -it is really only applied to the modification that takes place before us -when we perceive the simultaneous impression of these two colours." - -It was not till three years later that a publisher could be found for -this book, which is still a standard. - -The English translation comprises over five hundred closely printed -pages with many engraved and colored plates, and yet, it has been of -comparatively little value in _popular instruction_ because of the lack -of a generally accepted color nomenclature or list of well defined color -terms, by which the readers might have understood and repeated for -themselves the experiments described. - -Unfortunately Chevreul was fully impressed with the Newton-Brewster idea -of three primaries, red, yellow and blue, and therefore some of his -deductions from his experiments seem to have been more or less -influenced by the attempt to make them harmonize with this theory, and -yet the subject which he has treated so exhaustively and intelligently -is one of the most important in the æsthetic study and use of colors. In -all expressions of colors in combination with each other, whether in -nature, fine arts or the decorative and industrial arts, every color is -affected by its surrounding colors, a fact which is exhaustively treated -in this book. - -While with our present knowledge of the subject it does not seem that -the material use of color can be reduced to an exact science, this -should not prevent us from accepting all the natural and scientific aids -which have been or may be discovered toward this desirable result. -Because of this lack of scientific knowledge in Chevreul's time much of -the worth of his experiments is lost to us, yet there is very much of -value in his work, suggesting as it does experiments which may be tried -with present standards and modern methods. - -If the use of Maxwell disks had been known to Chevreul his deductions -from his experiments would have been quite different in their details. -For example, in accepting the proposition that there are three -primaries, red, yellow and blue, which may be combined in pairs to make -the secondaries, orange, green and violet, he states that owing to the -impurities of the pigments the secondaries are not as pure as the -primaries. Consequently he believes that this may account for many of -the shortcomings which he was too observing to overlook; but -notwithstanding such an error in theory this wonderful investigator made -many practical experiments and established very valuable facts regarding -color contrasts. - -The term Simultaneous Contrast seems rather restricted for a title -covering such a range of effects, and the author subdivides the subject -into simultaneous contrasts, successive contrasts and mixed contrasts, -which he defines as follows:-- - - -Simultaneous Contrast. - -"In the Simultaneous Contrast of Colors is included all the phenomena of -modification which differently colored objects appear to undergo in -their physical composition and in the height of tone of their respective -colors, when seen simultaneously." - - -Successive Contrast. - -"The Successive Contrast of Colors includes all the phenomena which are -observed when the eyes, having looked at one or more colored objects for -a certain length of time, perceive, upon turning them away, images of -these objects having a color complementary to that which belongs to each -of them." - - -Mixed Contrast. - -"The distinction of Simultaneous and Successive Contrast renders it easy -to comprehend a phenomenon which we may call the mixed contrast; because -it results from the fact that the eye, having seen for a time a certain -color, acquires an aptitude to see for another period the complementary -of that color, and also a new color, presented to it by an exterior -object; the sensation then perceived is that which results from this new -color and the complementary of the first." These last two effects may be -shown very clearly in simple experiments. - -There are various phenomena which may be classed as successive -contrasts sometimes called "after images." The phenomena which Chevreul -groups under the term "Simultaneous Contrast of Colors" belong to a -class of physio-psychological effects termed after images, and more -definitely to the subdivision called negative images. The positive after -images are not important in the consideration of the theories of color -and therefore are not described here. The specific effect most directly -involved in the subject of harmonies may be observed if the eyes are -fixed upon a small disk of red paper on a white wall for a few seconds -and then the paper is suddenly removed, as there will appear on the wall -in place of the full red disk a faint tint of a blue green. This is -called an after image, and is nearly or exactly a tint of the color -complementary to red. - -For making this experiment mount a circle of red paper, say three inches -in diameter on a square white card, four or five inches across, and -grasping the card by one corner hold it in front of a white wall or a -sheet of white paper pinned on any support. Tell the observer to look -intently at the red disk for a half minute, and then without giving any -notice suddenly remove it and ask what color is seen in place of it. At -the first trial the result may not be entirely successful, because the -eyes of the observer may naturally follow the red spot when it is -removed instead of remaining fixed in the original position, but a -second trial will bring the expected result. To illustrate mixed -contrast, fasten on the wall a piece of red tint No. 2 paper four or -five inches square. This may be very conveniently done by using a bit of -beeswax on each corner of the paper, which will not soil the wall. Then -having the three-inch circle of standard red paper mounted on a white -card somewhat larger than five inches square hold the card in front of -the red tint on the wall and repeat the experiment as before. The effect -now should be a three-inch disk of very light gray in the center of the -pink square, which is a "mixed contrast" according to Chevreul. The -reason is simple. The after-image or successive contrast of light -blue-green is projected on the red tint and being complementary the -resulting effect is a gray. If the red tint could be exactly graded to -the complementary effect in the eye the resulting gray circle would be a -true neutral gray. Another illustration of the same physical effect by -which the complementary is induced may be shown by substituting for the -tint of red a light tint of the blue-green paper retaining the full red -disk as before. The same blue-green after image is now projected on to -the light blue-green paper and hence a circle of more intense blue-green -is produced. Thus it is seen that Chevreul's successive and mixed -contrasts are both due to the same physiological effect, the only -difference being in the ground on to which the after image is projected. - -It probably is unnecessary to state that these experiments may be made -with any color and its complementary and that red and blue-green are -used here merely as an example. - -Another phase of the same physical effect is seen under other conditions -which may at first seem to be quite different from those described, but -which on examination appear somewhat similar. - -It is a well established fact that when two surfaces approximating each -other in color, as red and orange for example, are placed side by side, -both are rendered less brilliant, an effect which might be reasonably -expected because in order to see both the eye is naturally directed -first to one and then to the other, and in each case the after image -induced is a green-blue or blue-green, which being approximately -complementary to both, dulls both. Or in other words, it is as though -one examines for a long time a line of goods of similar colors so that -the eye becomes fatigued and the color dulled. It is said that a good -salesman of colored materials will endeavor to occasionally attract a -customer's attention for a few moments to some other colors -approximating a complementary, so that when the attention is again -directed to the goods under consideration the full effect of the color -may be secured. If it is true that the phenomenon of the after image is -the cause of the peculiar effects expressed by the terms simultaneous, -successive and mixed contrasts, and that by these effects all harmonies -in color are governed, it is certainly profitable to understand them -while using color material with the children, for their good as well as -our own pleasure. - - -Contrasted Harmony. - -Returning to our classification of harmonies, already stated, we find -the first to be Contrasted Harmony, which covers those combinations in -which a positive color, as a spectrum color for example, is combined -with white, black or gray, leaving out for the present silver and gold, -which may be confusing, and can at best be used only as outlines. - -The simplest combinations of colors are found in this class, all of -which are not equally harmonious, and some may not perhaps be entitled -to be classed as harmonies, although not positively inharmonious. In -this class, as in all others, there is involved contrast of tone and -contrast of color, which may best be considered in several divisions. - - -Color with White. - -According to the results of Chevreul's elaborate experiments the effect -of a combination of an active color with white is to render the color -more brilliant and to give to the white the effect of the complementary -of the active color. He admits that the modification of white is very -indefinite, but claims that, knowing what to expect, a complementary -effect may be seen which otherwise would not be noticed. There is also a -contrast of tone which in all cases tends to strengthen a color when -used with white. - - -Black with White. - -White and black are both intensified by combination with each other, and -this is the type of "contrast of tone." Contrast of tone is very clearly -shown when two or more grays of different tones are placed contiguous to -each other. This experiment is easily tried by mounting side by side -several strips of gray papers of different tones. If more than two are -used they should be arranged in order from lightest to darkest. In this -case each band will appear to be graded in tone from one edge to the -other, each being lighter at the edge next to the darker paper. - -This effect is plainly shown on the color wheel by producing several -rings of grays with white and black disks of several sizes graduated -from light at the center to darker at the circumference. - - -Color with Black. - -In consequence of this law of contrast of tone the contrast of black -with active colors generally tends to intensify the black and lower the -tone of the color, i.e., to weaken it as though white or light gray was -mixed with it, but this effect is modified by contrast of color. -Contrast of color is perceptible in black when combined with color -simply because the black is not perfectly black but a very dark gray, -and hence there is the same complementary effect which shows in white -and the lighter grays, but in a smaller degree. This effect is most -clearly seen when the color used in combination is blue or blue-green, -which induces in the black, yellow or red complementaries and gives the -black a "rusty" appearance. - -On the other hand, for example, red with black adds the complementary -green-blue to the black, which improves it. The orange and yellow have a -similar effect by their blue complementaries to relieve the black from -any rusty appearance and a green yellow induces a violet effect in the -black. - - -Colors with Gray. - -When a color is contrasted with white the light from the pure white -surface is so intense as to very largely obscure the complementary -effect on the white, while on the other hand the feeble light from the -black is not favorable for the exhibition of a complementary. So it -might naturally be inferred that some tone between the white and black -would be much more favorable than either for the observance of this -effect, which is proved by experiment to be the case. This fact is -illustrated in the familiar experiment of placing a white tissue paper -over black letters on a colored ground, by which the black is -practically rendered a neutral gray and the color a light broken color, -and in appearance the gray letters receive a color complementary to the -color of the page on which they are printed. Each color has its own tone -of gray most susceptible to this complementary effect. The truth of this -proposition can be perfectly shown on the color wheel by forming with -three different sizes of disks a gray ring on a colored surface. For -example, select small disks of orange and white of equal size, then a -black and a white disk of the second size and an orange and a white disk -of the third size. First place the large orange and white disks on the -spindle, then join the two medium-sized white and black disks and put -them in front of it, and lastly add the small orange and white disks. By -rotation the result is the required neutral gray ring on a light orange -surface. By the joining of the white disk with each of the orange disks -the orange surface may be changed to a variety of tints for trial with -the different grays which may be made from the black and white disks, so -that the best tones of both orange and gray may be secured. When the -best proportions are obtained the effect will be surprising, because -when such disks are properly adjusted the complementary effect is so -strong in the gray that it appears as a very definite color, a broken -green-blue. It is said that the tone of gray should have the same -relation to the tone of the color that its complementary would have in -order to get best results. - -For the same reason if a circle of lightest neutral gray paper, say four -inches in diameter, is placed on a piece of yellow paper about six -inches square, and another circle just like it is put on a piece of blue -paper of similar size, it will be quite difficult to convince any one -who has not previously seen the experiment that both gray circles are -from the same sheet of paper. The results observed in this experiment -are produced by a contrast of tone which causes one to look lighter -than the other, and a contrast of hue which gives one a blue and to the -other a yellow hue, in contrast to the color on which it is mounted. - - -Contrast of Colors. - -If two colors contiguous in the spectrum circuit are placed in -juxtaposition the effect of the contrast of hue is to throw them away -from each other. For example, if orange red and the red orange papers -are put side by side the former will seem more red and the latter more -orange. Therefore, when colored papers are pasted up or laid in order to -form a spectrum, for example, the colors not only fail to blend together -but each line of contact is very disagreeably prominent. - -If two colors are separated by a narrow strip of light gray, gold, black -or white, the effect is greatly improved. For this reason a design in -analogous colors is often improved by separating certain colors by a -fine line of black, gold or gray. - -If two colors not closely related to each other in the spectrum circuit -are placed in juxtaposition, each is modified by an effect which is the -complementary of the other. For example, if red and yellow are placed -side by side, in contact, the red is rendered more violet by the added -effect of blue, which is the complementary of yellow, and the yellow is -modified by the blue-green complementary of the red, which tends to dull -the yellow and change it slightly toward green. - -If blue and yellow are joined both are improved, as the two are so -nearly complementary to each other that each is intensified by -simultaneous contrast, blue being added to blue and yellow to yellow. - - -Dominant Harmonies. - -In the use of colored papers those combinations classified as dominant -harmonies are the most simple to make because they are all in one -family, as the little children like to consider the relationship. The -red family consists of the standard red and its tints and shades, or in -other words the red scale. With the several papers ready made this -harmony becomes very simple, but in the use of pigments the production -of a true color scale is not a thing to be confidently undertaken by a -novice. - -In a very elaborate color chart for Primary education prepared with -great care by Dr. Hugo Magnus and Prof. B. Joy Jeffries, and published -at large expense about ten years ago with hand-painted samples in oil -colors, this lack of classification of hues is very noticeable, although -at that time it was by far the best publication of the kind and was not -criticised on this point. - -For example in a scale of five tones of red the following are the -analyses, beginning at the lightest tint:-- - - Tint No. 2, O.45, Y.20, W.18, N.17. - Tint No. 1, O.69, Y.3, W.7, N.21. - Standard, R.75, O.25. - Shade No. 1, R.85, O.15. - Shade No. 2, R.75, N.25. - -In this scale according to the Bradley nomenclature the standard or full -color is a very fine vermilion expressed by R.75, O.25, i.e. an orange -red, and therefore in order to form a perfect scale both tints and -shades should be in the orange reds, but in fact the tints are both -broken colors, the lightest a very broken yellow-orange and the deeper -tint very nearly a light broken orange. The lightest shade is a pure -orange-red but with a larger proportion of red to the orange than the -standard, while the darkest tone is a pure shade of red. Thus in the -five tones we have the following arrangement, beginning at the lightest -tint:-- - -Broken yellow-orange, broken orange, orange-red; another pure orange-red -but more red, and lastly red shade, thus embracing in one orange-red -scale parts of four scales from yellow-orange to red. In these defects -in the best chart of its kind in the market only ten years ago is seen -the best possible evidence of the advance made since that time in color -perception, largely due to the use of the color disks in determining -scales. While in the use of colored papers the dominant harmony may be -the simplest and the one in which there is least danger of really bad -work, some of the combinations are much better than others, and -superiority is perhaps secured as much by the relative quantities of -each tone used in a composition as in the selecting of the tones. In the -entire range of the spectrum even this class of harmonies involves -problems too complex to be solved by a few rules, but it is a very -interesting field in which the children may safely be allowed to roam -and experiment. - - -Complementary Harmonies. - -Complementary Harmonies may perhaps be classified next to dominant -because they are more easily described and more definitely limited than -those effects termed Analogous Harmonies. A pure Complementary Harmony -consists of the combination of tones from two scales which are -complementary to each other. For example, the red scale is complementary -to the blue-green scale, as also the green to the violet-red, and so on -throughout the entire range of the spectrum scales. - -As explained on Page 50, the complementary of any color can be -determined by means of the color wheel, or nearly enough for æsthetic -purposes with the color top. But even though the colors complementary to -each other may be determined scientifically there will always remain -ample opportunity for the exhibition of color sense and artistic feeling -in the choice of colors because the difference between a very beautiful -composition in complementary harmony and an indifferently good one may -be found in the choice of tones, or in the proportions of each and their -arrangement with relation to each other. This harmony certainly contains -great possibilities with comparatively few limitations. - -While it is perhaps approximately true that complementaries are -harmonious in combination, yet best authorities do not seem to fully -sustain this opinion and it is quite evident that pure tones of some -complementary pairs when combined are very hard in their effects, if not -positively unpleasant. This can be relieved very decidedly and -oftentimes very pleasing results secured by modifying the colors to -tints and shades or various broken tones. - -But as has before been stated, and must be constantly reiterated, all -fine questions of harmonies can only be determined by a general -agreement of experts in color based on accepted standards. - -Analogous Harmonies may seem to be more closely related to the dominant -than the complementary and hence, logically, should perhaps be -considered before the complementary, but there may be greater -difficulties involved in the analogous than in the complementary because -they are not so definitely limited. - - -Analogous Harmonies. - -In an Analogous Harmony we may use tones from a number of scales more or -less closely related in the spectrum circuit. In some parts of the -spectrum it is possible to include a much wider range than in others. It -is comparatively easy to produce safe compositions through that part -bounded by the orange-yellow and the green scales, while from the green -to the violet experiments are much less safe. - -In almost any section of the spectrum a range of three scales is safe if -the tones are properly selected and proportioned, and in some sections -as many as five or six may possibly be included, by an artist, with -striking and pleasing effect. - - -Perfected Harmonies. - -The compositions which have been classified as Perfected Harmonies may -be defined as the combination of two Analogous Harmonies which as a -whole are approximately complementary to each other, or in which the key -tones of the Analogous Harmonies are complementary to each other. Such -compositions may be entirely composed of analogous colors with the -addition of but one complementary color, and this is in fact a very safe -harmony, especially if that one color is used as a border line or an -outline here and there in the design, in which case it may sometimes be -strong in color and tone. - -The chart of spectrum scales as made from colored papers cut in squares -is of great value in explaining the classification of harmonies. Fig. 15 -is a reduced copy of the chart of pure spectrum scales shown on page 41, -and which is here placed horizontally for convenience. - -[Illustration] - -The black zig-zag lines are designed as graphic illustrations of the -various classes of harmonies. - -Contrasted Harmonies as defined are limited to designs in one active -color mounted on a background of one of the passive colors and thus need -no further explanation, although experience will prove that some -combinations are very much more pleasing than others. - -The Dominant Harmonies which are defined as combinations of tones from -one scale cannot be made more clear by a diagram, which would be simply -a straight vertical line through any one of the eighteen scales, -indicating that the five tones in that scale or any selection from them -may be used in a Dominant Harmony. - -The Analogous Harmony has given students the most trouble and the -diagram is principally prepared to illustrate the great variety in -harmonies of this class. - -Commencing at the left, the first line indicates a harmony in three -scales beginning with red-violet shade No. 2 and passing to shade No. 1, -then to standard violet and thence to blue-violet tints No. 1 and No. 2. - -The next is in two scales, beginning at violet-blue shade No. 2, thence -to blue shade No. 1; back to normal violet-blue; again into the blue -scale at tint No. 1 and back to violet-blue tint No. 2. - -The next begins at green-blue shade No. 2 and ends in green tint No. 2. -Theoretically the line beginning in G. B. S. 2. and leading to G. T. 1. -and thence to Y. S. 2. may represent an Analogous Harmony, but it may be -doubtful whether a range of such an extent in that part of the spectrum -could be made very harmonious. This may be divided into two harmonies at -G. T. 1. and each part may be extended to G. T. 2. - -The straight line from G. S. 2. to O. Y. T. 2., embracing five scales, -might be extended to include the joining broken line running into the Y. -O. scale and finishing at O. Y. S. 2. - -The remaining lines at the red end of the chart may be considered as -indicating one harmony in six tones, or two harmonies in three tones -each. - -If the two ends of the Chart of Spectrum Scales are joined so as to form -an endless band or a cylinder, bringing the violet-red scale adjoining -the red-violet, as in the spectrum circuit, the same graphic -illustration could be given of harmonies extending from violet to red. - -The complementary harmonies require no diagrams, because they are -limited to the combination of two scales complementary to each other and -would be represented by two parallel vertical lines through any two -complementary colors, as for example vertical lines through the red and -green-blue scales. - -The compositions termed Perfected Harmonies may be fairly well -illustrated in the diagram by the combination of the line in V. B. and -B. with the broken line commencing in G. Y. S. 2. and ending in G. Y. T. -2.; or again by the line in R. V. to B. V. combined with the straight -line from G. T. 1. to Y. S. 2.; or the broken line G. to Y. S. 2. Or -again, the entire range of the double combination O. S. 2., O. R. T. 2., -V. R. and O. R. S. 2. with the broken line from G. B. S. 2. to G. T. 2. -Another sample of Perfected Harmony is found in the union of line O. R. -S. 2., V. R., O. R. T. 2., with line G. B. S. 2. to G. T. 2. These -diagrams are designed to show the range or extent which a single -composition may cover under its special definition and do not imply a -necessity for using at one time all the colors through which the line -passes, or that they are specially good harmonies. - -A striking illustration in nature of a Perfected Harmony was seen one -bright autumn morning in a species of woodbine covering the side of a -red brick building, in which could be discovered an infinite variety of -colors in greens and violet-reds whose tones were increased in number -and intensified in effect by the reflections of the sunlight and the -corresponding shadows, producing very light tints and very dark shades -of various hues of the complementary colors, and forming a complicated -and wonderfully beautiful effect very definitely classified as a -Perfected Harmony. - - -Field's Chromatic Equivalents. - -So much has been said and written about Field's Equivalents that there -is a very general impression among artists and others that they -constitute an important element in harmonious compositions of color. -This proposition as given in Owen Jones' Grammar of Ornament is as -follows:-- - -"The primaries of equal intensities will harmonize or neutralize each -other, in the proportions of 3 yellow, 5 red and 8 blue--integrally as -16. - -The secondaries in the proportions of 8 orange, 13 purple, 11 -green--integrally as 32. - -The tertiaries, citrine (compound of orange and green), 19; russet -(orange and purple), 21; olive (green and purple), 24--integrally as -64." - -In commenting on this in "The Theory of Color" Dr. Von Bezold says: "It -is often maintained that the individual colors in a colored ornament -should be so chosen, both as regards hues and the areas assigned to -them, that the resulting mixture, as well as the total impression -produced when such ornaments are looked at from a considerable distance, -should be a neutral gray. Starting from this idea, the attempt has been -made to fix the proportional size of the areas, which would have to be -assigned to the various colors usually employed in the arts, for the -purpose of arriving at the result indicated. This idea was especially -elaborated by Field, an Englishman, who gave the name of 'chromatic -equivalents' to the numbers of the proportions obtained, a designation -which has since been very generally adopted. In reality, however, these -'chromatic equivalents' have no value whatever." - -The same writer also says: "It will always remain incomprehensible that -even a man like Owen Jones in the text accompanying his beautiful -"Grammar of Ornament" should have adopted this proposition in the form -given to it by Field, since among all the ornaments reproduced in the -work just mentioned there are scarcely any which will really show the -distribution of colors demanded by the proposition in question."[B] - -[B] The Theory of Color in its relation to Art and Art Industry. By Dr. -William Von Bezold. Translated from the German by S. K. Koehler with -introduction and notes by Edward C. Pickering. Boston; L. Prang & -Company, 1876. - -In accordance with this eminent authority any one familiar with disk -combinations will know by experiment that no combinations of red, yellow -and blue approaching the proportion named by Field can produce a neutral -gray effect in the eye. - - -Colored Papers. - -For practical study of color some economic material is absolutely -necessary and nothing so well combines manual work with æsthetic -cultivation as colored papers, if specially prepared in standard colors -and with a dead plated surface. - -In the manufacture of the colored papers adopted in the Bradley scheme -of color instruction, the effort has constantly been to produce the -closest possible imitations of natural colors consistent with the -material. - -With this aim in view we have secured the brightest possible red, -orange, yellow, green and blue and have chosen a violet which has the -same relation to the other pigmentary colors that the soft beauty of the -spectrum violet bears to the other parts of the spectrum. - -It however happens that in the pure aniline colors discovered in recent -years a line of purples and violets has been found so much purer than -the other pigments that we cannot with our red and violet make a perfect -imitation of the brightest aniline purples used in some of the goods now -in the market. Purple is a general name for the several modifications of -violet, red-violet and violet-red as Peacock Blue is a name given to the -beautiful hues of blue-green and green-blue. These aniline purples are -but another indication that we may expect such advance in the science of -pigment manufacture in the comparatively near future that a much purer -line of standards may be secured than is now possible in papers. But it -does not materially affect the value of the present standards as long as -they are accepted as indicating the kind of color, i.e., its location in -the spectrum, and the _artists_ certainly should not object to this lack -of purity, because their only present criticism is that the standards -are too "raw," which is but another term for pure. - -In the glazed colored papers in the market we may find some of these -purples, especially in the tints or "pinks" which when placed beside the -unglazed surfaces of the standard papers render the latter quite -subdued. But in primary color education there is no place for these -purest purple papers, until chemistry discovers other colors -correspondingly brilliant to complete a purer chart of spectrum colors -than is now possible. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Color Teaching in The Schoolroom. - - -In the preceding sections of this book the author has aimed to so guide -the teacher who is looking for aids in elementary color teaching that -she can by actual experiment determine for herself the truths regarding -color, and hence be able to choose such facts as are suited to the needs -of her pupils from time to time, and to present them in such a logical -order as to render them of the greatest value in practical results. - -It should be possible to interest the children in color more easily than -in any other subject. Examples are always around them at home, in the -street, in the garden and the field, if perchance they are fortunate -enough to see the field, and those who see no attractive colors -elsewhere certainly should find them in the schoolroom. To a teacher who -is in love with the subject the world will be full of examples, every -day. The beautiful yellows and greens of the spring leaves, the flowers, -birds and butterflies of the summer, the autumn foliage, the sunsets and -blue and purple mountains of winter, are but hints of the multitude of -object lessons in color all around us; and if none of these are -available the more commonplace subjects found in the latest seasonable -colors of dress goods and house furnishings will be almost equally -valuable. When the children are once interested they will discover, -through their own observation, examples of such value as to surprise one -who has had experience with only the old methods of trying to teach -color, or rather the utter lack of all methods heretofore in vogue. - -The value of kindergarten training has been so thoroughly demonstrated -as to be beyond controversy, and all progressive school boards must soon -recognize the necessity of adopting kindergarten methods in the lower -primary grades, until such time as it may be possible to introduce the -complete kindergarten for all the children, to precede the school -proper. The conditions prevailing in the kindergarten are peculiarly -favorable to the study of color, because of the opportunities afforded -for introducing it in connection with the manual exercises of the gifts -and occupations. - -The first gift of the kindergarten, as originally introduced by -Froebel, consists of six soft worsted balls in six colors, which he -seems to have selected as standards without care or knowledge regarding -the theory of "three primaries and three secondaries," although no doubt -he may have indifferently accepted it, because it was the only one in -his day suggesting any logical scheme of color combinations. - -The use of colored papers educationally in a systematic way originated -in the kindergarten, and comprised folding, cutting, pasting and -weaving, from which some color instruction was incidentally derived by -the children. But with the papers formerly in the market little special -training in the selecting, matching and naming of colors, such as is of -so great value at the present time, was possible. The call for better -colors in papers came first from the kindergartners, and the diversity -of ideas expressed by them caused the writer to institute a series of -investigations which have resulted in the system to which this book is -devoted. The occupations of paper folding, cutting and pasting have been -adopted into the primary school from the kindergarten, and there is no -question but the occupation of paper mat weaving as practiced in the -kindergarten should also be introduced in the lowest primary grades for -those who have not had kindergarten training, because of its value in -simple manual work and in designing symmetrical patterns and harmonious -color combinations. - -By general consent colored papers have been chosen as the most available -material for this work, because while relatively cheap, the purest -colors possible in pigments are secured, and the material is adapted to -the most elementary manual training and education in form as well as -color. It is not the author's aim to here provide a definite course of -lessons to be given in a perfunctory way or in a fixed order, but rather -to furnish suggestions based on practical work in the schoolroom that -may be of value to those who have carefully examined the preceding pages -of this book and become familiar with the experiments described. The -suggestions are based on the experience of teachers who have been using -the system here advocated for several years and testing it in various -ways, and therefore it is hoped that they may be of value to any earnest -worker who is not fully satisfied with her efforts in teaching color up -to date. Consequently a brief outline of work is suggested for the -earliest years, according to a definite order, and then further -suggestions and experiments are introduced, somewhat in the order in -which they may naturally present themselves. - -The time has passed when it is necessary to offer any argument for the -study of color in the schoolroom. Every child begins his school life -with many color impressions which he has been acquiring since the day -when his baby fingers first stretched toward some bit of color, and his -development demands a clear presentation to him during the earliest -school years of the fundamental facts concerning color upon which all -later work must be based. - - -The Glass Prism. - -A glass prism is one of the first requisites in the appliances for -teaching color, and a prism which may be bought for a few cents will -work wonders in the hands of an interested teacher, although a more -perfect instrument, such as is sold with physical apparatus, will give -colors which are better defined. - -Experience in many schoolrooms has proved that a spectrum can be shown -somewhere in the average room at some hour in every sunny day, -especially in the longer days of spring and summer, and it is well to -have the prism when not in use so fixed as to project the spectrum into -the room much of the time, so that it may become familiar to the younger -children. Observation of the spectrum enthuses the children with a -feeling for color which can be developed in no other way, and they never -tire with watching the wonderful vibrating effects of the liquid colors; -and by studying it the mental image of each of the six colors becomes as -distinct as that of the cube after it has been handled and modeled. If -the schoolroom is provided with shutters or dark curtains a much better -spectrum can be produced by closing them, as even a slight change from a -bright sunny daylight has a very perceptible effect in bringing out the -colors. A person who has never seen a carefully prepared spectrum in a -room almost perfectly dark can have no realizing sense of the purest -possible expressions of color. - -Accident once disclosed a simple means by which one teacher secured a -very good spectrum. There was a deep, dark closet opening from the -schoolroom and one bright day when the prism was being used the spectrum -was accidentally thrown into this closet, and the sudden and -enthusiastic expression of approval by those pupils who were in position -to discover it was certainly interesting to the teacher of that country -school, with a dark coal closet. - -In a spectrum such as can be produced in a dark room with the most -perfect form of prism, all the various colors can be separated and -carefully examined and by special appliances compared with pigmentary -colors. Experiments of this kind are exceedingly interesting and -instructive, and demonstrate the wonderful intensity and purity of the -spectrum colors as compared with the purest pigmentary colors that can -be produced. Such experiments were carried to a great degree of -perfection when the six standard colors for the Bradley Colored Papers -were selected. - - -How the Bradley Color Standards Were Chosen. - -After many months of labor in securing samples of material colors, and -many days spent with the spectrum, a committee of artists, scientists, -teachers, and artizans unanimously decided that æsthetically and -psychologically the colors adopted were the best possible material -expression of the six localities in the spectrum corresponding to the -feeling or psychological perception of red, orange, yellow, green, blue -and violet. Many subsequent experiments have apparently proved that -practically the same six colors best serve the purpose of primaries from -which to make all others by combination. - -In accordance with these selections the educational colored papers have -been made, and since that time an expert scientist has accurately -located each of these colors in the spectrum by its wave length. -Consequently after the children have come to know the six colors in the -sun spectrum the six standard colors of the papers may be shown as the -best imitations possible. In studying the six colors from the spectrum -in a schoolroom it frequently happens that one color may be best seen on -the floor, another on the wall or even the blackboard, and another on -the ceiling, and after the order of the colors in the whole spectrum has -been observed, it is well to get each color where it can be best -secured. - - -Paper Color Tablets. - -When the spectrum has been studied so that the children have some idea -of the six colors and their location relative to each other, give each -of the children a package of the colored paper tablets, one inch by two -inches, containing the eighteen normal spectrum colors, i.e., those in -the central vertical column in the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Page -41, and tell them to select from the eighteen the six which they have -seen in the spectrum and which may be named to them as red, orange, -yellow, green, blue and violet.[C] - -[C] Tablets of paper instead of cardboard are recommended because in -primary instruction the standards or types of color presented to the -child ought to be the purest possible expressions of the colors -represented, and a piece of color material cannot meet this requirement -after having been used one year by a child. The necessary expense of -cardboard tablets practically precludes a new supply each year. But the -papers can finally be used to form, by pasting, some chart or -combination which the pupil may be allowed to own as a sample of his -work. - -If a sheet of neutral gray cardboard can be secured for use on each desk -all early color work will be more valuable, because of the undesirable -effect of the usual yellow or orange color of the wood of the desk. - -If some of the pupils do not make the correct selection of the papers it -may be well to let the error pass for that time and have another -exhibition of the spectrum before the next trial. Get as many of them as -possible to make the selection of the six colors from the eighteen -solely by comparison with the spectrum. Later if some are still unable -to succeed, a paper spectrum may be shown to them, or what is better, -six bits of paper like their own, pasted on a card, with an interval as -wide as two papers between each two. When every child can readily select -the six standard colors from the eighteen then all of them may with -advantage be told to lay the six in a row on the gray cardboard or desk, -in their proper order, and sufficiently separated to allow room for two -other papers between each two. When all have made the attempt and some -have failed to arrange the papers correctly the card having them -properly mounted may again be shown and each one in error may make the -necessary corrections by comparison. - -In a solar spectrum such as is possible in the ordinary schoolroom the -intermediate colors between the standards cannot be very distinctly seen -but the child can be shown that between the red and orange, with which -he is familiar, there are colors different from both and possibly he may -be led to see that these colors seem to be a mixture of the two. With -this impression in the minds of the children the following experiment -may be a very interesting psychological test of the natural color -perception of each child, or in other words his "color feeling." - -Ask the children to arrange the remaining twelve papers between the six -standards in pairs and one outside of the red and violet at the ends. -This exercise will serve to bring each of the other colors to the -critical attention of the children so that they may not be entirely -strangers to them in the succeeding exercises. At this stage the color -wheel or color top or both will be most valuable. - - -Color Wheel or Top. - -If the wheel is available let the teacher place on it combined red and -orange disks of medium size and in front a small red disk. Before -beginning the six papers should be laid on the desk in order, separated -by two spaces. Call attention to the fact that the red disks are like -the red sample of paper. Explain how the disks are joined and that the -two larger ones can be made to show more or less of the orange and the -red. - -Then introduce a small amount of orange, perhaps not enough to cause the -effect to be perceived by the children when the wheel is in motion, and -rotate. Ask if they see any difference between the small disk at the -center and the larger surface. Add more orange till they see a -difference, and continue to add orange to the red until nearly one-half -the disk is orange or till it may be questionable whether the color made -by rotation is more nearly orange or red. This point will be reached -before the orange nearly equals the red, because the orange is more -luminous. Explain that all these colors which the children have been -seeing are orange-reds and ask the pupils to select that color from -their papers which is orange-red, or most like the orange and red. In -the meantime set the orange and red disks to the proportion of R. 85, O. -15, which nearly or exactly matches the orange-red paper. When the -children have selected the paper which they think is orange-red, put the -wheel in motion and ask them if their selection is like the color on the -wheel. If not, see that all understand and have selected the orange-red -paper to place next the red sample. When this has been done remove the -disks from the wheel and readjust the larger ones so as to show a -combination that is nearly all orange; then replace them and substitute -in front a small orange disk instead of the red one and proceed to show -a series of red-orange colors from the orange toward the red, as -previously shown from the red toward the orange. With experiments -before adults this break in the order of proceeding and the change of -disks would be unnecessary, but with children it is desirable to mark a -distinction between the orange-red and the red-orange colors, a fact -which is emphasized by the mechanical manipulation. When the children -have been asked to place their red-orange paper in its proper position -the disks may be set to R. 50, O. 50, and an imitation of their -red-orange paper shown. - -If the school is provided with color tops their use may be begun at this -point by allowing the children to attempt to repeat the wheel -experiments with the tops and thus produce for themselves an imitation -of the two intermediate spectrum hues in the papers. In all combinations -of colors by disks as well as pigments there is some loss of purity and -hence the colors of papers in the intermediate hues may be a little -brighter in some cases than the results of two disks in combination. - -This suggestion for the presentation of one pair of the intermediate -spectrum hues may serve to illustrate all the others, and the time which -can be devoted to the whole subject must determine the detail with which -each pair is treated. - -If the tops are provided in a school but no color wheel then the teacher -must begin with a top as a substitute for the wheel and let the children -follow her with their tops by dictation. At first this will be much more -difficult than if the wheel could be used, but after the children have -become somewhat familiar with the handling of the top by dictation the -result will be quite surprising. There will be in every school some -children who are exceedingly awkward in the manipulation of the top, -until the happy day arrives when all school children are graduates of -kindergartens. At present the average kindergarten pupil will handle the -top better than the children in the lowest primary grades who have not -had the advantages of kindergarten instruction. - -When all the hues except the red-violet and violet-red have been -located, the teacher should be prepared with a chart made by pasting -the eighteen paper samples, including standards and intermediate hues, -in their order on a strip of paper, so that by bringing the ends -together the children may see that when they place the violet-red at one -end of their row and the red-violet at the other they are really -completing a spectrum circuit and forming a chart of natural colors. -Ever since Newton's day it has been fashionable to speak of the spectrum -as nature's chart of colors. This expression is but partially true and -is entirely false if we mean that it contains examples of all the colors -in nature. The spectrum is valuable in color study only from the fact -that it enables us to establish permanent standard colors from which all -colors in nature and the arts may be named and by the combinations of -which such colors may be imitated. - -Unless the standard colors in a system of color instruction are the -closest possible imitations of corresponding spectrum colors there is no -logical relation between such a system and a chart of colors based on -the spectrum, because the spectrum does not furnish a complete circuit -of colors and its only value is, as before stated, in furnishing a -permanent standard on which to found a nomenclature of colors. - -Up to this time we have not suggested the practice of introducing any -natural objects or calling the attention of the children to various -colors found in their surroundings. Each teacher must use her judgment -regarding this matter, but as soon as miscellaneous colors are to be -considered the two questions of hues and tones are necessarily involved, -and experienced teachers have been divided in their opinions as to which -should be first considered, tone or hue. When it was thought necessary -to occupy a long time in presenting all the spectrum colors this -question assumed greater importance than at present, but very many -teachers have become convinced that we have not been giving the children -credit for nearly as much ability in the recognition of colors as they -deserve, and that with the methods at present in use the six standard -colors and twelve hues can be learned in a few weeks, during which time -it may not be necessary to discuss the complicated combinations of -colors in nature and our domestic surroundings. This is not intended to -mean that the child will in this time be able to name the various hues -when seen separately, but that having the eighteen paper tablets he may -feel their relations to each other to such an extent as to be able to -lay them in their spectrum order. Those pupils who seem to have no -natural perception of the proper relationship of colors will require -more experience than the rest of the class before they can be sure of -their colors and the teacher must exercise her judgment in deciding how -long to hold the class to this subject of spectrum hues on their -account. - -As in other class work it is not necessary that the dull children -perfectly comprehend all that is told them at each step, because there -will always be some in a class who will comprehend and thus the others -may learn by observation, and in this subject particularly every step in -advance must necessarily include a continual review of all that has -preceded. - -Consequently when a teacher has given as much time to the study of hues -in the arrangement of the papers as she deems profitable, considering -the entire time that can be devoted to the subject during the year, she -may well proceed to tones. - - -The Study of Tones. - -It is unnecessary at the beginning to use the word tones with the -children, as "light and dark" colors will be understood more clearly. -The first lesson in light and shade may be given with some book bound in -a bright color, as red for example, which is common in cloth bindings. -For this experiment partially open the book and hold it vertically, with -back toward the class, in such position that a strong light from one -side of the room will fall directly on one cover while the other is in -the shade. If properly manipulated this simple experiment may be made -effective to an entire class by moving the book in various directions to -accommodate the several members, so that at different times all the -pupils may get very clearly the idea of light and dark colors in the -same scale. - -This idea can be more clearly shown by means of a simple model very -easily made for the purpose. Take, for example, three pieces of standard -red paper, 4×4 inches, and mount them on a piece of cardboard side by -side, in a row. Trim the card parallel to the edges of the papers, -leaving a margin of uniform width, and with the point of a knife "score" -a line partially through the card from the front, at the joining of the -papers, so that it can be neatly bent to the form shown in Fig. 16 which -represents the model as seen by the class. By holding one of the rear -edges with each hand the faces can be folded to different angles with -each other and the model turned to different positions with relation to -the children. Possibly the windows at the rear of the room may be -partially darkened to advantage; they certainly can be if they have a -sunny exposure at the time. The object is to give a fair daylight on the -central surface for the standard, a strong light on one side to form a -tint of the standard and a shadow on the other for a shade of the same -color. - -[Illustration] - -By a trial before school, in company with some other teacher perhaps, -the best positions for different parts of the room as well as best -lighting of the room may be determined in advance and thus such a -success achieved with the first experiment that the whole idea of tint -and shade may be impressed on each child for all time and definitions -firmly fixed in his mind for these two most abused words in our every -day vocabulary. Added interest may be excited by showing similar models -in several other colors during the same lesson, thus avoiding the -possible impression on any mind that the term tint and shade apply to -any special color. - -Tints and shades may also be shown very beautifully by some kinds of -colored materials. Colored satin ribbons, folded or crumpled, and -velvets and plushes give good object lessons. One of the most effective -exhibitions of tints and shades may be found in a material used for -upholstering furniture and technically called "crushed plush," which is -a worsted plush embossed in figures and very changeable in its effects -as its relation to the light is changed, giving at the same time very -light tints and very dark shades in different portions. - -Having thus shown how real tints and shades in nature are produced, the -color wheel may be introduced with advantage. If it were practicable to -use opaque colors in the school they could be employed to show that the -effect of a tint is produced in pigments by mixing white with the -standard color and a shade by mixing black with it, but while the -mixture of white may produce the best imitations of some tints in -nature, the same result does not hold good in the use of black to form -shades, and black pigments are rarely used for this purpose, because -they impart various untruthful hues, according to the colors with which -they are mixed. - -For this reason, and others which will appear later, the white and black -disks of the color wheel are found to be better than any other single -method for representing tones. In shades the black disk produces by far -the best imitation of nature, and so does the white disk for more than -half of the colors. But, as previously stated, there is an effect which -has never been satisfactorily explained by which the tints of red and -blue especially receive an unexpected violet gray tinge by rotation. -Therefore in showing tints on the wheel it is well not to show very -light tints of red or blue until the class has received some impressions -of tones in other colors. In the orange and violet the tints seem to be -practically perfect, and in the yellow and green not far from correct, -but in the green they run a trifle toward the blue and in the yellow -become a little gray or broken. But in the shades the black disk has -done wonders for color instruction, particularly in making standard -neutral grays which cannot be imitated by white and black pigments, and -in determining the shades of yellow, as has been explained. See Page 36. - -Therefore, after having shown actual tints and shades with the folded -models, and perhaps the other materials suggested, place a colored disk -combined with a white disk on the wheel, and in front of them a smaller -colored disk of the same color as the larger one for comparison, and by -changing the relative proportions show various tints. Then substitute a -black disk for the white and show shades. If, for example, orange is -taken, all proportions of both tints and shades may be shown very -truthfully, the deeper shades being very rich browns. Having in this way -impressed on the children the terms tints and shades, give them the -paper tablets, Selection No. 2, in the deepest tints and the lightest -shades, reserving the lightest tints and deepest shades found in -Selection No. 4 for later use. - -Let each member of the class lay the spectrum in the normal colors and -then select the six tints corresponding to the six standards. When all -of them think they have done this, tell them to choose the corresponding -shades. If a number fail in the attempt it may be well to set up three -sizes of disks on the color wheel in shade, standard and tint of red. In -showing a tint of red with the disks it is not a good plan to make a -tint lighter than R. 95, W. 5, which is about R. T. 1. If the wheel is -not available samples of papers may be held up in the three tones so -that the class can get the correct idea. There is no best method of -reaching all pupils in any class, but in some way at this point in color -education every pupil ought to acquire such knowledge of the subject as -to be able to select at least the six standard scales in three tones, -and this should be practically accomplished before much time is devoted -to the consideration of such materials as flowers, fabrics and -miscellaneous papers, because until the child understands both hues and -tones he can do nothing in either analyzing or naming colors. - -As soon as these six scales are familiar to the pupil the selecting of -various objects and placing them in general families may be very -valuable work, but until that time the classification of colors cannot -be carried out very accurately, or at best the families will be very -likely to include some uncles, and cousins and aunts, and yet, on the -other hand, if even the distant relatives are recognized in preference -to strangers the choice will give evidence of a sympathetic feeling for -color relations, favorable to future progress and indicating something -of the natural color sense of the child. - -If such occupations as paper cutting and pasting, or weaving of mats -have a place in the school, combinations in two or three tones of the -six standards can now be made. At this stage names are of little -importance, but they will come in play early, as it is natural to give -names to everything, and as soon as the child knows the definite names -which belong to colors they will be used. - - -Neutral Grays. - -Immediately following the first idea of tints and shades or tones, the -grays should have attention, because in the occupations with papers they -will play an important part. For this purpose white, black and the -neutral gray papers are included in Selection No. 2 of the paper tablets -and should be made familiar to the children while the tints and shades -are being studied. The suggestion that a neutral gray is a tint of black -or a shade of white may or may not aid a child to better understand the -relation of the neutral grays to the color chart, but it is a thought -worthy of the attention of the teacher, as expressing a fact important -in the consideration of color impressions. This gray may also be -illustrated on the wheel by the union of white and black disks, and -should be early presented in this way, because this is the only means by -which we can secure standards for pigmentary neutral grays, and the fact -that this special and peculiar gray is so important in all color -investigation furnishes sufficient argument for making it prominent -before the other grays. - -Even at this early period in his color education a child may be shown -that white in shadow is a gray, and the fact that it is a neutral gray -is not essential to him, as he has no knowledge of any other gray and -probably it may not be desirable to call attention to the various -classes of grays until after the broken colors have been studied. A -sheet of white card or heavy paper may serve to show that white in shade -or shadow is a gray. - -For this experiment fold the card or paper very sharply and hold it with -the folded edge vertical and projecting toward the class, and in such a -position relative to the windows that half of the paper is in very full -light and the other in shadow. - -A comparison of neutral gray paper No. 1 with a true shade of white or -white in shadow, as explained on Page 36, will serve to connect the gray -papers with the shades of white. After the idea of tones is made clear -to the children, so that they can readily form the six standard scales -in three tones, the completing of the Chart of Spectrum Scales in three -tones will be merely a matter of drill, as no new principles are -involved. - -When the pupils can lay the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in three tones -correctly, the thoughtful teacher will naturally ask herself what is the -next logical step, and it may at first seem as though the completion of -the chart in five tones ought to immediately follow. But it is very -desirable that the pupils begin as early as possible to make a practical -application of their knowledge of colors to the familiar objects around -them; and it is evident that before any very accurate comparison of -miscellaneous colors can be intelligently undertaken the child should -be able to recognize the effect of mixing gray with a color, in -distinction from the pure tints and shades of that color. - - -Explanation of Broken Colors. - -Very few of the common colors seen in fabrics and house furnishings are -either full pure colors or their tints and shades, but nearly all are -broken colors. Therefore it seems desirable to introduce the study of -broken colors, before considering the extreme tones of the pure colors -as represented in tints and shades No. 2 in the Chart of Pure Spectrum -Scales in five tones. - -This order of presentation seems specially advisable, because the -distinguishing of the extreme tones where the color is lost to so great -a degree is more difficult than anything connected with the subject of -broken colors. Therefore at this point paper tablets, Selection No. 3 -are introduced. From this collection of tablets when properly arranged a -Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales of twelve colors in three tones may be -made, and in addition there are tablets illustrating the several classes -of grays other than neutral grays. - -The first result desired is a definite distinction in the mind of each -pupil between a broken color and any tint or shade of the same color. In -order that the explanation of this distinction shall be intelligently -comprehended each child must have such a clear idea of the meaning of -the terms "tints" and "shades" that he shall not fail to readily -understand any statement regarding them because of confusion as to the -definite meaning of these terms. The child should know clearly that a -"tint" is a color in a strong light or mixed with white either in -pigments or disks, while a "shade" is a color in shade or shadow, i.e. -with less than the normal illumination, or mixed with black. When this -has been fixed in the mind of a pupil, and he has also been shown that -neutral gray, the only gray he has learned anything of, is the result of -the combination of white and black, it will not be difficult for him to -see that a broken color is produced by the mixture of both white and -black with the pure color. Much later it will be possible for him to -think of a broken color as a tint thrown into a shade or shadow, as may -be observed by casting a strong shade or shadow on to a piece of colored -paper in some one of the _tints_ of the spectrum scales. - -The color wheel and tops furnish the simplest and most effective means -for the presentation of broken colors, because they automatically -analyze every color shown, so that the pupil sees for himself just what -has been done. - - -An Exercise in Broken Colors. - -After having refreshed the minds of the class as to tints and shades and -grays by a brief restatement of the conditions involved in these terms, -the idea of broken colors may be shown with disks on the color wheel or -top. For this experiment place on the spindle, for example, a -combination of orange, white and black disks, and in front of these -disks put combined orange and black disks of smaller size. Make the -proportions of the larger disks, O. 15, W. 4, N. 81, and the smaller, O. -26, N. 74. In rotation the larger ring will show a dark broken orange -and the inner one a dark shade of orange, and the difference in quality -will be readily seen and felt. The effect is more valuable as a lesson -if the tones of the two are nearly equal, although this is not -necessary. - -A very much lighter pair of colors is secured by using the following -formulas, O. 43, W. 26, N. 31, and O. 77, W. 23. - -Both these experiments may be made with the primary color wheel or color -top. If the High School Color Wheel is in use so that the four rings of -color can be shown at one time, the two larger rings may show two tones -of broken color and the smaller rings a tint and shade of pure color. - -In the use of tops two may be spun at once as near together as possible, -the two broken tones on one top and the tint and shade on another. - -In green similar experiments may be tried, with the following -formulas:-- - - G. 20, W. 6, N. 74. - G. 36, W. 13, N. 51. - G. 34, N. 66. - G. 82, W. 18. - -Practically the same methods may be adopted in the study of broken -colors as were employed with the pure colors. - -The paper tablets contained in Selection No. 3, comprising broken colors -and grays, will now come into use to accompany experiments with disks in -broken colors. The tablets in the broken spectrum colors number -thirty-six, comprising twelve scales of three tones each, thus producing -but one intermediate hue between each two standards, instead of two, as -in the chart of pure colors. - -Exercises in selection and arrangement of these tablets to form a chart -may be employed to familiarize the pupils with the new kind of colors. -The colors are not so pronounced as in the pure scales, and for this -reason the arranging may be more difficult, but the smaller number of -hues simplifies it somewhat, so that, with the better-trained color -perception which the child will have acquired at this stage, no greater -effort will be required than in the earlier lessons. - -When the Chart of Broken Scales can be laid with reasonable accuracy by -the majority of the class the two charts as far as studied, each in -three tones, may be laid on the desk at the same time for comparison and -thus the difference in quality or character emphasized. - -All kinds of materials may now be considered and classified, and great -interest inspired in the subject generally. Flowers, autumn leaves, -dress goods and anything with color can be studied and the colors -analyzed. Before the study of broken colors was taken up some few -flowers could be quite accurately matched with the disks and analyzed, -but now very many more of the flowers and plants as well as other -material can be accurately analyzed and a definite nomenclature given to -each sample. - -Selection No. 3 of tablets contains, in addition to the twelve scales of -broken colors, six colored grays, which must at some stage be considered -in connection with gray colors or broken colors, to which they are -closely related. As has already been stated, there is a point where by -the continued addition of gray to a color, the color is so far obscured -that its identity is practically lost and the result becomes a colored -gray. - -Although the line between gray colors and colored grays cannot be -definitely drawn there are so many grades visible beyond the point where -the exact color used with the gray can be determined, that the term -"colored gray," which covers the three classes, warm, cool and green -grays, is convenient for common use. - -It is very desirable that a distinction be observed between the terms -"colored grays" and "gray colors," and therefore broken colors may be a -better term to apply to the gray colors because a distinction is thus -more strongly emphasized between these two classes of colors. - -The following table furnishes formulas from which the colors of the -Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales may be very nearly imitated on the High -School Color Wheel. Each scale should be shown by the three smaller sets -of disks, namely, the smallest for light tone, next size for standard or -medium, and the third size for darkest tone. - -This list of disk combinations is furnished here for the convenience of -teachers who may have occasion to illustrate the compositions of the -various classes of colors comprised in the Chart of Broken Spectrum -Scales, which covers the entire range of the æsthetic colors and from -which by modifications every subdued color in material substances can be -analyzed and definitely named. - -Owing to the color usually found on the interior of a schoolroom and -the lack of pure white light from outside it is not probable that these -proportions will exactly match the papers, but the formulas will enable -the teacher to approximate the color, and then the more accurate match -in conformity to the conditions in each case may be secured by making -changes in accordance with suggestions from a majority of the class, an -exercise which will afford valuable practice for the pupils. - - - Formulas for a Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales. - - LIGHT. MEDIUM. DARK. - - RED. - R.68, W.18, N.14. R.59, W.5, N.35. R.22-1/2, W.5, N.72-1/2. - - ORANGE RED. - R.51, O.17-1/2, W.23, N.8-1/2. R.47, O.16, W.8-1/2, N.28-1/2. R.15, O.7-1/2, W.7-1/2, N.70. - - ORANGE. - O.43, W.22-1/2, N.24-1/2. O.34-1/2, W.10, N.55. O.15, W.5, N.79-1/2. - - YELLOW ORANGE. - O.23, Y.15, W.27, N.35. O.24-1/2, Y.17-1/2, W.15, N.43. O.10, Y.4-1/2, W.6, N.79-1/2. - - YELLOW. - Y.34, W.30-1/2, N.35-1/2. Y.24, W.12-1/2, N.63-1/2. Y.12-1/2, W.5, N.82-1/2. - - GREEN YELLOW. - Y.24, G.13, W.28, N.35. Y.25, G.10, W.17, N.48. Y.11, G.13, W.10, N.66. - - GREEN. - G.16, W.9, N.75. G.34, W.19, N.49. G.23, W.41, N.36. - - BLUE GREEN. - G.8-1/2, B.7-1/2, W.7, N.77. G.22, B.18, W.12, N.48. G.24, B.25, W.23, N.28. - - BLUE. - B.22-1/2, W.6, N.71-1/2. B.38, W.13, N.49. B.36, W.29, N.35. - - BLUE VIOLET. - B.13, V.9-1/2, W.6-1/2, N.71. B.13, V.25, W.15, N.47. B.20, V.15, W.29, N.39. - - VIOLET. - V.20, W.13, N.67. V.51, W.24, N.25. V.61, W.32, N.7. - - RED VIOLET. - R.17, V.10, W.5, N.68. R.16-1/2, V.45, W.13, N.25-1/2. R.23, V.40, W.26, N.11. - -In preparing the papers for the Chart of Broken Spectrum Colors the -selection of the tones of the several colors has been made in accordance -with the æsthetic color feeling of those to whom the matter was -intrusted, but the hues of the colors are based on the standards of the -pure spectrum colors. - -If these colors are considered independently of their relation to a -general system of color education, it may seem that a stronger and purer -line of colors would be more beautiful; but the more broken or subdued -colors have been chosen after very careful consideration, because they -are intended for elementary instruction and therefore should be so far -removed from the pure color scales as to impress themselves on the minds -of the children as a distinct and representative class of colors. When -the color sense of the pupils has been sufficiently cultivated to -observe smaller distinctions, a variety of color scales much less broken -may be shown with the disks. - -Different selections for a score of charts could be made, all beautiful -and representing broken colors, but after much consideration these -thirty-six were selected from a very large number of hand-painted -samples made for the purpose, as furnishing a sufficient number of -typical broken colors for elementary color instruction, and in such hues -and tones as to form a harmonious chart for comparison with the Chart of -Pure Spectrum Scales. - - -Certain "Color Puzzles." - -When the children have advanced far enough to understand the analysis of -a color, i.e., to correctly name a color, exercises which may be called -color puzzles can be introduced from time to time with great interest -and profit. - -The idea is simply to suddenly show to the class a series of disks in -rapid rotation and ask them to guess what colors it is composed of, -i.e., what the definite name of the color is. - -The following is a suggestion for this exercise, supposing that a broken -green yellow is to be shown:-- - -Select a green, a yellow, a white and a black disk of medium size and -combine them as follows: Y.20, G.10, W.10, N.60. Then, having previously -removed the nut from the spindle of the wheel and laid it in a -convenient place, take the combined disks and lay on the top of them any -other disk of a larger size, with the center holes of all corresponding -with each other and place all these disks on the spindle of the wheel -with the larger disk still covering the face of the others. Having -previously furnished an assistant with a sheet of cardboard of -sufficient size to conceal the disks from the class have it held in -front of the wheel while the disk which conceals the combination is -removed, the nut screwed to place and the disks put into rapid rotation; -then order the card taken away and ask the class what color they see, -still continuing the rotation. - -The correct answer should be broken green-yellow, and not a shade of -green-yellow, a broken yellow-green, a tint of yellow or a yellow shade; -for there is but one true name and that should be stated. Definite -expressions of color are as possible as the terms used regarding other -scientific subjects, and should be encouraged. - -Much interest can be inspired and valuable instruction imparted to the -children by experiments with the color wheel, but whenever color -analysis is the object in view, if disks of more than one of the -standard colors are used in the same combination they must be of colors -adjacent to each other in the spectrum. - -For example, if a blue and a yellow disk are united and placed in -rotation the result may be a blue gray, a yellow gray, or perhaps very -nearly a neutral gray, because blue and yellow are so nearly -complementary to each other. But a nomenclature of the resulting color -effect expressed in terms of blue and yellow is not of practical value, -because it is evident that in the analysis of a gray-blue, yellow has no -logical place. If in an attempt to match a color which seems to be a -broken blue, something else besides the blue, white and black is -required, it must be either green or violet, i.e., one of the two -standard colors adjacent to the blue in the spectrum. In other words, -every color in nature is a spectrum color, i.e., either a pure spectrum -color, a tint or a shade of a spectrum color, or a broken spectrum -color. Hence every color can be matched, and therefore analyzed by the -combination of one disk of a standard color with a white disk, a black -disk or both, or else by two adjacent spectrum standards with white and -black or both. - -There are many combinations of disks outside the limitations above -named which are valuable and interesting in color investigation when not -used for simple analysis, but if they are presented as pleasing -experiments before the pupils can understand their logical relation to -the subject of color education, the result may be entirely misleading -rather than instructive. - -In making experiments in broken colors with the wheel the most -satisfactory results are secured in orange, violet, green and yellow, -while the red is fairly good and the blue less satisfactory than the -others because of the slight effect of gray or violet which comes into -the lighter tones by rotation, to which reference has already been made. - -As explained on Page 54, the so-called tertiary colors, russets, -citrines and olives were formerly supposed to be classes of peculiar -colors to which these names were given. The fact that these are all -broken spectrum colors was first demonstrated by the use of the color -wheel and they are now quite generally accepted as such by those who -have given heed to modern methods of color instruction. - -As already shown the disks have also seemed to correctly define the -several scales of colors, so that in contrast to the color charts of a -dozen years ago a distinction is clearly drawn between the colors in the -yellow and the orange scales, or even between the yellow-orange and the -orange-yellow scales, so accurately do the disks determine the hue of a -color. - -When the pupils have progressed so far that they can arrange the paper -tablets to form the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in three tones and -also the Chart of Broken Scales, they will be prepared to intelligently -begin the use of papers in cutting and pasting designs in the several -classes of harmonies, but before most effective results can be produced -the lightest tints and deepest shades of the full chart of pure scales -in five tones must be considered. - - -Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed. - -The entire mastery of these extreme tones will be quite difficult -because they are so far removed from the standards, and the children -can hardly be expected to recognize and name them when seen separately. -If a pupil is able to correctly arrange them in connection with the -other tones of the chart, his accomplishment will show a high grade of -color perception. But these extreme tones are introduced because their -use in the more advanced work of paper cutting and pasting produces -stronger and more beautiful harmonies and a higher degree of color -training than would result were the tints and shades nearer the -standards in tone. - -No detailed rehearsal of the lessons for this work is necessary to -enable a teacher who has pursued the course of instruction thus far to -complete it in a logical way, and relatively little time will be -required by the pupils to become sufficiently familiar with these tones -for practical purposes, because of their more acute color perception -which will be developed at this period. - - -The Work of Cutting and Pasting. - -In the study of color the work of cutting and pasting designs in -educational colored papers affords the earliest and best practical -expression of the color feeling which has been acquired and stimulates -the further development of color perception. The order in which the use -of these papers can be most profitably taken up in the occupations of -cutting and pasting may be determined by a careful consideration of the -subject of harmonies as explained quite fully in the foregoing section -entitled "Practical Experiments," Pages 67 to 73. - -The first in order is Contrasted Harmony, in which cut papers in one -color may be mounted on a ground of some passive color as white or gray. -In selecting the gray, analogy is usually preferable to contrast, while -neutral gray is fairly safe for all colors. According to this suggestion -the warm grays may be used with the warm colors and the cool grays with -the cool colors, and in a majority of the cases the lightest tone of -gray is preferable. - -Without question Dominant Harmonies or the arrangement in families are -the most profitable and safe for early practice. In this class a light -tint may be used for the background on which to mount any of the other -tones of the same scale. Beyond these two classes of harmonies the order -of presentation must be determined by the teacher. If the complementary -is attempted with simple geometrical forms a light tint may most safely -be selected for a background in the least aggressive of the two colors -and the design or pasted forms in some of the complementary tones other -than the normal color. Do not attempt to combine full complementary -colors in elementary work. - -The Analogous Harmony may be used in simple designs with beautiful -effects when judicious selections are made, but owing to the latitude -necessarily involved in the definition of this class of combinations the -children cannot very early be trusted to make their own selections. - -It is evident that nothing can be attempted in the Perfected Harmonies -in any of the ready-cut forms, but beautiful results can be produced in -this class with well-drawn and accurately cut ornamental designs in -colored papers, which may even surpass in strength and beauty any -effects which can be produced in water colors such as can be used by the -children. - -For earliest practice in making designs in colored papers the ready cut -forms of the kindergarten, technically called "parquetry papers" are -very convenient and may be procured either with or without gum on the -back. These are prepared in various geometrical forms based on the -one-inch standard, among which the most useful for pasting decorative -designs are the circle, half-circle, square, half-square and equilateral -triangle. Where models and tablets are used in form study the tablets -may serve as patterns from which the children can mark out the papers -which they can then cut for themselves, and thus the oval and ellipse -may be added to the forms, and also practice in accurate cutting -secured. - -In the use of tablets as patterns the outlines should be made on the -backside of the paper, by holding the tablet in place with one finger -and working carefully around it with a well-pointed pencil. The marking -to the pattern and cutting to the line provides valuable elementary -practice in manual training. As it is the prime object of these papers -to treat of color no attempt is here made to give directions for -designing units of ornament or for folding and cutting designs. All such -exercises furnish the best possible practice in both designing and -manual work, but they belong more directly to the department of drawing -and are fully treated in the hand books explaining modern systems of -drawing. We offer here a number of simple arrangements of such forms as -may be found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the form study -tablets as before mentioned, with the addition of a few other figures -which involve some very simple designs for free-hand cutting. - - -A Variety of Designs. - -The accompanying illustrations show a number of simple arrangements of -such forms as are found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the -form study tablets already mentioned, with the addition of a few other -figures which include some very simple forms requiring free-hand -cutting. Suggestions for more elaborate designs and specific directions -for paper cutting can be found in elementary books treating of -decorative drawing and those devoted solely to paper cutting. - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 17 to 25 show arrangements of one-inch kindergarten parquetry -papers in one color, used as units to form border designs in contrasted -harmony on a white or a gray ground, in all of which there is repetition -of form as well as color. A narrow strip of paper in the same color as -the units may be used at top and bottom to finish the design. - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 26 to 37 show border designs, each of which is made with one form -in two colors or tones in alternation. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 38 and 39 show border designs in one color, with forms marked from -the elliptical and oval tablets and cut by hand. In Fig. 39 borders are -made by combining half-squares which may be used with or without narrow -strips of the same color. - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 40 and 41 are made by using one form with alternation of tone and -of position. Fig. 41 is derived from Fig. 40 by laying the dark squares -with the corners in contact and placing the light squares over them. - -Fig. 42 shows alternation of form and color or tone, which is also the -scheme employed in Fig. 43 in a design less simple with the addition of -the half-circles. - -Figs. 44 and 45 show two other simple and pleasing designs with -alternation of both form and tone or color. - -Figs. 46, 47, 48, and 49 comprise designs in two forms and two tones or -colors, in which some hand cutting is necessary on the part of the -pupils. - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 50 to 54 are rosettes made from parquetry papers with the addition -of a small circle or square at the center cut by hand. - -[Illustration] - -Figs. 55 to 60 are principally hand-cut forms, and 61, 62 and 63 show -surface patterns made from parquetry squares and half-squares. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Colored papers can be used more advantageously in decorative designs -than in imitations of natural objects, for which water colors are much -better suited, but some copies of natural flowers and autumn leaves have -been made in colored papers which were exceedingly close imitations of -water color paintings when seen at a little distance, rivaling in the -case of the autumn leaves the best water color effects in brilliancy and -depth of color. - -There need be no definite rules governing the continuation of color -study from this point by a teacher who is interested in the subject and -has tried the experiments suggested in the preceding pages. The work -will become very interesting at this stage, because now all sorts of -material may be introduced for analysis and classification and from this -point forward, to the highest achievements of the artist, nature will -furnish abundant stimulus to color thought and investigation, if the -foundation has been laid according to the true theory of color -perception which it is the object of this system to explain. - - -Analysis of Color Materials. - -A valuable and interesting phase of color investigation and color -training may be found in the analysis and naming of the natural colors -found in flowers, minerals and the plumage of birds. The necessity for -a definite and adequate nomenclature which naturalists experience in -this department of education has been emphasized by the publication -within a few years of a book entitled "A Nomenclature of Colors for -Naturalists, and a Compendium of useful knowledge for Ornithologists." - -This book has been prepared with great care by Robert Ridgway of the -United States National Museum, and contains a large number of -hand-painted plates showing nearly two hundred colors which represent -selections from three hundred and fifty names of colors which are given -in English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Norwegian or -Danish.[D] - -[D] A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists and Compendium of useful -Knowledge for Ornithologists by Robert Ridgway, Curator, Department of -Birds, National Museum. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1886. - -The fact that a book involving so much technical knowledge and the -expenditure of so much time and money was deemed justifiable is an -evidence of the great need for some definite nomenclature. - -In the introduction the author says: "Undoubtedly one of the chief -desiderata of naturalists, both professional and amateur, is a means of -identifying the various shades of colors named in descriptions, and of -being able to determine exactly what name to apply to a particular tint -which it is desired to designate in an original description. No modern -work of this character it appears, is extant,--the latest publication of -its kind which the author has been able to consult being Syme's edition -of 'Werner's Nomenclature of Colors,' published in Edinburgh in 1821. It -is found, however, that in Syme's 'nomenclature' that the colors have -become so modified by time, that in very few cases do they correspond -with the tints they were intended to represent." - -The following are the opening sentences of the preface: "The want of a -nomenclature of colors adapted particularly to the use of naturalists -has ever been more or less an obstacle to the study of Nature; and -although there have been many works published on the subject of color, -they either pertain exclusively to the purely scientific or technical -aspects of the case or to the manufacturing industries, or are otherwise -unsuited to the special purposes of the zoologist, the botanist and the -mineralogist." - -In the same book the Chapter on Principles of Color opens with the -following sentences: "The popular nomenclature of colors has of late -years, especially since the introduction of aniline dyes and pigments, -become involved in almost chaotic confusion through the coinage of a -multitude of new names, many of them synonymous, and still more of them -vague or variable in their meaning. These new names are far too numerous -to be of any practical utility, even were each one identifiable with a -particular fixed tint. Many of them are invented at the caprice of the -dyer or manufacturer of fabrics, and are as capricious in their meaning -as in their origin; among them being such fanciful names as 'Zulu,' -'Crushed Strawberry,' 'Baby Blue,' 'Woodbine-berry,' 'Night Green,' -etc., besides such nonsensical names as 'Ashes of Roses' and 'Elephant's -Breath.'" - -These extracts from this valuable and interesting book by an author of -large experience are quoted here to emphasize the practical necessity -for more definite color education based on analysis and nomenclature. - -With the color wheel or color top, the colors of flowers and leaves as -well as all other objects in nature and art may be analyzed and named, -and the names definitely recorded in the terms of a nomenclature based -on permanent standards. - -The following list of flowers and leaves of plants and trees with their -analyses in terms of our nomenclature is taken from a recently published -paper entitled "On the Color Description of Flowers," by Prof. J. H. -Pillsbury, to whom the writer is indebted for some of the earliest -suggestions regarding the practical application of the scientific facts -of color to color teaching, and also for valuable scientific work which -he has done including the exact location of the six color standards in -the solar spectrum by their wave lengths:-- - -"With these standards to work from, I undertook to determine the color -analysis of certain of our common flowers. The following results, will, -I think, be interesting to botanists. The numbers given indicate per -cent. of color required to produce the hue of the flower:-- - - Common forsythia, F. viridissima: Pure spectrum yellow. - Fringed polygala, P. paucifolia: R. 48, V. 52. - Wistaria, W. frutescens, wings: R. 11, V. 89. - Wistaria, W. frutescens, standard: R. 9, V. 79, W. 12. - Flowering quince, Cydonia japonica: R. 95, V. 2, W. 3. - Wild cranesbill, Geranium maculatum: R. 28, V. 66, W. 6. - -The variations of color in the early summer foliage is also interesting. -The following analyses are for the upper side of fresh and well -developed healthy leaves. It is not impossible that a little attention -to these variations in the color of foliage on the part of artists would -save us the annoyance of some of the abominable green which we so often -see in the pictures of artists of good reputation:-- - - White oak: Y. 7.5, G. 11.5, N. 81. - Apple: Y. 5, G. 13, W. 2, N. 80. - Copper beech: R. 17, V. 2, N. 81. - Hemlock: Y. 2, G. 9, N. 89. - White pine: Y. 2.5, G. 11, N. 86.5. - White birch: Y. 5.5, G. 11.5, W. 1, N. 82. - Hornbeam: Y. 5.5, G. 12.5, N. 82. - Shagbark hickory: Y. 4.5, G. 9.5, N. 86. - -These analyses were made in a moderately strong diffused light with -Maxwell disks of the standard hues referred to above." - -These are but a few of the numerous flowers the colors of which may be -perfectly imitated and consequently analyzed and named with the color -wheel or the top. In fact for individual work in natural history the top -is more convenient than the wheel and sufficiently accurate for all -practical purposes, while it is a very fascinating occupation for child -or adult. - -In the use of disks for analyzing colors it must be remembered that -every material color is some quality of some color in the spectrum -circuit, and therefore may be matched with not more than two standard -disks, either alone or with white or black or both. If more than two -color disks, besides white and black, are used they will neutralize each -other more or less, and a neutral gray or a gray and some spectrum color -will be the result. For example, if yellow and blue in nearly equal -parts are introduced in connection with red and orange, the yellow and -blue being nearly complimentary to each other will produce practically a -neutral gray, and the result will be the same as if only red, orange, -white and black were used. - -[Illustration] - -Owing to the recent advances in the art of dyeing there are some textile -goods which are too intense in color to be exactly imitated by the disk -standards, but this fact need not prevent a practical analysis of such -colors, because by very slightly reducing with white the color to be -examined the same color is retained, the modification making it, of -course, somewhat lighter. Fig. 64, showing a small circle representing a -disk of the material mounted on thick paper, illustrates this statement. -Suppose we have a piece of rich brown cloth, so intense in color that -when red, orange and black are combined in the proportions of R. 22, O. -16, N. 62, the material is still a little richer in color than can be -made with the disks of the color wheel. If we introduce a small amount -of white into the brown of the material we may hope to match it with the -disks and this may be done by cutting a bit of fairly heavy white paper -in the form shown in the diagram and loosening the nut of the color -wheel slightly, after which we insert the point of the triangle under -the nut so that when tightened the white paper may be held in front of -the brown disk, as in the illustration. Trim the outer end even with the -disk and then rotate. If the effect of the white is too great trim off a -little from the side of the white paper to make it narrower, until a -perfect match is secured. - -The small disk in rotation is then of the same color but not quite so -intense as before, or in other words, is a very deep tint of the color. -In this way the Nomenclature can be recorded as follows: Brown 95, W. 5, -= R. 22, O. 16, N. 62. - -This result does not often occur, but the subject is noticed here in -detail that no one may be in doubt when such cases do come to light, as -they will sooner or later. - -The aniline colors give some purples which are much more brilliant than -either the violet or red which otherwise should by combination produce -them, so that with these standards they cannot be made, but must be -reduced with white, or possibly with white and black. - -If a color wheel is not available many of these experiments may be tried -on the color top, but not as satisfactorily, because of the accuracy -necessary in cutting so small a disk in a woven material. In using the -top for analysis of all ordinary colors, the best plan is lay the -material on a table or other level surface and spin the top on it. If -quite an accurate test is desired the cardboard disk of the top may be -trimmed down to the size of the largest paper disk, so that there will -be no intervening ring of light color to separate the color of the -rotating disks from the material on which it is spun. - -Practical applications of the color top are already being made, as for -example, in the selection of house furnishings. For this purpose disks -of the top are combined at home to produce the desired colors to match -the wood finishings and papers or draperies in a partially completed -room, the top being used as a guide in preliminary selections of -additional materials from the stores. - -If a number of colors are required it is convenient to use several -combinations of disks, each set being slightly gummed together. In this -way standards for various colors with a top spindle for rotation in the -salesroom may be carried in a very small space. - - -The Bradley Colored Papers. - -As every competent artisan must understand the use for which each -implement is designed, in order to secure the best results with it, -possibly a brief explanation of the principles on which the colors in -the Bradley Educational Colored Papers are selected and classified may -be of value. In the sample books of these colored papers there are four -sections. The first section of the book, following the title leaf called -"Pure Spectrum Scales" consists in part of the six standard colors, red, -orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, with two intermediate hues -between each two standards, which eighteen colors form the central -vertical column in the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales shown on Page 41. - -In addition to these eighteen normal spectrum colors, there are two -tints and two shades of each, thus producing eighteen spectrum scales of -five tones, in which the normal colors as indicated in the central -column aim to be the purest possible pigmentary expressions of the -spectrum colors represented. - -In determining the number of colors to adopt in the preparation of the -papers enough have been selected to furnish types of all the colors in -the spectrum, and also the hues between red and violet, but at the same -time the number has been so restricted as to secure a reasonably simple -nomenclature of the intermediate hues. A hue of a color is defined as -the result of the admixture of that color with a smaller quantity of -another color; thus a hue of red approaching the orange is an orange hue -of red, or an orange-red. If a small amount of red is added to orange -the result is a red hue of orange, or a red-orange. - -Therefore in selecting two hues between each two standards, rather than -a larger number, the simplest nomenclature possible is secured, and one -in which no mental effort is necessary to recall the color indicated by -each symbol. For example, we have four colors indicated as R, OR, RO, O; -red, orange-red, red-orange, orange; or more extended, red, orange hue -of red, red hue of orange, orange. Thus by using as symbols familiar -terms, no effort of the memory is required to recall the color indicated -by each symbol, as would necessarily be the case if there were a greater -number of hues and therefore more arbitrary symbols. - -The use of rotating color disks on the wheel and the top by which an -infinite variety of intermediate hues can be made and accurately named -by the pupils reduces the required number of papers to those types -necessary for first primary work, and thus prepares the child for the -use of pigments at an earlier age than would be possible without such -color instruction. - -The second section of the sample book contains white, black and grays as -indicated on the separating fly leaf. In these the best pigmentary -expression of black and white are furnished. In material colors as found -in industrial products, there are various so-called blacks and whites. -For black there are blue-black, green-black, and brown-black; and in -white, cream-white and pearl-white. Cream-white is a yellow-white and -pearl-white a blue-white. In fine white papers either blue, red or -yellow is generally added to the pulp to counteract or cover up the gray -tone of the natural material. The standard black here presented is the -best possible pigmentary imitation of a very deep black hole, as for -example, the projecting end of a large iron water or sewer pipe of -considerable length buried in the ground, which is the blackest thing -known. The white is an imitation of new-fallen snow. Neither of these -standards can be very nearly approached although we often hear of things -as "white as snow" and as "black as night." In the same group and -following the black and white are two examples each of the four kinds of -grays: Green gray, warm gray, cool gray and neutral gray. A pure white -in shadow is the true neutral gray and a perfect imitation of this is -made by the rotation of combined black and white disks on the color -wheel. If to the black and white disks we add a blue disk we have cool -grays. With red, orange or yellow the warm grays are produced, while the -use of a green disk gives green grays. In the papers two tones of each -gray are furnished. - -The papers found in the first two sections comprise all the colors -necessary for earliest primary color instruction, and should become -familiar to the children before explanation is made of the colors in the -succeeding collections. - -In the third section, designated "Broken Spectrum Scales" will be found -a collection of gray colors or broken colors. As has before been stated, -a broken color is a pure color mixed with a neutral gray. In the -combination of pigmentary colors a tint of a color is the pure color -mixed with white, a shade is the color mixed with black, and a broken -color is a pure color mixed with both black and white, which is a -neutral gray. Therefore if with red, for example, we mix a certain -amount of a given neutral gray and call that the normal tone of a broken -scale of red, for the tint in that scale we must mix with the standard -red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray. - -When a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is combined with a -pure color the result is a "gray color," as above described, because the -color is quite definitely retained, but more or less modified by the -gray. On the other hand, if a relatively small quantity of color is -added to a neutral gray, the resulting color is properly called a -"colored gray," because it is still a gray modified by color, and in -this class we have warm grays, cool grays, etc., according to the color -combined with the gray. The gray colors are quite generally termed -"broken colors" and this seems a very useful practice, because it avoids -the confusion of the somewhat similar terms "gray color" and "colored -gray." - -By reference to the Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales on Page 41 it will -be seen that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each -scale, instead of eighteen scales and five tones, as in the pure scales, -for which there is a good reason. - -For educational purposes in the elementary grades, which is the only -place where there is a legitimate use for colored papers, the steps in -gradation of hue or tone must not be too short, and if the saturation or -intensity of the normal colors in the several scales is reduced by -adding gray, as in the broken colors, there is not the possibility for -as many steps in either hues or tones without leaving those colors -adjacent to each other too nearly alike. Therefore in the broken colors -there are but thirty-six, instead of ninety, as in the pure scales. - -The distinction between pure colors with tints and shades, and broken -colors in various tones, should be made very plain to the children -whenever the subject is brought to their notice, because it is a vital -point in the classification of colors. Educationally this is one of the -most objectionable features in the old red, yellow and blue theory of -color composition, because no distinction is observed between pure and -broken colors in classification. In the Bradley colored papers the -distinction is made very decided for educational purposes, so that no -one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors from -the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the -formation of a spectrum. - -This may be illustrated by a selection as follows: First lay in order -the normal spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first -section of the sample book, thereby forming the central vertical column -of Fig. 10. Then substitute for the orange, green and violet, those -colors selected from the collection of broken colors, and the result -will seem to render the operation absurd, but it is the same in -principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum by -the combination of three primary pigments, red, yellow and blue, because -so produced the orange, green and violet, show by disk analysis from 54 -to 80 per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as -the corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales, but not -exactly the same in tone. - - -Engine Colored Papers. - -Those papers which are termed "Engine Colored Papers" are so named from -the process of manufacture as distinguished from "coated papers" which -comprise the first three sections of the book. In coated papers a white -paper is covered with a coating of colored pigment "fixed" with a small -amount of white gum, gelatine or glue, and in this way the pure color of -the pigment is obtained. In the engine colored papers the color is mixed -with the paper pulp in the process of making the paper. In a paper mill -the tub or vat in which the pulp is kept stirred up and perfectly mixed -is called the engine, and hence this technical term has been applied to -such papers as are colored in the pulp. In this class of papers both -sides are alike, and for this reason in some of the folding exercises -these papers are preferred, also because they are thinner and tougher. -Heretofore, it has been impossible to obtain engine colored papers in -"families" or scales, but in this assortment the numbers from one to -six, furnish six scales of three tones each, comprising the normal tones -with tints and shades. Following these from seven to sixteen are a -collection of unclassified colors including grays which are much used. -All these can be analyzed and classified by the color wheel. Black and -white complete this class. It is impossible to make any close -approximation to a black in this class of papers, as when they are -compared with the coated blacks the result is a very gray black, or very -dark gray. All the colors in these papers from No. 1 A to No. 13 are -quite light broken spectrum colors, but less broken than the coated -papers designated as broken spectrum colors. While great care has been -bestowed on the original selection of the colors of all these -above-described papers and every effort is constantly exercised to keep -them the same from year to year, the subject is materially complicated -by the guarantee required of the manufacturers that no arsenic colors -shall be used in the preparation of any of the papers. This guarantee is -strictly insisted on, because, while the writer has never been able to -learn of any authentic case where a child has been injured by the use of -plated or glazed papers, he believes that the opinions of parents and -teachers should be respected in the matter, although the arsenic colors -are often the most permanent and the aniline substitutes which are -necessarily used belong to a class which is the most fugitive of all -colors. - -The line of colored papers now in use is the result of many experiments -on the part of the writer and careful tests by experienced teachers for -several years, and in its present condition affords but small indication -of the time and care which has been expended on it. This has been -inevitable, because the peculiar system on which the colors are based -has been one of growth and the papers have been designed to afford the -necessary material colors for this special scheme of instruction. - -In preparing the tints and shades in the papers many experiments have -been made to determine the true effect of light and shadow on each -normal color, and then to imitate these effects in the papers. - -All this is independent of the professional tricks which artists use to -heighten their effects, some of which are legitimate, while others may -be questionable on sound principles. - -It is a common habit with artists to introduce very warm effects into -all sunlight by the use of orange or yellow in the warm colors. This -extreme tendency has been intentionally avoided in the preparation of -these papers, however desirable or allowable it may be considered in -heightening effects. So also in the shades as in the tints, the aim has -been to keep all the tones of one color in the same scale, even though -artists often run the various tones of the same piece of color into two -or three analogous scales. - -It is the object of color education to train the eye to see color -wherever or however it may be produced, either by actual color -reflection or contrasted effects, and in order that these effects may be -understood as explained under Simultaneous Contrasts it is necessary -that the prepared material be truthful to nature, the more so because -these effects are sometimes greatly exaggerated by artists. - - -Water Colors. - -When the subject of color was introduced into the curriculum of the -common schools of this country, the use of paints was a novelty. So -little was known regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means -of education, that the teachers may be excused for having had grave -doubts about the practicability of the scheme. Very few teachers in the -lower grades of schools had received at that time any definite -instruction in the harmonies of colors or the manipulation of pigments; -and what little thought had been given to the subject was based on the -three-color theory of Brewster, which was the only one available at that -time. - -During the intervening years much has been done to make entirely -feasible the introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing -and educating occupation. - -Color standards have been adopted, which are nothing less than -selections from the solar spectrum itself, and the manufacture of -pigments has improved so much that it may almost be said to be a new -industry. In the training of teachers, also, color instruction is now -given an important place, so that the kindergartner and primary teacher -can give the attention that it deserves to a subject which is so -interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world around us. - -Passing from one form of color work to another, it is exceedingly -important that children of any grade should find the same principles -obtaining in each step of the way, and also that the knowledge gained in -the earliest stages of the work should be available in the higher forms. -This is particularly true of color instruction as it is now found in the -best schools, and the principal reason why water colors are so much -better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in former years, is -because paints are now made to correspond in color with the standards -with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers and -other material of the kindergarten. - -At present it is generally conceded that these six colors, Red, Orange, -Yellow, Green, Blue and Violet, which stand out so prominently in the -solar spectrum, are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as -the basis of an alphabet of color. There should, therefore, be no -question as to the adoption of these same colors as the palette of -paints for the earliest color work, even with the babes in the -kindergarten, when anything beyond the colored papers and the usual -kindergarten occupations is wanted. - -Not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors -and let him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the -relation which each color should bear to the others. In fact, with the -usual cheap box of paints then in the market there was no decided -correlation of the colors nor any educational selection, both of which -we have to-day. - -Water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards -of the colored papers that they are of the greatest assistance in -developing the æsthetic taste and judgment of the pupils, and it is -remarkable how early in the training of children paints can be used with -advantage. - -In some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false -theory of Sir David Brewster, who supposed that there were three primary -colors in the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced -by the overlapping or mixing of these in pairs. - -This error, being applied to pigments, has worked much harm and has -greatly retarded the progress of color study. Even now some teachers -recommend the use of the red, yellow and blue palette on the ground of -simplicity and economy. - -All the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme -as already exploded, because the simplest as well as the most complex -experiments with colored light prove its falsity. Nevertheless, the fact -that yellow and blue, which with light make very nearly white, do in the -mixture of pigments produce a green, has deceived many persons. But the -best green that can be so procured is a very broken color and not to be -successfully compared with the beautiful and brilliant green of the -spectrum. Why then, should we not have in our paints imitations of the -solar green, orange and violet as well as the red, yellow and blue? It -is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity, and as for -economy, it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would -take no more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with -three. - -Oil colors, of course, are out of the question and pastels almost -equally so, for although full colors may be produced in both these -mediums, they are not suited to the use of young children, and at best -are neither neat nor convenient, while colored pencils are not -sufficiently satisfactory in results. Therefore water colors seem to be -better adapted to primary work than any other pigmentary material. - -Of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he -may meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to -give it a definite name, other than the one by which it is sold. - -More than one professional artist has already worked successfully from -nature in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close -approximations to the six standard colors with white and a few grays. A -person whose color perception has been trained by the use of the color -disk in six standard colors with colored papers to correspond, will -undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce the colors which he -sees in nature, on the canvas or paper by means of such a palette than -if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary -pigments. - - -Color Blindness. - -The subject of color blindness has received much attention because of -its practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives. The use of -colored lights as signals on ships and railroads has necessitated very -strict regulations regarding the employment of persons whose color -vision is defective, and therefore in some states specialists have been -employed by the state authorities to examine from time to time the -school children regarding their perception of colors. - -Possibly this condition of things may not at present be considered a -serious reflection on the methods of color instruction, or lack of such -instruction in our schools because it has become so common as to attract -little attention. But if it were necessary for the same course to be -pursued in any other department of our public education that fact would -not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary remarks regarding the methods -employed. - -For example, if a state official were necessary to determine whether -pupils are deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools, -and preliminary to accepting positions of responsibility, it would seem -that something was wrong, and yet after a child has had instruction in -color according to a logical system there should be no more necessity -for an examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors -than there should regarding his ability to hear. - -Color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes, -red, green, and violet blindness, those afflicted with red blindness -being most numerous, and the cases of violet blindness being very rare, -if indeed there are any which may properly be so called. - -This classification, known as the Holmgren system, seems to have been -based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that all color perceptions are the -result of three primary effects in the eye, namely, red, green and -violet, rather than on any analytical classification of actual -experiments concerning color blindness. - -Color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the -brain which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of -the several colors, or in the eye, by which he cannot see a difference -between two dissimilar colors. - -A person totally color blind would see in the solar spectrum a band of -gray in various tones, and hence if a red and a green should seem to be -of the same tone of gray he would call both either red or green, and -after much experience would come to give color names to various tones of -gray. - -Such cases, however, are exceedingly rare, if in fact they exist. Other -scientists and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made -by both Holmgren and Helmholtz, and some have made extended experiments -regarding color blindness which seem to oppose the Holmgren theory. In -view of these conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the -elementary grades to attempt to grasp the situation very fully, and much -less to aid in the solution of the problem. Very fortunately this is -unnecessary, because in all the scientific tests proposed for adults -nothing is accomplished which any primary school teacher will not be -easily able to determine during the first two or three years of ordinary -school work, if the modern system of color instruction is pursued. - -There is no better material than colored papers for testing the color -perceptions, and the exercises of selecting, matching and arranging the -spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in -the first years of school are the very best that can be devised without -regard to any of the abstract theories concerning either the cause or -the possible classification of color blindness. - -For some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a -confusion between red and green, as for example, we are told, by some -people, that in picking wild strawberries in a field the fruit can be -distinguished from the leaves and grass only by the shape, and the green -fruit from the ripe by the touch or taste. - -If a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name -of a color it may not indicate want of color vision, but merely -inability to remember names, and therefore various tests which will -naturally suggest themselves can be made to aid in reaching a decision -on this point. Should the results of the tests seem to indicate some -defect in color vision, the nature of the trouble should be sought and -memoranda made from time to time for future reference, and if the final -result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents should be -informed of the fact and a physician consulted. - -It is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less -than that of men, and much time has been spent in debating the matter, -but some doubt remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain -because the girls are brought so much more intimately into relation with -colored materials in selecting their articles of dress, and consequently -come to know the names of colors much better, and in fact enjoy a much -better color education than the men. A more correct decision regarding -this question can better be reached when both the boys and girls receive -a systematic color education and their color sense is more equally -cultivated. - - - - -Outline of a Course in Color Instruction. - - -[Illustration] - -The course of color instruction suggested in the preceding pages is not -arbitrarily divided into lessons or even years, because the conditions -in the city and rural schools in the various states of this country are -so varied that no uniform allotment or division of time can be suggested -which will be satisfactory to all. - -The number of hours that can be devoted to any subject must be -determined by those who prepare the school programme and the progress -must be more or less rapid, with instruction correspondingly superficial -or complete at each stage, according to the time allowed, the -preparation of the teacher and the natural ability of the pupils. - -The teaching of color is usually classed with drawing because both -relate directly to art, but inasmuch as color enters into our every day -experiences so much more largely than the graphic arts there seems to be -good reason for teaching it very fully where little attention is given -to drawing. - -Every competent teacher can and will become expert and even enthusiastic -in teaching color, if she fully understands the system which it is the -object of the foregoing pages to explain. - -The following brief outline suggests the order in which the facts -concerning color may be presented and the material which can be used in -an elementary course, beginning with the first primary grade pupils, who -for the most part have not had kindergarten training. - -As a part of the material the Bradley Educational Colored Papers, cut to -tablets each 1 x 2 inches, are prepared and put up in four small -envelopes which are enclosed in one larger envelope. On the larger -envelope these words are printed: "The Bradley Paper Tablets for -Primary Color Education, Selections 1, 2, 3, 4 for Complete Course." The -four small envelopes are labeled in this way: "Selection No. 1, eighteen -pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, the Normal Spectrum Colors." -"Selection No. 2, forty pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tint -No. 1 and Shades No. 1, with White, Black and Neutral Grays." "Selection -No. 3, forty-two pieces comprising complete Chart of Broken Spectrum -Scales and Warm, Cool and Green Grays." "Selection No. 4, thirty-six -pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tints No. 2 and Shades No. -2." - - -The Solar Spectrum. - -MATERIAL. -A Glass Prism, the cost of which need not exceed a few cents, as almost -any lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose. -By the use of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of -any schoolroom having a sunny exposure during any part of the day. This -spectrum will make plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many -colors. - -METHOD. -Show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be produced under -the controlling conditions. - -Call attention to the six colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and -violet, and the order of their arrangement in the spectrum. - -Present the colors separately as far as possible, selecting the best -conditions available for each one. - - -Pigmentary Spectrum Colors. - -MATERIAL. -Neutral gray or white card to cover desk top for a background. - -Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. - -Colored Paper Tablets, Selection No. 1, embracing the six standards and -the intermediate spectrum hues, eighteen pieces. - -Color Wheel or Tops. - -METHOD. -Ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum -hues. Standards to be arranged in spectrum order. - -Teach the names of the standards. - -Test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the -spectrum in the eighteen papers. - -Explain the intermediate hues by the color disks, and drill with the -tablets. Continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire -spectrum with the papers until it is familiar to them. - -PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. -Pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors, on white or -gray background, with ready-cut papers. Marking forms from tablets and -cutting and pasting them on backgrounds. - - -Study of Tones. - -MATERIAL. -Folding models to show light and shade. Crumpled satins and plushes. - -Standard color disks with white and black, on wheel or tops. - -Paper tablets, Selection No. 2, Tints No. 1, Shades No. 1, White, Black -and Neutral Grays. - -METHOD. -Ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors. Lay tints and -shades of the six standards. - -Have the children complete tints and shades No. 1 of entire spectrum -circuit. - -Illustrate neutral grays by white in shadow with folding model, also -with white and black disks combined. - -Begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color material brought -by the pupils. - -PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. -Pasting of ready-cut papers in standard and shade on a background of the -tint of same scale. Paste designs in three tones of one scale on white -or neutral gray background. - -Mat weaving in tones of one scale. - -Mat weaving in neutral gray and one or two tones of one color. - - -Broken Colors. - -MATERIAL. -Disks on wheel or top. Paper tablets, Selection No. 3. Chart of Broken -Spectrum Scales. - -METHOD. -Illustrate broken colors by disk combinations. - -Let the pupils lay paper tablets to form Chart of Broken Scales. - -Compare this chart with the Chart of Pure Scales laid with the papers. - -Classifying of miscellaneous materials with reference to pure and broken -colors. Analysis of samples of pure and broken colors in cloths and -flowers. - -PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. -Paper cutting and pasting to be continued. - -Following the broken colors in three tones which form the Chart of -Broken Spectrum Colors, the three kinds of colored grays, warm, cool and -green, may be considered preparatory to their use in contrasted effects. - - -Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones. - -MATERIAL. -Paper tablets, Selection No. 4. Chart of Spectrum Scales in five tones -may be introduced for observation when the children are able to lay it -with their papers. - -METHOD. -Continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones, as -was done in the first three tones. - -From the Chart of Spectrum Scales the study and classification of -harmonies can begin in a simple way. - -From this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may be introduced -at pleasure, employing the colored papers in five tones when required. - - -Advanced Study of Harmonies. - -By taking advantage of the instruction imparted in a course of color -study such as has been outlined in the preceding pages the pupil will be -able to advance in his ability to perceive colors and to make definite -analyses of colors in natural and manufactured material. In this way the -advanced study of harmonies can be greatly facilitated so that it will -be possible for the student to apprehend and appreciate many delicate -and subtle color effects in art and nature never before imagined. In -fact the foundation of color study will have been laid in such a logical -and fascinating manner that its further advance will be but a pleasure -to the pupil and teacher, so that no arbitrary plan will be necessary, -because so many lines of work will suggest themselves to all who are -interested in the subject. - - -Water Colors. - -This outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors, -but this is not the place to give definite instructions as to their use. -Kindergartners and primary teachers are now generally competent to -direct the children in this work, if they will avail themselves of such -aid as is furnished by recently published books on the subject. - -Non-poisonous paints, cheap and still of fair quality, can now be -obtained in standard colors and put up in various forms. The moist -paints in collapsible tubes are the most convenient as well as the most -economical for school use. This form should be accompanied by a small -mixing palette containing several compartments, which can be bought at -so small a price that each pupil can have one. The paint in the tubes -can then be dealt out only as required for each day's use. - - - - - $MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION.$ - - - Where the price is preceded by a star the article is too large - to be sent by mail. In other cases where no postage is given the - goods are sent postpaid on receipt of price. - - - $WATER COLORS.$ - - In ordering it will be necessary to give only - the number of the box. - No. Price - - 1. An enameled box containing eight pans of - semi-moist colors, six Standards and two Grays, - one brush, per box $ .35 - 2. An enameled box containing ten pans semi-moist - colors, six Standards, Black, White, Cool - Gray and Warm Gray, one brush, per box .50 - 3. Same box as above, containing five pans semi-moist - colors. Red, two Yellows, Blue and Gray, - one brush, per box .30 - 4. Enameled box containing four pans semi-moist - colors, Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one brush, - per box .20 - 5. Same as above, Red, two Yellows and Blue, - per box .20 - 6. A decorated box containing eight cakes of dry - colors, six Standards and two Grays, one brush, - per box .25 - 7. A decorated box containing four large cakes of - dry colors. Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one - brush, per box .20 - 8. Same box as above. Red, two Yellows and - Blue, two brushes, per box .20 - 9. Nine tubes moist colors in strong paper box. - Six Standards, Warm Gray, Cool Gray and Black, - per set .90 - 10. Photograph Colors. A box of eight colors, the - six Standards and a Chinese White and a Brown, - with one brush. These colors are expressly - prepared for coloring photographs, half tone - prints, maps, etc. .25 - Bradley's School Colors, moist in Tubes. The most - economical form for school use. These colors are - so prepared that they remain moist out of the - tube. The set comprises the following colors: Postage - Carmine, Crimson Lake, Vermilion, Gamboge, - Chinese Yellow, Hooker's Green, No. I, Hooker's - Green, No. II, Ultramarine, Prussian Blue, Sepia, - Warm Sepia, Burnt Sienna, Payne's Gray, Ivory - Black, Chinese White and the six Standards, - with Warm, Cool and Neutral Gray, Black and - White, per tube .10 - Little Artist's Complete Outfit, comprising a Mixing - Palette with its seven compartments filled with - semi-moist colors and a brush, the whole enclosed - in a strong cardboard case .15 .03 - - - $ACCESSORIES.$ - - Standard Mixing Palette, with seven compartments - for paints and two for mixing. Almost indispensable - in using tube colors. Extra deep, - per doz. .60 .25 - Water Cups. An enameled metal cup, practically - indestructible, per doz. .60 .13 - Camel's Hair Brushes, Quill, per doz. .30 .02 - Camel's Hair Brushes, Long Handles, per doz. .60 .03 - Japanese School Brushes, per doz. .60 .05 - Artists' Camel Hair Brushes, No. 6, Wooden Handles, - per doz. .75 .03 - Milton Bradley Co.'s Water Color Pads--Made of - extra quality paper for water color work. - No. 1, Pad of 50 sheets, 6×9, each .10 .09 - No. 2, Pad of 25 sheets, 9×12, each .10 .10 - - - $APPARATUS.$ - - High School Color Wheel, with Disks in box *10.00 - One set of Disks for above, in box *2.00 - Primary School Color Wheel, with Disks *3.00 - One set of Disks for above in portfolio .75 .06 - Color Top, by mail, each .06 - Color Top, by mail, per doz. .50 - No. 1 Prism, at buyer's risk .10 - No. 2 Prism, at buyer's risk .15 - No. 3 Prism, at buyer's risk .30 - Rainy Day Spectrum, made from colored papers, - mounted on cardboard, one inch by 13, each .10 .04 - Large Spectrum, 5 by 30 inches, mounted on cloth, - each .25 .04 - Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 1 X, on - cardboard, 9x24 inches, hinged and folded. - Ninety papers one inch square, each .50 .10 - Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 2 X. Size, - 12x48, folded and hinged. Ninety papers two - inches square, each .75 .15 - Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 1. Size, 9x12 - inches, with paper 1-1/2 inches square, - comprising twelve scales of three tones each .50 .10 - Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 2. Size, - 12x48 inches, with the same papers as No. 1, - three inches square, each .75 .15 - Chart of Complementary Colors. On cardboard 18 - inches square, each *.50 - Standard Color Chart. On two cards 11x28 inches, - hinged and eyeleted for hanging. This is a - combination chart comprising "Spectrum Standards," - "Pure Spectrum Scales," "Complementary - Contrasts," "Broken Spectrum Scales," and - "Grays." Printed suggestions for using the - charts on the back, each 1.25 .15 - - - $BOOKS ON COLOR.$ - - Water Colors in the Schoolroom, by Milton Bradley, - boards .25 - A new book of practical suggestions, valuable to - every one who would undertake to teach the use - of water colors. - - Elementary color, by Milton Bradley, cloth .75 - Gives the principles on which the Bradley System - is based and an explanation of the use of the - Glass Prism, Color Wheel, Maxwell Disks, Color - Top, Colored Papers, Color Charts and Water - Colors. - The Little Artist by Marion Mackenzie, cloth .75 .15 - - A practical book of water color work for children, - with 12 beautiful, colored plates. Size of - book, 12 by 14 inches. - Color in the Kindergarten, by Milton Bradley, paper - covers .25 - A manual of the theory of color and the use of - color material in the Kindergarten. - A Class Book of Color, by Prof. Mark M. Maycock. - Teachers' Edition, cloth 1.00 - Pupils' Edition, boards .50 - A very complete teachers' handbook in color. - Practical Color Work, by Helena P. Chace, paper .25 - A handbook for the educational use of colored - papers in teaching color in primary and ungraded - schools. - The Color Primer, by Milton Bradley, paper. - Teachers' Edition, 80 pages .10 - Pupils' Edition, 24 pages .05 - Simple and direct teachings. - - - $MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL.$ - - Paper Tablets, Set No. 1, 1x2 in. .02 - Paper Tablets, Set No. 2, 1x2 in. .02 - Paper Tablets, Set No. 3, 1x2 in. .03 - Paper Tablets, Set No. 4, 1x2 in. .04 - Sample Book, one by four inches, containing the - full assortment .05 .01 - Package, 4x4 papers, 100 pieces .20 .04 - Package, 5x5 papers, 100 pieces .30 .05 - Fun, Physics and Psychology in Color. A box of - material for simple experiment, each .25 .07 - Complementary Color Contrasts. A box of large - material for popular experiments in color - vision, each .75 .20 - The Dunn and Curtis Illustrative Sewing Cards, in - color. Two sets: A. Literature Illustration. B. - Cards for Special Occasions. - Set of eight cards .25 - Dozen of any Design .40 - - $MILTON BRADLEY COMPANY,$ - $Springfield, Mass.$ - - - - - Transcriber's Note - _Italic text_ has been enclosed in underscores. - $Bold text$ has been enclosed in dollar signs. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Elementary Color, by Milton Bradley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY COLOR *** - -***** This file should be named 40896-8.txt or 40896-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/8/9/40896/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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