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diff --git a/40896-0.txt b/40896-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..340d0b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/40896-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4644 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40896 *** + +[Illustration: (_See Page 41._)] + + + + + ELEMENTARY + COLOR + + + BY + MILTON BRADLEY. + + Author of "Color in the Schoolroom" + and "Color in the Kindergarten." + + + + WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY + HENRY LEFAVOUR, Ph.D., + Professor of Physics, Williams College. + + + + Third Edition. + + + + + MILTON BRADLEY CO., + SPRINGFIELD, MASS. + + + + COPYRIGHTED, 1895, + BY MILTON BRADLEY CO., + SPRINGFIELD, MASS. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + PAGE. + THE THEORY OF COLOR 9 + Why Artists and Scientists Have Disagreed 10 + The Speculations of the Past 12 + What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider 13 + Concerning the Solar Spectrum 15 + Six Spectrum Standards of Color 17 + The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks 18 + The Bradley System of Color Instruction 20 + + COLOR DEFINITIONS 23 + + PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 31 + The Color Wheel 31 + The Color Top 32 + Use of the Disks 32 + How to Begin the Experiments 34 + The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments 45 + Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top 46 + Concerning the Complementary Colors 50 + Citrines and Russets 54 + Olives 55 + Vermilion, Burnt Sienna, Raw Sienna and Indian Red 55 + Classification of Harmonies 56 + The Work of Chevreul Reviewed 58 + Simultaneous, Successive and Mixed Contrast 61 + Contrasted Harmony 64 + Color with White 64 + Black with White 64 + Color with Black 65 + Colors with Gray 65 + Contrast of Colors 67 + Dominant Harmonies 67 + Complementary Harmonies 69 + Analogous Harmonies 70 + Perfected Harmonies 70 + Field's Chromatic Equivalents 73 + Colored Papers 74 + + COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM 76 + The Glass Prism 78 + How the Bradley Color Standards Were Chosen 79 + Paper Color Tablets 80 + Color Wheel or Top 82 + The Study of Tones 85 + Neutral Grays 89 + Explanation of Broken Colors 91 + An Exercise in Broken Colors 92 + Formulas for a Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales 95 + Certain Color Puzzles 96 + Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed 98 + The Work of Cutting and Pasting 99 + A Variety of Designs 101 + Analysis of Color Materials 106 + The Bradley Colored Papers 112 + Engine Colored Papers 116 + Water Colors 118 + Color Blindness 121 + + OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION 124 + The Solar Spectrum 125 + Pigmentary Spectrum Colors 125 + Study of Tones 126 + Broken Colors 127 + Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones 127 + Advanced Study of Harmonies 128 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The movement in educational reform at present is in the direction of +unification. It is held that in framing the programme for any grade the +interest not only of the next higher but of all higher grades must be +considered. This is done not solely that those who are to enter the +higher grades may be directly prepared for their more advanced studies, +but especially because it is felt that better work will thus be done for +those whose school training is soon to terminate. For the child's +education is never finished and a mind rightly directed at the start +will gather from its practical experience that with which it may develop +and augment the resources and the ideas already received. No education +can be sound which teaches anything that is inconsistent with the more +advanced truths, however complex and profound those truths may be. There +should be no unlearning in the course of an education nor any +expenditure of time on that which has no permanent value. + +It is of importance therefore to consider in connection with the study +of any special subject what the problems are which lie at the end of the +educational journey and what basis will be needed in the child's maturer +thought. There will thus be the inspiration of the goal to be attained +and guidance in the selection of the most helpful methods. + +There is scarcely any subject that has so many practical and scientific +aspects as the subject of color. Its great importance in the arts and +its contribution to the enjoyment of life are matched by the +multiplicity of problems in the physical and philosophical sciences with +which it is connected. Without attempting to enumerate all of the +scientific problems related to this subject, it may be of interest to +briefly summarize those which are most prominent. At the outset we have +such purely physical questions as the nature of light, the cause of its +emission, the mode of its propagation, the difference in the waves which +give rise to the various color sensations, the principles of absorption, +of reflection and of refraction, and the nature of material surfaces +whereby they acquire their characteristic colors. Then comes the +physiology of the eye, including its structure and its function and +involving the much discussed questions of primary and secondary colors, +and these are closely related to the psychological or psycho-physical +study of the nature, duration and delicacy of color vision and color +judgment. Next to these comes the study of pigments and of the chromatic +effects of their mixture, essentially a chemical and technical question, +and finally, the most important of all, the purely psychological or +æsthetic problem touching the harmonization and grouping of the various +colors and their modifications. The recent advance made in experimental +psychology has given an impetus to the study of the whole subject and we +may reasonably expect that rational explanations may be found for +questions in æsthetics hitherto considered purely arbitrary. + +It will be readily seen that there must be a well developed and +carefully trained color sense at the basis of an education which is to +lead to the consideration of these and similar chromatic problems. As in +the development of any special perceptive power, a great deal depends +upon making a beginning early in life, when the mind is most receptive +and there are no preconceptions to be overcome. Every means should be +employed that will help the child to distinguish between principal +colors and between modifications of principal colors. His attention +should be directed at as early a stage as possible to the analysis of +composite colors and the effects obtained by the combination of colored +lights and the results of irradiant light. The principles of chromatic +harmony are perhaps not simple, but a child, before whom right standards +of color combinations are constantly presented, will acquire a correct +æsthetic judgment that may become intuitive. The effect of such a +training on the higher development of our people and on their +appreciation of true art would be of the greatest value. + +If the instruction in color is to be systematic and efficient, it is +unquestionable that there must be a simple nomenclature for the standard +colors; and for the teacher's guidance at least as well as for the use +of the older pupils, a scientifically accurate system of describing any +required modification of these recognized standards. The system +presented in this book is based on the well-known principle of the +Maxwell wheel and has been elaborated by one who has had in view not +only the theory of the subject but also the practical possibilities of +its use in preparing educational material. This fact, I feel sure, +greatly enhances the value of the conclusions at which he arrives. + + HENRY LEFAVOUR. +Williams College, December 20, 1894. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Ever since Newton discovered the solar spectrum it has been referred to +in a poetic way as Nature's standard of color. But as soon as the author +attempted, some twelve years ago, to use it practically by making +pigmentary imitations of the spectrum colors as standards they were +decried as vulgar and inartistic. Under such circumstances it was a +great pleasure to him to hear a celebrated art professor answer his +inquiry if the solar spectrum is the proper place to look for standards +of color with the emphatic assertion, "Certainly, there is no other +place to go." + +Where there are no standards there can be no measurements, and if in +color we have no measurements of effects, no records can be made, and +hence no comparisons of results at various places and times, and +consequently no discussion and little progress. Because there have been +no accepted standards and no measurements of color very little has thus +far been decided regarding psychological color effects. + +In drawing, as at present taught in our best schools from the +kindergarten to the university, the foundation of art in black and white +is laid in form study. From the drawing teachers we learn that a good +touch and a fine sense for light and shade in all their subtle relations +to each other are without value, unless due care has been given to the +commonplace consideration of lengths and directions of lines, that is to +say to the measurement of lines and angles, and to the laws of +perspective. We cannot have measurements without standards. By the foot +or the metre we measure lines and by the divided circle we measure +angles. + +Geometrical forms have already been so definitely analyzed by +the science of mathematics that if destroyed to-day these solids and +surfaces could be reconstructed at any future time from written or +printed directions. But suppose all material samples of color to be +lost, it would be impossible by the ordinary system of color +nomenclature to even approximately restore a single one from written or +verbal descriptions. + +Color is one of the first things to attract the attention of the infant, +almost as soon as a sound and long before form appeals to him, so that a +collection of colored papers will often prove more interesting and +instructive than a picture book to the baby, while the graduate from a +two year's course in the kindergarten may have a better color sense than +is at present enjoyed by the average business or professional man. + +If we could determine the colors used by the great masters in the past, +we could add much to our knowledge of the fine arts; and if we knew what +colors Chevreul, the master dyer of the Gobelins Tapestry works, refers +to in his writings, and which he indicated by hundreds of numbered +samples filed away in his cabinet, we should in this generation have a +wonderful fund of information to increase our knowledge of harmonies, on +which to base our study of color in the industrial arts. + +But alas! the paintings of the old masters have faded and the great dyer +had no language in which to describe his colors in his writings, and +therefore it is claimed that little or no advance in color perception +has been made in modern times, if indeed we have held our own. The +further assertion is made that those semi-civilized nations whose +drawings are the least artistic greatly surpass us in natural color +perceptions. If color is the one thing in which we are deficient and in +which we are making no advance, is it not necessary that we adopt a new +line of operations for our color instruction in the primary grades? It +is self-evident that in primary work highest art is not expected in +either literature, music, drawing or painting, but as has been the aim +in literature for a long time and in drawing and music more recently, so +in coloring, our instruction should be based on those principles on +which highest art must rest. + +When through the introduction of colored papers in the kindergartens and +primary schools the teachers began to call for better assortments of +colors in their papers than were to be found in the market, and some of +us in the field attempted to meet their wants, the solution of the +problem seemed almost a hopeless task, because no two wanted the same +colors; each teacher was a law to herself and one thought a color "just +lovely" which another declared "perfectly horrid." According to the +early theories then in vogue the first colors called for were red, +yellow and blue for primaries, but no two persons were sure just what +they wanted for either of these, and there was no authority to be +referred to for a decision. + +In this strait, which was practically a serious difficulty, the artists +were appealed to for a decision as to the three "primary colors," and +also for examples showing in what proportions the "ideal primaries" must +be mixed to produce the "ideal secondaries." But in this there was no +satisfaction because hardly two agreed in the primaries and necessarily +the secondaries were much less definite, which was the result that +should have been expected. + +It is a self-evident proposition that if two indefinite primaries are +combined in indefinite proportions the possible secondaries which may +thus be produced must be exceedingly numerous, and if this idea is +carried out in the production of tertiaries by the combination of the +secondaries the resulting colors may be almost infinite. In view of the +indifference of the artists and the popular ignorance regarding the +subject the solution of this question and the discovery of any solid +basis on which to formulate a system of elementary color instruction +seemed very problematical. But after much experimenting and many +conferences with artists and scientists a basis for operation was +decided upon and at the end of fifteen years the efforts begun in doubt +have resulted in a definite system of color instruction which it is the +purpose of this book to concisely set forth. + +It is prepared in response to inquiries from primary school teachers for +a clear and condensed explanation of the Bradley System of Color +Instruction. The aim is to offer a definite scheme and suitable material +for a logical presentation of the truths regarding color in nature and +art to the children of the primary schools. Much of this instruction is +so simple that it should be familiar to children who have had +kindergarten training and has therefore already been explained in +substantially the same form in "Color in the Kindergarten." + +A few years ago it might well have been thought necessary to preface a +treatise on the subject with arguments to prove that color is a +legitimate object for school instruction, but to-day this is not a +question with thoughtful educators, whether considered from the +practical, industrial or æsthetic standpoint. With the establishment of +professorships of practical psychology and the equipment of +laboratories, provided with delicate and expensive apparatus for making +and recording tests, there comes with increasing force the demand for +some means by which the experiments in color made in various localities +may be unified both as to the colors used and the terms and measurements +for recording the result. It is the hope of the author that the system +here outlined may be the initial step in gathering together such facts +regarding color effects as will form a fund of knowledge little dreamed +of at the present day. + +[Illustration] + + + + +The Theory of Color. + + +In order to place the study of color on a broad and safe foundation, the +work must commence at the bottom with a rational presentation of the +subject, based on experiments and the use of color material. We must +intelligently consider the relation that exists between the pure science +of light which is the source of all color and the use of color materials +with their effect on our color perceptions. While it is true in all +study that there is here and there found a natural genius in some line +of work who seems to have such inborn perceptions as to require little +or no logical instruction in his special line, it is also manifest that +the masses must gain their knowledge through a systematic presentation +of the subject, if they secure it at all. Therefore with the growth of +modern pedagogics the laboratory work of the psychologist has become a +necessity. This consists in collecting and tabulating the results of +hundreds and thousands of experiments regarding any subject under +investigation, and the averaging of these to form theories and laws. In +making these experiments there must be standards and measurements on +which they may be based and some nomenclature in which to make the +records; and the standards, measurements and nomenclature adopted must +be common to those who desire to compare their results made in different +places at different times. + +From the results of many physical experiments properly measured and +recorded certain psychological theories are deduced. These experiments +are tried on hundreds and thousands of individuals and the average +results establish the theories, which will ultimately stand or fall +according to the truth and accuracy with which the experiments have +been made. Experiments are useless for formulating any exact theories +unless they can be recorded in some generally accepted terms for +comparison with other experiments made under similar conditions and +recorded in the same terms. + +So in color perceptions it is not necessary that we know anything of the +theories of color in order to see colors, and if endowed by nature with +a natural genius for color, education in color may not be necessary, but +if there is to be education in color which can be transmitted to a +second party there must be some standards of colors and some measurement +of color effects which can be recorded in accepted terms. + + +Why Artists and Scientists Have Disagreed. + +In the realm of art there is no necessity for any purely scientific +analysis of sunlight, which is the origin of natural colors, because all +the practical value of color is found in its æsthetic effects on the +mind, and in order to enjoy these even in the highest degree it is not +necessary that we understand the scientific origin of the colors, any +more than it is necessary for the artist to know the chemical +composition of his pigments in order to produce best effects with them +on his canvas. Because of this almost self-evident fact, artists have as +a rule been very impatient when any reference has been made to the +science of color in connection with color education, believing that +color is an exception to the general subjects of study to such a degree +that it lies outside of all scientific investigations. Consequently they +have not been in sympathy with the physio-psychological investigations +which have been prosecuted with such promising results in other lines, +when such investigations have been proposed regarding color. While it is +not essential for best results in his own work that an expert artist +shall know anything of the science of color, still if he is to +communicate his knowledge of art to any others except his personal +pupils, he must have some language in which to make known his ideas, and +on the same grounds if any psychological tests are to be made regarding +color, it is evident that there must be some accepted terms in which to +record the results, which has not hitherto been the case. + +When the well known Newton and Brewster theory of three primary colors +red, yellow and blue, was advocated by those scientists there appeared +to be something of interest and value in it for the artists also, +because with the three pigments red, yellow and blue, they seemed to be +able to confirm the truth of the scientific theories regarding the +spectrum colors. But the scientists have long been convinced that there +is no truth in this theory and have quite generally accepted the +Young-Helmholtz idea of three other color perceptions red, green and +violet, from which they claim all color vision is produced, and which +they call fundamental colors. + +This more modern theory has seemed so far removed from the realm of the +artists and the colorists that they have not been able to see anything +in it of truth or value to them, and so have continued to repeat the +old, old story of the three primaries red, yellow and blue, from which +the secondaries orange, green and purple are made etc., etc., all of +which is the more pernicious when accepted as a correct theory because +of its seeming approximation to the facts. And yet there is not in it +all any scientific truth on which to build a logical system of color +education, and some of the effects which are considered prominent +arguments for the system are directly opposed to well known facts in the +science of color. Consequently, the artist has failed to gain from the +investigations of the scientists anything to aid him in his pigmentary +work, and the scientist has not been interested in the æsthetic ideas of +the artists which in fact he has generally been unable to fully +appreciate, from lack of training and associations. + +The system of color instruction here presented for primary grades is +based on the results of careful study and experiment for many years in +which the attempt has been made to bring the scientist and the artist on +to common ground, where they may work in sympathy with each other +instead of at cross purposes as has been the case heretofore, and the +results with children have already been such as to testify fully to the +efficiency of this line of work. + +Thus the feeling for color which every true artist has, may be to a +certain extent analyzed so that it can be understood by the scientist +and recorded for the benefit of fellow artists one hundred or a thousand +miles away and in time an aggregation of facts regarding the +psychological effects of color collected which will form the beginning +of a valuable fund of color knowledge to be increased from age to age. + + +The Speculations of the Past. + +Ever since Newton produced the prismatic solar spectrum, the so-called +science of color as applied to pigments and coloring, has been a most +curious mixture of truth, error and speculation. It was supposed by +Newton and Brewster that in the solar spectrum the colors were produced +by the over-lapping of three sets of colored rays red, yellow and blue. +The red rays at one end were supposed to overlap or mix with the yellow +rays to make the orange, and on the other side of the yellow the blue +rays were supposed to combine with the yellow to produce green. + +Following the same theory in pigmentary colors, it has been claimed that +all colors in nature may be produced by the combination of pigments in +these three colors red, yellow and blue, and hence they have been called +primary colors. It is still claimed by the advocates of this theory that +from the three primaries red, yellow and blue the so-called secondaries +orange, green and purple can be made, and that the secondaries are +complementary to the primaries in pairs; the orange to the blue, the +green to the red and the purple to the yellow. + +By similar combinations of the secondaries it is claimed that three +other colors, in themselves peculiar, and different from the first six, +may be made, the orange and green forming citrines, orange and violet +russets, and green and violet olives and these are called tertiaries. +After having accepted this fiction as a scientific theory for so many +years, it is very difficult to convince the artists and colorists that +in it all there is nothing of value to any one, but such is practically +a fact, because from no three pigmentary effects in red, yellow and blue +can the three colors orange, green and purple of corresponding purity be +produced, neither are the primary colors complementary to the +secondaries as claimed nor are the so-called tertiaries new and distinct +colors but simply gray spectrum colors. + +Because the red, yellow and blue theory would not stand the test of +scientific investigation the Young-Helmholtz theory of three other +primaries red, green and violet, has been quite generally adopted by the +scientists of the past generation. + + +What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider. + +All these discussions of the scientists are intensely interesting and no +doubt of great importance in the line to which they pertain, but +practically neither the artists nor the primary school teachers care for +all these theories and discussions and because the scientists have +closely confined themselves to these lines, the artists and teachers +have seen nothing of value to them in their theories. + +In going to the solar spectrum for standards on which to base pigmentary +standards, we have given little attention to these various theories in +their details, but the one fact of science has received careful +attention, namely, that all color effects in nature and art are produced +by light reflected from material surfaces. Therefore, inasmuch as the +light reflected from any surface must be affected by both the material +color of the surface and the color of the light which illuminates the +surface, it is necessary that every one having to do with this subject +be informed as to what color must be expected to result from given +conditions. + +In order that this phase of the subject be discussed and thus more fully +understood, there must be a terminology or nomenclature in which to +express the results produced by given conditions, and also standards by +which to analyze, measure and record these results. In selecting these +standards more regard must be given to the æsthetic or psychical effect +of the pigmentary standards than to the purely scientific or physical +properties of colored light. This selection is of great interest to the +physiological psychologist because it is only by the comparison and +averaging of thousands of experiments made on different people that +valuable theories can be formulated. + +With standards and a nomenclature, color will be placed on an equal +footing with other subjects, so that perceptions of color effects may be +recorded and discussed with much of the definiteness with which we treat +form and tone. Because this has not heretofore been possible, +comparatively little advance has been made during the last two decades +in the æsthetic consideration of material color _which is the only +practical phase of the subject_, and if any greater progress is to be +achieved in the future it evidently must be along new lines. + +From the nursery to the university we are constantly asking two +questions, "What is it?" and "Why is it?" and this is what the educator +from the Kindergarten to the College is called upon to answer. In his +laboratory the psychologist is collecting physical facts by tests +regarding the powers of the eye and the ear, the sense of touch, weight, +memory, etc., and these experiments when classified, arranged and +averaged, furnish a basis for formulating theories, all of which is +called psychology. + +In vision, form and color play the principal parts, in fact cover the +whole ground if we include light and shade in color where it belongs. + +Experiments regarding form can be and have long been very definitely +recorded but this has not been true with color. + +To Froebel must be given the honor of introducing logical form study +into primary education, and on this has been built the present admirable +system of drawing in our higher grades of schools, and the introduction +of the standard forms in solids and surfaces has brought about a +definite use of geometrical terms by young children which would have +seemed very unnaturally mature a generation ago. But in color no +corresponding advance has been made because there have been no generally +accepted standards in color to correspond to the sphere, cube, cylinder, +circle, ellipse and triangle in form, nor any means for measurements to +take the place of the foot or metre for lengths and the divided circle +for angles. + +It is not expected that the children in the lowest grades will learn +much of the science of color, but it is desirable that the teachers have +such knowledge of it that they will not unconsciously convey to the +children erroneous impressions which must be unlearned later in life. + + +Concerning the Solar Spectrum. + +More than two hundred years ago Sir Isaac Newton discovered that a +triangular glass prism would transform a beam of sunlight into a +beautiful band of color. If the prism is held in a beam of sunlight +which enters a moderately lighted room, there will appear on the walls, +ceiling or floor, here and there, as the glass is moved, beautiful spots +in rainbow colors. If the room is darkened by shutters, and only a small +beam of light is admitted through a very narrow slit and the prism +properly adjusted to receive this beam of light, a beautiful band of +variegated colors may be thrown on to a white ceiling or screen, and +this effect is called a prismatic solar spectrum. A perfect solar +spectrum once seen under favorable conditions in a dark room is a sight +never to be forgotten. + +The accompanying illustration shows the relative positions of the parts +named. A is the beam of light as it enters the room. B is the triangular +prism. The dotted lines represent groups of rays extending to the +vertical band of colors indicated by the letters V for violet at the +top, then blue, green, yellow, orange to red at the bottom. + +The explanation of this phenomenon is that the beam of sunlight is +composed of a great number of different kinds of rays, which in passing +through the prism are refracted or bent from their direct course, and +some are bent more than others, the red least of all and the violet +most. It is supposed that light is propagated by waves or undulations in +an extremely rare substance termed ether which is supposed to occupy all +space and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be similar to +sound waves in the air or the ripples on the smooth surface of a pond +when a pebble is thrown into it. Because so many of the phenomena of +light can be satisfactorily explained by this theory, it has been very +generally adopted by the scientists. The amount that rays of light are +refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in +proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second, and in +inverse proportion to the length of the waves. The red waves are +refracted the least and are the longest, while the violet rays are +refracted the most and are the shortest. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Whether this theory of the spectrum formation is absolutely correct or +not, the fact is established that the colors found in a prismatic solar +spectrum are always the same under the same conditions and the order of +their arrangement is never changed. By means of the quality of spectrum +colors called the wave length, a given color can always be located in +the spectrum, and hence if a spectrum color is selected as a standard it +can always be determined by its recorded wave length. + + +Six Spectrum Standards of Color. + +Therefore it seems possible to establish certain standards of color by a +series of definitely located portions of the solar spectrum and in the +system here presented six have been chosen, namely red, orange, yellow, +green, blue and violet. These six are more distinctly recognized than +the others, and from them by combination in pairs of colors adjacent in +the spectrum all the other colors can be very closely imitated, and +hence these six are selected as the spectrum standards. In these +standards the most intense expression of each color is chosen i.e. the +reddest red, greenest green, etc. which by the closest scientific +investigation have been located by their wave lengths so that if they +are in doubt in future they can be re-determined by individuals or if +disputed, may be corrected by any authoritatively established congress, +selected for the purpose. The wave lengths of our six standards are +represented by the following numbers in ten millionths of a millimeter. +Red, 6571; Orange, 6085; Yellow, 5793; Green, 5164; Blue, 4695; violet, +4210. Having thus scientifically established these unchangeable +standards the attempt is made to secure the best possible pigmentary +imitation of each. + +To any one who has ever compared a piece of colored material with a good +presentation of a spectrum color, it is unnecessary to say that the +result in an attempt to match the spectrum color with the material or +pigmentary color is a very weak approximation, but the one thing aimed +at is to secure nearly as possible the same kind of color. For example +in the red, it is the aim to obtain the same _kind_ of red, by which we +mean the same location in the spectrum, i.e. a red neither more orange +nor more violet than the reddest spot in the spectrum. This selection +must be based on a purely æsthetic perception or impression of color. +The same is true of each of the six standard colors, as for example, for +orange we select the location which has seemed to a large number of good +judges to best represent the feeling of orange as between the quite +well defined red on one hand and the equally definite narrow band of +yellow on the other, and it is quite wonderful what unanimity of opinion +there is on this particular color which would naturally seem to be the +one most doubtful in its location. On the other side of the yellow the +green seems to offer little difficulty and the pure Paris or emerald +green is very nearly the standard. The violet being at the other end of +the spectrum is as easily decided as the red, but the blue between the +green and violet is not so easily determined, because, from the best +blue the hue runs so imperceptibly into the violet on one side and the +green on the other. Pure ultramarine blue is the nearest approach to the +spectrum standard of blue of any of the permanent pigments, but even +this is a trifle too violet. + +For educational purposes papers coated with pigments afford at once the +purest colors and the most economical and useful material, and on this +plan a line of colored papers has been prepared for color instruction in +the kindergartens and primary schools in imitation of the above +described spectrum standards. + +From the pure spectrum standards it is possible by reflected light to +combine the two standards to produce a color between them, for example +if two small mirrors are held in a spectrum one at the "red" and the +other at the "orange" and the two reflected on to the same spot on a +white surface, the result is a color between the red and the orange. So +also if we mix red and orange pigments together we may produce colors +between the two which may be termed orange-red or red-orange; but +unfortunately there is no means known by which we can measure the +proportion of the red and orange color-effect which is produced by any +given mixture of these two pigments, because color-effect cannot be +measured by the pint of mixed paint or the ounce of dry pigment. + + +The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks. + +We, however, have another means for measuring color effect which just in +this emergency seems providential. It is a fact well known to every boy +that if he rapidly whirls a lighted stick the fire at the end produces +the effect of a circle of light, which phenomenon is explained by a +quality of the eye called retention of vision, by which the impression +made by the point of light remains on the retina of the eye during an +entire rotation. It is a fact, based on the same quality of vision, that +if one color is presented to the eye, and instantly replaced by another +the effect is a combination of the two colors. Therefore if one-quarter +of the surface of a disk of cardboard is covered with orange paper and +three-quarters with red paper, and then the disk placed on a rapidly +rotating spindle, the color effect is a mixture of red and orange, and +the effect is exactly in proportion to the angular measurements of the +two sectors, so that if the circumference is divided into 100 equal +parts the resultant color will be definitely represented by the formula +"Red, 75; Orange, 25." + +Less than forty years ago an English scientist named J. Clerk Maxwell +while making experiments with such painted disks happily conceived the +idea of cutting a radial slit in each of two disks from the +circumference to the center so that by joining the disks they could be +made to show any desired proportion of each and hence they are called +Maxwell disks. With such disks made in the six pigmentary standards red, +orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, the intermediate pigmentary +spectrum colors may be very accurately determined by combination and +rotation. If we give to each of these standards a symbol as R. for red, +O. for orange, Y. for yellow, G. for green, B. for blue, V. for violet, +we then have the basis for a definite nomenclature of colors in +imitation of the pure spectrum colors. As all pigmentary or material +colors are modified by light and shade thus producing in high light +tints and in shadow shades of the colors, we must seek for some means of +imitating these effects, and fortunately find them in white and black +disks. If with a standard color disk we combine a white disk we may have +a line of tints of that color, and with a black disk, shades. Giving +this white disk a symbol of W. and the black disk N. we complete our +nomenclature. We cannot use B for black because B has already been used +for blue, and therefore we use N. for _niger_, the Latin word for black. + + +The Bradley System of Color Instruction. + +Briefly stated then this system of color instruction is comprised under +the six general heads: Spectrum Standards; Pigmentary Standards based on +the spectrum standards; Maxwell Rotating Disks in the pigmentary +standards and Black and White; a Color Nomenclature based on the +accepted standards and their disk combinations; and Colored Papers and +Water Colors made in accordance with these standards. + +For spectrum standards, six definite locations expressing the natural +æsthetic or psychological impressions of red, orange, yellow, green, +blue and violet are selected. Six standards are chosen instead of a +larger number as for example twelve, because for the purpose of a +nomenclature the smaller number is more convenient than a greater +number. The six are selected rather than three, four or five, because +while in the consideration of colored light alone the smaller number +would possibly suffice to form by combinations imitations of all other +colors, any number smaller than six is entirely inadequate to form by +pigmentary or disk combinations fairly good expressions of the +corresponding spectrum color combinations. + +In selecting the spectrum standards special prominence has been given to +the psychological color perceptions of experts in determining those +locations in the spectrum best expressing the color feeling of red, +orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, while the purely scientific +consideration of these several questions has not been ignored or lightly +treated. + +For pigmentary standards the best possible pigmentary imitations of the +six spectrum standards are secured and to these are added the nearest +approach to white and black that can be produced in pigments. + +Pigmentary standards on which to base a nomenclature are valueless +without some means by which measurements of standards embraced in a +given compound color can be expressed. + +The Maxwell color disks are the only known means by which we may measure +the relative proportions of color effect embodied in a given color, and +therefore the eight color disks are the foundation of the original color +nomenclature herein advocated. + +Colored papers are chosen for primary color instruction because paper is +a valuable medium for simple schoolroom manual training and because no +other pigmentary medium is at once so economical and affords such pure +colors as may be secured in specially prepared colored papers, without a +glazed surface. + +Before leaving this part of the subject we do well to remember that in +the present conditions of chemistry as applied to the preparation of +pigments it is not possible to establish any absolutely definite science +of such color combinations. Nor is it possible to establish permanent +pigmentary standards without great expense, but if the locations of the +standard colors in the spectrum are established by wave lengths the +pigmentary standards may be re-determined at any time and produced, in +the purest pigments available at the time. In art or harmony effects, +the purity of the pigmentary standard is not so important as its hue, +i.e. its location in the spectrum, which may always be determined by the +established wave length. This last statement may be illustrated by the +investigations regarding complementary harmonies. Scientifically one +color is not considered complementary to another unless when combined in +equal quantities they produce white light, or in other words when +combined by the rotation of disks each color must occupy a half circle +and the result must be a neutral gray. But this is not essential in +considering a complementary harmony, as harmonies in different tones and +in various proportions are pleasing and as yet the proportions and tones +which produce the best combinations have not been determined. + +The entire question of harmonies or pleasing color effects is dependent +on individual color perception, and the establishment of rules and laws +on these points can result only from a comparison of the opinions of +many experts in various localities and at different times. This cannot +occur without some means for recording these opinions in generally +accepted terms. It is too late for any individual opinion to be accepted +as authority regarding the relative values of two different harmonies in +color and this will be still less possible as we become better educated +in color and able to sense finer distinctions in color combinations. + +[Illustration] + + + + +Color Definitions. + + +Among other advantages to be gained by a logical study of the psychology +of color is the establishment of more accurate color terms and +definitions. If experiments and discussions based on accepted standards +and methods of comparisons can be carried on we may hope in time to have +as definite expressions of color terms as we now have in music and +literature. + +All color terms used by artists, naturalists, manufacturers, tradesmen, +milliners and the members of our households are as indefinite as one +might naturally expect from the utter lack of a logical basis for the +whole subject. + +Without definitions or means for intelligently naming any color, it is +not strange that the terms used in speaking of colors and color effects +are so contradictory as to lose much of their force, if perchance they +retain anything of their original meaning. For example, probably most +people apply the term SHADE to any modification of a color, either a +hue, tint or shade. + +It is true that a concise and reasonably full dictionary of color terms +must be the outcome of long experience in the logical study of the +science of color and its use in our every-day lives, and at the best +only suggestions can be made at present. But as there must be a +beginning and some terms seem to be fairly well established, the +following incomplete list of definitions is offered, always subject to +amendment by the majority vote, for whenever such changes indicate +advance they should be welcomed. + +_Ray of Light._--The finest supposable element of light impression in +the eye. + +_Beam of Light._--A number of rays. _Standard Colors._--As used in this +system of color nomenclature, the best pigmentary imitation of each of +the six spectrum colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet and +black and white. These are more specifically called _Pigmentary +Standards_ in distinction from spectrum standards. + +_Spectrum Standards._--The six colors found in the solar spectrum and +definitely located by their wave lengths, as follows in the ten +millionths of a millimeter. Red, 6571; Orange, 6085; Yellow, 5793; +Green, 5164; Blue, 4695; Violet, 4210. + +_Pigmentary Colors._--All colors used and produced in the arts and +sciences. This is in distinction from colors seen in nature, as in +flowers and the solar spectrum. The term refers not only to pigments in +the strictest sense but to all surfaces coated, painted or dyed +artificially. + +_Pure Colors._--A pure or full color, also called a saturated color, is +the most intense expression of that color without the admixture of white +or black or gray. All spectrum colors are pure, while no pigmentary +color is absolutely pure, but the pigmentary color which approaches most +nearly to the corresponding color in the spectrum must be selected as +the pigmentary type of purity of that color. For example, the standard +for green must be the best possible pigmentary imitation of the spot in +the spectrum which by general consent is called green, and so not only +for the six standards but for all their combinations which produce the +other colors in nature. + +In pigmentary colors the term pure is entirely one of relative degree. +As processes of manufacture are improved and new chemical discoveries +made, there is good reason to believe that we shall have much more +intense colors and hence much better imitations of spectrum colors than +are at present possible. Therefore as our pigments become purer those +now accepted as full colors will in time become tints or broken colors +and new standards will be adopted. + +_Hue._--The hue of a given color is that color with the admixture of a +smaller quantity of another color. An orange hue of red is the standard +red mixed with a smaller quantity of orange. With the disks, pure hues +are secured only by mixing two standards _adjacent_ in the spectrum +circuit. + +For convenience in speaking and writing about colors in this system of +color instruction, all the spectrum colors other than the six standard +spectrum colors are designated as intermediate spectrum hues, and often +for convenience in speaking of them they are called simply spectrum +hues. To these are also added the colors between red and violet which +are not in the spectrum. When so used the term must be considered as +purely technical in this particular relation, because a color between +the standard blue and the standard green is in the abstract no more a +hue than either of these colors. If two standards not adjacent in the +spectrum circuit are combined the result is not a _pure_ spectrum hue +but always some _broken_ spectrum color. + +_Local Color._--A term applied to the natural color of an object when +seen in ordinarily good daylight and at a convenient distance, as a +sheet of paper at arms length, a tree at twice its height, etc. + +_Tint._--Any pure or full color mixed with white, or reduced by strong +sunlight. In the disk combinations a spectrum color combined with white. + +_Shade._--A full color in shadow, i.e., with a low degree of +illumination. In disk combinations a spectrum color combined with a +black disk produces by rotation a shade of that color. In pigments the +admixture of black does not usually produce as satisfactory shades of a +color as may be secured with some other pigments, and each artist has +his own preferences in making shades of the various colors on his +palette. + +_Scale._--A scale of color is a series of colors consisting of a pure or +full color at the center and graduated by a succession of steps to a +light tint on one side and a deep shade on the other. + +_Tone._--Each step in a color scale is a tone of that color, and the +full color may be called the normal tone in that scale. In art this word +has had such a variety of meaning as to render it very convenient for +Amateur Art Critics, together with such terms as breadth, atmosphere, +quality, values, etc., but in the consideration of color it should have +this one definite meaning. + +_Warm Colors._--Red, orange and yellow, and combinations in which they +predominate. + +_Cool Colors._--Usually considered to be green, blue and violet, and the +combinations in which they predominate. But it is, perhaps, questionable +whether green and violet may properly be termed either warm or cool. The +term cool as applied to colors is quite indefinite, except in a general +way, but red, orange and yellow are universally considered as warm, and +blue and green-blue as cool. + +_Neutral Gray._--White in shade or shadow. Pure black and white mixed by +disk rotation. Black and white pigments mixed do not usually produce a +neutral gray, but rather a blue gray. + +_Warm Gray._--A neutral gray with the admixture of a small quantity of +red, orange or yellow. + +_Cool Gray._--A neutral gray with a small quantity of blue or +green-blue. + +_Green Gray._--A neutral gray having combined with it a small quantity +of green. As this color could hardly be classed with either warm or cool +grays this fourth class of grays is suggested as helpful in giving +definiteness to the more general color expressions. + +_Broken Colors._--Gray colors, often improperly called broken tints. For +simplicity, a tint of a color is described as the pure color mixed with +white and a shade as the color mixed with black, and the corresponding +broken color is the same color mixed with both white and black or with +neutral gray. A tint of a color thrown into a shadow or a shade of a +color in bright sunlight gives a broken color. For various reasons a +very large proportion of the colors in nature are broken. Broken colors +are much easier to combine harmoniously than full colors, or even tints +and shades. + +In disk combinations when a pure color is combined with both a white and +black disk the result will be a broken color. When a color is mixed with +both black and white, i.e., with gray, and becomes thereby a broken +color, it then belongs to a broken scale and educationally has no place +in any pure scale, i.e., a scale in which the key tone is a pure color. +Neither has a broken scale of a color any place in a chart of pure +scales or spectrum scales. + +_Neutral Colors._--A term often improperly applied to grays, white, +black, silver and gold. See passive colors. + +_Passive Colors._--A term suggested as covering black, white, silver, +gold and very gray colors. The term "neutral colors" is often used in +this sense but this is evidently improper if we are to confine the term +"neutral gray" to the representation of white in shadow because as soon +as a gray has any color in it, it is no longer neutral. + +_Active Colors._--Those colors neither passive or neutral. Necessarily +both the terms "active" and "passive" used in relation to colors must be +quite indefinite. + +_Complementary Colors._--As white light is the sum of all color if we +take from white light a given color the remaining color is the +complement of the given color. When the eye has been fatigued by looking +intently for a few seconds at a red spot on a white wall and is then +slightly turned to the wall, a faint tint of a bluish green is seen, and +this is called the accidental color of the red, and is supposed to be +identical with its complementary color. If with the disks we determine a +color which with a given color will produce by rotation a neutral gray, +we have the complementary color more accurately than by any other means +at present known in the use of pigmentary colors. + +_Harmony._--Two colors are said to be in harmony or to combine +harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in juxtaposition or +are used in a composition. + +_Spectrum Circuit._--If a pigmentary imitation of the solar spectrum +with the addition of violet red at the red end and red violet at the +violet end be made, and the two ends joined, we shall have a spectrum +circuit. This may be in the form of a circle, an ellipse or an oval. + +_Primary Colors._--In the Brewster theory red, yellow and blue. In the +Young-Helmholtz theory red, green and violet are termed primary colors +because it is supposed that from these three sensations all color +perceptions are experienced. In purely scientific investigations of +color perceptions these last three or others which are supposed to serve +the same purpose are also called fundamental colors. Practically every +spectrum color is a primary, because each has its own wave length. + +_Secondary Colors._--In the Brewster theory orange, green and purple +have been called secondary because it is claimed that they are produced +by the combination of primary colors in pairs. + +_Tertiary Colors._--A term used in the Brewster theory to denote three +classes of colors called russet, citrine and olive, made by mixing the +secondaries in pairs. These are all broken spectrum colors. The orange +and purple produce russet; the orange and green form citrine; the green +and purple, olive. There seems to be no good reason for perpetuating the +indefinite terms secondaries and tertiaries as applied to color. + +_Values._--This word is very freely used in discussing effects in works +of art, both in color and in black and white. At present it seems to be +a very difficult term to define, and yet each artist is quite sure that +he can "feel" it, although few will attempt to put into words a +definition satisfactory even to themselves. When an engraver, who is +also an artist, attempts to interpret nature in black and white on the +metal plate or wooden block, he endeavors to reproduce the "values" of +the various parts of the subject before him. In doing this he, for one +thing, attempts to produce a variety of neutral grays which will express +to the eye by means of black and white lines the same tones of color +effect as are seen in the several parts of the subject under +investigation. If this were the whole problem the matter would be +easily expressed by the disk nomenclature. For instance, if we are to +consider a certain red object which may be represented by the standard +red disk, we place a medium sized disk of that color on the spindle, and +in front of it, smaller disks of white and black united. By rotation the +white and black disks become a neutral gray at the center of the red +disk. If this gray is made nearly white all observers will agree that +the gray is lighter than the red, and if it is nearly black the opinion +will be equally unanimous that it is darker than the red. Consequently +there evidently must be a gray somewhere between these two extremes +which a large majority of experts may agree to be equal in depth or tone +to the red, i.e., neither lighter nor darker. But the artist-engraver +will insist that to him the term "value" expresses much more than this +and that he must use different lines in the sky or distance from those +which he uses in the foreground; and some engravers will also insist +that two different colors in the foreground must receive different +treatment with the graver in order to express their true values. We know +that true values of colors are not expressed in a photograph, as the +warm colors are too dark and the blue far too light. If the term "value +of a color" is to be used as expressing something more than a neutral +gray of such a tone as to seem equal to it, then possibly this latter +quality must be expressed by the word tone, and yet this use of that +word will seem to enlarge its scope beyond its present limits as it now +is used to express the relations between the different localities in +_one_ scale of color, while this new use will extend to the comparison +of tones in various color scales, including neutral grays. + +_Luminosity._--The luminosity of a color is determined by comparing it +with a neutral gray. When a color seems to be of the same brightness as +a given neutral gray, i.e., not lighter nor darker, then that gray is +its measure of luminosity. + +A noted authority says: "No colored object can have the luminosity of a +white object reflecting practically the whole of the light impinging +upon it. Therefore if we take absolute reflection as 100 a fraction of +100 will give the relative luminosity of any body." Luminosity is +another expression of the quality above described as forming a prominent +feature in the term values. + +_Potentiality._--The ability or strength of a color to affect other +colors by combinations with them. For example, white has a greater +potentiality than black, yellow greater than red, and violet the least +of all the spectrum colors. + +It is a pertinent question whether any quality is involved in this term +which is not found in value, tone and luminosity, but it expresses a +somewhat different phase of a line of color effects. + +_Quality._--This term seems to be used rather indefinitely when applied +to color, but perhaps it is not far removed from the term hue or kind of +color. + +[Illustration] + + + + +Practical Experiments +Illustrating the Theory of Color. + + +In the foregoing pages an attempt is made to explain clearly and as +briefly as possible the principles on which the Bradley system of color +instruction is based, and also to suggest a few definitions necessary to +an intelligent discussion of the general subject of Color. Owing to the +peculiar nature of the questions involved, demonstration by actual +experiment is more convincing than the mere statement of theories can +possibly be, and therefore a few of the following pages will be devoted +to the explanation of some valuable experiments, all of which may be +tried by the teacher in private, while many of them can be shown the +pupils with great advantage. + +In this system the Maxwell color disks are the means for color +combinations and the basis for measurements, and therefore for a color +nomenclature. For this reason the present chapter treats largely of the +proper use of the wheel and incidentally the theory of red, yellow and +blue primaries with combinations to produce secondaries and tertiaries. +No teacher using the material connected with this color scheme can hope +to meet with success without a knowledge of the principles on which it +is based, and in this subject as in all others, it is essential that the +teacher shall know much more of it than he or she is ever required to +teach. + +[Illustration: FIG 2.] + + +The Color Wheel. + +For most convenient use the machine should be clamped to the front of a +table and near one end, so that the speaker using it can stand at the +end of the table and operate it with the right hand. Fig. 2 represents +the Normal School Color Wheel showing the face of the disks as seen by +the audience. Facility in the operation of the Color Wheel is rapidly +acquired by practice and the exact position is easily determined by the +operator after a few trials. + +Fig. 3 shows the Primary School Color Wheel, which has only two sizes of +disks, while the largest machine has four sizes and is much finer in +construction. The smaller machine does not require clamping to a table, +but may be steadied by the left hand while being operated by the right +hand. + +[Illustration] + + +The Color Top. + +Many of the experiments of the color wheel can be produced with a small +toy called a Color Top, which is shown in Fig. 4. It is composed of a +thick cardboard disk forming the body of the top and a central wooden +spindle on which the disk closely fits. A number of colored paper disks +are provided with this top so that very many of the experiments +performed before a class can be repeated individually by the pupils and +in this way the facts which may have been demonstrated to the class with +the color wheel can be fixed in the minds of the pupils by their own +experiments with the top. Also as a home toy in the hands of the pupils +it can be of value, not only to the children, but to the parents as +well. + +[Illustration] + + +Use of the Disks. + +Fig. 5 shows the method of joining two Maxwell disks and Fig. 6 their +appearance when properly joined to be placed on the rotating spindle of +the color wheel. In joining two or more disks for use on a color wheel +or top, care should be taken to place them in such relation to each +other that when rotated the radial edges exposed on the face toward the +audience will not "catch the wind." With small disks on the color wheel +this is not important, and if there is no whole graduated disk on the +arbor behind the slitted disks there is no advantage, but in using the +larger disks it is well to put the graduated disk behind the others for +this purpose, as at best it is quite laborious to keep up speed when +using several of the large disks, even with the best possible +conditions. With the thin paper disks of the color top this is an +important matter. It will be noticed that the method of joining the +disks for use on the Color Top is the reverse of that to be observed +with the disks of the Color Wheel as shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration] + +Fig. 7 shows the same two color disks placed in front of a large white +disk having its edge graduated to one hundred parts, so that the +relative proportions of two or more colors to be combined can be +determined accurately. + +As the smaller disks offer so much less resistance in rotation than the +larger ones they are most desirable in private experiments or before a +small class, and the largest disks of the Normal School Wheel are +necessary only when more than three expressions of color are required to +be shown at the same time. In making experiments before an audience +those persons in front should if possible be at least ten feet from the +color wheel. From ten to forty feet there seems to be but little +difference in the color perception, but for best tests fifteen to twenty +feet is the most desirable position. + +For private practice with the color wheel a small mirror may be placed +five or six feet in front of the wheel in such position as to furnish an +image of the disks to the person operating the machine. Owing to a +slight loss of light by reflection the closest criticism may not be +possible when working with a mirror in this way, but if a plate mirror +is used the results are very good and a bevel plate mirror about 7 x 9 +inches without frame, can usually be procured at small cost; this method +is much more satisfactory for personal experimenting than an assistant +to turn the wheel. + +These disks have heretofore been used as a curious piece of +philosophical apparatus rather than because they have been supposed to +have any practical value in color training, but in establishing a color +nomenclature based on six spectrum colors the disks at once assume a +great value and are indispensable in a system of color instruction +founded on the science of color and on the psychological perception of +colors. + +Let us suppose that the two disks shown in Fig. 7 are yellow and green, +80 parts yellow and 20 parts green; then by rotation we shall have a +green yellow indicated by the symbol Y. 80, G. 20. No argument is +necessary to prove that when an exact expression of color effect is +required this is better than the simple statement that it is a greenish +yellow. + + +How to Begin the Experiments. + +For practice it is profitable to commence with the red and orange disks +combined on the spindle, with a smaller red disk in front of them, the +smallest being preferable. Begin by introducing say five per cent of +orange and notice that a change from the standard red at the center is +visible. Gradually increase the orange until it seems difficult to say +whether the resulting color is more like red or orange, and then +exchange the small red disk for an orange disk of the same size, and +continue adding orange in the larger disks until the difference cannot +be detected between the small disk and the larger combined disks. + +The standards may be combined in pairs, as has been indicated with the +red and orange, to produce all the intermediate hues throughout the +spectrum, but it must be remembered that these combinations are to be +made by joining in pairs, colors adjacent in the spectrum, red and +orange, orange and yellow, yellow and green, green and blue, blue and +violet. We then shall have representations of all the spectrum colors, +but there are still the colors between violet and red, known in nature +and art as purples, which must be produced by uniting the red and violet +disks, thus completing a circuit of colors containing all the pure +colors in nature. + +In nature all colors are modified by light and shade, strong light +producing tints and shadows more or less deep forming shades. + +These effects are imitated on the color wheel by the use of a white disk +combined with a disk of a standard color for tints and a black disk for +shades, and can be tested in the same order as indicated for the hues, +by combining each standard disk with a white or a black disk in varying +proportions. It will be noticed early in disk experiments that a very +small amount of white produces a decided effect in the tone of a color +while a comparatively large amount of black is necessary to produce a +marked change. As this is exactly the reverse of the effects of white +and black pigments it is always a subject of remark. In pigments these +effects are imitated by the mixture of white with a color to produce +tints, and black for shades, or more generally instead of black some +dark natural pigment approaching the hue of the color, may be preferred +because a black pigment will too often impart an unexpected and +undesirable hue to the color. As for example, in making shades of red +some natural brown pigment is better than black, and so various dark +browns and grays are used for different colors. Even with the disks it +is impossible to imitate purest tints of all the standard colors, +because in some of the colors, as peculiarly in red and blue, the +rotation of the white disk seems to develop a slightly violet gray, for +which effect there has as yet been no scientific explanation. This gray +dulls the purity of the tint as compared with that which is found in the +color under a bright illumination, but on the whole both tints and +shades as well as the hues can be better illustrated with the disks than +in any other way, and in addition, the advantage is secured of being +able to measure and record the tone by the graduated disk in the same +way as the hues are measured and recorded. A further advantage is +secured in the use of disks in color instruction because with pigments, +the only other method by which colors can be combined, much time must be +lost not only in the mixing and applying of the colors but in the delay +necessary to allow them to dry before the true results can be seen. + +The shades of yellow as shown on the wheel will not be generally +accepted without criticism, but careful comparison with yellow paper in +shadow will prove the substantial truth of the disk results. This +experiment may be tried as follows: Join two cards with a hinge of paper +or cloth to form a folding screen like the covers of a book as in Fig. +8. On the surface A, paste a piece of standard yellow paper and on B, a +piece of yellow shade No. 1. Hold these two surfaces toward the class in +such a position that the strong light will fall on B, which is the +yellow shade, and thus bring the face A, which is a standard yellow, in +a position to be shaded from the light. By varying the angle of the +covers with each other and turning them as a whole from side to side, a +position will be secured in which the two faces will seem so nearly +alike as to convince the class that this color which they may have +thought to be green, is not green, but a color peculiar to itself, a +shade of yellow; because the darker paper when in full light appears +substantially the same as the standard yellow in the shade or shadow. + +[Illustration] + +In our experiments thus far with the wheel we have combined the +standards in pairs to produce the colors of the spectrum between the +standards, which for convenience may be called intermediate spectrum +hues, and also have combined a white disk with each of the standards to +produce tints of the standards and a black disk to make shades. + +By combining a white disk with an orange and a yellow disk, for example, +forming a trio of disks, a variety of tints of orange yellow and yellow +orange may be made. Also by the use of the black disk instead of the +white a series of shades of the intermediate hues may be produced, and +thus a great variety of tints and shades of many spectrum colors shown. + +Now if the white and black disks are combined with each other the result +will be a shade of white, i.e., a white in shadow, which is an +absolutely neutral gray. As the experiments progress it will be seen +that this neutral gray is a very important feature in the study of +color, and therefore it may be well at this point to make sure that the +disk combinations give the true gray of a white in shadow by a test +similar to the one used for the shade of yellow, thus disarming +criticism. Such a test may conveniently be made by covering the reverse +sides of the folding covers with white on one cover and "neutral gray +paper No. 1" on the other. As the neutral gray papers are made in +imitation of combinations of black and white disks this experiment is as +convincing as the one regarding the yellow shade. This is but one of +many examples of the value of disk combinations in the classification +and analysis of colors. + +In an elaborate chart of colors highly recommended for primary color +instruction a dozen years ago no correct understanding of the +classification of colors is shown, the tints and shades being indicated +by a very decided change of hue rather than a consistent modification +of tone. For example, in the red scale the standard or normal red is +vermilion, i.e., an orange red; shade No. 1 is simply a red less orange +in hue than the standard, and shade No. 2 a shade of the standard red +advocated in this system; while tint No. 1 is a broken yellow orange and +tint No. 2 is much more yellow and more broken than No. 1. + +Similar inconsistencies occur in all the other scales, showing that the +author had no correct knowledge of the analysis of colors, and yet this +was the best and practically the only aid offered for instruction in +color at that time. + +Neither were there any true standards for neutral grays and the term +"neutral" was used in such an indefinite way as to rob it of all actual +value, until by the aid of disk combinations it came to be confined to +white in shadow as closely imitated by the combinations of white and +black disks. + +[Illustration] + +With colored papers made in imitation of the six standards and two tints +and two shades of each, six scales of colors may be produced by +arranging the five different tones of each color in a row, as in Fig. 9, +which represents the orange scale with tints at the left and shades at +the right. If, in addition to these six scales, we have two scales +between each two of the standards, we may have between the orange scale +and the yellow scale a yellow orange scale and an orange yellow scale, +and if we thus introduce the intermediate scales between each of the +other two standards, and include the red violet and violet red, we shall +have eighteen scales of five tones each. + +The eighteen scales as above named may be arranged as shown in Fig. 10 +to form a chart of pure spectrum scales which is very valuable for study +and comparison and especially so in the study of the theory of +harmonies. All these tones are called pure tones and this chart is +therefore called a chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. + +The idea that soft, dull, broken colors produce best harmonies when used +in combination may or may not be a universally accepted truth, but there +is a general belief that it is much easier to make acceptable +combinations with broken colors than with pure spectrum colors and their +tints and shades, and therefore the temptation has been strong to select +a general assortment of colors which easily harmonize because of the +pleasing effect, instead of having regard solely to the educational +value of colors. + +Truth in education requires that when colors are classified as spectrum +colors they shall all be the nearest approach possible to the true +spectrum colors, and in the spectrum there are no broken or impure +colors. Therefore, whenever the spectrum is set up as nature's standard +or chart of colors and an imitation is made in pigments or papers, great +care should be used to secure the most accurate imitation possible, but +in the past this has not been the case, because of the prevailing idea +that the colors must all be possible combinations of three primaries, +and hence the orange, green and violet have often been very broken +colors. While pure colors and their tints and shades may be +advantageously combined with various tones of broken colors in one +composition for artistic effect, they should be definitely divided when +classified for educational purposes, and their differences clearly +explained to students. + +In a scale of tones in any color the several papers will harmonize more +easily if the tints and shades are not too far removed from the +standard, but it is thought by many good judges that the educational +advantage in learning to see the relationship of color in the more +extreme tones is of greater importance in the elementary grades than the +facility for making most pleasing combinations. Consequently in the +Bradley colored papers the tints are very light and the shades quite +dark. + +If, instead of adding either a white disk or a black disk to a spectrum +color, by which we make pure tints and shades, we add both white and +black, a line of gray colors or so-called broken colors is formed. This +is most beautifully shown with the disks, and in this way a line of +_true broken colors_ is secured, because in each case a true neutral +gray has been added to the color, which cannot be insured in the mixture +of gray pigments. As an example, this may be shown with the three +smaller sizes of the orange disks. With the medium size of these three +make the combination Orange, 35; White, 10; Black 55. With the larger +size disks make the proportions Orange, 16; White, 5; Black, 79, and +with the smallest size Orange, 43; White, 33; Black, 24. Place these +three sets of disks on the spindle at one time and you have the three +tones of a broken orange scale. + +With similar combinations applied to the six standards and one +intermediate hue between each two, there will be material for a chart of +Broken Spectrum Scales, as shown in Fig. 11, including twelve scales of +three tones each. These are the most beautiful colors in art or nature +when combined harmoniously. Because of the loss of color in broken +colors it is not advisable to attempt so many different hues or so many +tones of each hue as in pure colors, for slight differences in either +hues or tones are not as readily perceived. + +In these two charts of color scales two distinct classes of colors are +represented, namely, pure colors and broken colors. The pure colors +consist of the purest possible pigmentary imitations of spectrum colors, +with their tints and shades, and the broken colors are these pure colors +dulled by the admixture of neutral grays in various tones. This +distinction is readily recognized under proper training, so that if a +broken color is introduced into a combination of colors from a pure +scale it will be readily detected, which always occurs when the attempt +is made to produce a series of spectrum scales by the combination of +the three primary colors red, yellow and blue. By this method, if +logically carried out, the orange, green and violet are dark broken +colors, and hence to a less extent the intermediate colors also, because +each of these is a mixture of a pure color with a broken color. The +usual result, however, is that the orange made from the red and yellow +seem so out of place in the warm end of the spectrum that it is modified +and made much nearer the pure color, usually, however, too yellow, while +the greens and violets, which are deep and rich broken colors, may seem +more harmonious, but are so dark as to be out of place among spectrum +colors. + +[Illustration] + +If light broken colors are properly combined a beautiful imitation +rainbow is produced, which is more harmonious than the spectrum made +from full colors. A series of such colors combined in spectrum order +produce a more pleasing effect when separated by a small space of white, +black, gray, silver or gold. The reason for this may be found in the +discussion of simultaneous contrasts. + +In nature nearly all colors are broken. First, there is always more or +less vapor together with other impurities in the air, so that even in a +clear day objects a few hundred feet from us are seen through a gray +veil, as it were, and in a misty or hazy day this is very evident. In +the case of somewhat distant foliage the general color effect is +produced by the light reflected from the aggregation of leaves, some of +which may be in bright sunlight and others in shadow, with a mixture of +brown twigs. All these tints and shades of green and brown are mingled +in one general effect in the eye. Also, owing to the rounded forms and +irregular illumination of objects, we see very little full or local +color in nature. + +Therefore the study of broken colors becomes the most fascinating branch +of this whole subject, and it also has an added interest because nearly +all the colors found in tapestries, hangings, carpets, ladies' dress +goods, etc., come under this head. In fact it would be hazardous for an +artisan or an artist to use any full spectrum color in his work, except +in threads, lines or dots. A considerable quantity of pure standard +green, for instance, would mar the effect of any landscape. + +It is a very interesting diversion to analyze samples of the dress goods +sold each season under the most wonderful names. For example:-- + +"Ecru," a color sold a few seasons ago, is a broken orange yellow with a +nomenclature O. 12, Y. 15, W. 17, N. 56, while this year "Leghorn" and +"Furet" are two of the "new" colors, the former having a nomenclature of +O. 16, Y. 54, W. 19, N. 11, and the latter O. 18, Y. 18, W. 8, N. 56, +all of which are very beautiful broken orange yellows. + +"Ashes of Roses" of past years is a broken violet red which can be +analyzed as follows: R. 8-1/2, V. 2-1/4, W. 15-1/4, N. 74. + +"Anemon" of this season is R. 28, V. 7, W. 5, N. 60, which is another +broken violet red. + +"Old Rose" is a broken red: R. 65-1/2, W. 24-1/2, N. 10. + +"Empire" of past seasons is G. 18-1/2, B. 11, W. 16-1/2, N. 54, while +"Neptune" of this season is G. 13-1/2, B. 2-1/2, W. 11, N. 73, both +being broken blue greens. + +"Topia," a beautiful brown, is O. 10, N. 90, a pure shade of orange, +while "Bolide" is a lighter yellow orange with a nomenclature of O. +18-1/2, Y. 2-1/2, W. 1-1/2, N. 77-1/2. + +We might analyze "Elephant's Breath," "Baby Blue," "Nile Green," +"Crushed Strawberry" and others common in the market, but while the +names will no doubt occur each season the colors will change with the +fickle demands of the goddess of fashion and the interests of the +manufacturers and dealers. In writing any color nomenclature the letters +should be used in the following order: R.-O.-Y.-G.-B.-V.-W.-N., thus +always listing the standard colors before the white or black. For +example, never place Y. before O. or R., and never use N. before W. If +this order is strictly adhered to the habit is soon acquired and a +valuable point gained. + +It has been shown that combined white and black disks form neutral +gray, which is a white in shadow or under a low degree of illumination. +If to such a gray a very small amount of color is added, as orange for +example, by the introduction of an orange disk, this neutral gray +becomes an orange gray, but unless the amount is considerable it can not +be detected as an orange, but the gray may be termed a warm gray, +denoting that it is affected by some one of the colors near the red end +of the spectrum. If blue instead of orange is added to the neutral gray, +a cool gray is produced. When green is added to a gray the result can +not fairly be called either warm or cool, and hence we have termed it a +green gray. According to this plan we have four classes of grays, +Neutral, Warm, Cool and Green grays. As there may be many tones of each, +and many intermediate combinations from red to green, or green to blue, +the number of grays in nature is infinite, but these four classes with +two tones of each in the papers form what may be called standards or +stations from which to think of the grays, the same as the six standards +in the spectrum constitute points from which to think of pure colors. + +A careful consideration of the foregoing pages, accompanied with a color +wheel or even a color top, can hardly fail to give a student who will +make the experiments a clear idea of the use of the disks in the system +of color education in which they form such an important feature, and +therefore the old theory of three primaries, red, yellow and blue, and +all that it leads to can be very intelligently considered and tested by +them in the experiments which follow. + +This old theory briefly restated is as follows: It is said "there are in +nature three primary colors, red, yellow and blue; and by the mixture of +these primary colors in pairs, orange, green and violet may be made." In +fact leading educators have said that "in the solar spectrum, which is +nature's chart of colors, the principal colors are red, orange, yellow, +green, blue and violet; _of these_ red, yellow and blue are primaries +from which may be made the secondaries, orange, green and violet." All +such statements as heretofore made in any popular treatment of the +subject are understood to mean that in a pigmentary imitation of a +spectrum the secondaries as enumerated may be produced by the mixtures +of the primary pigments, because pigmentary mixtures are the only +combinations generally recognized. + +This theory has also included the statement that the primaries are +complementary to the secondaries in pairs, and that the combination of +the secondaries in pairs may produce a distinct class of colors called +tertiaries. + +It will be the aim of the following pages to demonstrate that in all +this there is neither scientific or æsthetic truth nor educational +value. + + +The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments. + +Experiments in mixing the three pigments, red, yellow and blue, to +produce the secondaries, orange, green and violet, have been very +carefully made with interesting and instructive results. All such +experiments are valueless unless made with one accepted set of primaries +for the three combinations, because it is self-evident that if we select +a vermilion red which is very decidedly an orange red, and choose for +our yellow one of the orange yellows, the mixture will more nearly +approach a true orange than if a standard red and standard yellow are +used. Also in making a violet, if we mix a carmine, which is a violet +red, with a decidedly violet blue, of which there are many, the result +will be a better violet than the combination of the standard red and +blue. So also in the mixing of blue and yellow to make green, a greenish +yellow and a greenish blue will necessarily produce better results than +the standards. Therefore, to test the matter fairly, the same pigments +which are used to coat the standard red, yellow and blue papers have +been combined so as to produce the best possible orange, green and +violet, and these results when analyzed on the color wheel are as +follows:-- + +The orange made by mixing standard red and yellow pigments in the best +proportions is equal to O. 46, W. 2, N. 52. The violet is equal to V. +20, W. 1, N. 79, and the nearest approach to a standard green is shown +by disk analysis to be G. 37, W. 7, N. 56, which is better than the +violet and nearly as good as the orange. + +These experiments show that heretofore when a line of standards of six +colors has been prepared from three primaries, red, yellow and blue, +even though the purest possible colors may have been selected for the +primaries, the secondaries have not been in the same class of colors, +and that all of them are very dark broken colors. Therefore, in using +educational colored papers based on such a scheme, the pupil has +received no correct impressions of the relative values of the several +colors involved in pure spectrum scales, but has been shown at the +outset a mixture of pure and broken colors _as standards_. + +This is not a matter of opinion regarding best harmonies, because it is +easy to demonstrate that less skill is required to combine broken colors +harmoniously than pure colors, but it is a choice between truth and +error in the early education of color perception. + + +Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top. + +While it may be impossible for the reader to secure pigments exactly +like the standards, red, yellow and blue, used in the above experiments, +and therefore the statement here made can not be accurately verified, +any one having a color wheel or even a color top may test the same +combinations by use of disks. If it is true, as claimed, that a good +standard orange can be made by mixing red and yellow, then it should +follow that when a red and yellow disk are combined and a smaller orange +disk placed in front of them, that it ought to be possible to so adjust +the proportion of red to yellow that by rotation the outer ring of color +will match the central orange disk. + +A trial of this experiment will show that while the color resulting from +the best possible combination of red and yellow is a kind of orange, it +is not even an approximation to the standard orange, but is a shade of +orange which may be matched by combining the smaller orange disk with a +black disk in the proportion of O. 45, N. 55, the larger disks being R. +89, Y. 11. + +In combining red and blue disks to make a violet the result is more +satisfactory, while if we attempt to produce a green by combining the +yellow and blue disks the result will be surprising, but probably not +convincing, because the statement that yellow and blue make green has +been so persistently reiterated as a fundamental axiom that people who +have given the subject but little attention will feel that to doubt it +is rank heresy. In a text book treating of color is found the following +passage: "Green substances reflect the green, i.e., the blue and yellow +rays of the sunlight and absorb all the others." It is a fact, however, +that in the mixture of blue and yellow light there is little or no trace +of green, as a single experiment with a color top or color wheel will +readily demonstrate. + +In response to this convincing experiment a colorist of the "old +school," (and there are few others) will doubtless say, "Such an +assertion seems to be true when applied to these rotating disks, but we +see no practical value in experiments of this kind, because in the use +of color we must depend on pigmentary combinations, and in pigments +yellow and blue do make green." The author of a statement of this kind +is always honest in making it, and yet it is absolutely untrue, because +as has already been shown, the green resulting from the mixture of +yellow and blue can not be placed even approximately in the same class +as the yellow and blue of which it is composed. + +In accepting the disk combinations of standard pigmentary colors we are +assuming a system of color investigation based on the combination of +colored light rather than the mixture of pigments, and to an artist who +has given the subject little thought this seems quite radical, not to +say startling. But, logically, why is it not the most natural as well as +the correct basis for this work? + +Art in color must be based on the imitation of natural color effects. +We must first learn to see color correctly and to know what we see, and +after that it is a very simple matter to learn which pigments to combine +for producing any desired result which is already clearly defined in the +mind. In fact the best selection of pigments must often be based on +their chemical and mechanical qualities as much as on their peculiar +hues. + +All color impressions of material substances are produced by colored +light reflected from a material surface to the retina of the eye, +through which by some unknown means it is conveyed to the brain. When +the white sunlight falls on a material substance a portion of the rays +are absorbed and others are reflected to the eye, thereby conveying +impressions of color. If on a surface of yellow material we throw a +strong orange light through a colored glass, some of the orange rays +from the glass will mingle with the yellow rays and the two are +reflected to the eye, thereby producing an orange yellow or yellow +orange effect where before it was yellow. So in a summer evening +landscape when there is a so-called red sunset, everything is +illuminated by an orange light and each color in the landscape is +affected by the orange rays which mingle with the rays of the local +color and are reflected to the eyes of the observer, producing the +effect of local colors mixed with orange. + +In a room where the windows open on to a green lawn with many trees in +close proximity to the house, nearly all the light is reflected from +green surfaces, and hence is green light. In such a case a correct +painting of objects in that room would have a general green effect. + +The afternoon light in a room on the west side of a city street may be +nearly all red light, reflected from an opposite red brick wall, and +such a room would be ill-adapted to showing fine dress goods, because +the hues of the more delicate colors would be entirely changed, and +hence would give a false impression as to the relations of the several +colors in combination as seen in white or clear daylight. If a piece of +light blue silk is illuminated by sunlight passing through a bit of +yellow glass, no trace of green effect will be produced, but a gray +either slightly yellow or blue, according to the relative strength of +the colors in the glass and the silk. This same effect would be secured +if the yellow light of the setting sun illuminated the same material, +but under such conditions everything else would be similarly affected so +that the effect would not be so apparent. + +The idea that all color is derived from the three primaries, red, yellow +and blue, is so generally believed that our best writers among artists, +colorists and educators have repeated it for many years. George Barnard, +an English artist, in a very valuable book on water color painting, +speaking of the colors of the spectrum which may be re-combined to form +white light, says that if the yellow and blue rays are combined they +produce green. + +Chevreul also states in his invaluable book on color contrasts that +yellow and blue threads woven into a texture, side by side, produce +green. This statement is the more remarkable because the writer was a +very careful investigator and is but another evidence of the strong hold +which the Newton and Brewster theory has had on the public mind for so +many years. + +The story is told of an artist who wished to introduce into a +composition of still life a blue vase with a bit of yellow lace thrown +over a portion of it, and having been educated to believe that yellow +and blue made green, gave a green effect to the portion of the vase +covered by the lace. Had he known that blue and yellow light combined +make gray instead of green he would have avoided the error. + +The fact that gray is the product of blue and yellow light is sometimes +taken advantage of in forming backgrounds in lithographic printing, in +which a stippling of alternate dots of yellow and blue, very close +together but not overlapping, is used to produce a beautifully +transparent gray much more pleasing than any one tint of gray. This +result is due to the blending of the two colors in the eye with the same +effect as the colors of two rotating disks are mingled. The fact that +there is a difference between the color effects produced by mixing two +pigments and the mixing of the light reflected from similar colored +surfaces is a very strong argument for a system of color instruction +based on disk combinations, rather than on pigmentary mixtures. + +In order to obtain the most truthful effects of color in nature the +artist should have sufficient knowledge of the principles which govern +the combination of colors by reflected light, so that his reason may aid +his eyes. + +A little experimenting with the rotating disks and with pigments will +convince any one that the disk combinations form the only possible basis +at present known for logical color instruction. + + +Concerning the Complementary Colors. + +Having shown that the three colors, red, yellow and blue, can not be +combined to make an orange, a green or a violet of a corresponding +degree of purity, we will consider the other claim which is set up by +the advocates of the Brewster theory, namely, that the secondaries are +complementary to the primaries in pairs, the green to the red, the +violet to the yellow and the orange to the blue. + +As all color is contained in white light, if we take from white light +any given color, the color remaining is the complementary. If a small +disk of standard red paper is placed on a white wall and the eyes fixed +intently on it for a few seconds, and then the eyes slightly moved back +and forth, a ring of a bluish green tint will be seen surrounding the +red paper, or if the eyes are fixed intently on the disk for a short +time and the paper suddenly removed, a disk of the same blue green tint +will be seen in place of the red disk. This is called the accidental +color and is supposed to be identical with the complementary color, +although the image is too faint to give any very exact effect, but it is +sufficient to furnish a clue to the complementary, and we may infer that +a color between green and blue is that which is required. Now if we can +determine in what proportions red, blue and green must be united to +produce white light we may solve the problem. This is not possible in +the use of any pigmentary colors, because of the impurity of all +pigments as compared with spectrum colors. Although the mixture of +colored light reflected from the disks, which are made of pigmentary +colors, gives much purer color than the actual mechanical mixture of the +two pigments, still, because it is a reflection of pigmentary colors, it +is far lower in tone than the corresponding mixture of spectrum colors. +Therefore it can not be a pure white, but may be white in shade or a +neutral gray, which, as already shown, can be produced by the +combination of a white and a black disk. + +Therefore if red, blue and green disks of medium size are joined on the +wheel and in front of them small white and black disks are combined, we +have a means for solving this problem. If these various disks can be so +adjusted that when rotated the effect of the three colored disks is a +neutral gray, (or white under a low degree of illumination) exactly +matching a gray that may be obtained by adjusting the small black and +white disks, then one step in the solution is taken, as shown in Fig. +12. + +[Illustration] + +With such an arrangement a very close match is produced, when the +combined disks show the proportions to be R. 41-1/2, B. 22-1/2, G. 36 +for the larger disks, and for the small disks W. 15, and N. 85. Now if +blue and green are combined in the same proportions, as indicated above +and in quantities sufficient when added together to fill the entire +circle of 100 parts, blue will contain 38.3 parts and green, 61.7 parts, +as shown in Fig. 13, and the disks when rotated will give the color +which is the complementary of red: namely, a blue green. + +In the same way the complementary of each of the other standard colors, +and in fact of any color, may be obtained. + +The complementary of orange is another color between the green and blue, +but more largely blue. The complementary of green is a violet red, and +of violet a color between yellow and green, while yellow and blue are +very nearly complementary to each other. + +These figures furnish the results in a very well-lighted room, with a +perfectly white interior. It is a well-established fact that this +experiment is somewhat affected by the degrees of illumination, and also +that colored light from the walls and ceiling of a room must of +necessity have its effect, but all these matters are so insignificant as +to be of no material consequence in the æsthetic study of the subject, +and they can be very nearly eliminated when necessary by a careful +selection of conditions. Whenever accurate experiments in pigmentary +color comparisons are to be made, either by the use of rotating disks or +otherwise, it is desirable to have a very well-lighted room, with a +northern exposure and to select a morning or noonday light from a +slightly overcast sky. These conditions obviate the unpleasant effect of +direct sunlight in the room and also the very slightly blue effect of +the clear sky. These precautions are unnecessary in experiments relating +to the ordinary æsthetic consideration of color combinations, but even +in such work it is important to exclude all light reflected from +neighboring trees or colored buildings. Also the interior of the room +should be as free from color as possible; a clean white surface is +especially desirable. + +A Chart of Complementary Colors, shown in Fig. 14, has been found very +valuable in fixing in the minds of teacher and pupils the +complementaries of the six standards. In this chart, which is about +eighteen inches in diameter, the circles at the ends of the six +diameters are colored papers selected from the Bradley coated papers, as +approximating the true complementaries. In the majority of cases they +are not far from correct, but are least satisfactory in the blue and +yellow. Theoretically the complementary of the ideal standard blue is a +slightly orange yellow, and of the standard yellow a slightly violet +blue. But there is as yet no blue pigment in the market suitable for +commercial use which is free from a slightly violet effect. Therefore +the standard blue paper is practically as good a complementary for the +standard yellow as the violet blue paper. But notwithstanding these +slight imperfections which are at present unavoidable, the chart is a +valuable aid in fixing in the mind the positions of the complementary +pairs in the spectrum circuit. + +[Illustration] + +Each of the foregoing experiments furnishes an interesting class +exercise, and may be very closely repeated by the pupils with their +tops. Also the computation of the proportion of green and blue when +raised to the full circle may form a practical problem in proportion for +pupils of the higher grades. Taken together, these experiments prove +that the complementaries of the old primaries are not found in the +secondaries. + +The last claim of the Brewster theory is that the secondaries by +combination form three lines of colors peculiar to themselves, called +citrines, russets and olives. It is asserted that the mixture of orange +and green makes citrine; orange and violet russet; green and violet +olive. Although these names may be very convenient terms to express +three general classes of colors, they must of necessity be too general +and indefinite to be of value for accurate expression of color effects, +and are in fact so vague that hardly two persons can be found in a large +company who will agree as to the best expression of either of them. The +following are formulas for a number of colors in each class, as made +from analyses of colors coming under these names. It is an interesting +exercise to produce some of these colors by means of the rotating color +disks and test the opinions of the different members of a company as to +which best represents to each one of them a tertiary color, as citrine, +for example. For this purpose three different formulas may be shown at +the same time, with three sizes of disks. + + + Citrines. + + O. 7. Y. 13. W. 3-1/2. N. 76-1/2. + Y. 15. W. 4. N. 81. + Y. 13. W. 5. N. 76. G. 6. + O. 6. Y. 20. W. 4. N. 70. + O. 3. Y. 6. W. 8. N. 83. + + + Russets. + + R. 37. O. 8. W. 8. N. 47. + R. 79. W. 10-1/2. N. 10-1/2. + R. 33. O. 20. W. 6. N. 41. + R. 36. O. 4. W. 9. N. 51. + R. 47. O. 7. W. 8. N. 38. + + + Olives. + + G. 19. B. 11-1/2. W. 10-1/2. N. 59. + G. 13. B. 6. W. 12. N. 69. + G. 14. B. 12. W. 8. N. 66. + G. 10-1/2. B. 15. W. 8. N. 66-1/2. + G. 12-1/2. B. 5-1/2. W. 4. N. 78. + +The term citrine theoretically covers all possible combinations of +orange and green, but as generally understood those colors which are so +near the orange or the green as to very decidedly approach either the +one or the other are not included, and, as shown in the above analyses, +a citrine is a very broken color ranging from an orange yellow through +yellow to a green yellow. + +Although the russets would theoretically range from violet to orange, +yet the general conception of russet will hardly accept a violet red, +but will cover only the red and orange reds as above indicated, while +olives are confined to blue greens and green blues. + +These tests are based on combinations of the Bradley standard orange, +green and violet pigments, and therefore are far stronger in color than +those colors usually termed citrine, russet and olive, made by mixing +the pigmentary secondaries. For example, if a yellow and blue pigment +are mixed to form a green, and red and yellow pigments to make an +orange, and then this green and orange are mixed to produce a citrine, +the result will be very much darker and more broken than the mixture of +the purer orange and green colors used as standards. + +Restricted to these limits these names may become very useful terms for +general color expressions, as covering three different classes of broken +colors. If any one believes that these color formulas do not correctly +represent the three classes of colors indicated, a series of experiments +with even the small color top will prove very convincing. + +When the subject of standards as a means for identifying colors is +mentioned artists frequently express the feeling that the names of +pigments are good enough for them, such as Ultramarine Blue, Prussian +Blue, Vermilions, the Siennas, Indian Red, etc. The following are the +analyses of several samples of Vermilion, Burnt Sienna, Raw Sienna, and +Indian Red of the best tube oil colors in the market:-- + + + Vermilion. + + R. 80. O. 14. W. 6. + R. 87. O. 8. W. 5. + R. 50. O. 24. W. 26. + + + Burnt Sienna. + + R. 1-1/4. O. 6. W. 3. N. 89-1/2. + R. 22-1/2. O. 11-1/2. W. 2. N. 64. + R. 25. O. 12-1/2. W. 5-1/2. N. 57. + + + Raw Sienna. + + O. 18-1/2. Y. 6-1/2. N. 75. + O. 17. Y. 14. W. 1. N. 68. + O. 8-1/2. Y. 3-1/2. W. 2. N. 86. + + + Indian Red. + + R. 11-1/2. O. 7. W. 4. N. 77-1/2. + R. 13-1/2. O. 13-1/2. W. 2-1/2. N. 70-1/2. + +A careful examination of these formulas and a reproduction and +comparison of the colors on the color top will convince any one that in +no case does the commercial name determine the color with a degree of +accuracy sufficient for any valuable nomenclature. + + +Classification of Harmonies. + +The theory of the harmonies of colors is a subject which awaits very +careful investigation and a general discussion by artists and expert +colorists. Such investigations must include many experiments based on +common standards and uniform methods of measurements and records. + +Harmonies naturally seem to fall into a few general classes which are +convenient for comparison and discussion as well as for elementary +instruction, but no one person can set himself or herself up to decide +which are the _best_ harmonies. The practices and recommendations of +noted artists who have appeared to be gifted with intuitive perceptions +regarding color combinations have frequently included those for which +there seemed to be no recognized authority, and yet their beauty could +not be questioned. As the rules of grammar are but the correlation of +the practices of the best scholars, so the rules governing color +combinations must be the summary of the practices and recommendations of +the best artists, if they are to be generally accepted as final, and +hence we must patiently await the growth of similarly established laws +by the comparison of the opinions of critics of acknowledged ability in +various departments of the world of art. This has not been possible in +the past and can never occur until there is a language of color through +which color facts can be somewhat accurately expressed in verbal and +written language, and this language cannot exist until there is an +accepted alphabet of color on which it can be based. This alphabet is +now in part furnished by the spectrum standards and completed by the +pigmentary standards and the rotating disks made like them. Together +they form the basis for a nomenclature by the use of which the questions +involved in harmonies can be discussed and the results expressed in +written language. + +In the investigation of any subject with a view to elementary +instruction, classification is an important factor, but one which +heretofore has been almost ignored as regards color education. +Consequently at present the more definite division of harmonies into +classes is very much a matter of personal opinion, but Mr. Henry T. +Bailey, State Supervisor of Drawing in Massachusetts, has suggested a +very useful classification in which he arranges all harmonies under +these five heads: Contrasted, Dominant, Complementary, Analogous and +Perfected. + +_Contrasted._--The contrasted harmonies are those in which color is +contrasted with non-color, or more accurately in which an active color, +that is a tone from the spectrum circuit, is contrasted with a passive +color, white, black, gray or silver and gold; for example, a blue green +tint with white, or green blue with warm gray No. 1. + +_Dominant._--By dominant harmonies we mean those in which are combined +different tones from one color scale. For example, red tint No. 1, and +red shade No. 1, or a green blue tint, green blue, and a green blue +shade. A dominant harmony composed of grays, or white, gray and black, +is sometimes called a neutral harmony. + +_Complementary._--This term refers to those harmonies in which are +combined opposite or complementary colors in the spectrum circuit. The +best of them show not only opposition in color but also opposition in +tone. Thus, tints of one color with shades of its complementary produce +a more pleasing effect than do complementaries of equal value. The best +complementary harmonies contain one or more passive colors. + +_Analogous._--This name is applied to those harmonies in which are +combined tones from scales of neighboring colors in the spectrum +circuit. + +For example, in a composition of colors from that part of the spectrum +containing yellow, green yellow and yellow green the following simple +combination may be made: Yellow tint No. 1, green yellow and yellow +green shade No. 2. + +_Perfected._--By perfected harmonies we mean those in which the general +effect of one analogous harmony is complementary to that of another. + +The above classification of harmonies is very valuable for fixing in the +mind the various effects of color combinations, and yet they may seem to +somewhat merge into each other in their application, until the +underlying principles which govern them are understood. It is unwise to +suppose that because the above classification of harmonies is based on +the science of color we can infer that it furnishes definite rules for +producing best effects. + + +The Work of Chevreul Reviewed. + +The good or bad effect of two or more colors in combination in +decorative designs or fine art depends very largely upon phenomena +which are elaborately explained in a book entitled "The principles of +Harmony and Contrasts of Colours" by M. Chevreul.[A] The first edition +of this book was prepared in 1835 and published in 1838. The author had +at that time been employed for a number of years as superintendent of +the manufactory of Gobelin Tapestries in Paris under the control of the +French government. + +[A] The Principles of Harmony and Contrasts of Colours and their +Application to the Arts. By M. E. Chevreul. Translated from the French +by Charles Martel. Third Edition. London. George Bell and Sons. 1890. + +In this book are described in detail the results of a great number of +experiments which were instigated by complaints regarding certain colors +produced in the dyeing department of the manufactory, and which afford +the most elaborate exposition of the subject ever published. + +One of the first things which led Chevreul to make his investigation was +the complaint that certain black yarns used as shades in blue draperies +were not a full black but more or less gray. + +The author says in his preface, "The work I now publish is the result of +my researches on Simultaneous Contrasts of Colours; researches which +have been greatly extended since the lectures I gave on this subject at +the institute on the 7th April, 1828. In reflecting on the relations +these facts have together, in seeking the principle of which they are +the consequence, I have been led to the discovery of the one which I +have named the _Law of Simultaneous Contrast of Colours_." + +The closing sentence of the preface to the first edition and dated 1835 +is as follows:-- + +"I beg the reader never to forget when it is asserted of the phenomena +of simultaneous contrast, _that one colour placed beside another +receives such a modification from it_, that this manner of speaking does +not mean that two colours, or rather the two material objects that +present them to us, have a mutual action, either physical or chemical; +it is really only applied to the modification that takes place before us +when we perceive the simultaneous impression of these two colours." + +It was not till three years later that a publisher could be found for +this book, which is still a standard. + +The English translation comprises over five hundred closely printed +pages with many engraved and colored plates, and yet, it has been of +comparatively little value in _popular instruction_ because of the lack +of a generally accepted color nomenclature or list of well defined color +terms, by which the readers might have understood and repeated for +themselves the experiments described. + +Unfortunately Chevreul was fully impressed with the Newton-Brewster idea +of three primaries, red, yellow and blue, and therefore some of his +deductions from his experiments seem to have been more or less +influenced by the attempt to make them harmonize with this theory, and +yet the subject which he has treated so exhaustively and intelligently +is one of the most important in the æsthetic study and use of colors. In +all expressions of colors in combination with each other, whether in +nature, fine arts or the decorative and industrial arts, every color is +affected by its surrounding colors, a fact which is exhaustively treated +in this book. + +While with our present knowledge of the subject it does not seem that +the material use of color can be reduced to an exact science, this +should not prevent us from accepting all the natural and scientific aids +which have been or may be discovered toward this desirable result. +Because of this lack of scientific knowledge in Chevreul's time much of +the worth of his experiments is lost to us, yet there is very much of +value in his work, suggesting as it does experiments which may be tried +with present standards and modern methods. + +If the use of Maxwell disks had been known to Chevreul his deductions +from his experiments would have been quite different in their details. +For example, in accepting the proposition that there are three +primaries, red, yellow and blue, which may be combined in pairs to make +the secondaries, orange, green and violet, he states that owing to the +impurities of the pigments the secondaries are not as pure as the +primaries. Consequently he believes that this may account for many of +the shortcomings which he was too observing to overlook; but +notwithstanding such an error in theory this wonderful investigator made +many practical experiments and established very valuable facts regarding +color contrasts. + +The term Simultaneous Contrast seems rather restricted for a title +covering such a range of effects, and the author subdivides the subject +into simultaneous contrasts, successive contrasts and mixed contrasts, +which he defines as follows:-- + + +Simultaneous Contrast. + +"In the Simultaneous Contrast of Colors is included all the phenomena of +modification which differently colored objects appear to undergo in +their physical composition and in the height of tone of their respective +colors, when seen simultaneously." + + +Successive Contrast. + +"The Successive Contrast of Colors includes all the phenomena which are +observed when the eyes, having looked at one or more colored objects for +a certain length of time, perceive, upon turning them away, images of +these objects having a color complementary to that which belongs to each +of them." + + +Mixed Contrast. + +"The distinction of Simultaneous and Successive Contrast renders it easy +to comprehend a phenomenon which we may call the mixed contrast; because +it results from the fact that the eye, having seen for a time a certain +color, acquires an aptitude to see for another period the complementary +of that color, and also a new color, presented to it by an exterior +object; the sensation then perceived is that which results from this new +color and the complementary of the first." These last two effects may be +shown very clearly in simple experiments. + +There are various phenomena which may be classed as successive +contrasts sometimes called "after images." The phenomena which Chevreul +groups under the term "Simultaneous Contrast of Colors" belong to a +class of physio-psychological effects termed after images, and more +definitely to the subdivision called negative images. The positive after +images are not important in the consideration of the theories of color +and therefore are not described here. The specific effect most directly +involved in the subject of harmonies may be observed if the eyes are +fixed upon a small disk of red paper on a white wall for a few seconds +and then the paper is suddenly removed, as there will appear on the wall +in place of the full red disk a faint tint of a blue green. This is +called an after image, and is nearly or exactly a tint of the color +complementary to red. + +For making this experiment mount a circle of red paper, say three inches +in diameter on a square white card, four or five inches across, and +grasping the card by one corner hold it in front of a white wall or a +sheet of white paper pinned on any support. Tell the observer to look +intently at the red disk for a half minute, and then without giving any +notice suddenly remove it and ask what color is seen in place of it. At +the first trial the result may not be entirely successful, because the +eyes of the observer may naturally follow the red spot when it is +removed instead of remaining fixed in the original position, but a +second trial will bring the expected result. To illustrate mixed +contrast, fasten on the wall a piece of red tint No. 2 paper four or +five inches square. This may be very conveniently done by using a bit of +beeswax on each corner of the paper, which will not soil the wall. Then +having the three-inch circle of standard red paper mounted on a white +card somewhat larger than five inches square hold the card in front of +the red tint on the wall and repeat the experiment as before. The effect +now should be a three-inch disk of very light gray in the center of the +pink square, which is a "mixed contrast" according to Chevreul. The +reason is simple. The after-image or successive contrast of light +blue-green is projected on the red tint and being complementary the +resulting effect is a gray. If the red tint could be exactly graded to +the complementary effect in the eye the resulting gray circle would be a +true neutral gray. Another illustration of the same physical effect by +which the complementary is induced may be shown by substituting for the +tint of red a light tint of the blue-green paper retaining the full red +disk as before. The same blue-green after image is now projected on to +the light blue-green paper and hence a circle of more intense blue-green +is produced. Thus it is seen that Chevreul's successive and mixed +contrasts are both due to the same physiological effect, the only +difference being in the ground on to which the after image is projected. + +It probably is unnecessary to state that these experiments may be made +with any color and its complementary and that red and blue-green are +used here merely as an example. + +Another phase of the same physical effect is seen under other conditions +which may at first seem to be quite different from those described, but +which on examination appear somewhat similar. + +It is a well established fact that when two surfaces approximating each +other in color, as red and orange for example, are placed side by side, +both are rendered less brilliant, an effect which might be reasonably +expected because in order to see both the eye is naturally directed +first to one and then to the other, and in each case the after image +induced is a green-blue or blue-green, which being approximately +complementary to both, dulls both. Or in other words, it is as though +one examines for a long time a line of goods of similar colors so that +the eye becomes fatigued and the color dulled. It is said that a good +salesman of colored materials will endeavor to occasionally attract a +customer's attention for a few moments to some other colors +approximating a complementary, so that when the attention is again +directed to the goods under consideration the full effect of the color +may be secured. If it is true that the phenomenon of the after image is +the cause of the peculiar effects expressed by the terms simultaneous, +successive and mixed contrasts, and that by these effects all harmonies +in color are governed, it is certainly profitable to understand them +while using color material with the children, for their good as well as +our own pleasure. + + +Contrasted Harmony. + +Returning to our classification of harmonies, already stated, we find +the first to be Contrasted Harmony, which covers those combinations in +which a positive color, as a spectrum color for example, is combined +with white, black or gray, leaving out for the present silver and gold, +which may be confusing, and can at best be used only as outlines. + +The simplest combinations of colors are found in this class, all of +which are not equally harmonious, and some may not perhaps be entitled +to be classed as harmonies, although not positively inharmonious. In +this class, as in all others, there is involved contrast of tone and +contrast of color, which may best be considered in several divisions. + + +Color with White. + +According to the results of Chevreul's elaborate experiments the effect +of a combination of an active color with white is to render the color +more brilliant and to give to the white the effect of the complementary +of the active color. He admits that the modification of white is very +indefinite, but claims that, knowing what to expect, a complementary +effect may be seen which otherwise would not be noticed. There is also a +contrast of tone which in all cases tends to strengthen a color when +used with white. + + +Black with White. + +White and black are both intensified by combination with each other, and +this is the type of "contrast of tone." Contrast of tone is very clearly +shown when two or more grays of different tones are placed contiguous to +each other. This experiment is easily tried by mounting side by side +several strips of gray papers of different tones. If more than two are +used they should be arranged in order from lightest to darkest. In this +case each band will appear to be graded in tone from one edge to the +other, each being lighter at the edge next to the darker paper. + +This effect is plainly shown on the color wheel by producing several +rings of grays with white and black disks of several sizes graduated +from light at the center to darker at the circumference. + + +Color with Black. + +In consequence of this law of contrast of tone the contrast of black +with active colors generally tends to intensify the black and lower the +tone of the color, i.e., to weaken it as though white or light gray was +mixed with it, but this effect is modified by contrast of color. +Contrast of color is perceptible in black when combined with color +simply because the black is not perfectly black but a very dark gray, +and hence there is the same complementary effect which shows in white +and the lighter grays, but in a smaller degree. This effect is most +clearly seen when the color used in combination is blue or blue-green, +which induces in the black, yellow or red complementaries and gives the +black a "rusty" appearance. + +On the other hand, for example, red with black adds the complementary +green-blue to the black, which improves it. The orange and yellow have a +similar effect by their blue complementaries to relieve the black from +any rusty appearance and a green yellow induces a violet effect in the +black. + + +Colors with Gray. + +When a color is contrasted with white the light from the pure white +surface is so intense as to very largely obscure the complementary +effect on the white, while on the other hand the feeble light from the +black is not favorable for the exhibition of a complementary. So it +might naturally be inferred that some tone between the white and black +would be much more favorable than either for the observance of this +effect, which is proved by experiment to be the case. This fact is +illustrated in the familiar experiment of placing a white tissue paper +over black letters on a colored ground, by which the black is +practically rendered a neutral gray and the color a light broken color, +and in appearance the gray letters receive a color complementary to the +color of the page on which they are printed. Each color has its own tone +of gray most susceptible to this complementary effect. The truth of this +proposition can be perfectly shown on the color wheel by forming with +three different sizes of disks a gray ring on a colored surface. For +example, select small disks of orange and white of equal size, then a +black and a white disk of the second size and an orange and a white disk +of the third size. First place the large orange and white disks on the +spindle, then join the two medium-sized white and black disks and put +them in front of it, and lastly add the small orange and white disks. By +rotation the result is the required neutral gray ring on a light orange +surface. By the joining of the white disk with each of the orange disks +the orange surface may be changed to a variety of tints for trial with +the different grays which may be made from the black and white disks, so +that the best tones of both orange and gray may be secured. When the +best proportions are obtained the effect will be surprising, because +when such disks are properly adjusted the complementary effect is so +strong in the gray that it appears as a very definite color, a broken +green-blue. It is said that the tone of gray should have the same +relation to the tone of the color that its complementary would have in +order to get best results. + +For the same reason if a circle of lightest neutral gray paper, say four +inches in diameter, is placed on a piece of yellow paper about six +inches square, and another circle just like it is put on a piece of blue +paper of similar size, it will be quite difficult to convince any one +who has not previously seen the experiment that both gray circles are +from the same sheet of paper. The results observed in this experiment +are produced by a contrast of tone which causes one to look lighter +than the other, and a contrast of hue which gives one a blue and to the +other a yellow hue, in contrast to the color on which it is mounted. + + +Contrast of Colors. + +If two colors contiguous in the spectrum circuit are placed in +juxtaposition the effect of the contrast of hue is to throw them away +from each other. For example, if orange red and the red orange papers +are put side by side the former will seem more red and the latter more +orange. Therefore, when colored papers are pasted up or laid in order to +form a spectrum, for example, the colors not only fail to blend together +but each line of contact is very disagreeably prominent. + +If two colors are separated by a narrow strip of light gray, gold, black +or white, the effect is greatly improved. For this reason a design in +analogous colors is often improved by separating certain colors by a +fine line of black, gold or gray. + +If two colors not closely related to each other in the spectrum circuit +are placed in juxtaposition, each is modified by an effect which is the +complementary of the other. For example, if red and yellow are placed +side by side, in contact, the red is rendered more violet by the added +effect of blue, which is the complementary of yellow, and the yellow is +modified by the blue-green complementary of the red, which tends to dull +the yellow and change it slightly toward green. + +If blue and yellow are joined both are improved, as the two are so +nearly complementary to each other that each is intensified by +simultaneous contrast, blue being added to blue and yellow to yellow. + + +Dominant Harmonies. + +In the use of colored papers those combinations classified as dominant +harmonies are the most simple to make because they are all in one +family, as the little children like to consider the relationship. The +red family consists of the standard red and its tints and shades, or in +other words the red scale. With the several papers ready made this +harmony becomes very simple, but in the use of pigments the production +of a true color scale is not a thing to be confidently undertaken by a +novice. + +In a very elaborate color chart for Primary education prepared with +great care by Dr. Hugo Magnus and Prof. B. Joy Jeffries, and published +at large expense about ten years ago with hand-painted samples in oil +colors, this lack of classification of hues is very noticeable, although +at that time it was by far the best publication of the kind and was not +criticised on this point. + +For example in a scale of five tones of red the following are the +analyses, beginning at the lightest tint:-- + + Tint No. 2, O.45, Y.20, W.18, N.17. + Tint No. 1, O.69, Y.3, W.7, N.21. + Standard, R.75, O.25. + Shade No. 1, R.85, O.15. + Shade No. 2, R.75, N.25. + +In this scale according to the Bradley nomenclature the standard or full +color is a very fine vermilion expressed by R.75, O.25, i.e. an orange +red, and therefore in order to form a perfect scale both tints and +shades should be in the orange reds, but in fact the tints are both +broken colors, the lightest a very broken yellow-orange and the deeper +tint very nearly a light broken orange. The lightest shade is a pure +orange-red but with a larger proportion of red to the orange than the +standard, while the darkest tone is a pure shade of red. Thus in the +five tones we have the following arrangement, beginning at the lightest +tint:-- + +Broken yellow-orange, broken orange, orange-red; another pure orange-red +but more red, and lastly red shade, thus embracing in one orange-red +scale parts of four scales from yellow-orange to red. In these defects +in the best chart of its kind in the market only ten years ago is seen +the best possible evidence of the advance made since that time in color +perception, largely due to the use of the color disks in determining +scales. While in the use of colored papers the dominant harmony may be +the simplest and the one in which there is least danger of really bad +work, some of the combinations are much better than others, and +superiority is perhaps secured as much by the relative quantities of +each tone used in a composition as in the selecting of the tones. In the +entire range of the spectrum even this class of harmonies involves +problems too complex to be solved by a few rules, but it is a very +interesting field in which the children may safely be allowed to roam +and experiment. + + +Complementary Harmonies. + +Complementary Harmonies may perhaps be classified next to dominant +because they are more easily described and more definitely limited than +those effects termed Analogous Harmonies. A pure Complementary Harmony +consists of the combination of tones from two scales which are +complementary to each other. For example, the red scale is complementary +to the blue-green scale, as also the green to the violet-red, and so on +throughout the entire range of the spectrum scales. + +As explained on Page 50, the complementary of any color can be +determined by means of the color wheel, or nearly enough for æsthetic +purposes with the color top. But even though the colors complementary to +each other may be determined scientifically there will always remain +ample opportunity for the exhibition of color sense and artistic feeling +in the choice of colors because the difference between a very beautiful +composition in complementary harmony and an indifferently good one may +be found in the choice of tones, or in the proportions of each and their +arrangement with relation to each other. This harmony certainly contains +great possibilities with comparatively few limitations. + +While it is perhaps approximately true that complementaries are +harmonious in combination, yet best authorities do not seem to fully +sustain this opinion and it is quite evident that pure tones of some +complementary pairs when combined are very hard in their effects, if not +positively unpleasant. This can be relieved very decidedly and +oftentimes very pleasing results secured by modifying the colors to +tints and shades or various broken tones. + +But as has before been stated, and must be constantly reiterated, all +fine questions of harmonies can only be determined by a general +agreement of experts in color based on accepted standards. + +Analogous Harmonies may seem to be more closely related to the dominant +than the complementary and hence, logically, should perhaps be +considered before the complementary, but there may be greater +difficulties involved in the analogous than in the complementary because +they are not so definitely limited. + + +Analogous Harmonies. + +In an Analogous Harmony we may use tones from a number of scales more or +less closely related in the spectrum circuit. In some parts of the +spectrum it is possible to include a much wider range than in others. It +is comparatively easy to produce safe compositions through that part +bounded by the orange-yellow and the green scales, while from the green +to the violet experiments are much less safe. + +In almost any section of the spectrum a range of three scales is safe if +the tones are properly selected and proportioned, and in some sections +as many as five or six may possibly be included, by an artist, with +striking and pleasing effect. + + +Perfected Harmonies. + +The compositions which have been classified as Perfected Harmonies may +be defined as the combination of two Analogous Harmonies which as a +whole are approximately complementary to each other, or in which the key +tones of the Analogous Harmonies are complementary to each other. Such +compositions may be entirely composed of analogous colors with the +addition of but one complementary color, and this is in fact a very safe +harmony, especially if that one color is used as a border line or an +outline here and there in the design, in which case it may sometimes be +strong in color and tone. + +The chart of spectrum scales as made from colored papers cut in squares +is of great value in explaining the classification of harmonies. Fig. 15 +is a reduced copy of the chart of pure spectrum scales shown on page 41, +and which is here placed horizontally for convenience. + +[Illustration] + +The black zig-zag lines are designed as graphic illustrations of the +various classes of harmonies. + +Contrasted Harmonies as defined are limited to designs in one active +color mounted on a background of one of the passive colors and thus need +no further explanation, although experience will prove that some +combinations are very much more pleasing than others. + +The Dominant Harmonies which are defined as combinations of tones from +one scale cannot be made more clear by a diagram, which would be simply +a straight vertical line through any one of the eighteen scales, +indicating that the five tones in that scale or any selection from them +may be used in a Dominant Harmony. + +The Analogous Harmony has given students the most trouble and the +diagram is principally prepared to illustrate the great variety in +harmonies of this class. + +Commencing at the left, the first line indicates a harmony in three +scales beginning with red-violet shade No. 2 and passing to shade No. 1, +then to standard violet and thence to blue-violet tints No. 1 and No. 2. + +The next is in two scales, beginning at violet-blue shade No. 2, thence +to blue shade No. 1; back to normal violet-blue; again into the blue +scale at tint No. 1 and back to violet-blue tint No. 2. + +The next begins at green-blue shade No. 2 and ends in green tint No. 2. +Theoretically the line beginning in G. B. S. 2. and leading to G. T. 1. +and thence to Y. S. 2. may represent an Analogous Harmony, but it may be +doubtful whether a range of such an extent in that part of the spectrum +could be made very harmonious. This may be divided into two harmonies at +G. T. 1. and each part may be extended to G. T. 2. + +The straight line from G. S. 2. to O. Y. T. 2., embracing five scales, +might be extended to include the joining broken line running into the Y. +O. scale and finishing at O. Y. S. 2. + +The remaining lines at the red end of the chart may be considered as +indicating one harmony in six tones, or two harmonies in three tones +each. + +If the two ends of the Chart of Spectrum Scales are joined so as to form +an endless band or a cylinder, bringing the violet-red scale adjoining +the red-violet, as in the spectrum circuit, the same graphic +illustration could be given of harmonies extending from violet to red. + +The complementary harmonies require no diagrams, because they are +limited to the combination of two scales complementary to each other and +would be represented by two parallel vertical lines through any two +complementary colors, as for example vertical lines through the red and +green-blue scales. + +The compositions termed Perfected Harmonies may be fairly well +illustrated in the diagram by the combination of the line in V. B. and +B. with the broken line commencing in G. Y. S. 2. and ending in G. Y. T. +2.; or again by the line in R. V. to B. V. combined with the straight +line from G. T. 1. to Y. S. 2.; or the broken line G. to Y. S. 2. Or +again, the entire range of the double combination O. S. 2., O. R. T. 2., +V. R. and O. R. S. 2. with the broken line from G. B. S. 2. to G. T. 2. +Another sample of Perfected Harmony is found in the union of line O. R. +S. 2., V. R., O. R. T. 2., with line G. B. S. 2. to G. T. 2. These +diagrams are designed to show the range or extent which a single +composition may cover under its special definition and do not imply a +necessity for using at one time all the colors through which the line +passes, or that they are specially good harmonies. + +A striking illustration in nature of a Perfected Harmony was seen one +bright autumn morning in a species of woodbine covering the side of a +red brick building, in which could be discovered an infinite variety of +colors in greens and violet-reds whose tones were increased in number +and intensified in effect by the reflections of the sunlight and the +corresponding shadows, producing very light tints and very dark shades +of various hues of the complementary colors, and forming a complicated +and wonderfully beautiful effect very definitely classified as a +Perfected Harmony. + + +Field's Chromatic Equivalents. + +So much has been said and written about Field's Equivalents that there +is a very general impression among artists and others that they +constitute an important element in harmonious compositions of color. +This proposition as given in Owen Jones' Grammar of Ornament is as +follows:-- + +"The primaries of equal intensities will harmonize or neutralize each +other, in the proportions of 3 yellow, 5 red and 8 blue--integrally as +16. + +The secondaries in the proportions of 8 orange, 13 purple, 11 +green--integrally as 32. + +The tertiaries, citrine (compound of orange and green), 19; russet +(orange and purple), 21; olive (green and purple), 24--integrally as +64." + +In commenting on this in "The Theory of Color" Dr. Von Bezold says: "It +is often maintained that the individual colors in a colored ornament +should be so chosen, both as regards hues and the areas assigned to +them, that the resulting mixture, as well as the total impression +produced when such ornaments are looked at from a considerable distance, +should be a neutral gray. Starting from this idea, the attempt has been +made to fix the proportional size of the areas, which would have to be +assigned to the various colors usually employed in the arts, for the +purpose of arriving at the result indicated. This idea was especially +elaborated by Field, an Englishman, who gave the name of 'chromatic +equivalents' to the numbers of the proportions obtained, a designation +which has since been very generally adopted. In reality, however, these +'chromatic equivalents' have no value whatever." + +The same writer also says: "It will always remain incomprehensible that +even a man like Owen Jones in the text accompanying his beautiful +"Grammar of Ornament" should have adopted this proposition in the form +given to it by Field, since among all the ornaments reproduced in the +work just mentioned there are scarcely any which will really show the +distribution of colors demanded by the proposition in question."[B] + +[B] The Theory of Color in its relation to Art and Art Industry. By Dr. +William Von Bezold. Translated from the German by S. K. Koehler with +introduction and notes by Edward C. Pickering. Boston; L. Prang & +Company, 1876. + +In accordance with this eminent authority any one familiar with disk +combinations will know by experiment that no combinations of red, yellow +and blue approaching the proportion named by Field can produce a neutral +gray effect in the eye. + + +Colored Papers. + +For practical study of color some economic material is absolutely +necessary and nothing so well combines manual work with æsthetic +cultivation as colored papers, if specially prepared in standard colors +and with a dead plated surface. + +In the manufacture of the colored papers adopted in the Bradley scheme +of color instruction, the effort has constantly been to produce the +closest possible imitations of natural colors consistent with the +material. + +With this aim in view we have secured the brightest possible red, +orange, yellow, green and blue and have chosen a violet which has the +same relation to the other pigmentary colors that the soft beauty of the +spectrum violet bears to the other parts of the spectrum. + +It however happens that in the pure aniline colors discovered in recent +years a line of purples and violets has been found so much purer than +the other pigments that we cannot with our red and violet make a perfect +imitation of the brightest aniline purples used in some of the goods now +in the market. Purple is a general name for the several modifications of +violet, red-violet and violet-red as Peacock Blue is a name given to the +beautiful hues of blue-green and green-blue. These aniline purples are +but another indication that we may expect such advance in the science of +pigment manufacture in the comparatively near future that a much purer +line of standards may be secured than is now possible in papers. But it +does not materially affect the value of the present standards as long as +they are accepted as indicating the kind of color, i.e., its location in +the spectrum, and the _artists_ certainly should not object to this lack +of purity, because their only present criticism is that the standards +are too "raw," which is but another term for pure. + +In the glazed colored papers in the market we may find some of these +purples, especially in the tints or "pinks" which when placed beside the +unglazed surfaces of the standard papers render the latter quite +subdued. But in primary color education there is no place for these +purest purple papers, until chemistry discovers other colors +correspondingly brilliant to complete a purer chart of spectrum colors +than is now possible. + +[Illustration] + + + + +Color Teaching in The Schoolroom. + + +In the preceding sections of this book the author has aimed to so guide +the teacher who is looking for aids in elementary color teaching that +she can by actual experiment determine for herself the truths regarding +color, and hence be able to choose such facts as are suited to the needs +of her pupils from time to time, and to present them in such a logical +order as to render them of the greatest value in practical results. + +It should be possible to interest the children in color more easily than +in any other subject. Examples are always around them at home, in the +street, in the garden and the field, if perchance they are fortunate +enough to see the field, and those who see no attractive colors +elsewhere certainly should find them in the schoolroom. To a teacher who +is in love with the subject the world will be full of examples, every +day. The beautiful yellows and greens of the spring leaves, the flowers, +birds and butterflies of the summer, the autumn foliage, the sunsets and +blue and purple mountains of winter, are but hints of the multitude of +object lessons in color all around us; and if none of these are +available the more commonplace subjects found in the latest seasonable +colors of dress goods and house furnishings will be almost equally +valuable. When the children are once interested they will discover, +through their own observation, examples of such value as to surprise one +who has had experience with only the old methods of trying to teach +color, or rather the utter lack of all methods heretofore in vogue. + +The value of kindergarten training has been so thoroughly demonstrated +as to be beyond controversy, and all progressive school boards must soon +recognize the necessity of adopting kindergarten methods in the lower +primary grades, until such time as it may be possible to introduce the +complete kindergarten for all the children, to precede the school +proper. The conditions prevailing in the kindergarten are peculiarly +favorable to the study of color, because of the opportunities afforded +for introducing it in connection with the manual exercises of the gifts +and occupations. + +The first gift of the kindergarten, as originally introduced by +Froebel, consists of six soft worsted balls in six colors, which he +seems to have selected as standards without care or knowledge regarding +the theory of "three primaries and three secondaries," although no doubt +he may have indifferently accepted it, because it was the only one in +his day suggesting any logical scheme of color combinations. + +The use of colored papers educationally in a systematic way originated +in the kindergarten, and comprised folding, cutting, pasting and +weaving, from which some color instruction was incidentally derived by +the children. But with the papers formerly in the market little special +training in the selecting, matching and naming of colors, such as is of +so great value at the present time, was possible. The call for better +colors in papers came first from the kindergartners, and the diversity +of ideas expressed by them caused the writer to institute a series of +investigations which have resulted in the system to which this book is +devoted. The occupations of paper folding, cutting and pasting have been +adopted into the primary school from the kindergarten, and there is no +question but the occupation of paper mat weaving as practiced in the +kindergarten should also be introduced in the lowest primary grades for +those who have not had kindergarten training, because of its value in +simple manual work and in designing symmetrical patterns and harmonious +color combinations. + +By general consent colored papers have been chosen as the most available +material for this work, because while relatively cheap, the purest +colors possible in pigments are secured, and the material is adapted to +the most elementary manual training and education in form as well as +color. It is not the author's aim to here provide a definite course of +lessons to be given in a perfunctory way or in a fixed order, but rather +to furnish suggestions based on practical work in the schoolroom that +may be of value to those who have carefully examined the preceding pages +of this book and become familiar with the experiments described. The +suggestions are based on the experience of teachers who have been using +the system here advocated for several years and testing it in various +ways, and therefore it is hoped that they may be of value to any earnest +worker who is not fully satisfied with her efforts in teaching color up +to date. Consequently a brief outline of work is suggested for the +earliest years, according to a definite order, and then further +suggestions and experiments are introduced, somewhat in the order in +which they may naturally present themselves. + +The time has passed when it is necessary to offer any argument for the +study of color in the schoolroom. Every child begins his school life +with many color impressions which he has been acquiring since the day +when his baby fingers first stretched toward some bit of color, and his +development demands a clear presentation to him during the earliest +school years of the fundamental facts concerning color upon which all +later work must be based. + + +The Glass Prism. + +A glass prism is one of the first requisites in the appliances for +teaching color, and a prism which may be bought for a few cents will +work wonders in the hands of an interested teacher, although a more +perfect instrument, such as is sold with physical apparatus, will give +colors which are better defined. + +Experience in many schoolrooms has proved that a spectrum can be shown +somewhere in the average room at some hour in every sunny day, +especially in the longer days of spring and summer, and it is well to +have the prism when not in use so fixed as to project the spectrum into +the room much of the time, so that it may become familiar to the younger +children. Observation of the spectrum enthuses the children with a +feeling for color which can be developed in no other way, and they never +tire with watching the wonderful vibrating effects of the liquid colors; +and by studying it the mental image of each of the six colors becomes as +distinct as that of the cube after it has been handled and modeled. If +the schoolroom is provided with shutters or dark curtains a much better +spectrum can be produced by closing them, as even a slight change from a +bright sunny daylight has a very perceptible effect in bringing out the +colors. A person who has never seen a carefully prepared spectrum in a +room almost perfectly dark can have no realizing sense of the purest +possible expressions of color. + +Accident once disclosed a simple means by which one teacher secured a +very good spectrum. There was a deep, dark closet opening from the +schoolroom and one bright day when the prism was being used the spectrum +was accidentally thrown into this closet, and the sudden and +enthusiastic expression of approval by those pupils who were in position +to discover it was certainly interesting to the teacher of that country +school, with a dark coal closet. + +In a spectrum such as can be produced in a dark room with the most +perfect form of prism, all the various colors can be separated and +carefully examined and by special appliances compared with pigmentary +colors. Experiments of this kind are exceedingly interesting and +instructive, and demonstrate the wonderful intensity and purity of the +spectrum colors as compared with the purest pigmentary colors that can +be produced. Such experiments were carried to a great degree of +perfection when the six standard colors for the Bradley Colored Papers +were selected. + + +How the Bradley Color Standards Were Chosen. + +After many months of labor in securing samples of material colors, and +many days spent with the spectrum, a committee of artists, scientists, +teachers, and artizans unanimously decided that æsthetically and +psychologically the colors adopted were the best possible material +expression of the six localities in the spectrum corresponding to the +feeling or psychological perception of red, orange, yellow, green, blue +and violet. Many subsequent experiments have apparently proved that +practically the same six colors best serve the purpose of primaries from +which to make all others by combination. + +In accordance with these selections the educational colored papers have +been made, and since that time an expert scientist has accurately +located each of these colors in the spectrum by its wave length. +Consequently after the children have come to know the six colors in the +sun spectrum the six standard colors of the papers may be shown as the +best imitations possible. In studying the six colors from the spectrum +in a schoolroom it frequently happens that one color may be best seen on +the floor, another on the wall or even the blackboard, and another on +the ceiling, and after the order of the colors in the whole spectrum has +been observed, it is well to get each color where it can be best +secured. + + +Paper Color Tablets. + +When the spectrum has been studied so that the children have some idea +of the six colors and their location relative to each other, give each +of the children a package of the colored paper tablets, one inch by two +inches, containing the eighteen normal spectrum colors, i.e., those in +the central vertical column in the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Page +41, and tell them to select from the eighteen the six which they have +seen in the spectrum and which may be named to them as red, orange, +yellow, green, blue and violet.[C] + +[C] Tablets of paper instead of cardboard are recommended because in +primary instruction the standards or types of color presented to the +child ought to be the purest possible expressions of the colors +represented, and a piece of color material cannot meet this requirement +after having been used one year by a child. The necessary expense of +cardboard tablets practically precludes a new supply each year. But the +papers can finally be used to form, by pasting, some chart or +combination which the pupil may be allowed to own as a sample of his +work. + +If a sheet of neutral gray cardboard can be secured for use on each desk +all early color work will be more valuable, because of the undesirable +effect of the usual yellow or orange color of the wood of the desk. + +If some of the pupils do not make the correct selection of the papers it +may be well to let the error pass for that time and have another +exhibition of the spectrum before the next trial. Get as many of them as +possible to make the selection of the six colors from the eighteen +solely by comparison with the spectrum. Later if some are still unable +to succeed, a paper spectrum may be shown to them, or what is better, +six bits of paper like their own, pasted on a card, with an interval as +wide as two papers between each two. When every child can readily select +the six standard colors from the eighteen then all of them may with +advantage be told to lay the six in a row on the gray cardboard or desk, +in their proper order, and sufficiently separated to allow room for two +other papers between each two. When all have made the attempt and some +have failed to arrange the papers correctly the card having them +properly mounted may again be shown and each one in error may make the +necessary corrections by comparison. + +In a solar spectrum such as is possible in the ordinary schoolroom the +intermediate colors between the standards cannot be very distinctly seen +but the child can be shown that between the red and orange, with which +he is familiar, there are colors different from both and possibly he may +be led to see that these colors seem to be a mixture of the two. With +this impression in the minds of the children the following experiment +may be a very interesting psychological test of the natural color +perception of each child, or in other words his "color feeling." + +Ask the children to arrange the remaining twelve papers between the six +standards in pairs and one outside of the red and violet at the ends. +This exercise will serve to bring each of the other colors to the +critical attention of the children so that they may not be entirely +strangers to them in the succeeding exercises. At this stage the color +wheel or color top or both will be most valuable. + + +Color Wheel or Top. + +If the wheel is available let the teacher place on it combined red and +orange disks of medium size and in front a small red disk. Before +beginning the six papers should be laid on the desk in order, separated +by two spaces. Call attention to the fact that the red disks are like +the red sample of paper. Explain how the disks are joined and that the +two larger ones can be made to show more or less of the orange and the +red. + +Then introduce a small amount of orange, perhaps not enough to cause the +effect to be perceived by the children when the wheel is in motion, and +rotate. Ask if they see any difference between the small disk at the +center and the larger surface. Add more orange till they see a +difference, and continue to add orange to the red until nearly one-half +the disk is orange or till it may be questionable whether the color made +by rotation is more nearly orange or red. This point will be reached +before the orange nearly equals the red, because the orange is more +luminous. Explain that all these colors which the children have been +seeing are orange-reds and ask the pupils to select that color from +their papers which is orange-red, or most like the orange and red. In +the meantime set the orange and red disks to the proportion of R. 85, O. +15, which nearly or exactly matches the orange-red paper. When the +children have selected the paper which they think is orange-red, put the +wheel in motion and ask them if their selection is like the color on the +wheel. If not, see that all understand and have selected the orange-red +paper to place next the red sample. When this has been done remove the +disks from the wheel and readjust the larger ones so as to show a +combination that is nearly all orange; then replace them and substitute +in front a small orange disk instead of the red one and proceed to show +a series of red-orange colors from the orange toward the red, as +previously shown from the red toward the orange. With experiments +before adults this break in the order of proceeding and the change of +disks would be unnecessary, but with children it is desirable to mark a +distinction between the orange-red and the red-orange colors, a fact +which is emphasized by the mechanical manipulation. When the children +have been asked to place their red-orange paper in its proper position +the disks may be set to R. 50, O. 50, and an imitation of their +red-orange paper shown. + +If the school is provided with color tops their use may be begun at this +point by allowing the children to attempt to repeat the wheel +experiments with the tops and thus produce for themselves an imitation +of the two intermediate spectrum hues in the papers. In all combinations +of colors by disks as well as pigments there is some loss of purity and +hence the colors of papers in the intermediate hues may be a little +brighter in some cases than the results of two disks in combination. + +This suggestion for the presentation of one pair of the intermediate +spectrum hues may serve to illustrate all the others, and the time which +can be devoted to the whole subject must determine the detail with which +each pair is treated. + +If the tops are provided in a school but no color wheel then the teacher +must begin with a top as a substitute for the wheel and let the children +follow her with their tops by dictation. At first this will be much more +difficult than if the wheel could be used, but after the children have +become somewhat familiar with the handling of the top by dictation the +result will be quite surprising. There will be in every school some +children who are exceedingly awkward in the manipulation of the top, +until the happy day arrives when all school children are graduates of +kindergartens. At present the average kindergarten pupil will handle the +top better than the children in the lowest primary grades who have not +had the advantages of kindergarten instruction. + +When all the hues except the red-violet and violet-red have been +located, the teacher should be prepared with a chart made by pasting +the eighteen paper samples, including standards and intermediate hues, +in their order on a strip of paper, so that by bringing the ends +together the children may see that when they place the violet-red at one +end of their row and the red-violet at the other they are really +completing a spectrum circuit and forming a chart of natural colors. +Ever since Newton's day it has been fashionable to speak of the spectrum +as nature's chart of colors. This expression is but partially true and +is entirely false if we mean that it contains examples of all the colors +in nature. The spectrum is valuable in color study only from the fact +that it enables us to establish permanent standard colors from which all +colors in nature and the arts may be named and by the combinations of +which such colors may be imitated. + +Unless the standard colors in a system of color instruction are the +closest possible imitations of corresponding spectrum colors there is no +logical relation between such a system and a chart of colors based on +the spectrum, because the spectrum does not furnish a complete circuit +of colors and its only value is, as before stated, in furnishing a +permanent standard on which to found a nomenclature of colors. + +Up to this time we have not suggested the practice of introducing any +natural objects or calling the attention of the children to various +colors found in their surroundings. Each teacher must use her judgment +regarding this matter, but as soon as miscellaneous colors are to be +considered the two questions of hues and tones are necessarily involved, +and experienced teachers have been divided in their opinions as to which +should be first considered, tone or hue. When it was thought necessary +to occupy a long time in presenting all the spectrum colors this +question assumed greater importance than at present, but very many +teachers have become convinced that we have not been giving the children +credit for nearly as much ability in the recognition of colors as they +deserve, and that with the methods at present in use the six standard +colors and twelve hues can be learned in a few weeks, during which time +it may not be necessary to discuss the complicated combinations of +colors in nature and our domestic surroundings. This is not intended to +mean that the child will in this time be able to name the various hues +when seen separately, but that having the eighteen paper tablets he may +feel their relations to each other to such an extent as to be able to +lay them in their spectrum order. Those pupils who seem to have no +natural perception of the proper relationship of colors will require +more experience than the rest of the class before they can be sure of +their colors and the teacher must exercise her judgment in deciding how +long to hold the class to this subject of spectrum hues on their +account. + +As in other class work it is not necessary that the dull children +perfectly comprehend all that is told them at each step, because there +will always be some in a class who will comprehend and thus the others +may learn by observation, and in this subject particularly every step in +advance must necessarily include a continual review of all that has +preceded. + +Consequently when a teacher has given as much time to the study of hues +in the arrangement of the papers as she deems profitable, considering +the entire time that can be devoted to the subject during the year, she +may well proceed to tones. + + +The Study of Tones. + +It is unnecessary at the beginning to use the word tones with the +children, as "light and dark" colors will be understood more clearly. +The first lesson in light and shade may be given with some book bound in +a bright color, as red for example, which is common in cloth bindings. +For this experiment partially open the book and hold it vertically, with +back toward the class, in such position that a strong light from one +side of the room will fall directly on one cover while the other is in +the shade. If properly manipulated this simple experiment may be made +effective to an entire class by moving the book in various directions to +accommodate the several members, so that at different times all the +pupils may get very clearly the idea of light and dark colors in the +same scale. + +This idea can be more clearly shown by means of a simple model very +easily made for the purpose. Take, for example, three pieces of standard +red paper, 4×4 inches, and mount them on a piece of cardboard side by +side, in a row. Trim the card parallel to the edges of the papers, +leaving a margin of uniform width, and with the point of a knife "score" +a line partially through the card from the front, at the joining of the +papers, so that it can be neatly bent to the form shown in Fig. 16 which +represents the model as seen by the class. By holding one of the rear +edges with each hand the faces can be folded to different angles with +each other and the model turned to different positions with relation to +the children. Possibly the windows at the rear of the room may be +partially darkened to advantage; they certainly can be if they have a +sunny exposure at the time. The object is to give a fair daylight on the +central surface for the standard, a strong light on one side to form a +tint of the standard and a shadow on the other for a shade of the same +color. + +[Illustration] + +By a trial before school, in company with some other teacher perhaps, +the best positions for different parts of the room as well as best +lighting of the room may be determined in advance and thus such a +success achieved with the first experiment that the whole idea of tint +and shade may be impressed on each child for all time and definitions +firmly fixed in his mind for these two most abused words in our every +day vocabulary. Added interest may be excited by showing similar models +in several other colors during the same lesson, thus avoiding the +possible impression on any mind that the term tint and shade apply to +any special color. + +Tints and shades may also be shown very beautifully by some kinds of +colored materials. Colored satin ribbons, folded or crumpled, and +velvets and plushes give good object lessons. One of the most effective +exhibitions of tints and shades may be found in a material used for +upholstering furniture and technically called "crushed plush," which is +a worsted plush embossed in figures and very changeable in its effects +as its relation to the light is changed, giving at the same time very +light tints and very dark shades in different portions. + +Having thus shown how real tints and shades in nature are produced, the +color wheel may be introduced with advantage. If it were practicable to +use opaque colors in the school they could be employed to show that the +effect of a tint is produced in pigments by mixing white with the +standard color and a shade by mixing black with it, but while the +mixture of white may produce the best imitations of some tints in +nature, the same result does not hold good in the use of black to form +shades, and black pigments are rarely used for this purpose, because +they impart various untruthful hues, according to the colors with which +they are mixed. + +For this reason, and others which will appear later, the white and black +disks of the color wheel are found to be better than any other single +method for representing tones. In shades the black disk produces by far +the best imitation of nature, and so does the white disk for more than +half of the colors. But, as previously stated, there is an effect which +has never been satisfactorily explained by which the tints of red and +blue especially receive an unexpected violet gray tinge by rotation. +Therefore in showing tints on the wheel it is well not to show very +light tints of red or blue until the class has received some impressions +of tones in other colors. In the orange and violet the tints seem to be +practically perfect, and in the yellow and green not far from correct, +but in the green they run a trifle toward the blue and in the yellow +become a little gray or broken. But in the shades the black disk has +done wonders for color instruction, particularly in making standard +neutral grays which cannot be imitated by white and black pigments, and +in determining the shades of yellow, as has been explained. See Page 36. + +Therefore, after having shown actual tints and shades with the folded +models, and perhaps the other materials suggested, place a colored disk +combined with a white disk on the wheel, and in front of them a smaller +colored disk of the same color as the larger one for comparison, and by +changing the relative proportions show various tints. Then substitute a +black disk for the white and show shades. If, for example, orange is +taken, all proportions of both tints and shades may be shown very +truthfully, the deeper shades being very rich browns. Having in this way +impressed on the children the terms tints and shades, give them the +paper tablets, Selection No. 2, in the deepest tints and the lightest +shades, reserving the lightest tints and deepest shades found in +Selection No. 4 for later use. + +Let each member of the class lay the spectrum in the normal colors and +then select the six tints corresponding to the six standards. When all +of them think they have done this, tell them to choose the corresponding +shades. If a number fail in the attempt it may be well to set up three +sizes of disks on the color wheel in shade, standard and tint of red. In +showing a tint of red with the disks it is not a good plan to make a +tint lighter than R. 95, W. 5, which is about R. T. 1. If the wheel is +not available samples of papers may be held up in the three tones so +that the class can get the correct idea. There is no best method of +reaching all pupils in any class, but in some way at this point in color +education every pupil ought to acquire such knowledge of the subject as +to be able to select at least the six standard scales in three tones, +and this should be practically accomplished before much time is devoted +to the consideration of such materials as flowers, fabrics and +miscellaneous papers, because until the child understands both hues and +tones he can do nothing in either analyzing or naming colors. + +As soon as these six scales are familiar to the pupil the selecting of +various objects and placing them in general families may be very +valuable work, but until that time the classification of colors cannot +be carried out very accurately, or at best the families will be very +likely to include some uncles, and cousins and aunts, and yet, on the +other hand, if even the distant relatives are recognized in preference +to strangers the choice will give evidence of a sympathetic feeling for +color relations, favorable to future progress and indicating something +of the natural color sense of the child. + +If such occupations as paper cutting and pasting, or weaving of mats +have a place in the school, combinations in two or three tones of the +six standards can now be made. At this stage names are of little +importance, but they will come in play early, as it is natural to give +names to everything, and as soon as the child knows the definite names +which belong to colors they will be used. + + +Neutral Grays. + +Immediately following the first idea of tints and shades or tones, the +grays should have attention, because in the occupations with papers they +will play an important part. For this purpose white, black and the +neutral gray papers are included in Selection No. 2 of the paper tablets +and should be made familiar to the children while the tints and shades +are being studied. The suggestion that a neutral gray is a tint of black +or a shade of white may or may not aid a child to better understand the +relation of the neutral grays to the color chart, but it is a thought +worthy of the attention of the teacher, as expressing a fact important +in the consideration of color impressions. This gray may also be +illustrated on the wheel by the union of white and black disks, and +should be early presented in this way, because this is the only means by +which we can secure standards for pigmentary neutral grays, and the fact +that this special and peculiar gray is so important in all color +investigation furnishes sufficient argument for making it prominent +before the other grays. + +Even at this early period in his color education a child may be shown +that white in shadow is a gray, and the fact that it is a neutral gray +is not essential to him, as he has no knowledge of any other gray and +probably it may not be desirable to call attention to the various +classes of grays until after the broken colors have been studied. A +sheet of white card or heavy paper may serve to show that white in shade +or shadow is a gray. + +For this experiment fold the card or paper very sharply and hold it with +the folded edge vertical and projecting toward the class, and in such a +position relative to the windows that half of the paper is in very full +light and the other in shadow. + +A comparison of neutral gray paper No. 1 with a true shade of white or +white in shadow, as explained on Page 36, will serve to connect the gray +papers with the shades of white. After the idea of tones is made clear +to the children, so that they can readily form the six standard scales +in three tones, the completing of the Chart of Spectrum Scales in three +tones will be merely a matter of drill, as no new principles are +involved. + +When the pupils can lay the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in three tones +correctly, the thoughtful teacher will naturally ask herself what is the +next logical step, and it may at first seem as though the completion of +the chart in five tones ought to immediately follow. But it is very +desirable that the pupils begin as early as possible to make a practical +application of their knowledge of colors to the familiar objects around +them; and it is evident that before any very accurate comparison of +miscellaneous colors can be intelligently undertaken the child should +be able to recognize the effect of mixing gray with a color, in +distinction from the pure tints and shades of that color. + + +Explanation of Broken Colors. + +Very few of the common colors seen in fabrics and house furnishings are +either full pure colors or their tints and shades, but nearly all are +broken colors. Therefore it seems desirable to introduce the study of +broken colors, before considering the extreme tones of the pure colors +as represented in tints and shades No. 2 in the Chart of Pure Spectrum +Scales in five tones. + +This order of presentation seems specially advisable, because the +distinguishing of the extreme tones where the color is lost to so great +a degree is more difficult than anything connected with the subject of +broken colors. Therefore at this point paper tablets, Selection No. 3 +are introduced. From this collection of tablets when properly arranged a +Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales of twelve colors in three tones may be +made, and in addition there are tablets illustrating the several classes +of grays other than neutral grays. + +The first result desired is a definite distinction in the mind of each +pupil between a broken color and any tint or shade of the same color. In +order that the explanation of this distinction shall be intelligently +comprehended each child must have such a clear idea of the meaning of +the terms "tints" and "shades" that he shall not fail to readily +understand any statement regarding them because of confusion as to the +definite meaning of these terms. The child should know clearly that a +"tint" is a color in a strong light or mixed with white either in +pigments or disks, while a "shade" is a color in shade or shadow, i.e. +with less than the normal illumination, or mixed with black. When this +has been fixed in the mind of a pupil, and he has also been shown that +neutral gray, the only gray he has learned anything of, is the result of +the combination of white and black, it will not be difficult for him to +see that a broken color is produced by the mixture of both white and +black with the pure color. Much later it will be possible for him to +think of a broken color as a tint thrown into a shade or shadow, as may +be observed by casting a strong shade or shadow on to a piece of colored +paper in some one of the _tints_ of the spectrum scales. + +The color wheel and tops furnish the simplest and most effective means +for the presentation of broken colors, because they automatically +analyze every color shown, so that the pupil sees for himself just what +has been done. + + +An Exercise in Broken Colors. + +After having refreshed the minds of the class as to tints and shades and +grays by a brief restatement of the conditions involved in these terms, +the idea of broken colors may be shown with disks on the color wheel or +top. For this experiment place on the spindle, for example, a +combination of orange, white and black disks, and in front of these +disks put combined orange and black disks of smaller size. Make the +proportions of the larger disks, O. 15, W. 4, N. 81, and the smaller, O. +26, N. 74. In rotation the larger ring will show a dark broken orange +and the inner one a dark shade of orange, and the difference in quality +will be readily seen and felt. The effect is more valuable as a lesson +if the tones of the two are nearly equal, although this is not +necessary. + +A very much lighter pair of colors is secured by using the following +formulas, O. 43, W. 26, N. 31, and O. 77, W. 23. + +Both these experiments may be made with the primary color wheel or color +top. If the High School Color Wheel is in use so that the four rings of +color can be shown at one time, the two larger rings may show two tones +of broken color and the smaller rings a tint and shade of pure color. + +In the use of tops two may be spun at once as near together as possible, +the two broken tones on one top and the tint and shade on another. + +In green similar experiments may be tried, with the following +formulas:-- + + G. 20, W. 6, N. 74. + G. 36, W. 13, N. 51. + G. 34, N. 66. + G. 82, W. 18. + +Practically the same methods may be adopted in the study of broken +colors as were employed with the pure colors. + +The paper tablets contained in Selection No. 3, comprising broken colors +and grays, will now come into use to accompany experiments with disks in +broken colors. The tablets in the broken spectrum colors number +thirty-six, comprising twelve scales of three tones each, thus producing +but one intermediate hue between each two standards, instead of two, as +in the chart of pure colors. + +Exercises in selection and arrangement of these tablets to form a chart +may be employed to familiarize the pupils with the new kind of colors. +The colors are not so pronounced as in the pure scales, and for this +reason the arranging may be more difficult, but the smaller number of +hues simplifies it somewhat, so that, with the better-trained color +perception which the child will have acquired at this stage, no greater +effort will be required than in the earlier lessons. + +When the Chart of Broken Scales can be laid with reasonable accuracy by +the majority of the class the two charts as far as studied, each in +three tones, may be laid on the desk at the same time for comparison and +thus the difference in quality or character emphasized. + +All kinds of materials may now be considered and classified, and great +interest inspired in the subject generally. Flowers, autumn leaves, +dress goods and anything with color can be studied and the colors +analyzed. Before the study of broken colors was taken up some few +flowers could be quite accurately matched with the disks and analyzed, +but now very many more of the flowers and plants as well as other +material can be accurately analyzed and a definite nomenclature given to +each sample. + +Selection No. 3 of tablets contains, in addition to the twelve scales of +broken colors, six colored grays, which must at some stage be considered +in connection with gray colors or broken colors, to which they are +closely related. As has already been stated, there is a point where by +the continued addition of gray to a color, the color is so far obscured +that its identity is practically lost and the result becomes a colored +gray. + +Although the line between gray colors and colored grays cannot be +definitely drawn there are so many grades visible beyond the point where +the exact color used with the gray can be determined, that the term +"colored gray," which covers the three classes, warm, cool and green +grays, is convenient for common use. + +It is very desirable that a distinction be observed between the terms +"colored grays" and "gray colors," and therefore broken colors may be a +better term to apply to the gray colors because a distinction is thus +more strongly emphasized between these two classes of colors. + +The following table furnishes formulas from which the colors of the +Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales may be very nearly imitated on the High +School Color Wheel. Each scale should be shown by the three smaller sets +of disks, namely, the smallest for light tone, next size for standard or +medium, and the third size for darkest tone. + +This list of disk combinations is furnished here for the convenience of +teachers who may have occasion to illustrate the compositions of the +various classes of colors comprised in the Chart of Broken Spectrum +Scales, which covers the entire range of the æsthetic colors and from +which by modifications every subdued color in material substances can be +analyzed and definitely named. + +Owing to the color usually found on the interior of a schoolroom and +the lack of pure white light from outside it is not probable that these +proportions will exactly match the papers, but the formulas will enable +the teacher to approximate the color, and then the more accurate match +in conformity to the conditions in each case may be secured by making +changes in accordance with suggestions from a majority of the class, an +exercise which will afford valuable practice for the pupils. + + + Formulas for a Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales. + + LIGHT. MEDIUM. DARK. + + RED. + R.68, W.18, N.14. R.59, W.5, N.35. R.22-1/2, W.5, N.72-1/2. + + ORANGE RED. + R.51, O.17-1/2, W.23, N.8-1/2. R.47, O.16, W.8-1/2, N.28-1/2. R.15, O.7-1/2, W.7-1/2, N.70. + + ORANGE. + O.43, W.22-1/2, N.24-1/2. O.34-1/2, W.10, N.55. O.15, W.5, N.79-1/2. + + YELLOW ORANGE. + O.23, Y.15, W.27, N.35. O.24-1/2, Y.17-1/2, W.15, N.43. O.10, Y.4-1/2, W.6, N.79-1/2. + + YELLOW. + Y.34, W.30-1/2, N.35-1/2. Y.24, W.12-1/2, N.63-1/2. Y.12-1/2, W.5, N.82-1/2. + + GREEN YELLOW. + Y.24, G.13, W.28, N.35. Y.25, G.10, W.17, N.48. Y.11, G.13, W.10, N.66. + + GREEN. + G.16, W.9, N.75. G.34, W.19, N.49. G.23, W.41, N.36. + + BLUE GREEN. + G.8-1/2, B.7-1/2, W.7, N.77. G.22, B.18, W.12, N.48. G.24, B.25, W.23, N.28. + + BLUE. + B.22-1/2, W.6, N.71-1/2. B.38, W.13, N.49. B.36, W.29, N.35. + + BLUE VIOLET. + B.13, V.9-1/2, W.6-1/2, N.71. B.13, V.25, W.15, N.47. B.20, V.15, W.29, N.39. + + VIOLET. + V.20, W.13, N.67. V.51, W.24, N.25. V.61, W.32, N.7. + + RED VIOLET. + R.17, V.10, W.5, N.68. R.16-1/2, V.45, W.13, N.25-1/2. R.23, V.40, W.26, N.11. + +In preparing the papers for the Chart of Broken Spectrum Colors the +selection of the tones of the several colors has been made in accordance +with the æsthetic color feeling of those to whom the matter was +intrusted, but the hues of the colors are based on the standards of the +pure spectrum colors. + +If these colors are considered independently of their relation to a +general system of color education, it may seem that a stronger and purer +line of colors would be more beautiful; but the more broken or subdued +colors have been chosen after very careful consideration, because they +are intended for elementary instruction and therefore should be so far +removed from the pure color scales as to impress themselves on the minds +of the children as a distinct and representative class of colors. When +the color sense of the pupils has been sufficiently cultivated to +observe smaller distinctions, a variety of color scales much less broken +may be shown with the disks. + +Different selections for a score of charts could be made, all beautiful +and representing broken colors, but after much consideration these +thirty-six were selected from a very large number of hand-painted +samples made for the purpose, as furnishing a sufficient number of +typical broken colors for elementary color instruction, and in such hues +and tones as to form a harmonious chart for comparison with the Chart of +Pure Spectrum Scales. + + +Certain "Color Puzzles." + +When the children have advanced far enough to understand the analysis of +a color, i.e., to correctly name a color, exercises which may be called +color puzzles can be introduced from time to time with great interest +and profit. + +The idea is simply to suddenly show to the class a series of disks in +rapid rotation and ask them to guess what colors it is composed of, +i.e., what the definite name of the color is. + +The following is a suggestion for this exercise, supposing that a broken +green yellow is to be shown:-- + +Select a green, a yellow, a white and a black disk of medium size and +combine them as follows: Y.20, G.10, W.10, N.60. Then, having previously +removed the nut from the spindle of the wheel and laid it in a +convenient place, take the combined disks and lay on the top of them any +other disk of a larger size, with the center holes of all corresponding +with each other and place all these disks on the spindle of the wheel +with the larger disk still covering the face of the others. Having +previously furnished an assistant with a sheet of cardboard of +sufficient size to conceal the disks from the class have it held in +front of the wheel while the disk which conceals the combination is +removed, the nut screwed to place and the disks put into rapid rotation; +then order the card taken away and ask the class what color they see, +still continuing the rotation. + +The correct answer should be broken green-yellow, and not a shade of +green-yellow, a broken yellow-green, a tint of yellow or a yellow shade; +for there is but one true name and that should be stated. Definite +expressions of color are as possible as the terms used regarding other +scientific subjects, and should be encouraged. + +Much interest can be inspired and valuable instruction imparted to the +children by experiments with the color wheel, but whenever color +analysis is the object in view, if disks of more than one of the +standard colors are used in the same combination they must be of colors +adjacent to each other in the spectrum. + +For example, if a blue and a yellow disk are united and placed in +rotation the result may be a blue gray, a yellow gray, or perhaps very +nearly a neutral gray, because blue and yellow are so nearly +complementary to each other. But a nomenclature of the resulting color +effect expressed in terms of blue and yellow is not of practical value, +because it is evident that in the analysis of a gray-blue, yellow has no +logical place. If in an attempt to match a color which seems to be a +broken blue, something else besides the blue, white and black is +required, it must be either green or violet, i.e., one of the two +standard colors adjacent to the blue in the spectrum. In other words, +every color in nature is a spectrum color, i.e., either a pure spectrum +color, a tint or a shade of a spectrum color, or a broken spectrum +color. Hence every color can be matched, and therefore analyzed by the +combination of one disk of a standard color with a white disk, a black +disk or both, or else by two adjacent spectrum standards with white and +black or both. + +There are many combinations of disks outside the limitations above +named which are valuable and interesting in color investigation when not +used for simple analysis, but if they are presented as pleasing +experiments before the pupils can understand their logical relation to +the subject of color education, the result may be entirely misleading +rather than instructive. + +In making experiments in broken colors with the wheel the most +satisfactory results are secured in orange, violet, green and yellow, +while the red is fairly good and the blue less satisfactory than the +others because of the slight effect of gray or violet which comes into +the lighter tones by rotation, to which reference has already been made. + +As explained on Page 54, the so-called tertiary colors, russets, +citrines and olives were formerly supposed to be classes of peculiar +colors to which these names were given. The fact that these are all +broken spectrum colors was first demonstrated by the use of the color +wheel and they are now quite generally accepted as such by those who +have given heed to modern methods of color instruction. + +As already shown the disks have also seemed to correctly define the +several scales of colors, so that in contrast to the color charts of a +dozen years ago a distinction is clearly drawn between the colors in the +yellow and the orange scales, or even between the yellow-orange and the +orange-yellow scales, so accurately do the disks determine the hue of a +color. + +When the pupils have progressed so far that they can arrange the paper +tablets to form the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in three tones and +also the Chart of Broken Scales, they will be prepared to intelligently +begin the use of papers in cutting and pasting designs in the several +classes of harmonies, but before most effective results can be produced +the lightest tints and deepest shades of the full chart of pure scales +in five tones must be considered. + + +Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed. + +The entire mastery of these extreme tones will be quite difficult +because they are so far removed from the standards, and the children +can hardly be expected to recognize and name them when seen separately. +If a pupil is able to correctly arrange them in connection with the +other tones of the chart, his accomplishment will show a high grade of +color perception. But these extreme tones are introduced because their +use in the more advanced work of paper cutting and pasting produces +stronger and more beautiful harmonies and a higher degree of color +training than would result were the tints and shades nearer the +standards in tone. + +No detailed rehearsal of the lessons for this work is necessary to +enable a teacher who has pursued the course of instruction thus far to +complete it in a logical way, and relatively little time will be +required by the pupils to become sufficiently familiar with these tones +for practical purposes, because of their more acute color perception +which will be developed at this period. + + +The Work of Cutting and Pasting. + +In the study of color the work of cutting and pasting designs in +educational colored papers affords the earliest and best practical +expression of the color feeling which has been acquired and stimulates +the further development of color perception. The order in which the use +of these papers can be most profitably taken up in the occupations of +cutting and pasting may be determined by a careful consideration of the +subject of harmonies as explained quite fully in the foregoing section +entitled "Practical Experiments," Pages 67 to 73. + +The first in order is Contrasted Harmony, in which cut papers in one +color may be mounted on a ground of some passive color as white or gray. +In selecting the gray, analogy is usually preferable to contrast, while +neutral gray is fairly safe for all colors. According to this suggestion +the warm grays may be used with the warm colors and the cool grays with +the cool colors, and in a majority of the cases the lightest tone of +gray is preferable. + +Without question Dominant Harmonies or the arrangement in families are +the most profitable and safe for early practice. In this class a light +tint may be used for the background on which to mount any of the other +tones of the same scale. Beyond these two classes of harmonies the order +of presentation must be determined by the teacher. If the complementary +is attempted with simple geometrical forms a light tint may most safely +be selected for a background in the least aggressive of the two colors +and the design or pasted forms in some of the complementary tones other +than the normal color. Do not attempt to combine full complementary +colors in elementary work. + +The Analogous Harmony may be used in simple designs with beautiful +effects when judicious selections are made, but owing to the latitude +necessarily involved in the definition of this class of combinations the +children cannot very early be trusted to make their own selections. + +It is evident that nothing can be attempted in the Perfected Harmonies +in any of the ready-cut forms, but beautiful results can be produced in +this class with well-drawn and accurately cut ornamental designs in +colored papers, which may even surpass in strength and beauty any +effects which can be produced in water colors such as can be used by the +children. + +For earliest practice in making designs in colored papers the ready cut +forms of the kindergarten, technically called "parquetry papers" are +very convenient and may be procured either with or without gum on the +back. These are prepared in various geometrical forms based on the +one-inch standard, among which the most useful for pasting decorative +designs are the circle, half-circle, square, half-square and equilateral +triangle. Where models and tablets are used in form study the tablets +may serve as patterns from which the children can mark out the papers +which they can then cut for themselves, and thus the oval and ellipse +may be added to the forms, and also practice in accurate cutting +secured. + +In the use of tablets as patterns the outlines should be made on the +backside of the paper, by holding the tablet in place with one finger +and working carefully around it with a well-pointed pencil. The marking +to the pattern and cutting to the line provides valuable elementary +practice in manual training. As it is the prime object of these papers +to treat of color no attempt is here made to give directions for +designing units of ornament or for folding and cutting designs. All such +exercises furnish the best possible practice in both designing and +manual work, but they belong more directly to the department of drawing +and are fully treated in the hand books explaining modern systems of +drawing. We offer here a number of simple arrangements of such forms as +may be found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the form study +tablets as before mentioned, with the addition of a few other figures +which involve some very simple designs for free-hand cutting. + + +A Variety of Designs. + +The accompanying illustrations show a number of simple arrangements of +such forms as are found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the +form study tablets already mentioned, with the addition of a few other +figures which include some very simple forms requiring free-hand +cutting. Suggestions for more elaborate designs and specific directions +for paper cutting can be found in elementary books treating of +decorative drawing and those devoted solely to paper cutting. + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 17 to 25 show arrangements of one-inch kindergarten parquetry +papers in one color, used as units to form border designs in contrasted +harmony on a white or a gray ground, in all of which there is repetition +of form as well as color. A narrow strip of paper in the same color as +the units may be used at top and bottom to finish the design. + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 26 to 37 show border designs, each of which is made with one form +in two colors or tones in alternation. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 38 and 39 show border designs in one color, with forms marked from +the elliptical and oval tablets and cut by hand. In Fig. 39 borders are +made by combining half-squares which may be used with or without narrow +strips of the same color. + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 40 and 41 are made by using one form with alternation of tone and +of position. Fig. 41 is derived from Fig. 40 by laying the dark squares +with the corners in contact and placing the light squares over them. + +Fig. 42 shows alternation of form and color or tone, which is also the +scheme employed in Fig. 43 in a design less simple with the addition of +the half-circles. + +Figs. 44 and 45 show two other simple and pleasing designs with +alternation of both form and tone or color. + +Figs. 46, 47, 48, and 49 comprise designs in two forms and two tones or +colors, in which some hand cutting is necessary on the part of the +pupils. + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 50 to 54 are rosettes made from parquetry papers with the addition +of a small circle or square at the center cut by hand. + +[Illustration] + +Figs. 55 to 60 are principally hand-cut forms, and 61, 62 and 63 show +surface patterns made from parquetry squares and half-squares. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +Colored papers can be used more advantageously in decorative designs +than in imitations of natural objects, for which water colors are much +better suited, but some copies of natural flowers and autumn leaves have +been made in colored papers which were exceedingly close imitations of +water color paintings when seen at a little distance, rivaling in the +case of the autumn leaves the best water color effects in brilliancy and +depth of color. + +There need be no definite rules governing the continuation of color +study from this point by a teacher who is interested in the subject and +has tried the experiments suggested in the preceding pages. The work +will become very interesting at this stage, because now all sorts of +material may be introduced for analysis and classification and from this +point forward, to the highest achievements of the artist, nature will +furnish abundant stimulus to color thought and investigation, if the +foundation has been laid according to the true theory of color +perception which it is the object of this system to explain. + + +Analysis of Color Materials. + +A valuable and interesting phase of color investigation and color +training may be found in the analysis and naming of the natural colors +found in flowers, minerals and the plumage of birds. The necessity for +a definite and adequate nomenclature which naturalists experience in +this department of education has been emphasized by the publication +within a few years of a book entitled "A Nomenclature of Colors for +Naturalists, and a Compendium of useful knowledge for Ornithologists." + +This book has been prepared with great care by Robert Ridgway of the +United States National Museum, and contains a large number of +hand-painted plates showing nearly two hundred colors which represent +selections from three hundred and fifty names of colors which are given +in English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Norwegian or +Danish.[D] + +[D] A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists and Compendium of useful +Knowledge for Ornithologists by Robert Ridgway, Curator, Department of +Birds, National Museum. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1886. + +The fact that a book involving so much technical knowledge and the +expenditure of so much time and money was deemed justifiable is an +evidence of the great need for some definite nomenclature. + +In the introduction the author says: "Undoubtedly one of the chief +desiderata of naturalists, both professional and amateur, is a means of +identifying the various shades of colors named in descriptions, and of +being able to determine exactly what name to apply to a particular tint +which it is desired to designate in an original description. No modern +work of this character it appears, is extant,--the latest publication of +its kind which the author has been able to consult being Syme's edition +of 'Werner's Nomenclature of Colors,' published in Edinburgh in 1821. It +is found, however, that in Syme's 'nomenclature' that the colors have +become so modified by time, that in very few cases do they correspond +with the tints they were intended to represent." + +The following are the opening sentences of the preface: "The want of a +nomenclature of colors adapted particularly to the use of naturalists +has ever been more or less an obstacle to the study of Nature; and +although there have been many works published on the subject of color, +they either pertain exclusively to the purely scientific or technical +aspects of the case or to the manufacturing industries, or are otherwise +unsuited to the special purposes of the zoologist, the botanist and the +mineralogist." + +In the same book the Chapter on Principles of Color opens with the +following sentences: "The popular nomenclature of colors has of late +years, especially since the introduction of aniline dyes and pigments, +become involved in almost chaotic confusion through the coinage of a +multitude of new names, many of them synonymous, and still more of them +vague or variable in their meaning. These new names are far too numerous +to be of any practical utility, even were each one identifiable with a +particular fixed tint. Many of them are invented at the caprice of the +dyer or manufacturer of fabrics, and are as capricious in their meaning +as in their origin; among them being such fanciful names as 'Zulu,' +'Crushed Strawberry,' 'Baby Blue,' 'Woodbine-berry,' 'Night Green,' +etc., besides such nonsensical names as 'Ashes of Roses' and 'Elephant's +Breath.'" + +These extracts from this valuable and interesting book by an author of +large experience are quoted here to emphasize the practical necessity +for more definite color education based on analysis and nomenclature. + +With the color wheel or color top, the colors of flowers and leaves as +well as all other objects in nature and art may be analyzed and named, +and the names definitely recorded in the terms of a nomenclature based +on permanent standards. + +The following list of flowers and leaves of plants and trees with their +analyses in terms of our nomenclature is taken from a recently published +paper entitled "On the Color Description of Flowers," by Prof. J. H. +Pillsbury, to whom the writer is indebted for some of the earliest +suggestions regarding the practical application of the scientific facts +of color to color teaching, and also for valuable scientific work which +he has done including the exact location of the six color standards in +the solar spectrum by their wave lengths:-- + +"With these standards to work from, I undertook to determine the color +analysis of certain of our common flowers. The following results, will, +I think, be interesting to botanists. The numbers given indicate per +cent. of color required to produce the hue of the flower:-- + + Common forsythia, F. viridissima: Pure spectrum yellow. + Fringed polygala, P. paucifolia: R. 48, V. 52. + Wistaria, W. frutescens, wings: R. 11, V. 89. + Wistaria, W. frutescens, standard: R. 9, V. 79, W. 12. + Flowering quince, Cydonia japonica: R. 95, V. 2, W. 3. + Wild cranesbill, Geranium maculatum: R. 28, V. 66, W. 6. + +The variations of color in the early summer foliage is also interesting. +The following analyses are for the upper side of fresh and well +developed healthy leaves. It is not impossible that a little attention +to these variations in the color of foliage on the part of artists would +save us the annoyance of some of the abominable green which we so often +see in the pictures of artists of good reputation:-- + + White oak: Y. 7.5, G. 11.5, N. 81. + Apple: Y. 5, G. 13, W. 2, N. 80. + Copper beech: R. 17, V. 2, N. 81. + Hemlock: Y. 2, G. 9, N. 89. + White pine: Y. 2.5, G. 11, N. 86.5. + White birch: Y. 5.5, G. 11.5, W. 1, N. 82. + Hornbeam: Y. 5.5, G. 12.5, N. 82. + Shagbark hickory: Y. 4.5, G. 9.5, N. 86. + +These analyses were made in a moderately strong diffused light with +Maxwell disks of the standard hues referred to above." + +These are but a few of the numerous flowers the colors of which may be +perfectly imitated and consequently analyzed and named with the color +wheel or the top. In fact for individual work in natural history the top +is more convenient than the wheel and sufficiently accurate for all +practical purposes, while it is a very fascinating occupation for child +or adult. + +In the use of disks for analyzing colors it must be remembered that +every material color is some quality of some color in the spectrum +circuit, and therefore may be matched with not more than two standard +disks, either alone or with white or black or both. If more than two +color disks, besides white and black, are used they will neutralize each +other more or less, and a neutral gray or a gray and some spectrum color +will be the result. For example, if yellow and blue in nearly equal +parts are introduced in connection with red and orange, the yellow and +blue being nearly complimentary to each other will produce practically a +neutral gray, and the result will be the same as if only red, orange, +white and black were used. + +[Illustration] + +Owing to the recent advances in the art of dyeing there are some textile +goods which are too intense in color to be exactly imitated by the disk +standards, but this fact need not prevent a practical analysis of such +colors, because by very slightly reducing with white the color to be +examined the same color is retained, the modification making it, of +course, somewhat lighter. Fig. 64, showing a small circle representing a +disk of the material mounted on thick paper, illustrates this statement. +Suppose we have a piece of rich brown cloth, so intense in color that +when red, orange and black are combined in the proportions of R. 22, O. +16, N. 62, the material is still a little richer in color than can be +made with the disks of the color wheel. If we introduce a small amount +of white into the brown of the material we may hope to match it with the +disks and this may be done by cutting a bit of fairly heavy white paper +in the form shown in the diagram and loosening the nut of the color +wheel slightly, after which we insert the point of the triangle under +the nut so that when tightened the white paper may be held in front of +the brown disk, as in the illustration. Trim the outer end even with the +disk and then rotate. If the effect of the white is too great trim off a +little from the side of the white paper to make it narrower, until a +perfect match is secured. + +The small disk in rotation is then of the same color but not quite so +intense as before, or in other words, is a very deep tint of the color. +In this way the Nomenclature can be recorded as follows: Brown 95, W. 5, += R. 22, O. 16, N. 62. + +This result does not often occur, but the subject is noticed here in +detail that no one may be in doubt when such cases do come to light, as +they will sooner or later. + +The aniline colors give some purples which are much more brilliant than +either the violet or red which otherwise should by combination produce +them, so that with these standards they cannot be made, but must be +reduced with white, or possibly with white and black. + +If a color wheel is not available many of these experiments may be tried +on the color top, but not as satisfactorily, because of the accuracy +necessary in cutting so small a disk in a woven material. In using the +top for analysis of all ordinary colors, the best plan is lay the +material on a table or other level surface and spin the top on it. If +quite an accurate test is desired the cardboard disk of the top may be +trimmed down to the size of the largest paper disk, so that there will +be no intervening ring of light color to separate the color of the +rotating disks from the material on which it is spun. + +Practical applications of the color top are already being made, as for +example, in the selection of house furnishings. For this purpose disks +of the top are combined at home to produce the desired colors to match +the wood finishings and papers or draperies in a partially completed +room, the top being used as a guide in preliminary selections of +additional materials from the stores. + +If a number of colors are required it is convenient to use several +combinations of disks, each set being slightly gummed together. In this +way standards for various colors with a top spindle for rotation in the +salesroom may be carried in a very small space. + + +The Bradley Colored Papers. + +As every competent artisan must understand the use for which each +implement is designed, in order to secure the best results with it, +possibly a brief explanation of the principles on which the colors in +the Bradley Educational Colored Papers are selected and classified may +be of value. In the sample books of these colored papers there are four +sections. The first section of the book, following the title leaf called +"Pure Spectrum Scales" consists in part of the six standard colors, red, +orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, with two intermediate hues +between each two standards, which eighteen colors form the central +vertical column in the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales shown on Page 41. + +In addition to these eighteen normal spectrum colors, there are two +tints and two shades of each, thus producing eighteen spectrum scales of +five tones, in which the normal colors as indicated in the central +column aim to be the purest possible pigmentary expressions of the +spectrum colors represented. + +In determining the number of colors to adopt in the preparation of the +papers enough have been selected to furnish types of all the colors in +the spectrum, and also the hues between red and violet, but at the same +time the number has been so restricted as to secure a reasonably simple +nomenclature of the intermediate hues. A hue of a color is defined as +the result of the admixture of that color with a smaller quantity of +another color; thus a hue of red approaching the orange is an orange hue +of red, or an orange-red. If a small amount of red is added to orange +the result is a red hue of orange, or a red-orange. + +Therefore in selecting two hues between each two standards, rather than +a larger number, the simplest nomenclature possible is secured, and one +in which no mental effort is necessary to recall the color indicated by +each symbol. For example, we have four colors indicated as R, OR, RO, O; +red, orange-red, red-orange, orange; or more extended, red, orange hue +of red, red hue of orange, orange. Thus by using as symbols familiar +terms, no effort of the memory is required to recall the color indicated +by each symbol, as would necessarily be the case if there were a greater +number of hues and therefore more arbitrary symbols. + +The use of rotating color disks on the wheel and the top by which an +infinite variety of intermediate hues can be made and accurately named +by the pupils reduces the required number of papers to those types +necessary for first primary work, and thus prepares the child for the +use of pigments at an earlier age than would be possible without such +color instruction. + +The second section of the sample book contains white, black and grays as +indicated on the separating fly leaf. In these the best pigmentary +expression of black and white are furnished. In material colors as found +in industrial products, there are various so-called blacks and whites. +For black there are blue-black, green-black, and brown-black; and in +white, cream-white and pearl-white. Cream-white is a yellow-white and +pearl-white a blue-white. In fine white papers either blue, red or +yellow is generally added to the pulp to counteract or cover up the gray +tone of the natural material. The standard black here presented is the +best possible pigmentary imitation of a very deep black hole, as for +example, the projecting end of a large iron water or sewer pipe of +considerable length buried in the ground, which is the blackest thing +known. The white is an imitation of new-fallen snow. Neither of these +standards can be very nearly approached although we often hear of things +as "white as snow" and as "black as night." In the same group and +following the black and white are two examples each of the four kinds of +grays: Green gray, warm gray, cool gray and neutral gray. A pure white +in shadow is the true neutral gray and a perfect imitation of this is +made by the rotation of combined black and white disks on the color +wheel. If to the black and white disks we add a blue disk we have cool +grays. With red, orange or yellow the warm grays are produced, while the +use of a green disk gives green grays. In the papers two tones of each +gray are furnished. + +The papers found in the first two sections comprise all the colors +necessary for earliest primary color instruction, and should become +familiar to the children before explanation is made of the colors in the +succeeding collections. + +In the third section, designated "Broken Spectrum Scales" will be found +a collection of gray colors or broken colors. As has before been stated, +a broken color is a pure color mixed with a neutral gray. In the +combination of pigmentary colors a tint of a color is the pure color +mixed with white, a shade is the color mixed with black, and a broken +color is a pure color mixed with both black and white, which is a +neutral gray. Therefore if with red, for example, we mix a certain +amount of a given neutral gray and call that the normal tone of a broken +scale of red, for the tint in that scale we must mix with the standard +red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray. + +When a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is combined with a +pure color the result is a "gray color," as above described, because the +color is quite definitely retained, but more or less modified by the +gray. On the other hand, if a relatively small quantity of color is +added to a neutral gray, the resulting color is properly called a +"colored gray," because it is still a gray modified by color, and in +this class we have warm grays, cool grays, etc., according to the color +combined with the gray. The gray colors are quite generally termed +"broken colors" and this seems a very useful practice, because it avoids +the confusion of the somewhat similar terms "gray color" and "colored +gray." + +By reference to the Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales on Page 41 it will +be seen that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each +scale, instead of eighteen scales and five tones, as in the pure scales, +for which there is a good reason. + +For educational purposes in the elementary grades, which is the only +place where there is a legitimate use for colored papers, the steps in +gradation of hue or tone must not be too short, and if the saturation or +intensity of the normal colors in the several scales is reduced by +adding gray, as in the broken colors, there is not the possibility for +as many steps in either hues or tones without leaving those colors +adjacent to each other too nearly alike. Therefore in the broken colors +there are but thirty-six, instead of ninety, as in the pure scales. + +The distinction between pure colors with tints and shades, and broken +colors in various tones, should be made very plain to the children +whenever the subject is brought to their notice, because it is a vital +point in the classification of colors. Educationally this is one of the +most objectionable features in the old red, yellow and blue theory of +color composition, because no distinction is observed between pure and +broken colors in classification. In the Bradley colored papers the +distinction is made very decided for educational purposes, so that no +one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors from +the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the +formation of a spectrum. + +This may be illustrated by a selection as follows: First lay in order +the normal spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first +section of the sample book, thereby forming the central vertical column +of Fig. 10. Then substitute for the orange, green and violet, those +colors selected from the collection of broken colors, and the result +will seem to render the operation absurd, but it is the same in +principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum by +the combination of three primary pigments, red, yellow and blue, because +so produced the orange, green and violet, show by disk analysis from 54 +to 80 per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as +the corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales, but not +exactly the same in tone. + + +Engine Colored Papers. + +Those papers which are termed "Engine Colored Papers" are so named from +the process of manufacture as distinguished from "coated papers" which +comprise the first three sections of the book. In coated papers a white +paper is covered with a coating of colored pigment "fixed" with a small +amount of white gum, gelatine or glue, and in this way the pure color of +the pigment is obtained. In the engine colored papers the color is mixed +with the paper pulp in the process of making the paper. In a paper mill +the tub or vat in which the pulp is kept stirred up and perfectly mixed +is called the engine, and hence this technical term has been applied to +such papers as are colored in the pulp. In this class of papers both +sides are alike, and for this reason in some of the folding exercises +these papers are preferred, also because they are thinner and tougher. +Heretofore, it has been impossible to obtain engine colored papers in +"families" or scales, but in this assortment the numbers from one to +six, furnish six scales of three tones each, comprising the normal tones +with tints and shades. Following these from seven to sixteen are a +collection of unclassified colors including grays which are much used. +All these can be analyzed and classified by the color wheel. Black and +white complete this class. It is impossible to make any close +approximation to a black in this class of papers, as when they are +compared with the coated blacks the result is a very gray black, or very +dark gray. All the colors in these papers from No. 1 A to No. 13 are +quite light broken spectrum colors, but less broken than the coated +papers designated as broken spectrum colors. While great care has been +bestowed on the original selection of the colors of all these +above-described papers and every effort is constantly exercised to keep +them the same from year to year, the subject is materially complicated +by the guarantee required of the manufacturers that no arsenic colors +shall be used in the preparation of any of the papers. This guarantee is +strictly insisted on, because, while the writer has never been able to +learn of any authentic case where a child has been injured by the use of +plated or glazed papers, he believes that the opinions of parents and +teachers should be respected in the matter, although the arsenic colors +are often the most permanent and the aniline substitutes which are +necessarily used belong to a class which is the most fugitive of all +colors. + +The line of colored papers now in use is the result of many experiments +on the part of the writer and careful tests by experienced teachers for +several years, and in its present condition affords but small indication +of the time and care which has been expended on it. This has been +inevitable, because the peculiar system on which the colors are based +has been one of growth and the papers have been designed to afford the +necessary material colors for this special scheme of instruction. + +In preparing the tints and shades in the papers many experiments have +been made to determine the true effect of light and shadow on each +normal color, and then to imitate these effects in the papers. + +All this is independent of the professional tricks which artists use to +heighten their effects, some of which are legitimate, while others may +be questionable on sound principles. + +It is a common habit with artists to introduce very warm effects into +all sunlight by the use of orange or yellow in the warm colors. This +extreme tendency has been intentionally avoided in the preparation of +these papers, however desirable or allowable it may be considered in +heightening effects. So also in the shades as in the tints, the aim has +been to keep all the tones of one color in the same scale, even though +artists often run the various tones of the same piece of color into two +or three analogous scales. + +It is the object of color education to train the eye to see color +wherever or however it may be produced, either by actual color +reflection or contrasted effects, and in order that these effects may be +understood as explained under Simultaneous Contrasts it is necessary +that the prepared material be truthful to nature, the more so because +these effects are sometimes greatly exaggerated by artists. + + +Water Colors. + +When the subject of color was introduced into the curriculum of the +common schools of this country, the use of paints was a novelty. So +little was known regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means +of education, that the teachers may be excused for having had grave +doubts about the practicability of the scheme. Very few teachers in the +lower grades of schools had received at that time any definite +instruction in the harmonies of colors or the manipulation of pigments; +and what little thought had been given to the subject was based on the +three-color theory of Brewster, which was the only one available at that +time. + +During the intervening years much has been done to make entirely +feasible the introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing +and educating occupation. + +Color standards have been adopted, which are nothing less than +selections from the solar spectrum itself, and the manufacture of +pigments has improved so much that it may almost be said to be a new +industry. In the training of teachers, also, color instruction is now +given an important place, so that the kindergartner and primary teacher +can give the attention that it deserves to a subject which is so +interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world around us. + +Passing from one form of color work to another, it is exceedingly +important that children of any grade should find the same principles +obtaining in each step of the way, and also that the knowledge gained in +the earliest stages of the work should be available in the higher forms. +This is particularly true of color instruction as it is now found in the +best schools, and the principal reason why water colors are so much +better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in former years, is +because paints are now made to correspond in color with the standards +with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers and +other material of the kindergarten. + +At present it is generally conceded that these six colors, Red, Orange, +Yellow, Green, Blue and Violet, which stand out so prominently in the +solar spectrum, are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as +the basis of an alphabet of color. There should, therefore, be no +question as to the adoption of these same colors as the palette of +paints for the earliest color work, even with the babes in the +kindergarten, when anything beyond the colored papers and the usual +kindergarten occupations is wanted. + +Not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors +and let him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the +relation which each color should bear to the others. In fact, with the +usual cheap box of paints then in the market there was no decided +correlation of the colors nor any educational selection, both of which +we have to-day. + +Water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards +of the colored papers that they are of the greatest assistance in +developing the æsthetic taste and judgment of the pupils, and it is +remarkable how early in the training of children paints can be used with +advantage. + +In some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false +theory of Sir David Brewster, who supposed that there were three primary +colors in the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced +by the overlapping or mixing of these in pairs. + +This error, being applied to pigments, has worked much harm and has +greatly retarded the progress of color study. Even now some teachers +recommend the use of the red, yellow and blue palette on the ground of +simplicity and economy. + +All the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme +as already exploded, because the simplest as well as the most complex +experiments with colored light prove its falsity. Nevertheless, the fact +that yellow and blue, which with light make very nearly white, do in the +mixture of pigments produce a green, has deceived many persons. But the +best green that can be so procured is a very broken color and not to be +successfully compared with the beautiful and brilliant green of the +spectrum. Why then, should we not have in our paints imitations of the +solar green, orange and violet as well as the red, yellow and blue? It +is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity, and as for +economy, it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would +take no more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with +three. + +Oil colors, of course, are out of the question and pastels almost +equally so, for although full colors may be produced in both these +mediums, they are not suited to the use of young children, and at best +are neither neat nor convenient, while colored pencils are not +sufficiently satisfactory in results. Therefore water colors seem to be +better adapted to primary work than any other pigmentary material. + +Of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he +may meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to +give it a definite name, other than the one by which it is sold. + +More than one professional artist has already worked successfully from +nature in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close +approximations to the six standard colors with white and a few grays. A +person whose color perception has been trained by the use of the color +disk in six standard colors with colored papers to correspond, will +undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce the colors which he +sees in nature, on the canvas or paper by means of such a palette than +if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary +pigments. + + +Color Blindness. + +The subject of color blindness has received much attention because of +its practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives. The use of +colored lights as signals on ships and railroads has necessitated very +strict regulations regarding the employment of persons whose color +vision is defective, and therefore in some states specialists have been +employed by the state authorities to examine from time to time the +school children regarding their perception of colors. + +Possibly this condition of things may not at present be considered a +serious reflection on the methods of color instruction, or lack of such +instruction in our schools because it has become so common as to attract +little attention. But if it were necessary for the same course to be +pursued in any other department of our public education that fact would +not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary remarks regarding the methods +employed. + +For example, if a state official were necessary to determine whether +pupils are deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools, +and preliminary to accepting positions of responsibility, it would seem +that something was wrong, and yet after a child has had instruction in +color according to a logical system there should be no more necessity +for an examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors +than there should regarding his ability to hear. + +Color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes, +red, green, and violet blindness, those afflicted with red blindness +being most numerous, and the cases of violet blindness being very rare, +if indeed there are any which may properly be so called. + +This classification, known as the Holmgren system, seems to have been +based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that all color perceptions are the +result of three primary effects in the eye, namely, red, green and +violet, rather than on any analytical classification of actual +experiments concerning color blindness. + +Color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the +brain which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of +the several colors, or in the eye, by which he cannot see a difference +between two dissimilar colors. + +A person totally color blind would see in the solar spectrum a band of +gray in various tones, and hence if a red and a green should seem to be +of the same tone of gray he would call both either red or green, and +after much experience would come to give color names to various tones of +gray. + +Such cases, however, are exceedingly rare, if in fact they exist. Other +scientists and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made +by both Holmgren and Helmholtz, and some have made extended experiments +regarding color blindness which seem to oppose the Holmgren theory. In +view of these conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the +elementary grades to attempt to grasp the situation very fully, and much +less to aid in the solution of the problem. Very fortunately this is +unnecessary, because in all the scientific tests proposed for adults +nothing is accomplished which any primary school teacher will not be +easily able to determine during the first two or three years of ordinary +school work, if the modern system of color instruction is pursued. + +There is no better material than colored papers for testing the color +perceptions, and the exercises of selecting, matching and arranging the +spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in +the first years of school are the very best that can be devised without +regard to any of the abstract theories concerning either the cause or +the possible classification of color blindness. + +For some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a +confusion between red and green, as for example, we are told, by some +people, that in picking wild strawberries in a field the fruit can be +distinguished from the leaves and grass only by the shape, and the green +fruit from the ripe by the touch or taste. + +If a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name +of a color it may not indicate want of color vision, but merely +inability to remember names, and therefore various tests which will +naturally suggest themselves can be made to aid in reaching a decision +on this point. Should the results of the tests seem to indicate some +defect in color vision, the nature of the trouble should be sought and +memoranda made from time to time for future reference, and if the final +result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents should be +informed of the fact and a physician consulted. + +It is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less +than that of men, and much time has been spent in debating the matter, +but some doubt remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain +because the girls are brought so much more intimately into relation with +colored materials in selecting their articles of dress, and consequently +come to know the names of colors much better, and in fact enjoy a much +better color education than the men. A more correct decision regarding +this question can better be reached when both the boys and girls receive +a systematic color education and their color sense is more equally +cultivated. + + + + +Outline of a Course in Color Instruction. + + +[Illustration] + +The course of color instruction suggested in the preceding pages is not +arbitrarily divided into lessons or even years, because the conditions +in the city and rural schools in the various states of this country are +so varied that no uniform allotment or division of time can be suggested +which will be satisfactory to all. + +The number of hours that can be devoted to any subject must be +determined by those who prepare the school programme and the progress +must be more or less rapid, with instruction correspondingly superficial +or complete at each stage, according to the time allowed, the +preparation of the teacher and the natural ability of the pupils. + +The teaching of color is usually classed with drawing because both +relate directly to art, but inasmuch as color enters into our every day +experiences so much more largely than the graphic arts there seems to be +good reason for teaching it very fully where little attention is given +to drawing. + +Every competent teacher can and will become expert and even enthusiastic +in teaching color, if she fully understands the system which it is the +object of the foregoing pages to explain. + +The following brief outline suggests the order in which the facts +concerning color may be presented and the material which can be used in +an elementary course, beginning with the first primary grade pupils, who +for the most part have not had kindergarten training. + +As a part of the material the Bradley Educational Colored Papers, cut to +tablets each 1 x 2 inches, are prepared and put up in four small +envelopes which are enclosed in one larger envelope. On the larger +envelope these words are printed: "The Bradley Paper Tablets for +Primary Color Education, Selections 1, 2, 3, 4 for Complete Course." The +four small envelopes are labeled in this way: "Selection No. 1, eighteen +pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, the Normal Spectrum Colors." +"Selection No. 2, forty pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tint +No. 1 and Shades No. 1, with White, Black and Neutral Grays." "Selection +No. 3, forty-two pieces comprising complete Chart of Broken Spectrum +Scales and Warm, Cool and Green Grays." "Selection No. 4, thirty-six +pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tints No. 2 and Shades No. +2." + + +The Solar Spectrum. + +MATERIAL. +A Glass Prism, the cost of which need not exceed a few cents, as almost +any lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose. +By the use of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of +any schoolroom having a sunny exposure during any part of the day. This +spectrum will make plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many +colors. + +METHOD. +Show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be produced under +the controlling conditions. + +Call attention to the six colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and +violet, and the order of their arrangement in the spectrum. + +Present the colors separately as far as possible, selecting the best +conditions available for each one. + + +Pigmentary Spectrum Colors. + +MATERIAL. +Neutral gray or white card to cover desk top for a background. + +Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. + +Colored Paper Tablets, Selection No. 1, embracing the six standards and +the intermediate spectrum hues, eighteen pieces. + +Color Wheel or Tops. + +METHOD. +Ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum +hues. Standards to be arranged in spectrum order. + +Teach the names of the standards. + +Test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the +spectrum in the eighteen papers. + +Explain the intermediate hues by the color disks, and drill with the +tablets. Continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire +spectrum with the papers until it is familiar to them. + +PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. +Pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors, on white or +gray background, with ready-cut papers. Marking forms from tablets and +cutting and pasting them on backgrounds. + + +Study of Tones. + +MATERIAL. +Folding models to show light and shade. Crumpled satins and plushes. + +Standard color disks with white and black, on wheel or tops. + +Paper tablets, Selection No. 2, Tints No. 1, Shades No. 1, White, Black +and Neutral Grays. + +METHOD. +Ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors. Lay tints and +shades of the six standards. + +Have the children complete tints and shades No. 1 of entire spectrum +circuit. + +Illustrate neutral grays by white in shadow with folding model, also +with white and black disks combined. + +Begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color material brought +by the pupils. + +PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. +Pasting of ready-cut papers in standard and shade on a background of the +tint of same scale. Paste designs in three tones of one scale on white +or neutral gray background. + +Mat weaving in tones of one scale. + +Mat weaving in neutral gray and one or two tones of one color. + + +Broken Colors. + +MATERIAL. +Disks on wheel or top. Paper tablets, Selection No. 3. Chart of Broken +Spectrum Scales. + +METHOD. +Illustrate broken colors by disk combinations. + +Let the pupils lay paper tablets to form Chart of Broken Scales. + +Compare this chart with the Chart of Pure Scales laid with the papers. + +Classifying of miscellaneous materials with reference to pure and broken +colors. Analysis of samples of pure and broken colors in cloths and +flowers. + +PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. +Paper cutting and pasting to be continued. + +Following the broken colors in three tones which form the Chart of +Broken Spectrum Colors, the three kinds of colored grays, warm, cool and +green, may be considered preparatory to their use in contrasted effects. + + +Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones. + +MATERIAL. +Paper tablets, Selection No. 4. Chart of Spectrum Scales in five tones +may be introduced for observation when the children are able to lay it +with their papers. + +METHOD. +Continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones, as +was done in the first three tones. + +From the Chart of Spectrum Scales the study and classification of +harmonies can begin in a simple way. + +From this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may be introduced +at pleasure, employing the colored papers in five tones when required. + + +Advanced Study of Harmonies. + +By taking advantage of the instruction imparted in a course of color +study such as has been outlined in the preceding pages the pupil will be +able to advance in his ability to perceive colors and to make definite +analyses of colors in natural and manufactured material. In this way the +advanced study of harmonies can be greatly facilitated so that it will +be possible for the student to apprehend and appreciate many delicate +and subtle color effects in art and nature never before imagined. In +fact the foundation of color study will have been laid in such a logical +and fascinating manner that its further advance will be but a pleasure +to the pupil and teacher, so that no arbitrary plan will be necessary, +because so many lines of work will suggest themselves to all who are +interested in the subject. + + +Water Colors. + +This outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors, +but this is not the place to give definite instructions as to their use. +Kindergartners and primary teachers are now generally competent to +direct the children in this work, if they will avail themselves of such +aid as is furnished by recently published books on the subject. + +Non-poisonous paints, cheap and still of fair quality, can now be +obtained in standard colors and put up in various forms. The moist +paints in collapsible tubes are the most convenient as well as the most +economical for school use. This form should be accompanied by a small +mixing palette containing several compartments, which can be bought at +so small a price that each pupil can have one. The paint in the tubes +can then be dealt out only as required for each day's use. + + + + + $MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION.$ + + + Where the price is preceded by a star the article is too large + to be sent by mail. In other cases where no postage is given the + goods are sent postpaid on receipt of price. + + + $WATER COLORS.$ + + In ordering it will be necessary to give only + the number of the box. + No. Price + + 1. An enameled box containing eight pans of + semi-moist colors, six Standards and two Grays, + one brush, per box $ .35 + 2. An enameled box containing ten pans semi-moist + colors, six Standards, Black, White, Cool + Gray and Warm Gray, one brush, per box .50 + 3. Same box as above, containing five pans semi-moist + colors. Red, two Yellows, Blue and Gray, + one brush, per box .30 + 4. Enameled box containing four pans semi-moist + colors, Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one brush, + per box .20 + 5. Same as above, Red, two Yellows and Blue, + per box .20 + 6. A decorated box containing eight cakes of dry + colors, six Standards and two Grays, one brush, + per box .25 + 7. A decorated box containing four large cakes of + dry colors. Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one + brush, per box .20 + 8. Same box as above. Red, two Yellows and + Blue, two brushes, per box .20 + 9. Nine tubes moist colors in strong paper box. + Six Standards, Warm Gray, Cool Gray and Black, + per set .90 + 10. Photograph Colors. A box of eight colors, the + six Standards and a Chinese White and a Brown, + with one brush. These colors are expressly + prepared for coloring photographs, half tone + prints, maps, etc. .25 + Bradley's School Colors, moist in Tubes. The most + economical form for school use. These colors are + so prepared that they remain moist out of the + tube. The set comprises the following colors: Postage + Carmine, Crimson Lake, Vermilion, Gamboge, + Chinese Yellow, Hooker's Green, No. I, Hooker's + Green, No. II, Ultramarine, Prussian Blue, Sepia, + Warm Sepia, Burnt Sienna, Payne's Gray, Ivory + Black, Chinese White and the six Standards, + with Warm, Cool and Neutral Gray, Black and + White, per tube .10 + Little Artist's Complete Outfit, comprising a Mixing + Palette with its seven compartments filled with + semi-moist colors and a brush, the whole enclosed + in a strong cardboard case .15 .03 + + + $ACCESSORIES.$ + + Standard Mixing Palette, with seven compartments + for paints and two for mixing. Almost indispensable + in using tube colors. Extra deep, + per doz. .60 .25 + Water Cups. An enameled metal cup, practically + indestructible, per doz. .60 .13 + Camel's Hair Brushes, Quill, per doz. .30 .02 + Camel's Hair Brushes, Long Handles, per doz. .60 .03 + Japanese School Brushes, per doz. .60 .05 + Artists' Camel Hair Brushes, No. 6, Wooden Handles, + per doz. .75 .03 + Milton Bradley Co.'s Water Color Pads--Made of + extra quality paper for water color work. + No. 1, Pad of 50 sheets, 6×9, each .10 .09 + No. 2, Pad of 25 sheets, 9×12, each .10 .10 + + + $APPARATUS.$ + + High School Color Wheel, with Disks in box *10.00 + One set of Disks for above, in box *2.00 + Primary School Color Wheel, with Disks *3.00 + One set of Disks for above in portfolio .75 .06 + Color Top, by mail, each .06 + Color Top, by mail, per doz. .50 + No. 1 Prism, at buyer's risk .10 + No. 2 Prism, at buyer's risk .15 + No. 3 Prism, at buyer's risk .30 + Rainy Day Spectrum, made from colored papers, + mounted on cardboard, one inch by 13, each .10 .04 + Large Spectrum, 5 by 30 inches, mounted on cloth, + each .25 .04 + Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 1 X, on + cardboard, 9x24 inches, hinged and folded. + Ninety papers one inch square, each .50 .10 + Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 2 X. Size, + 12x48, folded and hinged. Ninety papers two + inches square, each .75 .15 + Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 1. Size, 9x12 + inches, with paper 1-1/2 inches square, + comprising twelve scales of three tones each .50 .10 + Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 2. Size, + 12x48 inches, with the same papers as No. 1, + three inches square, each .75 .15 + Chart of Complementary Colors. On cardboard 18 + inches square, each *.50 + Standard Color Chart. On two cards 11x28 inches, + hinged and eyeleted for hanging. This is a + combination chart comprising "Spectrum Standards," + "Pure Spectrum Scales," "Complementary + Contrasts," "Broken Spectrum Scales," and + "Grays." Printed suggestions for using the + charts on the back, each 1.25 .15 + + + $BOOKS ON COLOR.$ + + Water Colors in the Schoolroom, by Milton Bradley, + boards .25 + A new book of practical suggestions, valuable to + every one who would undertake to teach the use + of water colors. + + Elementary color, by Milton Bradley, cloth .75 + Gives the principles on which the Bradley System + is based and an explanation of the use of the + Glass Prism, Color Wheel, Maxwell Disks, Color + Top, Colored Papers, Color Charts and Water + Colors. + The Little Artist by Marion Mackenzie, cloth .75 .15 + + A practical book of water color work for children, + with 12 beautiful, colored plates. Size of + book, 12 by 14 inches. + Color in the Kindergarten, by Milton Bradley, paper + covers .25 + A manual of the theory of color and the use of + color material in the Kindergarten. + A Class Book of Color, by Prof. Mark M. Maycock. + Teachers' Edition, cloth 1.00 + Pupils' Edition, boards .50 + A very complete teachers' handbook in color. + Practical Color Work, by Helena P. Chace, paper .25 + A handbook for the educational use of colored + papers in teaching color in primary and ungraded + schools. + The Color Primer, by Milton Bradley, paper. + Teachers' Edition, 80 pages .10 + Pupils' Edition, 24 pages .05 + Simple and direct teachings. + + + $MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL.$ + + Paper Tablets, Set No. 1, 1x2 in. .02 + Paper Tablets, Set No. 2, 1x2 in. .02 + Paper Tablets, Set No. 3, 1x2 in. .03 + Paper Tablets, Set No. 4, 1x2 in. .04 + Sample Book, one by four inches, containing the + full assortment .05 .01 + Package, 4x4 papers, 100 pieces .20 .04 + Package, 5x5 papers, 100 pieces .30 .05 + Fun, Physics and Psychology in Color. A box of + material for simple experiment, each .25 .07 + Complementary Color Contrasts. A box of large + material for popular experiments in color + vision, each .75 .20 + The Dunn and Curtis Illustrative Sewing Cards, in + color. Two sets: A. Literature Illustration. B. + Cards for Special Occasions. + Set of eight cards .25 + Dozen of any Design .40 + + $MILTON BRADLEY COMPANY,$ + $Springfield, Mass.$ + + + + + Transcriber's Note + _Italic text_ has been enclosed in underscores. + $Bold text$ has been enclosed in dollar signs. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Elementary Color, by Milton Bradley + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40896 *** |