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      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume XV Slice VIII - Kite-Flying to Kyshtym.
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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40641 ***</div>

<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
<tr>
<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
</td>
<td class="norm">
A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
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display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>

<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>

<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<hr class="full" />
<h3>VOLUME XV SLICE VIII<br /><br />
Kite-Flying to Kyshtym</h3>
<hr class="full" />
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">

<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">KITE-FLYING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">KOSTER, LAURENS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">KIT-FOX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">KOSTROMA</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">KITTO, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">KOSTROMA</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">KITTUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">KÖSZEG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">KITZINGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">KOTAH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">KIU-KIANG FU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">KOTAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">KIUSTENDIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">KOTKA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">KIVU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">KOTRI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">KIWI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">KIZILBASHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">KIZIL IRMAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">KOUMISS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">KIZLYAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">KIZYL-KUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">KOUSSO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">KJERULF, HALFDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">KJERULF, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">KOVNO</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">KLADNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">KOVNO</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">KLAFSKY, KATHARINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">KOVROV</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">KLAGENFURT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">KOWTOW</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">KLAJ, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">KOZLOV</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">KLAMATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">KRAAL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">KLAPKA, GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">KRAFFT, ADAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">KRAGUYEVATS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">KRAKATOA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">KRAKEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">KRALYEVO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">KRANTZ, ALBERT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">KRASNOVODSK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">KLERKSDORP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">KRASNOYARSK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">KLESL, MELCHIOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">KLINGER, MAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">KRAWANG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">KLIPSPRINGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">KLONDIKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">KREMENCHUG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">KLOPP, ONNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">KREMENETS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">KREMS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">KLOSTERNEUBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">KREMSIER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">KLOTZ, REINHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">KREUTZER, KONRADIN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">KNARESBOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">KREUTZER, RUDOLPH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">KNAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">KREUZBURG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">KREUZNACH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">KNEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">KRIEGSPIEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">KNELLER, SIR GODFREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">KRIEMHILD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">KNIFE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">KRISHNA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">KRISHNAGAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">KNIGHT, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">KRISTIANSTAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">KRIVOY ROG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">KROCHMAL, NA&#7716;MAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">KRONENBERG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">KNIGHT-SERVICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">KRONSTADT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">KROONSTAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">KNITTING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">KROTOSCHIN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">KNOBKERRIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">KNOLLES, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">KNOLLYS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">KRUGERSDORP</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">KNOT</a> (bird)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">KRUMAU</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">KNOT</a> (loop of rope)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">KRUMBACHER, CARL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">KNOUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">KRUMEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">KNOWLES, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">KRUPP, ALFRED</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">KNOW NOTHING PARTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">KNOX, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">KRUSHEVATS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">KNOX, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">KSHATTRIYA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">KUBAN</a> (river of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">KNOXVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">KUBAÑ</a> (province of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">KNUCKLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">KUBELIK, JAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">KNUCKLEBONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">KUBERA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">KNUTSFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">KUBLAI KHAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">KOALA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">KUBUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">KOBDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">KUCH&#256;N</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">KUCH BEHAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">KOCH, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">KUDU</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">KOCH</a> (tribe)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">KUENEN, ABRAHAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">KUEN-LUN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">KODAIKANAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">KUFA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">KODAMA, GENTARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">KODUNGALUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">KÜHNE, WILLY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">KUKA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">KOESFELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">KU KLUX KLAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">KOHAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">KUKU KHOTO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">KOHAT PASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">KULJA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">KOHISTAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">KULM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">KOHL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">KULMBACH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">KOHLHASE, HANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">KULMSEE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">KOKOMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">KULP</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">KOKO-NOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">KULU</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">KOKSHAROV, N&#298;KOLAÍ &#298;VANOVICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">KUM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">KOKSTAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">KUMAIT IBN ZAID</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">KOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">KUMAON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">KOLABA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">KUMASI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">KOLAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">KUMISHAH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">KUMQUAT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">KOLBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">KUMTA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">KUMYKS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">KOLDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">KUNAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">KOLGUEV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">KUNBIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">KOLHAPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">KOLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">KUNDUZ</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">KOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">KUNENE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">KUNERSDORF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">KOLLONTAJ, HUGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">KUNGRAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">KOLOMEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">KUNGUR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">KOLOMNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">KOLOZSVÁR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">KUNLONG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">KOLPINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar271">KUNZITE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">KOLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar272">KUOPIO</a> (province of Finland)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">KOLYVAÑ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar273">KUOPIO</a> (city of Finland)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">KOMÁROM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar274">KUPRILI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">KOMATI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar275">KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">KOMOTAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar276">KURBASH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">KOMURA, JUTARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar277">K&#362;RDIST&#256;N</a> (country)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">KONARAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar278">K&#362;RDIST&#256;N</a> (province of Persia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">KONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar279">KURGAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">KONGSBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar280">KURIA MURIA ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">KONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar281">KURILES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar282">KURISCHES HAFF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar283">KURNOOL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">KÖNIGGRÄTZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar284">KUROKI, ITEI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">KÖNIGINHOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar285">KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">KÖNIGSBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar286">KURO SIWO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">KÖNIGSBORN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar287">KURRAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">KÖNIGSHÜTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar288">KURSEONG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">KÖNIGSLUTTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar289">KURSK</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar290">KURSK</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar291">KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">KÖNIGSSEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar292">KURUMAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">KÖNIGSTEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar293">KURUMBAS and KURUBAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">KÖNIGSWINTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar294">KURUNEGALA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar295">KURUNTWAD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">KONINCK, PHILIP DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar296">KURZ, HERMANN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">KONITZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar297">KUSAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">KONKAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar298">KUSHALGARH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">KONTAGORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar299">KUSHK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">KOORINGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar300">KUSTANAISK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">KÖPENICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar301">KÜSTENLAND</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">KOPISCH, AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar302">KUTAIAH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar303">KUTAIS</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">KOPRÜLÜ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar304">KUTAIS</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">KORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar305">KUT-EL-AMARA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">KORAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar306">KUTENAI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">KORAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar307">KUTTALAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">KORDOFAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar308">KUTTENBERG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">KOREA</a> (country)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar309">KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">KOREA</a> (tributary state of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar310">KUW&#274;T</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar311">KUZNETSK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">K&#332;RIN, OGATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar312">KVASS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">KORKUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar313">KWAKIUTL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar314">KWANGCHOW BAY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar315">KWANG-SI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">KORNEUBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar316">KWANG-TUNG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">KOROCHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar317">KWANZA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">KORSÖR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar318">KWEI-CHOW</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">KORTCHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar319">KYAUKPYU</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">KORYAKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar320">KYAUKS&#274;</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">KOSCIUSCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar321">KYD, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar322">KYFFHÄUSER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">KÖSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar323">KYNASTON, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">KOSHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar324">KYNETON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">KÖSLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar325">KY&#332;SAI, SHO-FU</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">KOSSOVO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar326">KYRIE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar327">KYRLE, JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">KOSSUTH, LAJOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar328">KYSHTYM</a></td></tr>
</table>

<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KITE-FLYING,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> the art of sending up into the air, by means of
the wind, light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or
cloth (called kites, after the bird&mdash;in German <i>Drache</i>, dragon),
which are attached to long cords or wires held in the hand or
wound on a drum. When made in the common diamond form,
or triangular with a semicircular head, kites usually have a
pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The tradition
is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four
centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use
among Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New
Zealand from time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been
a national pastime of the Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese,
Annamese, Malays and East Indians. It is less popular among
the peoples of Europe. The origin of the sport, although obscure,
is usually ascribed to religion. With the Maoris it still retains
a distinctly religious character, and the ascent of the kite is
accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans
attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago,
inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached,
which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of
divine succour. Another Korean general is said to have been
the first to put the kite to mechanical uses by employing one
to span a stream with a cord, which was then fastened to a cable
and formed the nucleus of a bridge. In Korea, Japan and China,
and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, even the tradespeople may
be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting for customers.
Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as birds,
dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as
much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo
strips covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the
ninth day of the ninth month is &ldquo;Kites&rsquo; Day,&rdquo; when men and
boys of all classes betake themselves to neighbouring eminences
and fly their kites. Kite-fighting is a feature of the pastime in
Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is usually stiffened with a
mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain. The kite-flyer
man&oelig;uvres to get his kite to windward of that of his adversary,
then allows his cord to drift against his enemy&rsquo;s, and by a sudden
jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays
possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan
of Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a
collection of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear
one or more perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive
sound that can be heard for great distances. The ignorant,
believing that these kites frighten away evil spirits, often keep
them flying all night over their houses.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span></p>

<p>There are various metaphorical uses of the term &ldquo;kite-flying,&rdquo;
such as in commercial slang, when &ldquo;flying a kite&rdquo; means raising
money on credit (cf. &ldquo;raising the wind&rdquo;), or in political slang for
seeing &ldquo;how the wind blows.&rdquo; And &ldquo;flying-kites,&rdquo; in nautical
language, are the topmost sails.</p>

<p>Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the
18th century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable
kite experiment, by which he attracted electricity from the air
and demonstrated the electrical nature of lightning. A more
systematic use of kites for scientific purposes may, however, be
said to date from the experiments made in the last quarter of the
19th century.</p>
<div class="author">(E. B.)</div>

<p><i>Meteorological Use.</i>&mdash;Many European and American meteorological
services employ kites regularly, and obtain information
not only of the temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity
of the air above. The kites used are mostly modifications of the
so-called box-kites, invented by L. Hargrave. Roughly these
kites may be said to resemble an ordinary box with the two ends
removed, and also the middle part of each of the four sides. The
original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a rectangular
section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved part
facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-shaped
section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to
its simplicity of construction. Stability depends on a multitude
of small details of construction, and long practice and experience
are required to make a really good kite. The sizes most in use
have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of sail area. There is no difficulty
about raising a kite to a vertical height of one or even two miles
on suitable days, but heights exceeding three miles are seldom
reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at Lindenberg, the
Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a train of
six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total lifting
surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the length of
wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown on
a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is
not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure
upon it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material
that possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the
smallest possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement,
for a wire of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span> in. diameter will weigh about 16 &#8468; to the
mile, and stand a strain of some 250-280 &#8468; before it breaks.
Some stations prefer to use one long piece of wire of the same
gauge throughout without a join, others prefer to start with
a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker wire as more kites
are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows. The first
kite is started either with the self-recording instruments secured
in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire
is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the
strength of the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles
per hour. The quantity that one kite will take depends on the
kite and on the wind, but roughly speaking it may be said that
each 10 sq. ft. of lifting surface on the kite should carry 1000
ft. of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span> in. wire without difficulty. When as much wire as
can be carried comfortably has run out another kite is attached
to the line, and the paying out is continued; after a time a third
is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain upon the wire,
and moreover adds to the height and makes it more uncertain
what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds
to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way
the risk of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very
uncertain and is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an
exceptional height the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking
point, and under such conditions a small increase in the
strength of the wind will break the wire, it follows that great
heights can only be attained by those who are willing to risk the
trouble and expense of frequently having their wire and train
of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor in kite-flying.
In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about
two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of
three. The usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are
a few days when the wind is too strong. (For meteorological
results, &amp;c., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>.)</p>
<div class="author">(W. H. Di.)</div>

<p><i>Military Use.</i>&mdash;A kite forms so extremely simple a method of
lifting anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been
suggested as being suitable for various military purposes, such
as signalling to a long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or
semaphores. Kites have been used both in the army and in
the navy for floating torpedoes on hostile positions. As much
as two miles of line have been paid out. For purposes of photography
a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable height
may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a
bird&rsquo;s-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric
wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs
have been thus obtained in England and America.</p>

<p>The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by
a captive balloon is a still more important one. The chief military
advantages to be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2)
they can be used in a strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to
damage, either from the enemy&rsquo;s fire or from trees, &amp;c., and are
easier to mend; (4) they can be brought into use more quickly;
(5) they are very much cheaper, both in construction and in
maintenance, not requiring any costly gas.</p>

<p>Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June
1894 constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with
which he successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He
afterwards improved the contrivance, using five or six smaller
kites attached together in preference to one large one. With
this arrangement he frequently ascended as high as 100 ft. The
kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high and 12 ft. across. The
apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes into a simple
roll, weighed in all about 1 cwt. This appliance was proved to
be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the
retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut.
H. D. Wise made some trials in America in 1897 with some large
kites of the Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously himself
ascended in Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft.
above the ground. In the Russian army a military kite apparatus
has also been tried, and was in evidence at the man&oelig;uvres in
1898. Experiments have also been carried out by most of the
European powers.</p>
<div class="author">(B. F. S. B.-P.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIT-FOX<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>Canis</i> [<i>Vulpes</i>] <i>velox</i>), a small fox, from north-western
America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a
tail of nearly a third this length. There is a good deal of variation
in the colour of the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A
specimen in the Zoological Gardens of London had the back and
tail dark grey, the tail tipped with black, and a rufous wash on
the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer surface of the limbs, with
the under surface white. The specific name was given on
account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KITTO, JOHN<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the
son of a mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of
December 1804. An accident brought on deafness, and in
November 1819 he was sent to the workhouse, where he was
employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund was raised on his
behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the guardians,
having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of making
use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of
miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied
dentistry with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he
obtained congenial employment in the printing office of the
Church Missionary Society at Islington, and in 1827 was transferred
to the same society&rsquo;s establishment at Malta. There
he remained for eighteen months, but shortly after his return
to England he accompanied Groves and other friends on a private
missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained personal
knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards applied
with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and
incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was
broken up, and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving
in London he was engaged in the preparation of various serial
publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
the most important of which were the <i>Pictorial History of Palestine</i>
and the <i>Pictorial Bible</i>. The <i>Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature</i>,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
edited under his superintendence, appeared in two volumes in
1843-1845 and passed through three editions. His <i>Daily Bible
Illustrations</i> (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an appreciation which
is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of £100 from
the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the waters
of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November
he died.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Kitto&rsquo;s own work, <i>The Lost Senses</i> (1845); J. E. Ryland&rsquo;s
<i>Memoirs of Kitto</i> (1856); and John Eadie&rsquo;s <i>Life of Kitto</i> (1857).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KITTUR,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a village of British India, in the Belgaum district
of Bombay; pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort,
formerly the residence of a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a
disputed succession to this chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray,
an uncle of the novelist, was killed when approaching the fort
under a flag of truce; and a nephew of Sir Thomas Munro,
governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort was stormed.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KITZINGEN,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria
on the Main, 95 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the
junction of the main-lines to Passau, Würzburg and Schweinfurt.
Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300 yards long, connects it with
its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of the river. A railway
bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen is still
surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a
town-hall, a grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and
two old convents. Its chief industries are brewing, cask-making
and the manufacture of cement and colours. Considerable
trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is carried on by
boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey
in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of
Würzburg.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. Bernbeck, <i>Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565</i> (Kitzingen, 1899).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIU-KIANG FU,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a prefecture and prefectural city in the
province of Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on
the south bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point
where the Kan Kiang flows into that river from the Po-yang
lake, stands in 29° 42´ N. and 116° 8´ E. The north face of the
city is separated from the river by only the width of a roadway,
and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The walls
are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually
strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in
China, Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under
the Tsin dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang,
under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as Kiang Chow, under the
Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung dynasty
(960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has
played its part in the history of the empire, and has been repeatedly
besieged and sometimes taken, the last time being
in February 1853, when the T&rsquo;ai-p&rsquo;ing rebels gained possession
of the city. After their manner they looted and utterly destroyed
it, leaving only the remains of a single street to represent
the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang on
the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal
communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to
those leading to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces
of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as
one of the treaty ports to be opened under the terms of his
treaty (1861). Unfortunately, however, it stands above instead
of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has proved to
be a decided drawback to its success as a <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> port.
The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was
to raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The
population in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially estimated
at 36,000. The foreign settlement extends westward from
the city, along the bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded
on its extreme west by the P&rsquo;un river, which there runs into
the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards long, was erected
by the foreign community. The climate is good, and though
hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the
winter. According to the customs returns the value of the
trade of the port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904
to £3,489,816, of which £1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310
exports. In 1904 322,266 &#8468;. of opium were imported.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIUSTENDIL,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the chief town of a department in Bulgaria,
situated in a mountainous country, on a small affluent of the
Struma, 43 m. S.W. of Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353.
The streets are narrow and uneven, and the majority of the
houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly notable for its
hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are nine
bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver
are obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco
and fruit are largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the
Roman period, when the town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia
Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the 10th century it became
the seat of a bishopric, being then and during the later middle
ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the
overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession
of Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who
ruled over northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and
killed by the Turks in 1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil
was known as Velbushka Banya, and more commonly as
Konstantinova Banya (Constantine&rsquo;s Bath), from which has
developed the Turkish name Kiustendil.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIVU,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or
Albertine) rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into
which it discharges its waters by the Rusizi River. On the
north it is separated from the basin of the Nile by a line of
volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about 55 m., and its
greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including islands, of
about 1100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and is
roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west.
The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east,
where the indentations present a fjord-like character. The
lake is deep, and the shores are everywhere high, rising in places
in bold precipitous cliffs of volcanic rock. A large island,
Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and traversed by a hilly
ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of the lake, south-west
of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. The
lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South
of Kivu the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which
the Rusizi now breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges,
emerging from the lake in a foaming torrent, and descending
2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at the head of Tanganyika.
The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, presenting no
affinities with the marine or &ldquo;halolimnic&rdquo; fauna of Tanganyika
and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown
by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the
rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction
seems to have been blocked in recent geological times by the
elevation of the volcanic peaks which dammed back the water,
causing it finally to overflow to the south. This volcanic region
is of great interest and has various names, that most used being
Mfumbiro (<i>q.v.</i>), though this name is sometimes restricted to a
single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first heard of by J. H.
Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until 1894, when
Count von Götzen passed through the country on his journey
across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were subsequently
explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S.
Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, and Major St Hill Gibbons. The
ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood was claimed by the
Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being settled
in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The
frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and
the west shore of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to
Belgium.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See R. Kandt, <i>Caput Nili</i> (Berlin, 1904), and <i>Karte des Kivusees</i>,
1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S.
Grogan and A. H. Sharpe, <i>From the Cape to Cairo</i> (London, 1900);
J. E. S. Moore, <i>To the Mountains of the Moon</i> (London, 1901);
A. St H. Gibbons, <i>Africa from South to North</i>, ii. (London, 1904).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIWI,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kiwi-Kiwi</span>, the Maori name&mdash;first apparently
introduced to zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (<i>Man.</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
<i>d&rsquo;Ornithologie</i>, ii. 210, or <i>Voy. de la &ldquo;Coquille,&rdquo; zoologie</i>, p. 418),
and now very generally adopted in English&mdash;of one of the most
characteristic forms of New Zealand birds, the <i>Apteryx</i> of
scientific writers. This remarkable bird was unknown till
George Shaw described and figured it in 1813 (<i>Nat. Miscellany</i>,
pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from the
southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship
&ldquo;Providence.&rdquo; At Shaw&rsquo;s death, in the same year, it passed
into the possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of
Derby, and president of the Zoological Society, and it is now
with the rest of his collection in the Liverpool Museum. Considering
the state of systematic ornithology at the time, Shaw&rsquo;s
assignment of a position to this new and strange bird, of which
he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said it seemed
&ldquo;to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous
tribes than to any other.&rdquo; And his credit is still greater when
we find the venerable John Latham, who is said to have
examined the specimen with Shaw, placing it some years later
among the penguins (<i>Gen. Hist. Birds</i>, x. 394), being apparently
led to that conclusion through its functionless wings and
the backward situation of its legs. In this false allocation, James
Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (<i>Gen. Zoology</i>, xiii.
70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never seen
a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which
he applied the name of <i>Inertes</i> (<i>Man. d&rsquo;Ornithologie</i>, i. cxiv.).
In 1831 R. P. Lesson, who had previously (<i>loc. cit.</i>) made some
blunders about it, placed it (<i>Traité d&rsquo;Ornithologie</i>, p. 12), though
only, as he says, &ldquo;par analogie et <i>a priori</i>,&rdquo; in his first division
of birds, &ldquo;Oiseaux Anomaux,&rdquo; which is equivalent to what we
now call <i>Ratitae</i>, making of it a separate family &ldquo;Nullipennes.&rdquo;
At that time no second example was known, and some doubt
was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the very existence
of such a bird <a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;though Lesson had himself when in the Bay
of Islands in April 1824 (<i>Voy. &ldquo;Coquille,&rdquo; ut supra</i>) heard of it;
and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d&rsquo;Urville had seen its
skin, which the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a
tippet by a Maori chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and in
1830 gave what proves to be on the whole very accurate information
concerning it (<i>Voy. &ldquo;Astrolabe,&rdquo;</i> ii. 107). To put all
suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent his unique specimen for
exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological Society, on the 12th of
February 1833 (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1833, p. 24), and a few months
later (<i>tom. cit.</i>, p. 80) William Yarrell communicated to that body
a complete description of it, which was afterwards published in
full with an excellent portrait (<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, vol. i. p. 71,
pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the species, as akin to the
Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and the author called
upon all interested in zoology to aid in further research as to this
singular form. In consequence of this appeal a legless skin was
within two years sent to the society (<i>Proceedings</i>, 1835, p. 61)
obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second
he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a
fortnight, while in less than another couple of years additional
information (<i>op. cit.</i>, 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the
effect that he had seen two living, and that all Yarrell had said
was substantially correct, except underrating its progressive
powers. Not long afterwards Lord Derby received and in March
1838 transmitted to the same society the trunk and viscera of
an <i>Apteryx</i>, which, being entrusted to Sir R. Owen, furnished
that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other specimens
of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett,
with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the
society in instalments, and ultimately printed in its <i>Transactions</i>
(ii. 257; iii. 277). From this time the whole structure of the
kiwi has certainly been far better known than that of nearly
any other bird, and by degrees other examples found their way
to England, some of which were distributed to the various
museums of the Continent and of America.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:388px" src="images/img842.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">Kiwi.</td></tr></table>

<p>In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery
of another species of the genus (<i>Proceedings</i>, 1847, p. 51); and
though the story was not confirmed, a second species was really
soon after made known by John Gould (<i>tom. cit.</i>, p. 93; <i>Transactions</i>,
vol. iii, p. 379, pl. 57) under the name of <i>Apteryx oweni</i>&mdash;a
just tribute to the great master who had so minutely explained
the anatomy of the group. Three years later A. D. Bartlett
drew attention to the manifest difference existing among
certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded as
specimens of <i>A. australis</i>, and the examination of a large series
led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species
were confounded. To the second of these, the third of the
genus (according to his views), he gave the name of <i>A. mantelli</i>
(<i>Proceedings</i>, 1850, p. 274), and it soon turned out that to this
new form the majority of the specimens already obtained
belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to have reached England
alive was presented to the Zoological Society by Eyre, then
lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to
belong to the newly described <i>A. mantelli</i>, and some careful
observations on its habits in captivity were published by John
Wolley and another (<i>Zoologist</i>, pp. 3409, 3605).<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>  Subsequently
the society has received several other live examples of this form,
besides one of the real <i>A. australis</i> (<i>Proceedings</i>, 1872, p. 861),
some of <i>A. oweni</i>, and one of a supposed fourth species, <i>A. haasti</i>,
characterized in 1871 by Potts (<i>Ibis</i>, 1872, p. 35; <i>Trans. N. Zeal.
Institute</i>, iv. 204; v. 195).<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>

<p>The kiwis form a group of the subclass <i>Ratitae</i> to which the
rank of an order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many
important particulars from any of the other existing forms of
Ratite birds. The most obvious feature the <i>Apteryges</i> afford
is the presence of a back toe, while the extremely aborted
condition of the wings, the position of the nostrils&mdash;almost at
the tip of the maxilla&mdash;and the absence of an after-shaft in
the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and others not
less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on
examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
is believed that <i>A. mantelli</i> is the representative in the North
Island of the southern <i>A. australis</i>, both being of a dark reddish-brown,
longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while
<i>A. oweni</i>, of a light greyish-brown transversely barred with
black, is said to occur in both islands. About the size of a
large domestic fowl, they are birds of nocturnal habit, sleeping,
or at least inactive, by day, feeding mostly on earth-worms,
but occasionally swallowing berries, though in captivity they
will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes (<i>B. of
New Zealand</i>, p. 362):&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of
wings by its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides
and carries the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched
to its full extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves
about cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at
this time it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent
posture, the body generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance;
and it sometimes, but only rarely, supports itself by resting the point
of its bill on the ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the
daytime, gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When
provoked it erects the body, and, raising the foot to the breast,
strikes downwards with considerable force and rapidity, thus using
its sharp and powerful claws as weapons of defence.... While
hunting for its food the bird makes a continual sniffing sound through
the nostrils, which are placed at the extremity of the upper mandible.
Whether it is guided as much by touch as by smell I cannot safely
say; but it appears to me that both senses are used in the action.
That the sense of touch is highly developed seems quite certain,
because the bird, although it may not be audibly sniffing, will
always first touch an object with the point of its bill, whether in
the act of feeding or of surveying the ground; and when shut up in a
cage or confined in a room it may be heard, all through the night,
tapping softly at the walls.... It is interesting to watch the
bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for worms, which constitute
its principal food: it moves about with a slow action of the body;
and the long, flexible bill is driven into the soft ground, generally
home to the very root, and is either immediately withdrawn with a
worm held at the extreme tip of the mandibles, or it is gently moved
to and fro, by an action of the head and neck, the body of the bird
being perfectly steady. It is amusing to observe the extreme care
and deliberation with which the bird draws the worm from its hiding-place,
coaxing it out as it were by degrees, instead of pulling roughly
or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly out of the ground, it
throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it whole.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>The foregoing extract refers to <i>A. mantelli</i>, but there is little
doubt of the remarks being equally applicable to <i>A. australis</i>,
and probably also to <i>A. oweni</i>, though the different proportion
of the bill in the last points to some diversity in the mode of
feeding.</p>
<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cuvier in the second edition of his <i>Règne Animal</i> only referred to
it in a footnote (i. 498).</p>

<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cruise in 1822 (<i>Journ. Residence in New Zealand</i>, p. 313) had
spoken of an &ldquo;emeu&rdquo; found in that island, which must of course
have been an <i>Apteryx</i>.</p>

<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In 1842, according to Broderip (<i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, xxiii. 146),
two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand
Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he
had given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three,
and the sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846
to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a
single specimen&mdash;probably the first taken to America.</p>

<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay one
or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was
introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown
on the part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the <i>Ratitae</i>,
were incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (<i>Proceedings</i>, 1868,
p. 329).</p>

<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given by
Rowley (<i>Orn. Miscellany</i>, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as <i>A.
maxima</i>, <i>A. mollis</i>, and <i>A. fusca</i> have also been indicated, but
proof of their validity has yet to be adduced.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIZILBASHES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Turkish, &ldquo;Red-Heads&rdquo;), the nickname given
by the Orthodox Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants
from Persia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar
along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. During the wars
with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these districts.
They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure
Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their
immigration dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737).
They are an industrious honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and
as physicians, scribes, and so on. They form the bulk of the
amir&rsquo;s cavalry. Their name seems to have been first used in
Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Ernest Chantre, <i>Recherches anthropologiques dans l&rsquo;Asie occidentale</i>
(Lyons, 1895).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIZIL IRMAK,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Red River&rdquo; (anc. <i>Halys</i>), the largest
river in Asia Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of
6500 ft., and running south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below
Sivas it flows south to the latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves
gradually round to the north. Finally, after a course of about
600 m., it discharges its waters into the Black Sea between
Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. The only
important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the
Geuk Irmak on the left bank.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIZLYAR<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kizliar</span>, or <span class="sc">Kizlar</span>), a town of Russia, in
Caucasia, in the province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz,
in the low-lying delta of the river Terek, about 35 m. from the
Caspian. The population decreased from 8309 in 1861 to 7353
in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main stream between
two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to flooding.
The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has
Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings
include the Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery,
founded by the Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian
church of SS Peter and Paul, remarkable for its size and wealth.
The population is mainly supported by the gardens and vineyards
irrigated by canals from the river. A government
vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3½ m. from the
town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold
annually at the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are
woven. Kizlyar is mentioned as early as 1616, but the most
notable accession of inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and
Persians) took place in 1715. Its importance as a fortress
dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer kept in repair.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KIZYL-KUM,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the
Aral Lake between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river
Amu-darya on the S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is
in part covered with drift-sand or dunes, many of which are
advancing slowly but steadily towards the S.W. In character
they resemble those of the neighbouring Kara-kum desert (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kara-kum</a></span>). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. towards
the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as compared
with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the
surface is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E.,
as it ascends towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it
is braided with deep accumulations of fertile loess.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KJERULF, HALFDAN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1815-1868), Norwegian musical composer,
the son of a high government official, was born at Christiania
on the 15th of September 1815. His early education was
at Christiania University, for a legal career, and not till he was
nearly 26&mdash;on the death of his father&mdash;was he able to devote himself
entirely to music. As a fact, he actually started on his career
as a music teacher and composer of songs before ever having
seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years did he attract
any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid
for a year&rsquo;s instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years
after his return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial
classical concerts, while he himself was working with Björnson
and other writers at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame
rests almost entirely on his beautiful and manly national part-songs
and solos; but his pianoforte music is equally charming and
simple. Kjerulf died at Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KJERULF, THEODOR<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was
born at Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated
in the university at Christiania, and subsequently studied at
Heidelberg, working in Bunsen&rsquo;s laboratory. In 1858 he became
professor of geology in the university of his native city, and he
was afterwards placed in charge of the geological survey of the
country, then established mainly through his influence. His
contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous and important,
especially in reference to the southern portion of the
country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and
Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal
results were embodied in his work <i>Udsigt over det sydlige Norges
Geologi</i> (1879). He was author also of some poetical works. He
died at Christiania on the 25th of October 1888.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLADNO,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is
situated in a region very rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and
possesses some of the largest iron and steel works in Bohemia.
Near it is the mining town of Buscht&#277;hrad (pop. 3510), situated
in the centre of very extensive coal-fields. Buscht&#277;hrad was
originally the name of the castle only. This was from the 15th
century to 1630 the property of the lords of Kolovrat, and came
by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of Tuscany,
to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buscht&#277;hrad was
first given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been
called Buckow since its foundation in 1700. There is another
castle of Buscht&#277;hrad near Ho&#345;ic. Kladno, which for centuries
had been a village of no importance, was sold in 1705 by the
grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany to the cloister in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
B&#345;ewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining industry began
in 1842.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAFSKY, KATHARINA<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic
singer, was born at Szt János, Wieselburg, of humble parents.
Being employed at Vienna as a nurserymaid, her fine soprano
voice led to her being engaged as a chorus singer, and she was
given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became well-known
in Wagnerian rôles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased her
reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she
appeared in London, and had a great success in Wagner&rsquo;s operas,
notably as Brünnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as
vocal gifts being of an exceptional order. She sang in America
in 1895, but died of brain disease in 1896.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A <i>Life</i>, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAGENFURT<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Slovene, <i>Celovec</i>), the capital of the Austrian
duchy of Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900),
24,314. It is picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is
in communication with the Wörther-see by the 3 m. long Lend
canal. Among the more noteworthy buildings are the parish
church of St Ægidius (1709), with a tower 298 ft. in height; the
cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt 1723, restored
1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the Capuchins
(1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must
be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the <i>burg</i> or
castle, existing in its present form since 1777; and the <i>Landhaus</i>
or house of assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century,
and containing a museum of natural history, and collection of
minerals, antiquities, seals, paintings and sculptures. The most
interesting public monument is the great <i>Lindwurm</i> or Dragon,
standing in the principal square (1590). The industrial establishments
comprise white lead factories, machine and iron foundries,
and commerce is active, especially in the mineral products of the
region.</p>

<p>Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient
Roman town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt
became the property of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian
I. of the 24th of April 1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian
estates, and has since then taken the place of St Veit as
capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 and 1796 Klagenfurt
suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from the effects of
an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took
the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon
as his headquarters.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAJ<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (latinized <span class="sc">Clajus</span>), <span class="bold">JOHANN</span> (1616-1656), German poet,
was born at Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at
Wittenberg he went to Nuremberg as a &ldquo;candidate for holy
orders,&rdquo; and there, in conjunction with Georg Philipp Harsdörffer,
founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Pegnitz
order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master in the
Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at
Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj&rsquo;s poems consist of dramas,
written in stilted language and redundant with adventures,
among which are <i>Höllen- und Himmelfahrt Christi</i> (Nuremberg,
1644), and <i>Herodes, der Kindermörder</i> (Nuremberg, 1645), and
a poem, written jointly with Harsdörffer, <i>Pegnesische Schäfergedicht</i>
(1644), which gives in allegorical form the story of his
settlement in Nuremberg.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Tittmann, <i>Die Nürnberger Dichterschule</i> (Göttingen, 1847).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAMATH,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutuamian
stock. They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes,
and are now on the Klamath reservation, southern Oregon.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. S. Gatschet, &ldquo;Klamath Indians of Oregon,&rdquo; <i>Contributions
to North American Ethnology</i>, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAPKA, GEORG<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born
at Temesvár on the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian
army in 1838. He was still a subaltern when the Hungarian
revolution of 1848 broke out, and he offered his services to the
patriot party. He served in important staff appointments
during the earlier part of the war which followed; then, early in
1849, he was ordered to replace General Mészáros, who had been
defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps
he had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapólna, Isaszeg,
Waitzen, Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Then, as the fortune of
war turned against the Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a
short time as minister of war, took command at Komárom, from
which fortress he conducted a number of successful expeditions
until the capitulation of Világos in August put an end to the war
in the open field. He then brilliantly defended Komárom for two
months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. Klapka
left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years
in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland.
He continued by every means in his power to work for the independence
of Hungary, especially at moments of European war,
such as 1854, 1859 and 1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed
to him to promise success. After the war of 1866 (in which as a
Prussian major-general he organized a Hungarian corps in
Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian government to
return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a member of
the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the
Deák party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the
Turkish army in view of the war with Russia. General Klapka
died at Budapest on the 17th of May 1892. A memorial was
erected to his memory at Komárom in 1896.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>He wrote <i>Memoiren</i> (Leipzig, 1850); <i>Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn</i>,
&amp;c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, <i>Der Krieg im
Orient ... bis Ende Juli 1855</i> (Geneva, 1855); and <i>Aus meinen
Erinnerungen</i> (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1783-1835), German Orientalist
and traveller, was born in Berlin on the 11th of October
1783, the son of the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (<i>q.v.</i>).
He devoted his energies in quite early life to the study of Asiatic
languages, and published in 1802 his <i>Asiatisches Magazin</i>
(Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called to St Petersburg
and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805
he was a member of Count Golovkin&rsquo;s embassy to China. On
his return he was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on
an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and
was afterwards employed for several years in connexion with the
academy&rsquo;s Oriental publications. In 1812 he moved to Berlin;
but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 Humboldt procured
him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of professor of
Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain in
Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works.
He died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The principal feature of Klaproth&rsquo;s erudition was the vastness of
the field which it embraced. His great work <i>Asia polyglotta</i> (Paris,
1823 and 1831, with <i>Sprachatlas</i>) not only served as a <i>résumé</i> of all
that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the
classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the
Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now superseded.
The <i>Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller</i> (1821), a series of
documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting
to be the travels of George Ludwig von &mdash;&mdash;, and a similar series
obtained from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as
spurious.</p>

<p>Klaproth&rsquo;s other works include: <i>Reise in den Kaukasus und
Georgien in den Jahren 1807 und 1808</i> (Halle, 1812-1814; French
translation, Paris, 1823); <i>Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des
östlichen Kaukasus</i> (Weimar, 1814); <i>Tableaux historiques de l&rsquo;Asie</i>
(Paris, 1826); <i>Mémoires relatifs à l&rsquo;Asie</i> (Paris, 1824-1828); <i>Tableau
historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase</i> (Paris,
1827); and <i>Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne</i> (Paris,
1827).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1743-1817), German
chemist, was born at Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743.
During a large portion of his life he followed the profession of an
apothecary. After acting as assistant in pharmacies at Quedlinburg,
Hanover, Berlin and Danzig successively he came to
Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder in 1771 as manager
of his business, and in 1780 he started an establishment on his own
account in the same city, where from 1782 he was pharmaceutical
assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he was
appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when
the university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the
professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January
1817. Klaproth was the leading chemist of his time in Germany.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
An exact and conscientious worker, he did much to improve
and systematize the processes of analytical chemistry and
mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value of quantitative
methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the
Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to discover
uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize
them as distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of
them in the pure metallic state; and he elucidated the composition
of numerous substances till then imperfectly known,
including compounds of the then newly recognized elements:
tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in
<i>Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörper</i> (5 vols., 1795-1810)
and <i>Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts</i> (1815). He
also published a <i>Chemisches Wörterbuch</i> (1807-1810), and edited a
revised edition of F. A. C. Gren&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der Chemie</i> (1806).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1753-1800), French general, was
born on the 9th of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father
was a builder. He was trained, partly at Paris, for the profession
of architect, but his opportune assistance to two German nobles
in a tavern brawl obtained for him a nomination to the military
school of Munich. Thence he obtained a commission in the
Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his humble
birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he
was appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he
studied fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in
the Haut-Rhin volunteers, and was from his military knowledge
at once elected adjutant and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel.
At the defence of Mainz he so distinguished himself that though
disgraced along with the rest of the garrison and imprisoned, he
was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 promoted general
of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the Vendéan
war, and two months later was made a general of division. In
these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he
defeated the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly
expressing his opinion that lenient measures ought to be pursued
towards the Vendéans he was recalled; but in April 1794 he
was once more reinstated and sent to the Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse.
He displayed his skill and bravery in the numerous
actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning victory
of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged
Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of
an army temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as
commander-in-chief. On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a
brilliant rearguard action at the bridge of Neuwied, and in the
offensive campaign of 1796 he was Jourdan&rsquo;s most active and
successful lieutenant. Having, after the retreat to the Rhine
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>), declined the chief command,
he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted
a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but
was wounded in the head at Alexandria in the first engagement,
which prevented his taking any further part in the
campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him to be appointed
governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799,
however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza
and Jaffa, and won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the
15th of April 1799. When Napoleon returned to France
towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in command of the
French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of bringing
his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests,
he made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith,
the British admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked
the Turks at Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against
60,000, and utterly defeated them on the 20th of March 1800.
He then retook Cairo, which had revolted from the French.
Shortly after these victories he was assassinated at Cairo by a
fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same day on which his
friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kléber was undoubtedly
one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary
epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility
of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to
show that he would have been unequal to it. As a second in
command he was not excelled by any general of his time. His
conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when the treasury was
empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows
that his powers as an administrator were little&mdash;if at all&mdash;inferior
to those he possessed as a general.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan&rsquo;s chief of staff, published in
1867 a valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, <i>Life of
Merlin de Thionville</i>; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, <i>Souvenirs</i>; Las
Casas, <i>Memorial de Ste Hélène</i>; J. Charavaray, <i>Les Généraux morts
pour la patrie</i>; General Pajol, <i>Kléber</i>; lives of Marceau and Desaix;
M. F. Rousseau, <i>Kléber et Menou en Egypte</i> (Paris, 1900).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1810-1876), German writer of
Jewish origin, was born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was
educated at the gymnasium in Pest, and studied medicine in
Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and Greece, he
settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained until his
death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many
dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies <i>Maria
von Medici</i> (1841); <i>Luines</i> (1842); <i>Zenobia</i> (1847); <i>Moreto</i> (1859);
<i>Maria</i> (1860); <i>Strafford</i> (1862) and <i>Heliodora</i> (1867); and the
comedies <i>Die Herzogin</i> (1848); <i>Ein Schützling</i> (1850); and <i>Voltaire</i>
(1862). The tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become
bombastic and obscure, but many of his characters are vigorously
conceived, and in nearly all his tragedies there are passages of
brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly known as the author of the
elaborate though uncompleted <i>Geschichte des Dramas</i> (1865-1876),
in which he undertook to record the history of the drama from
the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the Elizabethan
period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward
as the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen
bulky volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred
by eccentricities of style and judgment.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Klein&rsquo;s <i>Dramatische Werke</i> were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1777-1811),
German poet, dramatist and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder
on the 18th of October 1777. After a scanty education, he
entered the Prussian army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign
of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of
lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the university
of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post in
the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his
roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a
lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in
Switzerland. Here he found congenial friends in Heinrich
Zschokke (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ludwig Friedrich August Wieland (1777-1819),
son of the poet; and to them he read his first drama, a
gloomy tragedy, <i>Die Familie Schroffenstein</i> (1803), originally
entitled <i>Die Familie Ghonorez</i>. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist
returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in
Weimar, stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded
to Paris, and returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was
transferred to the <i>Domänenkammer</i> (department for the administration
of crown lands) at Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden
in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy, and being sent
to France was kept for six months a close prisoner at Châlons-sur-Marne.
On regaining his liberty he proceeded to Dresden,
where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller (1779-1829) he
published in 1808 the journal <i>Phöbus</i>. In 1809 he went to Prague,
and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811) the
<i>Berliner Abendblätter</i>. Captivated by the intellectual and musical
accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who
was himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed
to do her bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution
by first shooting the lady and then himself on the shore of the
Wannsee near Potsdam, on the 21st of November 1811. Kleist&rsquo;s
whole life was filled by a restless striving after ideal and
illusory happiness, and this is largely reflected in his work. He
was by far the most important North German dramatist of
the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists
approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic
indignation.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His first tragedy, <i>Die Familie Schroffenstein</i>, has been already referred
to; the material for the second, <i>Penthesilea</i> (1808), queen of the
Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of
wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic
play, <i>Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe</i> (1808), a poetic
drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained its
popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with <i>Der zerbrochene
Krug</i> (1811), while <i>Amphitryon</i> (1808), an adaptation of Molière&rsquo;s
comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist&rsquo;s other dramas, <i>Die
Hermannschlacht</i> (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical
subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his own
times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country&rsquo;s oppressors.
This, together with the drama <i>Prinz Friedrich von Homburg</i>, the
latter accounted Kleist&rsquo;s best work, was first published by Ludwig
Tieck in <i>Kleists hinterlassene Schriften</i> (1821). <i>Robert Guiskard</i>, a
drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. Kleist was
also a master in the art of narrative, and of his <i>Gesammelte Erzählungen</i>
(1810-1811), <i>Michael Kohlhaas</i>, in which the famous Brandenburg
horse dealer in Luther&rsquo;s day (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kohlhase</a></span>) is immortalized,
is one of the best German stories of its time. He also wrote some
patriotic lyrics. His <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> were published by
Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874);
also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885);
by K. Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt
(5 vols. 1904-1905). His <i>Ausgewählte Dramen</i> were published by
K. Siegen (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published
by E. von Bülow, <i>Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe</i> (1848).</p>

<p>See further A. Wilbrandt, <i>Heinrich von Kleist</i> (1863); O. Brahm,
<i>Heinrich von Kleist</i> (1884); R. Bonafous, <i>Henri de Kleist, sa vie et
ses &oelig;uvres</i> (1894); H. Conrad, <i>Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und
Dichter</i> (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, <i>Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache
und sein Stil</i> (1897); R. Steig, <i>Heinrich von Kleists Berliner Kämpfe</i>
(1901); F. Servaes, <i>Heinrich von Kleist</i> (1902); S. Wukadinowic,
<i>Kleist-Studien</i> (1904); S. Rahmer, <i>H. von Kleist als Mensch und
Dichter</i> (1909).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1715-1759), German
poet, was born at Zeblin, near Köslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of
March 1715. After attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona
and the gymnasium in Danzig, he proceeded in 1731 to the university
of Königsberg, where he studied law and mathematics.
On the completion of his studies, he entered the Danish army,
in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia by
Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment
stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with
J. W. L. Gleim (<i>q.v.</i>), who interested him in poetry. After distinguishing
himself at the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741)
and the siege of Neisse (1741), he was promoted captain in 1749
and major in 1756. Quartered during the winter of 1757-1758 in
Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome military duties in the
society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (<i>q.v.</i>). Shortly afterwards
in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August 1759, he
was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at
Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following.</p>

<p>Kleist&rsquo;s chief work is a poem in hexameters, <i>Der Frühling</i>
(1749), for which Thomson&rsquo;s <i>Seasons</i> largely supplied ideas.
In his description of the beauties of nature Kleist shows real
poetical genius, an almost modern sentiment and fine taste.
He also wrote some charming odes, idylls and elegies, and a
small epic poem <i>Cissides und Paches</i> (1759), the subject being
two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for their country
in a battle against the Athenians.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his <i>Gedichte</i>, which
was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl
Wilhelm Ramler (<i>q.v.</i>) published an edition of <i>Kleists sämtliche Werke</i>
in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A. Sauer, in
3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, <i>De Ewaldi Kleistii vita
et scriptis</i> (Paris, 1887), and H. Pröhle, <i>Friedrich der Grosse und die
deutsche Literatur</i> (1872).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLERKSDORP,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of
Johannesburg and 192 m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop.
(1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were whites. The town, built on
the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its junction with
the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the neighbourhood
are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western
boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in
colour) and coal are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was
one of the villages founded by the first Boers who crossed the
Vaal, dating from 1838. The modern town, which is on the side
of the <i>spruit</i> opposite the old village, was founded in 1888.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLESL<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Khlesl</span>), <span class="bold">MELCHIOR</span> (1552-1630), Austrian statesman
and ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was
born in Vienna. Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted
to Roman Catholicism, and having finished his education
at the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor
of the university of Vienna; and as official and vicar-general
of the bishop of Passau he exhibited the zeal of a convert
in forwarding the progress of the counter-reformation in Austria.
He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but more important was
his association with the archduke Matthias which began about
the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias
succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the
originator and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed
the concessions to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted
to secure the election of Matthias to the imperial throne, and
sought, but without success, to strengthen the new emperor&rsquo;s
position by making peace between the Catholics and the Protestants.
When during the short reign of Matthias the question of
the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the bishop,
although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire
in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the
Roman Catholic Church, advised that this question should be
shelved until some arrangement with the Protestant princes had
been reached. This counsel was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian
and to Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II.
who believed that Klesl was hostile to the candidature of the
latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake his influence
with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before the
death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and
imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a
cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope
Gregory XV., and was released from imprisonment. In 1627
Ferdinand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties in
Vienna, where he died on the 18th of September 1630.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, <i>Khlesls Leben</i> (Vienna,
1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, <i>Kardinal Klesl</i> (Vienna, 1865); and
<i>Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von Dietrichstein</i>,
edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1752-1831),
German dramatist and novelist, was born of humble parentage
at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th of February 1752. His
father died when he was a child, and his early years were a hard
struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter the university
of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom he
had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways.
In 1775 Klinger gained with his tragedy <i>Die Zwillinge</i> a prize
offered by the Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress
Sophie Charlotte Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous
actor and playwright, Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (1744-1816).
In 1776 Klinger was appointed <i>Theaterdichter</i> to the &ldquo;Seylersche
Schauspiel-Gesellschaft&rdquo; and held this post for two years. In
1778 he entered the Austrian military service and took part in the
Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went to St Petersburg,
became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled and attached
to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to
Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps
of cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress
Catharine, was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799.
In 1803 Klinger was nominated by the emperor Alexander
curator of the university of Dorpat, an office he held until
1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He then gradually
gave up his official posts, and after living for many years in
honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February
1831.</p>

<p>Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine
feeling, though the bitter experiences and deprivations of
his youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his
earliest works, <i>Sturm und Drang</i> (1776), which gave its name to
this literary epoch. In addition to this tragedy and <i>Die Zwillinge</i>
(1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour
and restless &ldquo;storm and stress&rdquo; are <i>Die neue Arria</i> (1776),
<i>Simsone Grisaldo</i> (1776) and <i>Stilpo und seine Kinder</i> (1780). To
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of <i>Medea in Korinth</i>
and <i>Medea auf dem Kaukasos</i> (1791). In Russia he devoted
himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of
which the best known are <i>Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt</i>
(1791), <i>Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden</i> (1792) and <i>Geschichte
Raphaels de Aquillas</i> (1793). This series was closed in 1803
with <i>Betrachtungen und Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände
der Welt und der Literatur</i>. In these works Klinger gives
calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the
period of <i>Sturm und Drang</i> had bequeathed to German classical
literature.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Klinger&rsquo;s works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815),
also 1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes
(1878-1880); but none of these is complete.  A selection will be found
in A. Sauer, <i>Stürmer und Dränger</i>, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt,
<i>Lenz und Klinger</i> (1878); M. Rieger, <i>Klinger in der Sturm- und
Drangperiode</i> (1880); and <i>Klinger in seiner Reife</i> (1896).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLINGER, MAX<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1857-&emsp;&emsp;), German painter, etcher and
sculptor, was born at Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the
classes at the Carlsruhe art school in 1874, and went in the following
year to Berlin, where in 1878 he created a sensation at the
Academy exhibition with two series of pen-and-ink drawings&mdash;the
&ldquo;Series upon the Theme of Christ&rdquo; and &ldquo;Fantasies upon the
Finding of a Glove.&rdquo; The daring originality of these imaginative
and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and the
artist was voted insane; nevertheless the &ldquo;Glove&rdquo; series was
bought by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of &ldquo;The
Judgment of Paris&rdquo; caused a similar storm of indignant protest
in 1887, owing to its rejection of all conventional attributes and
the naïve directness of the conception. His vivid and somewhat
morbid imagination, with its leaning towards the gruesome and
disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his mind, found their
best expression in his &ldquo;cycles&rdquo; of etchings: &ldquo;Deliverances of
Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Brahms Phantasy,&rdquo; &ldquo;Eve
and the Future,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Life,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Of Death&rdquo;; but in his use of the
needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great
masters; it supplies him merely with means of expressing his
ideas. After 1886 Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to
painting and sculpture. In his painting he aims neither at classic
beauty nor modern truth, but at grim impressiveness not without
a touch of mysticism. His &ldquo;Pietà&rdquo; at the Dresden Gallery, the
frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the &ldquo;Christ in Olympus,&rdquo;
at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic examples of
his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured &ldquo;Salome&rdquo;
and &ldquo;Cassandra.&rdquo; In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured
materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine
sculpture. His &ldquo;Beethoven&rdquo; is a notable instance of his work
in this direction.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLIPSPRINGER,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the Boer name of a small African mountain-antelope
(<i>Oreotragus saltator</i>), ranging from the Cape through
East Africa to Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by
its blunt rounded hoofs, thick pithy hair and gold-spangled
colouring. The klipspringer represents a genus by itself, the
various local forms not being worthy of more than racial distinction.
The activity of these antelopes is marvellous.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLONDIKE,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a district in Yukon Territory, north-western
Canada, approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are
rather indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south
of the Klondike River, which comes into the Yukon from the east
and has several tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second
branch of the Yukon, flowing into it some distance above the
Klondike.  The richer gold-bearing gravels are found along the
creeks tributary to these two rivers within an area of about
800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a dissected peneplain with
low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft. above the sea at
the Dome which forms its centre. All of the gold-bearing creeks
rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various directions
toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive
being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion
and Gold Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles
in which it was gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its
length probably surpassed any other known placer deposit.
Rich gravel was discovered on Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild
rush to this almost inaccessible region followed, a population
of 30,000 coming in within the next three or four years with a
rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 the climax
of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily declined,
until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were
worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the
Klondike for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which
for a time was a bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled
to about 3000 inhabitants. As the ground was almost all frozen,
the mines were worked by a thawing process, first by setting
fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods being introduced
to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and hydraulic
mining were resorted to with success.</p>

<p>The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought together
miners and adventurers from all parts of the world, and
it is greatly to the credit of the Canadian government and of the
mounted police, who were entrusted with the keeping of order,
that life and property were as safe as elsewhere and that no
lawless methods were adopted by the miners as in placer mining
camps in the western United States. The region was at first
difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort
in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific
and the Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil,
summer roads were excessively bad in earlier days, but good
wagon roads have since been constructed to all the important
mining centres. Dawson itself has all the resources of a civilized
city in spite of being founded on a frozen peat-bog; and is supplied
with ordinary market vegetables from farms just across the
river. During the winter, when for some time the sun does not
appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually without
wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably
warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges
are generally made use of, except on the stage route south to
White Horse, where horses are used. A telegraph line connects
Dawson with British Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping
it in order are so great over the long intervening wilderness that
communication is often broken. Gold is <span class="correction" title="amended from practially">practically</span> the only
economic product of the Klondike, though small amounts of tin
ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on the
Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small
stringers of quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which
form the bed rock of much of the region, and no important
quartz veins have been discovered; so that unlike most other
placer regions the Klondike has not developed lode mines to
continue the production of gold when the gravels are exhausted.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLOPP, ONNO<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1822-1903), German historian, was born at
Leer on the 9th of October 1822, and was educated at the universities
of Bonn, Berlin and Göttingen. For a few years he was
a teacher at Leer and at Osnabrück; but in 1858 he settled at
Hanover, where he became intimate with King George V., who
made him his <i>Archivrat</i>. Thoroughly disliking Prussia, he was
in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive policy;
and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied
the exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in
1874. He died at Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August
1903. Klopp is best known as the author of <i>Der Fall des Hauses
Stuart</i> (Vienna, 1875-1888), the fullest existing account of the
later Stuarts.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Der König Friedrich II. und seine Politik</i> (Schaffhausen, 1867)
and <i>Geschichte Ostfrieslands</i> (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike
of Prussia. His other works include <i>Der dreissigjährige Krieg bis
zum Tode Gustav Adolfs</i> (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition
of his <i>Tilly im dreissigjährigen Kriege</i> (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of
George V., <i>König Georg V.</i> (Hanover, 1878); <i>Phillipp Melanchthon</i>
(Berlin, 1897). He edited <i>Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I.
imperatore ed il P. Marco l&rsquo;Aviano capuccino</i> (Gratz, 1888). Klopp
also wrote much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover,
including the <i>Offizieller Bericht über die Kriegsereignisse zwischen
Hannover und Preussen im Juni 1866</i> (Vienna, 1867), and he
edited the works of Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884).</p>

<p>See W. Klopp, <i>Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf</i> (Wehberg, 1907).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1724-1803), German
poet, was born at Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
son of a lawyer, a man of sterling character and of a deeply
religious mind. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of
Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, young
Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more attention having
been given to his physical than to his mental development he
grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman
and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to
Quedlinburg where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739
proceeded to the famous classical school of Schulpforta. Here
he soon became an adept in Greek and Latin versification, and
wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original
intention of making the emperor Henry I. (&ldquo;The Fowler&rdquo;) the
hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton&rsquo;s <i>Paradise Lost</i>,
with which he became acquainted through Bodmer&rsquo;s translation,
abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at school,
he had already drafted the plan of <i>Der Messias</i>, upon which his
fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered
on quitting school a remarkable &ldquo;leaving oration&rdquo; on epic
poetry&mdash;<i>Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich
erläutert</i>&mdash;and next proceeded to Jena as a student
of theology, where he elaborated the first three cantos of the
<i>Messias</i> in prose. The life at this university being uncongenial
to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here
joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to
the <i>Bremer Beiträge</i>. In this periodical the first three cantos
of the <i>Messias</i> in hexameters were anonymously published in
1748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the
name of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also
wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is <i>An meine
Freunde</i> (1747), afterwards recast as <i>Wingolf</i> (1767). He left
the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family
of a relative at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin
(the &ldquo;Fanny&rdquo; of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly
therefore he accepted in 1750 an invitation from Jakob Bodmer
(<i>q.v.</i>), the translator of <i>Paradise Lost</i>, to visit him in Zürich.
Here Klopstock was at first treated with every kindness and
respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however,
was disappointed to find in the young poet of the <i>Messias</i> a man
of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between
the two friends.</p>

<p>At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of
Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von
Bernstorff (1712-1772), an invitation to settle at Copenhagen,
with an annuity of 400 talers, with a view to the completion of
the <i>Messias</i>. The offer was accepted; on his way to the Danish
capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in 1754 became
his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the &ldquo;Cidli&rdquo; of his odes), an
enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short;
she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief
at her loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the
<i>Messias</i>. The poet subsequently published his wife&rsquo;s writings,
<i>Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock</i> (1759), which give
evidence of a tender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit.
Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him,
and his poetry became more and more vague and unintelligible.
He still continued to live and work at Copenhagen, and next,
following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (<i>q.v.</i>), turned his
attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should
replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In
1770, on the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bernstorff
from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg, but
retained his pension together with the rank of councillor of
legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the last five cantos of the
<i>Messias</i>. In the following year he published his strange scheme
for the regeneration of German letters, <i>Die Gelehrtenrepublik</i>
(1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the acquaintance
of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the
margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title
of <i>Hofrat</i> and a pension from the margrave, which he retained
together with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to
Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. His latter
years he passed, as had always been his inclination, in retirement,
only occasionally relieved by association with his most intimate
friends, busied with philological studies, and hardly interesting
himself in the new developments of German literature. The
American War of Independence and the Revolution in France
aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic
sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at
the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of
liberty, he returned it. When 67 years of age he contracted a
second marriage with Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow
and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of
his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg on the 14th of
March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with great
pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard
of the village of Ottensen.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Klopstock&rsquo;s nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it
his deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less
suited for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself,
a stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without
even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art
of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the
<i>Messias</i>, despite the magnificent passages which especially the
earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme
must necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption,
presented serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The
Gospel story was too scanty, and what might have been imported
from without and interwoven with it was rejected by the author as
profane. He had accordingly to resort to Christian mythology; and
here again, circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in
danger of trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian
faith. The personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an
individual form, still less could angels and devils&mdash;and in the case
of God Himself it was impossible. The result was that, despite
the groundwork&mdash;the Gospels, the <i>Acts of the Apostles</i>, the <i>Revelation
of St John</i>, and the model ready to hand in Milton&rsquo;s <i>Paradise Lost</i>&mdash;material
elements are largely wanting and the actors in the poem,
Divine and human, lack plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five
years to complete could not but be detrimental to its unity of design;
the original enthusiasm was not sustained until the end, and the earlier
cantos are far superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest
the work aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before
its completion. It was translated into seventeen languages and led
to numerous imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope
for his peculiar talent. Among the best are <i>An Fanny</i>; <i>Der
Zürchersee</i>; <i>Die tote Klarissa</i>; <i>An Cidli</i>; <i>Die beiden Musen</i>; <i>Der
Rheinwein</i>; <i>Die frühen Gräber</i>; <i>Mein Vaterland</i>. His religious odes
mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is <i>Die
Frühlingsfeier</i>. His dramas, in some of which, notably <i>Hermanns
Schlacht</i> (1769) and <i>Hermann und die Fürsten</i> (1784), he celebrated
the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, <i>Der
Tod Adams</i> (1757) and <i>Salomo</i> (1764), took his materials from the
Old Testament, are essentially lyrical in character and deficient in
action. In addition to <i>Die Gelehrtenrepublik</i>, he was also the author
of <i>Fragmente über Sprache und Dichtkunst</i> (1779) and <i>Grammatische
Gespräche</i> (1794), works in which he made important contributions
to philology and to the history of German poetry.</p>

<p>Klopstock&rsquo;s <i>Werke</i> first appeared in seven quarto volumes (1798-1809).
At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo
volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes
were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-1845,
1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel)
and 1893 (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of
the <i>Odes</i> was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a
commentary on these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For
Klopstock&rsquo;s correspondence see K. Schmidt, <i>Klopstock und seine
Freunde</i> (1810); C. A. H. Clodius, <i>Klopstocks Nachlass</i> (1821); J. M.
Lappenberg, <i>Briefe von und an Klopstock</i> (1867). Cf. further K. F.
Cramer, <i>Klopstock, er und über ihn</i> (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber,
<i>Klopstocks Leben</i> (1832); R. Hamel, <i>Klopstock-Studien</i> (1879-1880);
F. Muncker, <i>F. G. Klopstock</i>, the most authoritative biography,
(1888); E. Bailly, <i>Étude sur la vie et les &oelig;uvres de Klopstock</i> (Paris,
1888).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KLOSTERNEUBURG,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a town of Austria, in Lower Austria,
5½ m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated
on the right bank of the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg,
and is divided by a small stream into an upper and a lower town.
As an important pioneer station Klosterneuburg has various
military buildings and stores, and among the schools it possesses
an academy of wine and fruit cultivation.</p>

<p>On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand
the magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine
canonry, founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This
foundation is the oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
owns much of the land upon which the north-western suburbs
of Vienna stand. Among the points of interest within it are the
old chapel of 1318, with Leopold&rsquo;s tomb and the altar of Verdun,
dating from the 12th century, the treasury and relic-chamber,
the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the picture
gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the wine-cellar,
containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The
inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making
wine, of excellent quality. There is a large cement factory outside
the town. In Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the
region of Klosterneuburg. The town was founded by Charlemagne,
and received its charter as a town in 1298.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KLOTZ, REINHOLD<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1807-1870), German classical scholar,
was born near Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807.
In 1849 he was appointed professor in the university of Leipzig
in succession to Gottfried Hermann, and held this post till his
death on the 10th of August 1870. Klotz was a man of unwearied
industry, and devoted special attention to Latin literature.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of
which the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd
ed., 1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides
(1841-1867), in continuation of Pflugk&rsquo;s edition, but unfinished;
Terence (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and
Eugraphius. Mention should also be made of: <i>Handwörterbuch der
lateinischen Sprache</i> (5th ed., 1874); <i>Römische Litteraturgeschichte</i>
(1847), of which only the introductory volume appeared; an edition
of the treatise <i>De Graecae linguae particulis</i> (1835-1842) of Matthaeus
Deverius (Devares), a learned Corfiote (<i>c.</i> 1500-1570), and
corrector of the Greek MSS. in the Vatican; the posthumous <i>Index
Ciceronianus</i> (1872) and <i>Handbuch der lateinischen Stilistik</i> (1874).
From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of the <i>Neue Jahrbücher für
Philologie</i> (Leipzig). During the troubled times of 1848 and the
following years he showed himself a strong conservative.</p>

<p>A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the <i>Jahrbücher</i> for
1871, pp. 154-163.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNARESBOROUGH,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a market town in the Ripon parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16½ m.
W. by N. from York by a branch of the North Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its situation is most
picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd, which here
follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs. The
church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous
Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building
containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough
Castle was probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its
remains, however, are of the 14th century, and include a massive
keep rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd. After the battle
of Marston Moor it was taken by Fairfax, and in 1648 it was
ordered to be dismantled. To the south of the castle is St
Robert&rsquo;s chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed into an
ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the
excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are
incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the river
is St Robert&rsquo;s cave, which is supposed to have been the residence
of the hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel
Clarke by Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton&rsquo;s well-known
novel. Opposite the castle is the Dropping Well, the
waters of which are impregnated with lime and have petrifying
power, this action causing the curious and beautiful incrustations
formed where the water falls over a slight cliff. The
Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There
is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures
and the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons.</p>

<p>Knaresborough (<i>Canardesburg</i>, <i>Cnarreburc</i>, <i>Cknareburg</i>), which
belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of
William the Conqueror&rsquo;s grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh.
Being forfeited by his grandson Eustace FitzJohn in the reign of
Stephen, Knaresborough was granted to Robert de Stuteville,
from whose descendants it passed through marriage to Hugh
de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas Becket, who with
his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle for a whole
year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and lordship
changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively
to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of
Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died
without issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy
of Lancaster. In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the
castle of <span class="correction" title="amended from Knaresburgh">Knaresborough</span> for Thomas duke of Lancaster against
the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of
Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to destroy all
the records of the liberties and privileges of the town which were
kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to ascertain
these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held &ldquo;all
the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at
the king&rsquo;s court.&rdquo; In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough
is said by Leland to be &ldquo;no great thing and meanely builded but
the market there is quik.&rdquo; During the civil wars Knaresborough
was held for some time by the Royalists, but they were obliged
to surrender, and the castle was among those ordered to be
destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on Wednesday and
a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St Mark to
that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. confirming
earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on
Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to
1867 the town returned two members to parliament, but in the
latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the
representation was merged in that of the West Riding.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KNAVE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (O.E. <i>cnafa</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Knabe</i>, boy), originally
a male child, a boy (Chaucer, <i>Canterbury Tales</i>: &ldquo;Clerk&rsquo;s Tale,&rdquo;
I. 388). Like Lat. <i>puer</i>, the word was early used as a name for
any boy or lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in
general (Chaucer: &ldquo;Pardoner&rsquo;s Tale,&rdquo; 1. 204). The current use
of the word for a man who is dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was
however an early usage, and is found in Layamon (<i>c.</i> 1205).
In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, the &ldquo;jack,&rdquo;
representing a medieval servant, is called the &ldquo;knave.&rdquo; (See
also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valet</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1744-1834), German poet
and translator, was born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia
on the 30th of November 1744. After having studied law for
a short while at Halle, he entered the regiment of the crown
prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached to it as officer
for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, owing to the
slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting the post
of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and
his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On
this journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and introduced
him to the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This
meeting is memorable as being the immediate cause of Goethe&rsquo;s
later intimate connexion with the Weimar court. After Knebel&rsquo;s
return and the premature death of his pupil he was pensioned,
receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the singer
Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he
removed to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd
of February 1834. Knebel&rsquo;s <i>Sammlung kleiner Gedichte</i> (1815),
issued anonymously, and <i>Distichen</i> (1827) contain many graceful
sonnets, but it is as a translator that he is best known. His
translation of the elegies of Propertius, <i>Elegien des Properz</i>
(1798), and that of Lucretius&rsquo; <i>De rerum natura</i> (2 vols., 1831) are
deservedly praised. Since their first acquaintance Knebel and
Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least interesting of
Knebel&rsquo;s writings is his correspondence with the eminent poet,
<i>Briefwechsel mit Goethe</i> (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Knebel&rsquo;s <i>Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel</i> was edited by
K. A. Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed.,
1840). See Hugo von Knebel-Döberitz, <i>Karl Ludwig von Knebel</i>
(1890).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNEE<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (O.E. <i>cnéow</i>, a word common to Indo-European
languages, cf. Ger. <i>Knie</i>, Fr. <i>genou</i>, Span, <i>hinojo</i>, Lat. <i>genu</i>, Gr.
<span class="grk" title="gonu">&#947;&#972;&#957;&#965;</span>, Sansk. <i>janu</i>), in human anatomy, the articulation of the
upper and lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur
and the tibia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joints</a></span>). The word is also used of articulation
resembling the knee-joint in shape or position in other animals;
it thus is applied to the carpal articulation of the fore leg of a
horse, answering to the ankle in man, or to the tarsal articulation
or heel of a bird&rsquo;s foot.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span></p>


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<p><span class="bold">KNELLER, SIR GODFREY<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1648-1723), a portrait painter
whose celebrity belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lübeck
in the duchy of Holstein, of an ancient family, on the 8th of
August 1648. He was at first intended for the army, and was
sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and fortification. Showing,
however, a marked preference for the fine arts, he studied in the
school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in Amsterdam.
In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to
Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance
and encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice,
Kneller earned considerable reputation by historical paintings
as well as portraits. He next went to Hamburg, painting with
still increasing success. In 1674 he came to England at the invitation
of the duke of Monmouth, was introduced to Charles II.,
and painted that sovereign, much to his satisfaction, several
times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the portrait of
Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who produced
in England little or nothing in the historical department,
remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there
was no native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles
appointed him court painter; and he continued to hold the same
post into the days of George I. Under William III. (1692) he
was made a knight, under George I. (1715) a baronet, and by
order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the Roman Empire.
Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise was large:
he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and
Pope. Kneller&rsquo;s gains also were very considerable; aided by
habits of frugality which approached stinginess, he left property
yielding an annual income of £2000. His industry was maintained
till the last. His studio had at first been in Covent
Garden, but in his closing years he lived in Kneller Hall, Twickenham.
He died of fever, the date being generally given as the 7th
of November 1723, though some accounts say 1726. He was
buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in Westminster
Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an
ornamental painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and
had died in 1702. The style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait
painter represented the decline of that art as practised by Vandyck;
Lely marks the first grade of descent, and Kneller the second.
His works have much freedom, and are well drawn and coloured;
but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a great extent
monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had of
lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called
brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-places
of allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified
elegance not unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is
seldom to be traced in his works. His fame has greatly declined,
and could not but do so after the advent of Reynolds. Among
Kneller&rsquo;s principal paintings are the &ldquo;Forty-three Celebrities
of the Kit-Cat Club,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Ten Beauties of the Court of
William III.,&rdquo; now at Hampton Court; these were painted by
order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the
&ldquo;Beauties of the Court of Charles II.,&rdquo; painted by Lely. He
executed altogether the likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen
of his works appear in the National Portrait Gallery. It is said
that Kneller&rsquo;s own favourite performance was the portrait of the
&ldquo;Converted Chinese&rdquo; in Windsor Castle. His later works are
confined almost entirely to England, not more than two or three
specimens having gone abroad after he had settled here.</p>
<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-<i>c.</i> 1720),
Dutch colonist of New Netherland (New York), was a native of
Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland. Before 1683 he settled near
what is now Albany, New York, and there in 1704 he bought
through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in Dutchess
county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to
Peter Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the
upper fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker.
The eldest of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from
the common council of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of
meadow and 10 acres of upland on the south side of Schaghticoke
Creek. This Schaghticoke estate was held by Johannes
Harmensen&rsquo;s son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in the Continental
Army in the War of Independence, and by his son
Harmen (1779-1855), a lawyer, a federalist representative in
Congress in 1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly
in 1816, and a famous gentleman of the old school, who for his
courtly hospitality in his manor was called &ldquo;the prince of
Schaghticoke&rdquo; and whose name was borrowed by Washington
Irving for use in his (Diedrich) <i>Knickerbocker&rsquo;s History of New
York</i> (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name &ldquo;Knickerbockers&rdquo;
has passed into current use as a designation of the
early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The
son of Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who
returned to the earlier spelling of the family name, graduated
at Trinity College in 1853 and at the General Theological
Seminary in 1856, was a rector for many years at Minneapolis,
Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Indiana.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on &ldquo;The Knickerbocker
Family,&rdquo; beginning in vol. xxix., No. 1 (Jan. 1908) of the
<i>New York Genealogical and Biographical Record</i>.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIFE<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (O.E. <i>cníf</i>, a word appearing in different forms in
many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. <i>knijf</i>, Ger. <i>Kneif</i>, a shoemaker&rsquo;s
knife, Swed. <i>knif</i>; the ultimate origin is unknown;
Skeat finds the origin in the root of &ldquo;nip,&rdquo; formerly &ldquo;knip&rdquo;;
Fr. <i>canif</i> is also of Teutonic origin), a small cutting instrument,
with the blade either fixed to the handle or fastened with a hinge
so as to clasp into the handle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cutlery</a></span>). For the knives
chipped from flint by prehistoric man see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span> and
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flint Implements</a></span>.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1752-1796),
German author, was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck
near Hanover on the 16th of October 1752. After studying
law at Göttingen he was attached successively to the courts of
Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring
from court service in 1777, he lived a private life with his family
in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and Hanover until
1791, when he was appointed <i>Oberhauptmann</i> (civil administrator)
in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796.
Knigge, under the name &ldquo;Philo,&rdquo; was one of the most active
members of the <i>Illuminati</i>, a mutual moral and intellectual
improvement society founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830)
at Ingolstadt, and which later became affiliated to the Freemasons.
Knigge is known as the author of several novels, among
which <i>Der Roman meines Lebens</i> (1781-1787; new ed., 1805)
and <i>Die Reise nach Braunschweig</i> (1792), the latter a rather
coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary
achievement was, however, <i>Über den Umgang mit Menschen</i>
(1788), in which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful,
happy and useful life; it has been often reprinted.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Knigge&rsquo;s <i>Schriften</i> were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806).
See K. Goedeke, <i>Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge</i> (1844); and H. Klencke,
<i>Aus einer alten Kiste</i> (<i>Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem
Nachlasse Knigges</i>) (1853).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGHT, CHARLES<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1791-1873), English publisher and
author, the son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, was
born on the 15th of March 1791. He was apprenticed to his
father, but on the completion of his indentures he took up
journalism and interested himself in several newspaper speculations.
In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made
as publisher (1820-1821) of <i>The Etonian</i>, he started <i>Knight&rsquo;s
Quarterly Magazine</i>, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge
and Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to
a close with its sixth number, but it initiated for Knight a
career as publisher and author which extended over forty
years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up his publishing
business, and became the superintendent of the publications
of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for
which he projected and edited <i>The British Almanack and
Companion</i>, begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business
on his own account with the publication of <i>The Library of
Entertaining Knowledge</i>, writing several volumes of the series
himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started <i>The Penny Magazine</i> and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
<i>The Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, both of which had a large circulation.
<i>The Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, however, on account of the heavy
excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary
sacrifice. Besides many illustrated editions of standard works,
including in 1842 <i>The Pictorial Shakespeare</i>, which had appeared
in parts (1838-1841), Knight published a variety of illustrated
works, such as <i>Old England</i> and <i>The Land we Live in</i>. He also
undertook the series known as <i>Weekly Volumes</i>. He himself
contributed the first volume, a biography of William Caxton.
Many famous books, Miss Martineau&rsquo;s <i>Tales</i>, Mrs Jameson&rsquo;s
<i>Early Italian Painters</i> and G. H. Lewes&rsquo;s <i>Biographical History
of Philosophy</i>, appeared for the first time in this series. In
1853 he became editor of <i>The English Cyclopaedia</i>, which was
practically only a revision of <i>The Penny Cyclopaedia</i>, and at
about the same time he began his <i>Popular History of England</i>
(8 vols., 1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of
publisher, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his
long life, publishing <i>The Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i> (1865),
an autobiography under the title <i>Passages of a Working Life
during Half a Century</i> (2 vols., 1864-1865), and an historical
novel, <i>Begg&rsquo;d at Court</i> (1867). He died at Addlestone, Surrey,
on the 9th of March 1873.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. A. Clowes, <i>Knight, a Sketch</i> (1892); and F. Espinasse, in
<i>The Critic</i> (May 1860).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist,
was born at Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the
École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked
in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in
France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine.
He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular
success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the
Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was
made a knight of the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria,
Munich, 1893, receiving the gold medal of honour from the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1893. His
son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape painter.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1843-1908), English landscape
painter, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster,
but painting was his hobby, and he subsequently devoted
himself to it. In 1861 he had his first picture hung at the
Academy. He was essentially an open-air painter, constantly
going on sketching tours in the most picturesque spots of England,
and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He died
at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees
bought his &ldquo;December&rsquo;s Bareness Everywhere&rdquo; for the nation in
the following month. Most of his best pictures had passed into
the collection of Mr Iceton of Putney (including &ldquo;White Walls
of Old England&rdquo; and &ldquo;Hereford Cathedral&rdquo;), Mr Walter Briggs
of Burley in Wharfedale (especially &ldquo;Pinner&rdquo;), and Mr S. M.
Phillips of Wrotham (especially two water-colours of Richmond
Bridge).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGHTHOOD<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> and <span class="bold">CHIVALRY.</span> These two words, which are
nearly but not quite synonymous, designate a single subject
of inquiry, which presents itself under three different although
connected and in a measure intermingled aspects. It may be
regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of feudal tenure,
in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, and in the
third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements.
The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knight Service</a></span>: we are concerned here only with
the second and third. For the more important religious as
distinguished from the military orders of knighthood or chivalry
the reader is referred to the headings <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St John of Jerusalem,
Knights of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Knights</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Templars</a></span>.</p>

<p>&ldquo;The growth of knighthood&rdquo; (writes Stubbs) &ldquo;is a subject
on which the greatest obscurity prevails&rdquo;: and, though J. H.
Round has done much to explain the introduction of the system
into England,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> its actual origin on the continent of Europe is still
obscure in many of its most important details.</p>

<p>The words <i>knight</i> and <i>knighthood</i> are merely the modern forms
of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English <i>cniht</i> and <i>cnihthád</i>. Of these
the primary signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of
the second that period of life which intervenes between childhood
and manhood. But some time before the middle of the 12th
century they had acquired the meaning they still retain of the
French <i>chevalier</i> and <i>chevalerie</i>. In a secondary sense <i>cniht</i>
meant a servant or attendant answering to the German <i>Knecht</i>,
and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described as a
<i>leorning cniht</i>. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been
occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin <i>miles</i>&mdash;usually
translated by <i>thegn</i>&mdash;which in the earlier middle ages was used
as the designation of the domestic as well as of the martial
officers or retainers of sovereigns and princes or great personages.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
Sharon Turner suggests that <i>cniht</i> from meaning an
attendant simply may have come to mean more especially a
military attendant, and that in this sense it may have gradually
superseded the word thegn.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> But the word thegn itself, that is,
when it was used as the description of an attendant of the
king, appears to have meant more especially a military attendant.
As Stubbs says &ldquo;the thegn seems to be primarily the
warrior gesith&rdquo;&mdash;the gesithas forming the chosen band of companions
(<i>comites</i>) of the German chiefs (<i>principes</i>) noticed by
Tacitus&mdash;&ldquo;he is probably the gesith who had a particular military
duty in his master&rsquo;s service&rdquo;; and he adds that from the
reign of Athelstan &ldquo;the gesith is lost sight of except very occasionally,
the more important class having become thegns, and the
lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of the king.&rdquo;<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could never have
superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military attendant,
at all events of the king. But besides the king, the ealdormen,
bishops and king&rsquo;s thegns themselves had their thegns, and to
these it is more than probable that the name of <i>cniht</i> was applied.</p>

<p>Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of
retainers and dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is
evidence enough to show that among them were some called
<i>cnihtas</i> who were not always the humblest or least considerable
of their number.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The testimony of Domesday also establishes
the existence in the reign of Edward the Confessor of what
Stubbs describes as a &ldquo;large class&rdquo; of landholders who had
commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubtful
whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal
character. But in any event it is manifest that their condition
was in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably
feudal and military tenants who made their appearance
after the Norman Conquest. If consequently the former were
called <i>cnihtas</i> under the Anglo-Saxon régime, it seems sufficiently
probable that the appellation should have been continued to the
latter&mdash;practically their successors&mdash;under the Anglo-Norman
régime. And if the designation of knights was first applied to
the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons&mdash;who
although they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services
to the king&mdash;the extension of that designation to the whole body
of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged
process. Assuming, however, that <i>knight</i> was originally used
to describe the military tenant of a noble person, as <i>cniht</i> had
sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it
would, to begin with, have defined rather his social status than
the nature of his services. But those whom the English called
<i>knights</i> the Normans called <i>chevaliers</i>, by which term the nature
of their services was defined, while their social status was left
out of consideration. And at first <i>chevalier</i> in its general and
honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by <i>knight</i>
but by <i>rider</i>, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the
Conqueror &ldquo;dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere.&rdquo;<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> But, as E. A.
Freeman says, &ldquo;no such title is heard of in the earlier days of
England. The thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on
foot; the horse might bear him to the field, but when the fighting
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
itself came he stood on his native earth to receive the onslaught
of her enemies.&rdquo;<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In this perhaps we may behold one of the
most ancient of British insular prejudices, for on the Continent
the importance of cavalry in warfare was already abundantly
understood. It was by means of their horsemen that the
Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their neighbours,
and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from
the word <i>caballarius</i>, which occurs in the <i>Capitularies</i> in the reign
of Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance
languages.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In Germany the chevalier was called <i>Ritter</i>, but
neither <i>rider</i> nor <i>chevalier</i> prevailed against <i>knight</i> in England.
And it was long after <i>knighthood</i> had acquired its present meaning
with us that <i>chivalry</i> was incorporated into our language. It
may be remarked too in passing that in official Latin, not only
in England but all over Europe, the word <i>miles</i> held its own
against both <i>eques</i> and <i>caballarius</i>.</p>

<p>Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed
in the middle ages&mdash;implying as it did a formal assumption of
and initiation into the profession of arms&mdash;nothing
beyond more or less probable conjecture is possible.
<span class="sidenote">Origin of Medieval Knighthood.</span>
The medieval knights had nothing to do in the way of
derivation with the &ldquo;equites&rdquo; of Rome, the knights of King
Arthur&rsquo;s Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But
there are grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of
chivalry are to be detected in early Teutonic customs, and that
they may have made some advance among the Franks of Gaul.
We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his day were
wont to celebrate the admission of their young men into the
ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and ceremony.
The people of the district to which the candidate belonged were
called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be
conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed
fitted and worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of
his near kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance.
Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son
Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son Charles the
Bald with the sword, when they arrived at manhood.<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It seems
certain here that some ceremony was observed which was deemed
worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of recognized
importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony
extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and
emperors. But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied
in the first instance to the mounted warriors who formed the
most formidable portion of the warlike array of the Franks.
It was among the Franks indeed, and possibly through their
experiences in war with the Saracens, that cavalry first acquired
the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in every
European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid
force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist
of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman
observes,<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> will be the same. Since then we discover in the
<i>Capitularies</i> of Charlemagne actual mention of &ldquo;caballarii&rdquo; as
a class of warriors, it may reasonably be concluded that formal
investiture with arms applied to the &ldquo;caballarii&rdquo; if it was a usage
extending beyond the sovereign and his heir-apparent. &ldquo;But,&rdquo;
as Hallam says, &ldquo;he who fought on horseback and had been
invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted nothing
more to render him a knight;&rdquo; and so he concludes, in view of
the verbal identity of &ldquo;chevalier&rdquo; and &ldquo;caballarius,&rdquo; that &ldquo;we
may refer chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne.&rdquo;<a name="fa11b" id="fa11b" href="#ft11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
Yet, if the &ldquo;caballarii&rdquo; of the <i>Capitularies</i> are really the precursors
of the later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin
name for a knight is &ldquo;miles,&rdquo; although &ldquo;caballarius&rdquo; became in
various forms the vernacular designation.</p>

<p>Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of
Croyland is really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the
knighting of Heward or Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh
(now Peterborough), was accepted from Selden to Hallam as
<span class="sidenote">Knighthood in England.</span>
an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not only to
have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to
have had a distinctively religious character which
was contemned by the Norman invaders. The
genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to support
this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting
of Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his
investiture &ldquo;with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon
sword with a golden sheath,&rdquo; there is no hint of any religious
observance. In spite of the silence of our records, Dr Stubbs
thinks that kings so well acquainted with foreign usages as
Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly have
failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry
then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is supported
in this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere
mentioned as a Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold
received knighthood from William of Normandy makes it clear
either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in the case of so
tried a warrior would imply that &ldquo;dubbing to knighthood&rdquo; was
not yet known in England even under Edward the Confessor, or,
as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th century the
custom had grown in Normandy into &ldquo;something of a more
special meaning&rdquo; than it bore in England.</p>

<p>Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal
system of tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes
of defensive than of offensive warfare. Against invasion it
furnished a permanent provision both in men-at-arms and strongholds;
nor was it unsuited for the campaigns of neighbouring
counts and barons which lasted for only a few weeks, and extended
over only a few leagues. But when kings and kingdoms
were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became
necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted resources
of feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became
therefore the manifest interest of both parties that personal
services should be commuted into pecuniary payments. Then
there grew up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who
failed to respond to the sovereign&rsquo;s call or to stay their full time
in the field; and in England this fine developed, from the reign
of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular war-tax called
<i>escuage</i> or <i>scutage</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). In this way funds for war were placed at
the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the feudatories and
their retainers still formed the most considerable portion of their
armies, the conditions under which they served were altogether
changed. Their military service was now far more the result
of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike
enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas,
this alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and
Scotland and Wales were subjugated by what was in the main,
if not exclusively, a feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the
earls and barons and the sheriffs.<a name="fa12b" id="fa12b" href="#ft12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> But the armies of Edward III.,
Henry V. and Henry VI. during the century of intermittent warfare
between England and France were recruited and sustained
to a very great extent on the principle of contract.<a name="fa13b" id="fa13b" href="#ft13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a> On the
Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries was both
an early and a common practice.</p>

<p>Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns
and their feudatories, there were other causes which materially
contributed towards bringing about those changes in
the military system of Europe which were finally
<span class="sidenote">The Crusades.</span>
accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the
Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
and obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volunteers
who flocked to the standards of the various commanders
were not less but even more efficient in the field than the
vassals they had hitherto been accustomed to lead. It was thus
established that pay, the love of enterprise and the prospect of
plunder&mdash;if we leave zeal for the sacred cause which they had
espoused for the moment out of sight&mdash;were quite as useful for
the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as
the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty.
Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers
of an expedition to Palestine were seasoned and experienced
although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to
hire themselves to the highest bidder, and well worth the wages
they received. Again, it was owing to the crusades that the
church took the profession of arms under her peculiar protection,
and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a
religious as well as a martial character.</p>

<p>To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits
of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they
did not possess a sufficient property qualification&mdash;of
which perhaps they had denuded themselves in
<span class="sidenote">Knighthood independent of Feudalism.</span>
order to their equipment for the Holy War. And
thus the conception of knighthood as of something
distinct from feudalism both as a social condition and a
personal dignity arose and rapidly gained ground. It was
then that the analogy was first detected between the order of
knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an actual
union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establishment
of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars
and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples.
As comprehensive in their polity as the Benedictines or
Franciscans, they gathered their members from, and soon
scattered their possessions over, every country in Europe. And
in their indifference to the distinctions of race and nationality
they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had
become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like
the church, as a universal institution which knit together the
whole warrior caste of Christendom into one great fraternity
irrespective alike of feudal subordination and territorial boundaries.
Somewhat later the adoption of hereditary surnames
and armorial bearings marked the existence of a large and noble
class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects
of the custom of primogeniture were very insufficiently provided
for. To them only two callings were generally open, that of the
churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a rule offered
greater attractions than the former in an era of much licence and
little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of birth,
although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince
or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate
maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the
shape of booty or of ransom.<a name="fa14b" id="fa14b" href="#ft14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a> It is probably to this period and
these circumstances that we must look for at all events the rudimentary
beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders
of chivalry. Of the existence of any regularly constituted
companionships of the first kind there is no trustworthy evidence
until between two and three centuries after fraternities of the
second kind had been organized. Soon after the greater crusading
societies had been formed similar orders, such as those of
St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were established
to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the
Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks
than knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister,
and they were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy,
poverty and obedience. From a very early stage in the development
of chivalry, however, we meet with the singular institution
of brotherhood in arms; and from it the ultimate origin if not of
the religious fraternities at any rate of the military companionships
is usually derived.<a name="fa15b" id="fa15b" href="#ft15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a> By this institution a relation was
created between two or more monks by voluntary agreement,
which was regarded as of far more intimacy and stringency than
any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. Brothers
in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the affections
of their &ldquo;lady-loves.&rdquo; They shared in every danger and
in every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour
of another as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of
the medieval romance of <i>Amis and Amiles</i> is built entirely on
such a brotherhood. Their engagements usually lasted through
life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the
continuance of specified circumstances, and they were always
ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing in the shape of a
solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of the
Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange
rites&mdash;the mingling and even the drinking of blood&mdash;as having
in remote and rude ages marked the inception of these martial
and fraternal associations.<a name="fa16b" id="fa16b" href="#ft16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a> But in later and less barbarous
times they were generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal
and reciprocal exchange of weapons and armour. In warfare
it was customary for knights who were thus allied to appear
similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or cognisances,
to the end that their enemies might not know with which of them
they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to
accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in
the field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow
up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity,
although free from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or
livery, and naming themselves after some special symbol or
some patron saint of their adoption. And such bodies placed
under the command of a sovereign or grand master, regulated by
statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical endowments would have
been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter
in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in
Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually
were.<a name="fa17b" id="fa17b" href="#ft17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>

<p>During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat
earlier and later, the general arrangements of a European army
were always and everywhere pretty much the same.<a name="fa18b" id="fa18b" href="#ft18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
Under the sovereign the constable and the marshal
<span class="sidenote">Grades of Knighthood.</span>
or marshals held the chief commands, their authority
being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them
were the heralds, who were the officers of their military court,
wherein offences committed in the camp and field were tried
and adjudged, and among whose duties it was to carry orders
and messages, to deliver challenges and call truces, and to
identify and number the wounded and the slain. The main
divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other
principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of
some of the greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller
divisions still under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction
from knights banneret they came to be called, knights bachelors.
All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by
their squires. But the banner of the banneret always implied
a more or less extensive command, while every knight was entitled
to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All three flags
were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and carried
on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion
of the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was
square the pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was
either pointed or forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which
was considerably less than the others, always terminated in a
single tail or streamer.<a name="fa19b" id="fa19b" href="#ft19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>

<p>If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from
another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into
four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional
and two final. The bachelor and the banneret were both equally
knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
than the other. In like manner the squire and the page were
both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced
further in the process than the second. It is true that the squire
was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires
voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insufficiency
of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of
knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education
the successive conditions of page and squire were passed
through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood
was reached in early manhood. Every feudal court and castle
was in fact a school of chivalry, and although princes and great
personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and
physical discipline through which they passed was not in any
important particular different from that to which less exalted
candidates for knighthood were subjected.<a name="fa20b" id="fa20b" href="#ft20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The page, or, as he
was more anciently and more correctly called, the &ldquo;valet&rdquo; or
&ldquo;damoiseau,&rdquo; commenced his service and instruction when he
was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase
continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the constant
personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He
waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase,
served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to the camp.<a name="fa21b" id="fa21b" href="#ft21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a>
From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learnt
the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,<a name="fa22b" id="fa22b" href="#ft22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> from his
master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a
spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured
tread of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen
and falconers the &ldquo;mysteries of the woods and rivers,&rdquo; or in
other words the rules and practices of hunting and hawking.
When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire.
But no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life.
He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, although in a
manner more dignified according to the notions of the age.
He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered
the first or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests,
and carried to them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed
their hands before and after meat. He assisted in clearing the
hall for dancing or minstrelsy, and laid the tables for chess or
draughts, and he also shared in the pastimes for which he had
made preparation. He brought his master the &ldquo;vin de coucher&rdquo;
at night, and made his early refection ready for him in the
morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied
an always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself
to ride the &ldquo;great horse,&rdquo; to tilt at the quintain, to wield the
sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and
to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour.
He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily
suffered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst,
fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then too that he chose his
&ldquo;lady-love,&rdquo; whom he was expected to regard with an adoration
at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious if concealed.
And when it was considered that he had made sufficient advancement
in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the
priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him.<a name="fa23b" id="fa23b" href="#ft23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a>
Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating
most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he
entered the service of some valiant and adventurous lord or
knight of his own selection. He now became a &ldquo;squire of the
body,&rdquo; and truly an &ldquo;armiger&rdquo; or &ldquo;scutifer,&rdquo; for he bore the
shield and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task
of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and secured him in his
panoply of war before assisting him to mount his courser or
charger. It was his function also to display and guard in battle
the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight
he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to
supply him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or
killed, to receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight
by his side if he was unequally matched, to rescue him if captured,
to bear him to a place of safety if wounded, and to bury
him honourably when dead. And after he had worthily and
bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time
came when it was fitting that he should be made a knight. This,
at least, was the current theory; but it is specially dangerous
in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between
theory and fact. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the
discipline followed simply a natural and unwritten code of
&ldquo;fagging&rdquo; and seniority, as in public schools or on board
men-of-war some hundred years or so ago.</p>

<p>Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed
from a very early period in all countries where chivalry was
known. In both of them the essential portion seems
to have been the accolade or stroke of the sword.
<span class="sidenote">Modes of conferring Knighthood.</span>
But while in the one the accolade constituted the
whole or nearly the whole of the ceremony, in the other it
was surrounded with many additional observances. The former
and simpler of these modes was naturally that used in war:
the candidate knelt before &ldquo;the chief of the army or some
valiant knight,&rdquo; who struck him thrice with the flat of a sword,
pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation
which varied at the creator&rsquo;s will.<a name="fa24b" id="fa24b" href="#ft24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a></p>

<p>In this form a number of knights were made before and after
almost every battle between the 11th and the 16th centuries,
and its advantages on the score of both convenience and economy
gradually led to its general adoption both in time of peace and
time of war. On extraordinary occasions indeed the more
elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But recourse was
had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of the
15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special
king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with
such completeness that he does not even mention that there
were two ways of creating knights bachelors. &ldquo;He that is to
be made a knight,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;is striken by the prince with a
sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the prince saying,
&lsquo;Soys Chevalier,&rsquo; and in times past was added &lsquo;Saint George.&rsquo;
And when the knight rises the prince sayeth &lsquo;Avencez.&rsquo; This is
the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term
&lsquo;dubbing&rsquo; was the old term in this point, not &lsquo;creating.&rsquo; This
sort of knights are by the heralds called knights bachelors.&rdquo; In
our days when a knight is personally made he kneels before the
sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, ordinarily the sword of state,
on either of his shoulders and says, &ldquo;Rise,&rdquo; calling him by his
Christian name with the addition of &ldquo;Sir&rdquo; before it.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span></p>

<p>Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation
of a knight when the complete procedure was observed. &ldquo;The
ceremonies and circumstances at the giving this dignity,&rdquo; says
Selden, &ldquo;in the elder time were of two kinds especially, which we
may call courtly and sacred. The courtly were the feasts held
at the creation, giving of robes, arms, spurs and the like. The
sacred were the holy devotions and what else was used in the
church at or before the receiving of the dignity.&rdquo;<a name="fa25b" id="fa25b" href="#ft25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a> But the leading
authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in French,
which will be found at length either in the original or translated
by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English
writers.<a name="fa26b" id="fa26b" href="#ft26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a> Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, &ldquo;tant
à cause du detail que de la naïveté du stile et encore plus de la
bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort
sérieusement,&rdquo; while he adds that these ceremonies were essentially
identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the
placing of the candidate under the care of two &ldquo;esquires of honour
grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of
chivalry,&rdquo; who were to be &ldquo;governors in all things relating to him.&rdquo;
Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut
his hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber,
where a bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and
covered with rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him
he entered. While he was in the bath two &ldquo;ancient and grave
knights&rdquo; attended him &ldquo;to inform, instruct and counsel him touching
the order and feats of chivalry,&rdquo; and when they had fulfilled
their mission they poured some of the water of the bath over his
shoulders, signing the left shoulder with the cross, and retired.
He was then taken from the bath and put into a plain bed without
hangings, in which he remained until his body was dry, when the
two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that &ldquo;a robe of
russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto that of an
hermit.&rdquo; Then the &ldquo;two ancient and grave knights&rdquo; returned and
led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them &ldquo;sporting and
dancing&rdquo; with &ldquo;the minstrels making melody.&rdquo; And when they
had been served with wines and spices they went away leaving
only the candidate, the esquires, &ldquo;the priest, the chandler and the
watch,&rdquo; who kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate passing
the night &ldquo;bestowing himself in orisons and prayers.&rdquo; At
daybreak he confessed to the priest, heard matins, and communicated
in the mass, offering a taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near
the lighted end as possible, the first &ldquo;to the honour of God&rdquo; and the
second &ldquo;to the honour of the person that makes him a knight.&rdquo;
Afterwards he was taken back to his chamber, and remained in bed
until the knights, esquires and minstrels went to him and aroused
him. The knights then dressed him in distinctive garments, and they
then mounted their horses and rode to the hall where the candidate
was to receive knighthood; his future squire was to ride before him
bareheaded bearing his sword by the point in its scabbard with his
spurs hanging from its hilt. And when everything was prepared
the prince or subject who was to knight him came into the hall, and,
the candidate&rsquo;s sword and spurs having been presented to him, he
delivered the right spur to the &ldquo;most noble and gentle&rdquo; knight
present, and directed him to fasten it on the candidate&rsquo;s right heel,
which he kneeling on one knee and putting the candidate&rsquo;s right
foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the candidate&rsquo;s knee with
the cross, and in like manner by another &ldquo;noble and gentle&rdquo; knight
the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And then he who was to
create the knight took the sword and girded him with it, and then
embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him on the neck
or shoulder, saying, &ldquo;Be thou a good knight,&rdquo; and kissed him.
When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music,
and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to
support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it
on the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook
awaited him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said,
&ldquo;If you do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God
forbid), I shall hack the spurs from your heels.&rdquo;<a name="fa27b" id="fa27b" href="#ft27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p>
</div>

<p>The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have
been so largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing
or giving the accolade alone that in England it became at last
restricted to such knights as were made at coronations and
some other occasions of state. And to them the particular
name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, while knights made
in the ordinary way were called in distinction from them knights
of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in distinction
from knights banneret.<a name="fa28b" id="fa28b" href="#ft28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a> It is usually supposed that
the first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation
was at the coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of
the Bath as a companionship or capitular body was instituted
the last creation of them was at the coronation of Charles II.
But all knights were also knights of the spur or &ldquo;equites aurati,&rdquo;
because their spurs were golden or gilt,&mdash;the spurs of squires
being of silver or white metal,&mdash;and these became their peculiar
badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. In the
form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the
spurs together with the sword were always employed as the
leading and most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.<a name="fa29b" id="fa29b" href="#ft29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>

<p>With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been
entertained as to both the nature of their dignity and the
qualifications they were required to possess for receiving it at
different periods and in different countries. On the Continent
the distinction which is commonly but incorrectly made between
the nobility and the gentry has never arisen, and it was unknown
here while chivalry existed and heraldry was understood.
Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a gentleman
meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain conditions
of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence
Du Cange divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain
into three classes: first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly,
chevaliers or caballeros; and thirdly, écuyers or infanzons;
and to the first, who with their several special titles constituted
the greater nobility of either country, he limits the designation
of banneret and the right of leading their followers to war under
a banner, otherwise a &ldquo;drapeau quarré&rdquo; or square flag.<a name="fa30b" id="fa30b" href="#ft30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a> Selden
shows especially from the parliament rolls that the term banneret
has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to
baron.<a name="fa31b" id="fa31b" href="#ft31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a> In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI.,
lords of parliament were always created bannerets as well as
barons at their investiture, &ldquo;part of the ceremony consisting
in the display of a banner, and such &lsquo;barones majores&rsquo; were
thereby entitled to the privilege of having one borne by a
retainer before them to the field of a quadrilateral form.&rdquo;<a name="fa32b" id="fa32b" href="#ft32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a> In
Scotland, too, lords of parliament and bannerets were also
called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in England
banneret was often corrupted to baronet. &ldquo;Even in a patent
passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is
called &lsquo;baronettus&rsquo; for &lsquo;bannerettus.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="fa33b" id="fa33b" href="#ft33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a> In this manner
it is not improbable that the title of baronet may have been
suggested to the advisers of James I. when the order of Baronets
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span>
was originally created by him, for it was a question whether the
recipients of the new dignity should be designated by that or
some other name.<a name="fa34b" id="fa34b" href="#ft34b"><span class="sp">34</span></a> But there is no doubt that as previously
used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not the
name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there
are several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary
claim to that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground
of the nature of their feudal tenure.<a name="fa35b" id="fa35b" href="#ft35b"><span class="sp">35</span></a> And generally, at any rate
to commence with, it seems probable that bannerets were in
every country merely the more important class of feudatories,
the &ldquo;ricos hombres&rdquo; in contrast to the knights bachelors, who
in France in the time of St Louis were known as &ldquo;pauvres
hommes.&rdquo; In England all the barons or greater nobility were
entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange&rsquo;s observations
would apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility
of France and Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively
early period bannerets whose claims were founded on personal
distinction rather than on feudal tenure gradually came to the
front, and much the same process of substitution appears to
have gone on in their case as that which we have marked in the
case of simple knights. According to the <i>Sallade</i> and the
<i>Division du Monde</i>, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly
in the beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and
importance and nothing more, and different forms for their
creation are given in time of peace and in time of war.<a name="fa36b" id="fa36b" href="#ft36b"><span class="sp">36</span></a> But
in the French <i>Gesta Romanorum</i> the warlike form alone is given,
and it is quoted by both Selden and Du Cange. From the latter
a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as the only one
generally in force.</p>

<p class="pt2 f90 noind pt2">Plate I.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION
OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY&rsquo;S WISHES AND COMMAND.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:849px; height:1076px" src="images/img856.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">THE ORDER OF THE GARTER.<br />
(i.) <span class="sc">The Garter</span>; (ii) <span class="sc">The Collar and George</span>; (iii.) <span class="sc">The Lesser George
and Ribbon</span>; (iv.) <span class="sc">Star</span>.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
<td class="tcr f90"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions
entitled him to promotion would apply formally to the commander
in the field for the title of banneret. If this were
granted, the heralds were called to cut publicly the tails from
his pennon: or the commander, as a special honour, might cut
them off with his own hands.<a name="fa37b" id="fa37b" href="#ft37b"><span class="sp">37</span></a> The earliest contemporary
mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in the
reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the
reign of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to
them in such a manner as to suggest that the dignity was then
regarded as new or even uncommon, and it seems pretty certain
that its existence on one side could not have long preceded
its existence on the other side of the Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet,
Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney are entered as
bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen Castle in
1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms
of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his
expedition into Scotland in 1300.</p>

<p>What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected
to supply to the royal host is doubtful.<a name="fa38b" id="fa38b" href="#ft38b"><span class="sp">38</span></a> But, however this may
be, in the reign of Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear
as the commanders of a military force raised by themselves and
marshalled under their banners: their status and their relations
both to the crown and to their followers were mainly the consequences
of voluntary contract not of feudal tenure. It is from
the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also that the two
best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a banneret
have been transmitted to us.<a name="fa39b" id="fa39b" href="#ft39b"><span class="sp">39</span></a> Sir Thomas Smith, writing
towards the end of the 16th century, says, after noticing the
conditions to be observed in the creation of bannerets, &ldquo;but
this order is almost grown out of use in England&rdquo;;<a name="fa40b" id="fa40b" href="#ft40b"><span class="sp">40</span></a> and,
during the controversy which arose between the new order of
baronets and the crown early in the 17th century respecting
their precedence, it was alleged without contradiction in an
argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy council
that &ldquo;there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure
never shall be.&rdquo;<a name="fa41b" id="fa41b" href="#ft41b"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir
Ralph Sadler were created bannerets by the Lord Protector
Somerset after the battle of Pinkie in 1547, and the better
opinion is that this was the last occasion on which the dignity
was conferred. It has been stated indeed that Charles I.
created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of Edgehill
in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy.
But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed
that George III. had created several naval officers bannerets
towards the end of the last century, because he knighted them
on board ship under the royal standard displayed. This,
however, is unquestionably an error.<a name="fa42b" id="fa42b" href="#ft42b"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p>

<p>On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor
disappeared with the military system which had given rise to it.
It is now therefore peculiar to the British Empire,
where, although very frequently conferred by letters
<span class="sidenote">Existing Orders of Knighthood.</span>
patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still even
occasionally created&mdash;as every dignity was formerly created&mdash;by
means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject
personally take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade
seems to have become obsolete, and no other species of knighthood,
if knighthood it can be called, is known except that which
is dependent on admission to some particular order. It is a
common error to suppose that baronets are hereditary knights.
Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted like anybody
else; and, so far from being knights because they are baronets,
one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the institution
of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their
successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when
they attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive
knighthood.<a name="fa43b" id="fa43b" href="#ft43b"><span class="sp">43</span></a> It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke
says, &ldquo;the knight is by creation and not by descent,&rdquo; and,
although we hear of such designations as the &ldquo;knight of Kerry&rdquo;
or the &ldquo;knight of Glin,&rdquo; they are no more than traditional
nicknames, and do not by any means imply that the persons
to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense.
Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone
out of use abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanders
and companions of a formidable assortment of orders
in almost every part of the world.<a name="fa44b" id="fa44b" href="#ft44b"><span class="sp">44</span></a> (See the section on &ldquo;Orders
of Knighthood&rdquo; below.)</p>

<p>The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood&mdash;the
Garter, the Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India,
St Michael and St George, the Indian Empire and the Royal
Victorian Order; and, while the first is undoubtedly the oldest
as well as the most illustrious anywhere existing, a fictitious
antiquity has been claimed and is even still frequently conceded
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span>
to the second and fourth, although the third, fifth, sixth, seventh,
and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they are unquestionably
recent.</p>

<p>It is, however, certain that the &ldquo;most noble&rdquo; Order of the
Garter at least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century,
when English chivalry was outwardly brightest and
the court most magnificent. But in what particular
<span class="sidenote">Order of the Garter.</span>
year this event occurred is and has been the subject
of much difference of opinion. All the original records of the
order until after 1416 have perished, and consequently the question
depends for its settlement not on direct testimony but on
inference from circumstances. The dates which have been
selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, but almost certainly
mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at
length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the
wardrobe account from September 1347 to January 1349,
the 21st and 23rd Edward III., the issue of certain habits
with garters and the motto embroidered on them is marked
for St George&rsquo;s Day; that the letters patent relating to
the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in
August 1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince
of Wales there is an entry in November 1348 of the gift by
him of &ldquo;twenty-four garters to the knights of the Society
of the Garter.&rdquo;<a name="fa45b" id="fa45b" href="#ft45b"><span class="sp">45</span></a> But that the order, although from this manifestly
already fully constituted in the autumn of 1348, was
not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas
proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was
not a knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it,
and that neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the
original companions were knighted until the middle of that
year.</p>

<p>Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much controversy
as regarding the date of its foundation. The &ldquo;vulgar
and more general story,&rdquo; as Ashmole calls it, is that of the
countess of Salisbury&rsquo;s garter. But commentators are not at
one as to which countess of Salisbury was the heroine of the
adventure, whether she was Katherine Montacute or Joan the
Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend as &ldquo;a vain
and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the order,
first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of
England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama
vulgi, the tradition of the common people, too trifling a foundation
for so great a building.&rdquo;<a name="fa46b" id="fa46b" href="#ft46b"><span class="sp">46</span></a></p>

<p>Another legend is that contained in the preface to the Register or
Black Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII.,
by what authority supported is unknown, that Richard I.,
while his forces were employed against Cyprus and Acre, had
been inspired through the instrumentality of St George with
renewed courage and the means of animating his fatigued
soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of a chosen number
of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that being
thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise they might be
encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed
to have been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the
garter as the emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have
been by Taylor, master of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of
France on his investiture in 1527.<a name="fa47b" id="fa47b" href="#ft47b"><span class="sp">47</span></a> According to Ashmole the
true account of the matter is that &ldquo;King Edward having
given forth his own garter as the signal for a battle which
sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be that
of Crécy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence
took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter
(assumed by him for the symbol of unity and society) preeminence
among the ensigns of it.&rdquo; But, as Sir Harris
Nicolas points out&mdash;although Ashmole is not open to the
correction&mdash;this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on the
assumption that the order was established before the invasion of
France in 1346. And he further observes that &ldquo;a great variety
of devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were
chosen from the most trivial causes and were of an amorous
rather than of a military character. Nothing,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;is
more likely than that in a crowded assembly a lady should
accidentally have dropped her garter; that the circumstance
should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on its
being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of
his courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing
the garter at the same time on his own knee, as &lsquo;Dishonoured be
he who thinks ill of it.&rsquo; Such a circumstance occurring at a time
of general festivity, when devices, mottoes and conceits of all
kinds were adopted as ornaments or badges of the habits worn at
jousts and tournaments, would naturally have been commemorated
as other royal expressions seem to have been by its conversion
into a device and motto for the dresses at an approaching
hastilude.&rdquo;<a name="fa48b" id="fa48b" href="#ft48b"><span class="sp">48</span></a> Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that the
order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tournament.
It consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and
24 knights divided into two bands of 12 like the tilters in a
hastilude&mdash;&mdash;at the head of the one being the first, and of the other
the second; and to the companions belonging to each, when the
order had superseded the Round Table and had become a permanent
institution, were assigned stalls either on the sovereign&rsquo;s
or the prince&rsquo;s side of St George&rsquo;s Chapel. That Sir Harris
Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the
selection which was made of the &ldquo;founder knights.&rdquo; As Beltz
observes, the fame of Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny
and the earls of Northampton, Hereford and Suffolk was already
established by their warlike exploits, and they would certainly
have been among the original companions had the order been
then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But,
although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as
vacancies occurred, their admission was postponed to that of
several very young and in actual warfare comparatively unknown
knights, whose claims to the honour may be most rationally
explained on the assumption that they had excelled in the
particular feats of arms which preceded the institution of the
order. The original companionship had consisted of the sovereign
and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect
until 1786, when the sons of George III. and his successors
were made eligible notwithstanding that the chapter might be
complete. In 1805 another alteration was effected by the provision
that the lineal descendants of George II. should be
eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of Wales for the
time being, who was declared to be &ldquo;a constituent part of the
original institution&rdquo;; and again in 1831 it was further ordained
that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II.
should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although,
as Sir Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the
form of admitting ladies into the order, the description applied
to them in the records during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves
no doubt that they were regularly received into it. The queen
consort, the wives and daughters of knights, and some other
women of exalted position, were designated &ldquo;Dames de la
Fraternité de St George,&rdquo; and entries of the delivery of robes
and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe
Accounts from the 50th Edward III. (1376) to the 10th of
Henry VII. (1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford,
the daughter of the one king, and the last being Margaret and
Elizabeth, the daughters of the other king. The effigies of
Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton
Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of William de la Pole,
duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from the reigns
of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms.
(See further under &ldquo;Orders of Knighthood&rdquo; below.)</p>

<p>It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye
and Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer
knighthood.<a name="fa49b" id="fa49b" href="#ft49b"><span class="sp">49</span></a> But it may be questioned whether the privilege
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span>
was thus indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days
<span class="sidenote">Persons empowered to confer Knighthood.</span>
of chivalry. It is true that as much might be inferred from
the testimony of the romance writers; historical
evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, and
the sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris
Nicolas says, that the right was always restricted
in operation to sovereign princes, to those acting under their
authority or sanction, and to a few other personages of exalted
rank and station.<a name="fa50b" id="fa50b" href="#ft50b"><span class="sp">50</span></a> In several of the writs for distraint of knighthood
from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is drawn
between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or
by the sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots
could make knights in the 11th and 12th centuries.<a name="fa51b" id="fa51b" href="#ft51b"><span class="sp">51</span></a> At all
periods the commanders of the royal armies had the power of
conferring knighthood; as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was
exercised among others by Sir Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert,
earl of Essex, in 1595, while under James I. an ordinance of
1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for the registration
of knights in the college of arms, is rendered applicable to all
who should receive knighthood from either the king or any of
his lieutenants.<a name="fa52b" id="fa52b" href="#ft52b"><span class="sp">52</span></a> Many sovereigns, too, both of England and
of France, have been knighted after their accession to the
throne by their own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by
Henry, earl of Lancaster, Edward VI. by the lord protector
Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of Burgundy, and Francis I.
by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry VIII.
appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was
considered necessary that he should be authorized in express
terms to confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI.
in his own case when he received knighthood from the duke of
Somerset.<a name="fa53b" id="fa53b" href="#ft53b"><span class="sp">53</span></a> But at present the only subject to whom the right
of conferring knighthood belongs is the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, and to him it belongs merely by long usage and
established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, knighthood
at one time endowed the recipient with the same status
and attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized.
In the middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and
princes to dub each other knights much as they were afterwards,
and are now, in the habit of exchanging the stars and
ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was knighted by his great-uncle
David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of Scotland by
Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of
Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley,
earl of Cambridge.<a name="fa54b" id="fa54b" href="#ft54b"><span class="sp">54</span></a> And, long after the military importance
of knighthood had practically disappeared, what may be called
its cosmopolitan character was maintained: a knight&rsquo;s title was
recognized in all European countries, and not only in that
country in which he had received it. In modern times, however,
by certain regulations, made in 1823, and repeated and
enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the sovereign&rsquo;s
permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the reception
by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but
further that such permission shall not authorize &ldquo;the assumption
of any style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege
appertaining to a knight bachelor of the United Kingdom.&rdquo;<a name="fa55b" id="fa55b" href="#ft55b"><span class="sp">55</span></a></p>

<p>Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture
or its equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded
as necessary for the purpose of depriving anybody
who had once received it of the rank and condition
<span class="sidenote">Degradation.</span>
it implied.<a name="fa56b" id="fa56b" href="#ft56b"><span class="sp">56</span></a> The cases in which a knight has been formally
degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that
two only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway
says that only three were on record in the College of Arms when
he wrote in 1793. The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell
in 1621, whose spurs were hacked from his heels, his sword-belt
cut, and his sword broken over his head by the heralds in
Westminster Hall.<a name="fa57b" id="fa57b" href="#ft57b"><span class="sp">57</span></a></p>

<p>Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may
be said to have extended from the beginning of the crusades to
the end of the Wars of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry
and martial exercise it did not long survive the middle ages.
In England tilts and tourneys, in which her father had so much
excelled, were patronized to the last by Queen Elizabeth, and
were even occasionally held until after the death of Henry,
prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited
by the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559.
The golden age of chivalry has been variously located. Most
writers would place it in the early 13th century, but Gautier
would remove it two or three generations further back. It may
be true that, in the comparative scarcity of historical evidence,
12th-century romances present a more favourable picture of
chivalry at that earlier time; but even such historical evidence as
we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough to dispel the
illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in which the
unselfish championship of &ldquo;God and the ladies&rdquo; was anything
but a rare exception.</p>

<p>It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influence
of knighthood, if only because the ages in which it
flourished differed so widely from our own. At its very
best, it was always hampered by the limitations of medieval
society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts of the knightly
code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived the
decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory
human institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the
race. Indeed, the most important of these precepts did not
even attain to their highest development in the middle ages.
As a conscious effort to bring religion into daily life, chivalry
was less successful than later puritanism; while the educated
classes of our own day far surpass the average medieval knight
in discipline, self-control and outward or inward refinement.
Freeman&rsquo;s estimate comes far nearer to the historical facts than
Burke&rsquo;s: &ldquo;The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class spirit.
The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards
men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may
treat all below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty.
The spirit of chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two
virtues to be practised in such an exaggerated degree as to
become vices, while the ordinary laws of right and wrong are
forgotten. The false code of honour supplants the laws of the
commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal principles of
right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only encourages
the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause for
which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard
for a fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way
advance the objects of the siege or campaign which is going on.
Chivalry in short is in morals very much what feudalism is in
law: each substitutes purely personal obligations devised in the
interests of an exclusive class, for the more homely duties of an
honest man and a good citizen&rdquo; (<i>Norman Conquest</i>, v. 482).
The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so far as it
existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own age,
chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of
ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;<a name="fa58b" id="fa58b" href="#ft58b"><span class="sp">58</span></a> and if many of its
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span>
most brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever,
this is only because modern civilization tends so strongly to
remove social barriers. The knightly ages will always enjoy the
glory of having formulated a code of honour which aimed at
rendering the upper classes worthy of their exceptional privileges;
yet we must judge chivalry not only by its formal code but also
by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed up by F. W.
Cornish: &ldquo;Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service
willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedience
to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the
Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness
and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against
these may be set the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed,
contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect
discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the
times. It may have existed in the world too long: it did not
come into existence too early; and with all its shortcomings it
exercised a great and wholesome influence in raising the medieval
world from barbarism to civilization&rdquo; (p. 27). This was the
ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual features
of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day,
it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant
shadows.</p>

<p>Far too much has been made of the extent to which the
knightly code, and the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary,
raised the position of women (<i>e.g.</i> Gautier, p. 360). As Gautier
himself admits, the feudal system made it difficult to separate
the woman&rsquo;s person from her fief: instead of the freedom of
Christian marriage on which the Church in theory insisted,
lands and women were handed over together, as a business
bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was
the defender of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships
and marriages were bought and sold as a matter of everyday
routine like stocks and shares in the modern market. Lord
Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on this as a regular
and considerable source of income (Smyth, <i>Lives</i>, i. 157).
Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater
liberty of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to
a familiar correspondent &ldquo;for very need [of poverty], I was
fain to sell a little daughter I have for much less than I should
have done by possibility,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> than the fair market price
(Gairdner, <i>Paston Letters</i>, Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi).
Startling as such words are, it is perhaps still more startling to
find how frequently and naturally, in the highest society, ladies
were degraded by personal violence. The proofs of this which
Schultz and Gautier adduce from the <i>Chansons de Geste</i> might
be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry
(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a
lady who so irritated her husband by scolding him in company,
that he struck her to the earth with his fist and kicked her in
the face, breaking her nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes:
&ldquo;And this she had for her euelle and gret langage, that she was
wont to saie to her husbonde. And therfor the wiff aught to
suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, and to be maister,
for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here striff betwene
hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but whanne
thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and
counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys&rdquo; (La Tour, chap.
xviii.; cf. xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was
formally recognized by more than one code of laws, and it
was already a forward step when, in the 13th century, the
<i>Coutumes du Beauvoisis</i> provided &ldquo;que le mari ne doit battre
sa femme que <i>raisonnablement</i>&rdquo; (Gautier, p. 349). This was a
natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which
we see everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom
of contracting child-marriages for unsentimental considerations.
Between 1288 and 1500 five marriages are recorded in the direct
line of the Berkeley family in which the ten contracting parties
averaged less than eleven years of age: the marriage contract
of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before he was six years
old. Moreover, the same business considerations which dictated
those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of
knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV.
was knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible
evils of wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476
at the age of five. Smyth&rsquo;s record of this great family shows
that, from the middle of the 13th century onwards, the lords
were not only statesmen and warriors, but still more distinguished
as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even selling fruit from
the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round on tours
of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III.
(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments,
spent in two years only £90, or an average of about £15 per
tournament; yet he was then laying money by at the rate of
£450 a year, and, a few years later, at the rate of £1150, or
nearly half his income! Indeed, economic causes contributed
much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old families had
lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by personal
extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the
Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already,
in the 13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing
wealth of the burghers, and even the greatest nobles could
scarcely keep up their state without careful business management.
It is not surprising therefore, to find that at least as
early as the middle of the 13th century the commercial side
of knighthood became very prominent. Although by the code
of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before the age of
twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys
obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid
possible pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century
complained of this knighting of infants as a common and serious
abuse.<a name="fa59b" id="fa59b" href="#ft59b"><span class="sp">59</span></a> Moreover, after the knight&rsquo;s liability to personal service
in war had been modified in the 12th century by the scutage
system, it became necessary in the first quarter of the 13th to
compel landowners to take up the knighthood which in theory
they should have coveted as an honour&mdash;a compulsion which
was soon systematically enforced (<i>Distraint of Knighthood</i>, 1278),
and became a recognized source of royal income. An indirect
effect of this system<a name="fa60b" id="fa60b" href="#ft60b"><span class="sp">60</span></a> was to break down another rule of the
chivalrous code&mdash;that none could be dubbed who was not of
gentle birth.<a name="fa61b" id="fa61b" href="#ft61b"><span class="sp">61</span></a> This rule, however, had often been broken
before; even the romances of chivalry speak not infrequently
of the knighting of serfs or <i>jongleurs</i>;<a name="fa62b" id="fa62b" href="#ft62b"><span class="sp">62</span></a> and other causes besides
distraint of knighthood tended to level the old distinctions.
While knighthood was avoided by poor nobles, it was coveted
by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as &ldquo;an immemorial
custom&rdquo; in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour
of knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti
complaining that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however
disreputable his antecedents.<a name="fa63b" id="fa63b" href="#ft63b"><span class="sp">63</span></a> Similar causes contributed to
the decay of knightly ideas in warfare. Even in the 12th century,
when war was still rather the pastime of kings and knights than
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span>
a national effort, the strict code of chivalry was more honoured
in the breach than in the observance.<a name="fa64b" id="fa64b" href="#ft64b"><span class="sp">64</span></a> But when the Hundred
Years&rsquo; War brought a real national conflict between England
and France, when archery became of supreme importance, and
a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary soldiers,
then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that
outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry
had always rested. Siméon Luce (chap. vi.) has shown how
much the English successes in this war were due to strict business
methods. Several of the best commanders (<i>e.g.</i> Sir Robert
Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of obscure birth, while
on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait long for his
knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. The
tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the
ban of the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged
by Edward III. as it was encouraged by John of France; and
while John&rsquo;s father opened the Crécy campaign by sending
Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, Edward took
advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with
negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from
an almost hopeless position. A couple of quotations from
Froissart will illustrate the extent to which war had now become
a mere business. Much as he admired the French chivalry, he
recognized their impotence at Crécy. &ldquo;The sharp arrows
ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and many fell,
horse and men.... And also among the Englishmen there
were certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they
went in among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many
as they lay on the ground, both earls, barons, knights and
squires, whereof the king of England was after displeased,
for he had rather they had been taken prisoners.&rdquo; How far
Edward&rsquo;s solicitude was disinterested may be gauged from
Froissart&rsquo;s parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota,
where, as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a
sudden panic to slay their prisoners. &ldquo;Lo, behold the great
evil adventure that fell that Saturday. For they slew as many
good prisoners as would well have been worth, one with another,
four hundred thousand franks.&rdquo; In 1402 Lord Thomas de
Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners.
Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other
European countries either to conform to less sentimental
methods of warfare and to growing conceptions of nationality,
or to become mere Ishmaels of the type which outlived the
middle ages in Götz von Berlichingen and his compeers.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Froissart is perhaps the source from which we
may gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad.
The brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the <i>Chronique
de Du Guesclin</i>, and the <i>Histoire de Bayart</i>; the darker side appears
in the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized
by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Étienne de
Bourbon, Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth&rsquo;s <i>Lives of
the Berkeleys</i> (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc, 2 vols.) and the
<i>Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry</i> (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in
the old English trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.)
throw a very vivid light on the inner life of noble families. Of
modern books, besides those quoted by their full titles in the notes,
the best are A. Schultz, <i>Höfisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesänger</i>
(Leipzig, 1879); S. Luce, <i>Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Époque</i> (2nd
ed., Paris, 1882), masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the
author&rsquo;s death; Léon Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i> (Paris, 1883), written
with a strong apologetic bias, but full and correct in its references;
and F. W. Cornish, <i>Chivalry</i> (London, 1901), too little reference to
the more prosaic historical documents, but candid and without
intentional partiality.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. G. Co.)</div>

<p class="pt2 center sc">Orders of Knighthood</p>

<p>When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and
more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious
services to the Crown and country, the term &ldquo;orders&rdquo; became
loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves.
Thus &ldquo;orders,&rdquo; irrespective of the title or other specific designation
they confer, fall in Great Britain generally into three
main categories, according as the recipients are made &ldquo;knights
grand cross,&rdquo; &ldquo;knights commander,&rdquo; or &ldquo;companions.&rdquo; In
some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal
Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders
a like number, some six, while the Chinese &ldquo;Dragon&rdquo; boasts no
less than eleven degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the
&ldquo;knights grand cross&rdquo; consist of a star worn on the left breast
and a badge, usually some form either of the cross <i>patée</i> or of
the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon over the
shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial
from a collar. The &ldquo;commanders&rdquo; wear the badge from a
ribbon round the neck, and the star on the breast; the &ldquo;companions&rdquo;
have no star and wear the badge from a narrow
ribbon at the button-hole.</p>

<p>Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) <span class="sc">Prime
Orders of Christendom</span>, conferred upon an exclusive class
only. Here belong, <i>inter alia</i>, the well-known orders of the
<i>Garter</i> (England), <i>Golden Fleece</i> (Austria and Spain), <i>Annunziata</i>
(Italy), <i>Black Eagle</i> (Prussia), <i>St Andrew</i> (Russia), <i>Elephant</i>
(Denmark) and <i>Seraphim</i> (Sweden). Of these the first three
only, which are usually held to rank <i>inter se</i> in the order given,
are historically identified with chivalry. (2) <span class="sc">Family Orders</span>,
bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon
humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of &ldquo;personal&rdquo;
services rendered to the family. To this category belong
such orders as the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern
(Prussia). (3) <span class="sc">Orders of Merit</span>, whether military, civil
or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least three, oftener
five classes, and here belong such as the <i>Order of the Bath</i>
(British), <i>Red Eagle</i> (Prussia), <i>Legion of Honour</i> (France).
There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted
<i>Order of Merit</i> (British), and the <i>Pour le Mérite</i> (Prussia), which
have but one class, all members being on an equality of rank
within the order.</p>

<p>Of the three great military and religious orders, branches
survive of two, the Teutonic Order (<i>Der hohe deutsche Ritter Orden</i>
or <i>Marianen Orden</i>) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem
(<i>Johanniter Orden</i>, <i>Malteser Orden</i>), for the history of which and
the present state see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Order</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St John of Jerusalem,
Knights of the Order of</a></span>.</p>

<p><i>Great Britain.</i>&mdash;The history and constitution of the &ldquo;most
noble&rdquo; <i>Order of the Garter</i> has been treated above. The officers
of the order are five&mdash;the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of
arms and usher&mdash;the first, third and fifth having been attached
to it from the commencement, while the fourth was added by
Henry V. and the second by Edward IV. The prelate has
always been the bishop of Winchester; the chancellor was
formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop of
Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have
been united since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms,
whose duties were in the beginning discharged by Windsor
herald, is Garter Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the
gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel of the order
is St George&rsquo;s Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order are
illustrated on Plate I.</p>

<p>The &ldquo;most ancient&rdquo; <i>Order of the Thistle</i>, was founded by
James II. in 1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted
of the sovereign and eight knights companions, and fell into
abeyance at the Revolution of 1688. In 1703 it was revived
by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the
sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being increased
to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order
are the dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the
gentleman usher of the Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles&rsquo;s,
Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The star, badge and ribbon of
the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 5 and 6. The collar
is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of rue, and the
motto is <i>Nemo me impune lacessit</i>.</p>

<p class="pt2 f90 noind pt2">Plate II.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION
OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY&rsquo;S WISHES AND COMMAND.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:865px; height:1154px" src="images/img860.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">THE BATH. (i) <span class="sc">Star</span>; (ii.) <span class="sc">Grand Cross</span> (Mil.); (iii) <span class="sc">Star</span>; (iv.) <span class="sc">Grand Cross</span> (Civ.); THE THISTLE. (v.) <span class="sc">Star</span>; (vi.) <span class="sc">Badge</span>. THE ST. PATRICK.
(vii.) <span class="sc">Badge</span>; (viii.) <span class="sc">Star</span>. THE ST. MICHAEL AND ST. GEORGE. (ix.) <span class="sc">Star</span>; (x.) <span class="sc">Grand Cross</span>.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
<td class="tcr f90"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span></p>

<p class="pt2">The &ldquo;most illustrious&rdquo; <i>Order of St Patrick</i> was instituted
by George III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord
lieutenant of Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions,
enlarged to 22 in 1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief
secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms
is Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod is the usher. The chapel
is in St Patrick&rsquo;s Cathedral, Dublin. The star, badge and
ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. The collar is
formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and gold
harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a
harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto
is <i>Quis separabit</i>?</p>

<p>The &ldquo;most honourable&rdquo; <i>Order of the Bath</i> was established
by George I. in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master
and 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of
an order supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his
coronation in 1399. But, as has been shown in the preceding
section, no such order existed. Knights of the Bath, although
they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, were
merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate
ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In
1815 the order was instituted, in three classes, &ldquo;to commemorate
the auspicious termination of the long and arduous contest in
which the Empire has been engaged&rdquo;; and in 1847 the civil
knights commanders and companions were added. Exclusive
of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished foreigners, the
order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights grand cross,
145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705 military
and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the
dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the registrar,
and the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and
badges of the knights grand cross (civil and military) and the
stars are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4.</p>

<p>The &ldquo;most distinguished&rdquo; <i>Order of St Michael and St George</i>
was founded by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in
1818, in commemoration of the British protectorate of the
Ionian Islands, &ldquo;for natives of the Ionian Islands and of the
island of Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects
of his majesty as may hold high and confidential situations in
the Mediterranean.&rdquo; By statute of 1832 the lord high commissioner
of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and
the order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses,
20 knights commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After
the repudiation of the British protectorate of the Ionian
Islands, the order was placed on a new basis, and by letters
patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and provided for such
of &ldquo;the natural born subjects of the Crown of the United
Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential
offices within her majesty&rsquo;s colonial possessions, and in reward
for services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs
of the Empire.&rdquo; It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to
100 knights grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand
master, exclusive of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights
commanders and 600 companions. The officers are the prelate,
chancellor, registrar, secretary and officer of arms. The chapel
of the order, in St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906.
The badge of the knights grand cross and the ribbon are illustrated
on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of the knights
grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray of
gold between each, in the centre is a red St George&rsquo;s cross
bearing a medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, surrounded
by a blue fillet with the motto <i>Auspicium melioris
aevi</i>.</p>

<p>The <i>Order of St Michael and St George</i> ranks between the
&ldquo;most exalted&rdquo; <i>Order of the Star of India</i> and the &ldquo;most
eminent&rdquo; <i>Order of the Indian Empire</i>, of both of which the
viceroy of India for the time being is <i>ex officio</i> grand master.
Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and enlarged in 1876,
1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand commanders,
knights commanders and companions, and the second was
established (for &ldquo;companions&rdquo; only) in 1878 and enlarged in
1887, 1892, 1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in
commemoration of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s assumption of the imperial
style and title of the Empress of India. The badges, stars and
ribbons of the knights grand commanders of the two orders are
illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. The collar of the
<i>Star of India</i> is composed of alternate links of the lotus flower,
red and white roses and palm branches enamelled on gold, with
an imperial crown in the centre; that of the <i>Indian Empire</i> is
composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses.</p>

<p>The <i>Royal Victorian Order</i> was instituted by Queen Victoria
on the 25th of April 1896, and conferred for personal services
rendered to her majesty and her successors on the throne. It
consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes&mdash;knights
grand commanders, knights commanders, commanders
and members of the fourth and fifth classes, the distinction
between these last divisions lying in the badge and in the
precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this
order rank in their respective classes immediately after those
of the <i>Indian Empire</i>, and its numbers are unlimited. The
badge, star and ribbon of the knights grand cross are illustrated
on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2.</p>

<p>To the class of orders without the titular appellation &ldquo;knight&rdquo;
belongs the <i>Order of Merit</i>, founded by King Edward VII. on the
occasion of his coronation. The order is founded on the lines
of the Prussian <i>Ordre pour le mérite</i> (see below), yet more comprehensive,
including those who have gained distinction in the
military and naval services of the Empire, and such as have
made themselves a great name in the fields of science, art and
literature. The number of British members has been fixed at
twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the
sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients
were: Earl Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener,
Sir Henry Keppel, Sir Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord
Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. E. H. Lecky, G. F.
Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign recipients
up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and
Admiral Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the
order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue enamel surmounted
by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears
the inscription &ldquo;For Merit&rdquo; in gold, and is surrounded by a
wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and naval members
bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The
ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The <i>Distinguished Service Order</i>, an order of military merit, was
founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object
being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and
navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters
D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence immediately
after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge
is a white and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial
crown surrounded by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged
with blue. The <i>Imperial Service Order</i> was likewise instituted on
the 26th of June 1902, and finally revised in 1908, to commemorate
King Edward&rsquo;s coronation, and is specially designed as a recognition
of faithful and meritorious services rendered to the British Crown by
the administrative members of the civil service in various parts of
the Empire, and is to consist of companions only. The numbers are
limited to 475, of whom 250 belong to the home and 225 to the civil
services of the colonies and protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909).
Women as well as men are eligible. The members of the order
have the distinction of adding the letters I.S.O. after their names.
In precedence the order ranks after the <i>Distinguished Service Order</i>.
The badge is a gold medallion bearing the royal cipher and the words
&ldquo;For Faithful Service&rdquo; in blue; for men it rests on a silver star, for
women it is surrounded by a silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue
between two crimson stripes.</p>

<p>In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to
ladies. The <i>Royal Order of Victoria and Albert</i>, which was instituted
in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes,
and it has as designation the letters V.A. The <i>Imperial Order of the
Crown of India</i> is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the
Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of
ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its
designation.</p>

<p>The sovereign&rsquo;s permission by royal warrant is necessary before
a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For
other decorations, see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medals</a></span>.</p>
</div>

<p><i>The Golden Fleece</i> (<i>La Toison d&rsquo;Or</i>) ranks historically and in
distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span>
now divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was
founded on the 10th of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with Isabella of
Portugal at Bruges, in her honour and dedicated to the Virgin and
St Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It
seems to have been in dispute even in the early history of the
order. Four different sources have been suggested; the
classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for
the golden fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade
of Flanders in wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de
Rambrugge, the duke&rsquo;s mistress. Motley (<i>Rise of Dutch Rep.</i>,
i. 48) says: &ldquo;What could be more practical and more devout
than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, suspended
at each knight&rsquo;s heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics
to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was
owing, and the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to
characterize the order?&rdquo; At its constitution the number of
the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master,
the sovereign. The members were to be <i>gentilshommes de
nom et d&rsquo;armes et sans reproche</i>, not knights of any other
order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the
Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding
of virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult
the knights before embarking on a war, all disputes between
the knights were to be settled by the order, at each chapter the
deeds of each knight were held in review, and punishments and
admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign
was expressly subject. Thus we find that the emperor Charles V.
accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the Fleece on
his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful
personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, <i>Charles V.</i>, 1902,
ii. 373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by
their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and
Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all
crimes committed by the knights. The arrest of the offender
had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during
the process of charge and trial he remained not in prison but
<i>dans l&rsquo;aimable compagnie du dit ordre</i>. It was in defiance of
this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts Egmont and
Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During
the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative
body in the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the
knights with the council of state and the privy council to decide
what steps should be taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Armstrong,
<i>op. cit.</i>, i. 302), in 1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent,
summons them to Brussels to debate the dangerous condition
of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were present at
the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in 1555.
The history of the order and its subsequent division into the
two branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized.
By the marriage of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of
Burgundy to Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand
mastership of the order came to the house of Habsburg and,
with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the accession
of Philip, Maximilian&rsquo;s son, to Castile. On the extinction of
the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. in
1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings
of Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the
emperor Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna
in 1713. Protests were made at various times by Philip V.,
but the question has never been finally decided by treaty, and
the Austrian and Spanish branches have continued as independent
orders ever since as the principal order of knighthood in
the respective states. It may be noticed that while the Austrian
branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the
order, the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The
badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly
in the attachment of fire-stones (<i>fusils</i> or <i>furisons</i>) and
steels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar.
The Spanish form is given on Plate IV., fig. 2. The collar is
composed of alternate links of furisons and double steels
interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A magnificent
exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other objects connected
with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges
in 1907.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
de l&rsquo;Ordre de la Toison d&rsquo;Or</i> (1830); see also an article by Sir J.
Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the <i>Scottish Historical Review</i>
(July 1908).</p>

<p><i>Austria-Hungary.</i>&mdash;The following are the principal orders other
than that of the Golden Fleece (<i>supra</i>). <i>The Order of St Stephen of
Hungary</i>, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress
Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20
knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights. The
badge is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from
the Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of
the cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted
green mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold,
and the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend
<i>Publicum Meritorum Praemium</i>. The ribbon is green with a crimson
central stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of
gold, and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately
by the monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the
centre of the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto
<i>Stringit amore</i>. An illustration of the star of the grand cross is
given on Plate V. fig. 4. <i>The Order of Leopold</i>, for civil and military
service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory
of his father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next
after the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The
badge is a red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and
surmounted by the imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre
bears the letters F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the
inscription <i>Integritati et Merito</i>. When conferred for service in war
the cross rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with
two white stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the
initials F. and L. and oak wreaths. <i>The Order of the Iron Crown</i>,
<i>i.e.</i> of Lombardy, was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809,
and refounded as an Austrian order of civil and military merit in
1816 by the emperor Francis I.; the number of knights is limited
to 100&mdash;20 grand cross, 30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge
consists of the double-headed imperial eagle with sword and orb;
below it is the jewelled iron crown of Lombardy, and above the
imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle is a gold-bordered blue
shield with the letter F. in gold. The military decoration for war
service also bears two green laurel branches. The ribbon is yellow
edged with narrow blue stripes. The collar is formed of Lombard
crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F. P. (<i>Franciscus Primus</i>).
<i>The Order of Francis Joseph</i>, for personal merit of every kind, was
founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph I. It is of the three
usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The badge is a black
and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial crown. The
eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing the letters
F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is attached a
chain on which is the legend <i>Viribus Unitis</i>. The ribbon is deep red.
The <i>Order of Maria Theresa</i> was founded by the empress Maria
Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to officers
for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are three
classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and knights.
The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders&rsquo; class in 1765. The
badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion
with a white gold-edged <i>fesse</i>, surrounded by a fillet with the inscription
<i>Fortitudini</i>. The ribbon is red with a white central stripe.
The <i>Order of Elizabeth Theresa</i>, also a military order for officers, was
founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, widow of the
emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her daughter,
the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 knights in
three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight points,
enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial crown.
The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with the
encircling inscription <i>M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem voluit</i>.
The ribbon is black. The <i>Order of the Starry Cross</i>, for high-born
ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to good
works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress
Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of
Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross
from a dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic
was supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor
Maximilian I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the
order must be a princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge
is the black double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled
ornamented border, with the inscription <i>Salus et Gloria</i> on a white
fillet; the eagle bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders.
The <i>Order of Elizabeth</i>, also for ladies, was founded in 1898.</p>

<p class="pt2 f90 noind pt2">Plate III.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION
OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY&rsquo;S WISHES AND COMMAND.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:853px; height:1010px" src="images/img862.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) <span class="sc">Grand Cross</span>; (ii.) <span class="sc">Star</span>. ORDER OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) <span class="sc">Badge Of Knight</span>
<span class="sc">Grand Commander</span>; (iv.) <span class="sc">Star</span>. THE STAR OF INDIA. (v.) <span class="sc">Star</span>; (vi.) <span class="sc">Badge of Knight Grand Commander</span>.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
<td class="tcr f90"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2"><i>Belgium.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of Leopold</i>, for civil and military merit, was
founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added
in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders
and balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green
laurel and oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a
red fillet with the motto of the order, <i>L&rsquo;union fait la force</i>, bears a
golden Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span>
The <i>Order of the Iron Cross</i>, the badge of which is a black cross with
gold borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by
Leopold II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross
was instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders instituted
by Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the <i>Order of the
African Star</i> (1888), the <i>Royal Order of the Lion</i> (1891) and the
<i>Congo Star</i> (1889).</p>

<p><i>Bulgaria.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of SS Cyril and Methodius</i> was instituted
in 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the
principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now
takes precedence of the <i>Order of St Alexander</i>, which was founded by
Prince Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand
in 1888. There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended
from the Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in
old Cyrillic letters in the centre.</p>

<p><i>Denmark.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Elephant</i>, one of the chief European
orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in 1462;
a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular institution
was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of the sovereign
and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of the
Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on Plate IV.
fig. 5. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of alternate gold
elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of silver with
a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross surrounded by
a silver laurel wreath. The motto is <i>Magnanime pretium</i>. The
<i>Order of the Dannebrog</i> is, according to Danish tradition, of miraculous
origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in 1219 as a memorial
of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the appearance in the sky
of a red banner bearing a white cross. Historically the order dates
from the foundation in 1671 by Christian V. at the birth of his son
Frederick, the statutes being published in 1693. Originally restricted
to 50 knights and granted as a family or court decoration,
it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit in 1808 by
Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. It
now consists of three classes&mdash;grand cross, commander (two grades),
knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (<i>Dannebrogs maender</i>).
The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes,
a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing
in the centre the letter W (V) and on the four arms the inscription <i>Gud
og Kongen</i> (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red
edging.</p>
</div>

<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;<i>The Legion of Honour</i>, the only order of France, and
one which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest
European orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the
19th of May 1802 (29 Floreal of the year X.) as a general military
and civil order of merit. All soldiers on whom &ldquo;swords of
honour&rdquo; had been already conferred were declared <i>legionaries
ipso facto</i>, and all citizens after 25 years&rsquo; service were declared
eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. On admission
all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for the
assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The organization
as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon
was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers administered
the order; the order was divided into 15 &ldquo;cohorts&rdquo;
of 7 grand officers, 20 commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries,
and at the headquarters of the cohorts, for which the
territory of France was separated into 15 divisions, were maintained
hospitals for the support of the sick and infirm legionaries.
Salaries (<i>traitements</i>) varying in each rank were attached to the
order. In 1805 the rank of &ldquo;Grand Eagle&rdquo; (now Grand Cross,
or <i>Grand Cordon</i>) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand
officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old
military and religious orders were restored, and the <i>Legion of
Honour</i>, now <i>Ordre Royale de la Légion d&rsquo;Honneur</i>, took the lowest
rank. The revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its
unique place. The constitution of the order now rests on the
decrees of the 16th of March and 24th of November 1852, the law
of the 25th of July 1873, the decree of the 29th of December 1892,
and the laws of the 16th of April 1895 and the 28th of January
1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The president of
the republic is the grand master of the order; the administration
is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council of the
order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is
housed in the <i>Palais de la Légion de l&rsquo;Honneur</i>, which, burnt
during the Commune, was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of
the five classes of grand cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200),
commander (1000), officers (4000), and chevalier or knight, in
which the number is unlimited. These limitations in number
do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. Salaries (<i>traitements</i>)
are attached to the military and naval recipients of the
order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for grand cross,
2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, 250
francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order
<i>sans traitement</i> are limited through all classes. In ordinary
circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service
must have been performed before a candidate can be eligible for
the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only be made after
definite service in the lower rank. Extraordinary service in
time of war and extraordinary services in civil life admit to any
rank. Women have been decorated, notably Rosa Bonheur,
Madame Curie and Madame Bartet. The Napoleonic form of
the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; the
cross from which the drawing was made was given to King
Edward VII. when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present
order of the French Republic the symbolical head of the Republic
appears in the centre, and a laurel wreath replaces the imperial
crown; the inscription round the medallion is <i>République française</i>.
Since 1805 there has existed an institution, <i>Maison
d&rsquo;éducation de la Legion d&rsquo;Honneur</i>, for the education of the
daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of members of
the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, at
Écouen and Les Loges (see <i>Dictionnaire de l&rsquo;administration française</i>,
by M. Block and E. Magnéro, 1905, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Decorations&rdquo;).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored
in part at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of
July 1830 were the following: The <i>Order of St Michael</i> was founded
by Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth.
Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that
it became known as <i>Le Collier à toutes bêtes</i>. In 1816 the order was
granted for services in art and science. In view of the low esteem
into which the <i>Order of St Michael</i> had fallen, Henry III. founded
in 1578 the <i>Order of the Holy Ghost</i> (<i>St Esprit</i>). The badge of the
order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold
lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings
outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (<i>cordon bleu</i>). The motto of
the order was <i>Duce et auspice</i>. The <i>Order of St Louis</i> was founded
by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the <i>Order of Military
Merit</i> by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers.</p>

<p><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;i. <i>Anhalt.</i> The <i>Order of Albert the Bear</i>, a family
order or <i>Hausorden</i>, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of
Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander
Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have
been made at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand
cross, commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is
a gold oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenellated
wall; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the
ribbon is a shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the
reverse those of the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto
<i>Fürchte Gott und folge seine Befehle</i>. The ribbon is green with two
red stripes. The grand master alone wears a collar.</p>

<p>ii. <i>Baden.</i> The <i>Order of Fidelity or Loyalty</i> (<i>Hausorden der
Treue</i>) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in
1715, and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick.
There is now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign
sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red
enamelled cross with gold borders and double C&rsquo;s interlaced in the
angles; in the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a
green mound surmounted by the word <i>Fidelitas</i> in black; the cross
is suspended from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver
edging. The military <i>Order of Charles Frederick</i> was founded in
1807. There are three classes. The badge is a white cross resting
on a green laurel wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe
bordered with white. The order is conferred for long and meritorious
military service. The <i>Order of the Zähringen Lion</i> was founded
in 1812 in commemoration of the descent of the reigning house of
Baden from the dukes of Zähringen. It has been reconstituted in
1840 and 1877. It now consists of five classes. The badge is a green
enamel cross with gold clasps in the angles; in the central medallion
an enamelled representation of the ruined castle of Zähringen. The
ribbon is green with two orange stripes. Since 1896 the <i>Order of
Berthold I.</i> has been a distinct order; it was founded in 1877 as a
higher class of the <i>Zähringen Lion</i>.</p>

<p>iii. <i>Bavaria.</i> The <i>Order of St Hubert</i>, one of the oldest and
most distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke
Gerhard V. of Jülich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold
of Egmont at Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert&rsquo;s day.
The knights wore a collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order
was also known as the <i>Order of the Horn</i>. Statutes were granted in
1476, but the order fell into abeyance at the extinction of the
dynasty in 1609. It was revived in 1708 by the elector palatine,
John William of Neuberg, and its constitution was altered at various
times, its final form being given by the elector Maximilian Joseph,
first king of Bavaria, in 1808. Exclusive of the sovereign and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span>
princes of the blood, and foreign sovereigns and princes, it
consists of twelve capitular knights of the rank of count or
<i>Freiherr</i>. The badge of the order and the ribbon are illustrated
in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the conversion
of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue enamel
figures of the conversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V.,
<i>In Trau Vast</i>, the motto of the order, alternately red and green.
The <i>Order of St George</i>, said to have been founded in the 12th century
as a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I.
in 1494, dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the
elector Charles Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was
confirmed by the elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the
elector Maximilian Joseph IV. as the second Bavarian order.
Various new statutes have been granted from 1827 to 1875. The
order is divided into two branches, &ldquo;of German and foreign languages,&rdquo;
and it also has a &ldquo;spiritual class.&rdquo; The members of the
order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue enamelled
cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of a gold
lion&rsquo;s head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges containing
the letters V.I.B.I., <i>Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria Immaculata</i>. The
central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate Conception.
The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St George and the
Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., <i>Justus ut Palma
Florebit</i>, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria
possesses the <i>Military Order of Maximilian Joseph</i>, 1806, and the
<i>Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael</i>, 1693, and of the <i>Bavarian Crown</i>,
1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and military.
There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the <i>Order of
Elizabeth</i>, founded in 1766, and the <i>Order of Theresa</i>, in 1827. The
foundations of <i>St Anne of Munich</i> and of <i>St Anne of Würzburg</i> for
ladies are not properly orders.</p>

<p>iv. <i>Brunswick.</i> The <i>Order of Henry the Lion</i>, for military and
civil merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five
classes, and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue
enamelled cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal
crown; the angles of the cross are filled by crowned W&rsquo;s and the
centre bears the arms of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white
horse, between two sickles. The ribbon is deep red bordered with
yellow.</p>

<p>v. <i>Hanover.</i> The <i>Order of St George</i> (one class only) was instituted
by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the
house of Hanover; the <i>Royal Guelphic Order</i> (three classes) by George,
prince regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and
the <i>Order of Ernest Augustus</i> by George V. of Hanover in 1865.
These orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover
ceased to be a kingdom, and the <i>Royal Guelphic Order</i>, which from
its institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the
death of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the
late duke of Cambridge.</p>

<p>vi. <i>Hesse.</i> Of the various orders founded by the houses of Hesse-Cassel
and Hesse-Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in the
grand duchy of Hesse. The <i>Order of Louis</i>, founded by the grand
duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes;
the black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the
centre, the ribbon is black with red borders; the <i>Order of Philip the
Magnanimous</i>, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 1840 has five
classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip surrounded
by the motto <i>Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos</i>. The
<i>Order of the Golden Lion</i> was founded in 1770 by the landgrave
Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take
precedence of the members of the two former orders. The badge
is an open oval of gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. The
ribbon is crimson.</p>

<p>vii. <i>Mecklenburg.</i> The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the <i>Order of the Wendish
Crown</i>, founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of
Schwerin and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes,
with two divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of
merit; the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a
white cross bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded
by the motto, for the Schwerin knights, <i>Per aspera ad astra</i>, for the
Strelitz knights, <i>Avito viret honore</i>. The <i>Order of the Griffin</i>, founded
in 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to
the duchies in 1904.</p>

<p>viii. <i>Oldenberg.</i> The <i>Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis</i>, a
family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke
Paul Frederick Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has
two divisions, each of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary
members. The badge is a white gold bordered cross suspended
from a crown, in the centre the crowned monogram P.F.L. surrounded
by the motto <i>Ein Gott, Ein Recht, Eine Wahrheit</i>; the ribbon
is dark blue bordered with red.</p>

<p>ix. <i>Prussia.</i> The <i>Order of the Black Eagle</i>, one of the most
distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector
of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king
of Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original
statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal
house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been
exceeded. It is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon
high officers of state. It confers the nobiliary particle <i>von</i>. Only
those who have received the <i>Order of the Red Eagle</i> are eligible. An
illustration of the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV.
fig. 3. The star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground
surrounded by a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order
<i>Suum Cuique</i>. The collar is formed of alternate black eagles and
a circular medallion with the motto on a white centre surrounded by
the initials F.R. repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with
four gold crowns on the exterior rim. The <i>Order of the Red Eagle</i>,
the second of the Prussian orders, was founded originally as the
<i>Order of Sincerity</i> (<i>L&rsquo;Ordre de la Sincerité</i>) in 1705 by George William,
hereditary prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitution
and insignia are now entirely changed, with the exception of the
red eagle which formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The
order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734
by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the <i>Order of the Brandenburg
Red Eagle</i>. It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The
numbers were increased and a grand cross class added in 1759. On
the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1791 the order was
transferred and King Frederick William raised it to that place in
Prussian orders which it has since maintained. The order was
divided into four classes in 1810 and there are now five classes with
numerous subdivisions. It is an order of civil and military merit.
The grand cross resembles the badge of the Black Eagle, but is white
and the eagles in the corners red, the central medallion bearing the
initials W.R. (those of William I.) surrounded by a blue fillet with
the motto <i>Sincere et Constanter</i>. The numerous classes and subdivisions
have exceedingly complicated distinguishing marks, some
bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an oak-leaf surmounting the
cross. The ribbon is white with two orange stripes.</p>

<p>The <i>Order for Merit</i> (<i>Ordre pour le Mérite</i>), one of the most highly
prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military
and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral
prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the
<i>Order of Generosity</i>; it was given its present name and granted for
civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In
1810 the order was made one for military merit against the enemy
in the field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science
and art, or peace class (<i>Friedensklasse</i>) was founded by Frederick
William IV., for those &ldquo;who have gained an illustrious name by
wide recognition in the spheres of science and art.&rdquo; The number is
limited to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The <i>Academy
of Sciences and Arts</i> on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from
which one is selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this
was the only distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The
badge of the military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles
in the angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on
the other arms the inscription <i>Pour le Mérite</i>. The ribbon is black
with a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was
instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince
Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von Moltke
as a special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art
is a circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre surrounded
by a blue border with the inscription <i>Pour le Mérite</i>; on the
white field the letters <img style="width:13px; height:15px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img864a.jpg" alt="" />F. II. four times repeated, and four crowns
in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as for the
military class. The <i>Order of the Crown</i>, founded by William I. in
1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with many
subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the <i>Order of William</i>,
instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights
of St John of Jerusalem, <i>Johanniter Orden</i>, in its present form dating
from 1893; and the family <i>Order of the House of Hohenzollern</i>, founded
in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, military
and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a white
cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and laurel
wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the
arms of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the
motto <i>Vom Fels zum Meer</i>; the civil badge is a black eagle, with
the head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also
for ladies the <i>Order of Service</i>, founded in 1814 by Frederick William
III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration
of merit for ladies (<i>Verdienst-kreuz</i>), founded in 1870, was raised to
an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the <i>Iron
Cross</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medals</a></span>.</p>

<p>x. <i>Saxony.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Crown of Rue</i> (<i>Rauten Krone</i>) was
founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is
of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born
knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and
subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross
resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white
with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a green
circlet of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto <i>Providentiae
Memor</i>. The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military
<i>Order of St Henry</i>, for distinguished service in the field, founded in
1736 in one class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is
sky blue with two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre
the effigy of the emperor Henry II.; the <i>Order of Albert</i>, for civil
and military merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in
memory of Duke Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line
of Saxony, has six classes; the <i>Order of Civil Merit</i>, was founded in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span>
1815. For ladies there are the <i>Order of Sidonia</i>, 1870, in memory
of the wife of Albert the Bold, the mother (<i>Stamm-Mutter</i>) of the
Albertine line; and the <i>Maria Anna Order</i>, 1906.</p>

<p class="pt2 f90 noind pt2">Plate IV.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION
OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY&rsquo;S WISHES AND COMMAND.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:842px; height:1154px" src="images/img864.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(i.) <span class="sc">The St. Andrew</span> (Russia). (ii.) <span class="sc">The Golden Fleece</span> (Spain). (iii.) <span class="sc">The Black Eagle</span> (Prussia). (iv.) <span class="sc">The Tower and Sword</span> (Portugal). (v.) <span class="sc">The
Elephant</span> (Denmark). (vi.) <span class="sc">The Legion of Honour</span> (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) <span class="sc">The Annunziata</span> (Italy).</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
<td class="tcr f90"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">xi. The duchies of <i>Saxe Altenburg</i>, <i>Saxe Coburg Gotha</i> and <i>Saxe
Meiningen</i> have in common the family <i>Order of Ernest</i>, founded in
1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a
revival of the <i>Order of German Integrity</i> (<i>Orden der deutschen Redlichkeit</i>)
founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen
have also separate crosses of merit in science and art.</p>

<p>xii. <i>Saxe Weimar.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the White Falcon</i> or <i>of Vigilance</i>
was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815.</p>

<p>xiii. <i>Württemberg.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Crown of Württemberg</i> was
founded in 1818, uniting the former <i>Order of the Golden Eagle</i> and an
order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross
surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded
by a crimson fillet on which is the motto <i>Furchtlos und Treu</i>; in the
angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson
with two black stripes. Besides the military <i>Order of Merit</i> founded
in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Württemberg has also
the <i>Order of Frederick</i>, 1830, and the <i>Order of Olga</i>, 1871, which is
granted to ladies as well as men.</p>

<p><i>Greece.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Redeemer</i> was founded as such in 1833
by King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted
in 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes,
the numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge
and ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. 1.</p>

<p><i>Holland.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of William</i>, for military merit, was founded
in 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white
cross resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the
Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The
motto <i>Voer Moed, Belied, Trouw</i> (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty),
appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a
jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The
<i>Order of the Netherlands Lion</i>, for civil merit, was founded in 1818;
there are four classes. The family <i>Order of the Golden Lion of
Nassau</i> passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Luxemburg</a></span>). In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the <i>Order of
Orange-Nassau</i> with five classes. The <i>Teutonic Order</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), surviving
in the Ballarde (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in
the Netherlands by the States General in 1580. It was abolished
by Napoleon in 1811 and was restored in 1815.</p>

<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Annunziata</i>, the highest order of knighthood
of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus VI.,
count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the silver
collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in
honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the
knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited fifteen
masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of the order
were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). Charles III.
decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, and made
some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, Emmanuel
Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the costume.
The church of the order was originally the Carthusian monastery of
Pierre-châtel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles Emmanuel I.
had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of the
order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin.
That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the
French Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the
Carthusian church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order.
The knights of the Annunziata have the title of &ldquo;cousins of the
king,&rdquo; and enjoy precedence over all the other officials of the state.
The costume of the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with
a purple velvet cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but
it is now never worn; in the collar the motto <i>Fert</i> is inserted, on the
meaning of which there is great uncertainty,<a name="fa65b" id="fa65b" href="#ft65b"><span class="sp">65</span></a> and from it hangs a
pendant enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see
Plate IV. fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi
Cibrario&rsquo;s <i>Ordini Cavallereschi</i> (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of
the costume and badges.</p>

<p>The <i>Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus</i> (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro),
is a combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice
was originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434,
when he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group
of half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs
of state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V.
the order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the
instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military
and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of
St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a
military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom
of Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom
were among its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it
with estates and privileges, including that of administering and
succeeding to the property of lepers, which eventually led to grave
abuses. With the advance of the Saracens the knights of St Lazarus,
when driven from the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France
(1291) and Naples (1311), where they founded leper hospitals. The
order in Naples, which alone was afterwards recognized as the legitimate
descendant of the Jerusalem community, was empowered to
seize and confine anyone suspected of leprosy, a permission which led
to the establishment of a regular inquisitorial system of blackmail.
In the 15th and 16th centuries dissensions broke out among the
knights, and the order declined in credit and wealth, until finally
the grand master, Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in
favour of Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years
later the orders of St Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into
one community, the members of which were to devote themselves
to the defence of the Holy See and to fight its enemies as well as to
continue assisting lepers. The galleys of the order subsequently
took part in various expeditions against the Turks and the Barbary
pirates. Leprosy, which had almost disappeared in the 17th century,
broke out once more in the 18th, and in 1773 a hospital was
established by the order at Aosta, made famous by Xavier de
Maistre&rsquo;s tale, <i>Le Lépreux de la cité d&rsquo;Aoste</i>. The statutes were
published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its military
character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), and later
by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood of
St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king
of Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public
service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable
works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The
badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with
trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St
Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes
wear the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark
green.</p>

<p>See L. Cibrario, <i>Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi</i>, vol. i.
(Turin, 1846); <i>Calendario Reale</i>, an annual publication issued in
Rome.</p>

<p>The military <i>Order of Savoy</i> was founded in 1815 by Victor
Emmanuel of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now
five classes. The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand
and terminate in an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel
and oak wreath; the central medallion is red, bearing in gold two
crossed swords, the initials of the founder and the date 1855. The
ribbon is red with a central stripe of blue. The <i>Civil Order of Savoy</i>,
founded in 1831 by Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and
in statutes of 1868 is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain
Savoy cross in blue, with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with
white borders. The <i>Order of the Crown of Italy</i> was founded in 1868
by Victor Emmanuel II. in commemoration of the union of Italy
into a kingdom. There are five classes.</p>

<p><i>Luxemburg.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Golden Lion</i> was founded as a family
order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and
Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it
passed to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class.
The <i>Order of Adolphus of Nassau</i>, for civil and military merit, in four
classes, was founded in 1858, and the <i>Order of the Oak Crown</i> as a
general order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858.</p>

<p><i>Monaco.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of St Charles</i>, five classes, was founded in
1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general
order of merit.</p>

<p><i>Montenegro.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of St Peter</i>, founded in 1852, is a family
order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family;
the <i>Order of Danilo</i>, or of the <i>Independence of Montenegro</i>, is a general
order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also founded in 1852.</p>

<p><i>Norway.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of St Olaf</i> was founded in 1847 by Oscar I.
in honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a
general order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes,
the last two being, in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each.
The badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse
bears the motto <i>Ret og Sandhed</i> (Right and Truth). The <i>Order of the
Norwegian Lion</i>, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class;
foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads
of states or members of reigning houses.</p>

<p><i>Papal.</i>&mdash;The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders
was remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The <i>Order of Christ</i>,
the supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of
this ancient order see <i>Portugal</i> (<i>infra</i>). The badge and ribbon is
the same as the older Portuguese form. The <i>Order of Pius</i> was
founded in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge
is an eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays,
a white centre bears the founder&rsquo;s name; the ribbon is blue with two
red stripes at each border. The <i>Order of St Gregory the Great</i>, founded
in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three
classes. The <i>Order of St Sylvester</i> was originally founded as the
<i>Order of the Golden Spur</i> by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body,
though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope
Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI.
in 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a
separate order, that of the <i>Golden Spur</i> or <i>Golden Legion</i> (<i>Militia
Aurata</i>) was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a
hundred. The cross <i>Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice</i>, instituted by Leo XIII.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span>
in 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the
venerable <i>Order of the Holy Sepulchre</i>, of which tradition assigns
the foundation to Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably
founded as a military order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre
by Alexander VI. in 1496. The right to nominate to the order was
shared with the pope as grand master by the guardian of the <i>Patres
Minores</i> in Jerusalem, later by the Franciscans, and then by the
Latin patriarch in Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated
grand master, but the pope reserves the joint right of nomination.
The badge of the order is a red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses
in the angles.</p>

<p><i>Portugal.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of Christ</i> was founded on the abolition of the
Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunction
with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the
order. The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it
was formed as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership
vested in the crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious
aspect was abandoned, and with the exception that its members
must be of the Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized.
There are three classes. The original badge of the order was a long
red cross with expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white;
the ribbon is red. The modern badge is a blue enamelled cross
resting on a green laurel wreath; the central medallion, in white, contains
the old red and white cross. The older form is worn with the
collar by the grand-crosses. The <i>Order of the Tower and Sword</i> was
founded in 1808 in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI.
of Portugal, as a revival of the old <i>Order of the Sword</i>, said to have
been founded by Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832
under its present name and constitution as a general order of military
and civil merit. There are five classes. The badge of the order and
ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV. fig 4. The <i>Order of St Benedict of
Aviz</i> (earlier of <i>Evora</i>), founded in 1162 as a religious military
order, was secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four
classes. The badge is a green cross <i>fleury</i>; the ribbon is green.
The <i>Order of St James of the Sword</i>, or James of Compostella, is
a branch of the Spanish order of that name (see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>). It
also was secularized in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order
of merit for science, literature and art, in five classes. The badge is
the lily-hilted sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders;
the ribbon is violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a
common badge uniting the three separate crosses in a gold medallion;
the joint ribbon is red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses
was added a red sacred heart and small white cross. There are also
the <i>Order of Our Lady of Villa Viçosa</i> (1819), for both sexes, and the
<i>Order of St Isabella</i>, 1801, for ladies.</p>

<p><i>Rumania.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Star of Rumania</i> was founded in 1877,
and the <i>Order of the Crown of Rumania</i> in 1881, both in five classes,
for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue
borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes.</p>

<p><i>Russia.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of St Andrew</i> was founded in 1698 by Peter
the Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries
with it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of <i>St Anne</i>,
<i>Alexander Nevsky</i>, and the <i>White Eagle</i>; there is only one class.
The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is
composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing
on a red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge
of the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I.
in gold on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and
surrounded by a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a
circular red and gold star with a blue St Andrew&rsquo;s cross. The <i>Order
of St Catherine</i>, for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was
founded under the name of the <i>Order of Rescue</i> by Peter the Great
in 1714 in honour of the empress Catherine and the part she had
taken in rescuing him at the battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are
two classes. The grand cross is only for members of the imperial
house and ladies of the highest nobility. The second class was added
in 1797. The badge of the order is a cross of diamonds bearing in a
medallion the effigy of St Catherine. The ribbon is red with the
motto <i>For Love and Fatherland</i> in silver letters. The <i>Order of St
Alexander Nevsky</i> was founded in 1725 by the empress Catherine I.
There is only one class. The badge is a red enamelled cross with
gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a medallion the mounted effigy
of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is red. The <i>Order of the
White Eagle</i> was founded in 1713 by Augustus II. of Poland and was
adopted as a Russian order in 1831; there is one class. The <i>Order
of St Anne</i> was founded by Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp
in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, daughter of
Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 by their
grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other orders
are those of <i>St Vladimir</i>, founded by Catherine II., 1782, four classes,
and of <i>St Stanislaus</i>, founded originally as a Polish order by Stanislaus
Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a Russian
order in 1831.</p>

<p>The military <i>Order of St George</i> was founded by the empress
Catherine II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four
classes; a fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the
<i>St George&rsquo;s Cross</i>, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross
with gold borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure
of St George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with
three black stripes.</p>

<p><i>Servia.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the White Eagle</i>, the principal order, was
founded by Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the ribbon
is blue and red; the <i>Order of St Sava</i>, founded 1883, also in five classes,
is an order of merit for science and art; the <i>Order of the Star of
Karageorgevitch</i>, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in 1904.
The orders of <i>Milosch the Great</i>, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and
of <i>Takovo</i>, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863,
reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no
longer bestowed. The <i>Order of St Lazarus</i> is not a general order, the
cross and collar being only worn by the king.</p>

<p><i>Spain.</i>&mdash;The Spanish branch of the <i>Order of the Golden Fleece</i>
has been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain&mdash;of
<i>St James of Compostella</i>, or <i>St James of the Sword</i>, of <i>Alcantara</i> and
of <i>Calatrava</i>&mdash;still exist as orders of merit, the first in three classes,
the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They were all
originally founded as military religious orders, like the crusading
Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true faith against
the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders represent the
crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of St James of
Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James; the ribbon is also
red. The other two orders wear the cross <i>fleury</i>&mdash;<i>Alcantara</i> red,
<i>Calatrava</i> green, with corresponding ribbons. A short history of these
orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the
<i>Order of Knights of St James of Compostella</i> to Ramiro II., king of
Leon, in the 10th century, to commemorate a victory over the Moors,
but, historically the order dates from the confirmation in 1175 by
Pope Alexander III. It gained great reputation in the wars against
the Moors and became very wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership
was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested permanently
in the crown of Spain by Pope Adrian VI. in 1522.</p>

<p>The <i>Order of Knights of Alcantara</i>, instituted about 1156 by the
brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection
against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order
of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until
about 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del
Pereyro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from
the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they
took their name from that city. For a considerable time they were
in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order
of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence
by electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of the
office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven
successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth
of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were
almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zuñiga
was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand,
who thereupon vested it in his own person as king; and this arrangement
was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared
permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly income of
Zuñiga at the time of his resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats.
In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of
Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second
marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth <i>obedientia</i>,
<i>castitas conjugalis</i> and <i>conversio morum</i>. In modern times the history
of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph
Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he deprived the knights of
their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restoration
of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a
spiritual body in 1835.</p>

<p>The <i>Order of Knights of Calatrava</i> was founded in 1158 by Don
Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly
wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander
III. granted confirmation as a religious military order under
Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the
Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but
recovered their town in 1212. In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-mastership,
and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523.
The order became a military order of merit in 1808 and was reorganized
in 1874. The <i>Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles III.</i>
was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two classes; altered in 1804,
it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the
Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the <i>Royal Order of the
Knights of Spain</i> was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived
the order, and in 1847 it received its present constitution, viz. of
three classes (the commanders in two divisions). The badge of the
order is a blue and white cross suspended from a green laurel wreath,
in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval centre bears a figure of
the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is blue and white. The
<i>Order of Isabella the Catholic</i> was founded in 1815 under the patronage
of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted to
reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in America,
it is now a general order of merit, in three classes. The badge is a
red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, in the centre a representation
of the pillars of Hercules; the cross is attached to the
yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. Other Spanish
orders are the <i>Maria Louisa</i>, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and
naval orders of merit of <i>St Ferdinand</i>, founded by the Cortes in 1811,
five classes; of <i>St Ermenegild</i> (<i>Hermenegildo</i>), 1814, three classes, of
<i>Military Merit</i> and <i>Naval Merit</i>, 1866, and of <i>Maria Christina</i>,
1890; the <i>Order of Beneficencia</i> for civil merit, 1856; that of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span>
<i>Alfonso XII.</i> for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the
<i>Civil Order of Alfonso XII.</i>, 1902.</p>

<p class="pt2 f90 noind pt2">Plate V.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION
OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY&rsquo;S WISHES AND COMMAND.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:850px; height:1044px" src="images/img866.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(i) <span class="sc">The Redeemer</span> (Greece). (ii) <span class="sc">The Order of the Knights of St. John
of Jerusalem</span> (English Branch, Badge of the Sovereign and Patron).
(iii) <span class="sc">The St. Hubert</span> (Bavaria). (iv) <span class="sc">The St. Stephen</span> (Hungary).
(v). <span class="sc">The St. Olaf</span> (Norway). (vi). <span class="sc">The Seraphim</span> (Sweden).</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
<td class="tcr f90"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2"><i>Sweden.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Seraphim</i> (the &ldquo;Blue Ribbon&rdquo;). Tradition
attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood
to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that
the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order
dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by
statutes of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the
princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreign
members. The native members must be already members of the
<i>Order of the Sword</i> or the <i>Pole Star</i>. There is a prelate of the order
which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in
the Riddar Holmskyrka at Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of
the grand cross is illustrated on Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed
of alternate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses.
The motto is <i>Iesus Hominum Salvator</i>. The <i>Order of the Sword</i>
(the &ldquo;Yellow Ribbon&rdquo;), the principal Swedish military order, was
founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-established
by Frederick I., with the <i>Seraphim</i> and the <i>Pole Star</i> in 1748;
modifications have been made in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are
five classes, with subdivisions. The badge is a white cross, in the
angles gold crowns, the points of the cross joined by gold swords
entwined with gold and blue belts, in the blue centre an upright
sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole surmounted by the
royal crown. The ribbon is yellow with blue edging. The <i>Order
of the Pole Star</i> (<i>Polar Star</i>, <i>North Star</i>, the &ldquo;Black Ribbon&rdquo;),
founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three classes. The
white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue medallion.
The ribbon is black. The <i>Order of Vasa</i> (the &ldquo;Green Ribbon&rdquo;),
founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for services
rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has three
classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a blue
centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like a
vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The <i>Order of Charles
XIII.</i>, founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree.
It is thus quite unique.</p>

<p><i>Turkey.</i>&mdash;The <i>Nischan-i-Imtiaz</i>, or <i>Order of Privilege</i>, was founded
by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one class;
the <i>Nischan-el-Iftikhar</i>, or <i>Order of Glory</i>, also one class, founded
1831 by Mahmoud II.; the <i>Nischan-i-Mejidi</i>, the <i>Mejidieh</i>, was
founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul
Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven
clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold
centre is the sultan&rsquo;s name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by
a red fillet inscribed with the words <i>Zeal</i>, <i>Devotion</i>, <i>Loyalty</i>; it is
suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with green
borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the
sultan, to grant this order. The <i>Nischan-i-Osmanie</i>, the <i>Osmanieh</i>,
for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862;
it has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered
green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also suspended
from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered with
red. The <i>Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence</i>, was
instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in honour
of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish
war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate Fund
started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the
first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for Turkish
princes, the <i>Hanédani-Ali-Osman</i>, founded in 1893, and the <i>Ertogroul</i>,
in 1903.</p>

<p><i>Non-European Orders.</i>&mdash;Of the various states of Central and
South America, Nicaragua has the <i>American Order of San Juan</i> or
<i>Grey Town</i>, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of
the <i>Bust of Bolivar</i>, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and
red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the <i>Mexican Eagle</i>,
1865, and <i>Our Lady of Guadalupe</i>, 1853; as has Brazil those of the
<i>Southern Cross</i>, 1822, <i>Dom Pedro I.</i>, 1826, <i>the Rose</i>, 1829, and the
Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of <i>Christ</i>, <i>St Benedict
of Aviz</i> and <i>St James</i>. The republican <i>Order of Columbus</i>, founded
in 1890, was abolished in 1891.</p>

<p><i>China.</i>&mdash;There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as
are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins,
the grades indicated by the number of peacocks&rsquo; feathers, the gift
of the yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or personal
marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit,
in the European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in
1882 established the sole order, that of the <i>Imperial Double Dragon</i>,
in five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three
grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible
for the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first
class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants
and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape
and decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is
a rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two
upright blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the
heads for the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third
a coral, set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque
varies for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes
are round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain;
in the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold
ground, the jewel is a cut coral; the grades differ in the colour, shape,
&amp;c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the dragons
are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the fourth the
silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis lazuli; in the
fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a pearl. The
ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the various
grades and classes.</p>

<p><i>Japan.</i>&mdash;The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the
emperor Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of
the orders are beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers.
The <i>Order of the Chrysanthemum</i> (<i>Kikkwa Daijasho</i>), founded in
1877, has only one class. It is but rarely conferred on others than
members of the royal house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge
of the order may be described as follows: From a centre of red
enamel representing the sun issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in
four sharply projecting groups, between the angles of which are four
yellow conventional chrysanthemum flowers with green leaves
forming a circle on which the rays rest; the whole is suspended
from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is deep red
bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with the
order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold
chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a
wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The <i>Order
of the Paulownia Sun</i> (<i>Tokwa Daijasho</i>), founded in 1888, in one class,
may be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the <i>Rising Sun</i>
(<i>Kiokujitsasho</i>) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of
both orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and
gold rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the
flower of the Tycoon&rsquo;s arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon
of the first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet
with white central stripe. The last two classes of the <i>Rising Sun</i>
wear a decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The
<i>Order of the Mirror</i> or <i>Happy Sacred Treasure</i> (<i>Zaihosho</i>) was founded
in 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered
rays bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon
is pale blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies,
that of the <i>Crown</i>, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order
of Japan is the <i>Order of the Golden Kite</i>, founded in 1890, in seven
classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of
purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old
Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels,
the whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings.
The ribbon is green with white stripes.</p>

<p><i>Persia.</i>&mdash;The <i>Order of the Sun and Lion</i>, founded by Fath &lsquo;Ali
Sh&#257;h in 1808, has five classes. There is also the <i>Nischan-i-Aftab</i>,
for ladies, founded in 1873.</p>

<p><i>Siam.</i>&mdash;The <i>Sacred Order</i>, or the <i>Nine Precious Stones</i>, was founded
in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the royal house.
The <i>Order of the White Elephant</i>, founded in 1861, is in five classes.
This is the principal general order. The badge is a striking example
of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional form. The
circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold,
red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned
white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by the
jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of alternate
white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and gold
pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small
blue and white stripes. Other orders are the <i>Siamese Crown</i> (<i>Mongkut
Siam</i>), five classes, founded 1869; the family <i>Order of Chulah-Chon-Clao</i>,
three classes, 1873; and the <i>Maha Charkrkri</i>, 1884, only
for princes and princesses of the reigning family.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(C. We.)</div>


<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Feudal England</i>, pp. 225 sqq.</p>

<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Gloss.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Miles.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, iii. 12.</p>

<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, i. 156.</p>

<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125-129.</p>

<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Ingram&rsquo;s edition, p. 290.</p>

<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Comparative Politics</i>, p. 74.</p>

<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Baluze, <i>Capitularia Regum Francorum</i>, ii. 794, 1069.</p>

<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Gloss.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Arma.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Freeman, <i>Comparative Politics</i>, p. 73.</p>

<p><a name="ft11b" id="ft11b" href="#fa11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Hallam, <i>Middle Ages</i>, iii. 392.</p>

<p><a name="ft12b" id="ft12b" href="#fa12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> ii. 278; also compare Grosse, <i>Military
Antiquities</i>, i. 65 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft13b" id="ft13b" href="#fa13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which
the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after
the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce
(ch. vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what
would now be called conscription: and his remarks are entirely
borne out by the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson
(Norf, and Norwich Archaeological Soc. xiv. 263 sqq.), by a Lynn
corporation document of 18th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission
Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p. 189), and by Smyth&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the
Berkeleys</i>, i. 312, 319, 320.</p>

<p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, <i>Mémoires sur l&rsquo;Ancienne
Chevalerie</i>, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781).</p>

<p><a name="ft15b" id="ft15b" href="#fa15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Dissertation sur Joinville</i>, xxi.; Sainte Palaye,
<i>Mémoires</i>, i. 272; G. F. Beltz, <i>Memorials of the Order of the Garter</i>
(1841,) p. xxvii.</p>

<p><a name="ft16b" id="ft16b" href="#fa16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Dissertation</i>, xxi., and <i>Lancelot du Lac</i>, among other
romances.</p>

<p><a name="ft17b" id="ft17b" href="#fa17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Anstis, <i>Register of the Order of the Garter</i>, i. 63.</p>

<p><a name="ft18b" id="ft18b" href="#fa18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Grose, <i>Military Antiq.</i> i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> ii. 276
seq., and iii. 278 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft19b" id="ft19b" href="#fa19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Grose&rsquo;s <i>Military Antiquities</i>, ii. 256.</p>

<p><a name="ft20b" id="ft20b" href="#fa20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Sainte Palaye, <i>Mémoires</i>, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9.</p>

<p><a name="ft21b" id="ft21b" href="#fa21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Sainte Palaye, <i>Mémoires</i>, pt. i. and Mills, <i>History of Chivalry</i>,
vol. i. ch. 2.</p>

<p><a name="ft22b" id="ft22b" href="#fa22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See the long sermon in the romance of <i>Petit Jehan de Saintré</i>,
pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual
behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends
that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit
the prevailing immorality to which medieval romances testify,
and the extraordinary free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No
doubt these romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as
modern French novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant
other evidence for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry
definitely below that of educated society in the present day.</p>

<p><a name="ft23b" id="ft23b" href="#fa23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Sainte Palaye, <i>Mémoires</i>, i. 11 seq.: &ldquo;C&rsquo;est peut-être à cette
cérémonie et non à celles de la chevalerie qu&rsquo;on doit rapporter ce
qui se lit dans nos historiens de la première et de la seconde race au
sujet des premières armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient avec
solemnité au ieunes Princes leurs enfans.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft24b" id="ft24b" href="#fa24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> There are several obscure points as to the relation of the longer
and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original relation of
their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came &ldquo;dubbing&rdquo;
or the &ldquo;accolade.&rdquo; It seems certain that the word &ldquo;dub&rdquo;
means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by
William the Conqueror (<i>supra</i>, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire
a dubbed knight is &ldquo;ritter geschlagen.&rdquo; The &ldquo;accolade&rdquo; may
etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the
hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation
of &ldquo;adouber,&rdquo; corresponding to &ldquo;dub,&rdquo; from &ldquo;adoptare,&rdquo; which
is given by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with
&ldquo;adoptio per arma,&rdquo; is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with
arms, which formed a part of the longer form of knighting, and
which we have seen to rest on very ancient usage, may originally
have had a distinct meaning. We have observed that Lanfranc
invested Henry I. with arms, while William &ldquo;dubbed him to
rider.&rdquo; If there was a difference in the meaning of the two ceremonies,
the difficulty as to the knighting of Earl Harold (<i>supra</i>,
p. 852) is at least partly removed.</p>

<p><a name="ft25b" id="ft25b" href="#fa25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, 639.</p>

<p><a name="ft26b" id="ft26b" href="#fa26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Daniel, <i>Histoire de la Milice Françoise</i>, i. 99-104; Byshe&rsquo;s Upton,
<i>De Studio Militari</i>, pp. 21-24; Dugdale, <i>Warwickshire</i>, ii. 708-710;
Segar, Honor <i>Civil and Military</i>, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, <i>Orders of
Knighthood</i>, vol. ii. (<i>Order of the Bath</i>) pp. 19 seq.... It is given as &ldquo;the
order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath in time of peace
according to the custom of England,&rdquo; and consequently dates from a
period when the full ceremony of creating knights bachelors generally
had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, speaking of Knights of the
Bath, says, &ldquo;if the ceremonies and circumstances of their creation
be well considered, it will appear that this king [Henry IV.] did not
institute but rather restore the ancient manner of making knights,
and consequently that the Knights of the Bath are in truth no other
than knights bachelors, that is to say, such as are created with those
ceremonies wherewith knights bachelors were formerly created.&rdquo;
(Ashmole, <i>Order of the Garter</i>, p. 15). See also Selden, <i>Titles of
Honor</i>, p. 678, and the <i>Archæological Journal</i>, v. 258 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft27b" id="ft27b" href="#fa27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Menestrier
and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail
in the ceremony at different times and in different places. But in
the main it was everywhere the same both in its military and its
ecclesiastical elements. In the <i>Pontificale Romanum</i>, the old <i>Ordo
Romanus</i> and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England
before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of
new knights are included, and of these the first and the last are
quoted by Selden.</p>

<p><a name="ft28b" id="ft28b" href="#fa28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 678; Ashmole, <i>Order of the Garter</i>,
p. 15; Favyn, <i>Théâtre d&rsquo;Honneur</i>, ii. 1035.</p>

<p><a name="ft29b" id="ft29b" href="#fa29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> &ldquo;If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and
modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring, shield
and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or collar.&rdquo;&mdash;Ashmole,
<i>Order of the Garter</i>, pp. 12, 13.</p>

<p><a name="ft30b" id="ft30b" href="#fa30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> On the banner see Grose, <i>Military Antiquities</i>, ii. 257; and
Nicolas, <i>British Orders of Knighthood</i>, vol. i. p. xxxvii.</p>

<p><a name="ft31b" id="ft31b" href="#fa31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Titles of Honor</i>, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, <i>Middle Ages</i>,
iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> iii. 440 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft32b" id="ft32b" href="#fa32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Riddell&rsquo;s <i>Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages</i>, p. 578; also
Nisbet&rsquo;s <i>System of Heraldry</i>, ii. 49 and Selden&rsquo;s <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 702.</p>

<p><a name="ft33b" id="ft33b" href="#fa33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, pp. 608 and 657.</p>

<p><a name="ft34b" id="ft34b" href="#fa34b"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See &ldquo;Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom,&rdquo;
wherein it is said that &ldquo;the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an
ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since
the Norman Conquest&rdquo; (<i>State Papers</i>, James I. Domestic Series,
lxiii. 150 B, probable date April 1611).</p>

<p><a name="ft35b" id="ft35b" href="#fa35b"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, pp. 452 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft36b" id="ft36b" href="#fa36b"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 449 seq.</p>

<p><a name="ft37b" id="ft37b" href="#fa37b"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Dissertation</i>, ix.; Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 452;
Daniel, <i>Milice Françoise</i>, i. 86 (Paris, 1721).</p>

<p><a name="ft38b" id="ft38b" href="#fa38b"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 656; Grose, <i>Military Antiquities</i>, ii. 206.</p>

<p><a name="ft39b" id="ft39b" href="#fa39b"><span class="fn">39</span></a> Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients were
Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet.</p>

<p><a name="ft40b" id="ft40b" href="#fa40b"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>Commonwealth of England</i> (ed. 1640), p. 48.</p>

<p><a name="ft41b" id="ft41b" href="#fa41b"><span class="fn">41</span></a> <i>State Papers</i>, Domestic Series, James the First, lxvii. 119.</p>

<p><a name="ft42b" id="ft42b" href="#fa42b"><span class="fn">42</span></a> &ldquo;Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the
honour of knights banneret on the following flag officers and commanders
under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on
the occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickerton
and Vernon,&rdquo; <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris
Nicolas remarks on these and the other cases (<i>British Orders of
Knighthood</i>, vol. xliii.) and Sir William Fitzherbert published anonymously
a pamphlet on the subject, <i>A Short Inquiry into the Nature
of the Titles conferred at Portsmouth</i>, &amp;c., which is very scarce, but
is to be found under the name of &ldquo;Fitzherbert&rdquo; in the catalogue
of the British Museum Library.</p>

<p><a name="ft43b" id="ft43b" href="#fa43b"><span class="fn">43</span></a> &ldquo;Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of
Sir Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom one
Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir Henry
was present aiding and abetting, &amp;c. Upon this indictment Sir
Henry Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which
being confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, wherefore
he was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers,
Baronet.&rdquo; Brydall, <i>Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of England
relating to the Nobility and Gentry</i> (London, 1675), p. 20. Cf.
<i>Patent Rolls</i>, 10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 687.</p>

<p><a name="ft44b" id="ft44b" href="#fa44b"><span class="fn">44</span></a> Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of
military orders into several degrees when he established the order
of St Louis in 1693.</p>

<p><a name="ft45b" id="ft45b" href="#fa45b"><span class="fn">45</span></a> G. F. Beltz, <i>Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter</i> (1841),
p. 385.</p>

<p><a name="ft46b" id="ft46b" href="#fa46b"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Heylyn, <i>Cosmographie and History of the Whole World</i>, bk. i.
p. 286.</p>

<p><a name="ft47b" id="ft47b" href="#fa47b"><span class="fn">47</span></a> Beltz, <i>Memorials</i>, p. xlvi.</p>

<p><a name="ft48b" id="ft48b" href="#fa48b"><span class="fn">48</span></a> <i>Orders of Knighthood</i>, vol. i. p. lxxxiii.</p>

<p><a name="ft49b" id="ft49b" href="#fa49b"><span class="fn">49</span></a> Mémoires, i. 67, i. 22; <i>History of Chivalry</i>; Gibbon, <i>Decline and
Fall</i>, vii. 200.</p>

<p><a name="ft50b" id="ft50b" href="#fa50b"><span class="fn">50</span></a> <i>Orders of Knighthood</i>, vol. i. p. xi.</p>

<p><a name="ft51b" id="ft51b" href="#fa51b"><span class="fn">51</span></a> Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i>, p. 638.</p>

<p><a name="ft52b" id="ft52b" href="#fa52b"><span class="fn">52</span></a> Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325.</p>

<p><a name="ft53b" id="ft53b" href="#fa53b"><span class="fn">53</span></a> <i>Patent Rolls</i>, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnet, <i>Hist.
of Reformation</i>, i. 15.</p>

<p><a name="ft54b" id="ft54b" href="#fa54b"><span class="fn">54</span></a> Spelman, &ldquo;De milite dissertatio,&rdquo; <i>Posthumous Works</i>, p. 181.</p>

<p><a name="ft55b" id="ft55b" href="#fa55b"><span class="fn">55</span></a> <i>London Gazette</i>, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855.</p>

<p><a name="ft56b" id="ft56b" href="#fa56b"><span class="fn">56</span></a> On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic
and partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight,
which are described by Sainte Palaye, <i>Mémoires</i>, i. 316 seq., and
after him by Mills, <i>History of Chivalry</i>, i. 60 seq. Cf. <i>Titles of Honor</i>,
p. 653.</p>

<p><a name="ft57b" id="ft57b" href="#fa57b"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Dallaway&rsquo;s <i>Heraldry</i>, p. 303.</p>

<p><a name="ft58b" id="ft58b" href="#fa58b"><span class="fn">58</span></a> Even in 13th century England more than half the population
were serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna
Carta; disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the
latter&rsquo;s court, although the king&rsquo;s courts attempted to protect the
serf&rsquo;s life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French
feudal law, the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God
(Pierre de Fontaines, <i>Conseil</i>, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common
sense and natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the
tyranny of the nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross
to be possible. &ldquo;How mad are they who exult when sons are born
to their lords!&rdquo; wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the 13th
century (<i>Exempla</i>, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890).</p>

<p><a name="ft59b" id="ft59b" href="#fa59b"><span class="fn">59</span></a> Sainte Palaye, ii. 90.</p>

<p><a name="ft60b" id="ft60b" href="#fa60b"><span class="fn">60</span></a> Medley, <i>English Constitutional History</i> (2nd ed., pp. 291, 466),
suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this degradation
of the older feudal ideal.</p>

<p><a name="ft61b" id="ft61b" href="#fa61b"><span class="fn">61</span></a> Being made to &ldquo;ride the barriers&rdquo; was the penalty for anybody
who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification
of name and arms. Guillim (<i>Display of Heraldry</i>, p. 66) and Nisbet
(<i>System of Heraldry</i>, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning
England and Scotland. See also Ashmole&rsquo;s <i>Order of the Garter</i>,
p. 284. But in England knighthood has always been conferred to
a great extent independently of these considerations. At almost
every period there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth
who have been knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the contention
that knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a
knight it necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; &ldquo;for, when
a king gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would
thereby recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever
is requisite for the completing of that which he bestows.&rdquo; By the
common law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfranchised
and accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and
in wardship were knighted both his minority and wardship terminated.
(<i>Order of the Garter</i>, p. 43; Nicolas, <i>British Orders of Knighthood</i>,
i. 5.)</p>

<p><a name="ft62b" id="ft62b" href="#fa62b"><span class="fn">62</span></a> Gautier, pp. 21, 249.</p>

<p><a name="ft63b" id="ft63b" href="#fa63b"><span class="fn">63</span></a> Du Cange, <i>s.v. miles</i> (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402); Sacchetti, <i>Novella</i>,
cliii. All the medieval <i>orders</i> of knighthood, however, insisted in
their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate.</p>

<p><a name="ft64b" id="ft64b" href="#fa64b"><span class="fn">64</span></a> Lecoy de la Marche (<i>Chaire française au moyen âge</i>, 2nd ed., p. 387)
gives many instances to prove that &ldquo;al chevalerie, au xiii<span class="sp">e</span> siècle,
est déjà sur son déclin.&rdquo; But already about 1160 Peter of Blois
had written, &ldquo;The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays mere
disorder&rdquo; (<i>ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere</i>. Ep. xciv.:
the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier still,
Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of contemporary
chivalry in his <i>De vita sua</i> (Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</i>, tom. clvi.).</p>

<p><a name="ft65b" id="ft65b" href="#fa65b"><span class="fn">65</span></a> It has been taken as the Latin word meaning &ldquo;he bears&rdquo; or as
representing the initials of the legend <i>Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit</i>,
with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an ancient
count of Savoy.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGHT-SERVICE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the dominant and distinctive tenure of
land under the feudal system. It is associated in its origin with
that development in warfare which made the mailed horseman,
armed with lance and sword, the most important factor in battle.
Till within recent years it was believed that knight-service was
developed out of the liability, under the English system, of every
five hides to provide one soldier in war. It is now held that, on
the contrary, it was a novel system which was introduced after
the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on their
mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were
already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight&rsquo;s
fee, as it came to be termed in England, being represented in
Normandy by the <i>fief du haubert</i>, so termed from the hauberk
or coat of mail (<i>lorica</i>) which was worn by the knight. Allusion
is made to this in the coronation charter of Henry I. (1100),
which speaks of those holding by knight-service as <i>milites qui per
loricam terras suas deserviunt</i>.</p>

<p>The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England
among his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number
of knights in his host, and imposed the same service on most of
the great ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endowments.
No record evidence exists of this action on his part, and
the quota of knight-service exacted was not determined by the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span>
area or value of the lands granted (or retained), but was based
upon the <i>unit</i> of the feudal host, the <i>constabularia</i> of ten knights.
Of the tenants-in-chief or barons (<i>i.e.</i> those who held directly
of the crown), the principal were called on to find one or more of
these units, while of the lesser ones some were called on for five
knights, that is, half a <i>constabularia</i>. The same system was
adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered under
Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign
on these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring
them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly
represented by land, by a process of subenfeoffment, analogous
to that by which he himself had been enfeoffed. That is to say,
he could assign to an under-tenant a certain portion of his fief
to be held by the service of finding one or more knights. The
land so held would then be described as consisting of one or more
knights&rsquo; fees, but the knight&rsquo;s fee had not, as was formerly
supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther
till there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief
and the actual holder of the land; but the liability for performance
of the knight-service was always carefully defined.</p>

<p>The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service
in the field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified
armour and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as
to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside
the realm, nor was the question of his expenses free from difficulty.
In addition to this primary duty he had, in numerous
cases at least, to perform that of &ldquo;castle ward&rdquo; at his lord&rsquo;s
chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain
baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for
the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and
Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service
had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his
lord to the king. These consisted of (1) &ldquo;relief,&rdquo; which he paid
on succeeding to his lands; (2) &ldquo;wardship,&rdquo; that is, the profits
from his lands during a minority; (3) &ldquo;marriage,&rdquo; that is, the
right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his heir
(if a minor) and his widow; and also of the three &ldquo;aids&rdquo; (see
Aids).</p>

<p>The chief sources of information for the extent and development
of knight-service are the returns (<i>cartae</i>) of the barons (<i>i.e.</i>
the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request,
of the names of their tenants by knight-service with the number
of fees they held, supplemented by the payments for &ldquo;scutage&rdquo;
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scutage</a></span>) recorded on the pipe rolls, by the later returns
printed in the <i>Testa de Nevill</i>, and by the still later ones collected
in <i>Feudal Aids</i>. In the returns made in 1166 some of the barons
appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than the number
of knights they had to find. In the latter case they described
the balance as being chargeable on their &ldquo;demesne,&rdquo; that is, on
the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands.
These returns further prove that lands had already been granted
for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in
practice already commuted for a proportionate money payment;
and they show that the total number of knights with which land
held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly
supposed, sixty thousand, but, probably, somewhere between
five and six thousand. Similar returns were made for Normandy,
and are valuable for the light they throw on its system of
knight-service.</p>

<p>The principle of commuting for money the obligation of
military service struck at the root of the whole system, and so
complete was the change of conception that &ldquo;tenure by knight-service
of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law,
tenure by escuage (<i>i.e.</i> scutage).&rdquo; By the time of Henry III., as
Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; liability, however
small, to scutage payment made the tenure military.</p>

<p>The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the
latter half of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in
warfare, which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers
and making the service of a knight for forty days of less value
to the king. The barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded
for their service by the payment of lump sums, and, by a process
which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of knight-service due
from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely reduced.
The knight&rsquo;s fee, however, remained a knight&rsquo;s fee, and the
pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship,
marriage, and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source
of revenue to the crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure
by knight-service was abolished by law (12 Car. II. c. 24),
and with it these vexatious exactions were abolished.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The returns of 1166 are preserved in the <i>Liber
Niger</i> (13th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the <i>Liber Rubeus</i> or <i>Red
Book of the Exchequer</i> (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls
Series in 1896. The later returns are in <i>Testa de Nevill</i> (Record
Commission, 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of <i>Feudal Aids</i>,
arranged under counties. For the financial side of knight-service
the early pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission
and the Pipe Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found
in <i>The Red Book of the Exchequer</i>, which may be studied on the whole
question; but the editor&rsquo;s view must be received with caution and
checked by J. H. Round&rsquo;s <i>Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer</i>
(for private circulation). The <i>Baronia Anglica</i> of Madox may also
be consulted. The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated
by Mr Round in <i>English Historical Review</i>, vi., vii., and reissued by
him in his <i>Feudal England</i> (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and
Maitland (<i>History of English Law</i>), who discuss the question at
length; by Mr J. F. Baldwin in his <i>Scutage and Knight-service in
England</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph
with bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his <i>Studies supplementary
to Stubbs&rsquo; Constitutional History</i> (Manchester University Series,
1908).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a semi-military secret
society in the United States in the Middle West, 1861-1864, the
purpose of which was to bring the Civil War to a close and restore
the &ldquo;Union as it was.&rdquo; There is some evidence that before the
Civil War there was a Democratic secret organization of the same
name, with its principal membership in the Southern States.
After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the Democrats of
the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the
Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging
themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In
1863, owing to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organization
took the name of Order of American Knights, and in 1864
this became the Sons of Liberty. The total membership of this
order probably reached 250,000 to 300,000, principally in Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Kentucky and south-western
Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems to have
been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham
became the second in command. The great importance of the
Knights of the Golden Circle and its successors was due to its
opposition to the war policy of the Republican administration.
The plan was to overthrow the Lincoln government in the
elections and give to the Democrats the control of the state and
Federal governments, which would then make peace and invite
the Southern States to come back into the Union on the old footing.
In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican administration
the members of the order held peace meetings to influence
public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased
arms to be used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party
in control of the Federal government, or failing in that to establish
a north-western confederacy; and took measures to set free the
Confederate prisoners in the north and bring the war to a forced
close. All these plans failed at the critical moment, and the most
effective work done by the order was in encouraging desertion
from the Federal armies, preventing enlistments, and resisting
the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and numerous seizures
of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a general
collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were
sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was
suspended until 1866, when they were released under the decision
of the United States Supreme Court in the famous case <i>Ex parte
Milligan</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the
Golden Circle</i> (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, <i>History of the United
States from the Compromise of 1850</i> (New York, 1905) vol. v.;
E. McPherson, <i>Political History of the Rebellion</i> (Washington, 1876);
and W. D. Foulke, <i>Life of O. P. Morton</i> (2 vols., New York, 1899).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. L. F.)</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span></p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNIPPERDOLLINCK<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Knipperdolling</span>), <span class="bold">BERNT</span> (<span class="sc">Berend</span>
or <span class="sc">Bernhardt</span>) (<i>c.</i> 1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous
cloth-merchant at Münster when in 1524 he joined Melchior
Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business journey to Stockholm,
which developed into an abortive religious errand. Knipperdollinck,
a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his
youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Münster populace when
in 1527 he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth
of the bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his
peace with the latter; but, venturing on another business
journey, he was arrested, imprisoned for a year, and released
on payment of a high fine&mdash;in regard of which treatment he
began an action before the Imperial Chamber. Though his
aims were political rather than religious, he attached himself
to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once
(1529) chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Münster, now (1532)
pastor of the city church of St Lamberti. A new bishop
directed a mandate (April 17, 1532) against Rothmann, which
had the effect of alienating the moderates in Münster from the
democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter in the
surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the negotiating
nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Münster. In the end,
Münster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533)
constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a
burgomaster in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (September
8, 1533) been proclaimed at Münster by a journeyman
smith; and, before this, Heinrich Roll, a refugee, had brought
Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of infant baptism. From
the 1st of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist doctrines
in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of Jan
Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist
prophet of Haarlem, came on a mission to Münster. They were
followed (January 13) by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or
Buchholdt), better known as John of Leiden. It was his second
visit to Münster; he came now as an apostle of Matthysz. He was
twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as an organizer,
and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter Clara
was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden,
came under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Münster
(1534) and lived in Knipperdollinck&rsquo;s house, which became the
centre of the new movement to substitute Münster for Strassburg
(Melchior Hofmann&rsquo;s choice) as the New Jerusalem. On the
death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, 1534), John became
supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, when he
claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman,
wheedling the Münster democracy into subjection to the fantastic
rule of the &ldquo;king of the earth.&rdquo; He was made second in command,
and executioner of the refractory. He fell in with the
polygamy innovation, the protest of his wife being visited with a
penance. In the military measures for resisting the siege of
Münster he took no leading part. On the fall of the city (June 25,
1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was betrayed
by his landlady. After six months&rsquo; incarceration, his trial, along
with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his
execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536.
Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced
to endure the worst. His body, like those of the others, was
hung in a cage on the tower of St Lamberti, where the cages
are still to be seen. An alleged portrait, from an engraving
of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross&rsquo;s Pansebeia,
1655.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See L. Keller, <i>Geschichte der Wiedertäufer und ihres Reichs zu
Münster</i> (1880); C. A. Cornelius, <i>Historische Arbeiten</i> (1899); E.
Belfort Bax, <i>Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists</i> (1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNITTING<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (from O.E. <i>cnyttan</i>, to knit; cf. Ger. <i>Knütten</i>; the
root is seen in &ldquo;knot&rdquo;), the art of forming a single thread or
strand of yarn into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by
employing needles or wires. &ldquo;Crochet&rdquo; work is an analogous
art in its simplest form. It consists of forming a single thread
into a single chain of loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on
this structure. Knitting may be said to be divided into two
principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) frame-work knitting
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosiery</a></span>). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or needles used
are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class of work
wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or
ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping
over the ends. Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on
them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three
or more a circular or circular-shaped fabric can be made. In
hand knitting each loop is formed and thrown off individually
and in rotation and is left hanging on the new loop formed. The
cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal materials from which
knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the most important
and most largely used. &ldquo;Lamb&rsquo;s-wool,&rdquo; &ldquo;wheeling,&rdquo; &ldquo;fingering&rdquo;
and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but
may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely
used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is
to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of
the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an
industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the
native sheep is spun, and used in its natural colour, being manufactured
into shawls, scarfs, ladies&rsquo; jackets, &amp;c. The principal
trade of other districts is hose and half-hose, made from the
wool of the sheep native to the district. The formation of the
stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many ways, by
&ldquo;purling&rdquo; (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib
form), &ldquo;slipping&rdquo; loops, taking up and casting off and working in
various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &amp;c. The articles
may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and
yarns are manipulated.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOBKERRIE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (from the Taal or South African Dutch, <i>knopkirie</i>,
derived from Du. <i>knop</i>, a knob or button, and <i>kerrie</i>, a
Bushman or Hottentot word for stick), a strong, short stick with
a rounded knob or head used by the natives of South Africa in
warfare and the chase. It is employed at close quarters, or as a
missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name
has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of
Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOLLES, RICHARD<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1545-1610), English historian, was
a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln
College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and at some
date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford to become master of a school
at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. In 1603 Knolles
published his <i>Generall Historie of the Turkes</i>, of which several
editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one edited
by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to
1699. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed
himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard&rsquo;s <i>Vitae et Icones Sultanorum
Turcicorum</i> (Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely
superseded, it has considerable merits as regards style and
arrangement. Knolles published a translation of J. Bodin&rsquo;s
<i>De Republica</i> in 1606, but the <i>Grammatica Latina, Graeca et
Hebraica</i>, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the
work of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (<i>c.</i> 1599-1691), a Baptist
minister.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the <i>Athenaeum</i>, August 6, 1881.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOLLES<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Knollys</span>), <span class="bold">SIR ROBERT</span> (<i>c.</i> 1325-1407), English
soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served
in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who were
taken prisoners by the French after the famous &ldquo;combat of the
thirty&rdquo; in March 1351. He was, however, quickly released and
was among the soldiers of fortune who took advantage of the
distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of a savage
civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the wretched
inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to
Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England
and of Charles II. of Navarre. He led the &ldquo;great company&rdquo; in
their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting
at this time for his own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible
reputation by his ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty
of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles returned to Brittany and took part
in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of
Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great
fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September 1364), where
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span>
Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. In
1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at
the battle of Nájera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine.
In 1370 he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expedition
which invaded France and marched on Paris, but after
exacting large sums of money as ransom a mutiny broke up the
army, and its leader was forced to take refuge in his Breton castle
of Derval and to appease the disappointed English king with a
large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat Knolles again
assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John&rsquo;s
representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was one
of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In
1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards
duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at
the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to
meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk
on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert devoted much of his
great wealth to charitable objects. He built a college and an
almshouse at Pontefract, his wife&rsquo;s birthplace, where the almshouse
still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and
Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome.
Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in
the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains of his age.
French writers call him Canolles, or Canole.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOLLYS,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the name of an English family descended from
Sir Thomas Knollys (d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first
distinguished member of the family was Sir Francis Knollys
(<i>c.</i> 1514-1596), English statesman, son of Robert Knollys, or
Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and favour of
Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger
son, Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of
Elizabeth and who died in 1583.</p>

<p>Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII.
before 1540, became a member of parliament in 1542 and was
knighted in 1547 while serving with the English army in Scotland.
A strong and somewhat aggressive supporter of the reformed
doctrines, he retired to Germany soon after Mary became queen,
returning to England to become a privy councillor, vice-chamberlain
of the royal household and a member of parliament under
Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), daughter
of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After
serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to
Ireland, his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential
reports about the conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney.
Approving of Sidney&rsquo;s actions he came back to England, and in
1568 was sent to Carlisle to take charge of Mary Queen of Scots,
who had just fled from Scotland; afterwards he was in charge of
the queen at Bolton Castle and then at Tutbury Castle. He discussed
religious questions with his prisoner, although the extreme
Protestant views which he put before her did not meet with
Elizabeth&rsquo;s approval, and he gave up the position of guardian
just after his wife&rsquo;s death in January 1569. In 1584 he introduced
into the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented
Oxfordshire, the bill legalizing the national association for
Elizabeth&rsquo;s defence, and he was treasurer of the royal household
from 1572 until his death on the 19th of July 1596. His monument
may still be seen in the church of Rotherfield Grays,
Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in his
objections to Elizabeth&rsquo;s tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly
owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour,
and he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions
as the trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of
Arundel, and of Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong
Puritan, his attacks on the bishops were not lacking in vigour,
and he was also very hostile to heretics. He received many
grants of land from the queen, and was chief steward of the city
of Oxford and a knight of the garter.</p>

<p>Sir Francis&rsquo;s eldest son Henry (d. 1583), and his sons Edward
(d. <i>c.</i> 1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d.
<i>c.</i> 1648), and Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in
parliament or in the field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634)
married Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, and then Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester; she was the mother of Elizabeth&rsquo;s favourite,
the 2nd earl of Essex.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Some of Knollys&rsquo;s letters are in T. Wright&rsquo;s <i>Queen Elizabeth and
her Times</i> (1838) and the <i>Burghley Papers</i>, edited by S. Haynes
(1740); and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech
which Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by
the bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton&rsquo;s <i>Assertion
for True and Christian Church Policie</i> (London, 1642).</p>
</div>

<p>Sir Francis Knollys&rsquo;s second son William (<i>c.</i> 1547-1632)
served as a member of parliament and a soldier during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother
Henry, having died without sons in 1583, William inherited his
father&rsquo;s estates in Oxfordshire, becoming in 1596 a privy councillor
and comptroller of the royal household; in 1602 he was made
treasurer of the household. Sir William enjoyed the favour of the
new king James I., whom he had visited in Scotland in 1585, and
was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount Wallingford in
1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a temporary
reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586-1658),
daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related
to Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded
with suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the
treasurership of the household and two years later the mastership
of the court of wards, an office which he had held since 1614.
However, he regained the royal favour, and was created earl of
Banbury in 1626. He died in London on the 25th of May 1632.</p>

<p>His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband&rsquo;s junior,
was the mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas
(1631-1674), whose paternity has given rise to much dispute.
Neither is mentioned in the earl&rsquo;s will, but in 1641 the law courts
decided that Edward was earl of Banbury, and when he was killed
in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took the title. In the Convention
Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken to the earl
sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not summoned
to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of
summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674.</p>

<p>Nicholas&rsquo;s son Charles (1662-1740), the 4th earl, had not been
summoned to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip
Lawson in a duel. This raised the question of his rank in a new
form. Was he, or was he not, entitled to trial by the peers?
The House of Lords declared that he was not a peer and therefore
not so entitled, but the court of king&rsquo;s bench released him from
his imprisonment on the ground that he was the earl of Banbury
and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the House
of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not
received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son
Charles (1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his
grandsons, William (1726-1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793),
were successively titular earls of Banbury, but they took no steps
to prove their title. However, in 1806 Thomas Woods&rsquo;s son
William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of general in the
British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of Banbury,
but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim.
Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against
this decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased
to call himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of
March 1834. His eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797-1883),
entered the army and served with the Guards during the
Peninsular War. Remaining in the army after the conclusion
of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and rose high in his
profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the military
camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made
president of the council of military education. From 1862 to
1877 he was comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales,
afterwards King Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on
the 23rd of June 1883 he was gentleman usher of the black rod;
he was also a privy councillor and colonel of the Scots Guards.
His son Francis (b. 1837), private secretary to Edward VII. and
George V., was created Baron Knollys in 1902; another son,
Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary to King
Edward&rsquo;s daughter Maud, queen of Norway.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Sir N. H. Nicolas, <i>Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy</i>
1833); and G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887), vol. i.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOT,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons
on the shores of Britain and many countries of the northern
hemisphere. Camden in the edition of his <i>Britannia</i> published
in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage not found in the earlier issues
of that work, connecting the name with that of King Canute,
and this account of its origin has been usually received. But no
other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and Camden&rsquo;s statement
is merely the expression of an opinion,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> so that there is
perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and
that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (<i>c.</i> 1672)
wrote the name &ldquo;Gnatts or Knots,&rdquo; may be the true one.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Still
the statement was so determinedly repeated by successive
authors that Linnaeus followed them in calling the species
<i>Tringa canutus</i>, and so it remains with nearly all modern ornithologists.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
Rather larger than a snipe, but with a shorter bill
and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts of Europe, Asia
and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though in temperate
climates a good many remain throughout the winter,
these are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the
end of spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and
after staying a few days pass northward to their summer quarters,
while early in autumn the young of the year throng to the
same places in still greater numbers, being followed a little later
by their parents. In winter the plumage is ashy-grey above
(save the rump, which is white) and white beneath. In summer
the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined with light
orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more or
less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform
deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate
climates seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those
which arrive from the south; the luxuriance generated by the
heat of a tropical sun seems needed to develop the full richness of
hue. The young when they come from their birthplace are
clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather banded with dull
black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less deeply tinged
with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among zoologists
as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified
or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The
species was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian
(now commonly called the Parry) Islands by Parry&rsquo;s Arctic
expedition, as well as soon after on Melville Peninsula by Captain
Lyons, and again during the voyage of Sir George Nares on the
northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores of Smith Sound,
where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly hatched
young (<i>Ibis</i>, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed
largely on the buds of <i>Saxifraga oppositifolia</i>. These are the
only localities in which this species is known to breed, for on
none of the arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has
it been unquestionably observed.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> In winter its wanderings
are very extensive, as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil,
Walfisch Bay in South Africa, China, Queensland and New
Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively netted in
England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were
esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northumberland
and Le Strange Household Books; and the British
Museum contains an old treatise on the subject: &ldquo;The maner of
kepyng of knotts, after Sir William Askew and my Lady, given
to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII.&rdquo; (<i>MSS. Sloane</i>, 1592, 8 <i>cat.</i>
663).</p>
<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> His words are simply &ldquo;<i>Knotts</i>, i. <i>Canuti aues</i>, vt opinor e Dania
enim aduolare creduntur.&rdquo; In the margin the name is spelt &ldquo;Cnotts,&rdquo;
and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known story of that
king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where Canute is
said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they generally
retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which he is said
in the story not to have done.</p>

<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In this connexion we may compare the French <i>maringouin</i>,
ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles
of America, a small shore-bird, either a <i>Tringa</i> or an <i>Aegialitis</i>,
according to Descourtilz (<i>Voyage</i>, ii. 249). See also Littré&rsquo;s
<i>Dictionnaire</i>, <i>s.v.</i></p>

<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> There are few of the <i>Limicolae</i>, to which group the knot belongs,
that present greater changes of plumage according to age or season,
and hence before these phases were understood the species became
encumbered with many synonyms, as <i>Tringa cinerea</i>, <i>ferruginea</i>,
<i>grisea</i>, <i>islandica</i>, <i>naevia</i> and so forth. The confusion thus caused
was mainly cleared away by Montagu and Temminck.</p>

<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The <i>Tringa canutus</i> of Payer&rsquo;s expedition seems more likely to
have been <i>T. maritima</i>, which species is not named among the birds
of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOT<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (O.E. <i>cnotta</i>, from a Teutonic stem <i>knutt</i>; cf. &ldquo;knit,&rdquo;
and Ger. <i>knoten</i>), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or
other flexible material, used to fasten two such ropes, &amp;c., to one
another, or to another object. (For the various forms which
such &ldquo;knots&rdquo; may take see below.) The word is also used for
the distance-marks on a log-line, and hence as the equivalent of
a nautical mile (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Log</a></span>), and for any hard mass, resembling a
knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk of a tree
at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the
remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood
of the trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a
branch dies down or is broken off, the dead stump becomes grown
over by a healing tissue, and, as the stem which bears it increases
in thickness, gradually buried in the newer wood. When a section
is made of the stem the dead stump appears in the section
as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular piece of wood,
liable to fall out and leave a &ldquo;knot-hole.&rdquo; &ldquo;Knot&rdquo; or &ldquo;knob&rdquo;
is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other
ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is
also applied figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to disentangle,
a use stereotyped in the proverbial &ldquo;Gordian knot,&rdquo;
which, according to the tradition, was cut by Alexander the
Great (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gordium</a></span>).</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:75px; height:148px" src="images/img871a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:157px; height:75px" src="images/img871b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 1.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 2.</span></td></tr></table>

<p>Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of
fastening cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a
spar, or a ring, or to one another. The &ldquo;knot&rdquo; is formed to
make a knob on a rope, generally at the extremity, and by untwisting
the strands at the end and weaving them together.
But it may be made by turning the rope on itself through a loop,
as for instance, the &ldquo;overhand knot&rdquo; (fig. 1). A &ldquo;bend&rdquo;
(from the same root as &ldquo;bind&rdquo;), and a &ldquo;hitch&rdquo; (an O.E. word),
are ways of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the &ldquo;Carrick
bend&rdquo; (fig. 21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard
Bend (fig. 19), and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A &ldquo;splice&rdquo;
(from the same root as &ldquo;split&rdquo;) is made by untwisting two rope
ends and weaving them together. A &ldquo;seizing&rdquo; (Fr. <i>saisir</i>) is
made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, or two
ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on another&mdash;as
for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing
(fig. 40), and the Midshipman&rsquo;s Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the
words is often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in
principle between the Fisherman&rsquo;s Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber
Hitch (fig. 20). Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing
are meant to be permanent, and must be unwoven in order to be
unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch can be undone at once by
pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from that in which they
are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) can be cast
loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for instance,
from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various forms
of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for
example in scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing
principle is that the strain which pulls against them shall draw
them tighter. The ordinary &ldquo;knots and splices&rdquo; are described
in every book on seamanship.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Overhand Knot</i> (fig. 1).&mdash;Used at the end of ropes to prevent their
unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end
<i>a</i> round the end <i>b</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span></p>

<p><i>Figure-of-Eight Knot</i> (fig. 2).&mdash;Used only to prevent ropes from
unreeving; it forms a large knob.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:150px; height:166px" src="images/img872a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:129px; height:147px" src="images/img872b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Reef Knot</i> (figs. 3, 4).&mdash;Form an overhand knot as above. Then
take the end <i>a</i> over the end <i>b</i> and through the bight. If the end <i>a</i>
were taken under the end <i>b</i>, a <i>granny</i> would be formed. This knot
is so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:100px; height:207px" src="images/img872c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
 <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:113px; height:212px" src="images/img872d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
 <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:115px; height:229px" src="images/img872e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
 <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
 <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Bowline</i> (figs. 5-7).&mdash;Lay the end <i>a</i> of a rope over the standing
part <i>b</i>. Form with <i>b</i> a bight <i>c</i> over <i>a</i>. Take <i>a</i> round behind <i>b</i> and
down through the bight <i>c</i>. This is a most useful knot employed to
form a loop which will not slip. <i>Running bowlines</i> are formed by
making a bowline round its own standing part above <i>b</i>. It is the
most common and convenient temporary running noose.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:222px" src="images/img872f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:110px; height:235px" src="images/img872g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:91px; height:154px" src="images/img872h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Bowline on a Bight</i> (figs. 8, 9).&mdash;The first part is made similar to
the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight <i>a</i> is pulled
through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past <i>d</i> and come up
in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable sling
for a man than a single bight.</p>

<p><i>Half-Hitch</i> (fig. 10).&mdash;Pass the end <i>a</i> of the rope round the standing
part <i>b</i> and through the bight.</p>

<p><i>Two Half-Hitches</i> (fig. 11).&mdash;The half-hitch repeated; this is
commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of
the rope. A stop from <i>a</i> to the standing part will prevent it jamming.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:80px; height:177px" src="images/img872i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:154px; height:198px" src="images/img872j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:124px; height:180px" src="images/img872k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Clove Hitch</i> (figs. 12, 13).&mdash;Pass the end <i>a</i> round a spar and cross
it over <i>b</i>. Pass it round the spar again and put the end <i>a</i> through
the second bight.</p>

<p><i>Blackwall Hitch</i> (fig. 14).&mdash;Form a bight at the end of a rope, and
put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope
may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook.</p>

<p><i>Double Blackwall Hitch</i> (fig. 15).&mdash;Pass the end <i>a</i> twice round the
hook and under the standing part <i>b</i> at the last cross.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:62px; height:248px" src="images/img872l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:146px; height:326px" src="images/img872m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:115px; height:169px" src="images/img872n.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:149px; height:162px" src="images/img872o.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Cat&rsquo;s-paw</i> (fig. 16).&mdash;Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite
directions and hook the tackle in the eyes <i>i</i>, <i>i</i>. A piece of wood
should be placed between the parts at <i>g</i>. A large lanyard should
be clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it
below the toggle.</p>

<p><i>Marling-spike Hitch</i> (fig. 17).&mdash;Lay the end <i>a</i> over <i>c</i>; fold the loop
over on the standing part <i>b</i>; then pass the marline-spike through,
over both parts of the bight and under the part <i>b</i>. Used for tightening
each turn of a seizing.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:164px; height:223px" src="images/img872p.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:177px; height:183px" src="images/img872q.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:149px; height:162px" src="images/img872r.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Fisherman&rsquo;s Bend</i> (fig. 18).&mdash;Take two turns round a spar, then a
half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the
turns, lastly a half-hitch round the standing part.</p>

<p><i>Studding-sail Halyard Bend</i> (fig. 19).&mdash;Similar to the above, except
that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug.
A <i>magnus hitch</i> has two round turns and one on the other side of
the standing part with the end through the bight.</p>

<p><i>Timber Hitch</i> (fig. 20).&mdash;Take the end <i>a</i> of a rope round a spar,
then round the standing part <i>b</i>, then several times round its own
part <i>c</i>, against the lay of the rope.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:75px; height:310px" src="images/img872s.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Carrick Bend</i> (fig. 21).&mdash;Lay the end of one hawser over its own
part to form a bight as <i>e</i>´, <i>b</i>; pass the end of another hawser up through
that bight near <i>b</i>, going out over the first end at <i>c</i>, crossing
under the first long part and over its end at <i>d</i>, then
under both long parts, forming the loops, and above
the first short part at <i>b</i>, terminating at the end <i>e</i>´´, in
the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to the
other end. The ends should be securely stopped to
their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on
the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe
or chock; in that form this is the best quick means of
uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When
large hawsers have to work through small pipes, good
security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve
taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing
each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking
half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends between
the hawsers over the seizing and reef-knotting the ends.
This should be repeated in three places and the extreme
ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by bowline
knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the
knots jam.</p>

<p><i>Sheet Bend</i> (fig. 22).&mdash;Pass the end of one rope through
the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and
under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the
clews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. An
ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. A <i>weaver&rsquo;s knot</i>
is made like a sheet bend.</p>

<p><i>Single Wall Knot</i> (fig. 23).&mdash;Unlay the end of a rope, and with
the strand a form a bight. Take the next strand <i>b</i> round the end of <i>a</i>.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span>
Take the last strand <i>c</i> round the end of <i>b</i> and through the bight made
by <i>a</i>. Haul the ends taut.</p>

<p><i>Single Wall Crowned</i> (fig. 24).&mdash;Form a single wall, and lay one
of the ends, <i>a</i>, over the knot. Lay <i>b</i> over <i>a</i>, and <i>c</i> over <i>b</i> and through
the bight of <i>a</i>. Haul the ends taut.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:92px; height:206px" src="images/img873a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:149px; height:159px" src="images/img873b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:122px; height:161px" src="images/img873c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Double Wall and Double Crown</i> (fig. 25).&mdash;Form a single wall
crowned; then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the
parts appear double. Put the ends down through the knot.</p>

<p><i>Matthew Walker</i> (figs. 26, 27).&mdash;Unlay the end of a rope. Take
the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the
second strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and
through its own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the
ends taut.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:124px; height:144px" src="images/img873d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:114px; height:179px" src="images/img873e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:70px; height:163px" src="images/img873f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:100px; height:204px" src="images/img873g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Inside Clinch</i> (fig. 28).&mdash;The end is bent close round the standing
part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>
and <i>c</i>, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything it
jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors,
the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes.
If the eye were formed outside the bight an <i>outside clinch</i> would
be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for
slipping.</p>

<p><i>Midshipman&rsquo;s Hitch</i> (fig. 29).&mdash;Take two round turns inside the
bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let
another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a
tackle for a temporary purpose.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:85px; height:201px" src="images/img873h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:46px; height:122px" src="images/img873i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:158px" src="images/img873j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:81px; height:143px" src="images/img873k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Turk&rsquo;s Head</i> (fig. 30).&mdash;With fine line (very dry) make a clove
hitch round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse
way (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat,
let each end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight
to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes
and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends,
two formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and
one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end
crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above.</p>

<p><i>Spanish Windlass</i> (fig. 31).&mdash;An iron bar and two marling-spikes
are taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat&rsquo;s-paw (fig. 16),
passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In
heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken
with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed
between the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round,
we have what is also called a Spanish windlass.</p>

<p><i>Slings</i> (fig. 32).&mdash;This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over
its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up)
takes the place of the bight at <i>s</i> and another at <i>y</i>, connecting the
two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to
sling lower yards. For boat&rsquo;s yards it should be a grummet with a
thimble seized in at <i>y</i>. As the tendency of all yards is to cant
forward with the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow
should be the fore-side&mdash;easily illustrated by a round ruler and a
piece of twine.</p>

<p><i>Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot</i> (fig. 33).&mdash;This knot consists of a double wall
and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six
strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of
sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed
at <i>s</i> and a lanyard round the head at <i>l</i>.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:236px" src="images/img873l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:121px; height:175px" src="images/img873m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:139px; height:185px" src="images/img873n.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion</i> (fig. 34).&mdash;A bend is
made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together
with a bar and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one
round and one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug,
the end being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in
and the eye driven down with a commander.</p>

<p><i>Turning in a Dead-Eye end up</i> (fig. 35).&mdash;The shroud is measured
round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on;
the dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first.
The end beyond <i>a</i> is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing;
higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important
that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible,
these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or
left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally
kink by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye
is turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent
on the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break
and the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the
standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye.
A rope will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round
large thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat
or racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable
on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus
hastening decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible
on the score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed
between the dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in
diameter 1½ times the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice
that of wire; the lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp
and the same size as wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in.,
dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6 in.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:277px; height:101px" src="images/img873o.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Short Splice</i> (fig. 36).&mdash;The most common description of splice is
when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so.
Fig. 36 represents a splice of
this kind: the strands have
been unlaid, married and
passed through with the assistance
of a marling-spike, over
one strand and under the next,
twice each way. The ends are
then cut off close. To render the splice neater the strands should
have been halved before turning them in a second time, the upper
half of each strand only being turned in; then all are cut off smooth.
<i>Eye Splice.</i>&mdash;Unlay the strands and place them upon the same rope
spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter the
centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and the
other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the first;
taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is desired,
reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off smooth
and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. Uses
too numerous to mention. <i>Cut Splice.</i>&mdash;Made in a similar manner
to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two splices.
Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and even
odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part.
It is not so strong as two separate eyes. <i>Horseshoe Splice.</i>&mdash;Made
similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or
another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe
with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back
stays (one on each side) and cutter&rsquo;s runner pendants. <i>Long Splice.</i>&mdash;The
strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a
short splice and married&mdash;care being taken to preserve the lay or
shape of each. Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span>
the vacant space with the corresponding strand of the other part,
fitting it firmly into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat
the other side in a similar manner. There will then appear two long
strands in the centre and a long and a short one on each side. The
splice is practically divided into three distinct parts; at each the
strands are divided and the corresponding halves knotted (as shown
on the top of fig. 38) and turned in twice. The half strand may, if
desired, be still further reduced before the halves are turned in for the
second time. This and all other splices should be well stretched and
hammered into shape before the ends are cut off. The long splice
alone is adapted to running ropes.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:93px" src="images/img874a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Shroud Knot</i> (fig. 37).&mdash;Pass a stop at such distance from each end
of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when it
is unlaid, to form a single wall
knot on each side after the
parts have been married; it will
then appear as represented in
the figure, the strands having
been well tarred and hove taut
separately. The part <i>a</i> provides
the knot on the opposite side and the ends <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>; the part <i>c</i> provides
the knot and the ends <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>. After the knot has been
well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the
strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when
shrouds or stays are broken. <i>French Shroud Knot.</i>&mdash;Marry the parts
with a similar amount of and as before; stop one set of strands taut
up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends
back on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot
with the other three strands round the said bights and shroud;
haul the knot taut first and stretch the whole; then heave down the
bights close: it will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very
liable to slip. If the ends by which the wall knot is made after
being hove were passed through the bights, it would make the
knot stronger. The ends would be tapered and served.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:201px; height:193px" src="images/img874b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Flemish Eye</i> (fig. 38).&mdash;Secure a spar or toggle twice the circumference
of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay the
rope which is to form the eye about
three times its circumference, at which
part place a strong whipping. Point
the rope vertically under the eye, and
bind it taut up by the core if it is four-stranded
rope, otherwise by a few yarns.
While doing so arrange six or twelve
pieces of spun-yarn at equal distances on
the wood and exactly halve the number
of yarns that have been unlaid. If it
is a small rope, select two or three
yarns from each side near the centre;
cross them over the top at <i>a</i>, and half-knot
them tightly. So continue till all
are expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that
from which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces
of spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various
parts, to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are
replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches
forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of
spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve
inches below the first; it may then be parcelled and served; the eye
is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are
composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over
the toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require
22 knottings of six each time; a 10-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore,
if ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number
of hitches will be required; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched,
the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has
been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having
to be rove through it&mdash;a very inconvenient device. It is almost
superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing
eyes abaft the mast, for which it is commonly used at present.
This eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of
evidence is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. <i>Ropemaker&rsquo;s Eye</i>,
which also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope
one strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing
the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance
of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye; the single strand is
led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the neck of
the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two strands.
They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and served.
The principal merit is neatness. <i>Mouse on a Stay.</i>&mdash;Formed by
turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling
at the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance
is given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the
rope, which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be
the under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down
again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling
only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving
or grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the
stay from slipping up any farther.</p>

<p><i>Rolling Hitch</i> (fig. 39).&mdash;Two round turns are taken round a spar
or large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one half-hitch
on the other side of the hauling part. This is very useful, as it
can be put on and off quickly.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:210px; height:76px" src="images/img874c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:202px; height:97px" src="images/img874d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Round Seizing</i> (fig. 40).&mdash;So named when the rope it secures does
not cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the
seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be
secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An
eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both
parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from
that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line round
as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under-turns;
and pass the end back through them all and through the eye.
Secure the eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heave
the turns on with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine;
haul the end through taut, and commence again the riding turns
in the hollows of the first. If the end is not taken back through the
eye, but pushed up between the last two turns (as is sometimes
recommended), the riders must be passed the opposite way in order
to follow the direction of the under-turns, which are always one more
in number than the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is
forced between the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the
end coming up where it went down, when a wall knot is made with
the strands and the ends cut close; or the end may be taken once
round the shroud. <i>Throat Seizing.</i>&mdash;Two ropes or parts of ropes
are laid on each other parallel and receive a seizing similar to that
shown in figure 35&mdash;that is with upper and riding but no cross
turns. As the two parts of rope are intended to turn up at right
angles to the direction in which they were secured, the seizing should
be of stouter line and short, not exceeding seven lower and six riding
turns. The end is better secured with a turn round the standing part.
Used for turning in dead-eyes and variously. <i>Flat Seizing.</i>&mdash;Commenced
similarly to the above, but it has neither riding nor cross
turns.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:307px; height:133px" src="images/img874e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:146px; height:200px" src="images/img874f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:64px; height:176px" src="images/img874g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Racking Seizing</i> (fig. 41).&mdash;A running eye having been spliced round
one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other part,
crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty turns,
according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as tight as
possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the spaces at
the back of each rope, by taking the end <i>a</i> over both parts into the
hollow at <i>b</i>, returning at <i>c</i>, and going over to <i>d</i>. When it reaches e
a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove under it,
and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch; knot the end
and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the size
of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire
seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire
rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case
of accident&mdash;such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or
collision breaking the ironwork&mdash;the seamen are powerless.</p>

<p><i>Diamond Knot</i> (figs. 42, 43).&mdash;The rope must be unlaid as far as the
centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with
great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in
fig. 42, and the end of <i>a</i> is taken over <i>b</i> and up the bight <i>c</i>. The end
of <i>b</i> is taken over <i>c</i> and up through <i>a</i>. The end <i>c</i> is taken over a
and through <i>b</i>. When hauled taut and the strands are laid up again
it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be made on the
same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on the jibboom,
and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good hold
for the hands or feet. Turk&rsquo;s heads are now generally used. <i>Double
Diamond.</i>&mdash;Made by the ends of a single diamond following their
own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a side
rope as an ornamental stopper-knot.</p>

<p><i>Stropping-Blocks.</i>&mdash;There are various modes of securing blocks to
ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a
little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it in
place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the
parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the
parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span>
should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is
to reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3-in. rope; but small ropes
require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a 1-in. rope.
When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much
larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the
brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller
than the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which
appears to be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A clump-block
should be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop
may be made by joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go
round the block and thimble by a common short splice, which rests
on the crown of the block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is
stretched into place by a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round
the space between the block and the thimble and hove taut by a
Spanish windlass to cramp the parts together ready for the reception
of a small round seizing. The cramping or pinching into shape is
sometimes done by machinery invented by a rigger in Portsmouth
dockyard. The strop may be made the required length by a long
splice, but it would not possess any advantage.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:293px; height:268px" src="images/img875a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:114px; height:320px" src="images/img875b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Grummet-Strop</i> (fig. 44).&mdash;Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the
desired size about a foot more than three times the length required
for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and
thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out
of the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand
in the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two
ends meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves
half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly
as one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched
rope will better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends.
The object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are
to be made it is economical.</p>

<p><i>Double Strop</i> (fig. 45).&mdash;Made with one piece of rope, the splice
being brought as usual to the crown of the block <i>t</i>, the bights fitting
into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, above
which the thimble receives the bights <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>; and the four parts of the
strop are secured at <i>s</i>, <i>s</i> by a round seizing doubly crossed. If the
block be not then on the right slew (the shell horizontal or vertical)
a union thimble is used with another strop, which produces the desired
effect; thus the fore and main brace-blocks, being very large
and thin, are required (for appearance) to lie horizontally; a single
strop round the yard vertically has a union thimble between it and
the double strop round the block. The double strop is used for large
blocks; it gives more support to the shell than the single strop and
admits of smaller rope being used. Wire rope is much used for
block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal blocks are also used in
fixed positions; durability is their chief recommendation. Great
care should be taken that they do not chafe the ropes which pass
by them as well as those which reeve through.</p>

<p><i>Selvagee Strop.</i>&mdash;Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two
or more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes
the requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or
spliced. Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places
to bind the parts together before the rope or twine is removed from
the pegs, after which it is marled with suitable material. A large
strop should be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it
the shape in which it is to be used. This description of strop is much
stronger and more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops
(covered with duck) are used for boats&rsquo; blocks and in similar places
requiring neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used
for attaching luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes.
To bring to a shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round
the rope and each part crossed three or four times before hooking
the &ldquo;luff&rdquo;; a spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping
and is very necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large
selvagee block-strop being used&mdash;when the &ldquo;Melville&rdquo; was hove
down at Chusan (China), the main-purchase-block was double
stropped with a selvagee containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would
produce 112 parts in the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons,
which is more than four parts of a 19-in cable. The estimated
strain it bore was 80 tons.</p>

<p><i>Stoppers</i> for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece
of rope to a bolt or to a hook and thimble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering
it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely,
with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a half-hitch
round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end
up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through
it when hauled, but cannot go back.</p>

<p><i>Whipping and Pointing.</i>&mdash;The end of every working rope should
at least be whipped to prevent it fagging out; in ships of war and
yachts they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing
the end of a piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch
from the end, taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards
the end); the twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways contrary
to the first, leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns
are repeatedly passed round the rope, over the first end and over the
bight, till there are in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut
through between the turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place
a good whipping a few inches from the end, according to size; open
out the end entirely; select all the outer yarns and twist them into
knittles either singly or two or three together; scrape down and taper
the central part, marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle
and secure the remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth
yarn hitched close up, which acts as the weft in weaving. The
knittles are then reversed and another turn of the weft taken, and
this is continued till far enough to look well. At the last turn the
ends of the knittles which are laid back are led forward over and
under the weft and hauled through tightly, making it present a circle
of small bights, level with which the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers
and large ropes have a becket formed in their ends during the process
of pointing. A piece of 1 to 1½ in. rope about 1½ to 2 ft. long is
spliced into the core by each end while it is open: from four to seven
yarns (equal to a strand) are taken at a time and twisted up; open the
ends of the becket only sufficient to marry them close in; turn in the
twisted yarns between the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop
it above and below. Both ends are treated alike; when the pointing
is completed a loop a few inches in length will protrude from the end
of the rope, which is very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or
reeving line should only be rove through the becket as a fair lead.
<i>Grafting</i> is very similar to pointing, and frequently done the whole
length of a rope, as a side-rope. Pieces of white line more than
double the length of the rope, sufficient in number to encircle it,
are made up in hanks called foxes; the centre of each is made fast
by twine and the weaving process continued as in pointing. Block-strops
are sometimes so covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove
mat which can be taken off occasionally is preferable.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:88px" src="images/img875c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Sheep-Shank</i> (fig. 46).&mdash;Formed by making a long bight in a topgallant
back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten,
and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>. Rope-yarn stops
at <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is brought on it.
Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to hemp rope that
is large and stiff.</p>

<p><i>Knotting Yarns</i> (fig. 47).&mdash;This operation becomes necessary when,
a comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn,
or large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each
yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing).
Two of the divided parts, as <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, are passed in opposite
directions round all the other parts and knotted. The ends e and f
remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of <i>A</i> and
<i>B</i> should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the
ends cut off.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:323px; height:105px" src="images/img875d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:150px; height:116px" src="images/img875e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span></td></tr></table>

<p><i>Butt Slings</i> (fig. 48).&mdash;Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ft.
in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other
is rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then
passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made
with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten
down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller
casks requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller
rope, as the cask cannot possibly slip out. <i>Bale Slings</i> are made by
splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which then
looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented in
fig. 45&mdash;the bights <i>t</i> being placed under the cask or bale and one of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span>
bights <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> rove through the other and attached to the whip or
tackle.</p>

<p>For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred
to <i>The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage,
illustrated by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot,
Tie and Splice</i>, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890).</p>
</div>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Mathematical Theory of Knots.</i></p>

<p>In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which
cannot be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and
inextensible, and cannot be cut&mdash;so that no lap of it can be
drawn through another.</p>

<p>The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann
Benedict Listing (1808-1882). In his &ldquo;Vorstudien zur Topologie&rdquo;
(<i>Göttinger Studien</i>, 1847), a work in many respects of
startling originality, a few pages only are devoted to the subject.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
He treats knots from the elementary notion of twisting one
physical line (or thread) round another, and shows that from
the projection of a knot on a surface we can thus obtain a notion
of the relative situation of its coils. He distinguishes &ldquo;reduced&rdquo;
from &ldquo;reducible&rdquo; forms, the number of crossings in the reduced
knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of reduced
knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points out
that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by
left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a
long strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the
two edges become one line, which is the knot in question. We
may free it by slitting the paper along its middle line; and then
we have the juggler&rsquo;s trick of putting a knot on an endless unknotted
band. One of the above forms cannot be deformed into
the other. The one is, in Listing&rsquo;s language, the &ldquo;perversion&rdquo;
of the other, <i>i.e.</i> its image in a plane mirror. He gives a method
of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that in this method the
same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by different
symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published contains
a mere sketch of his investigations.</p>

<p>The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is
that of Peter Guthrie Tait (<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, xxviii. 145,
where the substance of a number of papers in the <i>Proceedings</i>
of the same society is reproduced). It was for the most part
written in ignorance of the work of Listing, and was suggested
by an inquiry concerning vortex atoms.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:111px; height:95px" src="images/img876a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:112px; height:96px" src="images/img876b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:110px; height:106px" src="images/img876c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:120px; height:103px" src="images/img876d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any
plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously
along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number
of double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings
may be taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme
for the representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find
all the distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projections,
3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to
be 1, 1, 2, 4 and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been
already given as drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four crossings
merits a few words, because its properties lead to a very singular
conclusion. It can be deformed into any of the four forms&mdash;figs. 51
and 52 and their perversions. Knots which can be deformed into
their own perversion Tait calls &ldquo;amphicheiral&rdquo; (from the Greek
<span class="grk" title="amphi">&#7936;&#956;&#966;&#943;</span>, on both sides, around, <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>, hand), and he has shown that
there is at least one knot of this kind for every even number of
crossings. He shows also that &ldquo;links&rdquo; (in which two endless
physical lines are linked together) possess a similar property; and
he then points out that there is a third mode of making a complex
figure of endless physical lines, without either knotting or linking.
This may be called &ldquo;lacing&rdquo; or &ldquo;locking.&rdquo; Its nature is obvious
from fig. 53, in which it will be seen that no one of the three lines
is knotted, no two are linked, and yet the three are inseparably
fastened together.</p>

<p>The rest of Tait&rsquo;s paper deals chiefly with numerical characteristics
of knots, such as their &ldquo;knottiness,&rdquo; &ldquo;beknottedness&rdquo; and
&ldquo;knotfulness.&rdquo; He also shows that any knot, however complex,
can be fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which
has double points and no two of which intersect. It may be stated
here that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of
Gauss, who in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter-linkings
of two closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro-dynamic
measure of the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole
round one of the interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is
kept circulating in the other. This original suggestion has been
developed at considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (<i>Erweiterung
der Gauss&rsquo;schen Theorie der Verschlingungen</i> (Stuttgart, 1876). This
author treats also of the connexion of knots with Riemann&rsquo;s surfaces.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:194px; height:192px" src="images/img876e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:137px; height:115px" src="images/img876f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span></td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span></td></tr></table>

<p>It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings
are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not
generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely
the three-crossing knot with a doubled string&mdash;what Listing calls
&ldquo;paradromic.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Christian Felix Klein, in the <i>Mathematische Annalen</i>, ix. 478, has
proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space
of four dimensions.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(P. G. T.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See P. G. Tait &ldquo;On Listing&rsquo;s <i>Topologie</i>,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, xvii. 30.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOUT<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of
Scandinavian origin; cf. A.-S. <i>cnotta</i>, Eng. knot), the whip used
in Russia for flogging criminals and political offenders. It is
said to have been introduced under Ivan III. (1462-1505). The
knout had different forms. One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in.
long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 in. long. The lash ended
in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as
long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few
inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind
consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with
wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o&rsquo;-nine tails. The
victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped,
receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence
of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence;
but few lived to receive so many. The executioner was usually
a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular
training; being let off his own penalties in return for his services.
Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son
Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy was
actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The
emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and
substituted the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout
has been abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal
settlements.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOWLES, SIR JAMES<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1831-1908), English architect and
editor, was born in London in 1831, and was educated, with a
view to following his father&rsquo;s profession, as an architect at
University College and in Italy. His literary tastes also brought
him at an early age into the field of authorship. In 1860 he
published <i>The Story of King Arthur</i>. In 1867 he was introduced
to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he
designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting
Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping
to design scenery for <i>The Cup</i>, when Irving produced that play
in 1880. Knowles became intimate with a number of the most
interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson&rsquo;s co-operation,
he started the Metaphysical Society, the object of
which was to attempt some intellectual <i>rapprochement</i> between
religion and science by getting the leading representatives of
faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley,
Seeley, Roden Noel, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley,
Pritchard, Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall,
Alfred Barry, Lord Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles,
Lord Avebury, Dean Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall,
F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span>
H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington, Bishop Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke
of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser,
Henry Acland, Maurice, Archbishop Thomson, Mozley, Dean Church,
Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen, Sylvester,
J. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W. K. Clifford, St George Mivart,
M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morley, Leslie Stephen, F. Pollock,
Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J. Balfour,
James Sully and A. Barratt.</p>
</div>

<p>Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on
such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective
and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul, &amp;c. An interesting
description of one of the meetings was given by Magee (then
bishop of Peterborough) in a letter of 13th of February 1873:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant
bishops right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the
<i>Spectator</i>, an Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman
Catholic priest; opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two
Scotch metaphysical writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very
broad editor of the <i>Contemporary</i>; then, dressed as a layman and
looking like a country squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and
earliest of the perverts to Rome; then Greg, author of <i>The Creed of
Christendom</i>, a Deist; then Froude, the historian, once a deacon in
our Church, now a Deist; then Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and
red republican, and looking very like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read
a paper on miracles, which we discussed for an hour and a half!
Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or even, on the whole, more reverent
then the discussion. In my opinion, we, the Christians, had much
the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, was very masterly; Manning,
clever and precise and weighty; Froude, very acute, and so was
Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to make our
Religious Museum complete&rdquo; (<i>Life</i>, i. 284).</p>
</div>

<p>The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880.
Huxley said that it died &ldquo;of too much love&rdquo;; Tennyson, &ldquo;because
after ten years of strenuous effort no one had succeeded in
even defining metaphysics.&rdquo; According to Dean Stanley, &ldquo;We
all meant the same thing if we only knew it.&rdquo; The society
formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who
supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 he
became editor of the <i>Contemporary Review</i>, but left it in 1877
and founded the <i>Nineteenth Century</i> (to the title of which, in 1901,
were added the words <i>And After</i>). Both periodicals became
very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort
of monthly review which came to occupy the place formerly
held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he received the honour of
knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 13th of February
1908.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1784-1862), Irish dramatist
and actor, was born in Cork, on the 12th of May 1784. His father
was the lexicographer, James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin-german
of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The family removed to
London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles published
a ballad entitled <i>The Welsh Harper</i>, which, set to music, was very
popular. The boy&rsquo;s talents secured him the friendship of
Hazlitt, who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served
for some time in the Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower
Hamlets militia, leaving the service to become pupil of Dr
Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the degree of M.D., and
was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society. Although,
however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his
practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making
his first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the
Crow Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1809,
Maria Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In
1810 he wrote <i>Leo</i>, in which Edmund Kean acted with great
success; another play, <i>Brian Boroihme</i>, written for the Belfast
Theatre in the next year, also drew crowded houses, but his
earnings were so small that he was obliged to become assistant
to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. In 1817 he
removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a
flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His
first important success was <i>Caius Gracchus</i>, produced at Belfast
in 1815; and his <i>Virginius</i>, written for Edmund Kean, was first
performed in 1820 at Covent Garden. In <i>William Tell</i> (1825)
Macready found one of his favourite parts. His best-known
play, <i>The Hunchback</i>, was produced at Covent Garden in 1832;
<i>The Wife</i> was brought out at the same theatre in 1833; and <i>The
Love Chase</i> in 1837. In his later years he forsook the stage for
the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large audiences
at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical
works&mdash;the <i>Rock of Rome</i> and the <i>Idol Demolished by its own
Priests</i>&mdash;in both of which he combated the special doctrines of
the Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the
receipt of an annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert
Peel. He died at Torquay on the 30th of November 1862.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of
him will be found in the <i>Life</i> (1872), privately printed by his son,
Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a
journalist.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOW NOTHING<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">American</span>) <span class="bold">PARTY,</span> in United States
history, a political party of great importance in the decade
before 1860. Its principle was political proscription of naturalized
citizens and of Roman Catholics. Distrust of alien immigrants,
because of presumptive attachment to European institutions,
has always been more or less widely diffused, and race
antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while
anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism.
These were the elements of the political &ldquo;nativism&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
hostility to foreign influence in politics&mdash;of 1830-1860. In
these years Irish immigration became increasingly preponderant;
and that of Catholics was even more so. The geographical
segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters in the cities
gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the latter
more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation
of naturalization and election frauds. &ldquo;No one can deny that
ignorant foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense
proportions&rdquo; (J. F. Rhodes). In labour disputes, political
feuds and social clannishness, the alien elements&mdash;especially
the Irish and German&mdash;displayed their power, and at times gave
offence by their hostile criticism of American institutions.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In
immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and New York,
the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and
proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really
&ldquo;the symbol and strength of foreign influence&rdquo; (Scisco); many
regarded it as a transplanted foreign institution, un-American
in organization and ideas.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Thus it became involved in politics.
The decade 1830-1840 was marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish)
riots in various cities and by party organization of nativists in
many places in local elections. Thus arose the American-Republican
(later the Native-American) Party, whose national
career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in 1841
first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and
Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success
was due to Whig support, which was not continued,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the
national organization was by 1847&mdash;in which year it endorsed
the Whig nominee for the presidency&mdash;practically dead. Though
some Whig leaders had strong nativist leanings, and though the
party secured a few representatives in Congress, it accomplished
little at this time in national politics. In the early &rsquo;fifties nativism
was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of aliens. Catholics,
moreover, had combated the Native-Americans defiantly. In
1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their
presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment.
In 1853-1854 there was a wide-spread &ldquo;anti-popery&rdquo; propaganda
and riots against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile
the Know Nothing Party had sprung from nativist secret societies,
whose relations remain obscure.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Its organization was secret;
and hence its name&mdash;for a member, when interrogated, always
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span>
answered that he knew nothing about it. Selecting candidates
secretly from among those nominated by the other parties, and
giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings, as soon
as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig
and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by
1852&mdash;from which time, accordingly, &ldquo;Know Nothingism&rdquo; is
most properly dated. The charges they brought against
naturalization abuses were only too well founded; and those
against election frauds not less so&mdash;though, unfortunately, the
Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods
in some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born
knew no exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all
the rights of natives, nor to their children unless educated in
the public schools. As for Catholics, the real animus of Know
Nothingism was against <i>political</i> Romanism; therefore, secondarily,
against papal allegiance and episcopal church administration
(in place of administration by lay trustees, as was earlier
common practice in the United States); and, primarily, against
public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed (<i>i.e.</i> the
power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were propitious
for the success of an aggressive third party; for the Whigs
were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing
defeat of 1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were
disintegrating on the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings
lacked aggression. In entering national politics the party
abandoned its mysteries, without making compensatory gains;
when it was compelled to publish a platform of principles,
factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the faster
from Whigs and Democrats, it &ldquo;straddled&rdquo; the slavery question,
and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin.
In 1854, however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
Thereafter the organization spread like wildfire in the South, in
which section there were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolution
was far advanced. The Virginia election of May 1855
proved conclusively, however, that Know Nothingism was no
stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party it had
absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In
the North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know
Nothing evasion probably helped the South,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> but neither Republicans
nor Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and
Seward, and later (1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In
the North-West the Know Nothings were swept into the anti-slavery
movement in 1854 without retaining their organization.
In the state campaigns of 1855 professions were measured to the
latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by a secret
grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic
planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the &ldquo;doughfaces&rdquo;
on the slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated
for the presidency. The anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern
states bolted the convention, and eight months later the Republican
wave swept the Know Nothings out of the North.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The
national field being thus lost, the state councils became supreme,
and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness. By
1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states.
The Constitutional Union&mdash;the &ldquo;Do Nothing&rdquo;&mdash;Party of 1860
was mainly composed of Know Nothing remnants.<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The year
1860 practically marked, also, the disappearance of the party as a
local power.<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>

<p>Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and
national politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave
it local cohesive power in the North; various causes, already
mentioned, advanced it in the South; and as a device to win
offices it was of wide-spread attraction. Its only real contribution
to government was the proof that nativism is not Americanism.
Public opinion has never accepted its estimate of the alien
nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church principles,
however&mdash;as the non-support of denominational schools&mdash;have
been generally accepted; others&mdash;as the refusal to exclude the
(Protestant) Bible from public schools&mdash;have been generally
rejected; others&mdash;as the taxation of all Church property&mdash;remain
disputed.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See L. D. Scisco, <i>Political Nativism in New York State</i> (doctoral
thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901); L. F. Schmeckebier,
<i>Know Nothing Party in Maryland</i> (Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, 1899); G. H. Haynes, &ldquo;A Know Nothing Legislature&rdquo;
(Mass., 1855), in <i>American Historical Assoc. Report</i>, pt. 1 (1896);
J. B. McMaster, <i>With the Fathers</i>, including &ldquo;The Riotous Career of
the Know Nothings&rdquo; (New York, 1896); H. F. Desmond, <i>The Know
Nothing Party</i> (Washington, 1905).</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> for some extraordinary &ldquo;reform&rdquo; programmes among
German immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50.</p>

<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> &ldquo;The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-conformity
to American methods of church administration and popular
education&rdquo; (Scisco).</p>

<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for &ldquo;American&rdquo;
support in the state, and charged that the latter was not given.
Millard Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liberty
Party</a></span>) to the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance
with the nativists.</p>

<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star
Spangled Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and
1850, were the most important sources of its membership.</p>

<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This year &ldquo;American Party&rdquo; became the official name. Its
strength in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected
governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in
Maryland, Kentucky and California; minor officers elsewhere; and
almost won six Southern states.</p>

<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and
presumably discouraged immigration, which was a source of strength
to the North rather than to the South.</p>

<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North
was under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the
total vote cast.</p>

<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Note the presidential vote. Seward&rsquo;s loss of the Republican
nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility.</p>

<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore (1854-1860)
was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOX, HENRY<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1750-1806), American general, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th
of July 1750. He was prominent in the colonial militia and tried
to keep the Boston crowd and the British soldiers from the
clash known as the Boston massacre (1770). In 1771 he opened
the &ldquo;London Book-Store&rdquo; in Boston. He had read much of
tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak
of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned
the defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought
from Lake George and border forts much-needed artillery. At
Trenton he crossed the river before the main body, and in the
attack rendered such good service that he was made brigadier-general
and chief of artillery in the Continental army on the
following day. He was present at Princeton; was chiefly responsible
for the mistake in attacking the &ldquo;Chew House&rdquo; at Germantown;
urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778;
served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after
the surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general, and
served as a commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His
services throughout the war were of great value to the American
cause; he was one of General Washington&rsquo;s most trusted advisers,
and he brought the artillery to a high degree of efficiency. From
December 1783 until June 1784 he was the senior officer of the
United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a scheme
of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French
officers who had served in America during the war, and to be
called the &ldquo;Cincinnati&rdquo;; of this society he was the first secretary-general
(1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general.
In 1785-1794 Knox was secretary of war, being the first man to
hold this position after the organization of the Federal government
in 1789. He urged ineffectually a national militia system,
to enroll all citizens over 18 and under 60 in the &ldquo;advanced
corps,&rdquo; the &ldquo;main corps&rdquo; or the &ldquo;reserve,&rdquo; and for this and his
close friendship with Washington was bitterly assailed by the
Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house, Montpelier,
at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccessfully
in the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he
lived there until his death on the 25th of October 1806.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. S. Drake, <i>Memoir of General Henry Knox</i> (Boston, 1873);
and Noah Brooks, <i>Henry Knox</i> (New York, 1900) in the &ldquo;American
Men of Energy&rdquo; series.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOX, JOHN<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian.
Of his early life very little is certainly known, in spite of the
fact that his <i>History of the Reformation</i> and his private letters,
especially the latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even
the year of his birth, usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute.
Beza, in his <i>Icones</i>, published in 1580, makes it 1515; Sir Peter
Young (tutor to James VI. of Scotland), writing to Beza from
Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a strong case has been made
out for holding that the generally accepted date is due to an
error in transcription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the <i>Bookman</i>,
Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticent about his
early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span>
was a son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of
Haddington, that his mother&rsquo;s name was Sinclair, and that his
forefathers on both sides had fought under the banner of the
Bothwells. William Knox was &ldquo;simple,&rdquo; not &ldquo;gentle&rdquo;&mdash;perhaps
a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his
son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school
of Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his
contemporary George Buchanan, he sat &ldquo;at the feet&rdquo; of John
Major. Major was a native of Haddington, who had recently returned
to Scotland from Paris with a great academical reputation.
He retained to the last, as his <i>History of Greater Britain</i> shows,
the repugnance characteristic of the university of Paris to the
tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, he was now alarmed by
the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its ancient protest
against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his &ldquo;regency&rdquo;
or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of
St Andrews in 1523. If Knox&rsquo;s college time was later than that
date (as it must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no
doubt spent, as Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably
exclusively there. But in Major&rsquo;s last Glasgow session a
&ldquo;Joannes Knox&rdquo; (not an uncommon name, however, at that
time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and if this were
the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed his
master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to
Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career
has not been again traced. Then he reappears in his native
district as a priest without a university degree (Sir John Knox)
and a notary of the diocese of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly
signed himself &ldquo;minister of the sacred altar&rdquo; under the archbishop
of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was carrying a two-handed
sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, on the
day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop&rsquo;s order.
Knox would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal
superior, Lord Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his
submission, with the words &ldquo;One is sufficient for a sacrifice,&rdquo;
and was handed over for trial at St Andrews. And next year
the archbishop himself had been murdered, and Knox was
preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism.</p>

<p>Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change
in himself was brought about. During those twenty years
Scotland had been slowly tending to freedom in religious profession,
and to friendship with England rather than with France.
The Scottish hierarchy, by this time corrupt and even profligate,
saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. James V., the
&ldquo;Commons&rsquo; King&rdquo; had put himself into the hands of the
Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James&rsquo;s
death there was a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop
took possession of the weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned
George Wishart. England had by this time rejected the pope&rsquo;s
supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute it was death even
to argue against it; and Knox after Wishart&rsquo;s execution was
fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain gentlemen
of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his castle
of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews
he taught &ldquo;John&rsquo;s Gospel&rdquo; and a certain catechism&mdash;probably
that which Wishart had got from &ldquo;Helvetia&rdquo; and translated;
but his teaching was supposed to be private and tutorial and for
the benefit of his friends&rsquo; &ldquo;bairns.&rdquo; The men about him however&mdash;among
them Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, &ldquo;Lyon
King&rdquo; and poet&mdash;saw his capacity for greater things, and, on
his at first refusing &ldquo;to run where God had not called him,&rdquo;
planned a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept
&ldquo;the public office and charge of preaching.&rdquo; At the close of it
the speaker (in Knox&rsquo;s own narrative) &ldquo;said to those that were
present, &lsquo;Was not this your charge to me? And do ye not
approve this vocation?&rsquo; They answered, &lsquo;It was, and we
approve it.&rsquo; Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth
in most abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber,&rdquo;
remaining there in &ldquo;heaviness&rdquo; for days, until he came forth
resolved and prepared. Knox is probably not wrong in regarding
this strange incident as the spring of his own public life. The
St Andrews invitation was really one to danger and death;
John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the flames
at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent
dawn were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or
made, a statesman and leader of men. For what to the others
was chiefly a promise of personal salvation became for the
indomitable will of Knox an assurance also of victory, even in
this world, over embattled forces of ancient wrong. It is certain
at least that from this date he never changed and scarcely even
varied his public course. And looking back upon that course
afterwards, he records with much complacency how his earliest
St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive Protestantism
upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers muttered,
&ldquo;Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes
at the root.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen
years. In June 1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and
the prisoners, including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on
the Loire, to remain in irons and under the lash for at least
nineteen months. Released at last (apparently through the
influence of the young English king, Edward VI.), Knox was
appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith for
England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and
afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made
a royal chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English
bishopric, which he declined; and during most of this year he
used his influence, as preacher at court and in London, to make
the new English settlement more Protestant. To him at least
is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains that, when kneeling
at the sacrament is ordered, &ldquo;no adoration is intended or ought
to be done.&rdquo; While in Northumberland Knox had been
betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of
Richard Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother,
Elizabeth, co-heiress of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of
that little band of women-friends whose correspondence with
Knox on religious matters throws an unexpected light on his
discriminating tenderness of heart. But now Mary Tudor
succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into
five years&rsquo; exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on
&ldquo;Affliction,&rdquo; and sending back to England two editions of a
more acrid &ldquo;Faithful Admonition&rdquo; on the crisis there. He
first drifted to Frankfort, where the English congregation
divided as English Protestants have always done, and the party
opposed to Knox got rid of him at last by a complaint to the
authorities of treason against the emperor Charles V. as well
as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial
pastorate. Christopher Goodman (<i>c.</i> 1520-1603) and he, with
other exiles, began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared
the earlier English version of the Bible, &ldquo;the household book of
the English-speaking nations&rdquo; during the great age of Elizabeth.
Here, and afterwards at Dieppe (where he preached in French),
Knox kept in communication with the other Reformers, studied
Greek and Hebrew in the interest of theology, and having
brought his wife and her mother from England in 1555 lived
for years a peaceful life.</p>

<p>But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing
the difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In
his first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the
right of the civil &ldquo;authority&rdquo; to prescribe religion to his subjects&mdash;in
particular, whether the godly should obey &ldquo;a magistrate
who enforces idolatry and condemns true religion,&rdquo; and
whom should they join &ldquo;in the case of a religious nobility
resisting an idolatrous sovereign.&rdquo; In August 1555 be visited
his native country and found the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine,
acting as regent in place of the real &ldquo;sovereign,&rdquo; the youthful
and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of
France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread
widely, and the regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of
the &ldquo;religious nobility.&rdquo; Knox was accordingly allowed to
preach privately for six months throughout the south of Scotland,
and was listened to with an enthusiasm which made him break
out, &ldquo;O sweet were the death which should follow such forty
days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!&rdquo; Before leaving he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span>
even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to favour the
Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a &ldquo;pasquil,&rdquo; and Knox
on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he
left behind him a &ldquo;Wholesome Counsel&rdquo; to Scottish heads of
families, reminding them that within their own houses they
were &ldquo;bishop and kings,&rdquo; and recommending the institution
of something like the early apostolic worship in private congregations.
Of the Protestant barons Knox, though in exile,
seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before
the end of 1557 they, under the name of the &ldquo;Lords of the Congregation,&rdquo;
had entered into the first of the religious &ldquo;bands&rdquo;
or &ldquo;covenants&rdquo; afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he
published his &ldquo;Appellation&rdquo; to the nobles, estates and commonalty
against the sentence of death recently pronounced upon him,
and along with it a stirring appeal &ldquo;To his beloved brethren,
the Commonalty of Scotland,&rdquo; urging that the care of religion
fell to them also as being &ldquo;God&rsquo;s creatures, created and formed
in His own image,&rdquo; and having a right to defend their conscience
against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in
Scotland a remarkable approximation to that solution of the
toleration difficulty which later ages have approved; for the
regent was understood to favour the demand of the &ldquo;congregation&rdquo;
that at least the penal statutes against heretics &ldquo;be
suspended and abrogated,&rdquo; and &ldquo;that it be lawful to us to use
ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must answer
to God.&rdquo; It was a consummation too ideal for that early date;
and next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of
France and there mixed up with the persecuting policy of the
Guises, forbade the reformed preaching in Scotland. A rupture
ensued at once, and Knox appeared in Edinburgh on the 2nd of
May 1559 &ldquo;even in the brunt of the battle.&rdquo; He was promptly
&ldquo;blown to the horn&rdquo; at the Cross there as an outlaw, but
escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the
chief towns of central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews
his sermons were followed by the destruction of the monasteries,
institutions disliked in that age in Scotland alike by the devout
and the profane. But while he notes that in Perth the act was
that of &ldquo;the rascal multitude,&rdquo; he was glad to claim in St
Andrews the support of the civic &ldquo;authority&rdquo;; and indeed the
burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of
freedom, soon became in Scotland a main support of the Reformation.
Edinburgh was still doubtful, and the queen regent
held the castle; but a truce between her and the lords for six
months to the 1st of January 1560 was arranged on the footing
that every man there &ldquo;may have freedom to use his own conscience
to the day foresaid&rdquo;&mdash;a freedom interpreted to let Knox
and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly.</p>

<p>Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed
from the freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when
unsuccessful appealed; both betook themselves to arms; and
the immediate future of the little kingdom was to be decided by
its external alliances. Knox now took a leading part in the
great transaction by which the friendship of France was exchanged
for that of England. He had one serious difficulty.
Before Elizabeth&rsquo;s accession to the English crown, and after
the queen mother in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he
had published a treatise against what he called &ldquo;The Monstrous
Regiment (regimen or government) of Women&rdquo;; though the
despotism of that despotic age was scarcely appreciably worse
when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth never forgave
him; but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and
their answer in July 1559, in Knox&rsquo;s handwriting, assures
England not only of their own constancy, but of &ldquo;a charge and
commandment to our posterity, that the amity and league
between you and us, contracted and begun in Christ Jesus, may
by them be kept inviolated for ever.&rdquo; The league was promised
by England; but the army of France was first in the field, and
towards the end of the year drove the forces of the &ldquo;congregation&rdquo;
from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a
midnight rout to Stirling&mdash;&ldquo;that dark and dolorous night,&rdquo; as
Knox long afterwards said, &ldquo;wherein all ye, my lords, with
shame and fear left this town,&rdquo; and from which only a memorable
sermon by their great preacher roused the despairing multitude
into new hope. Their leaders renounced allegiance to the regent;
she ended her not unkindly, but as Knox calls it &ldquo;unhappy,&rdquo;
life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English troops, after the usual
Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their Scots allies; and
the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July 1560 a
treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and
the queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mistress&rsquo;s
plenipotentiaries to agree &ldquo;that the government of Scotland
be granted to the nation of the land.&rdquo; The revolution was in
the meantime complete; and Knox, who takes credit for having
done much to end the enmity with England which was so long
thought necessary for Scotland&rsquo;s independence, was strangely
enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp of a
more inward independence upon his country and its history.</p>

<p>At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protestants
were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox
and three others drafted it, and were present when it was
offered and read to the parliament. The statute-book says it
was &ldquo;by the estates of Scotland ratified and approved, as
wholesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the infallible
truth of God&rsquo;s word.&rdquo; The Scots confession, though of course
drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others
then springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is
Calvinist rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries
the authorized Scottish creed, though in the first instance the
faith of only a fragment of the people. Yet its approval became
the basis for three acts passed a week later; the first of which,
abolishing the pope&rsquo;s authority and jurisdiction in Scotland, may
perhaps have been consistent with toleration, as the second,
rescinding old statutes which had established and enforced that
and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the third,
inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on
those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed
that the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that
their position could no longer be described as, in Knox&rsquo;s words,
&ldquo;requiring nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our religion
and fact to be tried by the word of God.&rdquo; He was prepared
indeed to fall back upon that, in the event of the Estates at any
time refusing sanction to either church or creed, as their sovereign
in Paris promptly refused it. But the parliament of 1560
gave no express sanction to the Reformed Church, and Knox did
not wait until it should do so. Already &ldquo;in our towns and places
reformed,&rdquo; as the Confession puts it, there were local or &ldquo;particular
kirks,&rdquo; and these grew and spread and were provincially
united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first
General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the
&ldquo;universal kirk,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the whole church convened.&rdquo; It had
before it the plan for church government and maintenance,
drafted in August at the same time with the Confession, under
the name of <i>The Book of Discipline</i>, and by the same framers.
Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief author, and he
had by this time come to desire a much more rigid Presbyterianism
than he had sketched in his &ldquo;Wholesome Counsel&rdquo; of 1555.
In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the
&ldquo;Ordonnances&rdquo; of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with
the &ldquo;Forma&rdquo; of the German Church in London under John
Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting with &ldquo;truth&rdquo; contained in
Scripture as the church&rsquo;s foundation, and the Word and Sacraments
as means of building it up, it provides ministers and elders
to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class of
&ldquo;readers,&rdquo; and by their means sermons and prayers each
&ldquo;Sunday&rdquo; in every parish. In large towns these were to be
also on other days, with a weekly meeting for conference or
&ldquo;prophesying.&rdquo; The &ldquo;plantation&rdquo; of new churches is to go on
everywhere under the guidance of higher church officers called
superintendents. All are to help their brethren, &ldquo;for no man may
be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of
God.&rdquo; And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be
instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish
or elementary schools, secondary schools and universities.
Even the poor were to be fed by the Church&rsquo;s hands; and behind
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span>
its moral influence, and a discipline over both poor and rich, was
to be not only the coercive authority of the civil power but its
money. Knox had from the first proclaimed that &ldquo;the teinds
(tithes of yearly fruits) by God&rsquo;s law do not appertain of necessity
to the kirkmen.&rdquo; And this book now demands that out of
them &ldquo;must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the
poor and schools.&rdquo; But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim
also the property which had been really gifted to the Church by
princes and nobles&mdash;given by them indeed, as he held, without
any moral right and to the injury of the people, yet so as to
be Church patrimony. From all such property, whether land
or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also from the personal
property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that the
state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the ministers,
and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities,
but above all, the relief of the poor&mdash;not only of the absolutely
&ldquo;indigent&rdquo; but of &ldquo;your poor brethren, the labourers and
handworkers of the ground.&rdquo; For the danger now was that
some gentlemen were already cruel in exactions of their tenants,
&ldquo;requiring of them whatever before they paid to the Church,
so that the papistical tyranny shall only be changed into the
tyranny of the lords or of the laird.&rdquo; The danger foreseen alike
to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began to be
fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already
acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church
property, declined to make any of it over for Knox&rsquo;s magnificent
scheme. It was, they said, &ldquo;a devout imagination.&rdquo; Seven
years afterwards, however, when the contest with the Crown was
ended, the kirk was expressly acknowledged as the only Church
in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it over all who should attempt
to be outsiders; while the preaching of the Evangel and the planting
of congregations went on in all the accessible parts of Scotland.
Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes were
assigned to the ministers out of the yearly <i>teinds</i>; and the Church
received&mdash;what it retained even down to recent times&mdash;the administration
both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of
Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already somewhat
stayed, and the very next year raised the question whether
the transfer of intolerance to the side of the new faith was as
wise as it had at first seemed to be successful.</p>

<p>Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of
France, and in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow
on whom the eyes of Europe were fixed. Knox&rsquo;s objections to
the &ldquo;regiment of women&rdquo; were theoretical, and in the present
case he hoped at first for the best, favouring rather his queen&rsquo;s
marriage with the heir of the house of Hamilton. Mary had
put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord James
Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps
have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the
&ldquo;state of religion&rdquo; begun the previous year; but mass was
celebrated in the queen&rsquo;s household, and Lord James himself
defended it with his sword against Protestant intrusion. Knox
publicly protested; and Moray, who probably understood and
liked both parties, brought the preacher to the presence of his
queen. There is nothing revealed to us by &ldquo;the broad clear
light of that wonderful book,&rdquo;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>The History of the Reformation
in Scotland</i>, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or interviews,
which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest
stamp of truth, and do almost more justice to his opponent than
to himself. Mary took the aggressive and very soon raised the
real question. &ldquo;Ye have taught the people to receive another
religion than their princes can allow; and how can that doctrine
be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to obey their
princes?&rdquo; The point was made keener by the fact that
Knox&rsquo;s own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in
which an unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held
kings to be appointed &ldquo;for maintenance of the true religion,&rdquo;
and suppression of the false; and the reformer now fell back on
his more fundamental principle, that &ldquo;right religion took
neither original nor authority from worldly princes, but from
the Eternal God alone.&rdquo; All through this dialogue too, as in
another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven
to axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which
Buchanan and he may have learned from their teacher Major,
but which were not to be accepted till a later age. &ldquo;&rsquo;Think ye,&rsquo;
quoth she, &lsquo;that subjects, having power, may resist their
princes?&rsquo; &lsquo;If their princes exceed their bounds, Madam, they
may be resisted and even deposed,&rsquo;&rdquo; Knox replied. But these
dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon the
general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and
Moray and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their
support. The court and parliament, guided by them, declined to
press the queen or to pass the Book of Discipline; and meantime
the negotiations as to the queen&rsquo;s marriage with a Spanish, a
French or an Austrian prince revealed the real difficulty and peril
of the situation. Her marriage to a great Catholic prince would
be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, and perhaps
to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally
broken with the earl of Moray, &ldquo;committing you to your own
wit, and to the conducting of those who better please you&rdquo;;
and now, in one of his greatest sermons before the assembled
lords, he drove at the heart of the situation&mdash;the risk of a Catholic
marriage. The queen sent for him for the last time and burst
into passionate tears as she asked, &ldquo;What have you to do with
my marriage? Or what are you within this commonwealth?&rdquo;
&ldquo;A subject born within the same,&rdquo; was the answer of the son
of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while
thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime,
even when, later on, he had &ldquo;convocated the lieges&rdquo; to Edinburgh
to meet a crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came.
Mary had wearied of her guiding statesmen, Moray and the
more pliant Maitland; the Italian secretary David Rizzio,
through whom she had corresponded with the pope, now more
and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome
cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565
and swept the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley,
though a Catholic, thought it well to go to Knox&rsquo;s preaching; but
was so unfortunate as to hear a very long sermon, with allusions
not only to &ldquo;babes and women&rdquo; as rulers, but to Ahab who did
not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and the lords still
in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was in
Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in
which the queen&rsquo;s growing distaste for her husband, and advancement
of Rizzio over the nobility remaining in Edinburgh,
brought about the conspiracy by Darnley, Morton and Ruthven.
Knox does not seem to have known beforehand of Rizzio&rsquo;s
&ldquo;slaughter,&rdquo; which had been intended to be a semi-judicial act;
but soon after it he records that &ldquo;that vile knave Davie was
justly punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other
villainy which we list not to express.&rdquo; The immediate effect however
of what Knox thus approved was to bring his cause to its
lowest ebb, and on the very day when Mary rode from Holyrood
to her army, he sat down and penned the prayer, &ldquo;Lord
Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice and truth
are not to be found among the sons of men!&rdquo; He added a
short autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement
and exultation are not unworthy of its striking title&mdash;&ldquo;John
Knox, with deliberate mind, to his God.&rdquo; During the rest of
the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or elsewhere, and throughout
1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court was in Edinburgh.
But he was influential at the December Assembly in
the capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for
Mary&rsquo;s infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assembly&rsquo;s
request, however, Knox undertook a long visit to England,
where his two sons by his first wife were being educated, and were
afterwards to be Fellows of St John&rsquo;s, Cambridge, the younger
becoming a parish clergyman. It was thus during the reformer&rsquo;s
absence that the murder of Darnley, the abduction and subsequent
marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and the imprisonment
in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span>
before the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide
the Assembly which sat on the 25th of June 1567 in dealing
with this unparalleled crisis, and to wind up the revolution
by preaching at Stirling on the 9th of July 1567, after Mary&rsquo;s
abdication, at the coronation of the infant king.</p>

<p>His main work was now really done; for the parliament of
1567 made Moray regent, and Knox was only too glad to have
his old friend back in power, though they seem to have differed
on the question whether the queen should be allowed to pass
into retirement without trial for her husband&rsquo;s death, as they
had differed all along on the question of tolerating her private
religion. Knox&rsquo;s victory had not come too early, for his physical
strength soon began to fail. But Mary&rsquo;s escape in 1568 resulted
only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and
death in England. In Scotland the regent&rsquo;s assassination in
1570 opened a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent
change. The massacre of St Bartholomew rather united
English and Scottish Protestantism; and Knox in St Giles&rsquo;
pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report his words,
denounced God&rsquo;s vengeance on the crowned murderer and his
posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh
Castle, held by Mary&rsquo;s friends, and the town, held for her son,
both parties agreed that the reformer, who had already had a
stroke of paralysis, should remove to St Andrews. While there
he wrote his will, and published his last book, in the preface to
which he says, &ldquo;I heartily take my good-night of the faithful
of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am I of
it.&rdquo; And when he now merely signs his name, it is &ldquo;John
Knox, with my dead hand and glad heart.&rdquo; In the autumn of
1572 he returned to Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque
house in the &ldquo;throat of the Bow,&rdquo; which for generations has
been called by his name. With him were his wife and three
young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret Bowes at the
close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after married
Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree.
She was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal
house; yet, as his Catholic biographer put it, &ldquo;by sorcery and
witchcraft he did so allure that poor gentlewoman that she could
not live without him.&rdquo; But lords, ladies and burghers also
crowded around his bed, and his colleague and his servant
have severally transmitted to us the words in which his weakness
daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his death into a
solemn exultation&mdash;yet characteristically, not so much on his
own account as for &ldquo;the troubled Church of God.&rdquo; He died on
the 24th of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles&rsquo;
Churchyard the new Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile
guns of the castle, expressed the first surprise of those around as
they looked back on that stormy life, that one who had &ldquo;neither
flattered nor feared any flesh&rdquo; had now &ldquo;ended his days in
peace and honour.&rdquo; Knox himself had a short time before put
in writing a larger claim for the historic future, &ldquo;What I have
been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know,
yet the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the
truth.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a
powerful face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow,
high cheek-bones, and a long black beard which latterly turned
grey. This description, taken from a letter in 1579 by his
junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, is very like Beza&rsquo;s fine
engraving of him in the <i>Icones</i>&mdash;an engraving probably founded
on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza along with
the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by
Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two
years in the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered permanently
from gravel and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his
nature &ldquo;was for the most part oppressed with melancholy.&rdquo;
Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole minister of Edinburgh
studying for two sermons on Sunday and three during the week,
besides having innumerable cares of churches at home and abroad.
He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most disinterested
in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen.
But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and
dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it immensely
enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him
unable to put himself in the place of those who retained the views
which he had himself held. All his training too, university,
priestly and in foreign parts, tended to make him logical overmuch.
But this was mitigated by a strong sense of humour
(not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely so), and by
tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with women;
and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great
practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so
often struck successfully at the centre of the complex motives
of his time, leaving it to later critics to reconcile his theories of
action. But hence too he more than once took doubtful shortcuts
to some of his most important ends; giving the ministry
within the new Church more power over laymen than Protestant
principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside who
were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who were,
to join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute
to its support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries
called anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into
liturgical beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical portraiture,
is generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the
few years in which he had to work for the future. That work
was indeed chiefly done by the living voice; and in speaking,
this &ldquo;one man,&rdquo; as Elizabeth&rsquo;s very critical ambassador wrote
from Edinburgh, was &ldquo;able in one hour to put more life in us
than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our ears.&rdquo;
But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive&mdash;a
personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that
personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his
people, and perhaps still more in their character. His countrymen
indeed have always believed that to Knox more than to any
other man Scotland owes her political and religious individuality.
And since his 19th century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie,
or at least since his recognition in the following generation by
Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken its place in literature.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Knox&rsquo;s books, pamphlets, public documents
and letters are collected into the great edition in six volumes of
<i>Knox&rsquo;s Works</i>, by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with
introductions, appendices and notes. Of his books the chief are
the following: 1.&mdash;<i>The History of the Reformation in Scotland</i>,
incorporating the Confession and the Book of Discipline. Begun
by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was continued and revised
by himself in 1566 as so to form four books, with a fifth book apparently
written after his death from materials left by him. It was
partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier, but was suppressed
by authority and published by David Buchanan, with a <i>Life</i>, in
1664. 2.&mdash;<i>On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist</i> (London,
1591). 3.&mdash;<i>On Prayer</i> (1554). 4.&mdash;<i>On Affliction</i> (1556). 5.&mdash;<i>Epistles</i>,
and <i>Admonition</i>, both to English Brethren in 1554. 6.&mdash;<i>The First
Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women</i>
(1558). 7.&mdash;<i>An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit</i> (1572).</p>

<p>Knox&rsquo;s life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish
histories and Church histories which include his period, as well as
in the mass of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr Laing&rsquo;s edition of
the <i>Works</i> contains important biographical material. But among
the many express biographies two especially should be consulted&mdash;those
by Thomas McCrie (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in
1813, the later editions containing valuable notes by the author);
and by P. Hume Brown (Edinburgh, 1895). <i>John Knox and the
Reformation</i>, by Andrew Lang (London, 1905), is not so much a
biography as a collection of materials, bearing upon many parts of
the life, but nearly all on the unfavourable side.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. T. I.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> John Hill Burton (<i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, iii. 339). Mr Burton&rsquo;s view
(differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the dialogues&mdash;the
earlier of them at least&mdash;must have been spoken in the French
tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), American lawyer
and political leader, was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania,
on the 4th of May 1853. He graduated from Mount Union
College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar
in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he continued in private
practice, with the exception of two years&rsquo; service (1876-1877)
as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a large
practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became
attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President
McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of
President Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed
by Governor Pennypacker of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired
term of Matthew S. Quay in the United States Senate; in 1905 he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span>
was re-elected to the Senate for the full term. In March 1909
he became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Taft.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNOXVILLE,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Tennessee, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of
Nashville, and about 190 m. S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the
right bank of the Tennessee river, 4 m. below the point where
it is formed by the junction of the French Broad and Holston
Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900), 32,637, of
whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches
of the Louisville &amp; Nashville and the Southern railways, by the
Knoxville &amp; Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.),
by the short Knoxville &amp; Augusta railroad (Knoxville to
Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and freight steamboat lines
on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable for the greater
part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge crosses
the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated
at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the
Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one
of the healthiest cities in the United States. There are several
beautiful parks, of which Chilhowie and Fountain City are the
largest, and among the public buildings are a city-hall, Federal
building, court-house, the Knoxville general hospital, the
Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung industrial
home, a Young Men&rsquo;s Christian Association building and the
Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier
stands on the site of the blockhouse first built there. Knoxville
is the seat of Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875)
for negroes, East Tennessee institute, a secondary school for
girls, the Baker-Himel school for boys, Tennessee Medical
College (1889), two commercial schools and the university of
Tennessee. The last, a state co-educational institution, was
chartered as Blount College in 1794 and as East Tennessee
College in 1807, but not opened until 1820&mdash;the present name was
adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, 755
students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000
volumes. With the university is combined the state college
of agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for
teachers is maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State
insane asylum, state asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both
white and negro), and a national cemetery in which more than
3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an important commercial
and industrial centre and does a large jobbing business. It is
near hardwood forests and is an important market for hardwood
mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000
tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous
Tennessee marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building
and pottery clays are found near Knoxville. Among the city&rsquo;s
industrial establishments are flour and grist mills, cotton and
woollen mills, furniture, desk, office supplies and sash, door, and
blind factories, meat-packing establishments, clothing factories,
iron, steel and boiler works, foundries and machine shops, stove
works and brick and cement works. The value of the factory
product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to $12,432,880
in 1905, or 100.5%, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist
mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the
Southern railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knoxville
was settled in 1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North
Carolina pioneer, and was first known as &ldquo;White&rsquo;s Fort&rdquo;; it
was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in honour of General
Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington&rsquo;s cabinet.
In 1791 the <i>Knoxville Gazette</i>, the first newspaper in Tennessee
(the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication. From
1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the &ldquo;Territory South
of the Ohio,&rdquo; and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital
of the state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitution
of the new state of Tennessee met here, and here later in
the same year the first state legislature was convened. Knoxville
was chartered as a city in 1815. In its early years it was
several times attacked by the Indians, but was never captured.
During the Civil War there was considerable Union sentiment
in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal
authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as
Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between
the Confederates of the East and West through this region.
As the Confederates had erected only slight defences for the protection
of the city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily
gained possession on the 2nd of September 1863. Fortifications
were immediately begun for its defence, and on the 4th of November,
Bragg, thinking his position at Chattanooga impregnable
against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, despatched a force
of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. Longstreet
arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the
following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous
assaults until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack
was made on Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief
force under Sherman, Longstreet withdrew on the night of the
4th of December. The Confederate losses during the siege were
182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or missing; the Union
losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured or missing.
West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville
(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in <i>Historic Towns of the
Southern States</i>, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900); and
W. Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, <i>Standard History of
Knoxville</i> (Chicago, 1900).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KNUCKLE<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (apparently the diminutive of a word for &ldquo;bone,&rdquo;
found in Ger. <i>Knochen</i>), the joint of a finger, which, when the
hand is shut, is brought into prominence. In mechanical use
the word is applied to the round projecting part of a hinge
through which the pin is run, and in ship-building to an acute
angle on some of the timbers. A &ldquo;knuckle-duster,&rdquo; said to have
originally come from the criminal slang of the United States,
is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the hand across the
knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting a brutal
blow.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNUCKLEBONES<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hucklebones</span>, <span class="sc">Dibs</span>, <span class="sc">Jackstones</span>, <span class="sc">Chuck-stones</span>,
<span class="sc">Five-stones</span>), a game of very ancient origin, played
with five small objects, originally the knucklebones of a sheep,
which are thrown up and caught in various ways. Modern
&ldquo;knucklebones&rdquo; consist of six points, or knobs, proceeding
from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is he
who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws,
which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail.
The simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the <i>jack</i>, and
picking up one or more from the table while it is in the air;
and so on until all five stones have been picked up. Another
consists in tossing up first one stone, then two, then three and
so on, and catching them on the back of the hand. Different
throws have received distinctive names, such as &ldquo;riding the
elephant,&rdquo; &ldquo;peas in the pod,&rdquo; and &ldquo;horses in the stable.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of
dice, of which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless
Asiatic. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of
draughts and knucklebones (<i>astragaloi</i>) to Palamedes, who
taught them to his Greek countrymen during the Trojan War.
Both the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> contain allusions to games similar
in character to knucklebones, and the Palamedes tradition, as
flattering to the national pride, was generally accepted throughout
Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and plastic
evidences. Thus Pausanias (<i>Corinth</i> xx.) mentions a temple
of Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly
invented game. According to a still more ancient tradition,
Zeus, perceiving that Ganymede longed for his playmates upon
Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a companion and golden dibs
with which to play, and even condescended sometimes to join
in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, that both
Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin.
Plato (<i>Phaedrus</i>) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor,
while Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of
famine in the days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed
almost all other games except chess. There were two methods of
playing in ancient times. The first, and probably the primitive
method, consisted in tossing up and catching the bones on the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span>
back of the hand, very much as the game is played to-day. In
the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting excavated at
Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, Phoebe,
Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing
at Knucklebones (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 42). According to an
epigram of Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-children,
and we are reminded of Plutarch&rsquo;s anecdote of the
youthful Alcibiades, who, when a teamster threatened to drive
over some of his knucklebones that had fallen into the wagon-ruts,
boldly threw himself in front of the advancing team. This
simple form of the game was generally played only by women
and children, and was called <i>pentalitha</i> or five-stones. There were
several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being
called <i>tropa</i>, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the
bones into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and
primitive game of &ldquo;odd or even.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of
pure chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with
the hand or from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which
they fell counted. In this game the shape of the pastern-bones
used for astralagoi, as well as for the <i>tali</i> of the Romans, with
whom knucklebones was also popular, determined the manner
of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or calf has, besides
two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad
and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one
convex. The convex narrow side, called <i>chios</i> or &ldquo;the dog&rdquo;
counted 1; the convex broad side 3; the concave broad side 4;
and the concave narrow side 6. Four astragals were used and
35 different scores were possible at a single throw, many receiving
distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas, Solon, Alexander,
and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &amp;c. The
highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and
was probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes
could not be thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in
Greece and Rome, was the Dog.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Cassell&rsquo;s Book of Sports and Pastimes</i> (London, 1896); <i>Games
and Songs of American Children</i>, by W. W. Newell (1893); and <i>The
Young Folks&rsquo; Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports</i> (New York, 1899), for
the modern children&rsquo;s game. For the history see <i>Les Jeux des
Anciens</i>, by L. Becq de Fouquières (Paris, 1869); <i>Das Knochelspiel
der Alten</i>, by Bolle (Wismar, 1886); <i>Die Spiele der Griechen und
Römer</i>, by W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KNUTSFORD,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England; on the London &amp; North-Western
and Great Central railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the
<span class="correction" title="amended from Chesire">Cheshire</span> Lines and London &amp; North-Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 5172. It is pleasantly situated on an
elevated ridge, with the fine domains of Tatton Park and Tabley
respectively north and west of it. The meres in these domains
are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern times
as the scene of Mrs Gaskell&rsquo;s novel <i>Cranford</i>. Among several
ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date
1411 carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern,
dated 1641. A number of curious old customs linger in the town,
such as the practice of working designs in coloured sand, when
a wedding takes place, before the bride&rsquo;s house. In what
is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in the kingdom
Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the
town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in
the time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of
St John, built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented,
in 1880, by St Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town
has a grammar school, founded before the reign of Henry VIII.,
but reorganized in 1885. Lord Egerton built the Egerton
schools in 1893. The industries comprise cotton, worsted and
leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a residential
town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here,
attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was
the birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to
Queen Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry,
who was secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was
raised to the peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford.</p>

<p>The name Knutsford (<i>Cunetesford</i>, <i>Knotesford</i>) is said to signify
Cnut&rsquo;s ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous
to Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately
of William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne
lord of Hugh Lupus earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley,
lord of both Over and Nether Knutsford, granted free burgage
to his burgesses in both Knutsfords. This charter is the only
one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title of borough. It
provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from amongst
themselves every year. The office however carried little real
power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter
to Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market
every Saturday at Nether Knutsford, and a three days&rsquo; fair at
the Feast of St Peter and St Paul. When this charter was confirmed
by Edward III. another market (Friday) and another
three days&rsquo; fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude) were added.
The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was ever
held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large
crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here
in 1770, and there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade,
but the lack of means of communication made the undertaking
impossible.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Henry Green, <i>History of Knutsford</i> (1859).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOALA<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>), a stoutly built marsupial, of
the family <i>Phascolmyidae</i>, which also contains the wombats.
This animal, which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian
continent, is about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey
colour, an excellent climber, residing generally in lofty eucalyptus
trees, the buds and tender shoots of which form its principal
food, though occasionally it descends to the ground in the night
in search of roots. From its shape the koala is called by the
colonists the &ldquo;native bear&rdquo;; the term &ldquo;native sloth&rdquo; being
also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate
movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is
palatable to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into
England, for the manufacture of articles in which a cheap and
durable fur is required.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOBDO,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west
Mongolia, at the northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the
right bank of the Buyantu River, 13 m. from its entrance into
Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of Biysk (Russian), and 470 m.
W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a dreary plain, and consists
of a fortress, the residence of the governor of the Kobdo
district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by Chinese
and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for
trade between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was
founded by the Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans
in 1872. The district of Kobdo occupies the north-western
corner of Mongolia, and is peopled chiefly by Mongols, and also
by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and Khotons. It is
governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a
special Mongol functionary (Mongol, <i>dzurgan</i>). The chief monastery
is at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about
1,000,000), sheepskins, sheep and camel wool are exported to
China, while Chinese cottons, brick tea and various small goods
are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton, iron and copper goods
boxes, &amp;c., are imported from Russia in exchange for cattle, furs
and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders the
development of this trade.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron Von</span> (1803-1882),
German mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 19th of
July 1803. He studied chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut
(1820-1823), and in 1826 became professor of mineralogy in the
university of Munich. He introduced some new methods of
mineral analyses, and in 1835 invented the stauroscope for the
study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed
numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new
minerals. He died at Munich on the 11th of November, 1882.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Charakteristik der Mineralien</i> (2 vols. 1830-1831);
<i>Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien</i> &amp;c. (1833; and later editions,
ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); <i>Grundzüge der Mineralogie</i> (1838);
<i>Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860</i> (1864).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span></p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOCH, ROBERT<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born
at Klausthal, Hanover, on the 11th of December 1843. He
studied medicine at Göttingen, and it was while he was practising
as a physician at Wollstein that he began those bacteriological
researches that made his name famous. In 1876 he obtained a
pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a method of
preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later.
He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and
a professor at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later
he was appointed to a chair in Berlin University and director
of the Institute of Health. In 1882, largely as the result of the
improved methods of bacteriological investigation he was able
to elaborate, he discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in
the following year, having been sent on an official mission to
Egypt and India to study the aetiology of Asiatic cholera, he
identified the comma bacillus as the specific organism of that
malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the announcement
that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised
an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but
the expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption
were not fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue
as a means of diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals
intended for food. At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in
London in 1901 he maintained that tuberculosis in man and in
cattle is not the same disease, the practical inference being that
the danger to men of infection from milk and meat is less than
from other human subjects suffering from the disease. This
statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved,
and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal
Commission to study the question. Dr Koch also investigated
the nature of rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means
of combating the disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the
head of a commission formed to investigate the bubonic plague,
and he subsequently undertook extensive travels in pursuit of
his studies on the origin and treatment of malaria. He was
summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give expert
advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected
a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he
spent eighteen months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-sickness.
He died at Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the
28th of May 1910. Koch was undoubtedly one of the greatest
bacteriologists ever known, and a great benefactor of humanity
by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon him, and in
1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among his works may be mentioned: <i>Weitere Mitteilungen über
ein Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose</i> (Leipzig, 1891); and <i>Reiseberichte
über Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder
Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber</i>
(Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flügge,
the <i>Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten</i> (published at
Leipzig). See Loeffler, &ldquo;Robert Koch, zum 60ten Geburtstage&rdquo; in
<i>Deut. Medizin. Wochenschr.</i> (No. 50, 1903).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOCH,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its
name to the state of Kuch Behar (<i>q.v.</i>). They are probably of
Mongolian stock, akin to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera
tribes, and originally spoke, like these, a language of the Bodo
group. But since one of their chiefs established a powerful
kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they have gradually
become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (= &ldquo;of
royal blood&rdquo;). In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and
Assam was returned at nearly 2½ millions.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1793-1871), French novelist, was
born at Passy on the 21st of May 1793. He was a posthumous
child, his father, a banker of Dutch extraction, having been a
victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began life as a banker&rsquo;s clerk.
For the most part he resided on the Boulevard St Martin, and
was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in Paris
on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage
very early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first
novel, <i>L&rsquo;Enfant de ma femme</i> (1811), was published at his own
expense. In 1820 he began his long and successful series of
novels dealing with Parisian life with <i>Georgette, ou la mère du
Tabellion</i>. His period of greatest and most successful activity
was the Restoration and the early days of Louis Philippe. He
was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, where he
was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major
Pendennis&rsquo;s remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind
for thirty years except Paul de Kock, &ldquo;who certainly made him
laugh,&rdquo; is likely to remain one of the most durable of his testimonials,
and may be classed with the legendary question of a
foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who was paying his respects,
&ldquo;Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des nouvelles.
Comment se porte Paul de Kock?&rdquo; The disappearance of the
<i>grisette</i> and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger
practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of
manners his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first
half of the 19th century at Paris still has its value.</p>

<p>The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the
exception of a few not very felicitous excursions into historical
romance and some miscellaneous works of which his share in
<i>La Grande ville, Paris</i> (1842), is the chief, they are all stories
of middle-class Parisian life, of <i>guinguettes</i> and <i>cabarets</i> and
equivocal adventures of one sort or another. The most famous
are <i>André le Savoyard</i> (1825) and <i>Le Barbier de Paris</i> (1826).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Mémoires</i> were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, <i>La Vie
de Charles Paul de Kock</i> (1873).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KODAIKANAL,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura
district of Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft.
above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot
season would be much larger. It is difficult of access, being
44 m. from a railway station, and the last 11 m. are impracticable
for wheeled vehicles. It contains a government observatory,
the appliances of which are specially adapted for the study of
terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KODAMA, GENTARO,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1852-1907), Japanese general,
was born in Choshu. He studied military science in Germany,
and was appointed vice-minister of war in 1892. He became
governor-general of Formosa in 1900, holding at the same time
the portfolio of war. When the conflict with Russia became
imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become vice-chief
of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public applause.
Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served
as chief of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood
that his genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign,
as that of General Kawakami had done in the war with China
ten years previously. General Kodama was raised in rapid
succession to the ranks of baron, viscount and count, and his
death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KODUNGALUR<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Cranganur</span>), a town of southern India,
in Cochin state, within the presidency of Madras. Though now
a place of little importance, its historical interest is considerable.
Tradition assigns to it the double honour of having been the first
field of St Thomas&rsquo;s labours (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52) in India and the seat of
Cheraman Perumal&rsquo;s government. The visit of St Thomas is
generally considered mythical; but it is certain that the Syrian
Church was firmly established here before the 9th century
(Burnell), and probably the Jews&rsquo; settlement was still earlier.
The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 378. The
cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up
to 1314, when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening
in the Cochin backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at
Kodungalur, which must then have been the best harbour on the
coast. In 1502 the Syrian Christians invoked the protection
of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter built their first fort there,
and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch took the fort, the
possession of which for the next forty years was contested
between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur.
In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured
it two years later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold
it to the Travancore raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who
destroyed it in the following year. The country round Kodungalur
now forms an autonomous principality, tributary to the
raja of Cochin.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1774-1851),
German palaeontologist, was born at Brunswick in 1774, and was
educated at Göttingen. In 1807 he became assistant keeper,
and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the department of natural
history in the British Museum, and afterwards of geology and
mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life. He
described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work
entitled <i>Icones fossilium sectiles</i> (1820-1825). He died in London
on the 6th of September 1851.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOESFELD,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, on the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund.
Pop. (1905), 8449. It has three Roman Catholic churches, one
of which&mdash;the Gymnasial Kirche&mdash;is used by the Protestant
community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri Castle, formerly
the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the castle
of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar.
The leading industries include the making of linen goods and
machinery.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOHAT,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar
division of the North-West Frontier Province. The town is
37 m. south of Peshawar by the Kohat Pass, along which a
military road was opened in 1901. The population in 1901
was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which is garrisoned
by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah campaign
of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William
Lockhart&rsquo;s expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is
the military base for the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is
for the northern frontier of the same tribe, and it lies in the heart
of the Pathan country.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Kohat</span> has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists
chiefly of a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus,
deeply scored with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few
scattered patches of cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak
country especially comprises a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which
fall, however, into two principal groups, to the north and south of
the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai valley, in the extreme west,
appears by comparison a rich and fertile tract. In its small but
carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and many orchard trees
flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild olive, mimosa and
other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon the upper
slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form favourite
pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on the
eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus,
which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two
main portions. The drainage from the northern half flows southward
into the Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel
stream of the Kohat Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards
also into the Teri Toi, and southwards towards the Kurram
and the Indus. The frontier mountains, continuations of the Safed
Koh system, attain in places a considerable elevation, the two
principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond the British
frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea respectively.
The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge between the
boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of less
than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills
crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both
banks of that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a
mile, with a thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft.
in height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may
probably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the world.
The most extensive exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the
south bank of the Teri Toi. The annual output is about 16,000
tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000. Petroleum springs exude
from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and sulphur abounds
in the northern range. In 1901 the population was 217,865,
showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The frontier tribes
on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and
Turis. All these are described under their separate names. A
railway runs from Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the
river Indus has been bridged at Kushalgarh.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOHAT PASS,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier
Province of India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From
the north side the defile commences at 4½ m. S.W. of Fort
Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m. to the Kohat
entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to 1¼ m. in width,
and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is
inhabited by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British
relations with that tribe have been concerned with this pass,
which is the only connexion between two British districts
without crossing and recrossing the Indus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Afridi</a></span>). It is
now traversed by a cart-road.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOHISTAN,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a tract of country on the Peshawar border of
the North-West Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means
the &ldquo;country of the hills&rdquo; and corresponds to the English word
highlands; but it is specially applied to a district, which is very
little known, to the south and west of Chilas, between the Kagan
valley and the river Indus. It comprises an area of over
1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus,
on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor
Glen and Allai. It consists roughly of two main valleys running
east and west, and separated from each other by a mountain
range over 16,000 ft. high. Like the mountains of Chilas, those
in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky wastes from their crests
downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills are covered with
fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the valleys,
especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under cultivation.
The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and
appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built,
brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British
districts, and have never given the government much trouble.
There is little doubt that the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of
Kafiristan, the remnants of old races driven by Mahommedan
invasions from the valleys and plains into the higher mountains.
The majority have been converted to Islam within the last 200
years. The total population is about 16,000.</p>

<p>An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north
of Kabul in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The
Kohistani Tajiks proved to be the most powerful and the best
organized clans that opposed the British occupation of Kabul
in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly cultivated, abounding
in fruit, and includes many important villages. It is here
that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered
by the amir&rsquo;s officials, which may prove to be the great city
of Alexander&rsquo;s founding, known to be to the north of Kabul,
but which had hitherto escaped identification.</p>

<p>The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren
and hilly country on the east border of Karachi district,
Sind.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOHL.<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest
times in the East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to
increase the lustre of the eyes. It is usually composed of finely
powdered antimony, but smoke black obtained from burnt
almond-shells or frankincense is also used. The Arabic word
<i>ko&#7717;l</i>, from which has been derived &ldquo;alcohol,&rdquo; is derived from
<i>ka&#7717;ala</i>, to stain. (2) &ldquo;Kohl&rdquo; or &ldquo;kohl-rabi&rdquo; (cole-rape, from
Lat. <i>caulis</i>, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (<i>q.v.</i>), with a turnip-shaped
top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOHLHASE, HANS,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a German historical figure about whose
personality some controversy exists. He is chiefly known as
the hero of Heinrich von Kleist&rsquo;s novel, <i>Michael Kohlhaas</i>. He
was a merchant, and not, as some have supposed, a horsedealer,
and he lived at Kölln in Brandenburg. In October 1532, so the
story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at Leipzig, he was
attacked and his horses were taken from him by the servants of
a Saxon nobleman, one Günter von Zaschwitz. In consequence
of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the
fair and on his return he refused to pay the small sum which
Zaschwitz demanded as a condition of returning the horses.
Instead Kohlhase asked for a substantial amount of money as
compensation for his loss, and failing to secure this he invoked
the aid of his sovereign, the elector of Brandenburg. Finding
however that it was impossible to recover his horses, he paid
Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to himself
the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span>
in the courts of law, the merchant, in a <i>Fehdebrief</i>, threw down
a challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony.
Acts of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an
attempt to settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John
Frederick I., set a price upon the head of the angry merchant.
Kohlhase now sought revenge in earnest. Gathering around him
a band of criminals and of desperadoes he spread terror throughout
the whole of Saxony; travellers were robbed, villages were burned
and towns were plundered. For some time the authorities were
practically powerless to stop these outrages, but in March 1540
Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg Nagelschmidt, were
seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken on the
wheel in Berlin.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas.
See Burkhardt, <i>Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists
Michael Kohlhaas</i> (Leipzig, 1864).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOKOMO,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Howard county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indianapolis.
Pop. (1890), 8261; (1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were
foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910 census), 17,010. It is
served by the Lake Erie &amp; Western, the Pittsburg Cincinnati
Chicago &amp; St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis &amp; Western railways,
and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of
trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures,
including flint, plate and opalescent glass, &amp;c. The total value
of the factory product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to
$3,651,105 in 1905, or 77.1%; and in 1905 the glass product
was valued at $864,567, or 23.7% of the total. Kokomo was
settled about 1840 and became a city (under a state law)
in 1865.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOKO-NOR<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kuku-Nor</span>) (<i>Tsing-hai</i> of the Chinese, and
<i>Tso-ngombo</i> of the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at
an altitude of 9975 ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from
the W. frontier of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E.
and 37° N. It lies amongst the eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun,
having the Nan-shan Mountains to the north, and the southern
Koko-nor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It measures 66 m. by
40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of which is a
Buddhist (<i>i.e.</i> Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort.
The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it
often remains frozen for three months together in winter. The
surface is at times subject to considerable variations of level.
The lake is entered on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The
nomads who dwell round its shores are Tanguts.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOKSHAROV, N&#298;KOLAÍ &#298;VANOVICH VON<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1818-1893),
Russian mineralogist and major-general in the Russian army,
was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, on the 5th of December
1818 (<span class="scs">O.S.</span>). He was educated at the military school of mines
in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was selected to
accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards
De Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire.
Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of
mineralogy and mining, and was appointed director of the
Institute of Mines. In 1865 he became director of the Imperial
Mineralogical Society of St Petersburg. He contributed numerous
papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, orthite, monazite and other
mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg and Vienna academies
of science, to Poggendorf&rsquo;s <i>Annalen</i>, Leonhard and Brown&rsquo;s
<i>Jahrbuch</i>, &amp;c. He also issued as separate works <i>Materialen zur
Mineralogie Russlands</i> (10 vols., 1853-1891), and <i>Vorlesungen
über Mineralogie</i> (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the
3rd of January 1893 (<span class="scs">O.S.</span>).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOKSTAD,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand
East, 236 m. by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port
Shepstone, and 150 m. N. of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop.
(1904), 2903, of whom a third were Griquas. The town is built
on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is 4270 ft. above the
sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 ft. An
excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town
is well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings.
It is the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a considerable
trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland,
Pondoland and the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town
is named after the Griqua chief Adam Kok, who founded it in
1869. In 1879 it came into the possession of Cape Colony and
was granted municipal government in 1893. It is the residence
of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span> and
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the
Arctic Ocean on the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms
part of the region of Lapland and belongs administratively to
the government of Archangel. The Arctic coast, known as the
Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of Norman), is 260 m.
long, and being subject to the influence of the North Atlantic
drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky coast,
built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several
excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian government
founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk.
From May to August a productive fishery is carried on along this
coast. Inland the peninsula rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in
general elevation, and crossed by several ranges of low mountains,
which go up to over 3000 ft. in altitude. The lower slopes
of these mountains are clothed with forest up to 1300 ft., and
in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of very considerable
extent, <i>e.g.</i> Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, Nuorti-järvi,
Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue
streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya,
Yovkyok or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and
the Varsuga and Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the
peninsula is estimated at 50,000 sq. m.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, <i>Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel
Kola</i> (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, <i>Bericht einer naturwissenschaftlichen
Reise durch Russisch-Lappland</i> (Helsingfors, 1890);
and W. Ramsay, <i>Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel Kola</i>
(Helsingfors, 1899).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLABA<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Colaba</span>), a district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
605,566, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. The headquarters
are at Alibagh. Lying between the Western Ghats
and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills, some being spurs
running at right angles to the main range, while others are
isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of
about 20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed
by a belt of coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt
lies a stretch of flat country devoted to rice cultivation. In
many places along the banks of the salt-water creeks there are
extensive tracts of salt marshland, some of them reclaimed,
some still subject to tidal inundation, and others set apart for
the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a few
small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the
Nagothna on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the
Bankot creek in the south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming
highways for a brisk trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish.
Near the coast especially, the district is well supplied with
reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two remarkable peaks&mdash;Raigarh,
where Sivaji built his capital, and Miradongar. There
are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value of which
is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication
with Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its
nearness to that city, the district has suffered severely from
plague. Kolaba district takes its name from a little island off
Alibagh, which was one of the strongholds of Angria, the Mahratta
pirate of the 18th century. The same island has given
its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island running
south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba
Point are the terminus of the Bombay &amp; Baroda railway,
barracks for a European regiment, lunatic asylum and
observatory.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLAR,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore.
The town is 43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210.
Although of ancient foundation, it has been almost completely
modernized. Industries include the weaving of blankets and
the breeding of turkeys for export.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span></p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Kolar</span> has an area of 3180 sq. m. It
occupies the portion of the Mysore table-land immediately
bordering the Eastern Ghats. The principal watershed lies
in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug (4810 ft.),
from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole
country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers
are the Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini,
and the Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation
by means of anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are
mostly syenite or granite, with a small admixture of mica and
feldspar. The soil in the valleys consists of a fertile loam; and
in the higher levels sand and gravel are found. The hills are
covered with scrub, jungle and brushwood. In 1901 the
population was 723,600, showing an increase of 22% in the
decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of
the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the
Kolar Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region
began in 1876, and the industry is now settled on a secure
basis. Here are situated the mines of the Mysore, Champion
Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To the end of
1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions sterling,
and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in royalty
to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the
Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has
suffered severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of
the Cauvery (93 m. distant) is utilized as the motive power
in the mines. Sugar manufacture and silk and cotton weaving
are the other principal industries in the district. The chief
historical interest of modern times centres round the hill fort
of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, after
a bombardment of 21 days.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1818-1884),
German chemist, was born on the 27th of September 1818 at
Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838 he began to study
chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant to
R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon
Playfair at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at
Brunswick in editing the <i>Dictionary of Chemistry</i> started by
Liebig, but in the latter year he went to Marburg as successor
to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In 1865 he was called to
Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that city on the
25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the
great development of chemical theory that occurred about
the middle of the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution
of organic compounds, which he viewed as derivatives
of inorganic ones, formed from the latter&mdash;in some cases directly&mdash;by
simple processes of substitution. Unable to accept
Berzelius&rsquo;s doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicals,
he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae
under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland&rsquo;s
conception of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus
contributed in an important degree to the subsequent establishment
of the structure theory. Kolbe was a very successful
teacher, a ready and vigorous writer, and a brilliant experimentalist
whose work revealed the nature of many compounds
the composition of which had not previously been understood.
He published a <i>Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie</i> in 1854, smaller
textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and
<i>Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie</i> in 1881.
From 1870 he was editor of the <i>Journal für praktische Chemie</i>,
in which many trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists
and their doctrines appeared from his pen.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLBERG<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Colberg</span>), a town of Germany, and seaport
of the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the right bank of
the Persante, which falls into the Baltic about a mile below
the town, and at the junction of the railway lines to Belgard
and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a handsome market-place
with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there are
extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Münde.
The principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St
Mary, with five aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in
Pomerania, dating from the 14th century; the council-house
(Rathaus), erected after the plans of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the
citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other churches, a theatre,
a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an exchange. Its
bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract a
considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at
the mouth of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen
cloth, machinery and spirits are manufactured; there is an
extensive salt-mine in the neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon
and lamprey fisheries are important; and a fair amount of
commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a monument was
erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim
Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the
town was saved from the French in 1806-7.</p>

<p>Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places
of Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop,
and although it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal
privileges in 1255. From about 1276 it ranked as the most
important place in the episcopal principality of Kamin, and
from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic League. During
the Thirty Years&rsquo; War it was captured by the Swedes in 1631,
passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Brandenburg,
Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications.
The town was a centre of conflict during the Seven Years&rsquo; War.
In 1758 and again in 1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in
vain, but in 1762 they succeeded in capturing it. Soon restored
to Brandenburg, it was vigorously attacked by the French in
1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long resistance of its
inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town were razed,
and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, receiving
annually nearly 15,000 visitors.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Riemann, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg</i> (Kolberg, 1873);
Stoewer, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg</i> (Kolberg, 1897); Schönlein,
<i>Geschichte der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761
und 1807</i> (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, <i>Führer durch Bad Kolberg</i>
(Kolberg, 1899).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and
orator, was born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of
August 1790. In his fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of
Kazinczy and zealously adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809
Kölcsey went to Pest and became a &ldquo;notary to the royal board.&rdquo;
Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in Szatmár county he
devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry, criticism, and the
defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kölcsey&rsquo;s early metrical
pieces contributed to the <i>Transylvanian Museum</i> did not attract
much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis,
and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very
unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate
poems of great beauty in the <i>Aurora</i>, <i>Hebe</i>, <i>Aspasia</i>, and other
magazines of polite literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new
periodical, styled <i>Élet és literatura</i> (&ldquo;Life and Literature&rdquo;),
which appeared from 1826 to 1829, in 4 vols., and gained for
Kölcsey the highest reputation as a critical writer. From 1832
to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his extreme liberal
views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him famous as a
parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830
a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took
part in its first grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his
famous oration on Kazinczy, and in 1836 that on his former
opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron Wesselényi
was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason,
Kölcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence;
and he died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal
inflammation. His collected works, in 6 vols., were published
at Pest, 1840-1848, and his journal of the diet of 1832-1836
appeared in 1848. A monument erected to the memory of
Kölcsey was unveiled at Szatmár-Németi on the 25th of
September 1864.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See G. Steinacker, <i>Ungarische Lyriker</i> (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874);
F. Toldy, <i>Magyar Költök élete</i> (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and
J. Danielik, <i>Magyar Irók</i> (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLDING,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a town of Denmark in the <i>amt</i> (county) of Vejle, on
the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span>
Little Belt, 9 m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516.
It is on the Eastern railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout
has a depth of over 20 ft. A little to the north-west is the
splendid remnant of the royal castle Koldinghuus, formerly
called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by Duke Abel in
1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was built
by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal
statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian
and historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding
occurs in the 10th century, but its earliest known town-rights
date from 1321. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory
over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of April 1849 of a Danish
defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A comprehensive
view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the mainland,
is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8½ m.
S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to
preserve the Danish language in Schleswig.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLGUEV,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Kolgueff</span> or <span class="sc">Kalguyev</span>, an island off the north-west
of Russia in Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel.
It lies about 50 m. from the nearest point of the mainland,
and is of roughly oval form, 54 m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W.
and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies in a shallow sea, and is
quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. above the sea. Peat-bogs
and grass lands cover the greater part of the surface; there
are several considerable streams and a large number of small lakes.
The island is of recent geological formation; it consists almost
wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the
north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses
of granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other
Arctic animals, geese, swans, &amp;c., provide means of livelihood for
a few Samoyed hunters.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLHAPUR,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a native state of India, within the Deccan
division of Bombay. It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta
principalities, the other three being Baroda, Gwalior and
Indore; and it is the principal state under the political control
of the government of Bombay. Together with its <i>jagirs</i> or
feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 the population
was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur
stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the
plain of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the
Ghats lie wild and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing
little but timber, and till recently covered with rich forests.
The centre of the state is crossed by several lines of low hills running
at right angles from the main range. In the east the
country becomes more open and presents the unpicturesque uniformity
of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken only by an
occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient Mahratta
strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna.
The rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons
burthen, are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is
found in the hills, and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable
extent; but now the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete
with that imported from Europe. There are several good stone
quarries. The principal agricultural products are rice, millets,
sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and vegetables.</p>

<p>The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a
younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta
power. The prevalence of piracy caused the British government
to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in
the early years of the 19th century the misgovernment of the
chief compelled the British to resort to military operations, and
ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the state. In
recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on
the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati,
G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in
1874, and ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption.
The principal institutions are the Rajaram college, the high
school, a technical school, an agricultural school, and training-schools
for both masters and mistresses. The state railway from
Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Southern
Mahratta company. In recent years the state has suffered from
both famine and plague.</p>

<p>The town of <span class="sc">Kolhapur</span>, or <span class="sc">Karvir</span>, is the terminus of a branch
of the Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line.
Pop. (1901), 54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern
public buildings, the town has many evidences of antiquity.
Originally it appears to have been an important religious centre,
and numerous Buddhist remains have been discovered in the
neighbourhood.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLIN,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Neu-Kolin</span> (also <i>Kollin</i>; Czech, <i>Nový Kolín</i>), a
town of Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 15,025, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and
amongst its noteworthy buildings may be specially mentioned
the beautiful early Gothic church of St Bartholomew, erected
during the latter half of the 14th century. The industries of the
town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, and the manufacture
of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The
neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables.
Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here
on the 18th of June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick
the Great were defeated by the Austrians under Daun (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven
Years&rsquo; War</a></span>). The result was the raising of the siege of Prague
and the evacuation of Bohemia by the Prussians. Kolin was
colonized in the 13th century by German settlers and made a
royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and
the German inhabitants who refused to accept &ldquo;the four articles&rdquo;
were expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was
besieged by Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions
at the close of the year.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLIS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin.
Possibly the name is derived from the Turki <i>kuleh</i> a slave; and,
according to one theory, this name has been passed on to the
familiar word &ldquo;cooly&rdquo; for an agricultural labourer. They form
the main part of the inferior agricultural population of Gujarat,
where they were formerly notorious as robbers; but they also
extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 the number
of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3¾ millions; but this
total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in
northern India.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist, was born at Zürich on the 6th of
July 1817. His father and his mother were both Zürich people,
and he in due time married a lady from Aargau, so that Switzerland
can claim him as wholly her own, though he lived the
greater part of his life in Germany. His early education was
carried on in Zürich, and he entered the university there in 1836.
After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn,
and later to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil
of Johannes Müller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philosophy
at Zürich in 1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842.
The first academic post which he held was that of prosector of
anatomy under Henle; but his tenure of this office was brief, for
in 1844 his native city called him back to its university to occupy
a chair as professor extraordinary of physiology and comparative
anatomy. His stay here too, however, was brief, for in 1847 the
university of Würzburg, attracted by his rising fame, offered him
the post of professor of physiology and of microscopical and
comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and at
Würzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting
him to leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where
he died on the 2nd of November 1905.</p>

<p>Kölliker&rsquo;s name will ever be associated with that of the tool
with which during his long life he so assiduously and successfully
worked, the microscope. The time at which he began his studies
coincided with that of the revival of the microscopic investigation
of living beings. Two centuries earlier the great Italian Malpighi
had started, and with his own hand had carried far the
study by the help of the microscope of the minute structure of
animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of knowledge,
though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds forward
until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the
improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and
the promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
of the &ldquo;cell theory&rdquo; on the other, inaugurated a new era of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span>
microscopic investigation. Into this new learning Kölliker threw
himself with all the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his
great teacher Henle, whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went
far at the time to give the new learning a right direction and to
counteract the somewhat fantastic views which, under the name
of the cell theory, were tending to be prominent. Henle&rsquo;s
labours were for the most part limited to the microscopic investigation
of the minute structure of the tissues of man and of
the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with
the view of illustrating the former. But Kölliker had another
teacher besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Müller, whose
active mind was sweeping over the whole animal kingdom,
striving to pierce the secrets of the structure of living creatures
of all sorts, and keeping steadily in view the wide biological
problems of function and of origin, which the facts of structure
might serve to solve. We may probably trace to the influence
of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of the
times, the threefold character of Kölliker&rsquo;s long-continued and
varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the
microscope was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be
solved by means of the instrument belonged now to one branch
of biology, now to another.</p>

<p>At Zürich, and afterwards at Würzburg, the title of the chair
which he held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative
anatomy, and very many of the numerous memoirs which he
published, including the very first paper which he wrote, and
which appeared in 1841 before he graduated, &ldquo;On the Nature of
the so-called Seminal Animalcules,&rdquo; were directed towards
elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure of animals
of the most varied kinds&mdash;that is to say, were zoological in character.
Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae
and allied creatures. His activity in this direction led him to
make zoological excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to
the coasts of Scotland, as well as to undertake, conjointly with
his friend C. T. E. von Siebold, the editorship of the <i>Zeitschrift für
Wissenschaftliche Zoologie</i>, which, founded in 1848, continued
under his hands to be one of the most important zoological
periodicals.</p>

<p>At the time when Kölliker was beginning his career the influence
of Karl Ernst von Baer&rsquo;s embryological teaching was
already being widely felt, men were learning to recognize
the importance to morphological and zoological studies of
a knowledge of the development of animals; and Kölliker
plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of inquiry.
His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his
memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in
1844, is a classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata,
and studied not only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but
also the mammalian embryo. He was among the first, if not the
very first, to introduce into this branch of biological inquiry the
newer microscopic technique&mdash;the methods of hardening, section-cutting
and staining. By doing so, not only was he enabled to
make rapid progress himself, but he also placed in the hands of
others the means of a like advance. The remarkable strides forward
which embryology made during the middle and during the
latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his
name. His <i>Lectures on Development</i>, published in 1861, at once
became a standard work.</p>

<p>But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kölliker&rsquo;s chief
claim to fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he
did still more for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure
of the animal tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It
may indeed be said that there is no fragment of the body of
man and of the higher animals on which he did not leave his mark,
and in more places than one his mark was a mark of fundamental
importance. Among his earlier results may be mentioned the
demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is made
up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he
followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before
this men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and
no solid histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the
action of the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon
to be put forward, and which had such a great influence on the
progress of physiology. By the above discovery Kölliker completed
that basis.</p>

<p>Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions
to histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated
muscle, skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were all
investigated by him; and he touched none of them without
striking out some new truths. The results at which he arrived
were recorded partly in separate memoirs, partly in his great
textbook on microscopical anatomy, which first saw the light
in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less than by
his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our
present knowledge contains something great or small which
we owe to Kölliker; but it is on the nervous system that his
name is written in largest letters. So early as 1845, while still
at Zürich, he supplied what was as yet still lacking, the clear
proof that nerve-fibres are continuous with nerve-cells, and so
furnished the absolutely necessary basis for all sound speculations
as to the actions of the central nervous system. From that
time onward he continually laboured, and always fruitfully,
at the histology of the nervous system, and more especially at the
difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns in which
fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal cord.
In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to
fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched neurological
science with results of the highest value. From his early
days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new
Golgi method for the investigation of the central nervous system,
and, to the great benefit of science, took up once more in his old
age, with the aid of a new means, the studies for which he had
done so much in his youth. It may truly be said that much of
that exact knowledge of the inner structure of the brain, which
is rendering possible new and faithful conceptions of its working,
came from his hands.</p>

<p>Lastly, Kölliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology
as well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours
almost always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched
physiology with the results of direct researches of an experimental
kind, notably those on curare and some other poisons. In fact,
we have to go back to the science of centuries ago to find a man
of science of so many-sided an activity as he. His life constituted
in a certain sense a protest against that specialized differentiation
which, however much it may under certain aspects be regretted,
seems to be one of the necessities of modern development. In
Johannes Müller&rsquo;s days no one thought of parting anatomy and
physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them together.
Kölliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said
himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart.</p>

<p>Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left without
honours. Formerly known simply as Kölliker, the title
&ldquo;von&rdquo; was added to his name. He was made a member of the
learned societies of many countries; in England, which he visited
more than once, and where he became well known, the Royal
Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him its
highest token of esteem, the Copley medal.</p>
<div class="author">(M. F.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLLONTAJ, HUGO<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer,
was born in 1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at
Pinczow and Cracow. After taking orders he went (1770) to
Rome, where he obtained the degree of doctor of theology and
common law, and devoted himself enthusiastically to the study
of the fine arts, especially of architecture and painting. At
Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to Cracow cathedral,
and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself heart and soul
into the question of educational reform. His efforts were impeded
by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as
an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after
his own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785).
Kollontaj next turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was
appointed <i>referendarius</i> of Lithuania, and during the Four Years&rsquo;
Diet (1788-1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity
as one of the reformers of the constitution. He grouped around
him all the leading writers, publicists and progressive young men
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span>
of the day; declaimed against prejudices; stimulated the timid;
inspired the lukewarm with enthusiasm; and never rested till the
constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 had been carried through. In
June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed vice-chancellor. On the
triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the national party,
he secretly placed in the king&rsquo;s hands his adhesion to the triumphant
Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed
at the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to
save something from the wreck of the constitution. He then
emigrated to Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko&rsquo;s insurrection
he returned to Poland, and as member of the national
government and minister of finance took a leading part in affairs.
But his radicalism had now become of a disruptive quality, and
he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko because the
dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only be
saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the
more conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as &ldquo;a
second Robespierre,&rdquo; and he is even suspected of complicity in
the outrages of the 17th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw
mob massacred the political prisoners. On the collapse of the
insurrection Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, where from 1795
to 1802 he was detained as a prisoner. He was finally released
through the mediation of Prince Adam Czartoryski, and returned
to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder of his life was a
ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He died at
Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of his numerous works the most notable are: <i>Political Speeches
as Vice-Chancellor</i> (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); <i>On the Erection
and Fall of the Constitution of May</i> (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris,
1868); <i>Correspondence with T. Czacki</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); <i>Letters
written during Emigration, 1792-1794</i> (Pol.) (Posen, 1872).</p>

<p>See Ignacz Badeni, <i>Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj</i> (Pol.) (Cracow,
1819); Henryk Schmitt, <i>Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj</i>
(Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, &ldquo;Life of Kollontaj&rdquo;
(Pol.) in <i>Tygod Illus.</i> (Warsaw, 1861).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLOMEA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (Polish, <i>Kolomyja</i>), a town of Austria, in Galicia,
122 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half
were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade
in agricultural products. To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the
Dniester, lies the village of Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly
fortified castle, which served as the residence of John Sobieski
during his campaigns against the Turks. Kolomea is a very old
town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the assertion that
it was a Roman settlement under the name of <i>Colonia</i> is not
proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of
Pokutia, and it suffered severely during the 15th and 16th
centuries from the attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLOMNA,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E.
of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolomenka.
Pop. (1897), 20,970. It is an old town, mentioned in
the annals in 1177, and until the 14th century was the capital
of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly from the invasions
of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it four times, as
well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always recovered
and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th
century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons,
ropes and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where
locomotives and wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an
active trade in grain, cattle, tallow, skins, salt and timber. It
has several old churches of great archaeological interest, including
two of the 14th century, one being the cathedral. One gate
(restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the Kreml still survives.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLOZSVÁR<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Klausenburg</i>; Rum. <i>Cluj</i>), a town of
Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs,
and formerly the capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m.
E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is
situated in a picturesque valley on the banks of the Little
Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded
with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town
lies on the right bank of the river, while on the other side is the
so-called Bridge Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715).
Upon the slopes of the citadel hill there is a gipsy quarter.
With the exception of the old quarter, Kolozsvár is generally
well laid out, and contains many broad and fine streets, several
of which diverge at right angles from the principal square.
In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael (1396-1432);
in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias
Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other
noteworthy buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias
Corvinus in 1486 and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in
1622; the house in which Matthias Corvinus was born (1443),
which contains an ethnographical museum; the county and town
halls, a museum, and the university buildings. A feature of
Kolozsvár is the large number of handsome mansions belonging
to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during the winter.
It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the superintendent
of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvár is the
literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat of
numerous literary and scientific associations. It contains a
university (founded in 1872), with four faculties&mdash;theology, philosophy,
law and medicine&mdash;frequented by about 1900 students
in 1905; and amongst its other educational establishments are
a seminary for Unitarian priests, an agricultural college, two
training schools for teachers, a commercial academy, and several
secondary schools for boys and girls. The industry comprises
establishments for the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth,
paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as breweries
and distilleries.</p>

<p>Kolozsvár is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement
named <i>Napoca</i>. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received
its German name of <i>Klausenburg</i>, from the old word Klause,
signifying a &ldquo;mountain pass.&rdquo; Between the years 1545 and
1570 large numbers of the Saxon population left the town in consequence
of the introduction of Unitarian doctrines. In 1798 the
town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As capital of
Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, Kolozsvár
from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national
movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it
was taken and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bem.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOLPINO,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia,
in the government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St
Petersburg, on the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river.
Pop. (1897), 8076. A sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity
church is visited by numerous pilgrims on the 22nd of May
every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the Russian admiralty.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLS,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho
and Oraon tribes of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe
of Dravidian physical type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division,
and numbering 438,000 in 1901. The majority of them are animists
in religion, but Christianity is making rapid strides among
them. The village community in its primitive form still exists
among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression of their
landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of
the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The
Hos, who are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota
Nagpur division; in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were
formerly a very pugnacious race, who successfully defended their
territory against all comers until they were subdued by the
British in the early part of the 19th century, being known as the
Larka (or fighting) Kols. They are still great sportsmen, using
the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, but they
show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos
speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or
Kol.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Imp. Gazetteer of India</i>, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOLYVAÑ.<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government
of Tomsk, on the Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m.
S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It is a wealthy town, the merchants
carrying on a considerable export trade in cattle, hides, tallow,
corn and fish. It was founded in 1713 under the name of Chausky
Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703. (2)
<span class="sc">Kolyvañskiy Zavod</span>, another town of the same government,
in the district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span>
S.E. of Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone-cutting
factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and
breccias are worked into vases, columns, &amp;c. Pop., 5000. (3)
Old name of Reval (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOMÁROM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (Ger., <i>Komorn</i>), the capital of the county of
Komárom, Hungary, 65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1900), 16,816. It is situated at the eastern extremity of the
island Csallóköz or Grosse Schütt, at the confluence of the Waag
with the Danube. Just below Komárom the two arms into
which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse
Schütt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of
Uj-Szöny, which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has
been incorporated with Komárom. The town is celebrated
chiefly for its fortifications, which form the centre of the inland
fortifications of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk
trade in cereals, timber, wine and fish is carried on. Komárom
is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, having received its charter
in 1265. The fortifications were begun by Matthias Corvinus,
and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish wars
(1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly
enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and
1663 it was beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the
dignity of a royal free town in 1751. During the revolutionary
war of 1848-49 Komárom was a principal point of military
operations, and was long unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians,
who on the 11th of July 1849 were defeated there by General
Görgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On the
27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon
honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacuated
by the Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian
national bank was removed here from Vienna in 1866, when that
city was threatened by the Prussians.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOMATI,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an elevation
of about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal,
11 m. W. of the source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N.
and E. direction reaches the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after
a course of some 500 miles. In its upper valley near Steynsdorp
are gold-fields, but the reefs are almost entirely of low grade ore.
The river descends the Drakensberg by a pass 30 m. S. of Barberton,
and at the eastern border of Swaziland is deflected northward,
keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains.
Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 25´ S. it is joined by one of the many
rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as
the Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper
waters of the Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being
turned northward as it reaches the Drakensberg escarpment.
The fall to the low veld is over 2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the
country between the Drakensberg and the Lebombo (100 m.)
there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below the junction of
the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from this
point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain
through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati
Poort, where are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which
marks the frontier between British and Portuguese territory,
the river is less than 60 m. from its mouth in a direct line,
but in crossing the plain it makes a wide sweep of 200 m.,
first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses and backwaters
and receiving from the north several tributaries. In
flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps
with the basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea
15 m. N. of Lourenço Marques. It is navigable from its mouth,
where the water is from 12 to 18 ft. deep, to the foot of the
Lebombo.</p>

<p>The railway from Lourenço Marques to Pretoria traverses the
plain in a direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It
follows the south bank of the river and enters the high country
at Komati Poort. At a small town with the same name, 2 m.
W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of September 1900, during the war
with England, 3000 Boers crossed the frontier and surrendered
to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort westward the
railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river throughout
its length.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOMOTAU<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Chomútov</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria
79 m. N.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost
exclusively German. It has an old Gothic church, and its town-hall
was formerly a commandery of the Teutonic knights. The industrial
establishments comprise manufactories of woollen cloth,
linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, distilleries, vinegar
works and the central workshops of the Buscht&#277;hrad railway.
Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was originally
a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession
of the Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396
it received a town charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both
town and lordship to Wenceslaus IV. On the 16th of March
1421, the town was stormed by the Taborites, sacked and burned.
After several changes of ownership, Komotau came in 1588 to
Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits here, which led
to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the over-lord.
In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town
purchased its freedom and was created a royal city.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOMURA, JUTARO,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), Japanese statesman,
was born in Hiuga. He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and
entered the foreign office in Tokyo in 1884. He served as chargé
d&rsquo;affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister in Seoul, in Washington,
in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the Boxer trouble),
earning in every post a high reputation for diplomatic ability.
In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held it
throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the
subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign
to meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subsequently
the Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions
the Portsmouth treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty
of November in the same year were concluded. For these
services, and for negotiating the second Anglo-Japanese alliance,
he received the Japanese title of count and was made a K.C.B.
by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and
became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to
the embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and
resumed the portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura
cabinet.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONARAK<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kanarak</span>, a ruined temple in India, in the
Puri district of Orissa, which has been described as for its size
&ldquo;the most richly ornamented building&mdash;externally at least&mdash;in
the whole world.&rdquo; It was erected in the middle of the 13th
century, and was dedicated to the sun-god. It consisted of a
tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with a porch in front
140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, elephants, horses, &amp;c.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONG,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> the name of a town, district and range of hills in the
N.W. of the Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills
are part of the band of high ground separating the inner plains
of West Africa from the coast regions. In maps of the first half
of the 19th century the range is shown as part of a great mountain
chain supposed to run east and west across Africa, and is
thus made to appear a continuation of the Mountains of the
Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The culminating
point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft. high.
In general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not
more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The &ldquo;circle
of Kong,&rdquo; one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast
colony, covers 46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some
400,000. The inhabitants are negroes, chiefly Bambara and
Mandingo. About a fourth of the population profess Mahommedanism;
the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of
Kong, situated in 9° N., 4° 20´ W., is not now of great importance.
Probably René Caillié, who spent some time in the western part
of the country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong.
In 1888 Captain L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place
themselves under the protection of France, and in 1893 the
protectorate was attached to the Ivory Coast colony. For a
time Kong was overrun by the armies of Samory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>),
but the capture of that chief in 1898 was followed by the peaceful
development of the district by France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ivory Coast</a></span>).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONGSBERG,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a mining town of Norway in Buskerud <i>amt</i>
(county), on the Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span>
of Christiania by rail. Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception
of the church and the town-house, the buildings are mostly of
wood. The origin and whole industry of the town are connected
with the government silver-mines in the neighbourhood. Their
first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, since which time
they have been worked with varying success. During the 18th
century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained
double its present population. Within the town are situated
the smelting-works, the mint, and a Government weapon factory.
Three miles below the Laagen forms a fine fall of 140 ft.
(Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 ft.) commands
extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from
Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this
district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west
coast.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONIA.<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the
whole, or parts of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia,
Cilicia and Cappadocia. It was formed in 1864 by adding to the
old eyalet of Karamania the western half of Adana, and part of
south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into five sanjaks: Adalia,
Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The population
(990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part
agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-weaving
and the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There
are mines of chrome, mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and
rock salt. The principal exports are salt, minerals, opium,
cotton, cereals, wool and livestock; and the imports cloth-goods,
coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is now traversed by the
Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the Ottoman line
from Smyrna.</p>

<p>(2) The chief town [anc. <i>Iconium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)], altitude 3320 ft.,
situated at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor,
amidst luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their
yellow plums and apricots and watered by streams from the hills.
Pop. 45,000, including 5000 Christians. There are interesting
remains of Seljuk buildings, all showing strong traces of Persian
influence in their decorative details. The principal ruin is that
of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which contained a famous hall.
The most important mosques are the great <i>Tekke</i>, which contains
the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, a mystic (sufi)
poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) dervishes, and
those of his successors, the &ldquo;Golden&rdquo; mosque and those of Ala
ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala
ed-Din I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number
of ancient inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve
gates and were 30 ells in height. The climate is good&mdash;hot in
summer and cold, with snow, in winter. Konia is connected
by railway with Constantinople and is the starting-point of the
extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of Nicaea by the
Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk Sultans
of Rum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seljuks</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turks</a></span>). It was temporarily occupied
by Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely
affected its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I.
(1219-1236) the city was thronged with artists, poets, historians,
jurists and dervishes, driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara
by the advance of the Mongols, and there was a brief period of
great splendour. After the break up of the empire of Rum,
Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of Karamania
and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the Osmanli
empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim
Pasha who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid
Pasha, not far from the walls. It had come to fill only part of
its ancient circuit, but of recent years it has revived considerably,
and, since the railway reached it, has acquired a semi-European
quarter, with a German hotel, cafés and Greek shops, &amp;c.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See W. M. Ramsay, <i>Historical Geography of Asia Minor</i> (1890);
<i>St Paul the Traveller</i> (1895); G. Le Strange, <i>Lands of the E. Caliphate</i>
(1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1591-1646), Polish soldier,
was the most illustrious member of an ancient Polish family
which rendered great services to the Republic. Educated at
the academy of Cracow, he learned the science of war under the
great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied on his Muscovite
campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus Zolkiewski,
whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his first
wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he
took part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated
so disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was
captured and sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close
prisoner for three years. On his return he was appointed commander
of all the forces of the Republic, and at the head of an
army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars at Martynow, following
up this success with fresh victories, for which he received the
thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from the
king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine
against the Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to
check the victorious advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish
historians have too often ignored the fact that Koniecpolski&rsquo;s
superior strategy neutralized all the efforts of the Swedish king,
whom he defeated again and again, notably at Homerstein
(April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the most
part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski
to confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he
was an expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant
post of <i>hetman wielki koronny</i>, or commander in chief of Poland,
and in that capacity routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April
1633) and at Paniawce (April and October 1633), and the Turks,
with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To keep the Cossacks of the
Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of Kudak. As one
of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered severely
from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to
them. Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in
reducing these unruly desperadoes to something like obedience.
In 1644 he once more routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again
in 1646 at Brody. This was his last exploit, for he died the same
year, to the great grief of Wladislaus IV., who had already concerted
with him the plan for a campaign on a grand scale against
the Turks, and relied principally upon the Grand Hetman for its
success. Though less famous than his contemporaries Zolkiehwski
and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their equal as a general,
and his inexorable severity made him an ideal lord-marcher.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See an unfinished biography in the <i>Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw</i> for
1863; Stanislaw Przylenski, <i>Memorials of the Koniecpolskis</i> (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1842).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1832-1901), German physicist,
was born at Königsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832,
and studied at the university of his native town, taking the degree
of Ph.D. About 1852 he went to Paris, and became apprentice
to the famous violin-maker, J. B. Vuillaume, and some six years
later he started business on his own account. He called himself
a &ldquo;maker of musical instruments,&rdquo; but the instruments for
which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which speedily
gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy
and general excellence. From this business König derived his
livelihood for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far
from being a mere tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he
regarded the quality of the articles that left his workshop as a
matter of greater solicitude than the profits they yielded. Acoustical
research was his real interest, and to that he devoted all the
time and money he could spare from his business. An exhibit
which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 gained a gold
medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great admiration
was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture.
This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different
pitches, extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect
means for testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of
vibrations producing any given note and for accurately tuning
any musical instrument. An attempt was made to secure this
apparatus for the university of Pennsylvania, and König was
induced to leave it behind him in America on the assurance that
it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not being
forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great disappointment
and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed
of to the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span>
nucleus for the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer.
While the range of the old apparatus was only between 128 and
4096 vibrations a second, the lowest fork of the new one made
only 16 vibrations a second, while the highest gave a sound too
shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. König will also be
remembered as the inventor and constructor of many other
beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical
problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the
first of which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original
work dealt, among other things, with Wheatstone&rsquo;s sound-figures,
the characteristic notes of the different vowels, manometric
flames, &amp;c.; but perhaps the most important of his researches
are those devoted to the phenomena produced by the interference
of two tones, in which he controverted the views of H. von Helmholtz
as to the existence of summation and difference tones. He
died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1901.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGGRÄTZ<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Hradec Králové</i>), a town and episcopal
see of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 9773, mostly Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very
fertile region called the &ldquo;Golden Road,&rdquo; and contains many
buildings of historical and architectural interest. The cathedral
was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, wife of Wenceslaus II; and the
church of St John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old
castle. The industries include the manufacture of musical
instruments, machinery, colours, and <i>carton-pierre</i>, as well as
gloves and wax candles. The original name of Königgrätz,
one of the oldest settlements in Bohemia, was <i>Chlumec Dobroslavský</i>;
the name <i>Hradec</i>, or &ldquo;the Castle,&rdquo; was given to it when it
became the seat of a count, and <i>Kralove</i>, &ldquo;of the queen&rdquo; (Ger.
<i>Königin</i>), was prefixed when it became one of the dower towns
of the queen of Wenceslaus II., Elizabeth of Poland, who lived
here for thirty years. It remained a dower town till 1620.
Königgrätz was the first of the towns to declare for the national
cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the White
Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left
the place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by
the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down
to make way for the fortifications erected under Joseph II. The
fortress was finally dismantled in 1884. Near Königgrätz took
place, on the 3rd of July 1866, the decisive battle (formerly
called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Weeks&rsquo;
War</a></span>).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGINHOF<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (<i>Dvur Kralove</i> in Czech), the seat of a provincial
district and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern
Bohemia on the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from
Prague. Brewing, corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the
principal industries. Pop. about 11,000. The city is of very
ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia
(1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, and thus
received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen).
During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken
and retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly
within the streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally
defeated by the Prussians on the 29th of June 1866. In the 19th
century Dvur Kralove became widely known as the spot where a
MS. was found that was long believed to be one of the oldest
written documents in the Czech language. In 1817 Wenceslas
Hanka, afterwards for a long period librarian of the Bohemian
museum, declared that he had found in the church tower in the
town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very ancient MS.
containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the
greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed
suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manuscript
of Königinhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently
printed and translated into most European languages. Doubts
as to the genuineness of the document never, however, ceased,
and they became stronger when Hanka was convicted of having
fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A series of works
and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer, Masoryk, and
others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and hardly
any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its genuineness.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvur Kralove
lasted with short interruptions about seventy years, and the
Bohemian works written on the subject would fill a considerable
library. Count Lützow&rsquo;s <i>History of Bohemian Literature</i> gives a
brief account of the controversy.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSBERG<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (Polish <i>Krolewiec</i>), a town of Germany, capital
of the province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank.
Pop. (1880), 140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including
the incorporated suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on
both sides of the Pregel, 4½ m. from its mouth in the Frische
Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on the railway to Eydtkuhnen and
at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit and Kranz. It consists
of three parts, which were formerly independent administrative
units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Löbenicht to the
east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs,
all embraced in a circuit of 9½ miles. The Pregel, spanned by
many bridges, flows through the town in two branches, which
unite below the Grüne Brücke. Its greatest breadth within the
town is from 80 to 90 yards, and it is usually frozen from November
to March. Königsberg does not retain many marks of
antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but the
Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places only
that in the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance.
Among the more interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long
rectangle begun in 1255 and added to later, with a Gothic
tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built in 1592, in which Frederick
I. in 1701 and William I. in 1861 crowned themselves kings of
Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and restored in 1856,
a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining which is
the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence of
the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes
of Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of
Albert I. and of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the
grounds also contain monuments to Frederick I. and William I.
To the east is the Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake
covering 12 acres. The north-west side of the parade-ground is
occupied by the new university buildings, completed in 1865;
these and the new exchange on the south side of the Pregel are
the finest architectural features of the town. The university
(Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., duke
of Prussia, as a &ldquo;purely Lutheran&rdquo; place of learning. It is
chiefly distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical
studies, and possesses a famous observatory, established in
1811 by Frederick William Bessel, a library of about 240,000
volumes, a zoological museum, a botanical garden, laboratories
and valuable mathematical and other scientific collections.
Among its famous professors have been Kant (who was born
here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864),
J. G. von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart.
It is attended by about 1000 students and has a teaching
staff of over 100. Among other educational establishments,
Königsberg numbers four classical schools (gymnasia) and three
commercial schools, an academy of painting and a school of
music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous.
The town is less well equipped with museums and similar institutions,
the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of
antiquities, which is especially rich in East Prussian finds
from the Stone age to the Viking period. Besides the cathedral
the town has fourteen churches.</p>

<p>Königsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order.
The fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed
in 1905, although the place was surrounded by walls in early
times. The works consist of an inner wall, brought into connexion
with an outlying system of works, and of twelve detached
forts, of which six are on the right and six on the left bank of the
Pregel. Between them lie two great forts, that of Friedrichsburg
on an island in the Pregel and that of the Kaserne Kronprinz on
the east of the town, both within the environing ramparts. The
protected position of its harbour has made Königsberg one of the
most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel
has recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles
distant, on the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit
vessels drawing 20 feet of water right up to the quays of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span>
Königsberg, and the result has been to stimulate the trade of
the city. It is protected for a long distance by moles, in which a
break has been left in the Fischhauser Wiek, to permit of freer
circulation of the water and to prevent damage to the mainland.</p>

<p>The industries of Königsberg have made great advances
within recent years, notable among them are printing-works and
manufactures of machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals,
toys, sugar, cellulose, beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and
amber wares. The principal exports are cereals and flour,
cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and oilcake. There are
two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a zoological
garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates
the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the
disastrous year 1806.</p>

<p>The Altstadt of Königsberg grew up around the castle built
in 1255 by the Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II.
King of Bohemia, after whom the place was named. Its first
site was near the fishing village of Steindamm, but after its
destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was rebuilt in its present
position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the two other
parts of the present town&mdash;Löbenicht and Kneiphof&mdash;receiving
them a few years later. In 1340 Königsberg entered the
Hanseatic League. From 1457 it was the residence of the grand
master of the Teutonic Order, and from 1525 till 1618 of the
dukes of Prussia. The trade of Königsberg was much hindered
by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels leading
to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense
harm, but before the end of the 17th century it had almost
recovered.</p>

<p>In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single
town by Frederick William I.</p>

<p>Königsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation
and was occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was
the scene of the deliberations which led to the successful uprising
of Prussia against Napoleon. During the 19th century the
opening of a railway system in East Prussia and Russia gave a
new impetus to its commerce, making it the principal outlet
for the Russian staples&mdash;grain, seeds, flax and hemp. It has
now regular steam communication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel,
Amsterdam and Hull.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Faber, <i>Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Königsberg in Preussen</i>
(Königsberg, 1840); Schubert, <i>Zur 600-jährigen Jubelfeier Königsbergs</i>
(Königsberg, 1855); Beckherrn, <i>Geschichte der Befestigungen Königsbergs</i>
(Königsberg, 1890); H. G. Prutz, <i>Die königliche Albertus-Universität
zu Königsberg im 19 Jahrhundert</i> (Königsberg, 1894);
Armstedt, <i>Geschichte der königlichen Haupt- und Residenzstadt
Königsberg</i> (Stuttgart, 1899); M. Schultze, <i>Königsberg und Ostpreussen
zu Anfang 1813</i> (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, <i>Wegweiser durch
Königsberg</i> (Königsberg, 1904).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSBORN,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of
which it practically forms a suburb. It has large saltworks,
producing annually over 15,000 tons. The brine springs, in
connexion with which there is a hydropathic establishment,
have a temperature of 93° F., and are efficacious in skin
diseases, rheumatism and scrofula.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Wegele, <i>Bad Königsborn und seine Heilmittel</i> (Essen, 1902).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSHÜTTE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and
iron district, 3 m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of
Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495; (1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,919.
In 1869 it was incorporated with various neighbouring villages,
and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two Protestant
and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and
benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is
situated at Königshütte, and includes puddling works, rolling-mills,
and zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in
the hands of government, but is now carried on by a company.
There are also manufactures of bricks and glass and a trade in
wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the population of the town
consists of Poles.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Mohr, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Königshütte</i> (Königshütte, 1890).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSLUTTER,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
on the Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to
Eisleben and Magdeburg. Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an
Evangelical church, a castle and some interesting old houses.
Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery, paper and beer.
Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey founded in
1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed,
are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and
of his son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> <span class="sc">Countess of</span> (1662-1728),
mistress of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of
Poland, belonged to a noble Swedish family, and was born on
the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some years at Hamburg,
where she attracted attention both by her beauty and her talents,
Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her
brother Philipp Christoph, count of Königsmark, who had
suddenly and mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here
she was noticed by Augustus, who made her his mistress; and
in October 1696 she gave birth to a son Maurice, afterwards the
famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however quickly tired
of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure the
position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with
it the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the
lost inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made
coadjutor abbess and lady-provost (<i>Pröpstin</i>) of Quedlinburg,
but lived mainly in Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702
she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles XII. of Sweden on
behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended in
failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as &ldquo;the
most famous woman of two centuries,&rdquo; died at Quedlinburg on
the 16th of February 1728.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. Cramer, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten der Gräfin M. A. Königsmark</i>
(Leipzig, 1836); and <i>Biographische Nachrichten von der Gräfin M. A.
Königsmark</i> (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, <i>Aurora Königsmark
und ihre Verwandte</i> (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pöllnitz,
<i>La Saxe galante</i> (Amsterdam, 1734); and O. J. B. von Corvin-Wiersbitzki,
<i>Maria Aurora, Gräfin von Königsmark</i> (Rudolstadt,
1902).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1665-1694),
was a member of a noble Swedish family, and is chiefly
known as the lover of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the English king
George I. then electoral prince of Hanover. Born on the 14th of
March 1665, Königsmark was a brother of the countess noticed
above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of Europe
he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover.
Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted
her in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover.
Regarded, rightly or wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he
was seized, and disappeared from history, probably by assassination,
on the 1st of July 1694. One authority states that
George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; but this
statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely
opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely
certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue
with Königsmark, as it is probable that the letters which
purport to have passed between the pair are forgeries. The
question of her guilt or innocence, however, has been and still
remains a fruitful and popular subject for romance and
speculation.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Briefwechsel des Grafen Königsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie
Dorothea von Celle</i>, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847);
A. Köcher, &ldquo;Die Prinzessin von Ahlden,&rdquo; in the <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>
(Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, <i>The Love of an
Uncrowned Queen</i> (London, 1900).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSSEE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany,
in the kingdom of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about
2½ m. S. from Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a
length of 5 m., and a breadth varying from 500 yards to a little
over a mile, and attains a maximum depth of 600 ft. The
Königssee is the most beautiful of all the lakes in the German
Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an altitude of
6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the green
waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span>
country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the
lake is a chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bartholomew&rsquo;s
Day. Separated by a narrow strip of land from
the Königssee is the Obersee, a smaller lake.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSTEIN,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the
influx of the Biela, in the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m.
S.E. of Dresden by the railway to Bodenbach and Testchen.
It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a monument
to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small manufactures
of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons.
It is chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately
to the north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock
rising abruptly from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the
Elbe lies the Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified.
The fortress of Königstein was probably a Slav stronghold as
early as the 12th century, but it is not mentioned in chronicles
before the year 1241, when it was a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it
passed to the margraves of Meissen and by the treaty of Eger
in 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. About
1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as
a <i>point d&rsquo;appui</i> against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the
phrase frequently employed by historians that Königstein is
&ldquo;the key to Bohemia.&rdquo; As a fact, the main road from Dresden
into that country lies across the hills several miles to the south-west,
and the fortress has exercised little, if any, influence in
strategic operations, either during the middle ages or in modern
times. It was further strengthened under the electors Christian
I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, the
last of whom completed it in its present form. During the
Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of
refuge for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in
1849, during the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to
the King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers.
It was occupied by the Prussians in 1867, who retained possession
of it until the peace of 1871. It is garrisoned by detachments
of several Saxon infantry regiments, and serves as a
treasure house for the state and also as a place of detention for
officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A remarkable
feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to a
depth of 470 ft.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Klemm, <i>Der Königstein in alter und neuer Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1905);
and Gautsch, <i>Aelteste Geschichte der sächsischen Schweiz</i> (Dresden,
1880).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖNIGSWINTER,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town and summer resort of Germany, in
the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine,
24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main,
at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop. (1905), 3944. The romantic
Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins of a castle built
early in the 12th century by the archbishop of Cologne, rises
behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a funicular
railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron
in <i>Childe Harold&rsquo;s Pilgrimage</i>. A cave in the hill is said to
have sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried.
The mountain is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone
(trachyte) for the building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of
Drachenburg, built in 1883, is on the north side of the hill.
Königswinter has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church,
some small manufactures and a little shipping. It has a monument
to the poet, Wolfgang Müller. Near the town are the
ruins of the abbey of Heisterbach.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1809-1887), Belgian
palaeontologist and chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of
May 1809. He studied medicine in the university of his native
town, and in 1831 he became assistant in the chemical schools.
He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin and Giessen,
and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at Ghent
and Liége. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in
the Liége University, and he retained this post until the close
of his life. About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure
to the investigation of the Carboniferous fossils around Liége,
and ultimately he became distinguished for his researches on
the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic rocks, and especially for his
descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods, crustacea and crinoids
of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In recognition of
this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875 by
the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Liége. He died at Liége on the
16th of July 1887.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Éléments de chimie inorganique</i> (1839); <i>Description
des animaux fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifère
de Belgique</i> (1842-1844, supp. 1851); <i>Recherches sur les animaux
fossiles</i> (1847, 1873). See <i>Notice sur L. G. de Koninck</i>, by E. Dupont;
<i>Annuaire de l&rsquo;Acad. roy. de Belgique</i> (1891), with portrait and
bibliography.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KONINCK, PHILIP DE<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> [de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening]
(1619-1688), Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam
in 1619. Little is known of his history, except that he was a
pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence is to be seen in all his
work. He painted chiefly broad sunny landscapes, full of
space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, somewhat in
the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of
these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his
landscapes the principal are &ldquo;Vue de l&rsquo;embouchure d&rsquo;une
rivière,&rdquo; at the Hague; a slightly larger replica is in the National
Gallery, London; &ldquo;Lisière d&rsquo;un bois,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Paysage&rdquo; (with
figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; and landscapes in
Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne.</p>

<p>Several of his works have been falsely attributed to
Rembrandt, and many more to his namesake and fellow-townsman
<span class="sc">Salomon de Koninck</span> (1609-1656), who was also a
disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist
mainly of portraits and biblical scenes.</p>

<p>Both these painters are to be distinguished from <span class="sc">David de
Koninck</span> (1636-?1687), who is also known as &ldquo;Rammelaar.&rdquo;
He was born in Antwerp. He studied there under Jan Fyt, and
later settled in Rome, where he is stated to have died in 1687;
this is, however, doubtful. His pictures are chiefly landscapes
with animals, and still-life.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONITZ,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia,
at the junction of railways to Schneidemühl and Gnesen, 68 m.
S.W. of Danzig. Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded
by its old fortifications, has two Evangelical and two Roman
Catholic churches, a new town-hall, handsome public offices,
and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills, electrical works,
and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first fortified post
established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had been
commissioned as <i>Landmeister</i>, by the grand-master of the
Teutonic order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long
time it continued to be a place of military importance.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Uppenkamp, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Konitz</i> (Konitz, 1873).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONKAN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Concan</span>, a maritime tract of Western India,
situated within the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and
extending from the Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S.
to the territory of Daman, belonging to the same nation, on
the N. On the E. it is bounded by the Western Ghats, and on
the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises the three
British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the native
states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at
300 m. in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From
the mountains on its eastern frontier, which in one place attain
a height of 4700 ft., the surface, marked by a succession of
irregular hilly spurs from the Ghats, slopes to the westward,
where the mean elevation of the coast is not more than 100 ft.
above the level of the sea. Several mountain streams, but none
of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same direction.
One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is the violence
of the monsoon rains&mdash;the mean annual fall at Mahabaleshwar
amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general
outline, but is much broken into small bays and harbours.
This, with the uninterrupted view along the shore, and the
land and sea breezes, which force vessels steering along the
coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this country
from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span>
had the pirates become in the 18th century, that all ships
suffered which did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The
Great Mogul maintained a fleet for the express purpose of
checking them, and they were frequently attacked by the
Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional
expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not
finally extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has
given its name to a dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular
of the Roman Catholics of Goa.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KONTAGORA,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a province in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria, on the east bank of the Niger to the north
of Nupe and opposite Borgu. It is bounded W. by the Niger,
S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of Zaria, and N. by that
of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a population
estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British occupation
of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate.
Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864,
the ancient pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important
of the lesser kingdoms which occupied this territory. The
Fula conquest was made from Nupe on the south and a tribe
of independent and warlike pagans continued to hold the
country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The
province was brought under British domination in 1901 as the
result of a military expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-raiding
in British protected territory and of threats directed
against the British military station of Jebba on the Niger. The
town of Kontagora was taken in January of 1901. The emir
Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. The
province, after having been held for a time in military occupation,
was organized for administration on the same system as
the rest of the protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing
to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and to accept
the usual conditions of appointment, which include the abolition
of the slave trade within the province, was reinstated as emir
and the British garrison was withdrawn. Since then the development
of the province has progressed favourably. Roads
have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with
headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been
established at the British headquarters, and native courts in
every district. In 1904 an expedition reduced to submission
the hitherto independent tribes in the northern belt, who had
up to that time blocked the road to Sokoto. Their arms were
confiscated and their country organized as a district of the
province under a chief and a British assistant resident.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOORINGA<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Burra</span>], a town of Burra county, South Australia
on Burra Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901),
1994. It is the centre of a mining and agricultural district in
which large areas are devoted to wheat-growing. The famous
Burra Burra copper mine, discovered by a shepherd in 1844, is
close to the town, while silver and lead ore is also found in the
vicinity.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖPENICK<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cöpenick</span>), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E.
from Berlin by the railway to Fürstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721.
It contains a royal residence, which was built on the site of a
palace which belonged to the great elector, Frederick William.
This is surrounded by gardens and contains a fine banqueting
hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a Roman Catholic and a
Protestant church and a teachers&rsquo; seminary. The varied industries
embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, sealing-wax
and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important dye-works.</p>

<p>Köpenick, which dates from the 12th century, received
municipal rights in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the
bone of contention between Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at
the issue of the feud, remained with the former, becoming a
favourite residence of the electors of Brandenburg. In the
palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, which condemned
the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame
from the daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who,
attired as a captain in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom
his apparent rank deceived, took the mayor prisoner, on a
fictitious charge of having falsified accounts and absconded with
a considerable sum of municipal money. The &ldquo;captain of
Köpenick&rdquo; was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of
imprisonment.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Graf zu Dohna, <i>Kurfürstliche Schlösser in der Mark Brandenburg</i>
(Berlin, 1890).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOPISCH, AUGUST<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1799-1853), German poet, was born at
Breslau on the 26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study
of painting at the Prague academy, but an injury to his hand
precluded the prospects of any great success in this profession,
and he turned to literature. After a residence in Dresden
Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at Naples, he
formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of
Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality
which enabled him in company with Ernst Fries to discover the
blue grotto of Capri. In 1828 he settled at Berlin and was
granted a pension by Frederick William IV., who in 1838 conferred
upon him the title of professor. He died at Berlin on the
3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original
poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated
legends and popular subjects, and among his <i>Gedichte</i> (Berlin,
1836) are some naïve and humorous little pieces such as <i>Die
Historie von Noah</i>, <i>Die Heinzelmännchen</i>, <i>Das grüne Tier</i> and
<i>Der Scheiderjunge von Krippstedt</i>, which became widely
popular. He also published a translation of Dante&rsquo;s <i>Divine
Comedy</i> (Berlin, 1840), and under the title <i>Agrumi</i> (Berlin, 1838)
a collection of translations of Italian folk songs.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Kopisch&rsquo;s collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.)</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1817-1892), German
chemist, was born on the 30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where
his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777-1858), a physician, was
professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the
Lyceum.</p>

<p>After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied
at Marburg and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of
Liebig, went in 1839 to Giessen, where he became a <i>privatdozent</i>
in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years later. In 1864
he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, and he remained
there till his death on the 20th of February 1892. Kopp
devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, and in
the history of chemical theory his name is associated with several
of the most important correlations of the physical properties of
substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his work
was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he
set forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two
years of age; and the principles he established have formed the
basis of subsequent investigations in that subject, although his
results have in some cases undergone modification. Another
question to which he gave much attention was the connexion of
the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in particular, with
their composition. In addition to these and other laborious
researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-1847 he published
a comprehensive <i>History of Chemistry</i>, in four volumes, to which
three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The <i>Development
of Chemistry in Recent Times</i> appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886
he published a work in two volumes on <i>Alchemy in Ancient and
Modern Times</i>. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and
physical chemistry for the Graham-Otto <i>Lehrbuch der Chemie</i>,
and for many years assisted Liebig in editing the <i>Annalen der
Chemie</i> and the <i>Jahresbericht</i>.</p>

<p>He must not be confused with <span class="sc">Emil Kopp</span> (1817-1875), who,
born at Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of
toxicology and chemistry at the École supérieure de Pharmacie
at Strasburg, in 1849 professor of physics and chemistry at
Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a Turkey-red factory near Manchester,
in 1868 professor of technology at Turin, and finally, in
1871, professor of technical chemistry at the Polytechnic of
Zürich, where he died in 1875.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOPRÜLÜ,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kuprili</span> (Bulgarian <i>Valésa</i>, Greek <i>Vélissa</i>), a
town of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span>
situated 600 ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the
Salonica-Mitrovitza railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905),
about 22,000. Koprülü has a flourishing trade in silk; maize
and mulberries are cultivated in the neighbourhood. The Greek
and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt forms of the
ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city of
Paeonia.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORA,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cora</span>, an ancient town of Northern India, in the
Fatehpur district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806.
As the capital of a Mahommedan province, it gave its name to
part of the tract (with Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the
titular Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, in 1765.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORAN.<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> The Koran (Kor&rsquo;án) is the sacred Book of Islam,
on which the religion of more than two hundred millions of
Mahommedans is founded, being regarded by them as the
immediate word of God. And since the use of the Koran in
public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more extensive
than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian
countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read
book in existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give
it an urgent claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and
fall in with our religious and philosophical views or not. Besides,
it is the work of Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue
to the spiritual development of that most successful of all prophets
and religious personalities. It must be owned that the
first perusal leaves on a European an impression of chaotic
confusion&mdash;not that the book is so very extensive, for it is not
quite as large as the New Testament. This impression can in
some degree be modified only by the application of a critical
analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition.</p>

<p>To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the
word of God, and such also is the claim which the book itself
advances. For except in sur. i.&mdash;which is a prayer for men&mdash;and
some few passages where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii. 8)
or the angels (xix. 65; xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person
without the intervention of the usual imperative &ldquo;say&rdquo; (sing. or
pl.), the speaker throughout is God, either in the first person
singular or more commonly the plural of majesty &ldquo;we.&rdquo; The
same mode of address is familiar to us from the prophets of the
Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the moment
of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the
greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the
unassuming human &ldquo;I&rdquo;; while in the Koran the divine &ldquo;I&rdquo; is
the stereotyped form of address. Mahomet, however, really felt
<span class="sidenote">Mahomet&rsquo;s View of Revelation.</span>
himself to be the instrument of God; this consciousness
was no doubt brighter at his first appearance
than it afterwards became, but it never
entirely forsook him. Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-faith,
not even in the cases in which the moral quality of his
actions leaves most to be desired. In spite of all, the dominant
fact remains, that to the end he was zealous for his God and for
the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of humanity, and
that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his divine
mission.</p>

<p>The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as
follows: In heaven is the original text (&ldquo;the mother of the
book,&rdquo; xliii. 3; &ldquo;a concealed book,&rdquo; lv. 77; &ldquo;a well-guarded
tablet,&rdquo; lxxxv. 22). By the process of &ldquo;sending down&rdquo; (<i>tanzíl</i>),
one piece after another was communicated to the Prophet. The
mediator was an angel, who is called sometimes the &ldquo;Spirit&rdquo;
(xxvi. 193), sometimes the &ldquo;holy Spirit&rdquo; (xvi. 104), and at a later
time &ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo; (only in ii. 91, 92; lxvi. 4). This angel dictates
the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him, and afterwards
proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6, &amp;c.). It is plain that
we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to represent
to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his
ideas arose and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no
wonder if in such confused imagery the details are not always
self-consistent. When, for example, this heavenly archetype is
said to be in the hands of &ldquo;exalted scribes&rdquo; (lxxx. 13 sqq.),
this seems a transition to a quite different set of ideas, namely,
the books of fate, or the record of all human actions&mdash;conceptions
which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be observed, at
all events, that Mahomet&rsquo;s transcendental idea of God, as a Being
exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of
direct intercourse between the Prophet and God.</p>

<p>It is an explicit statement of the Koran that the sacred book
was revealed (&ldquo;sent down&rdquo;) by God, not all at once, but piecemeal
and gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident
from the actual composition of the book, and is
<span class="sidenote">Component Parts of the Koran.</span>
confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say,
Mahomet issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less
extent. A single piece of this kind was called either, like the
entire collection, <i>kor&rsquo;&#257;n</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;recitation,&rdquo; &ldquo;reading,&rdquo; or, better
still, is the equivalent of Aramaic <i>gery&#257;n&#257;</i> &ldquo;lectionary&rdquo;; or <i>kit&#257;b</i>,
&ldquo;writing&rdquo;; or <i>s&#363;ra</i>, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew <i>sh&#363;r&#257;</i>,
and means literally &ldquo;series.&rdquo; The last became, in the lifetime
of Mahomet, the regular designation of the individual sections
as distinguished from the whole collection; and accordingly it is
the name given to the separate chapters of the existing Koran.
These chapters are of very unequal length. Since many of the
shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in themselves, it is natural
to assume that the longer, which are sometimes very comprehensive,
have arisen from the amalgamation of various originally
distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the numerous
traditions which give us the circumstances under which this
or that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was
revealed; and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in
the present s&#363;ras often seems to be interrupted. And in reality
many pieces of the long s&#363;ras have to be severed out as originally
independent; even in the short ones parts are often found which
cannot have been there at first. At the same time we must
beware of carrying this sifting operation too far,&mdash;as Nöldeke
now believes himself to have done in his earlier works, and as
Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some s&#363;ras were of
considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii.,
which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph,
and then a few concluding observations, and is therefore perfectly
homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly
occupied with the history of Moses, forms a complete whole.
The same is true of xviii., which at first sight seems to fall into
several pieces; the history of the seven sleepers, the grotesque
narrative about Moses, and that about Alexander &ldquo;the Horned,&rdquo;
are all connected together, and the same rhyme through the
whole s&#363;ra. Even in the separate narrations we may observe
how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how
little care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and
how frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispensable.
We are not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the
connexion in the Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken,
and set it down as the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even
in the old Arabic poetry such abrupt transitions are of very
frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon for the Koran, after
a new subject has been entered on, to return gradually or suddenly
to the former theme,&mdash;a proof that there at least separation
is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the
Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the
present s&#363;ras are identical with the originals.</p>

<p>How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet&rsquo;s mind is a
question which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to
analyse the workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career,
sometimes perhaps in its later stages also, many revelations must
have burst from him in uncontrollable excitement, so that he
could not possibly regard them otherwise than as divine inspirations.
We must bear in mind that he was no cold systematic
thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass superstition,
and without intellectual discipline; a man whose nervous
temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic austerities,
and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he
encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature.
Filled with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy
he heard the angel bidding him recite what was said to him.
There may have been many a revelation of this kind which no one
ever heard but himself, as he repeated it to himself in the silence
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span>
of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed the Koran itself admits that he
forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7). But by far the greatest
part of the book is undoubtedly the result of deliberation, touched
more or less with emotion, and animated by a certain rhetorical
rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based upon purely
intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet occasionally
uttered such a passage immediately after one of those epileptic
fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) he himself
also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher powers.
If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick was
in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself.</p>

<p>How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is
uncertain. Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never
wrote down anything. The question whether he
could read and write has been much debated
<span class="sidenote">The Koran Written.</span>
among Moslems, unfortunately more with dogmatic
arguments and spurious traditions than authentic proofs.
At present one is inclined to say that he was not altogether
ignorant of these arts, but that from want of practice he found
it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had anything
to write. After the migration to Medina (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 622) we are told
that short pieces&mdash;chiefly legal decisions&mdash;were taken down
immediately after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he
summoned for the purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of
their publication. Hence it is probable that in Mecca, where
the art of writing was commoner than in Medina, he had already
begun to have his oracles committed to writing. That even long
portions of the Koran existed in written form from an early date
may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; especially
from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions
to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations.
For we cannot suppose that he knew the longer s&#363;ras by heart so
perfectly that he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any
particular passage. In some instances, indeed, he may have
relied too much on his memory. For example, he seems to have
occasionally dictated the same s&#363;ra to different persons in slightly
different terms. In such cases, no doubt, he may have partly
intended to introduce improvements; and so long as the difference
was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it
could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had
literary pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine
revelation on that ground. In particular instances, however,
the difference of reading was too important to be overlooked.
Thus the Koran itself confesses that the unbelievers cast it up
as a reproach to the Prophet that God sometimes substituted one
verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, when a dispute
arose between two of his own followers as to the true reading of
a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself,
Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed
in seven forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands,
of course, as in many other cases, for an indefinite but limited
number. But one may imagine what a world of trouble it has
cost the Moslem theologians to explain the saying in accordance
with their dogmatic beliefs. A great number of explanations
are current, some of which claim the authority of the Prophet
himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play
throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran.
One very favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that
the &ldquo;seven forms,&rdquo; are seven different Arabic dialects.</p>

<p>When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet
it was doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts
should be considered authentic; only he never gave
himself much trouble to have his wish carried into
<span class="sidenote">Abrogated Readings.</span>
effect. Although in theory he was an upholder
of verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme
consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things
so strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes,
however, he did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining
his followers to efface or forget them, and declaring them to be
&ldquo;abrogated.&rdquo; A very remarkable case is that of the two verses
in liii., when he had recognized three heathen goddesses as
exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This had occurred
in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, which
yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his fellow-countrymen.
This object he achieved, but soon his conscience
smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspiration
of Satan.</p>

<p>So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different
when we come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the
Moslems, which often occurs in the Koran. There
is nothing in this at variance with Mahomet&rsquo;s idea
<span class="sidenote">Abrogated Laws.</span>
of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who
declares a thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but
by his arbitrary fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure,
prescribes one law for the Christians, another for the Jews, and
a third for the Moslems; nay, he even changes his instructions
to the Moslems when it pleases him. Thus, for example, the
Koran contains very different directions, suited to varying
circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to receive
at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to
have these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could
be in no uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages
remained in force; and they might still find edification in that
which had become obsolete. That later generations might not
so easily distinguish the &ldquo;abrogated&rdquo; from the &ldquo;abrogating&rdquo;
did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally enough,
seldom extended to the future of his religious community.
Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations.
In Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe
how often God gave them the answer to a question whose settlement
was urgently required at the moment. The same näiveté
appears in a remark of the Caliph Othman about a doubtful
case: &ldquo;If the Apostle of God were still alive, methinks there had
been a Koran passage revealed on this point.&rdquo; Not unfrequently
the divine word was found to coincide with the advice which
Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples. &ldquo;Omar
was many a time of a certain opinion,&rdquo; says one tradition, &ldquo;and
the Koran was then revealed accordingly.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely
varied. Many passages consist of theological or moral reflections.
We are reminded of the greatness, the
goodness, the righteousness of God as manifested
<span class="sidenote">Contents of the Koran.</span>
in Nature, in history, and in revelation through
the prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified
as the One, the All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of
created beings, such as the worship of Christ as the Son of
God, are unsparingly condemned. The joys of heaven and
the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous imagery, as is also
the terror of the whole creation at the advent of the last day and
the judgment of the world. Believers receive general moral
instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The
lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible
punishment, both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the
truth of Islam is held forth; and a certain, not very cogent,
method of demonstration predominates. In many passages the
sacred book falls into a diffuse preaching style, others seem more
like proclamations or general orders. A great number contain
ceremonial or civil laws, or even special commands to individuals
down to such matters as the regulation of Mahomet&rsquo;s harem.
In not a few definite questions are answered which had actually
been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels.
Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions,
and does not escape an occasional rebuke. One s&#363;ra (i.) is a
prayer, two (cxiii. cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many s&#363;ras treat
of a single topic, others embrace several.</p>

<p>From the mass of material comprised in the Koran&mdash;and the
account we have given is far from exhaustive&mdash;we should select
the histories of the ancient prophets and saints
as possessing a peculiar interest. The purpose of
<span class="sidenote">Narratives.</span>
Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former
times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies.
For the most part the old prophets only serve to introduce
a little variety in point of form, for they are almost in every
case facsimiles of Mahomet himself. They preach exactly like
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span>
him, they have to bring the very same charges against their
opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the unbelieving
inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make
Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned
by name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet&rsquo;s time.
In an address which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq.),
the reader quite forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet
(or God himself), who is speaking. Other narratives are intended
rather for amusement, although they are always well seasoned
with edifying phrases. It is no wonder that the godless Korrishites
thought these stories of the Koran not nearly so entertaining
as those of Rostam and Ispandi&#257;r, related by Na&#7693;r the
son of &#7716;&#257;rith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys
on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But
the Prophet was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Na&#7693;r
fell into his power after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be
executed; although in all other cases he readily pardoned his
fellow-countrymen.</p>

<p>These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, especially
those of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the
Biblical narratives are very marked. Many of the
alterations are found in the legendary anecdotes
<span class="sidenote">Relation to the Old and New Testaments.</span>
of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament
Apocrypha; but many more are due perhaps to
misconceptions such as only a listener (not the reader of a book)
could fall into. One would suppose that the most ignorant Jew
could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus,
for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified
Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary (= Mari&#257;m), the mother
of Christ. So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance
with Arab Judaism and Christianity, we must always reckon
with the possibility that many of these mistakes were due to
adherents of these religions who were his authorities, or were a
naïve reproduction of versions already widely accepted by his
contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there are
sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due
to Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of everything
out of Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt&mdash;where rain
is almost never seen and never missed&mdash;depend on rain instead
of the inundations of the Nile (xii. 49).</p>

<p>It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed
from Jews or Christians, since the romance of Alexander belonged
to the stereotyped literature of that age. The description
of Alexander as &ldquo;the Horned&rdquo; in the Koran is, however, in
accordance with the result of recent researches, to be traced to a
Syrian legend dating from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 514-515 (Th. Nöldeke, &ldquo;Beiträge
zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes&rdquo; in <i>Denkschriften Akad. Wien</i>,
vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &amp;c.). According to this, God caused
horns to grow on Alexander&rsquo;s head to enable him to overthrow
all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable, as
Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which
Alexander is represented with the ram&rsquo;s horns of Ammon.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
Besides Jewish and Christian histories there are a few about old
Arabian prophets. In these he seems to have handled his
materials even more freely than in the others.</p>

<p>The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did
not make use of written sources. Coincidences and divergences
alike can always be accounted for by oral communications from
Jews who knew a little and Christians who knew next to nothing.
Even in the rare passages where we can trace direct resemblances
to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi. 105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29;
i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 11) or the New (cf. vii. 48 with Luke
xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more than
might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew
or Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of becoming
acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some
things out of the Mishna, <i>e.g.</i> v. 35 corresponds almost word for
word with Mishna <i>Sanhedrin</i> iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with
Mishna <i>Berak&rsquo;hoth</i> i. 2. That these are only cases of oral communication
will be admitted by any one with the slightest knowledge
of the circumstances. Otherwise we might even conclude
that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; <i>e.g.</i> the regulation as to
ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be obtained
(iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (<i>Berak&rsquo;hoth</i> 15 <i>a</i>).
Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even
in Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institution
of the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly
improbable that before the Koran any real literary production&mdash;anything
that could be strictly called a book&mdash;existed in the
Arabic language.</p>

<p>In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the
Koran are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical
reader will certainly find very few passages where
his aesthetic susceptibilities are thoroughly satisfied.
<span class="sidenote">Style.</span>
But he will often be struck, especially in the older pieces,
by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, imagination.
Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God&rsquo;s working
in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic
power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and
impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such
strains of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The
greater part of the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed
is stiff in style. Of course, with such a variety of material, we
cannot expect every part to be equally vivacious, or imaginative,
or poetic. A decree about the right of inheritance, or a point
of ritual, must necessarily be expressed in prose, if it is to be
intelligible. No one complains of the civil laws in Exodus or the
sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because they want the fire of Isaiah
or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But Mahomet&rsquo;s mistake
consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the semi-poetic
form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his own
taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme
in dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces
the disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter.
It has to be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing
pieces which are so tedious to us, especially when we read two
or three in succession (perhaps in a very inadequate translation),
must have had a quite different effect when recited under the
burning sky and on the barren soil of Mecca. There, thoughts
about God&rsquo;s greatness and man&rsquo;s duty, which are familiar to us
from childhood, were all new to the hearers&mdash;it is hearers we
have to think of in the first instance, not readers&mdash;to whom, at
the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes
our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord
in creating the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless
desert, and pouring them out on the earth to restore its rich
vegetation, that must have been a picture of thrilling interest
to the Arabs, who are accustomed to see from three to five
years elapse before a copious shower comes to clothe the wilderness
once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an effort
for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the
intensity of that impression.</p>

<p>The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially
numerous in the earlier s&#363;ras, enables us to understand why the
prosaic mercantile community of Mecca regarded
their eccentric townsman as a &ldquo;poet,&rdquo; or even a
<span class="sidenote">Rhetorical Form and Rhyme.</span>
&ldquo;possessed poet.&rdquo; Mahomet himself had to
disclaim such titles, because he felt himself to be a divinely
inspired prophet; but we too, from our standpoint, shall fully
acquit him of poetic genius. Like many other predominantly
religious characters, he had no appreciation of poetic beauty;
and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a time when
every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most elementary
rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not poetical
but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions produce
on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the
sacred book has not even the artistic form of poetry; which,
among the Arabs, includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme.
The Koran is never metrical, and only a few exceptionally
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span>
eloquent portions fall into a sort of spontaneous rhythm. On
the other hand, the rhyme is regularly maintained; although,
especially in the later pieces, after a very slovenly fashion.
Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among the
Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a
certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole
a burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed
that the tyranny of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in
derangement of the order of words, and in the choice of verbal
forms which would not otherwise have been employed; <i>e.g.</i> an
imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to save the rhyme,
he calls Mount Sinai <i>S&#299;n&#299;n</i> (xcv. 2) instead of <i>S&#299;n&#257;</i> (xxiii. 20);
in another Elijah is called <i>Ily&#257;s&#299;n</i> (xxxvii. 130) instead of <i>Ily&#257;s</i>
(vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit
exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have
fixed on the unusual number of <i>eight</i> angels round the throne of
God (lxix. 17) if the word <i>tham&#257;niyah</i>, &ldquo;eight,&rdquo; had not happened
to fall in so well with the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of <i>two</i>
heavenly gardens, each with <i>two</i> fountains and <i>two</i> kinds of
fruit, and again of <i>two</i> similar gardens, all this is simply
because the dual termination (<i>&#257;n</i>) corresponds to the syllable
that controls the rhyme in that whole s&#363;ra. In the later
pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely out of
keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In
Arabic it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words
with the same termination, that the gross negligence of the
rhyme in the Koran is doubly remarkable. One may say that
this is another mark of the Prophet&rsquo;s want of mental training,
and incapacity for introspective criticism.</p>

<p>On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly
have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving
reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by
no means a first-rate performance. To begin with
<span class="sidenote">Stylistic Weaknesses.</span>
what we are most competent to criticize, let us look
at some of the more extended narratives. It has already been
noticed how vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to
be characterized by epic repose. Indispensable links, both in
expression and in the sequence of events, are often omitted, so
that to understand these histories is sometimes far easier for us
than for those who heard them first, because we know most of
them from better sources. Along with this, there is a great deal
of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady advance
in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of
Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably
conceived and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar
faults are found in the non-narrative portions of the Koran.
The connexion of ideas is extremely loose, and even the syntax
betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of frequent occurrence,
and cannot be explained as conscious literary devices.
Many sentences begin with a &ldquo;when&rdquo; or &ldquo;on the day when&rdquo;
which seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are
driven to supply a &ldquo;think of this&rdquo; or some such ellipsis. Again,
there is no great literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless
harping on the same words and phrases; in xviii., for example, &ldquo;till
that&rdquo; (<i>&#7717;att&#257; idh&#257;</i>) occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet,
in short, is not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will
be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with
an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without
taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations.
But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a judgment will sound
almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among
<span class="sidenote">Dogma of the Stylistic Perfection of the Koran.</span>
the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on
as the most perfect model of style and language. This
feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all
miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin.
Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic
infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist
will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly
challenged its opponents to produce ten s&#363;ras, or even a single
one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That,
to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations
of the kind which Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could
produce without making himself a laughing-stock. However
little real originality there is in Mahomet&rsquo;s doctrines, as against
his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, even in the form
of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was beyond
the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have
required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such
a character appeared <i>after</i> Mahomet, still he could never be
anything but an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about
the time of his death and afterwards. That the adversaries
should produce any sample whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric
equal to the Koran is not at all what the Prophet demands. In
that case he would have been put to shame, even in the eyes of
many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to hand.
Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge that
the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction
of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by
dogmatic prejudice, which is quite capable of working other
miracles besides turning a defective literary production into an
unrivalled masterpiece in the eyes of believers. This view once
accepted, the next step was to find everywhere evidence of the
perfection of the style and language. And if here and there, as
one can scarcely doubt, there was among the old Moslems a lover
of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, he had to
beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his
head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who defined
the dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe
it (Shahrast&#257;n&#299;, p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a
miracle indeed if the style of the Koran had been perfect. For
although there was at that time a recognized poetical style,
already degenerating to mannerism, a developed prose style did
not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and it can never be
esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, the
first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the
awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always
remember that entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most
subsidiary objects. The great aim was persuasion and conversion;
and, say what we will, that aim has been realized on the
most imposing scale.</p>

<p>Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran
is not written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but
in Arabic, and therefore is intelligible to all. At
that time, along with foreign ideas, many foreign
<span class="sidenote">Foreign words.</span>
words had crept into the language; especially
Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian
origin. Some of these had already passed into general use,
while others were confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet,
who could not fully express his new ideas in the common language
of his countrymen, but had frequently to find out new terms for
himself, made free use of such Jewish and Christian words, as was
done, though perhaps to a smaller extent, by certain thinkers
and poets of that age who had more or less risen above the level
of heathenism. In Mahomet&rsquo;s case this is the less wonderful
because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and Christians,
whose Arabic&mdash;as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with regard
to one of them&mdash;was very defective. On the other hand, it is
yet more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the
Koran have a sense which they do not possess in the original
language. It is not necessary that this phenomenon should in
every case be due to the same cause. Just as the prophet often
misunderstood traditional traits of the sacred history, he may,
as an unlearned man, likewise have often employed foreign
expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words were
possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews
or Christians. Thus, <i>forq&#257;n</i> means really &ldquo;redemption,&rdquo; but
Mahomet uses it for &ldquo;revelation.&rdquo; The widespread opinion that
this sense first asserted itself in reference to the Arab root <img style="width:36px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img901.jpg" alt="" />
(<i>faraqa</i>), &ldquo;sever,&rdquo; or &ldquo;decide,&rdquo; is open to considerable doubt.
There is, for instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning
of &ldquo;revelation&rdquo; from the common Aramaic &ldquo;salvation,&rdquo; and
this transference must have taken place in a community for
which salvation formed the central object of faith, <i>i.e.</i> either
amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a Messiah or
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span>
more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a very
peculiar sense the religion of salvation. <i>Milla</i> is properly
&ldquo;word&rdquo; (= Aramaic <i>mellth&#257;</i>), but in the Koran &ldquo;religion.&rdquo; It
is actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once),
of the heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion
of Abraham, which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the
same level with Islam. Although of the Aramaic dialects none
employs the term <i>Melltha</i> in the sense of religion, it appears that
the prophet found such a use. <i>Illiy&#363;n</i>, which Mahomet uses of
a heavenly book (S&#363;ra 83; 18, 19), is clearly the Hebrew <i>ely&#333;n</i>,
&ldquo;high&rdquo; or &ldquo;exalted.&rdquo; It is, however, doubtful in what sense
this word appeared to him, either as a name of God, as in the Old
Testament it often occurs and regularly without the article, or
actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this use
cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the
word <i>math&#257;n&#299;</i> is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural
of the Aramaic <i>mathn&#299;th&#257;</i>, which is the same as the Hebrew
<i>Mishnah</i>, and denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some
of the ancient Rabbins. But in the Koran Mahomet appears
to have understood it in the sense of &ldquo;saying&rdquo; or &ldquo;sentence&rdquo;
(cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no means certain
that by &ldquo;the Seven Mathani&rdquo; (xv. 87) the seven verses of S&#363;ra i.
are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less
frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a
few have come over from the Abyssinian; such as <i>haw&#257;r&#299;y&#363;n</i>
&ldquo;apostles,&rdquo; <i>m&#257;ida</i> &ldquo;table,&rdquo; <i>mun&#257;fig</i> &ldquo;doubter, sceptic,&rdquo; <i>rag&#363;n</i>
&ldquo;cursed,&rdquo; <i>mi&#7717;r&#257;b</i> &ldquo;temple&rdquo;; the first three of these make their
first appearance in s&#363;ras of the Medina period. The word
<i>shait&#257;n</i> &ldquo;Satan,&rdquo; which was likewise borrowed, at least in the
first instance, from the Abyssinian, had probably been already
introduced into the language. Sprenger has rightly observed
that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign terms, as
of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he followed
a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency
of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expressions,
and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably
solemn and mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind
of effect that Mahomet desired, and to secure it he seems even
to have invented a few odd vocables, as <i>ghisl&#299;n</i> (lxix. 36), <i>sijj&#299;n</i>
(lxxxiii. 7, 8), <i>tasn&#299;m</i> (lxxxiii. 27), and <i>salsab&#299;l</i> (lxxvi. 18). But,
of course, the necessity of enabling his hearers to understand
ideas which they must have found sufficiently novel in themselves,
imposed tolerably narrow limits on such eccentricities.</p>

<p>The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the
Mecca period<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 622), partly to the period commencing
with the migration to Medina (from the autumn
of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet&rsquo;s position in
<span class="sidenote">Date of the Several Parts.</span>
Medina was entirely different from that which he
had occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the
first the leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the
autocratic ruler of Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised
preacher of a small congregation. This difference, as was to be
expected, appears in the Koran. The Medina pieces, whether
entire s&#363;ras or isolated passages interpolated in Meccan s&#363;ras,
are accordingly pretty broadly distinct, as to their contents,
from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority of cases there
can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the light in
Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence
is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations
given in Medina frequently take notice of events about which we
have fairly accurate information, and whose dates are at least
approximately known, we are often in a position to fix their date
with at any rate considerable certainty; here again tradition
renders valuable assistance. Even with regard to the Medina
passages, however, a great deal remains uncertain, partly because
the allusions to historical events and circumstances are generally
rather obscure, partly because traditions about the occasion of
the revelation of the various pieces are often fluctuating, and
often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary conjecture. An
important criterion for judging the period during which individual
Meccan s&#363;ras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose (<i>e.g.</i>
<i>S&#363;r.</i> xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibr&#257;h&#299;m legend, the
great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution
of Mahomet&rsquo;s doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions,
has been convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his
dissertation for the doctor&rsquo;s degree and in later essays.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> According
to this, Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, after the controversy with the Jews, first
of all became Mahomet&rsquo;s special forerunner in Medina, then the
first Moslem, and finally the founder of the Ka&rsquo;ba. But at all
events it is far easier to arrange in some sort of chronological order
the Medina s&#363;ras than those composed in Mecca. There is,
indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a chronological
list of all the s&#363;ras. But not to mention that it occurs in several
divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact that our
present s&#363;ras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, it
contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements,
that it is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Besides,
it is a priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet
should have drawn up such a list; and if any one had made the
attempt he would have found it almost impossible to obtain
reliable information as to the order of the earlier Meccan s&#363;ras.
We have in this list no genuine tradition, but rather the lucubrations
of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, who may
have lived about a century after the Flight.</p>

<p>Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a considerable
number of (for the most part) short s&#363;ras, which strike every
attentive reader as being the oldest. They are in
an altogether different strain from many others,
<span class="sidenote">The Meccan S&#363;ras.</span>
and in their whole composition they show least
resemblance to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable&mdash;as
Sprenger supposes&mdash;that Mahomet might have returned at
intervals to his earlier manner; but since this group possesses
a remarkable similarity of style, and since the gradual formation
of a different style is on the whole an unmistakable fact, the
assumption has little probability; and we shall therefore abide
by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the opposite
extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious
affinities with the style of the Medina s&#363;ras, which must therefore
be assigned to the later part of the Prophet&rsquo;s work in Mecca.
Between these two groups stand a number of other Meccan s&#363;ras,
which in every respect mark the transition from the first period
to the third. It need hardly be said that the three periods&mdash;which
were first distinguished by Professor Weil&mdash;are not
separated by sharp lines of division. With regard to some s&#363;ras,
it may be doubtful whether they ought to be reckoned amongst
the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. And it
is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even
a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revelations.
In default of clear allusions to well-known events, or
events whose date can be determined, we might indeed endeavour
to trace the psychological development of the Prophet by means
of the Koran, and arrange its parts accordingly. But in such
an undertaking one is always apt to take subjective assumptions
or mere fancies for established data. Good traditions about the
origin of the Meccan revelations are not very numerous. In fact
the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is so
imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he
appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 610; it may have
been somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition
says, xxx. 1 seq. (&ldquo;The Romans are overcome in the nearest
neighbouring land&rdquo;) refers to the defeat of the Byzantines by
the Persians, not far from Damascus, about the spring of 614, it
would follow that the third group, to which this passage belongs,
covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And it is not in
itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which characterizes
the first group was of short duration. Nor is the assumption
contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from
incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
615 or 616), xx., which belongs to the second group, already
existed in writing. But the reference of xxx. 1 seq. to this particular
battle is by no means so certain that positive conclusions
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span>
can be drawn from it. It is the same with other allusions
in the Meccan s&#363;ras to occurrences whose chronology can be
partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied
with a merely relative determination of the order of even the
three great clusters of Meccan revelations.</p>

<p>In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of
the Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence.
He is so carried away by his emotion that he cannot
choose his words; they seem rather to burst from
<span class="sidenote">Oldest Meccan S&#363;ras.</span>
him. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles
of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from
imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine
specimen. Like those other oracles, the s&#363;ras of this period,
which are never very long, are composed of short sentences with
tolerably pure but rapidly changing rhymes. The oaths, too,
with which many of them begin were largely used by the soothsayers.
Some of these oaths are very uncouth and hard to
understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be understood,
for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these
chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears
even to see angels before him in bodily form. There are some
intensely vivid descriptions of the resurrection and the last day
which must have exercised a demonic power over men who were
quite unfamiliar with such pictures. Other pieces paint in
glowing colours the joys of heaven and the pains of hell. However,
the s&#363;ras of this period are not all so wild as these; and those
which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be the oldest.
Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make out any
strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means
certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely
circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran.
That tradition goes back to the Prophet&rsquo;s favourite wife Ayesha;
but as she was not born at the time when the revelation is said
to have been made, it can only contain at the best what Mahomet
told her years afterwards, from his own not very clear recollection,
with or without fictitious additions, and this woman is little
trustworthy. Moreover, there are other pieces mentioned by
others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq. is certainly very
early. According to the traditional view, which appears to be
correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet receives an
injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the angel.
It is interesting to observe that here already two things are
brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God:
one is the creation of man out of a seminal drop&mdash;an idea to
which Mahomet often recurs; the other is the then recently
introduced art of writing, which the Prophet instinctively seizes
on as a means of propagating his doctrines. It was only after
Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance that the tone of the
revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such cases he was
not slow to utter terrible threats against those who ridiculed the
preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of the
judgment. His own uncle Ab&#363; Lahab had rudely repelled him, and
in a brief special s&#363;ra (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell.
The s&#363;ras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding
portions of the present text. One is disposed to assume, however,
that they were at one time more numerous, and that many
of them were lost at an early period.</p>

<p>Since Mahomet&rsquo;s strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery
imagination rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of
abstract thought on which exact reasoning depends, it follows
that the older s&#363;ras, in which the former qualities have free
scope, must be more attractive to us than the later. In the
s&#363;ras of the second period the imaginative glow perceptibly
diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone becomes
gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides,
the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become
longer. The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated
instances of God&rsquo;s working in nature and in history; the objections
of opponents, whether advanced in good faith or in jest,
are controverted by arguments; but the demonstration is often
confused or even weak. The histories of the earlier prophets,
which had occasionally been briefly touched on in the first period,
are now related, sometimes at great length. On the whole, the
charm of the style is passing away.</p>

<p>There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of
this period, if not to the close of the former, which claims particular
notice. This is S&#363;ra i., the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer of
<span class="sidenote">The F&#257;ti&#7717;a.</span>
the Moslems, a vigorous hymn of praise to God,
the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition for aid and
true guidance (<i>hud&#257;</i>). The words of this s&#363;ra, which is known
as <i>al-f&#257;ti&#7717;a</i> (&ldquo;the opening one&rdquo;), are as follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>(1) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2)
Praise be [literally &ldquo;is&rdquo;] to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the
compassionate compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of
judgment. (5) Thee do we worship and of Thee do we beg assistance.
(6) Direct us in the right way; (7) in the way of those to
whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom there is no wrath, and
who go not astray.</p>
</div>

<p>The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet
the prayer is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single
original idea of Mahomet&rsquo;s in it. Of the seven verses of the s&#363;ra
no less than five (verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious
relationship with the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Christian
liturgies. Verse 6 agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii.
11. On the other hand, the question must remain open whether
Mahomet only gave free renderings of the several borrowed
formulae, or whether in actually composing them he kept
existing models. The designation of God as the &ldquo;Compassioner,&rdquo;
<i>Ra&#7717;m&#257;n</i>, is simply the Jewish <i>Ra&#7717;m&#257;n&#257;</i>, which was a
favourite name for God in the Talmudic period. The word had
long before Mahomet&rsquo;s time been used for God in southern
Arabia (cf. <i>e.g.</i> the Sabaean Inscriptions, Glaser, 554, line 32;
618, line 2).</p>

<p>Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of
adopting <i>al-Ra&#7717;m&#257;n</i> as a proper name of God, in place of <i>All&#257;h</i>,
which was already used by the heathens.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> This purpose he
ultimately relinquished, but it is just in the s&#363;ras of the second
period that the use of <i>Ra&#7717;m&#257;n</i> is specially frequent. If, for this
reason, it is to a certain extent certain that S&#363;ra i. belongs to this
period, yet we can neither prove that it belongs to the beginning
of the Mecca period nor that the present introductory formula
&ldquo;In the name of God,&rdquo; &amp;c., belonged to it from the first. It may
therefore even be doubted whether Mahomet at the outset looked
upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of course, knows in
this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the F&#257;ti&#7717;a precisely
as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who
says his five prayers regularly&mdash;as the most of them do&mdash;repeats
it not less than twenty times a day.</p>

<p>The s&#363;ras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large
part of our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. Some
of the revelations are of considerable extent, and the
single verses also are much longer than in the older
<span class="sidenote">Latest Meccan S&#363;ras.</span>
s&#363;ras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power
flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The s&#363;ras are
very edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import,
but to us at least they do not seem very well fitted to carry conviction
to the minds of unbelievers. That impression, however,
is not correct, for in reality the demonstrations of these longer
Meccan s&#363;ras appear to have been peculiarly influential for the
propagation of Islam. Mahomet&rsquo;s mission was not to Europeans,
but to a people who, though quick-witted and receptive,
were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had outgrown
their ancient religion.</p>

<p>When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been
indicated, much easier to understand the revelations in their
historical relations, since our knowledge of the history of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span>
Mahomet in Medina is tolerably complete. In many cases the
<span class="sidenote">Medinan S&#363;ras.</span>
historical occasion is perfectly clear, in others we can at least
recognize the general situation from which they
arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There
still remains, however, a remnant, of which we can only say that
it belongs to Medina.</p>

<p>The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to
that of the latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure
prose, enriched by occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet
even here there are many bright and impressive passages,
especially in those sections which may be regarded as proclamations
to the army of the faithful. For the Moslems Mahomet
has many different messages. At one time it is a summons to do
battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on recently
experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak
faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses
himself to the &ldquo;doubters,&rdquo; some of whom vacillate between
faith and unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others
scarcely take the trouble even to do that. They are no consolidated
party, but to Mahomet they are all equally vexatious,
because, as soon as danger has to be encountered, or a contribution
is levied, they all alike fall away. There are frequent outbursts,
ever increasing in bitterness, against the Jews, who were
very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood when Mahomet
arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians, with
whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters,
there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with
them. A part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws
belonging to the ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or directions
about certain temporary complications. The most objectionable
parts of the whole Koran are those which treat of
Mahomet&rsquo;s relations with women. The laws and regulations
were generally very concise revelations, but most of them have
been amalgamated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar
import, and are now found in very long s&#363;ras.</p>

<p>Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the
internal history of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show
that the book is a very heterogeneous collection. If only those
passages had been preserved which had a permanent value for
the theology, the ethics, or the jurisprudence of the Moslems, a
few fragments would have been amply sufficient. Fortunately
for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the letter has led to
the collection of all the revelations that could possibly be
collected&mdash;the &ldquo;abrogating&rdquo; along with the &ldquo;abrogated,&rdquo;
passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of
lasting importance. Every one who takes up the book in the
proper religious frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads
pieces directed against long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca
just as devoutly as the weightiest moral precepts&mdash;perhaps
even more devoutly, because he does not understand them so
well.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>At the head of twenty-nine of the s&#363;ras stand certain initial
letters, from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before
ii. iii. xxxi. xxxii. we find <img style="width:30px; height:20px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img904a.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>Alif L&#257;m M&#299;m</i>), before
xl.-xlvi. <img style="width:34px; height:14px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img904b.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>&#7716;&#257; M&#299;m</i>). Nöldeke at one time suggested
<span class="sidenote">Mysterious Letters.</span>
that these initials did not belong to Mahomet&rsquo;s text,
but might be the monograms of possessors of codices, which, through
negligence on the part of the editors, were incorporated in the final
form of the Koran; he now deems it more probable that they are
to be traced to the Prophet himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others
suppose. One cannot indeed admit the truth of Loth&rsquo;s statement
that in the proper opening words of these s&#363;ras we may generally
find an allusion to the accompanying initials; but it can scarcely
be accidental that the first verse of the great majority of them (in
iii. it is the second verse) contains the word &ldquo;book,&rdquo; &ldquo;revelation,&rdquo;
or some equivalent. They usually begin with: &ldquo;This is the book,&rdquo;
or &ldquo;Revelation (&rsquo;down sending&rsquo;) of the book,&rdquo; or something similar.
Of s&#363;ras which commence in this way only a few (xviii. xxiv. xxv.
xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix. and xxx. have the initials
and begin differently. These few exceptions may easily have proceeded
from ancient corruptions; at all events they cannot neutralize
the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to have meant
these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text in heaven.
To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the best he had
but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who lived
amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more
significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries
of this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly
have attached any particular meaning to these symbols: they served
their purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and
enigmatical obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains
many things which neither can be, nor were intended to be, understood
(iii. 5). To regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious
hypothesis, for the simple reason that cryptography is not to be
looked for in the very infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually
ciphers, the multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes
the hope of a plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this
direction, whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led
to convincing results. This remark applies even to the ingenious
conjecture of Sprenger, that the letters <img style="width:72px; height:20px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img904c.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>K&#257;f H&#275; Y&#275; Ain S&#257;d</i>)
before xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradition,
was sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for <i>Jesus
Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum</i>. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a
very artificial method; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as
the Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could
read a piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the
Moslems have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity
to the decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the
deepest mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content
with the prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of
these letters.</p>
</div>

<p>It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused
revelations to be written down at Mecca, and that this began
from the moment when he felt certain that he was the transmitter
of the actual text of a heavenly book to mankind. It is
even true that he may at some time or another have formed the
intention of collecting these revelations. The idea of a heavenly
model would in itself have suggested such a course and, only
in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new and
uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book,
as the Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the
separate pieces of the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical
<span class="sidenote">Transmission of the Koran.</span>
sacredness, existed only in scattered copies; they
were consequently in great danger of being partially
or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large
portions by heart, but certainly no one knew the whole;
and a merely oral propagation would have left the door
open to all kinds of deliberate and inadvertent alterations. But
now, after the death of the Prophet, most of the Arabs revolted
against his successor, and had to be reduced to submission by
force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the prophet
Maslama (Mubarrad, <i>K&#257;mil</i> 443, 5), commonly known by
the derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 633)
many of the most devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew
most Koran pieces by heart. Omar then began to fear that the
Koran might be entirely forgotten, and he induced the Caliph
Ab&#363; Bekr to undertake the collection of all its parts. The
Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Th&#257;bit, a native of Medina,
<span class="sidenote">Zaid&rsquo;s First Koran.</span>
then about twenty-two years of age, who had often
acted as amanuensis to the Prophet, in whose service
he is even said to have learned the Jewish letters.
The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us in
several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid himself.
According to it, he collected the revelations from copies
written on flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves
(not palm-leaves themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly
&ldquo;from the breasts of men,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> from their memory. From these
he wrote a fair copy, which he gave to Ab&#363; Bekr, from whom it
came to his successor Omar, who again bequeathed it to his
daughter &#7716;af&#7779;a, one of the widows of the Prophet. This redaction,
commonly called <i>al-&#7779;o&#7717;of</i> (&ldquo;the leaves&rdquo;), had from the
first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can
only be conjectured.</p>

<p>The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text
of the Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew
deplorably little about it; distinction on <i>that</i> field they cheerfully
accorded to pious men like Ibn Mas&lsquo;&#363;d. It was inevitable, however,
that discrepancies should emerge between the texts of professed
scholars, and as these men in their several localities were
authorities on the reading of the Koran, quarrels began to break
out between the levies from different districts about the true form
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span>
of the sacred book. During a campaign in <span class="scs">A.H.</span> 30 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 650-651),
&#7716;odhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive battle of
Neh&#257;veand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>History</i>) perceived
that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore
urged on the caliph Othm&#257;n the necessity for a universally
<span class="sidenote">Othman&rsquo;s Koran.</span>
binding text. The matter was entrusted to Zaid,
who had made the former collection, with three leading
Koreishites. These brought together as many
copies as they could lay their hands on, and prepared an edition
which was to be canonical for all Moslems. To prevent any
further disputes, they burned all the other codices except that of
&#7716;af&#7779;a, which, however, was soon afterwards destroyed by Merw&#257;n
the governor of Medina. The destruction of the earlier codices
was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the essentially
political object of putting an end to controversies by admitting
only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this
measure was necessary.</p>

<p>The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were
conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being
here too much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions.
The critical methods of a modern scientific commission will not
be expected of an age when the highest literary education for an
Arab consisted in ability to read and write. It now appears
highly probable that this second redaction took this simple form:
Zaid read off from the codex which he had previously written,
and his associates, simultaneously or successively, wrote one copy
each to his dictation. These three manuscripts will therefore be
those which the caliph, according to trustworthy tradition, sent
in the first instance as standard copies to Damascus, Basra and
Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these were the
capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, it is
impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book
what belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second.</p>

<p>In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification
according to contents was impracticable because of the variety of
subjects often dealt with in one s&#363;ra. A chronological arrangement
was out of the question, because the chronology of the older
pieces must have been imperfectly known, and because in some
cases passages of different dates had been joined together.
Indeed, systematic principles of this kind were altogether disregarded
at that period. The pieces were accordingly arranged
in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place the
long s&#363;ras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that
was far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae,
s&#363;ras cxiii., cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection
to their peculiar contents, which differ from all the other s&#363;ras;
they are protecting spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by
reason of its contents that s&#363;ra i. stands at the beginning: not
only because it is in praise of Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the
righteous man, but because it gives classical expression to important
articles of the faith. These are the only special traces of
design. The combination of pieces of different origin may proceed
partly from the possessors of the codices from which Zaid
compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid himself. The
individual s&#363;ras are separated simply by the superscription:
&ldquo;In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner,&rdquo; which
is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in
our texts (the name of the s&#363;ras, the number of verses, &amp;c.)
were not in the original codices, and form no integral part of the
Koran.</p>

<p>It is said that Othm&#257;n directed Zaid and his associates, in
cases of disagreement, to follow the &#7730;oreish dialect; but, though
well attested, this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely
primitive writing of those days was quite incapable of rendering
such minute differences as can have existed between the pronunciation
of Mecca and that of Medina.</p>

<p>Othm&#257;n&rsquo;s Koran was not complete. Some passages are
evidently fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant
which were originally parts of the Koran, although
they have been omitted by Zaid. Amongst these are
<span class="sidenote">The Koran not complete.</span>
some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet
desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray
fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he
believed to belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been conjectured
that in deference to his superiors he kept out of the book
the names of Mahomet&rsquo;s enemies, if they or their families came
afterwards to be respected. But it must be remembered that it
was never Mahomet&rsquo;s practice to refer explicitly to contemporary
persons and affairs in the Koran. Only a single friend, his
adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a single enemy, his uncle Ab&#363;
Lahab (cxi.)&mdash;and these for very special reasons&mdash;are mentioned
by name; and the name of the latter has been left in the Koran
with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had embraced
Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants belonged
to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no
single verse or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an
interpolation by Zaid at the instance of Ab&#363; Bekr, Omar, or
Othm&#257;n. Slight clerical errors there may have been, but the
Koran of Othm&#257;n contains none but genuine elements&mdash;though
sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of European scholars
to prove the existence of later interpolations in the Koran have
failed.</p>

<p>Of the four exemplars of Othm&#257;n&rsquo;s Koran, one was kept in
Medina, and one was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities,
Kufa, Ba&#7779;ra, and Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown
in detail that these four codices deviated from one another in
points of orthography, in the insertion or omission of a wa (&ldquo;and&rdquo;)
and such-like minutiae; but these variations nowhere affect the
sense. All later manuscripts are derived from these four originals.</p>

<p>At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at
once become extinct. In particular we have some information
about the codex of Ubay ibn Ka&rsquo;b. If the list which
gives the order of its s&#363;ras is correct, it must have
<span class="sidenote">Other Editions.</span>
contained substantially the same materials as our
text; in that case Ubay ibn Ka&rsquo;b must have used the original
collection of Zaid. The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas&rsquo;&#363;d,
of which we have also a catalogue. It appears that the principle
of putting the longer s&#363;ras before the shorter was more consistently
carried out by him than by Zaid. He omits i. and the
magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the other hand, had
embodied two additional short prayers, which we may regard
as Mahomet&rsquo;s. One can easily understand that differences of
opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies
of this kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent
readings of both these texts have been preserved as well as a
considerable number of other ancient variants. Most of them
are decidedly inferior to the received readings, but some are quite
as good, and a few deserve preference.</p>

<p>The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the
general introduction of Othm&#257;n&rsquo;s text is Ibn Mas&lsquo;&#363;d. He was
one of the oldest disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered
him personal service; but he was a man of contracted
<span class="sidenote">Ibn Mas&lsquo;&#363;d.</span>
views, although he is one of the pillars of Moslem
theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when
we consider that at that time there were many Moslems who had
heard the Koran from the mouth of the Prophet, that other
measures of the imbecile Othm&#257;n met with the most vehement
resistance on the part of the bigoted champions of the faith,
that these were still further incited against him by some of his
ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and
finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties
were glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;&mdash;when
we consider all this, we must regard it as a strong
testimony in favour of Othm&#257;n&rsquo;s Koran that no party found
fault with his conduct in this matter, or repudiated the text
formed by Zaid, who was one of the most devoted adherents
of Othm&#257;n and his family, and that even among the Shiites
criticism of the caliph&rsquo;s action is only met with as a rare
exception.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the
Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not
only wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long
vowels, but it often expressed several consonants by the same sign,
<span class="sidenote">Later History of the Text.</span>
<i>e.g.</i> one and the same character could mean B, T, Th at the beginning
and N and J (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span>
many words which could be read in very different ways. This
variety of possible readings was at first very great, and many
readers seem to have actually made it their object to
discover pronunciations which were new, provided they
were at all appropriate to the ambiguous text. There
was also a dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which
had not as yet been greatly restricted. An effort was made by many
to establish a more refined pronunciation for the Koran than was
usual in common life or in secular literature. The various schools
of &ldquo;readers&rdquo; differed very widely from one another; although for
the most part there was no important divergence as to the sense of
words. A few of them gradually rose to special authority, and the
rest disappeared. Seven readers are generally reckoned chief
authorities, but for practical purposes this number was continually
reduced in process of time; so that at present only two &ldquo;reading-styles&rdquo;
are in actual use,&mdash;the common style of &#7716;af&#7779;, and that of
N&#257;fi&rsquo;; which prevails in Africa to the west of Egypt. There is,
however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature in which a
number of other styles are indicated. The invention of vowel-signs
of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed consonants, and
of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to arbitrary conjectures
on the part of the readers. Many zealots objected to the introduction
of these innovations in the sacred text, but theological consistency
had to yield to practical necessity. In accurate codices,
indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of the s&#363;ra, &amp;c., are
written in coloured ink, while the black characters profess to represent
exactly the original of Othm&#257;n. But there is probably no copy
quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right recitation of the
Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can only learn with
great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of pronunciation already
alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation. In these matters
also the various schools differ.</p>

<p>In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of
the Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity,
some of them probably dating from the 1st century of
the Flight. For the restoration of the text, however,
<span class="sidenote">Manuscripts.</span>
the works of ancient scholars on its readings and modes
of writing are more important than the manuscripts; which, however
elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed from irresponsible
copyists. The original, written by Othm&#257;n himself, has
indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world.
The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript,
bearing the subscription: &ldquo;Written by &lsquo;Othm&#257;n the son of &lsquo;Aff&#257;n.&rdquo;
These, of course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient
date; so are those which profess to be from the hand of &lsquo;Al&#299;, one of
which is preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran
has been often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the
West. In Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed.</p>

<p>Shortly after Mahomet&rsquo;s death certain individuals applied themselves
to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from
the beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart
from a knowledge of the circumstances of their origin.
<span class="sidenote">Commentators.</span>
Unfortunately, those who took possession of this field
were not very honourable. Ibn &lsquo;Abb&#257;s, a cousin of Mahomet, and
the chief source of the traditional exegesis of the Koran, has, on theological
and other grounds, given currency to a number of falsehoods;
and at least some of his pupils have emulated his example. These
earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and connexion of whole
verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as the knowledge
of the old language declined, and the study of philology arose, more
attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. A good
many fragments of this older theological and philological exegesis
have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight, although
we have no complete commentary of this period. The great commentary
of &#7788;abar&#299;, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 839-923, of which for the last few years we
have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo <span class="scs">A.H.</span> 1321 =
<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law,
as well as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations;
for, as in his great historical work, he faithfully records a large number
of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to
us (genealogical trees, <i>isn&#257;d</i>). In other respects the hopes based
upon this commentary have not been fulfilled.</p>

<p>Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhshar&#299; (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar,
with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read his
own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary
of Bai&#7693;&#257;w&#299; (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig, 1846-1848),
is little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshar&#299;&rsquo;s. Thousands of
commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have
been written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant
in manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all contain
much that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to
our understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can,
no doubt, see many things at a glance more clearly than a good
Moslem who is under the influence of religious prejudice; but we
should still be helpless without the exegetical literature of the
Mahommedans. Even the Arabian Moslems would only understand
the Koran very dimly and imperfectly if they did not give special
attention to the study of its interpretation. The advantage of being
in a language commonly understood, which the holy book claims for
itself, has vanished in the course of thirteen centuries. According
to the dominant view, however, the ritual use of the Koran is not in
the least concerned with the sacred words being understood, but
solely with their being quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great
deal remains to be accomplished by European scholarship for the
correct interpretation of the Koran. We want, for example, an
exhaustive classification and discussion of all the Jewish elements
in the Koran; a praiseworthy beginning was made in Geiger&rsquo;s youthful
essay <i>Was hat Mohamed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen?</i>
(Bonn, 1833; the &ldquo;second revised edition,&rdquo; Leipzig, 1902, is only a
reprint). We want especially a thorough commentary, executed
<span class="sidenote">Translations.</span>
with the methods and resources of modern science. No
European language, it would seem, can even boast of a
translation which completely satisfies modern requirements.
The best are in English; where we have the extremely
paraphrastic, but for its time admirable translation of George Sale
(repeatedly printed), that of Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give
the pieces in chronological order, and that of Palmer (1880), who
wisely follows the traditional arrangements. The introduction
which accompanies Palmer&rsquo;s translation is not in all respects
abreast of the most recent scholarship. Considerable extracts
from the Koran are well translated in E. W. Lane&rsquo;s <i>Selections
from the Kur-&#257;n</i>. Not much can be said in praise of the complete
translations into the German language, neither of that of
Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of
Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs
who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and
are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Rückert&rsquo;s excellent
version (published by August Müller, Frankfort-on-Maine,
1888) gives only selections. M. Klamroth&rsquo;s translation of the fifty
oldest s&#363;ras, <i>Die fünfzig ältesten Suren</i> (Hamburg, 1890) attempts
successfully to reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The
publication of the translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig
Arabic scholar, H. L. Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately
been delayed. (For modern editions, commentaries, &amp;c., see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>: <i>Bibliography</i>).</p>

<p>Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts
and topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their
sacred book. There are works on the spelling and right pronunciation
of the Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the
number of its verses, words and letters, &amp;c.; nay, there are even
works which would nowadays be called &ldquo;historical and critical
introductions.&rdquo; Moreover, the origin of Arabic philology is intimately
connected with the recitation and exegesis of the Koran.
To exhibit the importance of the sacred book for the whole mental
life of the Moslems would be simply to write the history of that
life itself; for there is no department in which its all-pervading,
but unfortunately not always salutary, influence has not been felt.</p>

<p>The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches
its climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, <i>i.e.</i>
thought, is immanent in God, and consequently <i>eternal</i>
and <i>uncreated</i>. This dogma, which was doubtless due
<span class="sidenote">Eternity of the Koran.</span>
to the influence of the Christian doctrine of the eternal
Word of God, has been accepted by almost all Mahommedans since
the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians did indeed
protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too preposterous
to declare that a book composed of unstable words and
letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what
were the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they
could not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents
of heresy?</p>

<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The following works may be especially consulted:
Weil, <i>Einleitung in den Kor&#257;n</i> (2nd ed., 1878); Th. Nöldeke,
<i>Geschichte des Qor&#257;n&rsquo;s</i> (Göttingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich
Schwally, 1908); the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys
Sprenger (vols. i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck
Hurgronje, <i>Het mekkaansche Feest</i> (Leiden, 1880), <i>De Islam</i> (de Gids,
1886, ii. 257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134); &ldquo;Une nouvelle biographie de
Mohammed,&rdquo; <i>Revue de l&rsquo;histoire des religions</i>, tome 29, p. 48 f.,
149 sqq.; Leone Caetani, <i>Annali dell&rsquo; Islam</i>, i. (Milan, 1905), ii.(Milan,
1907); Frants Buhl, <i>Muhammeds Liv</i> (Copenhagen, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(Th. N.; Fr. Sy.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to
be found in J. J. Bernouilli, <i>Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders
d. Gr.</i> (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber,
&ldquo;Studien über das Bildniss Alexanders des Gr.&rdquo; in the <i>Abh. Sachs.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>, Bd. xxi. (1903), Tab. XIII.</p>

<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the schemes of Nöldeke and Grimm see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan
Religion</a></span>.</p>

<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Bibliography at end.</p>

<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Since in Arabic also the root <img style="width:39px; height:14px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img903.jpg" alt="" /> signifies &ldquo;to have pity,&rdquo; the
Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new name.
While the foreign word <i>Ra&#7717;m&#257;n</i> is, in accordance with its origin,
everywhere in the Koran to be understood as &ldquo;Merciful,&rdquo; there is
some doubt as to <i>Ra&#7717;&#299;m</i>. The close connexion of the two expressions,
it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added the
adjective <i>Ra&#7717;&#299;m</i> to the substantive <i>Ra&#7717;m&#257;n</i> in order to strengthen
the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of <i>Ra&#7717;&#299;m</i> is
&ldquo;gracious,&rdquo; and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this
word by <span class="grk" title="philanthrôpos">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORAT,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> the capital of the provincial division (<i>Monton</i>) of
Nakawn Racha Sema, or &ldquo;the frontier country,&rdquo; in Siam; in
102° 5´ E., 14° 59´ N. Pop. about 7000, mixed Cambodian and
Siamese. It is the headquarters of a high commissioner and of
an army division. It is the terminus of a railway from Bangkok,
170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for the whole of the
plateau district which forms the eastern part of Siam. There
are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It
is the centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters
of the government sericultural department, instituted in 1904
with the assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of improving
the quality of Siamese silk. The government is that of
an ordinary provincial division of Siam. A French vice-consul
resides here. Since the founding of Ayuthia in the 14th century,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span>
Korat has been tributary to, or part of, Siam, with occasional
lapses into independence or temporary subjection to Cambodia.
Before that period it was probably part of Cambodia, as appears
from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in its neighbourhood.
In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition
vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese
rural administration.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORDOFAN,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a country of north-east Africa, forming a
<i>mudiria</i> (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies
mainly between 12° and 16° W. and 29° and 32½° E., and has
an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded W. by Darfur,
N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and
S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming
part of the Upper Nile mudiria.</p>

<p>The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains,
riverless, barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of
1500 ft. Thickets and small acacias dot the steppes, which,
green during the <i>kharif</i> or rainy season, at other times present
a dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the west, isolated peaks,
such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise from 150
to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain
groups of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are
the Jebel Daier and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic
ranges with precipitous sides. In the south are flat, fertile
and thickly wooded plains, which give place to jungle at the
foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district forming the south-east
part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the scenery
is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that
of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed
3000 ft. in height. The south-western part of the country, a
vast and almost level plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic
sand with abundance of mica and feldspar forms the upper
stratum throughout the greater part of Kordofan; but an
admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, becomes
strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches
of black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an
unbroken surface of mica schist. Though there are no perennial
rivers, there are watercourses (<i>khors</i> or <i>wadis</i>) in the rainy season;
the chief being the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-central
region. In Dar Homr the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor
Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent of the Bahr el Ghazal.
During the rainy season there is a considerable body of water in
these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation and partly
to the porous character of the soil the surface of the country dries
rapidly. The water which has found its way through the
granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and
settles in the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a
supply of water can generally be obtained. It is estimated that
(apart from those in a few areas where the sand stratum is thin
and water is reached at the depth of a few feet) there are about
900 of these wells. They are narrow shafts going down usually
30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. The water is raised
by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, and in few
cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are trained
to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate
after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well.
In a few localities the surface depressions hold water for the
greater part of the year but there is only one permanent lake&mdash;Keilat,
which is some four miles by two. As there is no highland
area draining into Kordofan, the underground reservoirs are
dependent on the local rainfall, and a large number of the wells
are dry during many months. The rainy season lasts from mid-June
to the end of September, rain usually falling every three
or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate
is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are
converted into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the
<i>shita</i> or cold weather (October to February inclusive) there is a
cold wind from the north. The seif or hot weather lasts from
March to mid-June; the temperature rarely exceeds 105° F.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern
part of the country is the grey gum acacia (<i>hashob</i>). In the south
the red gum acacias (<i>talh</i>) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the
N.W. of Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab
or calabash tree, known in the eastern Sudan as the <i>tebeldi</i> and
locally <i>Homr</i>, is fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees
collect water, which the natives regularly tap. Another common
source of water supply is a small kind of water melon which grows
wild and is also cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are
immense creepers, some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant
is also found. The fauna includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo,
giraffe, lion, leopard, cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and
many other kinds of antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge,
jungle-fowl, bustard and guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of
game mentioned are found chiefly in the western and southern
districts. The ril or addra gazelle found in N. and N.W. Kordofan
are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. Reptiles,
sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in the
northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the
gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich
feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of
the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens.
There are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually
owning also large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species
of millet which can grow in the arid northern districts is there the
chief grain crop, its place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn
is, however, the only crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this
grain a beer called <i>merissa</i> is brewed. Barley and cotton are cultivated
in some districts. A little gold dust is obtained, but the old
gold and other mines in the Tagale country have been, apparently,
worked out. Iron is found in many districts and is smelted in a
few places. In the absence of fuel the industry is necessarily a small
one. There are large beds of hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the
same distance N.E. of El Obeid.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The population of Kordofan was officially
estimated in 1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly
divisible into two types&mdash;Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the
hills. Many of the villagers of the plains are however of very
mixed blood&mdash;Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, Levantine and Negro.
It is said that some village communities are descended from the
original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic. The most
important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the
gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid
and the Bederia&mdash;the last-named living round El Obeid. The
nomad Arabs are of two classes, camel owners (<i>Siat El Ilbil</i>) and
cattle owners (<i>Baggara</i>), the first-named dwelling in the dry
northern regions, the Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the
camel-owning tribes the chief are the Hamar and the Kabbabish.
Many of the Hamar have settled down in villages. The
Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave
raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying
place their baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear,
small throwing spears, and a broad-bladed short sword. Some
of the richer men possess suits of chain armour. The principal
Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, Kenana, Habbania,
and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan
from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to have
come from North Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the
riverain tribes. The Nubas are split into many tribes, each
under a <i>mek</i> or king, who is not uncommonly of Arab descent.
The Nubas have their own language, though the inhabitants of
each hill have usually a different dialect. They are a primitive
race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro features.
They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During
the <i>mahdia</i> they maintained their independence. The Nubas
appear to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
and are believed to be the original stock of the Nubians of the
Nile Valley (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nubia</a></span>). In the northern hills are communities
of black people with woolly hair but of non-negro features.
They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some of the
southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped
slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the
tribe they formerly served and who have little intercourse with
the Nubas.</p>

<p>The capital, El Obeid (<i>q.v.</i>), is centrally situated. On it
converge various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from
Dueim, a town on the White Nile 125 m. above Khartum,
which served as port for the province. Thence was despatched
the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway from
Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses
the Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span>
(pop. about 10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial
centre which has sprung into importance since the fall of the
dervishes. All the trade with Darfur passes through the town,
the chief commerce being in cattle, feathers, ivory and cotton
goods. Trade is largely in the hands of Greeks, Syrians, Danagla
and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El Obeid and the Nile,
was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt and is a
thriving mart for the gum trade. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the
headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the
Muglad district are on the trade road between Nahud and
Shakka in Darfur.</p>

<p>Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi
and Tendek are government stations in the Nuba country.
The Nubas have no large towns. They live in villages on the
hillsides or summits. The usual habitation built both by Arabs
and Nubas is the tukl, a conical-shaped hut made of stone, mud,
wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better built.
In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat roofs.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Of the early history of Kordofan there is little
record. It never formed an independent state. About the
beginning of the 16th century Funj from Sennar settled in the
country; towards the end of that century Kordofan was conquered
by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. About 1775 it
was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a considerable
immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari
however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under
Darfur viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821
Kordofan was conquered by Mahommed Bey the defterdar,
son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt. It remained under
Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mahommed Ahmed, the mahdi,
raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks
Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated
(Nov. 1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward
were the chief supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the
khalifa Abdullah, was a Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the
khalifa met his death, the country having already passed into
the hands of the new Sudan government. The chief difficulty
experienced by the administration was to habituate the Arabs
and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace. In
consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the
Arabs of Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the
mamur of that place and 40 men of the Sudanese regiment.
The promptness with which this disturbance was suppressed
averted what otherwise might have been a serious rising. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>: <i>Anglo-Egyptian</i>, § &ldquo;History.&rdquo;)</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905); H. A. MacMichael, <i>Notes on the History of Kordofan before the
Egyptian Conquest</i> (Cairo, 1907); John Petherick, <i>Egypt, the Sudan,
and Central Africa</i> (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, <i>Beschreibung von
Kordofan</i> (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. <i>Travels in Kordofan</i>, London,
1844); Major H. G. Prout, <i>General Report on Province of Kordofan</i>
(Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, <i>Reise in der egypt. Equat. Provinz</i>
(Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the <i>Geog.
Journ.</i> (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given
under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>: <i>Anglo-Egyptian</i>.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOREA,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Corea</span> (<span class="sc">Ch&rsquo;ao Hsien</span>, <span class="sc">Dai han</span>). Its mainland
portion consists of a peninsula stretching southwards from
Manchuria, with an estimated length of about 600 m., an extreme
breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line of 1740 m. It extends
from 34° 18´ to 43° N., and from 124° 36´ to 130° 47´ E. Its
northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers;
the eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern
boundary by Korea Strait; and the western boundary by the
Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For 11 m. along the Tumen river
the north frontier is conterminous with Russia (Siberia);
otherwise Korea has China (Manchuria) on its land frontier.
Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For
map, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>.)</p>

<p>The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands
(exclusive of islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of
them are from 100 to 2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold
bare masses of volcanic rock. The most important are Quelpart
and the Nan Hau group. The latter, 36 m. from the eastern
end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, well-sheltered and roomy
harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between the north points
of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan and So-dan,
which have a population of 2000. Aitan, between their
south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast
of Korea is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise
and fall of 1 to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving,
and abounds in mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from
20 to 36 ft. Korean harbours, except two or three which are
closed by drift ice for some weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among
them are Port Shestakov, Port Lazarev, and Wön-san (Gensan),
in Broughton Bay;<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Fusan, Ma-san-po, at the mouth of the
Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near the
mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the
Han, the port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first
Korean railway on the west coast.</p>

<p>Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving
the name. In the north there are mountain groups with definite
centres, the most notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8700 ft.)
which contains the sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these
groups a lofty range runs southwards, dividing the empire into
two unequal parts. On its east, between it and the coast, which
it follows at a moderate distance, is a fertile strip difficult of
access, and on the west it throws off so many lateral ranges and
spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of corrugated
and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a rapid
perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which includes
the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea
in treeless spurs and small and often infertile levels. The
northern groups and the Diamond Mountain are heavily
timbered, but the hills are covered mainly with coarse, sour grass
and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are shallow and rocky,
and are usually only navigable for a few miles from the sea.
Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong,
Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-wön-do,
30 m. from the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the
sea on the west coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious
rapids, is a valuable highway for commerce for over 150 miles.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known.
Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all
the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and
it is in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards
the Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some
1600 ft. of sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain
Cambrian fossils and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian
system of China. Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates,
sandstones and conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern
provinces. They contain a few seams of coal, but the most important
coal-bearing deposits of the country belong to the Tertiary
period. Recent eruptive and volcanic rocks are met with in the
interior of Korea and also in the island of Quelpart. The principal
mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san (or Mount Auckland), according
to Chinese stories, was in eruption in the year 1007. With this
possible exception there are no active volcanoes in Korea, and the
region has also been remarkably free from earthquakes throughout
historic times.</p>

<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and
the three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health.
Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are
fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The
summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter
about 33°; the average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the rainy
season 21.86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west
and north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast,
the approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30,
35 and 42 in. respectively. These averages are based on the
observations of seven years only.</p>

<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The plants and animals await study and classification.
Among the indigenous trees are the <i>Abies excelsa</i>, <i>Abies microsperma</i>,
<i>Pinus sinensis</i>, <i>Pinus pinea</i>, three species of oak, five of
maple, lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut,
hazel, willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, <i>Rhus vernicifera</i>,
(?) <i>Rhus semipinnata</i>, <i>Acanthopanax ricinifolia</i>, <i>Zelkawa</i>, <i>Thuja
orientalis</i>, <i>Elaeagnus</i>, <i>Sophora</i> <i>Japonica</i>, &amp;c. Azaleas and rhododendrons
are widely distributed, as well as other flowering shrubs
and creepers, <i>Ampelopsis Veitchii</i> being universal. Liliaceous plants
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span>
and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts and
chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection,
and experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many
foreign fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are
of no commercial value, excepting wild <i>ginseng</i>, bamboo, which is
applied to countless uses, and &ldquo;tak-pul&rdquo; (<i>Hibiscus Manihot</i>), used
in the manufacture of paper.</p>

<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He
is of great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed
as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession
with special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even
been shot within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five
species), boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats,
marten, an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &amp;c. Among birds there
are black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially
protected by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants,
swans, geese, common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks
white and pink ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons,
doves, nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles,
halcyon and blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey
shrikes, hawks, kites, &amp;c. But, pending further observations, it is
not possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea
and which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Area and Population.</i>&mdash;The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m.&mdash;somewhat
under that of Great Britain. The first complete
census was taken in 1897, and returned the population in round
numbers at 17,000,000, females being in the majority. It was
subsequently, however, estimated at a maximum of 12,000,000.
There is a foreign population of about 65,000, of whom 60,000
are Japanese. It is estimated that little more than half the
arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could support
an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely
homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly
peopled, while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west
are populous. A large majority of the people are engaged in
agriculture. There is little emigration, except into Russian
and Chinese territory, but some Koreans have emigrated to
Hawaii and Mexico.</p>

<p>The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of
nearly 200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisöng), the
capital from about 910 to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank,
25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a population of 60,000. It possesses
the stately remains of the palace of the Korean kings of the
Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain trade and the sole
centre of the <i>ginseng</i> manufacture, makes wooden shoes, coarse
pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum oil
the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyöng-yang,
a city on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war
of 1894, in which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained
its population. It lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless
alluvium on the east, and with the largest and richest plain in
Korea on the west. It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and
the district is rich in iron, silk, cotton, and grain. It has easy
communication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and
is important historically and commercially. Auriferous quartz
is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. Near
the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by
Ki-tze in 1124 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>

<p>With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chöng-ju, Tung-nai,
Fusan, and Wön-san, it is very doubtful if any other Korean
towns reach a population of 15,000. The provincial capitals
and many other cities are walled. Most of the larger towns are
in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One is very much
like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of the better
alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens,
sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications.</p>

<p><i>Race.</i>&mdash;The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are
of the Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called
Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of 11
vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named <i>En-mun</i>. Literature
of the higher class and official and upper class correspondence
are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since 1895
official documents have contained an admixture of <i>En-mun</i>.
The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in
physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes,
and a tinge of bronze in the skin are always present. The
cheek-bones are high; the nose inclined to flatness; the mouth
thin-lipped and refined among patricians, and wide and full-lipped
among plebeians; the ears are small, and the brow fairly
well developed. The expression indicates quick intelligence
rather than force and mental calibre. The male height averages
5 ft. 4½ in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed.
The physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from
100 to 200 &#8468;. Men marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16,
and have large families, in which a strumous taint is nearly
universal. Women are secluded and occupy a very inferior
position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but concubinage
has a recognized status.</p>

<p><i>Production and Industries.</i> i. <i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Extensive coal-fields,
producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur
in Hwang-hai Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially
in Phyöng-an Do, and rich copper ore, silver and galena are
found. Crystal is a noted product of Korea, and talc of good
quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest process of &ldquo;placer&rdquo;
washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to £120,000;
quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the
annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000;
but much is believed to have been sent out of the country
clandestinely. The reefs were left untouched till 1897, when
an American company, which had obtained a concession in
Phyöng-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest mining appliances,
and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047, believed to
represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian, German,
English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained
concessions. The <i>concessionnaires</i> regard Korean labour as docile
and intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was
extended to aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906.</p>

<p>ii. <i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Korean soil consists largely of light sandy
loam, disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to
10 ft. deep. The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous
months of the year, facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop
are ample, and drought and floods are seldom known. Land is
held from the proprietors on the terms of receiving seed from
them and returning half the produce, the landlord paying the
taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by reclaiming
and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of
taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land
produces two crops a year. The implements used are two
makes of iron-shod wooden ploughs; a large shovel, worked by
three or five men, one working the handle, the others jerking
the blade by ropes attached to it; a short sharp-pointed hoe,
a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude construction.
Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other grains, with
flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by
throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain
coarsely ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There
are provincial horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions,
from 10 to 12 hands high, are bred for carrying burdens. Magnificent
red bulls are bred by the farmers for ploughing and
other farming operations, and for the transport of goods. Sheep
and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but only for sacrifice.
Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. The cultivation
does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with
that of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates
of the yield of any given measurement of land. The farmers
put the average yield of rice at thirty-fold, and of other grain
at twenty-fold. Korea produces all cereals and root crops
except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, a species of the
Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the <i>Brousonettia
papyrifera</i>. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, millet,
beans, <i>ginseng</i> (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded
wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes.
Korean agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of
the exchange of seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour.
It occupies about three-fourths of the population.</p>

<p>iii. <i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The industries of Korea, apart from
supplying the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few
and rarely collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span>
of sea-salt, of varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk,
horse-hair crinoline for hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and
mats, coarse pottery, hemp cloth for mourners, brass bowls
and grass-cloth. Wön-san and Fusan are large fishing centres,
and salt fish and fish manure are important exports; but the
prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese labour
and capital. Paper and <i>ginseng</i> are the only manufactured
articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil.</p>

<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan
in 1876, and treaties with the European countries and the
United States of America were concluded subsequently. An
imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 annulled all Korean
treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain Korean ports
to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the management
of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from
Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo,
Fusan, Wön-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po,
Song-chin, Wiju, Yong-ampo, and Phyöng-yang. The value
of foreign trade of the open ports has fluctuated considerably,
but has shown a tendency to increase on the whole. For
example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports
at £95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to £790,261, and thereafter
fluctuated greatly, standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but
at £1,017,238 in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under abnormal
conditions in 1904 this last amount was nearly doubled.
Exports in 1890 were valued at £591,746; they also fluctuated
greatly, falling to £316,072 in 1893, but standing at £863,828 in
1901, and having a further increase in some subsequent years.
These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The principal
imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies
and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese
cotton yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on
Korean hand-looms. Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and
ginseng are the chief exports, apart from gold.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Under Japanese auspices a railway from Chemulpo
to Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the
longer line from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which
was granted in 1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the
outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened
early in 1905. A railway from Seoul to Wiju was planned under
French engineers, but the work was started by the Korean government.
This line also, however, was taken over by the Japanese
military authorities, and the first trains ran through early in 1905,
in which year Japan obtained control of the whole of the Korean
internal communications. The main roads centring in Seoul are
seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the secondary roads
are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into &ldquo;rock ladders.&rdquo;
Some improvements, however, have been effected under Japanese
direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on the
backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 &#8468;, on ponies carrying 200 &#8468;,
and on men carrying from 100 to 150 &#8468;, bringing the average cost
up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvée exists, with
its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a framework
either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. They
are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not
replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but
there are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and
the risks during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese
steamers ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul.</p>

<p>A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually
extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese,
under the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and
telephone services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and
Japanese telegraph systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via
Seoul to Fusan, and by a line acquired by the empire between Seoul
and Wiju. The state has also lines from Seoul to the open ports,
&amp;c. Korea has regular steam communication with ports in Japan,
the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, &amp;c. Her own mercantile marine is
considerable.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;From 1895, when China renounced her claims
to suzerainty, to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in
theory an independent sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing
the welfare and dignity of the imperial house. Under a treaty
signed at Seoul on the 17th of November 1905, Japan directed
the external relations of Korea, and Japanese diplomatic and
consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects and
interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance
of existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and
Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties should be concluded
through the medium of Japan. A resident-general represented
Japan at Seoul, to direct diplomatic affairs, the first
being the Marquis Ito. Under a further convention of July 1907,
the resident-general&rsquo;s powers were enormously increased. In administrative
reforms the Korean government followed his guidance;
laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures
undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dismissal
of high officials, and the engagement of foreigners in
government employ, were subject to his pleasure. Each department
of state has a Japanese vice-minister, and a large proportion
of Japanese officials were introduced into these departments
as well as Japanese chiefs of the bureaus of police and customs.
By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which came into effect
seven days later the emperor of Korea made &ldquo;complete and permanent
cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of sovereignty
over the whole of Korea.&rdquo; The entire direction of the
administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-general,
who was given the title of governor-general. The
jurisdiction of the consular courts was abolished but Japan
guaranteed the continuance of the existing Korean tariff for
ten years.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Local Administration.</i>&mdash;Korea for administrative purposes is
divided into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese
reforms in this department have been complete. Each provincial
government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks.
The secretary may represent the governor in his absence.</p>

<p><i>Law.</i>&mdash;A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though
twice mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its
main provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of
revision carried out some good work. Elaborate legal machinery
was devised, though its provisions were constantly violated by the
imperial will and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of
law courts were established, and provision was made for appeals in
both civil and criminal cases. Abuses in legal administration and in
tax-collecting were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections.
Oppression by the throne and the official and noble classes
prevailed extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the
use of the <i>Kyei</i>, or principle of association, which developed among
Koreans into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit
associations, money-lending gilds, &amp;c. Nearly all traders, porters
and artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and
strong by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need.
Under the Japanese régime the judiciary and the executive were
rigidly separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation,
three courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts,
were put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws
was undertaken. The prison system was also reformed.</p>

<p><i>Finance and Money.</i>&mdash;Until 1904 the finances of Korea were
completely disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget
was an official formality making little or no attempt at accuracy.
By agreement of the 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese
financial adviser, and valuable reforms were quickly entered upon
under the direction of the first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He
had to contend against corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expenditure,
and absence of organization in the collection of revenue, apart
from the confusion with regard to the currency. This last was
nominally on a silver standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i)
copper <i>cash</i>, which were strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and,
as about 9&#8468; weight was equal to one shilling, were excessively
cumbrous, but were nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii)
nickel coins, which, being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous
quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover extensively
forged. The Dai Ichi Ginko (First Bank of Japan), which has a
branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the government
central treasury, and its notes were recognized as legal tender
in Korea. The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step
was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From the 1st of August 1905
the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and the
issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained
as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was issued
of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and half-sen pieces. To aid
the free circulation of money and facilitate trade, the government
grants subsidies for the establishment of co-operative warehouse
companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations have also been
promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which have long
existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper about
an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was written
the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and payee,
with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and one
half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount
of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill.
The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span>
consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the
amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old
nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of
a note association, a body constituted under government regulations,
whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes.
The notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require
endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Administrative
reform was also taken in hand; the large number of superfluous
and badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the
status and salary of all existing government officials considerably
improved. An endeavour was made to publish an annual budget,
in which the revenue and expenditure should accurately represent
the sums actually received and expended. Regulations were framed
for the purpose of establishing adequate supervision over the
revenue and expenditure for the abolition of irregular taxation and
extortions, as well as the practice of farming out the collection of
the revenue to individuals, and, generally, to adapt the whole
collection and expenditure of the national revenue to modern ideas
of public finance. Down to 1910 the sum expended by Japan on
Korean reforms was estimated to approach fifteen millions sterling.
Among reforms not specifically referred to may be mentioned the
improvement of coastwise navigation, the provision of posts, roads,
railways, public buildings, hospitals and sanitary works, and the
official advancement of industries.</p>

<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 10th to the
14th century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its
priests are ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the
official cult, and all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated
seasons in the Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis
of morality and social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The
popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification
of the Shamanism of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly
malignant, keeps the Koreans in constant terror, and much of their
substance is spent on propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers
are the intermediaries. At the close of the 19th century the fees
annually paid to these persons were estimated at £150,000; there
were in Seoul 1000 sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the
male sorcerers and geomancers.</p>

<p>Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain
to the Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the
Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who
received the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and
had made 4000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt
at the conversion of Korea was made by the French <i>Société des
Missions Étrangères</i> in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions,
there were 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which
year the French bishops and priests were martyred by order of the
emperor&rsquo;s father, and several thousand native Christians were
beheaded, banished or imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about
30 missionaries and 40,000 converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration
being established, Protestant missionaries of the American Presbyterian
and Methodist Episcopal Churches entered Korea, and were
followed by a large number of agents of other denominations. An
English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing sisters arrived in 1890.
Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an admirable college in Seoul
have been founded, along with tri-lingual (Chinese, Korean and
English) printing-presses; religious, historical and scientific works
and much of the Bible have been translated into <i>En-mun</i>, and
periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean script are also
circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was very slow for
some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied.</p>

<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;The &ldquo;Royal Examinations&rdquo; in Chinese literature
held in Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position,
being abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished.
In Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two
foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college
under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian
and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary
schools, mission boarding-schools, and the <i>Pai Chai</i> College connected
with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperial
patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal
education of a high class was given and <i>En-mun</i> receives much
attention. The Koreans are expert linguists, and the government
made liberal grants to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools
boys learn arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught,
with the outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized
countries. The education department has been entirely reorganized
under the Japanese régime, Japanese models being followed.</p>
</div>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze&mdash;a
councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage,
and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the
<i>Shu-King</i>&mdash;is represented as entering Korea in 1122 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with
several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king.
The peninsula was then peopled by savages living in caves and
subterranean holes. By both learned and popular belief in Korea
Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order, and is
greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom <i>Ch&rsquo;ao-Hsien</i>,
pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws and Chinese
etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from satisfying
the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that
Ki-tze&rsquo;s dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
from which period until the 10th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> civil wars and
foreign aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai,
which with Korai and Shinra then constituted Korea, was a
centre of literary culture in the 4th century, through which the
Chinese classics and the art of writing reached the other two
kingdoms. <span class="correction" title="amended from Buddism">Buddhism</span>, a forceful civilizing element, reached
Hiaksai in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern
Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and
ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang
the Founder, who unified the peninsula under the name Korai,
made Song-do its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state
religion. In the 11th century Korea was stripped of her
territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde of Tungus stock,
since which time her frontiers have been stationary. The Wang
dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula,
when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty,
ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from
Jenghiz and Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the
first Ming emperor of China, received from him his investiture as
sovereign, and accepted from him the Chinese calendar and
chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty. He revived the name
<i>Ch&rsquo;ao-Hsien</i>, changed the capital from Song-do to Seoul, organized
an administrative system, which with some modifications
continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous
reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary
examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucianism
the state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the
burying of old men alive, and introduced that Confucian system
of education, polity, and social order which has dominated Korea
for five centuries. Either this king or an immediate successor
introduced the present national costume, the dress worn by the
Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early heirs of this
vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, for
the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese
buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under
Chinese protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion.
In 1592 occurred the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a
Japanese army of 300,000 men, by order of the great regent
Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with 60,000 men, and six
years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan
used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. Seoul and
several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some instances
destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and
the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were
recalled in 1598 at Hideyoshi&rsquo;s death. The port and fishing
privileges of Fusan remained in Japanese possession, a heavy
tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in
humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea never recovered
from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all
Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese.</p>

<p>In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive
expeditions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries
and American adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted
much loss of life, but retired without securing any diplomatic
successes, and Korea continued to preserve her complete
isolation. The first indirect step towards breaking it down had
been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China the cession
of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down
to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans
and persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The
emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became
thrifty and prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent
of China, wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully
opened to Japanese settlement and trade, and Wön-san (Gensan)
and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880. In 1882
China promulgated her &ldquo;Trade and Frontier Regulations,&rdquo;
and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by
Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span>
France in 1886, and Austria in 1892. A &ldquo;Trade Convention&rdquo;
was also concluded with Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to
foreign residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the
diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized
status at the capital. These treaties terminated the absolute
isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the
negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was
treated with as an independent state. Between 1897 and
1899, under diplomatic pressure, a number of ports were opened
to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 to 1894 the chief
event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the Tai-won-Kun,
the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which
led to an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of
which were compelled to fight their way, and that not bloodlessly,
to the sea. Japan secured ample compensation; and
the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the
Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the
leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean
statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped
conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to subside.
In spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between
the queen and the returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade
was one of quiet. China, always esteemed in Korea, consolidated
her influence under the new conditions through a
powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms
were projected by foreign &ldquo;advisers.&rdquo; In May 1894 a more
important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask
armed aid from China. She landed 2000 troops on the 10th of
June, having previously, in accordance with treaty provisions,
notified Japan of her intention. Soon after this Japan had
12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty
ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean
reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China
replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the
withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations.
Japan rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked
and occupied the royal palace. After some further negotiations
and fights by land and sea between Japan and China war
was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time
the battle-ground of the belligerents. The Japanese victories
resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of Chinese suzerainty
by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for
Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms
under Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of
the throne. Everything promised well. The finances flourished
under the capable control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M&lsquo;Leavy
Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious retrenchments were carried
out in most of the government departments. A measure
of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed
on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was
relaxed. Postal and educational systems were introduced.
An approach to a constitution was made. The distinction
between patrician and plebeian, domestic slavery, and beating
and slicing to death were abolished. The age for marriage of
both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased
to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were
enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt
systems of government was severed. For about eighteen
months all the departments were practically under Japanese
control. On the 8th of October 1895 the Tai-won-Kun, with
Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of
Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace,
assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who,
however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation,
where he remained till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence
waned. The engagements of the advisers were not renewed.
A strong retrograde movement set in. Reforms were dropped.
The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted
to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and
arrangements of finance were upset by Russia.</p>

<p>At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor,
and changed the official designation of the empire to <i>Dai Han</i>&mdash;Great
Han. By 1898 the imperial will, working under partially
new conditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1900 succeeded
in practically overriding all constitutional restraints.
Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly active. At last
Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the
war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea.
On the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined
whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser
to Korea, guaranteed the integrity of the country, and bound
herself to maintain the imperial house in its position. Her
interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of peace
(September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo-Japanese
agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Koreans
did not accept the restoration of Japanese influence without
demur. In August 1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt
by some merchants to obtain special assistance from the treasury
on the pretext of embarrassment caused by Japanese
financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some of the
provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show
of force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion
of the treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby
Japan obtained the control of Korea&rsquo;s foreign affairs and
relations, and the confirmation of previous agreements, the
far-reaching results of which have been indicated. Nor was
opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular demonstration.
In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong,
a member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before
the Hague conference of that year, and before all the principal
governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by
Japan. While this was of course fruitless from the Korean
point of view, it indicated that the Japanese must take strong
measures to suppress the intrigues of the Korean court.</p>

<p>At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdicated
on the 19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his
son. Somewhat serious <i>émeutes</i> followed in Seoul and elsewhere,
and the Japanese proposals for a new convention,
increasing the powers of the resident general, had to be presented
to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention
was signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms immediately
undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standing
army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla
warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was not
easy to subdue. Under the direction of Prince Ito (<i>q.v.</i>) the
work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July 1909, General
Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident-general,
with the mission to bring about annexation. This was effected
peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal
treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>.)</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordadbeh,
an Arab geographer of the 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, in his <i>Book of Roads
and Provinces</i>, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on
<i>China</i>, p. 575. The earliest European source of information is a narrative
by H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast
of Quelpart in 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years.
The amount of papers on Korea scattered through English, German,
French and Russian magazines, and the proceedings of geographical
societies, is very great, and for the last three centuries Japanese
writers have contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge
of the peninsula. The list which follows includes some of the more
recent works which illustrate the history, manners and customs, and
awakening of Korea: <i>British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade,
Annual Series</i> (London); <i>Bibliographie koréanne</i> (3 vols., Paris,
1897); Mrs. I. L. Bishop, <i>Korea and her Neighbours</i> (2 vols., London,
1897); M. von Brandt, <i>Ostasiatische Fragen</i> (Leipzig, 1897); A. E. J.
Cavendish and H. E. Goold Adams, <i>Korea, and the Sacred White
Mountain</i> (London, 1894); Stewart Culin, <i>Korean Games</i> (Philadelphia,
1895); Curzon, <i>Problems of the Far East</i> (London, 1896);
Dallet, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;église de Korée</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J. S. Gale,
<i>Korean Sketches</i> (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, <i>The Hermit
Nation</i> (8th and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel,
<i>Relation du naufrage d&rsquo;un vaisseau Halindois, &amp;c., traduite du
Flamond par M. Minutoli</i> (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, <i>Der
Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im Jahre 1597; translated from
Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier</i> (2 vols., Vienna, 1875); M.
Jametel, &ldquo;La Korée: ses ressources, son avenir commercial,&rdquo; <i>L&rsquo;Économiste
française</i> (Paris, July 1881); Percival Lowell, <i>Chosön: The
Land of the Morning Calm</i> (London, Boston, 1886); L. J. Miln,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span>
<i>Quaint Korea</i> (Harper, New York, 1895); V. de Laguerie, <i>La Korée
indépendante, russe ou japonaise?</i> (Paris, 1898); J. Ross, <i>Korea:
Its History, Manners and Customs</i> (Paisley, 1880); W. H. Wilkinson,
<i>The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes in Korea during the
period 23rd July 1894&mdash;30th June 1896</i> (Shanghai, 1896); A. Hamilton,
<i>Korea</i> (London, 1903); C. J. D. Taylor, <i>Koreans at Home</i> (London,
1904); E. Boudaret, <i>En Corée</i> (Paris, 1904); Laurent-Crémazy,
<i>Le Code pénal de la Corée</i> (Paris, 1904); G. T. Ladd, <i>In Korea with
Marquis It&#333;</i> (London, 1908); Dictionaries and vocabularies by W. F.
Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), the French missionaries,
and others, were superseded in 1898 by a large and learned
volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian missionary, who
devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C. Gottsche,
&ldquo;Geologische Skizze von Korea,&rdquo; <i>Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss.</i> (Berlin,
Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary of this paper, with a
reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquière in <i>Rev. sci.</i>
Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904), pp. 545-552.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(I. L. B.; O. J. R. H.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English
navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOREA,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal
to the Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
35,113, or only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £1200.
It consists of an elevated table-land, with hills rising to above
3000 ft. Such traffic as there is is carried by means of
pack-bullocks.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Church Archtriumphant</span>,
a communistic body, founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical
practitioner, who was born at Utica, New York, in 1839. Teed
was regarded by his adherents as &ldquo;the new Messiah now in the
World,&rdquo; and many other extravagant views both in science and
economics are held by them. Two communities were founded:
in Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894),
where in 1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is
derived from Koresh, the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have
a journal, <i>The Flaming Sword</i>.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">K&#332;RIN, OGATA<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lacquerer,
was born at K&#333;t&#333;, the son of a wealthy merchant who
had a taste for the arts and is said to have given his son some
elementary instruction therein. K&#333;rin also studied under
Soken Yamamoto, Kan&#333;, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi;
and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors K&#333;yetsu
and S&#333;tatsu. On arriving at maturity, however, he broke
away from all tradition, and developed a very original and
quite distinctive style of his own, both in painting and in the
decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this is a bold
impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly
idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or
of the usual conventions. In lacquer K&#333;rin&rsquo;s use of white
metals arid of mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed
K&#333;yetsu. K&#333;rin died on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of
fifty-nine. His chief pupils were Kagei Tatebashi and Shik&#333;
Watanable; but the present knowledge and appreciation of
his work are largely due to the efforts of H&#333;itsu Sakai, who
brought about a revival of K&#333;rin&rsquo;s style.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. Morrison, <i>The Painters of Japan</i> (1902); S. Tajima, <i>Masterpieces
selected from the K&#333;rin School</i> (1903); S. H&#333;itsu, <i>The 100
Designs by K&#333;rin</i> (1815) and <i>More Designs by K&#333;rin</i> (1826).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORKUS,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura
hills in the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the
westernmost representatives of the Munda family of speech.
They are rapidly becoming hinduized, as may be gathered from
the figures of the census of 1901, which show 140,000 Korkus by
race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku language.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (German, <i>Kremnitz</i>), an old mining town,
in the county of Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It is situated in a deep valley in the
Hungarian Ore Mountains region. Among its principal buildings
are the castle, several Roman Catholic (from the 13th and
14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan monastery
(founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the celebrated
Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the
inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and
silver mines. By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, constructed
in 1851-1852, the water is drained off from the mines
into the river Gran. According to tradition, Körmöczbánya was
founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The place is mentioned
in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town in 1328,
being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1791-1813), German poet and
patriot, often called the German &ldquo;Tyrtaeus,&rdquo; was born at
Dresden on the 23rd of September 1791. His father, Christian
Gottfried Körner (1756-1831), a distinguished Saxon jurist, was
Schiller&rsquo;s most intimate friend. He was educated at the Kreuzschule
in Dresden and entered at the age of seventeen the mining
academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained two years.
Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a
collection of which appeared under the title <i>Knospen</i> in 1810.
In this year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to
study law; but he became involved in a serious conflict with the
police and was obliged to continue his studies in Berlin. In
August 1811 Körner went to Vienna, where he devoted himself
entirely to literary pursuits; he became engaged to the actress
Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of several plays produced
in 1812, he was appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater.
When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in 1813,
Körner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lützow&rsquo;s
famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig
he passed through Dresden, where he issued his spirited <i>Aufruf
an die Sachsen</i>, in which he called upon his countrymen to rise
against their oppressors. He became lieutenant towards the
end of April, and took part in a skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig
on the 7th of June, when he was severely wounded. After being
nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he rejoined his corps
and fell in an engagement outside a wood near Gadebusch in
Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by his
comrades under an oak close to the village of Wöbbelin, where
there is a monument to him.</p>

<p>The abiding interest in Körner is patriotic and political rather
than literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics,
which were published by his father under the title <i>Leier und
Schwert</i> in 1814. These songs, which fired the poet&rsquo;s comrades
to deeds of heroism in 1813, bear eloquent testimony to the
intensity of the national feeling against Napoleon, but judged
as literature they contain more bombast than poetry. Among
the best known are &ldquo;Lützow&rsquo;s wilde verwegene Jagd,&rdquo; &ldquo;Gebet
während der Schlacht&rdquo; (set to music by Weber) and &ldquo;Das
Schwertlied.&rdquo; This last was written immediately before his
death, and the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a
dramatist Körner was remarkably prolific, but his comedies
hardly touch the level of Kotzebue&rsquo;s and his tragedies, of which
the best is <i>Zriny</i> (1814), are rhetorical imitations of Schiller&rsquo;s.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His works have passed through many editions. Among the more
recent are: <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf
Stern; by H. Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze
(Berlin, 1900). The most valuable contributions to our knowledge
of the poet have been furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and director
of the Körner Museum in Dresden, in <i>Theodor Körners Tagebuch
und Kriegslieder, aus dem Jahre 1813</i> (Freiburg, 1893) and, in
conjunction with E. Wildenow, <i>Theodor Körner und die Seinen</i>
(Leipzig, 1898).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KORNEUBURG,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m.
N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on
the left bank of the Danube, opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a
steamship station and an important emporium of the salt and
corn trade. The industry comprises the manufacture of coarse
textiles, pasteboard, &amp;c. Its charter as a town dates from 1298,
and it was a much frequented market in the preceding century.
At the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by walls,
and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved
in the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus
and the emperor Frederick William III., and also during the
Thirty Years&rsquo; War.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOROCHA,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> a town of central Russia, in the government of
Kursk, 75 m. S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river.
Pop. (1897), 14,405. Its inhabitants live by gardening, exporting
large quantities of dried cherries, by making candles and
leather, and by trade; the merchants purchase cattle, grain and
salt in the south and send them to Moscow. Founded in 1638,
Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the Tatar
invasions.</p>


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<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KORSÖR,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a seaport of Denmark, in the <i>amt</i> (county) of the
island of Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the
east shore of the Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour,
which is formed by a bay of the Baltic, has a depth throughout
of 20 ft. It is the point of departure and arrival of the steam
ferry to Nyborg on Fünen, lying on the Hamburg, Schleswig,
Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also regular communication
by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish,
cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town
since the 14th century, Korsör has ruins of an old fortified castle,
on the south side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th
centuries.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KORTCHA<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (Slavonic, <i>Goritza</i> or <i>Koritza</i>), a city of Albania,
European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, in a wide plain
watered by the Devol and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by
mountains on every side except the north, where Lake Malik
constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about 10,000, including
Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an Orthodox
Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated in
the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school
for girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educational
establishment in which the Turkish government permits
the use of Albanian as the language of instruction. The local
trade is chiefly agricultural.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KORYAKS,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, inhabiting
the coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the
Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the
Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range
being Tigilsk. They are akin to the Chukchis, whom they closely
resemble in physique and in manner of life. Thus they are
divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad reindeer
breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more
morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and
hopelessly poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand,
still own enormous reindeer herds, to which they are so attached
that they refuse to part with an animal to a stranger at any price.
They are in disposition brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and
recognize no master. They have ever tenaciously resisted
Russian aggression, and in their fights with the Cossacks have
proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered they
would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and
die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens,
forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no
predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are
polygamous, earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-law.
The women and children are treated well, and Koryak
courtesy and hospitality are proverbial. The chief wedding
ceremony is a forcible abduction of the bride. They kill the
aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save them from protracted
sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The victims
choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the
art of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide
was formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed.
They burn their dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism;
sacrifices are made to evil spirits, the heads of the victims being
placed on stones facing east.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See G. Kennan, <i>Tent Life in Siberia</i> (1871); &ldquo;Über die Koriaken
u. ihnen nähe verwandten Tchouktchen,&rdquo; in <i>Bul. Acad. Sc. St.
Petersburg</i>, xii. 99.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOSCIUSCO,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> the highest mountain in Australia, in the range
of the Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of
New South Wales. Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to
the south, Mueller&rsquo;s Peak, long considered the highest in the continent,
is 7268 ft. high. A meteorological station was established
on Kosciusco in 1897.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span>
(1746-1817), Polish soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik
Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate of Brzesc, and Tekla
Ratomska, was born in the village of Mereczowszczyno. After
being educated at home he entered the corps of cadets at Warsaw,
where his unusual ability and energy attracted the notice of
Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he
was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military
education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently,
completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and
naval tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank of captain
of artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the
Grand Hetman, Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathematics,
he fell in love with the youngest of them, Ludwika, and
not venturing to hope for the consent of her father, the lovers
resolved to fly and be married privately. Before they could
accomplish their design, however, the wooer was attacked by
Sosnowski&rsquo;s retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, covered
with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776.
Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko&rsquo;s wooing of Tekla Zurowska
in 1791, the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent.</p>

<p>In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko
won his spurs in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army
of the United States as a volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished
himself, especially during the operations about New York and at
Yorktown. Washington promoted Kosciuszko to the rank of a colonel
of artillery and made him his adjutant. His humanity and
charm of manner made him moreover one the most popular of the
American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded for his
services and his devotion to the cause of American independence
with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship,
a considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank
of brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service.</p>

<p>In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution
of the 3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Confederation
of Targowica (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poland</a></span>: <i>History</i>), Kosciuszko took
a leading part. As the commander of a division under Prince
Joseph Poniatowski he distinguished himself at the battle of
Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka (July 18) with 4000 men and
10 guns defended the line of the Bug for five days against the
Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently retiring
upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the Targowicians,
Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up
his commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the
centre of the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with
letters of introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciuszko
went on a political mission to Paris to induce the revolutionary
government to espouse the cause of Poland. In return for
assistance he promised to make the future government of Poland
as close a copy of the French government as possible; but the
Jacobins, already intent on detaching Prussia from the anti-French
coalition, had no serious intention of fighting Poland&rsquo;s
battles. The fact that Kosciuszko&rsquo;s visit synchronized with the
execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland
a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus prejudicing
Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciuszko
was invited by the Polish insurgents to take the command
of the national armies, with dictatorial power. He hesitated at
first, well aware that a rising in the circumstances was premature.
&ldquo;I will have nothing to do with Cossack raiding,&rdquo; he replied; &ldquo;if
war we have, it must be a regular war.&rdquo; He also insisted that
the war must be conducted on the model of the American War of
Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of Cracow
to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection
had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were concentrating
to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but
hastened to Cracow, which he reached on the 23rd of March 1794.
On the following day his arms were consecrated according to
ancient custom at the church of the Capucins, by way of giving
the insurrection a religious sanction incompatible with Jacobinism.
The same day, amidst a vast concourse of people in the
market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the Polish
nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country;
but protested at the same time that he would fight only for the
independence and territorial integrity of Poland.</p>

<p>The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character.
We find none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists
of the original confederates. For the most part the confederates
of Kosciuszko were small squires, traders, peasants and men of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span>
low degree generally. Yet the comparatively few gentlemen
who joined the movement sacrificed everything to it. Thus, to
take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold the whole of his
ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 thalers to the
cause. From the 24th of March to the 1st of April Kosciuszko
remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April
at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only
with scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the
Russians, who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had
an immense moral effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds
of waverers to what had at first seemed a desperate cause. For
the next two months Kosciuszko remained on the defensive near
Sandomir. He durst not risk another engagement with the only
army which Poland so far possessed, and he had neither money,
officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly during
the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was nothing
to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and provisions
had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be
obtained by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate
of the churches and monasteries, which was brought in to Kosciuszko&rsquo;s
camp at Pinczow and subsequently coined at Warsaw,
minus the royal effigy, with the inscription: &ldquo;Freedom, Integrity
and Independence of the Republic, 1794.&rdquo; Moreover, Poland
was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were incorporated
in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to break
away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally
to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of
April the whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month
the 2000 Polish troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison
after days of street fighting, chiefly through the ability of General
Mokronowski, and a provisional government was formed. Five
days later Jakob Jasinski drove the Russians from Wilna.</p>

<p>By this time Kosciuszko&rsquo;s forces had risen to 14,000, of whom
10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive.
He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or
Prussia. The former was described in his manifestoes as a
potential friend; the latter he never alluded to as an enemy.
&ldquo;Remember,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;that the only war we have upon our
hands is war to the death against the Muscovite tyranny.&rdquo;
Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and obstructive; and
the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very speedily effected
a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, misled by
the treacherous assurances of Frederick William&rsquo;s ministers,
never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched
against General Denisov. He encountered the enemy on
the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and then discovered that his
14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian division but
with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering
25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves manfully,
and at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw unpursued.
Yet their losses had been terrible, and of the six
Polish generals present three, whose loss proved to be irreparable,
were slain, and two of the others were seriously wounded. A
week later another Polish division was defeated at Kholm;
Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of June; and
the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the
political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily
punished the ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of
the rank and file drafted into his camp, which measures had a
quieting effect. But now dissensions broke out among the
members of the Polish government, and it required all the tact
of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of suspicions
and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all
his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On
the 9th of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of
Prussia with an army of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the
Russian general Fersen with 16,000 men and 74 guns, while a
third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank of the Vistula.
Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying fortifications
could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were regulars.
But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong
one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of
Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts
of the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the
Polish positions on the 26th of August and the 1st of September,
and on the 6th the Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish
arms in Great Poland, where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured
the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz and compelled General
Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon Kalisz, raised the
siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the Poles were
everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before him
out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw.
Even now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the
Polish forces were still numerically superior to the Russian.
But the Polish generals proved unequal to carrying out the plans
of the dictator; they allowed themselves to be beaten in detail,
and could not prevent the junction of Suvarov and Fersen.
Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of Poninski&rsquo;s division
4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the 10th of
October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody
encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by
the 16,000 Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and
insensible, was made a prisoner on the field of battle. The long
credited story that he cried &ldquo;Finis Poloniae!&rdquo; as he fell is a
fiction.</p>

<p>Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till
the accession of Paul in 1796. On his return on the 19th of
December 1796 he paid a second visit to America, and lived at
Philadelphia till May 1798, when he went to Paris, where the First
Consul earnestly invited his co-operation against the Allies. But
he refused to draw his sword unless Napoleon undertook to give
the restoration of Poland a leading place in his plans; and to
this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not consent. Again
and again he received offers of high commands in the French
army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at Berville,
near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814.
At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland
finally wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of
Czartoryski; and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he
lived with his friend Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the
2nd of April 1817, he emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the
maintenance of schools on the liberated estates. His remains
were carried to Cracow and buried in the cathedral; while the
people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a huge mound to his
memory near the city.</p>

<p>Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the
school of Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the
republic could only be regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty
and equality before the law; but in this respect he was far in
advance of his age, and the aristocratic prejudices of his countrymen
compelled him to resort to half measures. He wrote
<i>Man&oelig;uvres of Horse Artillery</i> (New York, 1808) and a description
of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. Raczynski&rsquo;s <i>Sketch
of the Poles and Poland</i> (Posen, 1843).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Jozef Zajaczek, <i>History of the Revolution of</i> 1794 (Pol.) (Lemberg,
1881); Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, <i>Biographie du général
Kosciuszko</i> (Fontainebleau, 1837); Karol Falkenstein, <i>Thaddäus
Kosciuszko</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839); Antoni
Choloniewski, <i>Tadeusz Kosciuszko</i> (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1902); Franciszek
Rychlicki, <i>T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland</i> (Pol.) (Cracow,
1875).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖSEN,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a village and summer resort of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the
Saale. Pop. (1905), 2990. The town has a mineral spring, which
is used for bathing, being efficacious for rheumatism and other
complaints. Kösen, which became a town in 1869, has large
mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On the adjacent
Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German students
have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the
Franco-German War of 1870-71. Hereon are also memorials to
Bismarck and to the emperor William I. The town is famous
as the central meeting-place of the German students&rsquo; corps,
which hold an annual congress here every Whitsuntide.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Techow, <i>Führer durch Kösen und Umgegend</i> (Kösen, 1889);
and Rosenberg, <i>Kösen</i> (Naumburg, 1877).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span></p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSHER,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kasher</span> (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the
Jewish term for any food or vessels for food made ritually fit
for use, in contradistinction to those <i>pasul</i>, unfit, and <i>terefah</i>,
forbidden. Thus the vessels used at the Passover are &ldquo;kosher,&rdquo;
as are also new metal vessels bought from a Gentile after they
have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is specially
used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses.
The <i>schochat</i> or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral
character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The slaughtering&mdash;the
object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of the
body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood&mdash;is done by severing
the windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous
stroke backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is permitted,
and no stoppage must occur during the operation. The
knife is then carefully examined, and if there be the slightest flaw
in its blade the meat cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have
been clean, the uneven blade causing a thrill to pass through the
beast and thus driving the blood again through the arteries.
After this every portion of the animal is thoroughly examined,
for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew cannot taste
the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so as to
allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is soaked
in water for about half an hour. It is then covered with salt
for about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher
meat is labelled with the name of the slaughterer and the date of
killing.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÖSLIN,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cöslin</span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.),
5 m. from the Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop.
(1905), 21,474. The town has two Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a gymnasium, a cadet academy and a deaf and
dumb asylum. In the large market place is the statue of the
Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824, and there is
a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The industries
include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper,
bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Köslin was built about
1188 by the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266.
In 1532 it accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was
severely tried in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War and in the Seven Years&rsquo;
War, and in 1720 it was burned down. On the Gollenberg
stands a monument to the memory of the Pomeranians who fell
in the war of 1813-15.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSSOVO,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, comprising
the sanjak of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of
Prizren and Novibazar (<i>q.v.</i>) in northern Albania. Pop. (1905),
about 1,100,000; area, 12,700 sq. m. For an account of the
physical features of Kossovo, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>.
The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller
communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good
roads traverse the vilayet (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Usküb</a></span>), and the railway from
Salonica northward bifurcates at Usküb, the capital, one branch
going to Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia.
Despite the undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only
mines working in 1907 were two chrome mines, at Orasha and
Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its agricultural trade, however,
Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish province. The exports,
worth about £950,000, include livestock, large quantities of
grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and skins.
Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a
growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the
Ottoman Debt. The yearly value of the imports is approximately
£1,200,000; these include machinery and other manufactured
goods, metals, groceries, chemical products and petroleum, which
is used in the flour-mills and factories on account of the prohibitive
price of coal. There is practically no trade with
Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and imports pass
through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia. The
chief towns, Usküb (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprülü (22,000),
Ishtib [Slav. <i>Stip</i>] (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina
(11,000) are described in separate articles.</p>

<p>In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian
Empire, its northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old
Servia (<i>Stara Srbiya</i>). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje,
&ldquo;Field of Blackbirds&rdquo;), a long valley lying west of Prishtina
and watered by the Sibnitza, a tributary of the Servian Ibar, is
famous in Balkan history and legend as the scene of the battle of
Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia was destroyed by
the Turks. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), Hungarian
statesman, the son of Lajos Kossuth, was born on the 16th of
November 1841, and educated at the Paris Polytechnic and the
London University, where in 1859 he won a prize for political
economy. After working as a civil engineer on the Dean Forest
railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the next
thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway construction
of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive
the Hungarian independence question by a whole series of
pamphlets and newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married
Emily Hoggins. In 1885 he was decorated for his services by the
Italian government. His last great engineering work was the
construction of the steel bridges for the Nile. In 1894 he escorted
his father&rsquo;s remains to Hungary, and the following year resolved
to settle in his native land and took the oath of allegiance. As
early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of the Hungarian
diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate.
On the 10th of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896
for Cegléd, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian
politics. In the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the
obstructionists or &ldquo;Independence Party,&rdquo; against the successive
Szell, Khuen-Haderváry, Szápáry and Stephen Tisza administrations
(1898-1904), exercising great influence not only in
parliament but upon the public at large through his articles in
the <i>Egyetértés</i>. The elections of 1905 having sent his party back
with a large majority, he was received in audience by the king
and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was
one of the most distinguished members.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Sturm, <i>The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet</i> (1905-1910), art.
&ldquo;Kossuth&rdquo; (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSSUTH, LAJOS<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> [Louis] (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot,
was born at Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on
the 19th of September 1802. His father, who was descended
from an old untitled noble family and possessed a small estate,
was by profession an advocate. Louis, who was the eldest of
four children, received from his mother a strict religious training.
His education was completed at the Calvinist college of Sárospatak
and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen he
returned home and began practice with his father. His talents
and amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among
the peasants. He was also appointed steward to the countess
Szápáry, a widow with large estates, and as her representative
had a seat in the county assembly. This position he lost owing
to a quarrel with his patroness, and he was accused of appropriating
money to pay a gambling debt. His fault cannot have
been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he had in the
meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be his
deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again
in 1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great
national party was beginning the struggle for reform against the
stagnant Austrian government. As deputy he had no vote, and
he naturally took little share in the debates, but it was part of
his duty to send written reports of the proceedings to his patron,
since the government, with a well-grounded fear of all that might
stir popular feeling, refused to allow any published reports.
Kossuth&rsquo;s letters were so excellent that they were circulated in
MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon developed into an
organized parliamentary gazette (<i>Orszagyulesi tudositasok</i>), of
which he was editor. At once his name and influence spread.
In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on lithographing
the letters. This brought them under the official censure, and
was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the
government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post
sent it out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth
continued the agitation by reporting in letter form the debates
of the county assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span>
importance which they had not had when each was ignorant of
the proceedings of the others. The fact that he embellished with
his own great literary ability the speeches of the Liberals and
Reformers only added to the influence of his news-letters. The
government in vain attempted to suppress the letters, and other
means having failed, he was in May 1837, with Weszelenyi and
several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. After
spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned
to four more years&rsquo; imprisonment. His confinement was strict
and injured his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He
greatly increased his political information, and also acquired,
from the study of the Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful knowledge
of English. His arrest had caused great indignation. The
Diet, which met in 1839, supported the agitation for the release of
the prisoners, and refused to pass any government measures;
Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger of war in
1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release
Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his
prison days had shown great interest in him. Henceforward
she strongly urged him on in his political career; and it was the
refusal of the Roman priests to bless their union that
first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of mixed
marriages.</p>

<p>He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his
health was restored he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the
<i>Pesti Hirlap</i>, the newly founded organ of the party. Strangely
enough, the government did not refuse its consent. The success
of the paper was unprecedented. The circulation soon reached
what was then the immense figure of 7000. The attempts of
the government to counteract his influence by founding a rival
paper, the <i>Vilag</i>, only increased his importance and added to
the political excitement. The warning of the great reformer
Szechenyi that by his appeal to the passions of the people he
was leading the nation to revolution was neglected. Kossuth,
indeed, was not content with advocating those reforms&mdash;the
abolition of entail, the abolition of feudal burdens, taxation of
the nobles&mdash;which were demanded by all the Liberals. By insisting
on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic inhabitants
of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already
discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the
national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the government
succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper.
The proprietor, in obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems
the most probable account), took advantage of a dispute about
salary to dismiss him. He then applied for permission to start
a paper of his own. In a personal interview Metternich offered
to take him into the government service. The offer was refused,
and for three years he was without a regular position. He continued
the agitation with the object of attaining both the political
and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the
economic principles of List, and founded a society, the &ldquo;Vedegylet,&rdquo;
the members of which were to consume none but home
produce. He advocated the creation of a Hungarian port at
Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great opportunity of his
life came. Supported by the influence of Louis Batthyany,
after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for Budapest
in the new Diet. &ldquo;Now that I am a deputy, I will cease
to be an agitator,&rdquo; he said. He at once became chief leader of
the Extreme Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi,
Szemere, Eotvos, his rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition
and egoism led him always to assume the chief place, and to use
his parliamentary position to establish himself as leader of the
nation; but before his eloquence and energy all apprehensions
were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, in its impassioned
appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required for
its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations.
In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure,
he would never have attained the highest power. It was therefore
a necessity of his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always
to drive things to a crisis. The crisis came, and he used it to
the full.</p>

<p>On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution
in Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded
parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional
government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of
the Habsburgs, &ldquo;our beloved Archduke Francis Joseph,&rdquo; to
perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way
the aspirations of a free people. He at once became the leader
of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud in the
streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown
(March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna
to receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was
Kossuth who received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed
the first responsible ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth,
but he gave him the ministry of finance, probably because that
seemed to open to him fewest prospects of engrossing popularity.
If that was the object, it was in vain. With wonderful energy
he began developing the internal resources of the country: he
established a separate Hungarian coinage&mdash;as always, using every
means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it was
characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued
his own name was the most prominent inscription; hence the name
of <i>Kossuth Notes</i>, which was long celebrated. A new paper was
started, to which was given the name of <i>Kossuth Hirlapia</i>, so that
from the first it was Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the
president of the ministry whose name was in the minds of the
people associated with the new government. Much more was
this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the Croats,
Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech
of 11th July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence,
and demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm
this was granted by acclamation. When Jellachich was marching
on Pesth he went from town to town rousing the people to the
defence of the country, and the popular force of the <i>Honved</i> was
his creation. When Batthyany resigned he was appointed with
Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the
end of September he was made President of the Committee of
National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name,
the dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands
the direction of the whole government. Not a soldier himself,
he had to control and direct the movements of armies; can we
be surprised if he failed, or if he was unable to keep control over
the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential
to success? Especially it was Görgei (<i>q.v.</i>) whose great abilities
he was the first to recognize, who refused obedience; the two men
were in truth the very opposite to one another: the one all feeling,
enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, reckless of life.
Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to
restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something
more of Görgei&rsquo;s calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been
truly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only be
held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted
and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision
in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of
personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling
which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with
the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was
able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. During all the
terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed
him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to
march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat,
at which he was present, he sent Bem to carry on the war in
Transylvania. At the end of the year, when the Austrians were
approaching Pesth, he asked for the mediation of Mr Stiles, the
American envoy. Windischgrätz, however, refused all terms,
and the Diet and government fled to Debrecszin, Kossuth taking
with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium of the
Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the
Emperor Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been
revoked and Kossuth with his colleagues outlawed. In April
1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sounding
the army, he issued the celebrated declaration of Hungarian
independence, in which he declared that &ldquo;the house of Habsburg-Lorraine,
perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span>
the Hungarian throne.&rdquo; It was a step characteristic of his love
for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions
between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the
old dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of
aiming at the crown himself. For the time the future form of
government was left undecided, but Kossuth was appointed
responsible governor. The hopes of ultimate success were frustrated
by the intervention of Russia; all appeals to the western
powers were vain, and on the 11th of August Kossuth abdicated
in favour of Görgei, on the ground that in the last extremity the
general alone could save the nation. How Görgei used his
authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed
inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have
avoided the last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get
the best terms.</p>

<p>With the capitulation of Villagos Kossuth&rsquo;s career was at an
end. A solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was
hospitably received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported
by Great Britain, refused, notwithstanding the threats of the
allied emperors, to surrender him and the other fugitives to the
merciless vengeance of the Austrians. In January 1849 he was
removed from Widdin, where he had been kept in honourable
confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia Minor.
Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at
Pressburg; his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined
him earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he
was liberated and embarked on an American man-of-war. He
first landed at Marseilles, where he received an enthusiastic
welcome from the people, but the prince-president refused to
allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of October he landed at
Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where he was
the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that
with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses
were presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other
towns; he was officially entertained by the lord mayor of
London; at each place he pleaded the cause of his unhappy
country. Speaking in English, he displayed an eloquence and
command of the language scarcely excelled by the greatest
orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate
effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian
policy had much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which
made the Crimean War possible.</p>

<p>From England he went to the United States of America:
there his reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an
element of charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which
soon destroyed his real influence. Other Hungarian exiles protested
against the claim he appeared to make that he was the
one national hero of the revolution. Count Casimir Batthyany
attacked him in <i>The Times</i>, and Szemere, who had been prime
minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his acts and
character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity.
He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in
close connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he
was persuaded to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of
a kind only too common among exiles followed; the Hungarians
were especially offended by his claim still to be called governor.
He watched with anxiety every opportunity of once more freeing
his country from Austria. An attempt to organize a Hungarian
legion during the Crimean War was stopped; but in 1859 he entered
into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy, and
began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make
a descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca
made this impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he
refused to follow the other Hungarian patriots, who, under the
lead of Deak, accepted the composition of 1867; for him there
could be no reconciliation with the house of Habsburg, nor would
he accept less than full independence and a republic. He would
not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected to the Diet
of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections of his
countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical
effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new
cause of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship
all Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a
bitter blow to him.</p>

<p>He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1894; his body was taken
to Pesth, where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole
nation, Maurus Jokai delivering the funeral oration. A bronze
statue, erected by public subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery,
commemorates Hungary&rsquo;s purest patriot and greatest orator.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Many points in Kossuth&rsquo;s career and character will probably always
remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were published
in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account
of the Revolution is given in Helfert, <i>Geschichte Oesterreichs</i> (Leipzig,
1869, &amp;c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared
with that of C. Gracza, <i>History of the Hungarian War of Independence,
1848-1849</i> (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S.,
<i>Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth</i> (Bohn,
1854); Horvath, <i>25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848</i>
(Leipzig, 1867); Maurice, <i>Revolutions of 1848-1849</i>; W. H. Stiles, <i>Austria
in 1848-1849</i> (New York, 1852); Szemere, <i>Politische Charakterskizzen:
III. Kossuth</i> (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, <i>Memoirs of my
Exile</i> (London, 1880); Pulszky, <i>Meine Zeit, mein Leben</i> (Pressburg,
1880); A. Somogyi, <i>Ludwig Kossuth</i> (Berlin, 1894).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSTER<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Coster</span>), <span class="bold">LAURENS</span> (<i>c.</i> 1370-1440), Dutch printer,
whose claims to be considered at least one of the inventors of
the art (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>) have been recognized by many investigators.
His real name was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (<i>i.e.</i>
sacristan) being merely the title which he bore as an official of
the great parish church of Haarlem. We find him mentioned
several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great
council, as an assessor (<i>scabinus</i>), and as the city treasurer.
He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in
1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His
descendants, through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down
to 1724.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Peter Scriver, <i>Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem</i> (Haarlem, 1628);
Scheltema, <i>Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster</i> (Haarlem, 1834);
Van der Linde, <i>De Haarlemsche Costerlegende</i> (Hague, 1870).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSTROMA,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a government of central Russia, surrounded by
those of Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and
Yaroslav, lying mostly on the left bank of the upper Volga.
It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its surface is generally undulating,
with hilly tracts on the right bank of the Volga, and extensive
flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of the Permian
system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the Jurassic,
and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays.
The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay;
a few patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yielding
excellent timber for ship-building, and in many cases still
untouched, occupy 61% of the area of the government. The
export of timber is greatly facilitated by the navigable tributaries
of the Volga, <i>e.g.</i> the Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and
Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts of &minus;22° F. are common
in January, and the mean temperature of the year is only 3°.1
(summer, 64°.5; winter, &minus;13°.3). The population, which numbered
1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely
Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out
of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners,
6,379,500 to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown,
and 1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a low
ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and
barley), and the yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the
population. Flax and hops are cultivated to an increasing
extent. But market-gardening is of some importance. Bee-keeping
was formerly an important industry. The chief articles
of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and
wooden wares for building and household purposes, which are
largely manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the
steppe governments of the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-building
is also carried on. Some other small industries, such
as the manufacture of silver and copper wares, leather goods,
bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are carried on in the
villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, formerly the staple,
is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen mills, engineering
and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper mills. The
government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span>
chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma
(<i>q.v.</i>), Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma
(7564), Kologriv (2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002),
Soligalich (3420), Varnavin (1140), Vetluga (5200) and
Yurievets (4778).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KOSTROMA,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E.
from Yaroslav, on the left bank of the Volga, at the mouth of the
navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on the opposite side of the
Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering gilded cupolas make
it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it climbs up the
terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of Russia,
having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge
of the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered
more than once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239
and rebuilt in 1773, is situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a
fine monument of old Russian architecture. In the centre of the
town is a monument to the peasant Ivan Susanin and the tsar
Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own life in 1669 by
leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save the life of
his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of the
Volga, close to the water&rsquo;s edge, stands the monastery of Ipatiyev,
founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associated
with the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has
been renowned since the 16th century for its linen, which was
exported to Holland, and the manufacture of linen and linen-yarn
is still kept up to some extent. The town has also cotton-mills,
tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a machine
factory. It carries on an active trade&mdash;importing grain, and
exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and
wooden wares.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KÖSZEG<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Güns</i>), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary,
173 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is
pleasantly situated in the valley of the Güns, and is dominated
towards the west by the peaks of Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the
Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It possesses a castle of Count
Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in Gothic style and
two convents. It has important cloth factories and a lively trade
in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical interest
for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by Nicolas
Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August
1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for
that year.</p>

<p>To the south-east of Köszeg, at the confluence of the Güns with
the Raab, is situated the town of Sárvár (pop. 3158), formerly
fortified, where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was
established.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTAH,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently northwards
from the high table-land of Malwa, and is drained by
the Chambal with its tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or
north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra range, from 1200
to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to north-west.
The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the neighbourhood
of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered memorable by
the passage of Colonel Monson&rsquo;s army on its disastrous retreat
in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered
with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat,
cotton, poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated.
The manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven,
but are being rapidly superseded by the cheap products of
Bombay and Manchaster. Articles of wooden furniture are also
constructed. The chief articles of export are opium and grain;
salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported.</p>

<p>Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed
upon a younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan
in return for services rendered him when the latter was in rebellion
against his father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion
of the area taken to form Jhalawar (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1838 was restored to
Kotah. In 1901 the population was 544,879, showing a decrease
of 24% due to the results of famine. The estimated revenue
is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao Umad Singh, was
born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at the
Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army.
A continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland railway
from Goona to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also
traversed by a new line, opened in 1909. The state suffered from
drought in 1896-1897, and again more severely in 1899-1900.</p>

<p>The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal.
Pop. (1901), 33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three
parts by massive walls, and contains an old and a new palace
of the maharao and a number of fine temples. Muslins are the
chief articles of manufacture, but the town has no great trade,
and this and the unhealthiness of the site may account for the
decrease in population.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTAS<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal
tribe of the Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people,
of good features, tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of
them are among the fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize
no caste among themselves, but are divided into <i>keris</i> (streets),
and a man must marry outside his <i>keri</i>. Their villages (of
which there are seven) are large, averaging from thirty to
sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the only
one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being excellent
as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do
menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They
worship ideal gods, which are not represented by any images.
Their language is an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901
they numbered 1267.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTKA,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg,
35 m. by rail from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway,
on an island of the same name at the mouth of the Kymmene
river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is the chief port for exports from
and imports to east Finland and a centre of the timber trade.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTRI,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind,
situated on the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617.
Kotri is the junction of branches of the North-Western railway,
serving each bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a railway
bridge. It was formerly the station for Hyderabad, which lies
across the Indus, and the headquarters of the Indus steam
flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of
railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre,
however, Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by
river.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span>
(1761-1819), German dramatist, was born on the 3rd of May,
1761, at Weimar. After attending the gymnasium of his native
town, he went in his sixteenth year to the university of Jena,
and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In 1780 he
completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate.
Through the influence of Graf Görtz, Prussian ambassador at
the Russian court, he became secretary of the governor-general
of St Petersburg. In 1783 he received the appointment of
assessor to the high court of appeal in Reval, where he married
the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He was ennobled
in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the province
of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by
his novels, <i>Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie</i> (1785) and
<i>Geschichte meines Vaters</i> (1788), and still more by the plays
<i>Adelheid von Wulfingen</i> (1789), <i>Menschenhass und Reue</i> (1790)
and <i>Die Indianer in England</i> (1790). The good impression
produced by these works was, however, almost effaced by a
cynical dramatic satire, <i>Doktor Bahrdt mit der eisernen Stirn</i>,
which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on the title-page.
After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from
the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz;
he then settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near
Reval and gave himself up to literary work. Within a few years
he published six volumes of miscellaneous sketches and stories
(<i>Die jüngsten Kinder meiner Laune</i>, 1793-1796) and more than
twenty plays, the majority of which were translated into several
European languages. In 1798 he accepted the office of dramatist
to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to differences with
the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now returned to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span>
his native town, but as he was not on good terms with Goethe,
and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in
Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning
to St Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some
unknown reason, arrested at the frontier and transported to
Siberia. Fortunately he had written a comedy which flattered
the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he was consequently speedily
brought back, presented with an estate from the crown lands
of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in
St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the emperor
Paul died, and again settled in Weimar; he found
it, however, as impossible as ever to gain a footing in
literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, where in
association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited <i>Der
Freimütige</i> (1803-1807) and began his <i>Almanach dramatischer
Spiele</i> (1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once
more in Russia, and in the security of his estate in Esthonia
wrote many satirical articles against Napoleon in his journals
<i>Die Biene</i> and <i>Die Grille</i>. As councillor of state he was attached
in 1816 to the department for foreign affairs in St Petersburg,
and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind of spy in the service of
Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a weekly journal
(<i>Literarisches Wochenblatt</i>) which he published in Weimar he
scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free
institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that
he was obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially detested
by the young enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl
Ludwig Sand, a theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim,
on the 23rd of March 1819. Sand was executed, and the government
made his crime an excuse for placing the universities under
strict supervision.</p>

<p>Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works,
which, however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much
value. Of more interest are his autobiographical writings,
<i>Meine Flucht nach Paris im Winter</i> 1790 (1791), <i>Über meinen
Aufenthalt in Wien</i> (1799), <i>Das merkwürdigste Jahr meines
Lebens</i> (1801), <i>Erinnerungen aus Paris</i> (1804), and <i>Erinnerungen
von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und Neapel</i> (1805).
As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his plays numbering
over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but on
the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however,
was due less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than
to an extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situations;
he possessed, as few German playwrights before or since,
the unerring instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the
<i>technique</i> of the modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from
Bauernfeld to Sudermann is unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be
seen to best advantage in his comedies, such as <i>Der Wildfang</i>,
<i>Die beiden Klingsberg</i> and <i>Die deutschen Kleinstädter</i>, which
contain admirable genre pictures of German life. These plays
held the stage in Germany long after the once famous <i>Menschenhass
und Reue</i> (known in England as <i>The Stranger</i>), <i>Graf Benjowsky</i>,
or ambitious exotic tragedies like <i>Die Sonnenjungfrau</i>
and <i>Die Spanier in Peru</i> (which Sheridan adapted as <i>Pizarro</i>)
were forgotten.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Two collections of Kotzebue&rsquo;s dramas were published during
his lifetime: <i>Schauspiele</i> (5 vols., 1797); <i>Neue Schauspiele</i> (23 vols.,
1798-1820). His <i>Sämtliche dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 44 vols., in
1827-1829, and again, under the title <i>Theater</i>, in 40 vols., in 1840-1841.
A selection of his plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in 1867-1868.
Cp. H. Döring, <i>A. von Kotzebues Leben</i> (1830); W. von Kotzebue,
<i>A. von Kotzebue</i> (1881); Ch. Rabany, <i>Kotzebue, sa vie et son temps</i>
(1893); W. Sellier, <i>Kotzebue in England</i> (1901).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1787-1846), Russian navigator,
second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of
December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg
school of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of
1803-1806. After his promotion to lieutenant Kotzebue was
placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of
the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig &ldquo;Rurick.&rdquo;
In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out
on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic
Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding
by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern
Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of
July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of
America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Gulf or Sound
and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he
again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich
Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New
Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific he again
proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling him to
return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August
1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown
plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kotzebue,
now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an
expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to
take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a
staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable information
and material in geography, ethnography and natural
history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the
Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July
1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Navigator
islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition
returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia
and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July
1826. There are English translations of both Kotzebue&rsquo;s
narratives: <i>A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and
Beering&rsquo;s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East
Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818</i> (3 vols. 1821), and
<i>A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826</i> (1830).
Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue
died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOUMISS,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alcoholic
beverage prepared from milk. It is of very ancient
origin, and according to Herodotus was known to the Scythians.
The name is said to be derived from an ancient Asiatic tribe,
the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the staple articles of diet
of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late years it has also
been manufactured on a considerable scale in western Europe,
on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally
made from mares&rsquo; or camels&rsquo; milk by a process of fermentation
set up by the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of
the finished article. This fermentation, which appears to be
of a symbiotic nature, being dependent on the action of two distinct
types of organisms, the one a fission fungus, the other a
true yeast, eventuates in the conversion of a part of the milk
sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. Koumiss generally contains
1 to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic acid, 2 to 4% of milk
sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. <i>Kefir</i> is similar to koumiss, but is
usually prepared from cows&rsquo; milk, and the fermentation is brought
about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1814-1883), Greek
statesman, whose name is commonly spelt Coumoundouros,
was born in 1814. His studies at the university of Athens were
repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and he began to earn
his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan insurrection
of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the Greek
constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to
General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at
Kalamata in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to
the Mavromichalis family. He was elected to the chamber in
1851, and four years later his eloquence and ability had secured
the president&rsquo;s chair for him. He became minister of finance
in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He adhered to the moderate
wing of the Liberal party until the revolution of 1862 and
the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of justice
in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the
interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he
became prime minister, and he formed several subsequent administrations
in the intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During
the Cretan insurrection of 1866-68 he made active warlike
preparations against Turkey, but was dismissed by King George,
who recognized that Greece could not act without the support of
the Powers. He was again premier at the time of the outbreak
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span>
of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and supported
by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of
10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops
were recalled on the understanding that Greece should be represented
at the Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of
the Tricoupi ministry restored him to power, when he resumed
his warlike policy, but repeated appeals to the courts of Europe
yielded little practical result, and Koumoundouros was obliged to
reduce his territorial demands and to accept the limited cessions
in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried out in July 1881.
His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of the new
Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the administrative
arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens on
the 9th of March 1883.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOUSSO<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kosso</span> or <span class="sc">Cusso</span>), a drug which consists of the
panicles of the pistillate flowers of <i>Brayera anthelmintica</i>, a
handsome rosaceous tree 60 ft. high, growing throughout the
table-land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft.
above the sea-level. The drug as imported is in the form of
cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in diameter,
and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form by
a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is
koussin or kosin, C<span class="su">31</span>H<span class="su">38</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, which is soluble in alcohol and
alkalis, and may be given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso
is also used in the form of an unstrained infusion of ¼ to ½ oz.
of the coarsely powdered flowers, which are swallowed with the
liquid. It is considered to be an effectual vermifuge for <i>Taenia
solium</i>. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly allied to male
fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very rarely used
in Great Britain.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1850-1891), Russian mathematician,
daughter of General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Moscow
on the 15th of January 1850. As a young girl she was fired
by the aspiration after intellectual liberty that animated so
many young Russian women at that period, and drove them to
study at foreign universities, since their own were closed to them.
This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional
marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Waldemar
Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to
continue their studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where
she studied under H. von Helmholtz, G. R. Kirchhoff, L. Königsberger
and P. du Bois-Reymond, and from 1871-1874 read privately
with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the public lectures
were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of
Göttingen granted her a degree <i>in absentia</i>, excusing her from
the oral examination on account of the remarkable excellence
of the three dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory
of partial differential equations, is one of her most remarkable
works. Another was an elucidation of P. S. Laplace&rsquo;s mathematical
theory of the form of Saturn&rsquo;s rings. Soon after this
she returned to Russia with her husband, who was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in 1883.
At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where
Gustaf Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been
recently appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly
founded university, had procured for her a post as lecturer.
She discharged her duties so successfully that in 1884 she was
appointed full professor. This post she held till her death on
the 10th of February 1891. In 1888 she achieved the greatest
of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered by the Paris
Academy. The problem set was &ldquo;to perfect in one important
point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an immovable
point,&rdquo; and her solution added a result of the highest
interest to those transmitted to us by Leonhard Euler and J. L.
Lagrange. So remarkable was this work that the value of the
prize was doubled as a recognition of unusual merit. Unfortunately
Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap the full reward
of her labours, for she died just as she had attained the height of
her fame and had won recognition even in her own country by
election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. de Kerbedz, &ldquo;Sophie de Kowalevski,&rdquo; <i>Benidiconti del
circolo mathematico di Palermo</i> (1891); the obituary notice by
G. Mittag Leffler in the <i>Acta mathematica</i>, vol. xvi.; and J. C. Poggendorff,
<i>Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch</i>.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KOVNO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (in Lithuanian <i>Kauna</i>), a government of north-western
Russia, bounded N. by the governments of Courland
and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki
and the province of East Prussia, a narrow strip touching the
Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687 sq. m. The level
uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low ridges which
nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is varied,
the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all
represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently,
and all are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil
is either a sandy clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The
government is drained by the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and
Dvina, which have navigable tributaries. In the flat depressions
covered with boulder-clays there are many lakes and marshes,
while forests occupy about 25½% of the surface. The climate is
comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the city of Kovno
being 44°F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and 1,553,244
in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600.
It is varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds
(together 74%), Jews (14%), Germans (2½%), Poles (9%), with
Letts and Russians; 76.6% are Roman Catholics, 13.7% Jews,
4.5% Protestants, and 5% belong to the Greek Church. Of the
total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were classed as
urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture,
63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat,
rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is cultivated
and the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse
and cattle breeding are attracting attention. Fishing is important,
and the navigation on the rivers is brisk. A variety of
petty domestic industries are carried on by the Jews, but only
to a slight extent in the villages. As many as 18,000 to 24,000
men are compelled every year to migrate in search of work.
The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and steam
flour-mills, and hardware manufactories. Trade, especially the
transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government
on the Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tauroggen
being amongst the most important in Russia. The chief
towns of the seven districts into which the government is divided,
with their populations in 1897, are Kovno (<i>q.v.</i>), Novo-Alexandrovsk
(6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), Rosieny (7455), Shavli
(15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkemir (13,509).</p>

<p>The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno
was formerly known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania.
During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teutonic
Knights continually invaded and plundered it, especially
the western part, which was peopled with Zhmuds. In 1569
it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality of Lithuania,
to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of
Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of
Charles XII. in 1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania
was annexed to Russia, and until 1872, when the government of
Kovno was constituted, the territory now forming it was a part
of the government of Vilna.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOVNO,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen
with the Viliya, 550 m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m.
from the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743,
nearly one-half being Jews. It consists of a cramped Old Town
and a New Town stretching up the side of the Niemen. It is a
first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean distance of 2½ m.
by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies for the most
part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the direction
of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern approaches
are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars
the railway Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails,
wire-work and other metal goods, mead and bone-meal. It is
an important entrepôt for timber, cereals, flax, flour, spirits,
bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone passing from and to
Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century churches. It
was founded in the 11th century; and from 1384 to 1398 belonged
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span>
to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered
and burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on
the 26th of June 1831.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOVROV,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir,
40 m. N.E. of the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to
Nizhniy-Novgorod, and on the Klyazma River. It has railway-carriage
works, cotton mills, steam flour mills, tallow works
and quarries of limestone, and carries on an active trade in the
export of wooden wares and in the import of grain, salt and
fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600;
(1900), 16,806.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOWTOW,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kotou</span>, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostration
as a sign of homage, submission, or worship. The word is
formed from <i>ko</i>, knock, and <i>tou</i>, head. To the emperor, the
&ldquo;kowtow&rdquo; is performed by kneeling three times, each act
accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KOZLOV,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on
the Lyesnoi Voronezh River, 45 m. W.N.W. of the city of Tambov
by rail. Pop. (1900), 41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small
monastery, founded in the forest in 1627; nine years later, an
earthwork was raised close by, for the protection of the Russian
frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a very fertile country,
on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of water communication
with the Don, the town soon became a centre
of trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of
Azov, to Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel,
its importance has recently been still further increased. Its
export of cattle, grain, meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &amp;c.,
is steadily growing, and it possesses factories, flour mills, tallow
works, distilleries, tanneries and glue works.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAAL,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> also spelt <i>craal</i>, <i>kraul</i>, &amp;c. (South African Dutch,
derived possibly from a native African word, but probably from
the Spanish <i>corral</i>, Portuguese <i>curral</i>, an enclosure for horses,
cattle and the like), in South and Central Africa, a native
village surrounded by a palisade, mud wall or other fencing
roughly circular in form; by transference, the community living
within the enclosure. Folds for animals and enclosures made
specially for defensive purposes are also called kraals.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAFFT<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kraft</span>), <span class="bold">ADAM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1455-1507), German sculptor,
of the Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg,
about the middle of the 15th century, and died, some say in the
hospital, at Schwabach, about 1507. He seems to have emerged
as sculptor about 1490, the date of the seven reliefs of scenes
from the life of Christ, which, like almost every other specimen
of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last work, an
Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher
chapel of the St John&rsquo;s cemetery, is 1507. Besides these,
Krafft&rsquo;s chief works are several monumental reliefs in the various
churches of Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monument
(1492) for St Sebald&rsquo;s at Nuremberg, a skilful though
mannered piece of sculpture opposite the Rathaus, with realistic
figures in the costume of the time, carved in a way more suited
to wood than stone, and too pictorial in effect; Christ bearing
the Cross, above the altar of the same church; and various works
made for public and private buildings, as the relief over the door
of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several Madonnas,
and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His masterpiece
is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the
church of St Laurence (1493-1500). He also made the great
tabernacle for the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in
Ulm Cathedral, and the very spirited &ldquo;Stations of the Cross&rdquo; on
the road to the Nuremberg cemetery.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Adam Krafft und seine Schule</i>, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869);
<i>Adam Krafft und die Künstler seiner Zeit</i>, by Berthold Daun (1897);
Albert Gümbel in <i>Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft</i>, Bd. xxv. Heft 5,
1902.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAGUYEVATS<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (also written <span class="sc">Kraguievatz</span> and <span class="sc">Kragujevac</span>),
the capital of the Kraguyevats department of Servia;
situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade, in a valley of the Shumadia,
or &ldquo;forest-land,&rdquo; and on the Lepenitsa, a small stream flowing
north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank stands the
picturesque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder factory.
Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and possesses
an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the
district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a
large garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the
finest modern cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In
the first years of Servia&rsquo;s autonomy under Prince Milosh, it
was the residence of the prince and the seat of government
(1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the national
assembly (<i>Narodna Skupshtina</i>) usually met there. In 1885 it
was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with
the principal railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the
prosperity of the town steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAKATOA<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Krakatao</span>, <span class="sc">Krakatau</span>), a small volcanic island
in Sunda Strait, between the islands of Java and Sumatra,
celebrated for its eruption in 1883, one of the most stupendous
ever recorded. At some early period a large volcano rose in the
centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now runs. Long
before any European had visited these waters an explosion took
place by which the mountain was so completely blown away
that only the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring
of islands. Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new
series of small cones within the great crater ring. Of these
the most important rose to a height of 2623 ft. above the sea and
formed the peak of the volcanic island of Krakatoa. But compared
with the great neighbouring volcanoes of Java and Sumatra,
the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively unknown.
Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of
it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption,
when great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice
were ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been so
concealed by the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that
the very occurrence of the eruption had sometimes been called
in question. At last, about 1877, earthquakes began to occur
frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued for the next few
years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean commotion
became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in eruption.
For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have
consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the
usual accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But
on the 26th of August a succession of paroxysmal explosions
began which lasted till the morning of the 28th. The four most
violent took place on the morning of the 27th. The whole of
the northern and lower portion of the island of Krakatoa, lying
within the original crater ring of prehistoric times, was blown
away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely
disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner
structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which
had previously existed, and rose from 300 to 1400 ft. above the
sea, there was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which
was here and there more than 1000 ft. below the sea-level.
This prodigious evisceration was the result of successive violent
explosions of the superheated vapour absorbed in the molten
magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour and repetition
of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been caused
by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of
the volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and
ruptured. The access of large bodies of cold water to the top
of the column of molten lava would probably give rise at once
to some minor explosions, and then to a chilling of the surface
of the lava and a consequent temporary diminution or even
cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the pent-up
water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only
gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled
crust and overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled
lava, pumice and dust into the air.</p>

<p>The amount of material discharged during the two days of
paroxysmal energy was enormous, though there are no satisfactory
data for even approximately estimating it. A large
cavity was formed where the island had previously stood, and
the sea-bottom around this crater was covered with a wide and
thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the surrounding
islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span>
dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of
the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new
islands rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust
was carried far and wide by aerial currents, while the floating
pumice was transported for many hundreds of miles on the surface
of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 m. from the centre of eruption,
the sky was darkened by the quantity of ashes borne across
it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. The
darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly
150 miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust
and ashes projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a
height of 17 m. or more. The finer particles coming into the
higher layers of the atmosphere were diffused over a large part
of the surface of the earth, and showed their presence by the
brilliant sunset glows to which they gave rise. Within the
tropics they were at first borne along by air-currents at
an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to
west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over
nearly the whole space between the latitudes 30° N. and 45° S.
Eventually they spread northwards and southwards and were
carried over North and South America, Europe, Asia, South
Africa and Australasia. In the Old World they spread from the
north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope.</p>

<p>Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide
disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm
on the morning of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric
wave or oscillation, which, travelling outwards from the volcano
as a centre, became a great circle at 180° from its point
of origin, whence it continued travelling onwards and contracting
till it reached a node at the antipodes to Krakatoa. It was then
reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards again to the
volcano, whence it once more returned in its original direction.
&ldquo;In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than
seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been
those of the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those
of the wave travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which
its traces were lost&rdquo; (Sir R. Strachey).</p>

<p>The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a
vast area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed
at Rodriguez, nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok
(1413 m.), in the Philippine Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon
(2058 m.) and in West and South Australia (from 1300 to
2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves ever been
perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the
detonations of Krakatoa reached.</p>

<p>Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the
successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the
ocean. A succession of waves was generated which appear to
have been of two kinds, long waves with periods of more than an
hour, and shorter but higher waves, with irregular and much
briefer intervals. The greatest disturbance, probably resulting
from a combination of both kinds of waves, reached a height of
about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the rush of such a body
of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was enormous.
All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded,
the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either
at once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and
more than 36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves
travelled to vast distances from the centre of propagation. The
long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 geographical miles) and
possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The shorter waves
reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See R. D. M. Verbeek, <i>Krakatau</i> (Batavia, 1886); &ldquo;The Eruption
of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena,&rdquo; <i>Report of the Krakatoa
Committee of the Royal Society</i> (London, 1888).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAKEN,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to
haunt the coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the
Norwegian bishop Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile
and a half round and a body which showed above the sea like
an island, and its arms were long enough to enclose the largest
ship. The further assertion that the kraken darkened the water
around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was based on
the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. Gibson, <i>Monsters of the Sea</i> (1887); A. S. Packard, &ldquo;Colossal
Cuttle-fishes,&rdquo; <i>American Naturalist</i> (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E.
Verrill, &ldquo;The Colossal Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic,&rdquo; in
<i>American Naturalist</i> (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and &ldquo;Gigantic Squids,&rdquo;
in <i>Trans. of Connecticut Academy</i> (1879), vol. v.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRALYEVO<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (sometimes written <span class="sc">Kraljevo</span> or <span class="sc">Kralievo</span>), a
city of Servia, and capital of a department bearing the same
name. Kralyevo is built beside the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its confluence
with the Servian Morava; and in the midst of an upland
valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the north, and the
Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as Karanovats,
Kralyevo received its present name, signifying &ldquo;the King&rsquo;s
Town,&rdquo; from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishopric,
instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison
town, with a prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural
school. But by far its most interesting feature is the Coronation
church belonging to Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings
are said to have been crowned. The church is Byzantine in
style, and has been partially restored; but the main tower dates
from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava, the patron
saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600.</p>

<p>The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kralyevo,
stands high up among the south-western mountains,
overlooking the Studenitsa, a tributary of the Ibar. It consists
of a group of old-fashioned timber and plaster buildings, a tall
belfry, and a diminutive church of white marble, founded in
1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk and
was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north,
south and west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks.
The inner walls are decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among
which only a painting of the Last Supper, and the portraits of
five saints, remain unrestored. The dome and narthex are
modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St Simeon, many
gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old manuscripts,
there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by the
monks to have been the property of St Sava.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRANTZ<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Crantz</span>), <span class="bold">ALBERT</span> (<i>c.</i> 1450-1517), German historian,
was a native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and
history at Rostock and Cologne, and after travelling through
western and southern Europe was appointed professor, first of
philosophy and subsequently of theology, in the university of
Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he returned
to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in
the cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on
more than one diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was
chosen by the king of Denmark and the duke of Holstein as
arbiter in their dispute regarding the province of Dithmarschen.
As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which office he was appointed
in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the reform of ecclesiastical
abuses, but, though opposed to various corruptions
connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy with
the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther&rsquo;s protest
against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy,
but with the reformer&rsquo;s later attitude he could not agree. When,
on his death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on
good authority, to have exclaimed: &ldquo;Brother, Brother, go into
thy cell and say, God have mercy upon me!&rdquo; Krantz died
on the 7th of December 1517.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for
the period when they were written are characterized by exceptional
impartiality and research. The principal of these are <i>Chronica
regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae</i> (Strassburg,
1546); <i>Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine</i>, &amp;c.
(Cologne, 1518); <i>Saxonia</i> (1520); and <i>Metropolis, sive Historia de
ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia</i> (Basel, 1548). See life by
N. Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRASNOVODSK,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the
N. shore of Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the
Caspian Sea, opposite to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level.
Pop. (1897), 6359. It is defended by a fort. Here begins the
Transcaspian railway to Merv and Bokhara. There is a fishing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span>
industry, and salt and sulphur are obtained. Krasnovodsk,
which is the capital of the Transcaspian province, was founded
in 1869.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRASNOYARSK,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the
government of Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River,
at its confluence with the Kacha, and on the highway from Moscow
to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900),
33,337. It has a municipal museum and a railway technical
school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and during the
early years of its existence it was more than once besieged by the
Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends
entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district.
Brick-making, soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are
carried on. The climate is very cold, but dry. The Yenisei
River is frozen here for 160 days in the year.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1812-1887), Polish
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the
28th of July 1812, of an aristocratic family. He showed a
precocious talent for authorship, beginning his literary career
with a volume of sketches from society as early as 1829, and for
more than half a century scarcely ever intermitting his literary
production, except during a period of imprisonment upon a
charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He narrowly
escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession
of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near
Grodno, and devoted himself to literature with such industry
that a mere selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg
from 1871 to 1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most
conspicuous literary figure of his day in Poland. His extreme
fertility was suggestive of haste and carelessness, but he declared
that the contrivance of his plot gave him three times as much
trouble as the composition of his novel. Apart from his gifts
as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary mental powers;
the &ldquo;profound thoughts&rdquo; culled from his writings by his admiring
biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms.
His copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth
to nature, especially evinced in the beautiful little story of
<i>Jermola the Potter</i> (1857), from which George Eliot appears to
have derived the idea of <i>Silas Marner</i>, though she can only have
known it at second hand. Compared with the exquisite art of
<i>Silas Marner</i>, <i>Jermola</i> appears rude and unskilful, but it is not
on this account the less touching in its fidelity to the tenderest
elements of human nature. Kraszewski&rsquo;s literary activity falls
into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, residing upon his
estate, he produced romances like <i>Jermola</i>, <i>Ulana</i> (1843),
<i>Kordecki</i> (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that after
1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled
him to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political
novels published under the pseudonym of <i>Boleslawita</i>, historical
fictions such as <i>Countess Cosel</i>, and the &ldquo;culture&rdquo; romances
<i>Morituri</i> (1874-1875) and <i>Resurrecturi</i> (1876), by which he is
perhaps best known out of his own country. In 1884 he was
accused of plotting against the German government and
sentenced to seven years&rsquo; imprisonment in a fortress, but was
released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the
19th of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and
interred at Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist;
his most celebrated poem is his epic <i>Anafielas</i> (3 vols., 1840-1843)
on the history of Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary
critic, editor and translator, wrote several historical works, and
was conspicuous as a restorer of the study of national archaeology
in Poland. Among his most valuable works were <i>Litwa</i>
(Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection of Lithuanian antiquities;
and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 vols.,
1873-1875).</p>
<div class="author">(R. G.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1781-1832),
German philosopher, was born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May
1781, and died at Munich on the 27th of September 1832.
Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, where he
studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became <i>privatdozent</i>
in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic imprudence,
he married a wife without dowry. Two years after,
lack of pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to
Dresden, where he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a
universal world-society led him to join the Freemasons, whose
principles seemed to tend in the direction he desired. He
published two books on Freemasonry, <i>Die drei ältesten Kunsturkunden
der Freimaurerbrüderschaft</i> and <i>Höhere Vergeistigung
der echt überlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei</i>, but his
opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He
lived for a time in Berlin and became a <i>privatdozent</i>, but was
unable to obtain a professorship. He therefore proceeded to
Göttingen and afterwards to Munich, where he died of apoplexy
at the very moment when the influence of Franz von Baader
had at last obtained a position for him.</p>

<p>One of the so-called &ldquo;Philosophers of Identity,&rdquo; Krause endeavoured
to reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or
Conscience and the world as known to sense. God, intuitively
known by Conscience, is not a personality (which implies limitations),
but an all-inclusive essence (<i>Wesen</i>), which contains the
Universe within itself. This system he called <i>Panentheism</i>, a combination
of Theism and Pantheism. His theory of the world and
of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world itself and mankind,
its highest component, constitute an organism (<i>Gliedbau</i>),
and the universe is therefore a divine organism (<i>Wesengliedbau</i>).
The process of development is the formation of higher unities,
and the last stage is the identification of the world with God.
The form which this development takes, according to Krause,
is Right or the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the conditions
of external liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all
the existence of nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or
rationale, of all progress from the lower to the highest unity or
identification. By its operation the reality of nature and reason
rises into the reality of humanity. God is the reality which
transcends and includes both nature and humanity. Right is,
therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard of progress.
Ideal society results from the widening of the organic operation
of this principle from the individual man to small groups of men,
and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear
as the inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-increasing
degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in
God.</p>

<p>The comparatively small area of Krause&rsquo;s influence was due
partly to the overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to
two intrinsic defects. The spirit of his thought is mystical and
by no means easy to follow, and this difficulty is accentuated,
even to German readers, by the use of artificial terminology.
He makes use of germanized foreign terms which are unintelligible
to the ordinary man. His principal works are (beside those
quoted above): <i>Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie</i> (1804);
<i>System der Sittenlehre</i> (1810); <i>Das Urbild der Menschheit</i> (1811);
and <i>Vorlesungen über das System der Philosophie</i> (1828). He left
behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of
which has been collected and published by his disciples,
H. Ahrens (1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See H. S. Lindemann, <i>Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens ...
Krauses</i> (1839); P. Hohlfeld, <i>Die Krausesche Philosophie</i> (1879);
A. Procksch, <i>Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen</i> (1880);
R. Eucken, <i>Zur Erinnerung an Krause</i> (1881); B. Martin, <i>Krauses
Leben und Bedeutung</i> (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller,
Windelband and Höffding.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAWANG,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by
Batavia, and N. by the Java Sea, and comprising a few insignificant
islands. The natives are Sundanese, but contain a
large admixture of Middle Javanese and Bantamers in the north,
where they established colonies in the 17th century. Like the
residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is flat and
occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous
and volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs
occur in the hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though
in smaller quantities now than formerly. The principal products
are rice, coffee, sugar, vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is
practised along the coast and forest culture in the hills, while the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span>
industries also include the manufacture of coarse linen, sacks
and leather tanning. Gold and silver were formerly thought to
be hidden in the Parang mountain in the Gandasoli district
south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the Dutch
East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency
consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang
divisions forming the middle and north-west sections come
directly under government control. The remainder of the
residency is divided between the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands
occupying the whole eastern half of the residency and the
Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The former is
owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java.
The Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors.
Purwakarta is the capital of the residency. Subang and
Pamanukan both lie at the junction of several roads near the
borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres of activity in the
east of the residency.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr</span> (1735-1804),
Austrian soldier. Entering the Austrian army at the age of
nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at the grade of major,
but it was many years before he had any opportunity of distinguishing
himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in Transylvania,
and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny
and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years
later he commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating
in France. He distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi,
Fleurus, Weissenberg, and indeed at almost every encounter with
the troops of the French Republic. In the celebrated campaign
of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did conspicuous service as
a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kléber, and at
Amberg and Würzburg he was largely responsible for the victory
of the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less
successful, being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main.
Kray commanded in Italy in 1799, and reconquered from the
French the plain of Lombardy. For his victories of Verona,
Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>,
and he ended the campaign by further victories at Novi and
Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against
Moreau. (For the events of this memorable campaign see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>.) As a consequence of the
defeats he underwent at Biberach, Messkirch, &amp;c., Kray was
driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round Moreau&rsquo;s flank
succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his
command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining
years in retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the
best representatives of the old Austrian army. Tied to an
obsolete system and unable from habit to realize the changed
conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies held him in the
highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous opponent. It
was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and
the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue
of the French in the funeral procession of the young general of
the Republic.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREMENCHUG,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a town of south-west Russia, in the government
of Poltava, on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodically
overflows its banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on
the Kharkov-Nikolayev railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897,
with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The most notable public
buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the arsenal and
the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in
1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the
navigable course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from
Moscow to Odessa, it early acquired great commercial importance,
and by 1655 it was a wealthy town. From 1765 to 1789 it was
the capital of &ldquo;New Russia.&rdquo; It has a suburb, Kryukov, on the
right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town by a railway
bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with White
Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre
of the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of
timber are floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in
the brandy manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and
destined for the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida,
is concentrated here, as also is the trade in linseed between the
districts situated on the left affluents of the Dnieper and the
southern ports. Other articles of commerce are rye, rye-flour,
wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent partly up the Dnieper
to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, but principally
to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the spring
floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular
bridge 1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The
manufactures consist of carriages, agricultural machinery,
tobacco, steam flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREMENETS<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (Polish, <i>Krzemieniec</i>), a town of south-west
Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir,
and 25 m. E. of Brody railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop.
(1900), 16,534. It is situated in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills.
The Jews, who are numerous, carry on a brisk trade in tobacco
and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The picturesque
ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are usually
known as the castle of Queen Bona, <i>i.e.</i> Bona Sforza (wife of
Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th
century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255.
From that time Kremenets was under the dominion alternately
of Lithuania and Poland, till 1648, when it was taken by the
Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to 1832 its Polish lyceum was
the centre of superior instruction for the western provinces
of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of 1831 the
lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of
that town.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREMS,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W.
of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the
confluence of the Krems with the Danube. The manufactures
comprise steel goods, mustard and vinegar, and a special kind of
white lead (<i>Kremser Weiss</i>) is prepared from deposits in the
neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these products and in
wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the
adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREMSIER,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Krom&#283;&#345;í&#382;</i>), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
37 m. E. by N. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly
Czech. It is situated on the March, in the fertile region of the
Hanna, and not far from the confluence of these two rivers. It
is the summer residence of the bishop of Olmütz, whose palace,
surrounded by a fine park and gardens, and containing a picture
gallery, library and various collections, forms the chief object
of interest. Its industries include the manufacture of machinery
and iron-founding, brewing and corn-milling, and there is a
considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit and manufactures. In
1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It suffered considerably
during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken and
burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian
parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848
till March 1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here
between the Austrian and the Russian emperors.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREUTZER, KONRADIN<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1780-1849), German musical
composer, was born on the 22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch
in Baden, and died on the 14th of December 1849 in Riga. He
owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, <i>Das Nachtlager
von Granada</i> (1834), which kept the stage for half a century in
spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the style
of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine
melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in
Kreutzer&rsquo;s part-songs for men&rsquo;s voices, which at one time were
extremely popular in Germany, and are still listened to with
pleasure. Amongst these &ldquo;Der Tag des Herrn&rdquo; (&ldquo;The Lord&rsquo;s
Day&rdquo;) may be named as the most excellent. Kreutzer was a
prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the theatre
at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not
likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister
to the king of Württemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of
the opera at Cologne. His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a
singer of some renown.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREUTZER, RUDOLPH<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1766-1831), French violinist, of
German extraction, was born at Versailles, his father being a
musician in the royal chapel. Rudolph gradually became
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span>
famous as a violinist, playing with great success at various
continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 Beethoven
dedicated his famous violin sonata (<i>op.</i> 47) known as the
&ldquo;Kreutzer.&rdquo; Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist,
Kreutzer was also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine
operas, many of which were successfully produced, besides
nineteen violin concertos and chamber music. He died at
Geneva in 1831.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREUZBURG,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905),
10,919. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a
gymnasium and a teacher&rsquo;s seminary. Here are flour-mills,
distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and manufactories of sugar and
of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town in 1252, was
the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KREUZNACH<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (<i>Creuznach</i>), a town and watering-place of
Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe,
a tributary of the Rhine, 9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbrück. Pop.
(1900), 21,321. It consists of the old town on the right bank of
the river, the new town on the left, and the Bade Insel (bath
island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town has two
Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium,
a commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of
Roman and medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a
fine Roman mosaic discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel
is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the chief spring, the Elisabethquelle,
impregnated with iodine and bromine, and prescribed
for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The chief
industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather,
glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring
hills, and there is a trade in wine and corn.</p>

<p>The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in
1478, but it was only in the early part of the 19th century that
Dr Prieger, to whom there is a statue in the town, brought them
into prominence. Now the annual number of visitors amounts
to several thousands. Kreuznach was evidently a Roman town,
as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the Heidenmauer, and
various antiquities have been found in its immediate neighbourhood.
In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it
had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor
Henry IV. presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th
century it obtained civic privileges and passed to the counts of
Sponheim; in 1416 it became part of the Palatinate. The town
was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 the French reduced the
strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now stands on a
hill above Kreuznach.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Schneegans, <i>Historisch-topographische Beschreibung Kreuznachs
und seiner Umgebung</i> (7th ed., 1904); Engelmann, <i>Kreuznach
und seine Heilquellen</i> (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, <i>Das Solbad
Kreuznach für Ärzte dargestellt</i> (Kreuznach, 1887).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRIEGSPIEL<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kriegsspiel</span>), the original German name,
still used to some extent in England, for the War Game (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRIEMHILD<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>Grîmhild</i>), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied
and wife of the hero Siegfried. The name (from O. H. Ger. <i>grîma</i>,
a mask or helm, and <i>hiltja</i> or <i>hilta</i>, war) means &ldquo;the masked
warrior woman,&rdquo; and has been taken to prove her to have been
originally a mythical, daemonic figure, an impersonation of the
powers of darkness and of death. In the north, indeed, the name
<i>Grimhildr</i> continued to have a purely mythical character and
to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the
original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace
of this significance, and in the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> Kriemhild is no
more than a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrât
and Queen Uote, and sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther,
Giselhêr and Gêrnôt, the masters of the Nibelungen hoard. As
she appears in the Nibelungen legend, however, Kriemhild
would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife of Attila,
king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. According
to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the contemporary
and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of
a violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named
Ildico (<i>i.e.</i> O. H. Ger. Hildikô). The story got abroad that he
had perished by the hand of a woman in revenge for her relations
slain by him; according to some (<i>e.g.</i> Saxo Poeta and the Quedlinburg
chronicle) it was her father whom she revenged; but
when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians by Attila
had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian
princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now
the name Hildikô is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again&mdash;in accordance with a custom common enough&mdash;may have
been used as an abbreviation of Grîmhild (cf. <i>Hildr</i> for <i>Brynhildr</i>).
It has been suggested (Symons, <i>Heldensage</i>, p. 55) that
when the legend of the overthrow of the Burgundians, which
took place in 437, became attached to that of the death of Attila
(453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian kings, was
identified with the daemonic Grîmhild, the sister of the mythical
Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the
Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the
fall of the Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to
which Grîmhild slays her husband Attila in revenge for her
brothers, is preserved in the Norse tradition, though Grîmhild&rsquo;s
part is played by Gudrun, a change probably due to the fact,
mentioned above, that the name Grîmhild still retained in the
north its sinister significance. The name of Grîmhild is transferred
to Gudrun&rsquo;s mother, the &ldquo;wise wife,&rdquo; a semi-daemonic
figure, who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love
for Brunhild and his plighted troth. In the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>,
however, the primitive supremacy of the blood-tie has given
place to the more modern idea of the supremacy of the passion of
love, and Kriemhild marries Attila (Etzel) in order to compass
the death of her brothers, in revenge for the murder of Siegfried.
Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or minimize the
mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story of
Attila&rsquo;s wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the
Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>.)</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See B. Symons, <i>Germanische Heldensage</i> (Strassburg, 1905); F.
Zarnke, <i>Das Nibelungenlied</i>, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling,
<i>Einleitung in das Nibelungenlied</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRILOFF<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kruilov</span>), <span class="bold">IVAN ANDREEVICH</span> (1768-1844),
the great national fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of
February 1768, at Moscow, but his early years were spent at Orenburg
and Tver. His father, a distinguished military officer, died
in 1779; and young Kriloff was left with no richer patrimony than
a chest of old books, to be brought up by the exertions of a heroic
mother. In the course of a few years his mother removed to
St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government pension; and
there Kriloff obtained a post in the civil service, but he gave it
up immediately after his mother&rsquo;s death in 1788. Already in
1783 he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition,
and by this means had procured for himself the works of Molière,
Racine, Boileau; and now, probably under the influence of these
writers, he produced <i>Philomela</i> and <i>Cleopatra</i>, which gave him
access to the dramatic circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts
he made to start a literary magazine met with little success;
but, together with his plays, they served to make the author
known in society. For about four years (1797-1801) Kriloff
lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius Galitzin, and when
the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia he accompanied
him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his
resignation of this post little is known, the common opinion
being that he wandered from town to town under the influence
of a passion for card-playing. Before long he found his place
as a fabulist, the first collection of his <i>Fables</i>, 23 in number,
appearing in 1809. From 1812 to 1841 he held a congenial
appointment in the Imperial Public Library&mdash;first as assistant,
and then as head of the Russian books department. He died
on the 21st of November 1844. His statue in the Summer
Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg.</p>

<p>Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the
Academy of Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and bestowed
upon him its gold medal; in 1838 a great festival was held
under imperial sanction to celebrate the jubilee of his first
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span>
appearance as an author; and the emperor assigned him a handsome
pension. Before his death about 77,000 copies of his Fables
had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour had
become the common possession of the many. He was at once
poet and sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some
actual event, and they told at once by their grip and by their
beauty. Though he began as a translator and imitator he soon
showed himself a master of invention, who found abundant
material in the life of his native land. To the Russian ear his
verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are direct,
simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with
the theme.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A collected edition of Kriloff&rsquo;s works appeared at St Petersburg,
1844. Of the numerous editions of his <i>Fables</i>, which have been
often translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski,
1872. The author&rsquo;s life has been written in Russian by Pletneff,
by Lebanoff and by Grot, <i>Liter, zhizn Kruilova</i>. &ldquo;Materials&rdquo; for
his life are published in vol. vi. of the <i>Sbornik Statei</i> of the literary
department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed
an excellent sketch to his English prose version of the <i>Fables</i> (1868;
2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared
in 1883.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRISHNA<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or
rather the form in which Vishnu himself is the most popular
object of worship throughout northern India. In origin,
Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified hero of the
Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> he
appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers;
and it is only in the interpolated episode of the <i>Bhagavad-gita</i>
that he is identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the
doctrine of <i>bhakti</i> or religious devotion. Of still later date are
the popular developments of the modern cult of Krishna
associated with Radha, as found in the <i>Vishnu Purana</i>. Here
he is represented as the son of a king saved from a slaughter of
the innocents, brought up by a cowherd, sporting with the milkmaids,
and performing miraculous feats in his childhood. The
scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the right bank
of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is
holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his
later life is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of
Kathiawar. The two most famous preachers of Krishna-worship
and founders of sects in his honour were Vallabha and
Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the 15th century.
The followers of the former are now found chiefly in Rajputana
and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their
<i>gosains</i> or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine
honours are paid. The licentious practices of this sect were
exposed in a lawsuit before the high court at Bombay in 1862.
Chaitanya was the Vaishnav reformer of Bengal, with his home
at Nadiya. A third influential Krishna-preacher of the 19th
century was Swami Narayan, who was encountered by Bishop
Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day are numerous
and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are <i>Gopal</i>, the cowherd;
<i>Gopinath</i>, the lord of the milkmaids; and <i>Mathuranath</i>,
the lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini,
daughter of the king of Berar; but Radha is always associated
with him in his temples. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hinduism</a></span>.)</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRISHNAGAR,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a town of British India, headquarters of
Nadia district in Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river
Jalangi and connected with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal
railway, by a light railway. Pop. (1901), 24,547. It is the
residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a government
college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRISTIANSTAD<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Christianstad</span>), a port of Sweden, chief
town of the district (<i>län</i>) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake
Sjövik, an expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic.
Pop. (1900), 10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &amp;c., are at
Åhus at the mouth of the river. It is among the first twelve
manufacturing towns of Sweden as regards value of output,
having engineering works, flour-mills, distilleries, weaving mills
and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp are exported, and
coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the court of
appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded
and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the
fine ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658,
retaken by Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden
in 1678.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRIVOY ROG,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a town of south Russia, in the government of
Kherson, on the Ingulets River, near the station of the same
name on the Ekaterinoslav railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of
Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. It is the centre of a
district very rich in minerals, obtained from a narrow stretch of
crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary deposits. Iron ores
(60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown coal, graphite,
slate, and lithographic stone are obtained&mdash;nearly 2,000,000
tons of iron ore annually.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KROCHMAL, NA&#7716;MAN<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born
at Brody in Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the
revival of Jewish learning which followed on the age of Moses
Mendelssohn. His chief work was the <i>Moreh Nebuche hazeman</i>
(&ldquo;Guide for the Perplexed of the Age&rdquo;), a title imitated
from that of the 12th-century &ldquo;Guide for the Perplexed&rdquo; of
Maimonides (<i>q.v.</i>). This book was not published till after the
author&rsquo;s death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book
is a philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance.
On the one side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic
literature and much influenced subsequent investigators. On
the other side, Krochmal, in the words of N. Slouschz, &ldquo;was the
first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, not as a distinct and
independent entity, but as a part of the whole of civilization.&rdquo;
Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the nationality
of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its spiritual gifts.
Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea of the
mission of the Jewish people, &ldquo;cultural Zionism&rdquo; as it has more
recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See S. Schechter, <i>Studies in Judaism</i> (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N.
Slouschz, <i>Renascence of Hebrew Literature</i> (1909), pp. 63 seq.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRONENBERG,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 6 m. S.W. from Elberfeld, with which it is connected
by railway and by an electric tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340.
It is a scattered community, consisting of an agglomeration of
seventy-three different hamlets. It has a Roman Catholic and
two Protestant churches, a handsome modern town-hall and
considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and iron
manufactures.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRONSTADT<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cronstadt</span>, a strongly fortified seaport
town of Russia, the chief naval station of the Russian fleet in
the northern seas, and the seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop.
(1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It is situated on the island of
Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 m. W. of
St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59° 59´ 30´´ N. and
29° 46´ 30´´ E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been thoroughly
refortified on modern principles. The old &ldquo;three-decker&rdquo;
forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal
defences of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during
the Crimean War, are now of secondary importance. From the
plans of Todleben a new fort, Constantine, and four batteries
were constructed (1856-1871) to defend the principal approach,
and seven batteries to cover the shallower northern channel.
All these modern fortifications are low and thickly armoured
earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in
turrets. The town itself is surrounded with an <i>enceinte</i>. The
island of Kotlin, or Kettle (Finn., <i>Retusari</i>, or Rat Island) in
general outline forms an elongated triangle, 7½ m. in length by
about 1 in breadth, with its base towards St Petersburg. The
eastern or broad end is occupied by the town of Kronstadt, and
shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western point of
the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is
built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to
St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side
is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to
Lisynos on the Finnish mainland, and is only passable by vessels
drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the southern channel, the highway
to the capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span>
opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian mainland, and, lying
close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by batteries.
The approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the
construction in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the
shallows. The town of Kronstadt is built on level ground,
and is thus exposed to inundations, from one of which it
suffered in 1824. On the south side of the town there are
three harbours&mdash;the large western or merchant harbour, the
western flank of which is formed by a great mole joining the
fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on this
side; the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing
vessels; and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the
Russian navy. The Peter and Catherine canals, communicating
with the merchant and middle harbours, traverse the
town. Between them stood the old Italian palace of Prince
Menshikov, the site of which is now occupied by the pilot school.
Among other public buildings are the naval hospital, the British
seaman&rsquo;s hospital (established in 1867), the civic hospital,
admiralty (founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries,
school of marine engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and
the English church. The port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days
in the year, from the beginning of December till April. A very
large proportion of the inhabitants are sailors, and large numbers
of artisans are employed in the dockyards. Kronstadt
was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who took the island
of Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first fortifications
were constructed.</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KROONSTAD,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by
rail N.E. of Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg.
Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom 3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies
4489 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Valsch
River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is a busy town,
being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the
diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts
of the colony. It is also a favourite residential place and
resort of visitors from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy
climate, affords opportunities for boating rare in South Africa,
and boasts a golf-links. The principal building is the Dutch
Reformed church in the centre of the market square.</p>

<p>On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the
Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the
Orange Free State Boers as the capital of the state, a dignity it
held from the 13th of March to the 11th of May 1900. On the
following day the town was occupied by Lord Roberts. The
linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the route
via Kroonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape
Town and Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad
to Klerksdorp, passing (17 miles) the Lace diamond mine and
(45 miles) the coal mines at Vierfontein.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;),
Russian geographer, author and revolutionary, was born at
Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin,
belonged to the old Russian nobility; his mother, the daughter
of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable literary and
liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter Kropotkin, who
had been designed by his father for the army, entered the Corps
of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty
boys&mdash;mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court&mdash;were
educated in this privileged corps, which combined the
character of a military school endowed with special rights and
of a Court institution attached to the imperial household. Here
he remained till 1862, reading widely on his own account, and
giving special attention to the works of the French encyclopaedists
and to modern French history. Before he left Moscow
Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of
the Russian peasantry, and this interest increased as he grew
older. The years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the intellectual
forces of Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence
of the new Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely
expressed his own aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from
the Corps of Pages to the army. The members of the corps had
the prescriptive right of choosing the regiment to which they
would be attached. Kropotkin had never wished for a military
career, but, as he had not the means to enter the St Petersburg
University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment in the
recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of
administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp
to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being
appointed attaché for Cossack affairs to the governor-general of
East Siberia at Irkutsk. Opportunities for administrative work,
however, were scanty, and in 1864 Kropotkin accepted charge
of a geographical survey expedition, crossing North Manchuria
from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards was
attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari
River into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions
yielded most valuable geographical results. The impossibility
of obtaining any real administrative reforms in Siberia now
induced Kropotkin to devote himself almost entirely to scientific
exploration, in which he continued to be highly successful. In
1867 he quitted the army and returned to St Petersburg, where
he entered the university, becoming at the same time secretary
to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical
Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to
science, a map and paper in which he proved that the existing
maps of Asia entirely misrepresented the physical formation of
the country, the main structural lines being in fact from
south-west to north-east, not from north to south, or from east
to west as had been previously supposed. In 1871 he explored
the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the Russian
Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was offered
the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had
determined that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries
but to aid in diffusing existing knowledge among the people at
large, and he accordingly refused the offer, and returned to
St Petersburg, where he joined the revolutionary party. In 1872
he visited Switzerland, and became a member of the International
Workingmen&rsquo;s Association at Geneva. The socialism
of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his views,
and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura
Federation at Neuchâtel and spending some time in the company
of the leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of
anarchism (<i>q.v.</i>) and, on returning to Russia, took an active part
in spreading the nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested
and imprisoned, but escaped in 1876 and went to England,
removing after a short stay to Switzerland, where he joined the
Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he helped to
start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in 1878,
where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary newspaper,
<i>Le Révolté</i>, subsequently also publishing various revolutionary
pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar
Alexander II. (1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by
the Swiss government, and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy)
went to London, where he remained for nearly a year, returning
to Thonon towards the end of 1882. Shortly afterwards he was
arrested by the French government, and, after a trial at Lyons,
sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a special law passed
on the fall of the Commune) to five years&rsquo; imprisonment, on the
ground that he had belonged to the International Workingmen&rsquo;s
Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of repeated
agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released,
and settled near London.</p>

<p>Prince Kropotkin&rsquo;s authority as a writer on Russia is universally
acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the
<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. Among his other works may be
named <i>Paroles d&rsquo;un révolté</i> (1884); <i>La Conquête du pain</i> (1888);
<i>L&rsquo;Anarchie: sa philosophie, son idéal</i> (1896); <i>The State, its Part
in History</i> (1898); <i>Fields, Factories and Workshops</i> (1899);
<i>Memoirs of a Revolutionist</i> (1900); <i>Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evolution</i>
(1902); <i>Modern Science and Anarchism</i> (Philadelphia,
1903); <i>The Desiccation of Asia</i> (1904); The Orography of Asia
(1904); and <i>Russian Literature</i> (1905).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KROTOSCHIN<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (in Polish, <i>Krotoszyn</i>), a town of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Posen, 32 m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900),
12,373. It has three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span>
and a steam brewery, and carries on trade in grain and seeds.
The castle of Krotoschin is the chief place of a mediatized principality
which was formed in 1819 out of the domains of the
Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn and Taxis
in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly
of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baroness von</span> (1764-1824),
Russian religious mystic and author, was born at Riga
in Livonia on the 11th of November 1764. Her father, Otto
Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a colonel in
Catherine II.&rsquo;s wars, was one of the two councillors for Livonia
and a man of immense wealth; her mother, <i>née</i> Countess Anna
Ulrica von Münnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated
field marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a
numerous family. Her education, according to her own account,
consisted of lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing;
and at the age of eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to
Baron Burckhard Alexis Constantin von Krüdener, a widower sixteen
years her senior. The baron, a diplomatist of distinction, was
cold and reserved; the baroness was frivolous, pleasure-loving,
and possessed of an insatiable thirst for attention and flattery;
and the strained relations due to this incompatibility of temper
were embittered by her limitless extravagance, which constantly
involved herself and her husband in financial difficulties. At
first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784 a son
was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (afterwards
emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron
Krüdener became ambassador at Venice,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> where he remained until
transferred to Copenhagen in 1786.</p>

<p>In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the
nervous disorders from which the baroness had for some time
been suffering, and it was decided that she must go to the south
for her health; she accordingly left, with her infant daughter and
her step-daughter Sophie. In 1789 she was at Paris when the
states general met; a year later, at Montpellier, she met a young
cavalry captain, Charles Louis de Frégeville, and a passionate
attachment sprang up between them. They returned together
to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband that her
heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he
refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a <i>modus
vivendi</i>, which was facilitated by the departure of De Frégeville
for the war. All was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copenhagen,
and, setting out on her travels, visited Riga, St Petersburg&mdash;where
her father had become a senator<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a>&mdash;Berlin, Leipzig
and Switzerland. In 1798 her husband became ambassador at
Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff court society of
Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties continued; and
by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose favour
Baron Krüdener had stood high, made the position of the ambassador
extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion
to leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband
that the doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died
on the 14th of June 1802, without ever having seen her again.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual
society of Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her
charms were fading, but her passion for admiration survived.
She had tried the effect of the shawl dance, in imitation of Emma,
Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in literature, and in
1803, after consulting Châteaubriand and other writers of distinction,
published her <i>Valérie</i>, a sentimental romance, of which
under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In
January 1804 she returned to Livonia.</p>

<p>At Riga occurred her &ldquo;conversion.&rdquo; A gentleman of her
acquaintance when about to salute her fell dying at her feet.
The shock overset her not too well balanced mind; she sought for
consolation, and found it in the ministrations of her shoemaker,
an ardent disciple of the Moravian Brethren. Though she had
&ldquo;found peace,&rdquo; however, the disorder of her nerves continued,
and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of Wiesbaden. At
Königsberg she had an interview with Queen Louise, and, more
important still, with one Adam Müller, a rough peasant, to whom
the Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick
William III. &ldquo;Chiliasm&rdquo; was in the air. Napoleon was
evidently Antichrist; and the &ldquo;latter days&rdquo; were about to be
accomplished. Under the influence of the pietistic movement the
belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in country parsonages,
in peasants&rsquo; hovels: a man would be raised up &ldquo;from the north
... from the rising of the sun&rdquo; (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist would
be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years
upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of
the baroness&rsquo;s religious development. A short visit to the
Moravians at Herrenhut followed; then she went, via Dresden,
to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet of Heinrich Jung-Stilling (<i>q.v.</i>),
the high priest of occultist pietism, whose influence was supreme
at the court of Baden and infected those of Stockholm and
St Petersburg.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> By him she was instructed in the chiliastic faith
and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then, hearing
that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean Frédéric Fontaines, was
prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to
him. On the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the
Protestant parsonage of Sainte Marie-aux-Mines, accompanied
by her daughter Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian
valet.</p>

<p>This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines,
half-charlatan, half-dupe, had introduced into his household a
prophetess named Marie Gottliebin Kummer,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> whose visions,
carefully calculated for her own purposes, became the oracle of
the divine mysteries for the baroness. Under this influence she
believed more firmly than ever in the approaching millennium
and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her reckless
charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect
on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to
found a colony of the &ldquo;elect&rdquo; in order to wait for &ldquo;the coming of
the Lord,&rdquo; many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they
possessed and followed the baroness and Fontaines into Württemberg,
where the settlement was established at Catharinenplaisir
and the château of Bönnigheim, only to be dispersed
(May 1) by an unsympathetic government.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Further wanderings
followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden; to Karlsruhe and the
congenial society of pietistic princesses; to Riga, where she
was present at the death-bed of her mother (Jan. 24, 1811);
then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom
she had been &ldquo;spiritually married&rdquo; (Madame Fontaines being
content with the part of Martha in the household, so long as the
baroness&rsquo;s funds lasted), had now waned, and she had fallen under
that of Johann Kaspar Wegelin (1766-1833), a pious linen-draper
of Strassburg, who taught her the sweetness of &ldquo;complete annihilation
of the will and mystic death.&rdquo; Her preaching and her
indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious crowds from
afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an
epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the
appearance in 1811 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching
end. In 1812 she was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than
one visit to J. F. Oberlin (<i>q.v.</i>), the famous pastor of Waldbach in
Steinthal (Ban de la Roche), and where she had the glory of converting
her host, Adrien de Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In
1813 she was at Geneva, where she established the faith of a
band of young pietists in revolt against the Calvinist Church
authorities&mdash;notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards destined
to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In
September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz
had preceded her; and at Strassburg, where the party was
joined by Franz Karl von Berckheim, who afterwards married
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span>
Juliette.<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> At the end of the year she returned with her
daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful migration.</p>

<p>The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and
she and the pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor
Alexander might find at the hands of Madame de Krüdener the
peace which an interview with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring
him. The baroness herself wrote urgent letters to Roxane de
Stourdza, sister of the tsar&rsquo;s Rumanian secretary, begging her
to procure an interview. There seemed to be no result; but the
correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a
strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In
the spring of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schlüchtern, a piece
of Baden territory <i>enclavé</i> in Württemberg, busy persuading the
peasants to sell all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this,
at Heilbronn, the emperor Alexander established his headquarters
on the 4th of June. That very night the baroness
sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who had been
brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an
answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached
her strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his
face buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he
declared that he had &ldquo;found peace.&rdquo; At the tsar&rsquo;s request she
followed him to Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was
lodged at the Hôtel Montchenu, next door to the imperial headquarters
in the Elysée Palace. A private door connected the
establishments, and every evening the emperor went to take
part in the prayer-meetings conducted by the baroness and
Empeytaz. Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into
the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krüdener had
become a political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her
religious gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebrated
in the intellectual and social world; Châteaubriand came, and
Benjamin Constant, Madame Récamier, the duchesse de Bourbon,
and Madame de Duras. The fame of the wonderful conversion,
moreover, attracted other members of the chiliastic
fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him the
prophetess Marie Kummer.</p>

<p>In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance
germinated and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of September
the portentous proclamation, which was to herald the opening
of a new age of peace and goodwill on earth, was signed by the
sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holy Alliance</a></span>;
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Its authorship has ever been a matter
of dispute. Madame de Krüdener herself claimed that she had
suggested the idea, and that Alexander had submitted the draft
for her approval. This is probably correct, though the tsar
later, when he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her
for her indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed,
had begun to be opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer
was the unintentional cause. At the very first séance the
prophetess, whose revelations had been praised by the baroness
in extravagant terms, had the evil inspiration to announce in her
trance to the emperor that it was God&rsquo;s will that he should
endow the religious colony to which she belonged! Alexander
merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations
before to be impressed. The baroness&rsquo;s influence was shaken
but not destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her
a passport to Russia. She was not, however, destined to see
him again.</p>

<p>She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel
to St Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however,
offended by her indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which
his relations with her had brought upon him, showed little disposition
to hurry her arrival. She remained in Switzerland,
where she presently fell under the influence of an unscrupulous
adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months Empeytaz, an
honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man&rsquo;s clutches,
but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the baroness&rsquo;s
inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could
be none other than the &ldquo;woman clothed with the sun&rdquo; of
Rev. xii. 1. She wandered with Kellner from place to place,
proclaiming her mission, working miracles, persuading her converts
to sell all and follow her. Crowds of beggars and rapscallions
of every description gathered wherever she went, supported
by the charities squandered from the common fund. She became
a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the peace;
Württemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed
by every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August
1817, she set out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by
Kellner and a remnant of the elect.</p>

<p>The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German
and Swiss chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness&rsquo;s
son-in-law Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help
establish the new colonies. In November 1820 the baroness
at last went herself to St Petersburg, where Berckheim was
lying ill. She was there when the news arrived of Ypsilanti&rsquo;s
invasion of the Danubian principalities, which opened the war
of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine
mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom.
Alexander, however, had long since exchanged her influence
for that of Metternich, and he was far from anxious to be forced
into even a holy war. To the baroness&rsquo;s overtures he replied
in a long and polite letter, the gist of which was that she must
leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death of Kellner,
whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow to
her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be
persuaded by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea,
where she had established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu
Bazar, she died on the 25th of December 1824.</p>

<p>Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krüdener: &ldquo;Elle avait un
immense besoin que le monde s&rsquo;occupât d&rsquo;elle...; l&rsquo;amour
propre, toujours l&rsquo;amour propre...!&rdquo; A kindlier epitaph
might, perhaps, be written in her own words, uttered after
the revelation of the misery of the Crimean colonists had at
last opened her eyes: &ldquo;The good that I have done will endure;
the evil that I have done (for how often have I not mistaken for
the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my
imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Much information about Madame de Krüdener, coloured by the
author&rsquo;s views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz&rsquo;s <i>Notice sur
Alexandre, empereur de Russie</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The <i>Vie de
Madame de Krudener</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker
and Philhellene J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and contains
much material, but is far from authoritative. In English
appeared the <i>Life and Letters of Madame de Krüdener</i>, by Clarence
Ford (London, 1893). The most authoritative study, based on a
wealth of original research, is E. Muhlenbeck&rsquo;s <i>Étude sur les origines
de la Sainte-Alliance</i> (Paris, 1909), in which numerous references
are given.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A portrait of Madame de Krüdener and her son as &ldquo;Venus
disarming Cupid,&rdquo; by Angelica Kauffmann, of this period, is in the
Louvre.</p>

<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> He died while she was there in 1792.</p>

<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavus Adolphus
IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden.</p>

<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> She had been condemned some years previously in Württemberg
to the pillory and three years&rsquo; imprisonment as a &ldquo;swindler&rdquo;
(<i>Betrügerin</i>), on her own confession. Her curious history is given
in detail by M. Muhlenbeck.</p>

<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming
Napoleon as &ldquo;the Beast.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and
had abandoned his post in 1813.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1770-1842), German philosopher
and author, was born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of
June 1770, and died at Leipzig on the 12th of January 1842.
He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and Jehnichen, at
Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804 he
was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after
which he succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics
at the university of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death he
was professor of philosophy at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer
on a great variety of subjects, in all of which he excelled as a
popularizer rather than as an original thinker. In philosophy
his method was psychological; he attempted to explain the
Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts of
consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation
in consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to
Being. Both Being and Consciousness, however, are immediately
known to us, as also the relation existing between them. By this
Transcendental Synthesis he proposed to reconcile Realism
and Idealism, and to destroy the traditional difficulty between
transcendental, or pure, thought and &ldquo;things in themselves.&rdquo;
Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it is admitted that
it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy and of
stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His
principal works are: <i>Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span>
(1801); <i>Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkenntniss</i>
(1801); <i>Fundamentalphilosophie</i> (1803); <i>System der
theoretischen Philosophie</i> (1806-1810), <i>System der praktischen
Philosophie</i> (1817-1819); <i>Handbuch der Philosophie</i> (1820;
3rd ed., 1828); <i>Logik oder Denklehre</i> (1827); <i>Geschichte
der Philos. alter Zeit</i> (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); <i>Allgemeines
Handwörterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften</i> (1827-1834;
2nd ed., 1832-1838); <i>Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für
Gebildete beiderlei Geschlechts</i>. His work <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte
der Philos. des XIX. Jahrh.</i> (1835-1837) contains interesting
criticisms of Hegel and Schelling.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also his autobiography, <i>Meine Lebensreise</i> (Leipzig, 2nd ed.,
1840).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1825-1904),
president of the Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg,
Cape Colony, on the 10th of October 1825. His father was
Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in 1796, and whose
wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both sides occur
Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears
to have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was
sent with others by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape.
At the age of ten Paul Kruger&mdash;as he afterwards came to be
known&mdash;accompanied his parents in the migration, known as the
Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the territories north of the
Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his life was one
of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between civilization
and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting,
his education was necessarily of the most primitive character.
He learnt to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest
form of Dutch Presbyterianism. His literature was almost
confined to the Bible, and the Old Testament was preferred to
the New. It is related of Kruger, as indeed it has been said
of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer leaders, that he
believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. At
about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared
into the veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under
the influence of deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in
the wilderness Kruger stated that he had been especially favoured
by God, who had communed with and inspired him. Throughout
his life he professed this faith in God&rsquo;s will and guidance,
and much of his influence over his followers is attributable to
their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of Divine favour.
The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a
spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Covenanters,
was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these
the narrowest, most puritanical, and most bigoted was the
Dopper sect, to which Kruger belonged. His Dopper following
was always unswerving in its support, and at all critical times
in the internal quarrels of the state rallied round him. The
charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger&mdash;if by
this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely
political ends&mdash;does not appear entirely just. The subordination
of reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote
of his character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where
faith is so profound as to believe the Divine guidance <i>all</i>, and
the individual intelligence <i>nil</i>, a man is able to persuade himself
that any course he chooses to take is the one he is directed to
take. Where bigotry is so blind, reason is but dust in the
balance. At the same time there were incidents in Kruger&rsquo;s
life which but ill conform to any Biblical standard he might
choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van Oordt, his
eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact.</p>

<p>When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the
Matabele and the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north
of the Vaal and were among the founders of the Transvaal state.
At the age of seventeen Paul found himself an assistant field
cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, and at twenty-seven held
a command in an expedition against the Bechuana chief Sechele&mdash;the
expedition in which David Livingstone&rsquo;s mission-house
was destroyed.</p>

<p>In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa.
When not fighting natives in those early days Kruger was
engaged in distant hunting excursions which took him as far
north as the Zambezi. In 1852 the Transvaal secured the
recognition of its independence from Great Britain in the Sand
River convention. For many years after this date the condition
of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into
the faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely
entered. In 1856-1857 he joined M. W. Pretorius in his attempt
to abolish the district governments in the Transvaal and to
overthrow the Orange Free State government and compel a
federation between the two countries. The raid into the Free
State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with it was
the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the
Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were
attacking them in front.</p>

<p>From this time forward Kruger&rsquo;s life is so intimately bound
up with the history of his country, and even in later years of
South Africa, that a study of that history is essential to an
understanding of it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>). In
1864, when the faction fighting ended and Pretorius was president,
Kruger was elected commandant-general of the forces of
the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the
British government, which was settled by the Keate award
(1871). The decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal
that it brought about the downfall of President Pretorius
and his party; and Thomas François Burgers, an educated
Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, was elected to succeed
him. During the term of Burgers&rsquo; presidency Kruger appeared
to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the
president in the difficult task of building up a stable state,
he did everything in his power to undermine his authority,
going so far as to urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers
was in office. The faction of which he was a prominent member
was chiefly responsible for bringing about that <i>impasse</i> in the
government of the country which drew such bitter protest from
Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the British in
April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is impossible
to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of the
inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to
oust Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put
Kruger in his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured
and annexation offered itself as the alternative resulting from
his downfall, it is true that Kruger opposed it. But matters
had gone too far. Annexation became an accomplished fact,
and Kruger accepted paid office under the British government.
He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the retrocession
of the country, being a member of two deputations which went
to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that
in 1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator,
dismissed him from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion
occurred, and Kruger was one of the famous triumvirate, of
which General Piet Joubert and Pretorius were the other
members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the terms of peace on
which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was drafted. In
1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving 3431
votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert.</p>

<p>In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England,
this time for the purpose of getting another convention. The
visit was successful, the London convention, which for years was
a subject of controversy, being granted by Lord Derby in 1884
on behalf of the British government. The government of the
Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, the country
rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy from
which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the
year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger
was by no means a popular man even among his own followers;
as an administrator of internal affairs he had shown himself
grossly incompetent, and it was only the specious success of
his negotiations with the British government which had retained
him any measure of support. In 1888 he was elected president
for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a young Hollander,
was appointed state secretary, and the system of state
monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span>
in full course of development. The principle of government
monopoly in trade being thus established, President Kruger now
turned his attention to the further securing of Boer political
monopoly. The Uitlanders were increasing in numbers, as well
as providing the state with a revenue. In 1890, 1891, 1892, and
1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the convention were
on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders were
practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a
third presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition
he had raised among the burgers, largely by the favouritism
he displayed to the Hollander party, was so strong that it was
fully anticipated that his more liberal opponent, General Joubert,
would be elected. Before the election was decided Kruger
took care to conciliate the volksraad members, as well as to
see that at all the volksraad elections, which occurred shortly
before the presidential election, his supporters were returned, or,
if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on some
trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting
in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The
Hollander and <i>concessionnaire</i> influence, which had become a
strong power in the state, was all in favour of President Kruger.
In spite of these facts Kruger&rsquo;s position was insecure. &ldquo;General
Joubert was, without any doubt whatever, elected by a very
considerable majority.&rdquo;<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But the figures as announced gave
Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert accused
the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed
to the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and
Kruger retained office. The action taken by President Kruger
at this election, and his previous actions in ousting President
Burgers and in absolutely excluding the Uitlanders from the
franchise, all show that at any cost, in his opinion, the government
must remain a close corporation, and that while he lived
he must remain at the head of it.</p>

<p>From 1877 onward Kruger&rsquo;s external policy was consistently
anti-British, and on every side&mdash;in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia,
in Zululand&mdash;he attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the
Transvaal at the expense of Great Britain. In these disputes
he usually gained something, and it was not until 1895 that he
was definitely defeated in his endeavours to obtain a seaport.
His internal policy was blind, reckless and unscrupulous, and
inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his own
words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired
to obtain the legalization of the use of the English language in
the Transvaal. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; said Kruger, &ldquo;is my country; these are
my laws. Those who do not like to obey my laws can leave my
country.&rdquo; This rejection of the advances of the Uitlanders&mdash;by
whose aid he could have built up a free and stable republic&mdash;led
to his downfall, though the failure of the Jameson Raid in
the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to secure
the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the
Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the intervention
of the British government the Uitlanders&rsquo; grievances
were not remedied.</p>

<p>In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for
the fourth and last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal
and Great Britain had become so strained, by reason of the
oppression of the foreign population, that a conference was
arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir Alfred (afterwards Lord)
Milner, the high commissioner, and President Kruger. Kruger
was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life his
object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy
everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return.
It was for this reason that he invariably failed to come to any
arrangement with Sir John Brand while the latter was president
of the Free State. In 1889, the very year following President
Brand&rsquo;s death, he was able to make a treaty with President Reitz,
his successor, which bound each of the Boer republics to assist
the other in case its independence was menaced, unless the
quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the part of the
state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share all
the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy,
without the Free State itself receiving anything in return.
Kruger thus achieved one of the objects of his life. With such
a history of apparent success, it is not to be wondered at that
the Transvaal president came to Bloemfontein to meet Sir
Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It is true that he
made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but that
proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it
was a palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred
Milner made was met by the objection that it threatened the
independence of the Transvaal. This retort was President
Kruger&rsquo;s rallying cry whenever he found himself in the least
degree pressed, either from within or without the state. To
admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate
a degree, would destroy the independence of the state. In
October 1899, after a long and fruitless correspondence with
the British government, war with Great Britain was ushered
in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal. Immediately after
the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded by the
Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of
the most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemfontein
conference was couched in the following terms: &ldquo;We
follow out what God says, &lsquo;Accursed be he that removeth his
neighbour&rsquo;s landmark.&rsquo; As long as your Excellency lives you
will see that we shall never be the attacking party on another
man&rsquo;s land.&rdquo; The course of the war that followed is described
under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having
been occupied by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on
commando, with the consent of his executive proceeded to
Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the European powers
to intervene on his behalf, but without success.</p>

<p>From this time he ceased to have any political influence.
He took up his residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record
of his career, published in 1902 under the title of <i>The Memoirs
of Paul Kruger</i>. He died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens,
near Vevey, on the shores of the Lake of Geneva, whither he
had gone for the sake of his health. He was buried at Pretoria
on the following 16th of December, Dingaan&rsquo;s Day, the anniversary
of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu
king Dingaan&mdash;a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen,
had taken part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large
family. His second wife died in 1891. When he went to
Europe he left his third wife in Lord Roberts&rsquo;s custody at Pretoria,
but she gradually failed, and died there (July 1901). It
was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid. It is
recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria
was erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger&rsquo;s wish that the hat was left
open at the top, in order that the rain-water might collect there
for the birds to drink.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. F. van Oordt, <i>P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche
Republiek</i> (Amsterdam, 1898); the <i>Memoirs</i> already mentioned;
F. R. Statham, <i>Paul Kruger and his Times</i> (1898); and, among
works with a wider scope, G. M. Theal, <i>History of South Africa</i>
(for events down to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, <i>The Transvaal
from Within</i> (1899); <i>The Times History of the War in South Africa</i>
(1900-9); and A. P. Hillier, <i>South African Studies</i> (1900).</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in <i>The Transvaal from Within</i>, ch. iii.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUGERSDORP,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of
Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were
whites. It is built on the Witwatersrand at an elevation of
5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining centre of some importance.
It is also the starting-point of a railway to Zeerust and Mafeking.
Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the discovery
of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger.
Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected
to commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries
Pretorius in 1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th
of December each year, kept as a public holiday, large numbers
of Boers assemble at the monument to celebrate the event.
Here in December 1880 a great meeting of Boers resolved again
to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. The formal
proclamation was made on Dingaan&rsquo;s Day, and after the defeat
of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also
commemorated at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The
monument, which was damaged during the war of 1899-1902,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span>
was restored by the British authorities. It was at Doornkop,
near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his &ldquo;raiders&rdquo;
surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January
1896 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: <i>History</i>). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W.
of Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful
stalactites.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUMAU<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (in Czech, <i>Krumlov</i>), is a town in Bohemia situated
on the banks of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000
inhabitants, partly of Czech, partly of German nationality.
Krumau is principally celebrated because its ancient castle
was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, known also
as <i>pani z ruze</i>, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of Rosenberg
(d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at Krumau.
His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a city.
The last two members of the family were two brothers, William,
created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter
Vok, who played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their
librarian was Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on
the annals of the Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a
strong adherent of the Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly
before his death (1611), because the Jesuits had established
themselves in the neighbourhood.</p>

<p>The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was
bought by the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius
of Austria. In 1622 the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the
lordship to his minister, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in
1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary duchy in his favour.
From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to Prince
Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke
of Krumau in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family
bears the title of duke of Krumau. The castle, one of the
largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves much of its ancient
character.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See W. Brezan, <i>Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka</i> (Life of William of
Rosenberg), 1847; also <i>Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka</i> (Life of Peter
Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRUMBACHER, CARL<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (1856-1909), German Byzantine
scholar, was born at Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September
1856. He was educated at the universities of Munich
and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the middle age and
modern Greek language and literature in the former from 1897
to his death. His greatest work is his <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur</i> (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern
Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897,
with the collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and
H. Gelzer (general sketch of Byzantine history, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395-1453).
The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the elaborate
bibliographies contained in the body of the work and in a
special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the <i>Byzantinische
Zeitschrift</i> (1892) and the <i>Byzantinisches Archiv</i> (1898).
He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece
appeared in his <i>Griechische Reise</i> (1886). Other works by him
are: <i>Casia</i> (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine
poetess, with the fragments; <i>Michael Glykas</i> (1894); &ldquo;Die
griechische Litteratur des Mittelalters&rdquo; in P. Hinneberg&rsquo;s
<i>Die Kultur der Gegenwart</i>, i. 8 (1905); <i>Das Problem der neugriechischen
Schriftsprache</i> (1902), in which he strongly opposed
the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical style into
modern Greek literature, and <i>Populäre Aufsätze</i> (1909).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KRUMEN<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kroomen</span>, <span class="sc">Krooboys</span>, <span class="sc">Krus</span>, or <span class="sc">Croos</span>), a negro
people of the West Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages
scattered along the coast of Liberia from below Monrovia
nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been wrongly derived
from the English word &ldquo;crew,&rdquo; with reference to the fact that
Krumen were the first West African people to take service in
European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive
name of one of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped
many kindred tribes, the Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &amp;c., who collectively
number some 40,000. The Krus proper live in the narrow
strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape Palmas, where
are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra Kru,
Nana Kru and King William&rsquo;s Town. They are traditionally
from the interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen
and daring fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-chested
race, probably the most robust of African peoples.
They have true negro features&mdash;skin of a blue-black hue and
woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter shade
than negro women generally, and in several respects come
much nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as
physically the Krumen are one of the most remarkable races
in Africa. They are honest, brave, proud, so passionately fond
of freedom that they will starve or drown themselves to escape
capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. Politically the
Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an
hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in
their dealings with strangers. The real government is vested
in the elders, who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs.
Their president, the head fetish-man, guards the national
symbols, and his house is sanctuary for offenders till their guilt
is proved. Personal property is held in common by each family.
Land also is communal, but the rights of the actual cultivator
cease only when he fails to farm it.</p>

<p>At 14 or 15 the Kru &ldquo;boys&rdquo; eagerly contract themselves for
voyages of twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer
work near at home, and are to be found on almost every ship
trading on the Guinea coast. As soon as they have saved
enough to buy a wife they return home and settle down.
Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks&mdash;black or blue
lines on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their
arms and mutilate the incisor teeth. As a race they are
singularly intelligent, and exhibit their enterprise in numerous
settlements along the coast. Sierra Leone, Grand Bassa and
Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek classifies the Kru
language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is followed
by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar
(1854), considers it as distinct.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, <i>Crania ethnica</i>, ix. 363
(1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the <i>Sitzungsberichte</i> of
the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in <i>Bull. de la Soc. d&rsquo;Anthrop.</i>
(Paris, 1872); J. Büttikofer, <i>Reisebilder aus Liberia</i> (Leiden,
1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>Liberia</i> (London, 1906).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (1767-1845), German
theologian, was born on the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg,
Westphalia. Having studied theology at Lingen and Halle,
he became successively rector of the grammar school at Mörs
(1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), preacher at
Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, <i>Consistorialrath</i> and superintendent
in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the
university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen
(1824). He died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He
was the author of many religious works, but is best known
by his <i>Parabeln</i> (1805; 9th ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1844).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849.</p>
</div>

<p>His brother <span class="sc">Gottfried Daniel Krummacher</span> (1774-1837),
who studied theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively
in Bärl (1798), Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the
leader of the &ldquo;pietists&rdquo; of Wupperthal, and published several
volumes of sermons, including one entitled <i>Die Wanderungen
Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan</i> (1834).</p>

<p><span class="sc">Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher</span> (1796-1868), son of Friedrich
Adolf, studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became
pastor successively at Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke,
near Barmen in the Wupperthal (1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In
1847 he received an appointment to the Trinity Church in
Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at Potsdam. He
was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His
best-known works are <i>Elias der Thisbiter</i> (1828-1833; 6th ed.
1874; Eng. trans. 1838); <i>Elisa</i> (1837) and <i>Das Passionsbuch, der
leidende Christus</i> (1854, in <i>English The Suffering Saviour</i>, 1870).
His <i>Autobiography</i> was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).</p>

<p><span class="sc">Emil Wilhelm Krummacher</span> (1798-1886), another son, was
born at Mörs in 1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg.
He wrote, amongst other works, <i>Herzensmanna aus Luthers</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span>
<i>Werken</i> (1852). His son Hermann (1828-1890), who was appointed
<i>Consistorialrath</i> in Stettin in 1877, was the author of
<i>Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika</i> (1874).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUPP, ALFRED<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1812-1887), German metallurgist, was
born at Essen on the 26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich
Krupp (1787-1826), had purchased a small forge in that town
about 1810, and devoted himself to the problem of manufacturing
cast steel; but though that product was put on the market
by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm was
far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried
on by his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself
obliged, a boy of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their
direction. For many years his efforts met with little success,
and the concern, which in 1845 employed only 122 workmen,
did scarcely more than pay its way. But in 1847 Krupp made a
3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the Great Exhibition
of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot of
cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in
the industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame.
Another successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel
tires for railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards.
The profits derived from these and other steel manufactures
were devoted to the expansion of the works and to the development
of the artillery with which the name of Krupp is especially
associated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>). The model settlement, which is
one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started
in the &rsquo;sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the
increasing number of workmen; and now there are various
&ldquo;colonies,&rdquo; practically separate villages, dotted about to the
south and south-west of the town, with schools, libraries, recreation
grounds, clubs, stores, &amp;c. The policy also was adopted
of acquiring iron and coal mines, so that the firm might have
command of supplies of the raw material required for its operations.
Alfred Krupp, who was known as the &ldquo;Cannon King,&rdquo;
died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by
his only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born
at Essen on the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted
himself to the financial rather than to the technical side of the
business, and under him it again underwent enormous expansion.
Among other things he in 1896 leased the &ldquo;Germania&rdquo; ship-building
yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into the complete
ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also the
year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number
of men employed at Essen and its associated works was over
40,000. His elder daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was
married in October 1906 to Dr Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach,
who on that occasion received the right to bear the name
Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in the
German navy involved further expansion in the operations of
the Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns
required for the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing
at £9,000,000, was augmented by £2,500,000.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1770-1846), Russian navigator,
hydrographer and admiral, was born at Haggud in
Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In 1785 he entered the
corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788, with the
grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden.
Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several
years (1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After
publishing a paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication
between Russia and China by Cape Horn and the
Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by the emperor Alexander I.
to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to endeavour to
carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in which
the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by
Cape Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence
to Japan. Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope,
after an extended series of explorations, Krusenstern reached
Kronstadt in August 1806, his being the first Russian expedition
to circumnavigate the world. The emperor conferred
several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral.
As director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much
useful work. He was also a member of the scientific committee
of the marine department, and his contrivance for counteracting
the influence of the iron in vessels on the compass was
adopted in the navy. He died at Reval on the 24th of August
1846.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Krusenstern&rsquo;s <i>Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806</i> was published
at St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104
plates and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols.,
and atlas of 30 plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many
important discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of
Japan, and the contributions made by the various savants were of
much scientific importance. A valuable work is his <i>Atlas de l&rsquo;Océan
Pacifique</i>, with its accompanying <i>Recueil des mémoires hydrographiques</i>
(St Petersburg, 1824-1827). See <i>Memoir</i> by his daughter,
Madame Charlotte Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KRUSHEVATS<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kru&#353;evac</span>), a town of Servia, lying in a
fertile region of hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian
Morava. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital
of a department bearing the same name, and has an active trade
in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and livestock, for the sale of which
it possesses about a dozen markets. It was in Krushevats that
the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army to march
against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389.
The site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing
a fragment of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to
legend, tidings of the defeat were brought her by crows from the
battlefield. Within the enclosure stands a church, dating from
the reign of Stephen Dushan (1336-1356), with beautiful rose
windows and with imperial peacocks, dragons and eagles
sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses were left
at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient Turkish
fountain and bath.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KSHATTRIYA,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> one of the four original Indian castes, the
other three being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The
Kshattriya was the warrior caste, and their function was to
protect the people and abstain from sensual pleasures. On
the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the Kshattriyas were repressed,
and their consequent revolt gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism,
the founders of both these religions belonging to the Kshattriya
caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas were
all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to
the modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native
states. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caste</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBAN,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of
the Elbruz, in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races
down the N. face of the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but
upon getting down to the lower-lying steppe country S. of
Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft. altitude, towards the N.W.,
and eventually, assuming a westerly course, enters the Gulf
of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the Straits of
Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through marshes,
where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the normal
700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area
of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m.,
as far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long).
This, like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and
Great and Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban
is the ancient Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the
Circassians.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBAÑ,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of
Azov on the W., the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the
government of Stavropol and the province of Terek on the E.,
and the government of Kutais and the Black Sea district on the
S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and marshy lowlands
on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile steppes
of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus
range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area
is 36,370 sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel
ranges of the Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6000 ft.
high, which are intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider
as the main range is approached. Owing to a relatively wet
climate and numerous streams, these mountains are densely
clothed with woods, under the shadow of which a thick
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span>
undergrowth of rhododendrons, &ldquo;Caucasian palms&rdquo; (<i>Buxus
sempervirens</i>), ivy, clematis, &amp;c., develops, so as to render the
forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20%
of the aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to
2000 ft. high, stretch north of the Kubañ, and are profusely
watered by that river and its many tributaries&mdash;the Little and
Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba, Byelaya, Pshish&mdash;mountain
torrents that rush through narrow gorges from the Caucasus
range. In its lower course the Kubañ forms a wide, low delta,
covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy.
The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the
Sea of Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes.
Malaria is the enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly
on the Tamañ Peninsula, as also along the left bank of the lower
and middle Kubañ.</p>

<p>There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the
Kubañ and its tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant
(less than 10,000 tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the
district of Maikop, but the best are in the Tamañ Peninsula,
where they range over 570 sq. m. Iron ores, silver and zinc
are found; alabaster is extracted, as also some salt, soda and
Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup and
Tamañ, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging
from small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil
is very fertile in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth
and are being rapidly populated.</p>

<p>The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897, of whom 1,788,622
were Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778
Germans. There were at the same date 945,873 women, and
only 156,486 people lived in towns. The estimated population
in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were represented by
100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes.
The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain
valleys, were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861,
either to settle on the flat land or to emigrate; those who
refused to move voluntarily were driven across the mountains
to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly 200,000) emigrated
to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks. Peasants
from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of
the Kubañ, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the
Kubañ Cossacks in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women).
In point of religion 90% of the population were in 1897
members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4% Raskolniks and
other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being Jews.</p>

<p>Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the
total area under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley,
millet, Indian corn, some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are
grown. Agricultural machinery is largely employed, and the
province is a reserve granary for Russia. Livestock, especially
sheep, is kept in large numbers on the steppes. Bee-keeping is
general, and gardening and vine-growing are spreading rapidly.
Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in the Kubañ, is
important.</p>

<p>Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running
N.W. to S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting
from the former south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north
coast of the Black Sea. The province is divided into seven
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in
1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province (65,697), Anapa
(6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop (34,191),
Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446).</p>

<p>The history of the original settlements of the various native
tribes, and their language and worship before the introduction
of Mahommedanism, remain a blank page in the legends of the
Caucasus. The peninsula of Tamañ, a land teeming with relics
of ancient Greek colonists, has been occupied successively by the
Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols and other nations.
The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in the 13th
century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia
obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on
the right bank of the Kubañ, the latter being granted by Catherine
II. in 1792 to the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced
the bloody struggle with the Circassians, which continued for
more than half a century. Not only domestic, but even field
work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are remarkable
for their physical strength and endurance. The native mountaineers,
known under the general name of Circassians, but
locally distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy,
Shapsugh, have greatly altered their mode of life since the
pacification of the Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahommedanism,
speaking their vernacular, and strictly observing the
customs of their ancestors. Exports include wheat, tobacco,
leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish, salt and live cattle;
imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local industry is
limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit
distilleries.</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBELIK, JAN<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1880-&emsp;&emsp;), Bohemian violinist, was born
near Prague, of humble parentage. He learnt the violin from
childhood, and appeared in public at Prague in 1888, subsequently
being trained at the Conservatorium by the famous teacher
Ottakar Sev&#269;ik. From him he learnt an extraordinary technique,
and from 1898 onwards his genius was acclaimed at
concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in
1900, and in America in 1901, creating a <i>furore</i> everywhere.
In 1903 he married the Countess Czaky Szell.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBERA<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kuvera</span>), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth.
Originally he appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of
Pluto. His home is Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden,
the world&rsquo;s treasure-house, is Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara.
Kubera is half-brother to the demon Ravana, and was driven
from Ceylon by the latter.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBLAI KHAN<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">&#7730;aan</span>, as the supreme ruler descended
from Jenghiz was usually distinctively termed in the 13th century)
(1216-1294), the most eminent of the successors of Jenghiz
(Chinghiz), and the founder of the Mongol dynasty in China.
He was the second son of Tul&#275;, youngest of the four sons of
Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the
khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his
son Kuyuk (1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tul&#275;
(1252). Kublai was born in 1216, and, young as he was, took
part with his younger brother Hulagu (afterwards conqueror
of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in Persia)
in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical
chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz
himself on his death-bed discerned young Kublai&rsquo;s promise
and predicted his distinction.</p>

<p>Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially
conquered by Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been
followed up till the Kin or &ldquo;golden&rdquo; dynasty of Tatars, reigning
at K&rsquo;ai-f&#275;ng Fu on the Yellow River, were completely subjugated
(1234). But China south of the Yangtsze-kiang remained
many years later subject to the native dynasty of Sung, reigning
at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (<i>King-sz&rsquo;</i>, &ldquo;capital&rdquo;),
now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this
region had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu&rsquo;s
accession. Kublai was then named his brother&rsquo;s lieutenant in
Cathay, and operations were resumed. By what seems a vast
and risky strategy, of which the motives are not quite clear,
the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the subjugation
of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture
of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahommedan
insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the
war in Yunnan to a trusted general. Some years later (1257)
the khan Mangu himself entered on a campaign in west China,
and died there, before Ho-chow in Sze-ch&rsquo;uen (1259).</p>

<p>Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his
brother Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with
these retarded the prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubtless,
however, this was constantly before Kublai as a great task
to be accomplished, and its fulfilment was in his mind when
he selected as the future capital of his empire the Chinese city
that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to the north-east
of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been an
occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span>
capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-called)
&ldquo;Tatar city&rdquo; of modern Peking is the city of Kublai,
with about one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai&rsquo;s walls are
also on this retrenched portion still traceable.</p>

<p>The new city, officially termed T&rsquo;ai-tu (&ldquo;great court&rdquo;),
but known among the Mongols and western people as Kaan-baligh
(&ldquo;city of the khan&rdquo;) was finished in 1267. The next
year war against the Sung Empire was resumed, but was long
retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of Siang-yang
and Fan-ch&#275;ng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and commanding
two great lines of approach to the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang.
The siege occupied nearly five years. After this
Bayan, Kublai&rsquo;s best lieutenant, a man of high military genius
and noble character, took command. It was not, however,
till 1276 that the Sung capital surrendered, and Bayan rode
into the city (then probably the greatest in the world) as its
conqueror. The young emperor, with his mother, was sent
prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had been
despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these
successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the
native throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made
in Fu-kien, and afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung;
but in 1279 these efforts were finally extinguished, and the
faithful minister who had inspired them terminated the struggle
by jumping with his young lord into the sea.</p>

<p>Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of
southern China had occupied the Mongols during half a century
of intermittent campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all
China, and probably the sovereign (at least nominally) of a
greater population than had ever acknowledged one man&rsquo;s
supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by the princes
of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on the
Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the
family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from
the Oxus to the Arabian desert. For the first time in history
the name and character of an emperor of China were familiar
as far west as the Black Sea and not unknown in Europe.
The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his kinsmen
reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings
of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers
from Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from
Venice, served him as ministers, generals, governors, envoys,
astronomers or physicians; soldiers from all Asia to the Caucasus
fought his battles in the south of China. Once in his old
age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the field in person
against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of his family,
who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan
was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by
Kaidu, who survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301.
Kublai himself died in 1294, at the age of seventy-eight.</p>

<p>Though a great figure in Asiatic history, and far from deserving
a niche in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a
record in the short list of the good rulers. His historical locus
was a happy one, for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise
above the innate barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force
and warlike character of his ancestors, which vanished utterly
in the effeminacy of those who came after him. He had great
intelligence and a keen desire for knowledge, with apparently
a good deal of natural benevolence and magnanimity. But his
love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions beyond sea,
created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes
to the character and methods of those whom he employed to
raise it. A remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one
of these, Ahmed of Fen&#257;ket, and of the revolt which they provoked,
is given by Marco Polo, in substantial accordance with
the Chinese annals.</p>

<p>Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally.
The great astronomical instruments which he caused to be made
were long preserved at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin
in 1900. Though he put hardly any Chinese into the first
ranks of his administration, he attached many to his confidence,
and was personally popular among them. Had his endeavour
to procure European priests for the instruction of his people,
of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman
Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors,
might have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momentary
effort, Kublai probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan
Buddhism the readiest instrument in the civilization of his
countrymen, and that system received his special countenance.
An early act of his reign had been to constitute a young lama of
intelligence and learning the head of the Lamaite Church, and
eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be regarded
as a precursory form of the rule of the &ldquo;grand lamas&rdquo; of Lassa.
The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai
to devise a special alphabet for use with the Mongol language.
It was chiefly based on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins
and inscriptions in it are extant; but it had no great vogue,
and soon perished. Of the splendour of his court and entertainments,
of his palaces, summer and winter, of his great
hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper
currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an
account is given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many
years in Kublai&rsquo;s service.</p>

<p>We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were
almost all disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering
for the nominal extension of his empire by claiming submission
and tribute. Expeditions against Japan were several times
repeated; the last, in 1281, on an immense scale, met with
huge discomfiture. Kublai&rsquo;s preparations to avenge it were
abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they created.
In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient
state representing what we now call Cochin China. This
eventually led to an attempt to invade the country through
Tongking, and to a war with the latter state, in which the
Mongols had much the worst of it. War with Burma (or Mien,
as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar fashion, but
the result was more favourable to Kublai&rsquo;s arms. The country
was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital,
Pag&#257;n, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal
dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against
Java, and occurred in the last year of the old khan&rsquo;s reign.
The envoy whom he had commissioned to claim homage was
sent back with ignominy. A great armament was equipped
in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but after some
temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with
a loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further
action.</p>

<p>Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified
the khan&rsquo;s vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with
presents, and with the curious reports of foreign countries in
which Kublai delighted. Such expeditions extended to the
states of southern India, to eastern Africa, and even to Madagascar.</p>

<p>Of Kublai&rsquo;s twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite
and designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son
of Chingkim, took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty
after Kublai. He had in all nine successors of his house on the
throne of Kaan-baligh, but the long and imbecile reign of the
ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in disgrace and expulsion
and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their stead.</p>
<div class="author">(H. Y.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUBUS,<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra.
They are nomadic savages living entirely in the forests in shelters
of branches and leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested
that they represent a Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G.
Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls and skeletons submitted to
him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them decidedly Malay,
though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain mixture
of negrito blood (<i>Jour. Anthrop. Instit.</i>, April 1884). They are
of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to
curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUCH&#256;N,<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> a fertile and populous district of the province
Khorasan in Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian
territory, W. by Bujnurd, S. by Isfaraïn, and extending in the
E. to near Radkan. Its area is about 3000 sq. m. and its
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span>
population, principally composed of Zafaranlu Kurds, descendants
of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th
century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are
nomads and live in tents. The district produces much grain,
25,000 to 30,000 tons yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan
and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many villages.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Kuchan</span>, the capital of the district, has suffered much from
the effects of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895.
The last earthquake laid the whole town in ruins and caused
considerable loss of life. About 8000 of the survivors removed
to a site 7½ m. E. and there built a new town named Nasseriyeh
after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i jadid,
<i>i.e.</i> New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city
in order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geographical
position of the old town is 37° 8´ N., 58° 25´ E.,
elevation 4100 ft. The new town has been regularly laid out
with broad streets and spacious bazaars, and, situated as it is
half-way between Meshed and Askabad on the cart-road connecting
those two places, has much trade. Its population is
estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUCH BEHAR,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cooch Behar</span>, a native state of India,
in Bengal, consisting of a submontane tract, not far from
Darjeeling, entirely surrounded by British territory. Area,
1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974; estimated revenue, £140,000.
The state forms a level plain of triangular shape, intersected
by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile and well
cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the north-east
corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in character
throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in
depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand.
The whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neighbouring
Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from
north to south, to join the main stream of the Brahmaputra.
Some half-dozen are navigable for small trading boats throughout
the year, and are nowhere fordable; and there are about twenty
minor streams which become navigable only during the rainy
season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels for
themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate
with one another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is
grown on three-fourths of the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco
are also largely grown for export. The only special industries
are the weaving of a strong silk obtained from worms fed on the
castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used for screens
and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of
Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improvements
a railway has been constructed, with the assistance of a
loan from the British government. The earthquake of the
12th of June 1897 caused damage to public buildings, roads, &amp;c.,
in the state to the estimated amount of £100,000.</p>

<p>The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state
is derived, are a widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal
descent, found throughout all northern Bengal, from Purnea
district to the Assam valley. They are akin to the Indo-Chinese
races of the north-east frontier; but they have now become
largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the
appellation &ldquo;Koch&rdquo; has come to be used as a term of reproach.
Their total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly
2½ millions.</p>

<p>As in the case of many other small native states, the royal
family of Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to
conceal an impure aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch
of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, the son of Visu Singh, who
began to reign about 1550. He conquered the whole of Kamrup,
built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist bearing inscriptions
with his name, and extended his power southwards over
what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea.
His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar,
became tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor
for the throne, having been driven out of the country by his
rivals, applied for assistance to Warren Hastings. A detachment
of sepoys was accordingly marched into the state; the
Bhutias, whose interference had led to this intervention, were
expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the mediation of
the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion, April
1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and
made over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the
death of the raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old,
a British commissioner was appointed to undertake the direct
management of affairs during the minority of the prince, and
many important reforms were successfully introduced. The
maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862, was
educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and
became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In
1897-98 he served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General
Yeatman-Biggs, and received the distinction of a C.B. He was
present at the Jubilee in 1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897,
and King Edward&rsquo;s Coronation in 1902, and became a well-known
figure in London society. In 1878 he married a daughter of
Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was
educated in England.</p>

<p>The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and
has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college
affiliated to the Calcutta University.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUDU<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (<i>koodoo</i>), the native name for a large species of African
antelope (<i>q.v.</i>), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male,
and the body marked with narrow vertical white lines in both
sexes. The female is hornless. <i>Strepsiceros capensis</i> (or <i>S.
strepsiceros</i>) is the scientific name of the true kudu, which ranges
from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is also a much smaller
species (<i>S. imberbis</i>) in East and North-East Africa.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:355px; height:402px" src="images/img937.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">Male Kudu.</td></tr></table>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUENEN, ABRAHAM<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theologian,
the son of an apothecary, was born on the 16th of September
1828, at Haarlem, North Holland. On his father&rsquo;s
death it became necessary for him to leave school and take a
humble place in the business. By the generosity of friends he
was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards
at the university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his
doctor&rsquo;s degree by an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis
from the Arabic version of the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853
he became professor extraordinarius of theology at Leiden,
and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of W.
Muurling, one of the founders of the Gröningen school, which
made the first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology
in the Reformed Church of Holland. Kuenen himself soon
became one of the main supports of the modern theology, of
which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem Opzoomer
(b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became
the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical
introduction to the Old Testament, <i>Historisch-kritisch onderzoek
naar het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden
Verbonds</i> (3 vols., 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by
T. Weber and C. T. Müller, 1885-1894), followed the lines of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span>
dominant school of Heinrich Ewald. But before long he
came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned to
regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers
as older than what was by the Germans denominated <i>Grundschrift</i>
(&ldquo;Book of Origins&rdquo;). In 1869-1870 he published his book on
the religion of Israel, <i>De godsdienst van Israël tot den ondergang
van der Joodschen Staat</i> (Eng. trans., 1874-1875). This was followed
in 1875 by a study of Hebrew prophecy, <i>De profeten en de
profetie onder Israel</i> (Eng. trans., 1877), largely polemical in its
scope, and specially directed against those who rest theological
dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen went
to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, <i>National
Religions and Universal Religion</i>; in the following year he
presided at the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886
his volume on the Hexateuch was published in England. He
died at Leiden on the 10th of December 1891.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews;
a series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the <i>Theologisch
Tijdschrift</i>, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the
finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were
translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894. Several
of his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUEN-LUN,<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kwen-Lun</span>, a term used to designate generally
the mountain ranges which run along the northern edge of the
great Tibetan plateau in Central Asia. In a wider application
it means the succession of ranges which extend from the Pamirs
on the W. to 113° E., until it strikes against or merges in the
steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the Mongolian plateau.
In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those ranges
which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan
plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen
of the Kara-muren, that is, nearly to the longitude of the
town of Cherchen (about 85½° E.). Although the use of the
name is thus restricted in geographical usage, the mountain
system so designated does, as a fact, extend eastwards as far as
the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95° E.), though it is uncertain
whether its direct orographical continuation eastwards
is to be identified with the Astin-tagh, or, as F. Grenard and
K. Bogdanovich believe&mdash;and with them Sven Hedin is inclined
to agree&mdash;with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and Arka-tagh,
which lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin-tagh,
whether it is the principal continuation of the Kuen-lun
or only a subsidiary flanking system, is itself the westward
continuation of the Nan-shan or Southern Mountains, which
reach down far into China (to 113° E.).</p>

<p>Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus
stretch in a wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and
while in the W. their constituent ranges are folded and squeezed
by lateral compression into a breadth of some 150-200 m., their
summits being forced up to correspondingly higher altitudes,
in the E. they spread out to a breadth of some 600 m., the
ranges being in that quarter less folded, and consequently
both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia the
Kuen-lun forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In
point of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas
to the S. or the Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests
of its component ranges reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft.,
they are not as a rule overtopped by individual peaks of commanding
and towering elevation, as the Himalayas are, but run
on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively at little greater
altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them one from
another. It is a strikingly marked characteristic of the northern
edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range (<i>e.g.</i>
Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and
this &ldquo;twinning&rdquo; of the mountain-ranges, as also of the intermont
lake-basins among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar
feature of the Tibetan plateau.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian
mountain system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers
of ancient Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range
of mountains crossed Asia from west to east on the parallel of the
island of Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish highlands,
the N. of Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu-kush,
and so on into China. This long range they supposed to
separate the waters which flow N. to the Arctic from those which
flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K. Ritter (<i>Asien</i>, ii.) was the first of
modern geographers to recognize the true character of the Kuen-lun
as a border range of the Tibetan plateau; and Baron von Richthofen
(<i>China</i>, i. 1876) still further defined and accentuated the conception
of the system by representing it as a complex arrangement of several
parallel ranges, running in wavy lines from the Pamirs (76° E.)
eastwards to 118° E. But though von Richthofen&rsquo;s general conception
of the Kuen-lun system was broadly sound and in accordance
with facts, the details both of his description and of that of his
pupil Wegener<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> require now very considerable revision, and need
even to be in part recast, as a consequence of explorations and
investigations made since they wrote by, amongst others, the
Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V. Pyevtsov, V. I.
Roboroysky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A. Obruchev, and
(?) Skassi; by the Englishmen A. D. Carey, A. Dalgleish, St G. R.
Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the
American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins,
F. Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d&rsquo;Orléans; by the
Hungarians L. von Loczy and Count Szechényi; and above all by
the Swede Sven Hedin.</p>

<p><i>Western Kuen-lun.</i>&mdash;On the east the Pamir highlands are fenced
off from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of
Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range),
which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.)
and its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea-level,
while its own summits, <i>e.g.</i> the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot
up far above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border-ridge
is continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent
(77° E.) by a succession of twin ranges, all running, though under
different names, from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to
the investigations of F. Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same
fossils occur in both sets of border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in
their eastward continuations, <i>e.g.</i> corals, <i>Stromatophorae</i>, <i>Bryozoa</i>,
<i>Atrypa reticularis</i>, <i>A. latilinguis</i> and <i>A. aspera</i>, <i>Spirifer verneuili</i>,
&amp;c., and these the latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch.
These eastward continuations of the double border-range of the
Pamirs are the constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The
names given to them are the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the
Keriya Mountains in the more northerly range and the Raskem or
Raskan, the Sughet and the Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more
southerly range. Although they all decrease in altitude from west to
east, they nevertheless reach elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual
peaks ascending some 2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turkestan
lowlands on the north the ascent is very steep, and the passes
across both sets of ranges lie at great altitudes; for example, the
pass of Sanju-davan in the lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level,
and the Kyzyl-davan, farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet-davan
in the higher range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated
from the Karakorum Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of
the Raskem or Yarkand-darya, while the deep glen of the Kara-kash
or Khotan-darya intervenes between the upper (Sughet Mountains)
and the lower (Kilian Mountains) border-ranges. Altogether this
western extremity of the Kuen-lun system is a very rugged mountainous
region, a consequence partly of the intricacy of the flanking
ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful lateral compression to
which they have been subjected, and partly of the great and abrupt
differences in vertical elevation between the crests of the ranges and
the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens between them. In
the broad orographical disposition of the ranges there is considerable
similarity between north Tibet and west Persia, in that in both cases
the ranges are crowded together in the west, but spread out wider as
they advance towards the east. To the two principal ranges in this
part of the system F. Grenard, who accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de
Rhins on his journey in 1890-1895, gives the names the Altyn-tagh
and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than six parallel ranges
altogether. Now as Altyn-tagh<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> is an accepted, though in point
of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear that Grenard
considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued directly by the
Astin-tagh.</p>

<p>From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 81½° E.)
to that of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about
85½° E.) the parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to
the E.N.E., and here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of
Dalai-kurghan-art (14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, <i>i.e.</i> Littledale&rsquo;s Chokur
Pass (9530 ft.) and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span>
11,500 ft., while in the upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.),
Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550 ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others
not named at 16,590 and 17,300 ft.</p>

<p><i>Middle Kuen-lun.</i>&mdash;Between the upper transverse glens of the Kara-muren
(or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short
range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cherchen-daryt,
in about 86° E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun
begin to diverge and radiate outwards (<i>i.e.</i> to north and to south) like
the fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four
principal ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated,
namely the Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the
Arka-tagh, all belonging to the mountainous country which borders
on the north the actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these
several ranges, or systems of ranges, differ considerably in their
orographical characteristics, the following description will apply
generally to the entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to
the Arka-tagh. The broad features of the surface configuration
are a series of nearly parallel mountain-ranges, running from
W.S.W. E.N.E. to W.N.W. E.S.E., and separated by high intermont
valleys, which are choked with disintegrated material and divided
into a chequered pattern of self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins.
As a rule the crests of the ranges are worn down by aerial denudation
and have the general appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock
(mostly granite and crystalline schists, with red sandstone in places)
appears only in the transverse glens, which are often choked with
their débris in the form either of gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks
of stone or both. The flanks of the mountains are so deeply buried
in disintegrated material that the difference in vertical altitude
between the floors of the valleys and the summits of the ranges is
comparatively small. But as each successive range, proceeding
south, represents a higher step in the terraced ascent from the desert
of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the ranges when viewed from the
north frequently appear like veritable upstanding mountain ranges,
and this appearance is accentuated by the general steepness of the
ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other hand from the south,
these several ranges, owing to their long and gentle slope in that
direction, have the appearance of comparatively gentle swellings of
the earth&rsquo;s <span class="correction" title="amended from service">surface</span> rather than of well-defined mountain ranges.
As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west down the intermont
latitudinal valleys, until they break through some transverse
glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In the western
parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren or the
Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some larger
self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the Achik-kol,
the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet farther east
make their way, some of them into the lakes of the Tsaidam depression
or become lost in its sands or in those of the Kum-tagh desert
on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the great rivers, the
Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue River) in
the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which eventually
terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow increasingly
larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law appears to distinguish
the hydrography of at any rate the great latitudinal valleys
of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of the Chimen-tagh):
the streams flow close under the foot of the range that shuts in each
individual valley on the north. But in respect of precipitation there is
a very marked difference between the valleys of the north and those
of the south. Whereas both the mountains and valleys of the Astin-tagh
and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range to the Astin-tagh
on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme, smitten as it were
with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of the Arka-tagh and
beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at any rate in
summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a quaking
quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal life poor
in species, though in some respects certain of the species, <i>e.g.</i> wild
yaks, wild asses (<i>kulans</i>), antelopes (<i>orongo</i> and others), marmots,
hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel
approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever,
ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats
(<i>kökmet</i>), wild sheep (<i>arkharis</i>), lizards, earth-rats, and a small
rodent (<i>teshikan</i>), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese
are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation
consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties, including
tamarisks and wild briers, of reeds (<i>kamish</i>), and of grass
on the <i>yaylaks</i> (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the
Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the
flora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of
wild tea (<i>chay</i>, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is
obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh
and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous
ranges in this part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing
to different travellers having applied the same name to different
ranges and to different travellers have applied different names to
what is probably often identically the same range. In this article
the nomenclature adopted is that employed by the latest, and
probably the most thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia,
namely, Sven Hedin. Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly
all the longer and more important crossings of Tibet and its northern
montane region have been made from north to south, or vice versa,
that is, transversely across the ranges, and comparatively few from
east to west along the intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifications
between ranges in the east and ranges in the west are in more
than one instance more or less doubtful.</p>

<p>The <i>Astin-tagh</i>, although it occupies a similar position to the twin
ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost
escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau, would
appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (<i>e.g.</i> Grenard,
Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or
subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not
however a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example,
on the map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel
main ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam
of four, parallel main ranges, flanked throughout by several subsidiary
chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into
the vast <i>massif</i> of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least
three minor parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula
it once more contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being
that which Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a
pass at 13,200 ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range
which overhangs the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko-nor
Range. The northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan-shan
or Southern Mountains.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh
range from altitudes of 10,150 to 10,700 ft., and in the Upper Astin-tagh
at 11,770 to 15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the
Charkhlik-su is only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes
of crest and pass remain approximately the same as in the Western
Kuen-lun, it is evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin
border ridge decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking
difference between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the
ranges which give rise to the gigantic ridge and furrow arrangement
on the Tibetan plateau. &ldquo;Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains,
like those in the Kuruk-tagh,<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> are indeed severely weathered, but
they always consist, from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and
barren, most frequently piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denticulated,
pinnacled crests and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on
the other hand, most of the ranges are distinguished by their
rounded outlines and soft consistency, and their striking poverty in
hard rock, which in the best cases only crops out near the summits.
There too disintegration has been to a remarkable extent operative.
This gives rise to the great morphological difference, that in the
former regions, the Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products
of disintegration are almost always carried away by the wind, and
so disappear; no matter how powerful or how active the disintegration
may be, none of the loosened material ever succeeds either in
gathering amongst the mountains or in accumulating at their foot.
The climate is so arid, and precipitation so extremely rare, that the
fine powdery material falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the
other hand, the precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious,
and so uniformly distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened
material <i>in situ</i>, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses
on the flanks of the mountains that are its primitive source of
origin, these projecting in great part like skeletons from the midst
of their own ruins.&rdquo;<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly
equivalent in point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower
Range, on the north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east, the
Upper Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remarkable
way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse
glens directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark
precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is
&ldquo;cut up into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the
gathering ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent
mountains. Outside the lower end of each large transverse glen there
is a scree of sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat
and their lower edges generally reach all the way down to the central
part of the basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay,
perfectly flat and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often
cracked into polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the
long axis of the valley.... But though the great morphological
features of this latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal
valleys of Tibet, the climatic differences give rise to differences
between the basins corresponding to the differences between the mountain-ranges
themselves. For while the self-contained basins of
Tibet generally possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks
and streams of greater or less magnitude gather, often from very
considerable distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin-tagh
are very small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their
central parts receive any water at all, only in fact after copious
rain. These terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains,
are therefore almost always dry.&rdquo;<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>

<p>The next parallel range on the south, the <i>Akato-tagh</i>, and the valley
which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and waterless.
The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a
&ldquo;hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay,&rdquo; is chequered with shallow self-contained
basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle slopes
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span>
up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface slopes from
altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is the lake of Uzunshor
(9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which direction it continues
as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and the plain or flat basin
of Särtäng, a north extension of Tsaidam. This range of Akato-tagh,
the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that which on the map of
the Russian general staff bears the name Chimen-tagh. Like the
Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and, like it, appears to
be built up of granite and schists, but its crest is greatly denuded,
so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding above the deep
mantle of disintegrated material which masks its flanks. The slopes
on both north and south are extremely gentle, but that on the south
is eight to ten times as long as that on the north. In the east the range
is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of the Tsaidam depression;
but in the west it swells out into the lofty and imposing mass of
the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped with perpetual
snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of Chopur-alik
at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes lie at altitudes
of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that intervenes
between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the south, the
Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from 12,500 ft. down
to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli (9305 ft.). In
the western part of this valley occurs the very important transverse
water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which separates the basin
of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the Tarim basin from the
area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which belongs to the Tsaidam
depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains in places a good deal
of drift-sand, which however is stationary in the mass and heaped
up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh. Nevertheless the
Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the general Kuen-lun
system, being nothing more than a central ridge running along the
broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh from the Chimen-tagh.</p>

<p>The latter range, the <i>Chimen-tagh</i>, is identical in its western parts
with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsaidam
chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards
by the range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or
the Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to
Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The
Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some
pyramidal in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow
melts in summer. This range acts as a &ldquo;breakwater&rdquo; to the
clouds, arresting and condensing the moisture which is carried northwards
by the south winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those
of the Akato-tagh and the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year
round on the Chimen-tagh, even in July, and water is abundant
everywhere. The southern slope of the range is gentle but short,
the northern slope long and steep. Grass is able to grow, and
animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed by passes at
13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ft., and the Piazlik-tagh by a pass at an
altitude of 13,640 ft.</p>

<p>The next important range, still going south, is the <i>Kalta-alaghan</i>,
Carey&rsquo;s Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky&rsquo;s Columbus Range and
the range which is variously designated (<i>e.g.</i> by Pyevtsov) as the
Ambal-ashkan, Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however,
properly the name of a short secondary range which rises along the
middle (<i>ara</i> = middle) of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and
the Kalta-alaghan. Not only is it of lower elevation than them
both, but it dies away towards the west, the valleys on each side of
it meeting round its extremity to form one broad, open valley, with
an altitude of 11,790 to 13,725 ft. The Ara-tagh is crossed by a
pass at an altitude of 14,345 ft. In the Kalta-alaghan, which is
the culminating range of this part of the Kuen-lun, and is overtopped
by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes climb to considerably
higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430 and 14,190 ft.,
while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft. This range
appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the Muzluk-tagh,
in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is possible
however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the
Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges,
Indeed Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-tagh,
the Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single
closely connected chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky&rsquo;s
isolated peak of Mount Kreml (15,055 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst
agreeing that this may possibly be the true conception, inclines to
the view that the Achik-kol Range dies away towards the E., and
that the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into
the border-ranges that lie north of the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz-davan.
Unlike most of the other parallel ranges of N. Tibet, the
Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it increases in elevation
towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh, it abuts upon and
merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the south.</p>

<p>Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep
depression, the <i>Kum-kol valley</i>, forming a very well-marked feature in
the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed transversely
by a water-divide which separates the basin of the twin-lakes
of Kum-kol (12,700 ft.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some 3500 ft.
lower. The floor of the valley consequently slopes away in both
directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the
Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum-kol
lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys
that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the east.
Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area, though
the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol (Chon-kum-kol)
(12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small area (8 sq. m.)
and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower lake (Ayak-kum-kol)
(12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283 sq. m.) and goes
down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying between the
Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol (13,940 ft.),
16½ m. broad and 50 m. in circuit.</p>

<p>The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing <i>Arka-tagh</i>,
the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its
eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude
15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The
Arka-tagh<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in
Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way
farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the Karakorum
Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the Arka-tagh
is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly so-called;
to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty parallel
ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any connexion
with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh, which
is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in configuration
in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply defined main
crest, with several lower flanking ranges, and sometimes consisting
of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude. Amongst
these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the system four
predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is probably
the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The passes
across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675, 16,420, 17,320
and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020, 17,070 and
17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065, 17,830 and
17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765, 16,780, 18,100
and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie comparatively little
higher than the valleys which separate them, the altitudes in the
latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft., if not higher, and being only
500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the accompanying ranges.
The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty jagged, pinnacled
peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a characteristic
feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh mountains are
built up, at all events superficially, of sand and powdery, finely
sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock does crop out
on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be with difficulty
recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of the ranges
generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded swelling, and
when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them are, these
shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a breast-plate,
or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at intervals;
nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding glacier
tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But not
the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains
were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and
levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever
there did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become
entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the
erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the
eye southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture
of a chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached
masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description
and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka-tagh
the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspicuous
and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow
and some of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are
Shapka Monomakha or the Monk&rsquo;s Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which
may however be only Shapka Monomakha seen from a different
point of view; Tömürlik-tagh<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (<i>i.e.</i> the Iron Mountain); and farther
west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which, according to Grenard, reaches an
altitude of 24,140 ft. But the relations in which these detached
mountain-masses stand to one another and to the Arka-tagh behind
them have not yet been elucidated. In the vicinity of the Ullugh-muz-tagh
there exist numerous indications of former volcanic
activity, the eminences and summits frequently being capped with
tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over other parts of
the Arka-tagh ranges.</p>

<p>The next succeeding parallel range, the <i>Koko-shili</i>, which is
continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper
headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze-kiang,
belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet.</p>

<p>The succession of ranges which follow one another from the
deserts of Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet
rise in steps or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the
north of it and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference
in altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower
Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts
to nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of
the Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span>
individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the
Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself exceeded
by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 ft. There is also a considerable
rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh.
But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan
there is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely,
730 ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to
the Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka-tagh,
again, run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes,
namely, 16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont
latitudinal valleys are compared, the significance orographically
of the Chimen valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly emphasized.
Both are much more deeply excavated than all the other
latitudinal valleys that run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being
875 ft. above the valley to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft.
below the valley to the south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is
altogether exceptional, for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than
the valley to the north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it
to the first (on north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than
2900 ft. Hence these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun
system may be grouped in three divisions&mdash;(1) the more strictly
border ranges of the Upper and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh;
(2) the three ranges of Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta-alaghan,
which may be considered as forming a transitional system
between the foregoing and the third division; (3) the Arka-tagh,
which constitute the elevated rampart of the Tibetan plateau
proper.</p>
<div class="author">(J. T. Be.)</div>

<p>The <i>Nan-shan Highlands</i> overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They
embrace a region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied
with parallel mountain ranges all running from the N.W. to the
S.E. Broad, flat, longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to
14,000 ft. (9000 to 10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted
with lakes (Koko-nor, 9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the
space between these mountain ranges. In the S.E. the Nan-shan
highlands abut upon the highlands of the Chinese province of Kan-suh,
and near the great northward bend of the Hwang-ho they
meet the escarpments by which the Great Khingan and the In-shan
ranges are continued, and by which the Mongolian plateau steps
down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the Nan-shan highlands
have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average altitude,
4000 ft.), <i>i.e.</i> in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are fringed by a
border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the Astin-tagh,
which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is pierced by
several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor. This
border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates
the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range.</p>

<p>On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular
chains, separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ
but slightly in altitude from Tsaidam (8800-9000 ft.). Next a
succession of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border
terrace and the higher terrace (12,000-13,500 ft.). The first
mountain range on this higher terrace is Ritter&rsquo;s range, covered in
part with extensive snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this
snow-clad <i>massif</i> lie at altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The
next range is Humboldt or Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to
S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about 38° N., and is perhaps continued
by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor range, which strikes the Hwang-ho
with an elevation of 7440 ft. It includes, in fact, several other
parallel ranges&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the Mushketov, Semenov, Suess, Alexander III.,
Bain-sarlyk&mdash;the mutual relations of which are, however, not yet
definitely settled.</p>

<p>Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the
general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the
next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The
mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several
constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is
named indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo-shan.
In fact, the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly
equal altitude, all lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line.
Finally, there is a range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named
Lung-shan by Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-chow
valley on the N.E., and belongs to the Nan-shan system.
But the string of oases in Kan-suh province, which stretches between
the towns named, lies on the lower level of the Mongolian plateau
(4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the Lung-shan ought possibly to be
regarded as a continuation of the Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi.</p>

<p>Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised
12,000 to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony
and partly snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000
ft. above its surface, and arranged in narrow parallel chains all
running N.W. to S.E. The chains of mountains are severally
from 8 to 17 m. wide, seldom as much as 35, while the broad,
flat valleys between them attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As
a rule the passes are at an altitude of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the
peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in the western portion of the highlands,
while in the eastern portion they may be about 2000 ft. lower.
The glaciers also attain a greater development in the western portion
of the Nan-shan, but the valleys are dry, and the slopes of both the
mountains and the valleys, furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid
of vegetation. Good pasture grounds are only found near the
streams. The soil is dry gravel and clay, upon which bushes of
<i>Ephedra</i>, <i>Nitraria</i> and <i>Salsolaceae</i> grow sparsely. In the north-eastern
Nan-shan, on the contrary, a stream runs through each
gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the bottoms of the valleys
are covered with vegetation. Forests of conifers (<i>Picea obovata</i>)
and deciduous trees&mdash;Przhevalsky&rsquo;s poplar, birch, mountain ash,
&amp;c., and a variety of bushes&mdash;are common everywhere. Higher up,
in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons, willows, <i>Potentilla
fruticosa</i>, <i>Spriaeae</i>, <i>Lonicereae</i>, &amp;c., and the rains must evidently be
more copious and better distributed. In the central Nan-shan it
is only the north-eastern slopes that bear forests. In the south, where
the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province, extensive accumulations of
loess make their appearance, and it is only the northern slopes of
the hills that are clothed with trees.</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.)</div>

<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;An enumeration of the works published before
1890, and a map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener&rsquo;s <i>Versuch
einer Orographie des Kuen-lun</i> (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only
approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the
most important are Sven Hedin&rsquo;s <i>Scientific Results of a Journey in
Central Asia</i>, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an
elaborate atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000;
H. H. P. Deasy&rsquo;s <i>In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan</i> (London, 1901),
with a good map; F. Grenard&rsquo;s vol. (iii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins&rsquo;s
<i>Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895</i> (n.p., 1897), also
with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill&rsquo;s <i>Diary of a Journey through
Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892</i> (Washington, 1894); M. S.
Wellby&rsquo;s <i>Through Unknown Tibet</i> (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot&rsquo;s
<i>De Paris au Tonkin à travers le Tibet inconnu</i> (Paris, 1892); St G. R.
Littledale&rsquo;s &ldquo;A Journey across Tibet,&rdquo; in <i>Geog. Journal</i> (May 1896);
H. Bower&rsquo;s <i>Diary of a Journey across Tibet</i> (London, 1894); the
<i>Izvestia</i> of the Russian Geog. Soc. and <i>Geog. Journal</i>, both <i>passim</i>.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In &ldquo;Orographie des Kwen-lun,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für
Erdkunde zu Berlin</i> (1891).</p>

<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is used, for instance, on the map of &ldquo;Inner-Asien&rdquo; (No. 62) of
<i>Stieler&rsquo;s Hand-atlas</i> (ed. 1905) and in the <i>Atlas</i> of the Russian General
Staff. Etymologically the correct form is Astin-tagh or Astun-tagh,
meaning the Lower or Nearer Mountains. Ustun-tagh, which appears
on Stieler&rsquo;s map as an <i>alternative</i> name for Altyn-tagh, means Higher
or Farther Mountains, and though not used locally of any specific
range, would be appropriately employed to designate the higher
and more southerly of the twin border-ranges of the Tibetan
plateau.</p>

<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Northern Mountains are the Pe-shan in the desert of Gobi
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gobi</a></span>).</p>

<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> On the opposite or north side of the desert of Lop (desert of Gobi).</p>

<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Sven Hedin, <i>Scientific Results</i>, iii. 308.</p>

<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> 310-311.</p>

<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or
Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh is incorrect.</p>

<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The form Tumenlik-tagh is erroneous.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUFA,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a Moslem city, situated on the shore of the Hindieh
canal, about 4 m. E. by N. of Nejef (32° 4´ N., 44° 20´ E.),
was founded by the Arabs after the battle of Kadesiya
in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 638 as one of the two capitals of the new territory of
Irak, the whole country being divided into the <i>sawads</i>, or
districts, of Basra and Kufa. The caliph &lsquo;Ali made it his
residence and the capital of his caliphate. After the removal
of the capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the following century,
Kufa lost its importance and began to fall into decay. At the
beginning of the 19th century, travellers reported extensive
and important ruins as marking the ancient site. Since that
time the ruins have served as quarries for bricks for the building
of Nejef, and at the present time little remains but holes in
the ground, representing excavations for bricks, with broken
fragments of brick and glass strewn over a considerable area.
A mosque still stands on the spot where &lsquo;Ali is reputed to have
worshipped. (For history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (1812-1881), German
philologist and folklorist, was born at Königsberg in Neumark
on the 19th of November 1812. From 1841 he was connected
with the Köllnisches Gymnasium at Berlin, of which he was
appointed director in 1870. He died at Berlin on the 5th of May
1881. Kuhn was the founder of a new school of comparative
mythology, based upon comparative philology. Inspired by
Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, he first devoted himself to German
stories and legends, and published <i>Märkische Sagen und Märchen</i>
(1842), <i>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche</i> (1848), and
<i>Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen</i> (1859). But it
is on his researches into the language and history of the Indo-Germanic
peoples as a whole that his reputation is founded.
His chief works in this connexion are: <i>Zur ältesten Geschichte der
Indogermanischen Völker</i> (1845), in which he endeavoured to
give an account of the earliest civilization of the Indo-Germanic
peoples before their separation into different families, by
comparing and analysing the original meaning of the words
and stems common to the different languages; <i>Die Herabkunft
des Feuers und des Göttertranks</i> (1859; new ed. by E. Kuhn, under
title of <i>Mythologische Studien</i>, 1886); and <i>Über Entwicklungsstufen
der Mythenbildung</i> (1873), in which he maintained that
the origin of myths was to be looked for in the domain of
language, and that their most essential factors were polyonymy
and homonymy. The <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung
auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen</i>, with
which he was intimately connected, is the standard periodical
on the subject.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See obituary notice by C. Bruchmann in Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Biographisches
Jahrbuch</i> (1881) and J. Schmidt in the above <i>Zeitschrift</i>, xxvi. n.s. 6.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KÜHNE, WILLY<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (1837-1900), German physiologist, was born
at Hamburg on the 28th of March 1837. After attending the
gymnasium at Lüneburg, he went to Göttingen, where his master
in chemistry was F. Wöhler and in physiology R. Wagner.
Having graduated in 1856, he studied under various famous
physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude
Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and E. W. Brücke in
Vienna. At the end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical
department of the pathological laboratory at Berlin, under
R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was appointed professor of physiology
at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was chosen to succeed H. von
Helmholtz in the same capacity at Heidelberg, where he died on
the 10th of June 1900. His original work falls into two main
groups&mdash;the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the
earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which
he began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was
also known for his researches on vision and the chemical changes
occurring in the retina under the influence of light. The
visual purple, described by Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to
make the basis of a photochemical theory of vision, but though
he was able to establish its importance in connexion with vision
in light of low intensity, its absence from the retinal area of most
distinct vision detracted from the completeness of the theory and
precluded its general acceptance.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUKA,<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kukawa</span>, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state
of the central Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of
Nigeria (see Bornu). Kuka is situated in 12° 55´ N. and 13°
34´ E., 4½ m. from the western shores of Lake Chad, in the midst
of an extensive plain. It is the headquarters of the British
administration in Bornu, and was formerly the residence of the
native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the title of shehu.</p>

<p>The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 1810 by Sheikh
Mahommed al Amin al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the
Fula invaders. It is supposed to have received its name from
the <i>kuka</i> or monkey bread tree (<i>Adansonia digitata</i>), of which
there are extensive plantations in the neighbourhood. Kuka
or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the middle
ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for
much geographical confusion, but Idrisi writing in the 12th
century, and Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention
two important towns called Kaou Kaou, of which one would
seem to have occupied a position very near to that of the modern
Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of Bornu and as
situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present town
was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and
when it was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separated
by more than half a mile of open country, each town being
surrounded by walls of white clay. It was probably owing to there
being two towns that the plural <i>Kukawa</i> became the ordinary
designation of the town in Kano and throughout the Sudan,
though the inhabitants used the singular <i>Kuka</i>. The town became
wealthy and populous (containing some 60,000 inhabitants), being
a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a stopping-place of pilgrims
from the Hausa countries going across Africa to Mecca. The
chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between 1823
and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German
travellers. In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah
(<i>q.v.</i>), an adventurer from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new
capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling into complete decay. The town
was found in ruins in 1902 by the British expedition which
replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the ancient
rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun
and the town speedily regained part of its former importance.
It is now one of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu.
Owing, however, to the increasing importance of Maidugari, a
town 80 m. S.S.W. of Kuka, the court of the shehu was removed
thither in 1908.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the
<i>Travels</i> of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); and <i>Sahara und
Sudan</i>, by Gustav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), i. 581-748.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KU KLUX KLAN,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> the name of an American secret association
of Southern whites united for self-protection and to oppose
the Reconstruction measures of the United States Congress,
1865-1876. The name is generally applied not only to the
order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar societies that
existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the White
Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood;
the White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards;
Black Cavalry; White Rose; The &rsquo;76 Association; and hundreds
of smaller societies that sprang up in the South after the Civil
War. The object was to protect the whites during the disorders
that followed the Civil War, and to oppose the policy of the
North towards the South, and the result of the whole movement
was a more or less successful revolution against the Reconstruction
and an overthrow of the governments based on negro
suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such European
societies as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbund,
the Confréries of France, the Freemasons in Catholic countries,
and the Vehmgericht.</p>

<p>The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the
Knights of the White Camelia. The former began in 1865 in
Pulaski, Tennessee, as a social club of young men. It had an
absurd ritual and a strange uniform. The members accidentally
discovered that the fear of it had a great influence over the
lawless but superstitious blacks, and soon the club expanded
into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local
bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and
partaking of the nature of the old English neighbourhood
police and the ante-bellum slave patrol. The White Camelia
was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and rapidly spread over the
states of the late Confederacy. The period of organization and
development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to 1868;
the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which
came the decline.</p>

<p>The various causes assigned for the origin and development
of this movement were: the absence of stable government
in the South for several years after the Civil War; the corrupt
and tyrannical rule of the alien, renegade and negro, and the
belief that it was supported by the Federal troops which controlled
elections and legislative bodies; the disfranchisement of
whites; the spread of ideas of social and political equality
among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of
negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upon
white women by black men; the influence of Northern adventurers
in the Freedmen&rsquo;s Bureau (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Union League
(<i>q.v.</i>) in alienating the races; the humiliation of Confederate
soldiers after they had been paroled&mdash;in general, the insecurity
felt by Southern whites during the decade after the collapse of
the Confederacy.</p>

<p>In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal
Union. Its Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and
revised in 1868, provided for the following organization: The
entire South was the Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard,
General N. B. Forrest; each state was a Realm under a Grand
Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion under a Grand
Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the
smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The
staff officers bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order
existed only for amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Goblins,
Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and Turks. The private members
were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice reorganized, in 1867
and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in 1869 the
central organization was disbanded and the order then gradually
declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a
similar organization, without the queer titles. Its members were
called Brothers and Knights, and its officials Commanders.</p>

<p>The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declarations
of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to
protect and succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the
widows and orphans of Confederate soldiers; to protect members
of the white race in life, honour and property from the encroachments
of the blacks; to oppose the Radical Republican party
and the Union League; to defend constitutional liberty, to
prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span>
and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the
political and social supremacy of the white race&mdash;in short, to
oppose African influence in government and society, and to
prevent any intermingling of the races.</p>

<p>During the Reconstruction the people of the South were
divided thus: nearly all native whites (the most prominent of
whom were disfranchised) on one side irrespective of former
political faith, and on the other side the ex-slaves organized
and led by a few native and Northern whites called respectively
scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by the
United States government and who controlled the Southern
state governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider
aspects was the effort of the first class to destroy the control
of the second class. To control the negro the Klan played
upon his superstitious fears by having night patrols, parades
and drills of silent horsemen covered with white sheets, carrying
skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to rattle, and
wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at
night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates,
&ldquo;just from Hell,&rdquo; and to quench their thirst would pretend to
drink gallons of water which was poured into rubber sacks concealed
under their robes. Mysterious signs and warnings were
sent to disorderly negro politicians. The whites who were responsible
for the conduct of the blacks were warned or driven
away by social and business ostracism or by violence. Nearly
all southern whites (except &ldquo;scalawags&rdquo;), whether members of
the secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux
movement. As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradually
passed out of existence. In some communities they fell into
the control of violent men and became simply bands of outlaws,
dangerous even to the former members; and the anarchical
aspects of the movement excited the North to vigorous condemnation.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
The United States Congress in 1871-1872 enacted
a series of &ldquo;Force Laws&rdquo; intended to break up the secret
societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred
arrests were made, and a few convictions were secured. The
elections were controlled for a few years, and violence was
checked, but the Ku Klux movement went on until it accomplished
its object by giving protection to the whites, reducing
the blacks to order, replacing the whites in control of society
and state, expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers and scalawags,
and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted
in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party
composed principally of ex-slaves.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, <i>Ku Klux Klan</i>
(New York, 1905); W. L. Fleming, <i>Civil War and Reconstruction in
Alabama</i> (New York, 1905), and <i>Documentary History of Reconstruction</i>
(Cleveland, 1906); J. W. Garner, <i>Reconstruction in Mississippi</i>
(New York, 1901); W. G. Brown, <i>Lower South in American
History</i> (New York, 1901); J. M. Beard, <i>Ku Klux Sketches</i> (Philadelphia,
1876); J. W. Burgess, <i>Reconstruction and the Constitution</i>
(New York, 1901).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. L. F.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself
a Southerner, is worth quoting: &ldquo;That violence was often used
cannot be denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet-baggers.
The incidents related in such stories as Tourgée&rsquo;s <i>A
Fool&rsquo;s Errand</i> all have their counterparts in the testimony before
congressional committees and courts of law. In some cases, after
repeated warnings, men were dragged from their beds and slain by
persons in disguise, and the courts were unable to find or to convict
the murderers. Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was
done in most cases by persons not connected with them or acting
under their authority. It is impossible to prove or disprove their
statements. When such outrages were committed, not on worthless
adventurers, who had no station in the Northern communities from
which they came, but on cultivated persons who had gone South
from genuinely philanthropic motives&mdash;no matter how unwisely
or tactlessly they went about their work&mdash;the natural effect was to
horrify and enrage the North.&rdquo;</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUKU KHOTO<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> (Chinese <i>Kwei-hwa</i>), a city of the Chinese
province of Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in
40° 50´ N. and 111° 45´ E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies
in the valley of a small river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to
the south. There are two distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto,
at an interval of a mile and a half; the one is the seat of the civil
governor and is surrounded by the trading town, and the other
is the seat of the military governor, and stands in the open
country. In the first or old town more especially there are
strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not
in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone
and having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are
still Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from
western settlers. The town at the same time is a great seat of
Buddhism&mdash;the lamaseries containing, it is said, no less than
20,000 persons devoted to a religious life. As the southern
terminus of the routes across the desert of Gobi from Ulyasutai
and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for the exchange
of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw products
of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are maintained
in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered
at Kwei-hwa during the Boxer outbreak in 1900.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688-1698,
in Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley&rsquo;s <i>Collection</i> (vol. iv.)</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KULJA<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> (Chinese, <i>Ili-ho</i>), a territory in north-west China;
bounded, according to the treaty of St Petersburg of 1881, on
the W. by the Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan,
on the N. by the Boro-khoro Mountains, and on the S. by the
mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei, Eshik-bashi and
Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and
lower portion), Kunghez, the Ili as far as the Russian frontier
and its tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains
turned towards these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000
sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo). The valley of the Kash is
about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its lower parts, while
the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-clad in their eastern
portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley. The
Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez,
are lower, but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The
valley of the Kunghez is about 120 m. long; the river flows
first in a gorge, then amidst thickets of rushes, and very small
portions of its valley are fit for cultivation. The Narat Mountains
in the south are also very wild, but are covered with
forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree, birch,
poplar, &amp;c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains,
and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate
it from the Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the
south of it reach 24,000 ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are
covered with snow and glaciers&mdash;the only pass through them
being the Muzart. Forests and alpine meadows cover their
northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly developed on the
Tekez, as is testified by old irrigation canals. The Ili is formed
by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120 m.
it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at
Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is
admirably irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell
into decay after 55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian
territory in 1881. The climate of this part of the valley is,
of course, continental&mdash;frosts of &minus;22° F. and heats of 170° F.
being experienced&mdash;but snow lasts only for one and a half
months, and the summer heat is tempered by the proximity
of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some
vines are grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of
Kulja, where the average yearly temperature is 48°.5 F.
(January 15°, July 77°). Barley is grown up to an altitude of
6500 ft.</p>

<p>The population may number about 125,000, of whom
75,000 are settled and about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo).
The Taranchis from East Turkestan represent about 40%
of the population; about 40,000 of them left Kulja when the
Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese government
sent some 8000 families from different towns of Kashgaria
to take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos
and Solons, 3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than
10,000 Chinese. The nomads are represented by about 18,000
Kalmucks, and the remainder by Kirghiz. Agriculture is
insufficient to satisfy the needs of the population, and food is
imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of coal are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span>
found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the
fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be
worked.</p>

<p>The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and
Kulja. The latter (Old Kulja) is on the Ili river. It is one
of the chief cities of the region, owing to the importance of its
bazaars, and is the seat of the Russian consul and a telegraph
station. The walled town is nearly square, each side being
about a mile in length; and the walls are not only 30 ft. high but
broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage drive. Two broad
streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal sections.
Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale.
The houses of Kulja are almost all clay-built and flat-roofed,
and except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of
the town only a few public buildings show the influence of
Chinese architecture. Of these the most noteworthy are the
Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both with turned-up roofs,
and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The population
is mainly Mahommedan, and there are only two Buddhist
pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has maintained
its existence through all the vicissitudes of modern
times. Paper and vermicelli are manufactured with rude
appliances in the town. The outskirts are richly cultivated
with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies. Schuyler estimated
the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans, Sarts,
Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has
since increased.</p>

<p>New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Ili, which lies lower down
the valley on the same side of the stream, has been a pile
of ruins since the terrible massacre of all its inhabitants by the
insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was previously the seat of
the Chinese government for the province, with a large penal
establishment and strong garrison; its population was about
70,000.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Two centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the region was occupied by
the fair and blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the
6th century of our era by the northern Huns. Later the Kulja
territory became a dependency of Dzungaria. The Uighurs,
and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took possession of
it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th century,
and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the Ili. It is
supposed (Grum-Grzimailo) that the Oirads conquered it at the
end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they
kept it till 1755, when the Chinese annexed it. During the
insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and the Taranchis formed
here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the occupation of
Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the territory
was restored to China.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KULM<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Culm</span>). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of
West Prussia, 33 m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation
above the plain, and 1 m. E. of the Vistula. Pop. (1905),
11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, dating from the 13th
century, and contains some interesting buildings, notably its
churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two Protestant,
and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here
in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Köslin
in 1890. There are large oil mills, also iron foundries and
machine shops, as well as an important trade in agricultural
produce, including fruit and vegetables. Kulm gives name
to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop resides
at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of
Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it
in 1226 to the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early development.
By the second peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to
Poland, and it was annexed to Prussia in 1772. It joined
the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on very extensive
manufactures of cloth.</p>

<p>(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the
foot of the Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in
which the French were defeated by the Austrians, Prussians
and Russians on the 29th and 30th of August 1813 (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KULMBACH,<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Culmbach</span>, a town of Germany, in the
Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated
on the Weisser Main, and the Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway,
11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428. It contains
a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum
and several schools. The town has several linen manufactories
and a large cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many
extensive breweries, which mainly produce a black beer, not
unlike English porter, which is largely exported. Connected
with these are malting and bottling works. On a rocky eminence,
1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town stands the former
fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th centuries
the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also margraves
of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807,
and is now used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg
belonged to the dukes of Meran, and then to the counts
of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the 14th century
to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to the
margraves of Bayreuth.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. Stein, <i>Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer
Zeit</i> (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, <i>Kulmbach und Umgebung</i> (Kulmbach,
1886); and C. Meyer, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach</i>
(Munich, 1895).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KULMSEE,<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
West Prussia, on a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the
junction of railways to Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop.
(1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, which
was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th century, and an
Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of the
bishops of Kulm.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KULP,<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
of Erivan, 60 m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S.
of the Aras river. Pop. (1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp
salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, consisting of beds of clay
intermingled with thick deposits of rock salt, which has been
worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are cut in
the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of
about 70 &#8468; weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons
every year.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KULU,<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India,
which nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or <i>waziris</i>
of Lahul and Spiti. The <i>tahsil</i> of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m.,
of which only 60 sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The
Sainj, which joins the Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two
portions, Kulu proper and Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the
Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms a great basin or depression
in the midst of the Himalayan system, having the narrow gorge
of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. North and
east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a
mean elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and
Dhaoladhar ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher
villages stand 9000 ft. above the sea; and even the cultivated
tracts have probably an average elevation of 5000 ft. The houses
consist of four-storeyed châlets in little groups, huddled closely
together on the ledges or slopes of the valleys, picturesquely built
with projecting eaves and carved wooden verandas. The Beas,
which, with its tributaries, drains the entire basin, rises at the
crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, and has an
average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a succession
of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges, precipitous
cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering above
the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by
several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but
the difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development.
Hot springs occur at three localities, much resorted to as places
of pilgrimage. The character of the hillmen resembles that of
most other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, independence
and superstition. Tibetan polyandry still prevails in Soraj,
but has almost died out elsewhere. The temples are dedicated
rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the Hindu
pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, which was
conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span>
with the title of rai, is now recognized by the British government
as <i>jagirdar</i> of Rupi.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUM,<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N.
and Kashan on the S. It is divided into seven <i>bul&#363;k</i> (districts):
(1) Humeh, with town; (2) Kumrud; (3) Vazkerud; (4) Kinar Rud
Khaneh; (5) Kuhistan; (6) Jasb; (7) Ardahal; has a population of
45,000 to 50,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £8000.
The province produces much grain and a fine quality of cotton
with a very long staple.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Kum</span>, the capital, in 34° 39´ N. and 50° 55´ E., on the Anarbar
river, which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft.
It owes much of its importance to the fact that it contains the
tomb of Imam Reza&rsquo;s sister Fatmeh, who died there <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 816,
and large numbers of pilgrims visit the city during six or seven
months of the year. The fixed population is between 25,000 and
30,000. A carriage road 92 m. in length, constructed in 1890-1893,
connects the city with Teheran. It has post and telegraph
offices.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Eastern Persian Irak</i>, R. G. S. suppl. (London, 1896).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMAIT IBN ZAID<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span> (679-743), Arabian poet, was born in the
reign of the first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine
others. He was, however, a strong supporter of the house of
H&#257;shim and an enemy of the South Arabians. He was imprisoned
by the caliph Hish&#257;m for his verse in praise of the H&#257;shimites,
but escaped by the help of his wife and was pardoned by the
intercession of the caliph&rsquo;s son Maslama. Taking part in a
rebellion, he was killed by the troops of Kh&#257;lid ul-Qasr&#299;.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His poems, the <i>H&#257;shim&#299;yy&#257;t</i>, have been edited by J. Horovitz
(Leiden, 1904). An account of him is contained in the <i>Kit&#257;b
ul-Agh&#257;ni</i>, xv. 113-130.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMAON,<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kumaun</span>, an administrative division of British
India, in the United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal.
It consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two submontane
strips called the Tarai and the Bhabhar; area 13,725
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an increase of less than
2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to 1850 an
almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since
then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population
from the hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold
seasons, returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon
is a maze of mountains, some of which are among the loftiest
known. In a tract not more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in
breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceeding
18,000 ft. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Himalaya</a></span>). The rivers rise chiefly in the
southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north of the loftiest
peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of rapid
declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda
(Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda.
The valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts
is now under official supervision. The chief trees are the chir,
or three-leaved Himalayan pine, the cypress, fir, alder, s&#257;l or
iron-wood, and <i>saindan</i>. Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss
and granite constitute the principal geological formations.
Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos exist; but
they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane
strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the
outer Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon,
is double that of the central hills, in the average proportion
of 80 in. to 40. No winter passes without snow on the higher
ridges, and in some years it is universal throughout the mountain
tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe.
Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic cholera. Leprosy is
most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre and cretinism
afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants. The hill fevers at
times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague.</p>

<p>In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of
Kumaon, Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon
and the Tarai were subsequently redistributed and renamed after
their headquarters, Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper
constituted an old Rajput principality, which became extinct
at the beginning of the 19th century. The country was annexed
after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed for seventy
years on the non-regulation system by three most successful
administrators&mdash;Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry
Ramsay.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMASI,<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Coomassie</span>, the capital of Ashanti, British West
Africa, in 6° 34´ 50´´ N., 2° 12´ W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi
and 120 m. by road N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1906), 6280;
including suburbs, over 12,000. Kumasi is situated on a low
rocky eminence, from which it extends across a valley to the hill
opposite. It lies in a clearing of the dense forest which covers
the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies an area about 1½ m.
in length and over 3 m. in circumference. The land immediately
around the town, once marshy, has been drained. On the north-west
is the small river Dah, one of the headstreams of the Prah.
The name Kum-asi, more correctly Kum-ase (under the okum
tree) was given to the town because of the number of those trees
in its streets. The most imposing building in Kumasi is the fort,
built in 1896. It is the residence of the chief commissioner and
is capable of holding a garrison of several hundred men. There
are also officers&rsquo; quarters and cantonments outside the fort,
European and native hospitals, and stations of the Basel and
Wesleyan missions. The native houses are built with red clay
in the style universal throughout Ashanti. They are somewhat
richly ornamented, and those of the better class are enclosed in
compounds within which are several separate buildings. Near
the railway station are the leading mercantile houses. The
principal Ashanti chiefs own large houses, built in European
style, and these are leased to strangers.</p>

<p>Before its destruction by the British in 1874 the city presented
a handsome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively
high state of culture. The king&rsquo;s palace, built of red sandstone,
had been modelled, it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina.
It was blown up by Sir Garnet (subsequently Viscount) Wolseley&rsquo;s
forces on the 6th of February 1874, and but scanty vestiges of it
remain. The town was only partially rebuilt on the withdrawal
of the British troops, and it is difficult from the meagre accounts
of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea of the capital of the
Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its prosperity (middle of
the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The streets were
numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds.
wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and
behind it in a grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the
place of execution. Of its population before the British occupation
there is no trustworthy information. It appears not to
have exceeded 20,000 in the first quarter of the 19th century.
This is owing partly to the fact that the commercial capital
of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan routes
from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north.
The decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal
palace was built, but it was of clay, not brick, and within the
limits of the former town were wide stretches of grass-grown
country. In 1896 the town again suffered at the hands of the
British, when several of the largest and most ancient houses in
the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were destroyed by fire.
In the revolt of 1900 Kumasi was once more injured. The railway
from the coast, which passes through the Tarkwa and Obuassi
gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1903. Many merchants
at the Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi.
A marked revival in trade followed, leading to the rapid expansion
of the town. By 1906 Kumasi had supplanted the coast
towns and had become the distributing centre for the whole of
Ashanti.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMISHAH,<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> a district and town in the province of Isfahan,
Persia. The district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth
of 16 m., and contains about 40 villages, produces much grain.
The town is situated on the high road from Isfahan to Shiraz,
52 m. S. of the former. It was a flourishing city several miles
in circuit when it was destroyed by the Afghans in 1722, but is
now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and mouldering towers
and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and telegraph
offices. South of the city and extending to the village Maksudbeggi,
16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28)
was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns)
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span>
of Mahommed Shah, commanded by Sir H. Lindsay-Bethune,
routed the much superior combined forces (6000 men) of the
shah&rsquo;s two rebellious uncles, Firman-Firma and Shuja es
Saltana.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMQUAT<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> (<i>Citrus japonica</i>), a much-branched shrub from
8 to 12 ft. high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns,
with dark green glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers
standing singly or clustered in the leaf-axils. The bright orange-yellow
fruit is round or ellipsoidal, about 1 in. in diameter,
with a thick minutely tuberculate rind, the inner lining of which
is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp. It has long been cultivated
in China and Japan, and was introduced to Europe in 1846
by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society,
and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than
most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted
on the wild species, <i>Citrus trifoliata</i>. It is largely used by the
Chinese as a sweetmeat preserved in sugar.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMTA,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Coompta</span>, a sea-coast town of British India, in the
North Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop.
(1901), 10,818. It has an open roadstead, with a considerable
trade. Carving in sandal-wood is a speciality. The commercial
importance of Kumta has declined since the opening of the
Southern Mahratta railway system.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUMYKS,<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying
the Kumyk plateau in north Daghestan and south Terek, and
the lands bordering the Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy
knew them under the name of Kami and Kamaks. Various
explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A. Vambéry
supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the
flourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century.
It is certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The
Russians built forts in their territory in 1559 and under Peter I.
Having long been more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian
mountaineers, the Kumyks have always enjoyed some respect
among them. The upper terraces of the Kumyk plateau, which
the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the Nogai Tatars,
are very fertile.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUNAR,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west
frontier of British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the
classics) is the southern section of that great river system which
reaches from the Hindu Kush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad,
and which, under the names of Yarkhun, Chitral, Kashkar, &amp;c.,
is more extensive than the Kabul basin itself. The lower reaches
of the Kunar are wide and comparatively shallow, the river
meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad and fairly
open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large flourishing
villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes
of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are comparatively
low, though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them
are the Bajour uplands. To the west are the great mountains
of Kafiristan, called Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to
14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst them are many wild but
beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are rapidly submitting
to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 miles up the river on its left
bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages,
amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat.
The chief tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara,
which joins the river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad,
swift-flowing stream, with an excellent bridge over it (part of
Abdur Rahman&rsquo;s military road developments), and has been
largely utilized for irrigation. The Pechdara finds its sources
in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine and deodar and thick
tangles of wild vine and ivy, wild figs, pomegranates, olives
and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs. Above
Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary
crosses the river, and above which the valley belongs to
Chitral, the river narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed
by boulders and hedged in with steep cliffs and difficult &ldquo;parris&rdquo;
or slopes of rocky hill-side. Wild almond here sheds its blossoms
into the stream, and in the dawn of summer much of the floral
beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar there is a slight
widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a large Afghan
military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river and
connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever
system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar,
such as are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout
Swat and Dir. This is probably due to the late occupation of the
valley by Kafirs, who spread eastwards into Bajour within comparatively
recent historical times, and who still adhere to their
fastnesses in the Kashmund hills. The Kunar valley route to
Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed by Afghan engineering.
It may possibly extend ultimately unto Badakshan, in
which case it will form the most direct connexion between the
Oxus and India, and become an important feature in the strategical
geography of Asia.</p>
<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUNBIS,<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> the great agricultural caste of Western India, corresponding
to the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Telugu
country. Ethnically they cannot be distinguished from the
Mahrattas, though the latter name is sometimes confined to the
class who claim higher rank as representing the descendants of
Sivaji&rsquo;s soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan they form an
actual majority of the population, which is not the case with
any other Indian caste. In 1901 the total number of both
Kunbis and Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 8¾
millions.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> (1839-1894),
German physicist, was born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg
on the 18th of November 1839. He began his scientific studies
at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At first he devoted
himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of H. G.
Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in
1864 with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1867 he
became <i>privatdozent</i> in Berlin University, and in the following
year was chosen professor of physics at the Zürich Polytechnic;
then, after a year or two at Würzburg, he was called in 1872 to
Strassburg, where he took a great part in the organization of the
new university, and was largely concerned in the erection of the
Physical Institute. Finally in 1888 he went to Berlin as successor
to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of experimental physics and
directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute. He died after a
protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lübeck, on the 21st of
May 1894. As an original worker Kundt was especially successful
in the domains of sound and light. In the former he developed
a valuable method for the investigation of aerial waves within
pipes, based on the fact that a finely divided powder&mdash;lycopodium,
for example&mdash;when dusted over the interior of a tube in
which is established a vibrating column of air, tends to collect
in heaps at the nodes, the distance between which can thus be
ascertained. An extension of the method renders possible the
determination of the velocity of sound in different gases. In light
Kundt&rsquo;s name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous
dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even in metals,
which he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious
process of electrolytic deposition upon platinized glass. He also
carried out many experiments in magneto-optics, and succeeded
in showing, what Faraday had failed to detect, the rotation under
the influence of magnetic force of the plane of polarization in
certain gases and vapours.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNDUZ,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The
khanate is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the W. by
Tashkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus and on the S. by the Hindu
Kush. It is inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very little is known
about the town, which is the trade centre of a considerable
district, including Kataghan, where the best horses in Afghanistan
are bred.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNENE,<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> formerly known also as Nourse, a river of South-West
Africa, with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portuguese
territory, but in its lower course forming the boundary
between Angola and German South-West Africa. The upper
basin of the river lies on the inner versant of the high plateau
region which runs southwards from Bihe parallel to the coast,
forming in places ranges of mountains which give rise to many
streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream
rises in 12° 30´ S. and about 160 m. in a direct line from the sea
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span>
at Benguella, runs generally from north to south through four
degrees of latitude, but finally flows west to the sea through a
break in the outer highlands. A little south of 16° S. it receives
the Kulonga from the east, and in about 16° 50´ the Kakulovar
from the west. The Kakulovar has its sources in the Serra da
Chella and other ranges of the Humpata district behind Mossamedes,
but, though the longest tributary of the Kunene, is but
a small river in its lower course, which traverses the arid region
comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between the
mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses
a swampy plain, inundated during high water, and containing
several small lakes at other parts of the year. From this swampy
region divergent branches run S.E. They are mainly intermittent,
but the Kwamatuo, which leaves the main stream in
about 15° 8´ E., 17° 15´ S., flows into a large marsh or lake called
Etosha, which occupies a depression in the inner table-land about
3400 ft. above sea-level. From the S.E. end of the Etosha lake
streams issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which in times
of great flood they contribute some water. From the existence
of this divergent system it is conjectured that at one time the
Kunene formed part of the Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi
basin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ngami</a></span>.)</p>

<p>On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly
to the west, and descends to the coast plain by a number of
cataracts, of which the chief (in 17° 25´ S., 14° 20´ E.) has a fall
of 330 ft. The river becomes smaller in volume as it passes
through an almost desert region with little or no vegetation.
The stream is sometimes shallow and fordable, at others confined
to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the Kunene traverses
a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely blocked at low
water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17° 18´ S., 11° 40´ E.
There are indications that a former branch of the river once
entered a bay to the south.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNERSDORF,<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt-on-Oder,
the scene of a great battle, fought on the 12th of August
1759, between the Prussian army commanded by Frederick the
Great and the allied Russians under Soltykov and Austrians
under Loudon, in which Frederick was defeated with enormous
losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo;
War</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNGRAD,<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province
of Syr-darya, in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake
Aral; altitude 260 ft. It is the centre of caravan routes leading
to the Caspian Sea and the Uralsk province.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNGUR,<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> a town of eastern Russia, in the government of
Perm, on the highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of
Perm. Pop. (1892), 12,400; (1897), 14,324. Tanneries and the
manufacture of boots, gloves, leather, overcoats, iron castings
and machinery are the chief industries. It has trade in boots,
iron wares, cereals, tallow and linseed exported, and in tea
imported direct from China.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNKEL<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kunckel</span>) <span class="bold">VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN</span>
(1630-1703), German chemist, was born in 1630 (or 1638), near
Rendsburg, his father being alchemist to the court of Holstein.
He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes of Lauenburg,
and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg II., who put
him in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues
engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677,
and for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Wittenberg.
Invited to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1679 he became
director of the laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg,
and in 1688 Charles XI. brought him to Stockholm, giving him
the title of Baron von Lowenstjern in 1693 and making him a
member of the council of mines. He died on the 20th of March
1703 (others say 1702) at Dreissighufen, his country house near
Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having discovered
the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg
had prepared phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make
artificial ruby (red glass) by the incorporation of purple of Cassius.
His work also included observations on putrefaction and fermentation,
which he spoke of as sisters, on the nature of salts,
and on the preparation of pure metals. Though he lived in an
atmosphere of alchemy, he derided the notion of the alkahest
or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the adepts
who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he
believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy
minerals, though he held there was no proof of the presence of
&ldquo;sulphur comburens.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His chief works were <i>Oeffentliche Zuschrift von dem Phosphor
Mirabil</i> (1678); <i>Ars vitriaria experimentalis</i> (1689) and <i>Laboratorium
chymicum</i> (1716).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNLONG,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> the name of a district and ferry on the Salween,
in the northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant,
but the place has gained notoriety from being the nominal
terminus in British territory of the railway across the northern
Shan States to the borders of Yunnan, with its present terminus
at Lashio. In point of fact, however, this terminus will be 7 m.
below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At present
Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by Kachins
in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1899, and
capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the
trade was very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs
station on the island, from which the place takes its name; but
the rebellion in the great state of Theinni, and the southward
movement of the Kachins, as well as the Mahommedan rebellion
in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the northern route to Bhamo,
which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who inhabit the hills
immediately overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make the
route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa
live in unadministered British territory.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUNZITE,<a name="ar271" id="ar271"></a></span> a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene,
used as a gem-stone. It was discovered in 1902 near Pala, in
San Diego county, California, not far from the locality which yields
the fine specimens of rubellite and lepidolite, well known to
mineralogists. The mineral was named by Dr C. Baskerville
after Dr George F. Kunz, the gem expert of New York, who
first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it to be
a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing
as much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from
rosy lilac to deep pink. It is strongly dichroic. Near the
surface it may lose colour by exposure. Kunzite becomes
strongly phosphorescent under the Röntgen rays, or by the
action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spodumene</a></span>.)</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUOPIO,<a name="ar272" id="ar272"></a></span> a province of Finland, which includes northern
Karelia, bounded on the N.W. and N. by Uleåborg, on the E. by
Olonets, on the S.E. by Viborg, on the S. by St Michel and on the
W. by Vasa. Its area covers 16,500 sq. m., and the population
(1900) was 313,951, of whom 312,875 were Finnish-speaking.
The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800 ft. of altitude in
the north (Suomenselkä hills), and from 300 to 400 ft. in the south.
It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered, especially
in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of
gneisses, quartzite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The
whole is covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits.
The soil is of moderate fertility, but often full of boulders.
Large lakes cover 16% of surface, marshes and peat bogs
over 29% of the area, and forests occupy 2,672,240 hectares.
Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The climate
is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36° F.,
for January 13° and for July 63°. Only 2.3% of the whole
surface is under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes
are the chief crops, and in good years these meet the needs
of the population. Dairy farming and cattle breeding are of
rapidly increasing importance. Nearly 38,800 tons of iron ore
are extracted every year, and nearly 12,000 tons of pig iron
and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in ten iron-works.
Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills,
paper-mills and distilleries are the chief industrial establishments.
The preparation of carts, sledges and other wooden
goods is an important domestic industry. Timber, iron,
butter, furs and game are exported. The chief towns of the
government are Kuopio (13,519), Joensuu (3954) and Iisalmi
(1871).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KUOPIO,<a name="ar273" id="ar273"></a></span> capital of the Finnish province of that name, situated
on Lake Kalla-vesi, 180 m. by rail from the Kuivola junction of
the St Petersburg-Helsingfors main line. Pop. (1904), 13,519.
It is picturesquely situated, is the seat of a bishop, and has a
cathedral, two lyceums and two gymnasia (both for boys and
girls), a commercial and several professional schools. There is
an agricultural school at Leväis, close by. Kuopio, in consequence
of its steamer communication with middle Finland and
the sea (via Saima Canal), is a trading centre of considerable
importance.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUPRILI,<a name="ar274" id="ar274"></a></span> spelt also <span class="sc">Köprili</span>, <span class="sc">Koeprulu</span>, <span class="sc">Keuprulu</span>, &amp;c.,
the name of a family of Turkish statesmen.</p>

<p>1.<span class="sc"> Mahommed Kuprili</span> (<i>c.</i> 1586-1661) was the grandson of
an Albanian who had settled at Kupri in Asia Minor. He began
life as a scullion in the imperial kitchen, became cook, then purse-bearer
to Khosrev Pasha, and so, by wit and favour, rose to be
master of the horse, &ldquo;pasha of two tails,&rdquo; and governor of a
series of important cities and sanjaks. In 1656 he was appointed
governor of Tripoli; but before he had set out to his new post
he was nominated to the grand vizierate at the instance of powerful
friends. He accepted office only on condition of being
allowed a free hand. He signalized his accession to power by
suppressing an <i>émeute</i> of orthodox Mussulman fanatics in
Constantinople (Sept. 22), and by putting to death certain
favourites of the powerful Valide Sultana, by whose corruption
and intrigues the administration had been confused. A little
later (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless severity a rising
of the spahis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the fanatical mob
of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek
Patriarch, who had written to the voivode of Wallachia to
announce the approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This
impartial severity was a foretaste of Kuprili&rsquo;s rule, which was
characterized throughout by a vigour which belied the expectations
based upon his advanced years, and by a ruthlessness
which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His justification
was the new life which he breathed into the decaying bones of
the Ottoman empire.</p>

<p>Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned
his attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians
off Chios (May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea-power,
which Kuprili set himself energetically to repair. A
second battle, fought in the Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by
a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian flag-ship; the losses of the
Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the middle of August
Kuprili appeared off Tenedos, which was captured on the 31st
and reincorporated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the
Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili&rsquo;s ruthless
enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts,
whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was,
however, due to his haughty and violent temper that the traditional
friendly relations between Turkey and France were broken.
The French ambassador, de la Haye, had delayed bringing him
the customary gifts, with the idea that he would, like his predecessors,
speedily give place to a new grand vizier; Kuprili was
bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of the immunities
of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the ambassador&rsquo;s
son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A
special envoy, sent by Louis XIV., to make inquiries and demand
reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was
that Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the
power of France on to the side of Venice, openly assisting the
Venetians in the defence of Crete.</p>

<p>Kuprili&rsquo;s restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself
on one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building
operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of
the Don and on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the
ever-aggressive Tatars, as well as on either shore of the Dardanelles.
His last activity as a statesman was to spur the sultan
on to press the war against Hungary. He died on the 31st of
October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed, he is said
to have given to the sultan is characteristic of his Machiavellian
statecraft. This was: never to pay attention to the advice of
women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep his treasury
well filled, and himself and his troops constantly occupied. Had
he so desired, Kuprili might have taken advantage of the revolts
of the Janissaries to place himself on the throne; instead, he
recommended the sultan to appoint his son as his successor, and
so founded a dynasty of able statesmen who occupied the grand
vizierate almost without interruption for half a century.</p>

<p>2. <span class="sc">Fazil Ahmed Kuprili</span> (1635-1676), son of the preceding,
succeeded his father as grand vizier in 1661 (this being the first
instance of a son succeeding his father in that office since the
time of the Chenderélis). He began life in the clerical career,
which he left, at the age of twenty-three, when he had attained
the rank of <i>muderris</i>. Usually humane and generous, he sought
to relieve the people of the excessive taxation and to secure them
against unlawful exactions. Three years after his accession to
office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of St Gothard
and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But Kuprili&rsquo;s
influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years later
Crete fell to his arms (1669). The next war in which he was called
upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the Cossacks,
who had appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful,
Kuprili was defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at Khotin
and Lemberg; the Turks, however, continued to hold their own,
and finally in October 1676 consented to honourable terms of
peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October 16, 1676), retaining
Kaminiec, Podolia and the greater part of the Ukraine. Three
days later Ahmed Kuprili died. His military capacity was far
inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal protector
of art and literature, and the kindliness of his disposition
formed a marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; but he
was given to intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy
brought on by alcoholic abuse.</p>

<p>3. <span class="sc">Zade Mustafa Kuprili</span> (1637-1691), surnamed Fazil, son
of Mahommed Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman II. in
1689. Called to office after disaster had driven Turkey&rsquo;s forces
from Hungary and Poland and her fleets from the Mediterranean,
he began by ordering strict economy and reform in the taxation;
himself setting the example, which was widely followed, of
voluntary contributions for the army, which with the navy he
reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by
the prudent measures which he took by enacting the <i>Nizam-i-jedid</i>,
or new regulations for the improvement of the condition
of the Christian rayas, and for affording them security for life
and property; a conciliatory attitude which at once bore fruit
in Greece, where the people abandoned the Venetian cause and
returned to their allegiance to the Porte. He met his death at
the battle of Salankamen in 1691, when the total defeat of the
Turks by the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden led to their
expulsion from Hungary.</p>

<p>4. <span class="sc">Hussein Kuprili</span> (surnamed <span class="sc">Amuja-Zade</span>) was the son
of Hassan, a younger brother of Mahommed Kuprili. After
occupying various important posts he became grand vizier in
1697, and owing to his ability and energy the Turks were able
to drive the Austrians back over the Save, and Turkish fleets
were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The efforts
of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria and
Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, whereby
Turkey was shorn of her chief conquests (1699). After this event
Hussein Kuprili, surnamed &ldquo;the Wise,&rdquo; devoted himself to the
suppression of the revolts which had broken out in Arabia,
Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction of the Janissaries, and
to the institution of administrative and financial reform. Unfortunately
the intrigues against him drove him from office in
1702, and soon afterwards he died.</p>

<p>5. <span class="sc">Numan Kuprili</span>, son of Mustafa Fazil, became grand vizier
in 1710. The expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, as
although he was tolerant, wise and just like his father, he injudiciously
sought to take upon himself all the details of administration,
a task which proved to be beyond his powers. He
failed to introduce order into the administration and was
dismissed from office in less than fourteen months after his
appointment.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span></p>

<p>6. <span class="sc">Abdullah Kuprili</span>, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was
appointed Kaimmakam or <i>locum tenens</i> of the grand vizier in
1703. He commanded the Persian expedition in 1723 and
captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning his office in 1726. In 1735
he again commanded against the Persians, but fell at the disastrous
battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father&rsquo;s heroic death
at Selankamen.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH,<a name="ar275" id="ar275"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1676-1727), Russian
diplomatist, was the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their
wives being sisters. He was one of the earliest of Peter&rsquo;s pupils.
In 1697 he was sent to Italy to learn navigation. His long and
honourable diplomatic career began in 1707, when he was sent
to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize Charles XII.&rsquo;s
candidate, Stanislaus Leszczynski, as king of Poland. From
1708 to 1712 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and
the Hague successively, and, in 1713, was the principal Russian
plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht. From 1716
to 1722 he held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in
1724, Peter set forth on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was
appointed the supervisor of all the Russian ambassadors accredited
to the various European courts. &ldquo;The father of Russian
diplomacy,&rdquo; as he has justly been called, was remarkable
throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a wonderfully
correct appreciation of men and events. He was most
useful to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>, <i>History</i>) was drawing to a close. Notably he prevented
Great Britain from declaring war against Peter&rsquo;s close ally,
Denmark, at the crisis of the struggle. Kurakin was one of the
best-educated Russians of his day, and his autobiography,
carried down to 1709, is an historical document of the first importance.
He intended to write a history of his own times with
Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than
the summary, entitled <i>History of Tsar Peter Aleksievich and the
People Nearest to Him</i> (1682-1694) (Rus.).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Archives of Prince A. Th. Kurakin</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1890);
A. Brückner, <i>A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning
of the XVIIIth Century</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURBASH,<a name="ar276" id="ar276"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kourbash</span> (from the Arabic <i>qurbash</i>, a whip;
Turkish <i>qirbach</i>; and French <i>courbache</i>), a whip or strap about
a yard in length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or
rhinoceros. It is an instrument of punishment and torture used
in various Mahommedan countries, especially in the Turkish
empire. &ldquo;Government by kurbash&rdquo; denotes the oppression
of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash to maintain
authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use of the
kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been
abolished by the British authorities.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">K&#362;RDIST&#256;N,<a name="ar277" id="ar277"></a></span> in its wider sense, the &ldquo;country of the K&#363;rds&rdquo;
(Koords), including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses
the Armenian table-land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenia</a></span>), and is intersected by the
Batman Su, the Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris;
and the wild mountain district, watered by the Great and Little
Zab, which marks the western termination of the great Iranian
plateau.</p>

<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The total K&#363;rd population probably exceeds two
and a half millions, namely, Turkish K&#363;rds 1,650,000, Persian
800,000, Russian 50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics.
The great mass of the population has its home in K&#363;rdist&#257;n.
But K&#363;rds are scattered irregularly over the country from the
river Sakar&#299;a on the west to Lake Urmia on the east, and from
Kars on the north to Jebel Sinjar on the south. There is also
an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes, <i>ashiret</i>, into
which the K&#363;rds are divided, resemble in some respects the
Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more
than 10,000 souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary
and pastoral K&#363;rds, <i>Yerli</i>, who live in villages in winter and
encamp on their own pasture-grounds in summer, form an increasing
majority of the population. The nomad K&#363;rds, <i>Kocher</i>,
who always dwell in tents, are the wealthiest and most independent.
They spend the summer on the mountains and high
plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in October; and pass
the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great plain north
of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage from the
Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and
trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During
the periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from
the predatory instincts of the K&#363;rd, and disturbances are
frequent in the districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary
K&#363;rds pay taxes; but the nomads only pay the sheep tax, which
is collected as they cross the Tigris on their way to their summer
pastures.</p>

<p><i>Character.</i>&mdash;The K&#363;rd delights in the bracing air and unrestricted
liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or
camel-man, and does not take kindly to handicrafts. The K&#363;rds
generally bear a very indifferent reputation, a worse reputation
perhaps, than they really deserve. Being aliens to the Turks
in language and to the Persians in religion, they are everywhere
treated with mistrust, and live as it were in a state of chronic
warfare with the powers that be. Such a condition is not of
course favourable to the development of the better qualities of
human nature. The K&#363;rds are thus wild and lawless; they are
much given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat
the Christian populations with whom they are brought in contact,&mdash;these
populations being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Erzerum
and Van, the Jacobites and Syrians in the Jebel-T&#363;r, and the
Nestorians and Chaldaeans in the Hakk&#257;ri country.</p>

<p>Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the K&#363;rdish
chief is pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exaggerated,
for in reality the present tribal organization does not date
from any great antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal
tribes of the nation which was drawn up by the Arabian historian
Masudi, in the 10th century, only two or three names are to be
recognized at the present day. A 14th-century list, however,
translated by Quatremère,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> presents a great number of identical
names, and there seems no reason to doubt that certain K&#363;rdish
families can trace their descent from the Omayyad caliphs, while
only in recent years the Bab&#257;n chief of Suleimania, representing
the old Sohrans, and the Ardel&#257;n chief of Sinna,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> representing
an elder branch of the Gur&#257;ns, each claimed an ancestry of at
least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no
more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east
than the court of one of these great K&#363;rdish chiefs, where, like
another Saladin, the bey ruled in <span class="correction" title="amended from partriarchal">patriarchal</span> state, surrounded
by an hereditary nobility, regarded by his clansmen with
reverence and affection, and attended by a bodyguard of young
K&#363;rdish warriors, clad in chain armour, with flaunting silken
scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in the time of the
crusades.</p>

<p>Though ignorant and unsophisticated the K&#363;rd is not wanting
in natural intelligence. In recent years educated K&#363;rds have
held high office under the sultan, including that of grand vizier,
have assisted in translating the Bible into Turkish, and in editing
a newspaper. The men are lithe, active and strong, but rarely
of unusual stature. The women do not veil, and are allowed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span>
great freedom. The K&#363;rds as a race are proud, faithful and
hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They
are, however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when
their fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to
degenerate into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in
martial spirit, but have an innate dislike to the restraints of
military service. The country is rich in traditions and legends,
and in lyric and in epic poems, which have been handed down
from earlier times and are recited in a weird melancholy tone.</p>

<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;K&#363;rdist&#257;n abounds in antiquities of the most
varied and interesting character. But it has been very little
opened up to modern research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform
inscriptions extend from Malatia on the west to Miando&#257;b
(in Persia) on the east, and from the banks of the Aras on the
north to Rowanduz on the south, which record the glories of
a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi during
the 8th and 7th centuries, <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, contemporaneously with the
lower Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are a few
genuine Assyrian inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one
instance, at Van, a later tablet of Xerxes brings the record down
to the period of Grecian history. The most ancient monuments
of this class, however, are to be found at Holw&#257;n and in the
neighbourhood, where the sculptures and inscriptions belong
probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from the early
Babylonian period.</p>

<p>In the northern K&#363;rdish districts which represent the
Arzanene, Intilene, Anzitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the
ancients, there are many interesting remains of Roman cities,
<i>e.g.</i> at Arzen, Miyafarikin (anc. <i>Martyropolis</i>), Sisauronon, and the
ruins of Dunisir near Dara, which Sachau identified with the
Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of the Macedonian and
Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured and inscribed
at several points in K&#363;rdist&#257;n; at Bisitun or Behistun
(<i>q.v.</i>), in a cave at Amad&#299;a, at the Mithraic temple of Kereft&#363;,
on the rocks at Sir P&#363;l-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holw&#257;n,
and probably in some other localities, such as the B&#257;lik country
between Lahij&#257;n and Koi-Sanj&#257;k; but the most interesting
site in all K&#363;rdist&#257;n, perhaps in all western Asia, is the ruined
fire temple of P&#257;&#299; K&#363;l&#299; on the southern frontier of Suleiman&#299;a.
Among the débris of this temple, which is scattered over a
bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs, inscribed
with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall
which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and
bore a bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian
period. There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other
parts of K&#363;rdist&#257;n&mdash;at Salm&#363;s to the north, and at Kerm&#257;nsh&#257;h
and Kasr-i-Sh&#299;r&#299;n on the Turkish frontier to the south.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;The K&#363;rdish language, Kerm&#257;nj&#299;, is an old Persian
patois, intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to the
south with a certain Turanian element which may not improbably
have come down from Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects
are spoken in secluded districts in the mountains, but the only
varieties which, from their extensive use, require to be specified are
the Zaza and the Gur&#257;n. The Zaza is spoken throughout the
western portion of the Dersim country, and is said to be unintelligible
to the Kerm&#257;nj&#299;-speaking K&#363;rds. It is largely intermingled with
Armenian, and may contain some trace of the old Cappadocian, but
is no doubt of the same Aryan stock as the standard K&#363;rdish. The
Gur&#257;n dialect again, which is spoken throughout Ardel&#257;n and
Kerm&#257;nsh&#257;h<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> chiefly differs from the northern K&#363;rdish in being
entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat
nearer to the Persian than the Kerm&#257;nj&#299; dialect, but is essentially
the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no
K&#363;rdish literature. Many of the popular Persian poets have been
translated into K&#363;rdish, and there are also books relating to the
religious mysteries of the Ali-Ill&#257;his in the hands of the Dersimlis to
the north and of the Gur&#257;ns of Kerm&#257;nsh&#257;h to the south. The
New Testament in Kurdish was printed at Constantinople in 1857.
The Rev. Samuel Rhea published a grammar and vocabulary of the
Hakk&#257;ri dialect in 1872. In 1879 there appeared, under the
auspices of the imperial academy of St Petersburg a French-K&#363;rdish
dictionary compiled originally by Mons. Jaba, many years Russian
consul at Erzerum, but completed by Ferdinand Justi by the help
of a rich assortment of Kurdish tales and ballads, collected by Socin
and Prym in Assyria.</p>

<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The great body of the nation, in Persia as well as in
Turkey, are Sunnis of the Shafi&rsquo;ite sect, but in the recesses of the
Dersim to the north and of Zagros to the south there are large half-pagan
communities, who are called indifferently Ali-Illahi and
Kizjil-b&#257;sh, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of considerable
interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi&rsquo;ites or &ldquo;followers of
Ali,&rdquo; they observe secret ceremonies and hold esoteric doctrines
which have probably descended to them from very early ages, and
of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon the
earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying reverence
to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David,
Christ, Ali and his tutor Salm&#257;n-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shi&rsquo;ite
imams and saints, they have thus usually some recent local celebrity
at whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover,
in every community of Ali-Illahis some living personage, not necessarily
ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitious
tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. Among the Gur&#257;ns of the
south the shrine of Baba Yadg&#257;r, in a gorge of the hills above the
old city of Holw&#257;n, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration.
Similar institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains,
which may be compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosairis
in Syria and the Ismailites in Persia.</p>
</div>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;With regard to the origin of the K&#363;rds, it was formerly
considered sufficient to describe them as the descendants
of the Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand
through the mountains, but modern research traces them
far beyond the period of the Greeks. At the dawn of history
the mountains overhanging Assyria were held by a people
named <i>G&#363;t&#363;</i>, a title which signified &ldquo;a warrior,&rdquo; and which
was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of <i>Gardu</i> or <i>Kardu</i>,
the precise term quoted by Strabo to explain the name of the
Cardaces (<span class="grk" title="Kardakes">&#922;&#940;&#961;&#948;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>). These <i>G&#363;t&#363;</i> were a Turanian tribe of
such power as to be placed in the early cuneiform records on an
equality with the other nations of western Asia, that is, with
the Syrians and Hittites, the Susians, Elamites, and Akkadians
of Babylonia; and during the whole period of the Assyrian
empire they seem to have preserved a more or less independent
political position. After the fall of Nineveh they coalesced
with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting
the high plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became
gradually Aryanized, owing to the immigration at this period
of history of tribes in overwhelming numbers which, from
whatever quarter they may have sprung, belonged certainly to
the Aryan family.</p>

<p>The <i>G&#363;t&#363;</i> or K&#363;rdu were reduced to subjection by Cyrus
before he descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent
of fighting men to his successors, being thus mentioned under
the names of Saspirians and Alarodians in the muster roll of
the army of Xerxes which was preserved by Herodotus.</p>

<p>In later times they passed successively under the sway of
the Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially
befriended, if we may judge from tradition as well as
from the remains still existing in the country, by the Arsacian
monarchs, who were probably of a cognate race. Gotarzes
indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated &ldquo;chief of
the <i>G&#363;t&#363;</i>,&rdquo; was traditionally believed to be the founder of the
Gur&#257;ns, the principal tribe of southern K&#363;rdist&#257;n,<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and his
name and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span>
Behistun near the K&#363;rdish capital of Kerm&#257;nsh&#257;h. Under
the caliphs of Bagdad the K&#363;rds were always giving trouble
in one quarter or another. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 838, and again in 905,
there were formidable insurrections in northern K&#363;rdist&#257;n;
the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the
caliphate against the southern K&#363;rds, capturing the famous
fortress of Serm&#257;j, of which the ruins are to be seen at the
present day near Behistun, and reducing the province of
Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by the great mound
of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of K&#363;rdish
power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when
the great Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of
the Hadab&#257;ni tribe, founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria,
and K&#363;rdish chiefships were established, not only to the east
and west of the K&#363;rdist&#257;n mountains, but as far as Khor&#257;s&#257;n
upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other. During
the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the K&#363;rds
in the mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding
a reluctant obedience to the provincial governors of the plains.</p>

<p>When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514,
annexed Armenia and K&#363;rdist&#257;n, he entrusted the organization
of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who
was a K&#363;rd of Bitlis. Idris found K&#363;rdist&#257;n bristling with
castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs of K&#363;rd, Arab, and
Armenian descent, who were practically independent, and
passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural
population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts,
and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of
heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also
resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzer&#363;m and
Erivan, which had lain waste since the passage of Tim&#363;r, with
K&#363;rds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts. The system
of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged
until the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29. But
the K&#363;rds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the
capital and the decline of Turkey, had greatly increased in
influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country
as far as Angora. After the war the K&#363;rds attempted to free
themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became necessary
to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha.
The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of
the K&#363;rd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising
under Bedr Kh&#257;n Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after
the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the
country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed
by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880-81, to found an
independent K&#363;rd principality under the protection of Turkey.
The attempt, at first encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the
projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty
of Russia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenia</a></span>), collapsed after Obaidullah&rsquo;s raid into
Persia, when various circumstances led the central government
to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo-Turkish
War of 1828-29 there had been little hostile feeling between
the K&#363;rds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the
mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together.
Both suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the
national movement amongst the Armenians, and its encouragement
by Russia after the last war, gradually aroused race
hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity of the Armenian
Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of
the K&#363;rds by raising a body of K&#363;rdish irregular cavalry,
which was well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan.
The opportunities thus offered for plunder and the gratification
of race hatred brought out the worst qualities of the
K&#363;rds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were
soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sas&#363;n and
other places, 1894-96, in which the K&#363;rds took an active part.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Rich, <i>Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan</i>
(1836); Wagner, <i>Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden</i>
(Leipzig, 1852); Consul Taylor in <i>R. G. S. Journal</i> (1865); Millingen,
<i>Wild Life among the Koords</i> (1870); Von Luschan, &ldquo;Die Wandervolker
Kleinasiens,&rdquo; in <i>V<span class="sp">n</span>. d. G. für Anthropologie</i> (Berlin, 1886);
Clayton, &ldquo;The Mountains of K&#363;rdist&#257;n,&rdquo; in <i>Alpine Journal</i> (1887);
Binder, <i>Au K&#363;rdistan</i> (Paris, 1887); Naumann, <i>Vom Goldnen Horn
zu den Quellen des Euphrat</i> (Munich, 1893); Murray, <i>Handbook
to Asia Minor, &amp;c.</i> (1895); Lerch, <i>Forschungen über die Kurden</i>
(St Petersburg, 1857-58); Jaba, <i>Dict. Kurde-Français</i> (St Petersburg,
1879); Justi, <i>Kurdische Grammatik</i> (1880); Prym and
Socin, <i>Kurdische Sammlungen</i> (1890); Makas, <i>Kurdische Studien</i>
(1901); Earl Percy, <i>Highlands of Asiatic Turkey</i> (1901); Lynch,
<i>Armenia</i> (1901); A. V. Williams Jackson, <i>Persia, Past and Present</i>
(1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(C. W. W.; H. C. R.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Notices et Extraits des MSS.</i>, xiii. 305. Of the tribes enumerated
in this work of the 14th century who still retain a leading place
among the K&#363;rds, the following names may be quoted: <i>Guranieh</i>
of Dartang, modern Gurans; <i>Zengeneh</i>, in Hamadan hills, now in
Kerm&#257;nsh&#257;h; <i>Hasnani</i> of Kerkuk and Arbil, now in the Dersim
mountains, having originally come from Khor&#257;s&#257;n according to
tradition; <i>Sohr&#299;eh</i> of Shekelabad and Tel-Haft&#363;n, modern Sohr&#257;n,
from whom descend the Bab&#257;n of Suleimanieh; <i>Zerzari</i> of Hinjar&#299;n
mountains, modern Zerzas of Ushnu (cuneiform pillars of Kel-i-sh&#299;n
and Sidek noticed by author); <i>Julamerk&#299;eh</i>, modern Julamerik, said
to be descended from the caliph Merw&#257;n-ibn-Hakam; <i>Hakkar&#299;eh</i>,
Hakk&#257;ri inhabiting <i>Zuzan</i> of Arab geography; <i>Bokhtieh</i>, modern
Boht&#257;n. The <i>Rowadi</i>, to whom Saladin belonged, are probably
modern Rawendi, as they held the fortress of Arbil (Arbela). Some
twenty other names are mentioned, but the orthography is so
doubtful that it is useless to try to identify them.</p>

<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The <i>Sheref-nama</i>, a history of the K&#363;rds dating from the 16th
century, tells us that &ldquo;towards the close of the reign of the Jenghizians,
a man named Baba Ardil&#257;n, a descendant of the governors
of Diarbekr, and related to the famous Ahmed-ibn-Merw&#257;n, after
remaining for some time among the Gur&#257;ns, gained possession of the
country of Shahrizor&rdquo; and the Ardel&#257;n family history, with the
gradual extension of their power over Persian K&#363;rdist&#257;n, is then
traced down to the Saffavid period.</p>

<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Gur&#257;n are mentioned in the <i>Mesalik-el-Abs&#257;r</i> as the dominant
tribe in southern K&#363;rdist&#257;n in the 14th century, occupying very much
the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shahrizor.
Their name probably signifies merely &ldquo;the mountaineers,&rdquo;
being derived from <i>gur</i> or <i>giri</i>, &ldquo;a mountain,&rdquo; which is also found
in Zagros, <i>i.e.</i> <i>za-giri</i>, &ldquo;beyond the mountain,&rdquo; or <i>Pusht-i-koh</i>, as
the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy
race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in
appearance very inferior to the tribal K&#363;rds of the northern districts.
These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the Gur&#257;ns
dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton
vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of K&#363;rdist&#257;n the
name Gur&#257;n has become synonymous with an agricultural peasantry,
as opposed to the migratory shepherds.</p>

<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> &ldquo;The Kalh&#363;r tribe are traditionally descended from Gudarz-ibn-G&#299;o,
whose son Roham was sent by Bahman Kei&#257;ni to destroy
Jerusalem and bring the Jews into captivity. This Roham is the
individual usually called Bokht-i-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and he
ultimately succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring country has
ever since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are called
Gur&#257;ns&rdquo; (<i>Sheref-Nama</i>, Persian MS.). The same popular tradition
still exists in the country, and <span class="grk" title="GÔTARZÊO GEOPOTHROS">&#915;&#937;&#932;&#913;&#929;&#918;&#919;&#927; &#915;&#917;&#927;&#928;&#927;&#920;&#929;&#927;&#931;</span> is found
on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-G&#299;o was really
an historic personage. See <i>Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> ix. 114.</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">K&#362;RDIST&#256;N,<a name="ar278" id="ar278"></a></span> in the narrower sense, a province of Persia,
situated in the hilly districts between Azerbaijan and Kermanshah,
and extending to the Turkish frontier on the W., and
bounded on the E. by Gerrus and Hamadan. In proportion
to its size and population it pays a very small yearly revenue&mdash;only
about £14,000&mdash;due to the fact that a great part of the
population consists of wild and disorderly nomad K&#363;rds. Some
of these nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and
have their summer pasture-grounds in the highlands of K&#363;rdist&#257;n.
This adds much to the difficulty of collecting taxation.
The province is divided into sixteen districts, and its eastern
part, in which the capital is situated, is known as Ardelan.
The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not Sihna,
or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of
Hamadan, in 35° 15´ N., 47° 18´ E., at an elevation of 5300 ft.
The city has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures
great quantities of carpets and felts for the supply of the province
and for export. Some of the carpets are very fine and expensive,
rugs 2 yards by 1½ costing £15 to £20. Post and telegraph
offices have been established since 1879.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURGAN,<a name="ar279" id="ar279"></a></span> a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the
government of Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of
Chelyabinsk, and on the left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy
agricultural district. Pop. (1897), 10,579. Owing to its
position at the terminus of steam navigation up the river
Tobol, it has become second only to Tyume&#324; as a commercial
centre. It has a public library and a botanic garden. There
is a large trade in cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable
export of grain, tallow, meat, hides, butter, game and fish,
there being three large fairs in the year. In the vicinity are
a great number of prehistoric kurgans or burial-mounds.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURIA MURIA ISLANDS,<a name="ar280" id="ar280"></a></span> a group of five islands in the
Arabian Sea, close under the coast of Arabia, belonging to
Britain and forming a dependency of Aden. They are lofty
and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m., that of the largest,
Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with the ancient
<i>Insulae Zenobii</i>, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to
Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are
inhabited by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a
dialect differing considerably from the ordinary Arabic. The
islands yield some guano.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURILES<a name="ar281" id="ar281"></a></span> (Jap. <i>Chishima</i>, &ldquo;thousand islands&rdquo;), a chain of
small islands belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly
direction from Nemuro Bay, on the extreme east of the island
of Yezo, to Chishima-kaikyo (Kuriles Strait), which separates
them from the southernmost point of Kamchatka. They extend
from 44° 45´ to 50° 56´ N. and from 145° 25´ to 156° 32´ E. Their
coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is 6159 sq. m.; their total
number is 32, and the names of the eight principal islands,
counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, Etorofu
(generally called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten
Island), Urup, Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paramusir)
and Shumshiri. From Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sake or Notsu
Cape), the most easterly point of Nemuro province, to Tomari,
the most westerly point in Kunashiri, the distance is 7<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m., and
the Kuriles Strait separating Shumshiri from Kamchatka is about
the same width. The name &ldquo;Kurile&rdquo; is derived from the
Russian <i>kurit</i> (to smoke), in allusion to the active volcanic
character of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these
islands, and the violence of the currents in their vicinity, have
greatly hindered exploration, so that little is known of their
physiography. They lie entangled in a vast net of sea-weed;
are the resort of innumerable birds, and used to be largely
frequented by seals and sea-otters, which, however, have been
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span>
almost completely driven away by unregulated hunting. Near the
south-eastern coast of Kunashiri stands a mountain called Rausunobori
(3005 ft. high), round whose base sulphur bubbles up in
large quantities, and hot springs as well as a hot stream are found.
On the west coast of the same island is a boiling lake, called
Ponto, which deposits on its bed and round its shores black sand,
consisting almost entirely of pure sulphur. This island has
several lofty peaks; Ponnobori-yama near the east coast, and
Chachanobori and Rurindake in the north. Chachanobori
(about 7382 ft.) is described by Messrs Chamberlain and Mason
as &ldquo;a cone within a cone, the inner and higher of the two being&mdash;so
the natives say&mdash;surrounded by a lake.&rdquo; The island has
extensive forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns and
flowering plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of
Kunashiri is Tomari, on the south coast. The island of Shikotan
is remarkable for the growth of a species of bamboo (called
Shikotan-chiku), having dark brown spots on the cane. Etorofu
has a coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the principal are
Naibo-wan, Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern shore
and Shitokap-wan on the southern. It is covered almost completely
with dense forest, and has a number of streams abounding
with salmon. Shana, the chief port, is in Rubetsu Bay. This
island, the principal of the group, is divided into four provinces
for administrative purposes, namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, Shana
and Shibetoro. Its mountains are Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.)
in Etorofu; Chiripnupari (5009 ft.) in Shana; and Mokoro-nobori
(3930 ft.) and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) in Shibetoro. Among the
other islands three only call for notice on account of their altitudes,
namely, Ketoi-jima, Rashua-jima and Matua-jima, which rise to
heights of 3944, 3304 and 5240 ft. respectively.</p>

<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Not much is known about the aborigines. By
some authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first
settlers, and to have arrived there via Yezo; by others, the earliest
comers are believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling
southwards by way of Kamchatka. The islands themselves
have not been sufficiently explored to determine whether they
furnish any ethnological evidences. The present population
aggregates about 4400, or 0.7 per sq. m., of whom about 600 are
Ainu (<i>q.v.</i>). There is little disposition to emigrate thither from
Japan proper, the number of settlers being less than 100 annually.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Kurile Islands were discovered in 1634 by the
Dutch navigator Martin de Vries. The three southern islands,
Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged
to Japan from a remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th
century the Russians, having conquered Kamchatka, found their
way to the northern part of the Kuriles in pursuit of fur-bearing
animals, with which the islands then abounded. Gradually these
encroachments were pushed farther south, simultaneously with
aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in the southern
half of Sakhalin. Japan&rsquo;s occupation was far from effective in
either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a
convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from
Sakhalin provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles.</p>

<p>An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo
with about forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form
a settlement on Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile
Islands. They embarked in open boats, and for that reason, as
well as because they were going to constitute themselves their
country&rsquo;s extreme outpost, the enterprise attracted public
enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became fairly
prosperous.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Capt. H. J. Snow, <i>Notes on the Kurile Islands</i> (London, 1896).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KURISCHES HAFF,<a name="ar282" id="ar282"></a></span> a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast
of East Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of
60 m., has an area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and
only close to Memel attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavigable
except for small coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going
vessels proceed through the Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which
connects the Baltic with Memel and has a depth of 19 ft. and a
breadth of 800 to 1900 ft. The Kurisches Haff is separated
from the Baltic by a long spit, or tongue of land, the so-called
Kurische Nehrung, 72 m. in length and with a breadth of 1 to 2
miles. The latter is fringed throughout its whole length by a
chain of dunes, which rise in places to a height of nearly 200 ft.
and threaten, unless checked, to be pressed farther inland and silt
up the whole Haff.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Berendt, <i>Geologie des Kurischen Haffs</i> (Königsberg, 1869);
Sommer, <i>Das Kurische Haff</i> (Danzig, 1889); A. Bezzenberger,
<i>Die Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner</i> (Stuttgart, 1889); and
Lindner, <i>Die Preussische Wüste einst und jetzt, Bilder von der
Kurischen Nehrung</i> (Osterwieck, 1898).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KURNOOL,<a name="ar283" id="ar283"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Karnul</span>, a town and district of British India,
in the Madras presidency. The town is built on a rocky soil at
the junction of the Hindri and Tungabhadra rivers 33 m. from a
railway station. The old Hindu fort was levelled in 1865, with
the exception of one of the gates, which was preserved as a
specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton cloth and carpets are
manufactured. Pop. (1901), 25,376, of whom half are Mussulmans.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Kurnool</span> has an area of 7578 sq. m., pop.
(1901), 872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Two
long mountain ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais,
extend in parallel lines, north and south, through its centre.
The principal heights of the Nallamalai range are Biranikonda
(3149 ft.), Gundlabrahmeswaram (3055 ft.), and Durugapukonda
(3086 ft.). The Yellamalai is a low range, generally flat-topped
with scarped sides; the highest point is about 2000 ft. Several
low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here and there
by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course.
Several of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, to
form tanks for purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers are
the Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the district on the
north. When in flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards
broad and 15 ft. deep. The Kistna here flows chiefly through
uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long smooth reaches, with
intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on the Nallamalais,
and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of
pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed the
<i>jagir</i> of a semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose descendant
was dispossessed by the British government for treason in 1838.
The principal crops are millets, cotton, oil-seeds, and rice, with a
little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool suffered very severely from the
famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight extent in 1896-1897. It is
the chief scene of the operations of the Madras Irrigation Company
taken over by government in 1882. The canal, which starts
from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was constructed
at a total cost of two millions sterling, but has not been a financial
success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, formed
under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gundlakamma
river. Apart from the weaving of coarse cotton cloth, the chief
industrial establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, and
saltpetre refineries. The district is served by the Southern
Mahratta railway.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUROKI, ITEI,<a name="ar284" id="ar284"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1844-&emsp;&emsp;), Japanese general, was
born in Satsuma. He distinguished himself in the Chino-Japanese
War of 1894-95. He commanded the I. Army in the
Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), when he won the opening
battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards advanced
through the mountains and took part with the other armies in
the battles of Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-japanese
War</a></span>). He was created baron for his services in the
former war, and count for his services in the latter.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH<a name="ar285" id="ar285"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), Russian
general, was born in 1848 and entered the army in 1864.
From 1872 to 1874 he studied at the Nicholas staff college, after
which he spent a short time with the French troops in Algiers.
In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in Kashgaria and
in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan, Kokan
and Samerkand. In the war of 1877-78 against Turkey he earned
a great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobelev, and
after the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of the
operations which is still regarded as the classical work on the
subject and is available for other nations in the German translation
by Major Krahmer. After the war he served again on the
south-eastern borders in command of the Turkestan Rifle Brigade,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span>
and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of 500 miles from
Tashkent to Geok-T&#275;p&#275;, taking part in the storming of the latter
place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age
of 34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural
successor of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant-general,
and thirteen years later, having acquired in peace and
war the reputation of being one of the foremost soldiers in Europe,
he quitted the post of minister of war which he then held and took
command of the Russian army then gathering in Manchuria for
the contest with Japan. His ill-success in the great war of 1904-5,
astonishing as it seemed at the time, was largely attributable to
his subjection to the superior command of Admiral Alexeiev,
the tsar&rsquo;s viceroy in the Far East, and to internal friction amongst
the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng. trans., 1909)
he frankly admitted his own mistakes and paid the highest
tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed
to battle under conditions unfavourable to success. After the
defeat of Mukden and the retirement of the whole army to Tieling
he resigned the command to General Linievich, taking the latter
officer&rsquo;s place at the head of one of the three armies in Manchuria.
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Japanese War</a></span>.)</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURO SIWO,<a name="ar286" id="ar286"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kuro Shio</span> (literally blue salt), a stream
current in the Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the
warm temperature and blue colour of its waters, flowing north-eastwards
along the east coast of Japan, and separated from it by
a strip of cold water. The current persists as a stream to about
40 N., between the meridians of 150° E. and 160° E., when it
merges in the general easterly drift of the North Pacific.
The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the
Atlantic.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURRAM,<a name="ar287" id="ar287"></a></span> a river and district on the Kohat border of the
North-West Frontier province of India. The Kurram river
drains the southern flanks of the Safed Koh, enters the plains
a few miles above Bannu, and joins the Indus near Isa-Khel after
a course of more than 200 miles. The district has an area of
1278 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 54,257. It lies between the Miranzai
Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by the Turis, a
tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated the
Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated,
well peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards
and groves, to which a fine background is afforded by the dark
pine forests and alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty
and climate of the valley attracted some of the Mogul emperors of
Delhi, and the remains exist of a garden planted by Shah Jahan.
Formerly the Kurram valley was under the government of Kabul,
and every five or six years a military expedition was sent to
collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free quarters
on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were
brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was
appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis,
being Shiah Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During
the second Afghan War, when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by
way of the Kurram valley and the Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the
Turis lent him every assistance in their power, and in consequence
their independence was granted them in 1880. The administration
of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the British
government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890.
Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or
administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also
require mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under
Brigadier Chamberlain. The Turis on the first annexation of the
Kohat district by the British had given much trouble. They had
repeatedly leagued with other tribes to harry the Miranzai valley,
harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance, and frequently
attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat district.
Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4896 troops traversed
their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future
good conduct. (2) The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under
Colonel W. Hill. During the frontier risings of 1897 the inhabitants
of the Kurram valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the
Orakzais, were infected by the general excitement, and attacked
the British camp at Sadda and other posts. A force of 14,230
British troops traversed the country, and the tribesmen were
severely punished. In Lord Curzon&rsquo;s reorganization of the
frontier in 1900-1901, the British troops were withdrawn from
the forts in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the
Kurram militia, reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly
drawn from the Turi tribe.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURSEONG,<a name="ar288" id="ar288"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Karsiang</span>, a sanatorium of northern India, in
the Darjeeling district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and
4860 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 4469. It has a station on
the mountain railway, and is a centre of the tea trade. It also
contains boys&rsquo; and girls&rsquo; schools for Europeans and Eurasians.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURSK,<a name="ar289" id="ar289"></a></span> a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the
government of Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and
W. by Chernigov. Area, 17,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central
plateau of middle Russia, of which it mostly occupies the
southern slope, the highest parts being in Orel and Kaluga,
to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to 1100 ft. high,
deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly
aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and
Eocene rocks prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters&rsquo; clay and
phosphates are among the economic minerals. No fewer than
four hundred streams are counted within its borders, but none
of them is of any service as waterways. A layer of fertile loess
covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs almost entirely to
the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from that of the
governments to the north, not only on account of the black-earth
flora which enters into its composition, but also of the plants of
south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic which
is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The
climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds
from the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The
average temperatures are&mdash;for the year 42° F., for January 14° F.
and for July 67° F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon,
known as the Byelgorod anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m.
long and 12 m. wide, has been studied near the town of this name.
The population, 1,893,597 in 1862, was 2,391,091 in 1897, of
whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 lived in towns. The
estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is thoroughly Russian
(76% Great Russians and 24% Little Russians), and 94%
are peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live
mostly in large villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the
peasantry and the small size of the allotments given at the emancipation
of the serfs in 1861, emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on
the increase, while 80,000 to 100,000 men leave home every
summer to work in the neighbouring governments. Three-quarters
of the available land is under crops, chiefly rye, other
crops being wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, potatoes,
sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is exported
in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also
are large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills,
sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories)
give occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty
trades are on the increase in the villages, and new ones are
being introduced, the chief products being boots, ikons (sacred
images) and shrines, toys, caps, vehicles, baskets, and pottery.
About 17 m. from the chief town is held the Korennaya fair,
formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still with an annual
trade valued at £900,000. The Kursk district contains more than
sixty old town sites; and barrows or burial mounds (<i>kurgans</i>) are
extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the
local councils (<i>zemstvos</i>), less than 10% of the population read
and write. The government is crossed from north to south and
from west to south by two main lines of railway. The trade in
grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods,
wax, honey and leather goods is very brisk. There are fifteen
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897,
are Kursk (<i>q.v.</i>) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev (7315), Fatezh
(4959), Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376), Novyi
Oskol (2762), Oboyañ (11872), Putivl (8965), Rylsk (11,415),
Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim
(7380). There are more than twenty villages which have from
5000 to 12,000 inhabitants each.</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KURSK,<a name="ar290" id="ar290"></a></span> a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, at the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev
and Kharkov, 330 m. S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1897), 52,896.
It is built on two hills (750 ft.), the slopes of which are planted
with orchards. The environs all round are well wooded and the
woods are famous for their nightingales. Among the public
buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an image of
the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek
cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being
a bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial
town, and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the
most venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and
has become the seat of several societies (medical, musical, educational
and for sport). Its factories include steam flour-mills,
distilleries, tobacco-works, hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap-works
and iron-works. It has a great yearly fair (<i>Korennaya</i>),
and an active trade in cereals, linen, leather, fruit, horses, cattle,
hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles, wax, tallow and manufactured
goods.</p>

<p>Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed
by the Mongols in 1240. The defence of the town against an
incursion of the Turkish Polovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is
celebrated in <i>The Triumph of Igor</i>, an epic which forms one of the
most valuable relics of early Russian literature. From 1586 to
the close of the 18th century the citadel was a place of considerable
strength; the remains are now comparatively few.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH<a name="ar291" id="ar291"></a></span> (1809-1890), German Lutheran
theologian, was born at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the
13th of December 1809, and was educated at Halle and Bonn.
Abandoning the idea of a commercial career, he gave himself to
the study of theology and became religious instructor at the
gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology
(church history, 1850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned
his chair in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on
the 26th of April 1890. Kurtz was a prolific writer, and many
of his books, especially the <i>Lehrbuch der heiligen Geschichte</i> (1843),
became very popular. In the field of biblical criticism he wrote
a <i>Geschichte des Alten Bundes</i> (1848-1855), <i>Zur Theologie der
Psalmen</i> (1865) and <i>Erklärung des Briefs an die Hebräer</i> (1869).
His chief work was done in church history, among his productions
being <i>Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte für Studierende</i>
(1849), <i>Abriss der Kirchengeschichte</i> (1852) and <i>Handbuch der
allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte</i> (1853-1856). Several of his books
have been translated into English.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURUMAN,<a name="ar292" id="ar292"></a></span> a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape
Colony, 120 m. N.W. of Kimberley and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg.
It is a station of the London Missionary Society, founded in
1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene of the labours
of Robert Moffat (<i>q.v.</i>) who here translated the Bible into the
Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century
Kuruman was the rendezvous of all travellers going north
or south. Of these the best known is David Livingstone.
The trunk railway line passing considerably to the east of
the town, Kuruman is no longer a place of much importance.
It is pleasantly situated on the upper course of the Kuruman
river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and presents
a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding
country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosilikatze,
the founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared
during his father&rsquo;s lifetime and the succession passed to Lobengula
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In November 1899 the town
was besieged by a Boer force. The garrison, less than a hundred
strong, held out for six weeks against over 1000 of the
enemy, but was forced to surrender on the 1st of January 1900.
In June following it was reoccupied by the British.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURUMBAS<a name="ar293" id="ar293"></a></span> and <span class="bold">KURUBAS</span>, aboriginal tribes of southern
India, by some thought to be of distinct races. There are two
types of Kurumbas, those who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak
the Kurumba dialect and are mere savages; and those who live
in the plains, speak Kanarese and are civilized. The former
are a small people, with wild matted hair and scanty beard,
sickly-looking, pot-bellied, large-mouthed, with projecting jaws,
prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are called <i>mottas</i>,
groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or forests.
At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See James W. Breeks, <i>An Account of Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris</i>
(1873); Dr John Shortt, <i>Hill Ranges of Southern India</i>, pt. i. 47-53;
Rev. F. Metz, <i>Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills</i> (Mangalore,
1864).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KURUNEGALA,<a name="ar294" id="ar294"></a></span> the chief town in the north-western province
of Ceylon. Pop. of the town, 6483; of the district, 249,429. It
was the residence of the kings of Ceylon from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1319 to 1347,
and is romantically situated under the shade of Adagalla (the
rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is 600 ft. high. It was in
1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m. from Colombo),
which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the northernmost
coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kurunegala is the centre
of rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KURUNTWAD,<a name="ar295" id="ar295"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kurandvad</span>, a native state of India, in
the Deccan division of Bombay, forming part of the Southern
Mahratta jagirs. Originally created in 1772 by a grant from the
peshwa, the state was divided in 1811 into two parts, one of which,
called Shedbal, lapsed to the British government in 1857. In
1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a senior and a
junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered among
other native states and British districts. Area of the senior
branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 42,474; revenue, £13,000. Area
of junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,003; revenue, £9000.
The joint tribute is £640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, of
the Patwardhan family. The town of Kuruntwad, in which
both branches have their residence, is on the right bank of the
Panchganga river near its junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901),
10,451.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KURZ, HERMANN<a name="ar296" id="ar296"></a></span> (1813-1873), German poet and novelist,
was born at Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Having
studied at the theological seminary at Maulbronn and at the
university of Tübingen, he was for a time assistant pastor at
Ehningen. He then entered upon a literary career, and in 1863
was appointed university librarian at Tübingen, where he died
on the 10th of October 1873. Kurz is less known to fame by
his poems, <i>Gedichte</i> (1836) and <i>Dichtungen</i> (1839), than by his
historical novels, <i>Schillers Heimatjahre</i> (1843, 3rd ed., 1899)
and <i>Der Sonnenwirt</i> (1854, 2nd ed., 1862), and his excellent
translations from English, Italian and Spanish. He also
published a successful modern German version of Gottfried von
Strassburg&rsquo;s <i>Tristan und Isolde</i> (1844). His collected works
were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart, 1874), also in twelve
volumes (Leipzig, 1904).</p>

<p>His daughter, <span class="sc">Isolde Kurz</span>, born on the 21st of December
1853 at Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyric
poets in Germany with her <i>Gedichte</i> (Stuttgart, 1888, 3rd ed.
1898) and <i>Neue Gedichte</i> (1903). Her short stories, <i>Florentiner
Novellen</i> (1890, 2nd ed. 1893), <i>Phantasien und Märchen</i> (1890),
<i>Italienische Erzählungen</i> (1895) and <i>Von Dazumal</i> (1900) are
distinguished by a fine sense of form and clear-cut style.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUSAN<a name="ar297" id="ar297"></a></span> (&ldquo;lake&rdquo; or &ldquo;inland bay&rdquo;), a small group of North
American Indian tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and the
coast of Oregon. They call themselves Anasitch, and other
names given them have been Ka-us or <span class="sc">Kwo-Kwoos</span>, Kowes and
Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related to their
neighbours. The few survivors, mostly of mixed blood, are on
the Siletz reservation, Oregon.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUSHALGARH,<a name="ar298" id="ar298"></a></span> a village in the Kohat district of the North-West
Frontier province of India. It is only notable as the point
at which the Indus is bridged to permit of the extension of the
strategic frontier railway from Rawalpindi to the Miranzai and
Kurram valleys.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KUSHK,<a name="ar299" id="ar299"></a></span> a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name to
the chief town in the Afghan province of Badghis, and to a
military post on the border of Russian Turkestan. The river
Kushk, during a portion of its course, forms the boundary between
Afghan and Russian territory; but the town is some 20 m. from
the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a fourth-class
Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from Merv, the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span>
terminus of which is 12 m. to the south, at Chahil Dukteran. It is
served by both the Transcaspian and the Orenburg-Tashkent
railways. The terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in
the event of war would become an important base for a
Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen through the
popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus,
though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the
old town.</p>
<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUSTANAISK,<a name="ar300" id="ar300"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Turgai, on the Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very
fertile part of the steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first buildings
were erected in 1871, and it has since grown with American-like
rapidity. The immigrants from Russia built a large village,
which became the centre of the district administration in 1884,
and a town in 1893, under the name of Nicolaevsk, changed later
into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre, and a cathedral
has been built. There are tanneries, tallow works, potteries,
and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to Orenburg
and Troitsk.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KÜSTENLAND<a name="ar301" id="ar301"></a></span> (coast-land or littoral), a common name for
the three crown-lands of Austria, Görz and Gradisca, Istria and
Trieste. Their combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their population
in 1900 was 755,183. They are united for certain administrative
purposes under the governor of Trieste, the legal and
financial authorities of which also exercise jurisdiction over the
entire littoral.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTAIAH,<a name="ar302" id="ar302"></a></span> <span class="sc">Kutaya</span>, or <span class="sc">Kiutahia</span>, the chief town of a sanjak
in the vilayet of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated
on the Pursaksu, an affluent of the Sakaria (anc. <i>Sangarius</i>).
The town lies at an important point of the great road across Asia
Minor from Constantinople to Aleppo, and is connected by a
branch line with the main line from Eski-shehr to Afium Kara-Hissar,
of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy trade; pop.
estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the
ancient Cotiaeum.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See V. Cuinet, <i>Turquie d&rsquo;Asie</i>, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894).</p>
</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTAIS,<a name="ar303" id="ar303"></a></span> a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated
between the Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the
W., the government of Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kars
on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m. The government includes the
districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhasia and Svanetia,
and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the lowlands, drained by
the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the Black Sea;
(2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the
western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais
from Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well
as a portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh
and its tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted
the Batum province. Generally speaking, the government is
mountainous in the north and south. Many secondary ridges
and spurs shoot off the main range, forming high, narrow valleys
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasus</a></span>). The district of Batum and Artvin in the S.W.,
which in 1903 were in part separated for administration as the
semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by spurs of the
Pontic range, 9000 to 11,240 ft. high, the Arzyan ridge separating
them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which
tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river,
intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The
lowlands occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren
in the littoral region, but extremely fertile higher up the
Rion.</p>

<p>The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often
without frost at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures
observed are 18° F. at Batum and 9° at Poti. The mountains
condense the moisture brought by the west winds, and the
yearly amount of rain varies from 50 to 120 in. The chief
rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at Poti; the
Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, the
Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea in Abkhasia.
The vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the
sub-tropic regions of Japan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasia</a></span>). The population
belongs almost entirely to the Kartvelian or Georgian group,
and is distributed as follows: Imeretians, 41.2%; Mingrelians
and Lazes, 22.5%; Gurians, 7.3%; Ajars, 5.8%; Svanetians,
1.3%; of other nationalities there are 6% of Abkhasians,
2.6% of Turks, 2.3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews,
Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion
87% of the population are Greek Orthodox and only 10% Mussulmans.
The total population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom
508,468 were women and 77,702 lived in towns. The estimated
population in 1906 was 924,800. The land is excessively subdivided,
and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches very high
prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye,
hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are
largely exported. Some cotton-trees have been planted. The
vine, olive, mulberry and all sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as
also many exotic plants (eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even
tea). Manganese ore is the chief mineral, and is extracted for
export to the extent of 160,000 to 180,000 tons annually, besides
coal, lead and silver ores, copper, naphtha, some gold, lithographic
stone and marble. Factories are still in infancy, but
silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via Tiflis and
the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum, and
from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The
export of both local produce and goods shipped by rail from
other ports of Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti
being the two chief ports of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into
seven districts, of which the chief towns, with their populations
in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the province (<i>q.v.</i>); Lailashi
(834), chief town of Lechgum, of which Svanetia makes a separate
administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni, chief town of Racha;
Senaki (101); Kvirili, of Sharopan district; Zugdidi; and two
semi-military districts&mdash;Batum (28,512) with Artvin (7000) and
Sukhum-kaleh (7809).</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.&mdash;J. T. Be.)</div>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTAIS,<a name="ar304" id="ar304"></a></span> a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the government
of the same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from
the Rion station of the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop.
(1897), 32,492. It is one of the oldest towns of Caucasia, having
been the ancient capital (Aea or Kutaea) of Colchis, and later the
capital of Imeretia (from 792); Procopius mentions it under the
name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols, Turks and Russians
have again and again destroyed the town and its fortress. In
1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the
Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most remarkable
building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the 11th
century by the Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and
destroyed by the Turks in 1692; it is the most important representative
extant of Georgian architecture. The fort, mentioned
by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins, destroyed by the Russians
in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks, and trade in
agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the Rion
is a government model garden, with a model farm.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUT-EL-AMARA,<a name="ar305" id="ar305"></a></span> a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east
bank of the Tigris (32° 29´ 19´´ N., 44° 45´ 37´´ E.) at the point
where the Shatt-el-Haï leaves that stream. It is a coaling
station of the steamers plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an
important Turkish post for the control of the lower Tigris.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTENAI<a name="ar306" id="ar306"></a></span> (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian
tribes forming the distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former
range was British Columbia, along the Kootenay lake and river.
They were always friendly to the whites and noted for their
honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in British Columbia; and
in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency, Montana.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTTALAM,<a name="ar307" id="ar307"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Courtallum</span>, a sanatorium of southern India,
in the Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1197. Though
situated only 450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a
much higher elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through
a gap in the Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for
European visitors, the season lasting from July to September;
and it has recently been made more accessible by the opening
of the railway from Tinnevelly into Travancore. The scenery
is most picturesque, including a famous waterfall.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTTENBERG<a name="ar308" id="ar308"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Kutná Hora</i>), a town of Bohemia,
Austria, 45 m. E. by S. of Prague. Pop. (1900), 14,799, mostly
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span>
Czech. Amongst its buildings are the Gothic five-naved church
of St Barbara, begun in 1368, the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th
century) and the Late Gothic Trinity church (end of 15th century).
The Wälscher Hof, formerly a royal residence and mint, was
built at the end of the 13th century, and the Gothic Steinerne
Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains one of the
richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes sugar-refining,
brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs,
leather goods and agricultural implements.</p>

<p>The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines,
the existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the
13th century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at
the outbreak of the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century,
was next to Prague the most important in Bohemia, having
become the favourite residence of several of the Bohemian kings.
It was here that, on the 18th of January 1410, Wenceslaus IV.
signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which the Bohemian
nation was given three votes in the elections to the faculty of
Prague University as against one for the three other &ldquo;nations.&rdquo;
In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of
horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town
was mainly German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with
Prague, which was Czech and utraquist. By way of reprisals
for the Hussite outrages in Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg
seized on any Hussites they could find, and burned, beheaded or
threw them alive into the shafts of disused mines. In this way
1600 people are said to have perished, including the magistrates
and clergy of the town of Kau&#345;im, which the Kuttenbergers had
taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for
his unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken
by &#381;i&#382;ka, and after a temporary reconciliation of the warring
parties was burned by the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its
falling again into the hands of the Taborites. &#381;i&#382;ka none the less
took the place, and under Bohemian auspices it awoke to a new
period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest mine was hopelessly
flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against Ferdinand I.
the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of the plague
and the horrors of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War completed its ruin.
Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines
failed; the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated
by fire. The mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th
century; one mine was again opened by the government in 1874,
but the work was discontinued in 1903.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KUTUSOV<a name="ar309" id="ar309"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Golenishchev-Kutuzov</span>], <span class="bold">MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH,</span>
<span class="sc">Prince of Smolensk</span> (1745-1813), Russian field marshal,
was born on the 16th of September 1745 at St Petersburg, and
entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760. He saw active service
in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74; lost an
eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for some
years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became major-general,
in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under
Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won considerable
distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-91, at the taking of
Ochakov, Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik
and Mashin. He was now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and successively
occupied the positions of ambassador at Constantinople,
governor-general of Finland, commandant of the corps
of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and governor-general
of St Petersburg. In 1805 he commanded the Russian
corps which opposed Napoleon&rsquo;s advance on Vienna (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>), and won the hard-fought action
of Dürrenstein on the 18th-19th of November.</p>

<p>On the eve of Austerlitz (<i>q.v.</i>) he tried to prevent the Allied
generals from fighting a battle, and when he was overruled took so
little interest in the event that he fell asleep during the reading of
the orders. He was, however, present at the battle itself, and was
wounded. From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general
of Lithuania and Kiev, and in 1811, being then commander-in-chief
in the war against the Turks, he was made a prince.
Shortly after this he was called by the unanimous voice of the
army and the people to command the army that was retreating
before Napoleon&rsquo;s advance. He gave battle at Borodino (<i>q.v.</i>),
and was defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating to the
south-west of Moscow, he forced Napoleon to begin the celebrated
retreat. The old general&rsquo;s cautious pursuit evoked much criticism,
but at any rate he allowed only a remnant of the Grand Army
to regain Prussian soil. He was now field marshal and prince of
Smolensk&mdash;this title having been given him for a victory over
part of the French army at that place in November 1812. Early
in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took command
of the allied Russians and Prussians, and prepared to
raise all central Europe in arms against Napoleon&rsquo;s domination,
but before the opening of the campaign he fell ill and died on the
25th of March 1813 at Bunzlau. Memorials have been erected
to him at that place and at St Petersburg.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Mikhailovsky-Danilevski&rsquo;s life of Kutusov (St Petersburg, 1850)
was translated into French by A. Fizelier (Paris, 1850).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUW&#274;T<a name="ar310" id="ar310"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kuweit, Koweit</span>), a port in Arabia at the north-western
angle of the Persian Gulf in 29° 20&rsquo; N. and 48° E., about
80 m. due S. of Basra and 60 m. S.W. of the mouth of the
Shat el Arab. The name Kuw&#275;t is the diminutive form of Kut,
a common term in Ir&#257;k for a walled village; it is also shown in
some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Kur&#275;n, the diminutive
of Karn, a horn. It lies on the south side of a bay 20 m.
long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by two
islands, forming a fine natural harbour, with good anchorage in
from 4 to 9 fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants
and is clean and well built; the country around being practically
desert, it depends entirely on the sea and its trade, and its sailors
have a high reputation as the most skilful and trustworthy on the
Persian Gulf; while its position as the nearest port to Upper Nejd
gives it great importance as the port of entry for rice, piece goods,
&amp;c., and of export for horses, sheep, wool and other products of
the interior. Kuw&#275;t was recommended in 1850 by General F. R.
Chesney as the terminus of his proposed Euphrates Valley railway,
and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian railway to
Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, attention has
again been directed to it. An alternative site for the terminus
has been suggested in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khor `Abdallah,
where a branch of the Shat el Arab formerly entered the sea;
it lies some 20 m. N.E. of Kuw&#275;t and separated from it by the
island of Bubi&#257;n, which has for some time been in Turkish occupation.
An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuw&#275;t in 1898 was met
by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infringement
of the <i>status quo</i>, and in 1899 Sheikh Mub&#257;rak of Kuw&#275;t placed
his interests under British protection.</p>

<p>The total trade passing through Kuw&#275;t in 1904-1905 was
valued at £160,000. The imports include arms and ammunition,
piece goods, rice, coffee, sugar, &amp;c.; and the exports, horses,
pearls, dates, wool, &amp;c. The steamers of the British India
Steamship Company call fortnightly.</p>
<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KUZNETSK,<a name="ar311" id="ar311"></a></span> two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the government
of Saratov, 74 m. by rail east of Penza. It has grown
rapidly since the development of the railway system in the Volga
basin. It has manufactures of agricultural machinery and hardware,
in a number of small factories and workshops, besides
tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe making in houses, and there
is considerable trade in sheepskins, grain, salt and wooden goods
exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. Pop.
(1897), 21,740. (2) A town in West Siberia, in the government of
Tomsk, 150 m. E.N.E. of Barnaul, on the Upper Tom river, at the
head of navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, furs, cedarwood,
nuts, wax, honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-mining
district. Pop. (1897), 3141.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KVASS,<a name="ar312" id="ar312"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kwass</span> (a Russian word for &ldquo;leaven&rdquo;), one of the
national alcoholic drinks of Russia, and popular also in eastern
Europe. It is made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic
fermentation, of wheat, rye, barley and buckwheat meal or of
rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or fruit. It has been a
universal drink in Russia since the 16th century. Though in the
large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is frequently
an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low alcoholic
content (0.7 to 2.2%). There are, beside the ordinary kind,
superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">KWAKIUTL,<a name="ar313" id="ar313"></a></span> a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan
stock. They number about 2000. Formerly the term was
used of the one tribe in the north-east of Vancouver, but now
it is the collective name for a group of Wakashan peoples.
The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their conservatism
in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom of
Potlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them.
Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. There
are three social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third
estates, most of the latter being slaves or their descendants.
Entry to the societies is forbidden the latter, and can only be
obtained by the former after torture and fasting. The <i>hamatsa</i>
or cannibal society is only open to those who have been members
of a lower society for eight years.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KWANGCHOW BAY<a name="ar314" id="ar314"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kwangchow Wan</span>), a coaling station
on the south coast of China, acquired, along with other concessions,
by the French government in April 1898. It is situated
on the east side of the peninsula of Lienchow, in the province
of Kwang-tung, and directly north of the island of Hainan.
It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to those by
which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan
and Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes
the islands lying in the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m.
long by 6 m. wide, with admirable natural defences and
a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. The bay forms the
estuary of the Ma-Ts&lsquo;e river, navigable by the largest men-of-war
for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession
inland were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the
Ma-Ts&rsquo;e France gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory
11 m. by 6 m., and on the right bank a strip 15 m. by 11 m.
from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well populated; the capital
and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries with it full
territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the lease.
In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the
governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month appointed
a civil administrator over the country, which was
divided into three districts. The population of the territory is
about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has been instituted, but the
local organization is maintained for purposes of administration.
In addition to the territory acquired, the right has been given
to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of
Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in
consequence of difficulties which were offered by the provincial
government on the occasion of taking possession, and which
compelled the French to have recourse to arms, the latter
demanded and obtained exclusive mining rights in the three
adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French steamships call
at the bay. By reason of the great strategical importance
of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near
neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French
to the acquirement of Kwangchow Wan.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KWANG-SI,<a name="ar315" id="ar315"></a></span> a southern province of China, bounded N.
by Kwei-chow and Hu-nan, E. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W.
and W. by French Indo-Chino and Yun-nan. It covers an
area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous province of China,
its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over 5,000,000. The
Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the population.
The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest
of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities.
The province is largely mountainous. The principal rivers
are the Si-kiang and the Kwei-kiang, or Cinnamon River,
which takes its rise in the district of Hing-gan, in the north of
the province, and in the neighbourhood of that of the Siang
river, which flows northward through Hu-nan to the Tung-t&lsquo;ing
Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes a
southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so
Hien, P&lsquo;ing-l&#275; Fu, Chao-p&rsquo;ing Hien, and so finds its way to
Wu-chow Fu, where it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another
considerable river is the Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which
rises in the mountains inhabited by the Miao-tsze, in Kwei-chow.
Leaving its source it takes a south-easterly direction, and enters
Kwang-si, in the district of Hwai-yuen. After encircling the
city of that name, it flows south as far as Liu-ch&rsquo;&#275;ng Hien,
where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang, or Dragon
River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which
has its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes
eastward, and farther on in a south-easterly direction, by
Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien, and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives
the waters of the Si-kiang, and thenceforth changes its name
for that of its affluent. The treaty ports in Kwang-si are
Wu-chow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KWANG-TUNG,<a name="ar316" id="ar316"></a></span> a southern province of China, bounded N.
by Hu-nan, Kiang-si and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and
W. by Kwang-si. It contains an area, including the island
of Hainan, of 75,500 sq. m., and is divided into nine prefectures;
and the population is estimated at about 30,000,000. Its
name, which signifies &ldquo;east of Kwang,&rdquo; is derived, according
to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of the
old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si
derives its name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang.
Kwang-tung extends for more than 600 m. from east to west,
and for about 420 from north to south. It may be described as a
hilly region, forming part as it does of the Nan Shan ranges.
These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a north-east
and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of
great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the
Si-kiang, the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the
mountains to the north of the province, and after a southerly
course joins the Si-kiang at San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang,
or East River, which, after flowing in a south-westerly direction
from its source in the north-east of the province, empties
itself into the estuary which separates the city of Canton from
the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south course
across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in
the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying
itself into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow.
Kwang-tung is one of the most productive provinces of the
empire. Its mineral wealth is very considerable, and the
soil of the valleys and plains is extremely fertile. The principal
article of export is silk, which is produced in the district forming
the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and having
its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the
province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field in the north; the
Hwa Hien field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the
west coast field, in the south-west. The last is by far the
largest of the three and extends over the districts of Wu-ch&lsquo;uen,
Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch&lsquo;un, Gan-p&lsquo;ing, K&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ing,
Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from
the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in
the west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found
in about twenty different districts, notably in Ts&lsquo;ing-yuen,
Ts&lsquo;ung-hwa, Lung-m&#275;n, and Lu-f&#275;ng. None, however, is
exported in its raw state, as all which is produced is manufactured
in the province, and principally at Fat-shan, which
has been called the Birmingham of China. The Kwang-tung
coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan,
which forms part of the prefecture of K&lsquo;iung-chow Fu. This
island extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the
same distance from east to west. The southern and eastern
portions of Hainan are mountainous, but on the north there is a
plain of some extent. Gold is found in the central part; and
sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds&rsquo; nests, and agar agar, or sea
vegetable, are among the other products of the island. Canton,
Swatow, K&lsquo;iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi, San-shui are among
the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded
or leased to foreign powers&mdash;Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong
(with Kowloon) to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KWANZA<a name="ar317" id="ar317"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Coanza</span> or <span class="sc">Quanza</span>), a river of West Africa,
with a course of about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese
territory of Angola. The source lies in about 13° 40´ S., 17°
30´ E. on the Bihe plateau, at an altitude of over 5000 ft. It
runs first N.E. and soon attains fairly large dimensions. Just
north of 12° it is about 60 yds. wide and 13 to 16 ft. deep.
From this point to 10° it flows N.W., receiving many tributaries,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span>
especially the Luando from the east. In about 10°, and at
intervals during its westerly passage through the outer plateau
escarpments, its course is broken by rapids, the river flowing
in a well-defined valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest
fall is that of Kambamba, or Livingstone, with a drop of 70 ft.
Thence to the sea, a distance of some 160 m., it is navigable
by small steamers, though very shallow in the dry season.
The river enters the sea in 9° 15´ S., 13° 20´ E., 40 m. S. of
Loanda. There is a shifting bar at its mouth, difficult to
cross, but the river as a waterway has become of less importance
since the fertile district in its middle basin has been served by
the railway from Loanda to Ambaca (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angola</a></span>).</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KWEI-CHOW,<a name="ar318" id="ar318"></a></span> a south-western province of China, bounded
N. by Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by
Yun-nan. It contains 67,000 sq. m., and has a population
of about 8,000,000. Kwei-yang Fu is the provincial capital,
and besides this there are eleven prefectural cities in the province.
With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood
of Kwei-yang Fu, Ta-ting Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and
northern regions, the province may be described as mountainous.
The mountain ranges in the south are largely inhabited
by Miao-tsze, who are the original owners of the soil and have
been constantly goaded into a state of rebellion by the oppression
to which they have been subjected by the Chinese officials.
To this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by the spread
of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the
south-western districts of the province. The devastating
effects of these civil wars were most disastrous to the trade
and the prosperity of Kwei-chow. The climate is by nature
unhealthy, the supply of running water being small, and that
of stagnant water, from which arises a fatal malaria, being
considerable. The agricultural products of the province are
very limited, and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper,
silver, lead, and zinc are found in considerable quantities,
and as regards quicksilver, Kwei-chow is probably the richest
country in the world. This has been from of old the chief
product of the province, and the belt in which it occurs extends
through the whole district from south-west to north-east. One
of the principal mining districts is K&lsquo;ai Chow, in the prefecture
of Kwei-yang Fu, and this district has the advantage of being
situated near Hwang-p&lsquo;ing Chow, from which place the products
can be conveniently and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinnabar,
realgar, orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral
products of Kwei-chow. Wild silk is another valuable article
of export. It is chiefly manufactured in the prefecture of
Tsun-i Fu.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KYAUKPYU,<a name="ar319" id="ar319"></a></span> a district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma,
on the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. It consists of, first, a
strip of mainland along the Bay of Bengal, extending from the
An pass, across the main range, to the Ma-&#299; River, and, secondly,
the large islands of Ramree and Cheduba, with many others to
the south, lying off the coast of Sandoway. The mainland in the
north and east is highly mountainous and forest-clad, and the
lower portion is cut up into numerous islands by a network
of tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramree lies a group
of islands separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming
the north-eastern shore of Kyaukpyu harbour, which extends for
nearly 30 m. along Ramree in a south-easterly direction, and
has an average breadth of 3 m. The principal mountains are the
Arakan Yomas, which send out spurs and sub-spurs almost to
the sea-coast. The An pass, an important trade route, rises to
a height of 4664 ft. above sea-level. The Dha-let and the An
rivers are navigable by large boats for 25 and 45 m. respectively.
Above these distances they are mere mountain torrents.
Large forests of valuable timber cover an area of about 650
sq. m. Kyaukpyu contains numerous &ldquo;mud volcanoes,&rdquo; from
which marsh gas is frequently discharged, with occasional issue
of flame. The largest of these is situated in the centre of Cheduba
island. Earth-oil wells exist in several places in the district.
The oil when brought to the surface has the appearance of a
whitish-blue water, which gives out brilliant straw-coloured rays,
and emits a strong pungent odour. Limestone, iron and coal
are also found. Area 4387 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 168,827, showing
an increase in the decade of 2.3%.</p>

<p>The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population in 1901 of 3145.
It has a municipal committee of twelve members, three <i>ex officio</i>
and nine appointed by the local government, and there is a third-class
district gaol. Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indian Ports
Act (X. of 1889), and the steamers of the British India Navigation
Company call there once a week going and coming between
Rangoon and Calcutta.</p>


<div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p><span class="bold">KYAUKS&#274;,<a name="ar320" id="ar320"></a></span> a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma,
with an area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of
141,253. It is also known as the <i>Ko-kayaing</i>, so called from the
original nine canals of the district. It consists of a generally
level strip running north and south at the foot of the Shan Hills,
and of a hilly region rising up these hills to the east, and including
the Yeyaman tract, which lies between 21° 30&rsquo; and 21° 40&rsquo; N.
and 96° 15&rsquo; and 96° 45&rsquo; E., with peaks rising to between 4500
and 5000 ft. This tract is rugged and scored by ravines, and is
very sparsely inhabited. The Panlaung and Zawgyi rivers from
the Shan States flow through the district and are utilized for the
numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, much timber
is floated down, and the Panlaung is navigable for small boats all
the year round. Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply ample
water for cultivation and all other purposes. They are said to
have been dug by King Nawraht&#257; in 1092. He is alleged to have
completed the system of nine canals and weirs in three years&rsquo;
time. Others have been constructed since the annexation of
Upper Burma. At that time many were in serious disrepair, but
most of them have been greatly improved by the construction
of proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the population
are dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and this
is mainly rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman tract the
chief crop is rice. The great majority of the population is pure
Burmese, but in the hills there are a good many Danus, a cross
between Shans and Burmese. The railway runs through the
centre of the rice-producing area, and feeder roads open up the
country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The greater part of the
district consists of state land, the cultivators being tenants of
government, but there is a certain amount of hereditary freehold.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Kyauks&#275;</span> town is situated on the Zawgyi River and on the
Rangoon-Mandalay railway line, and is well laid out in regular
streets, covering an area of about a square mile. It has a population
(1901) of 5420, mostly Burmese, with a colony of Indian
traders. Above it are some bare rocky hillocks, picturesquely
studded with pagodas.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KYD, THOMAS<a name="ar321" id="ar321"></a></span> (1558-1594), one of the most important of the
English Elizabethan dramatists who preceded Shakespeare.
Kyd remained until the last decade of the 19th century in what
appeared likely to be impenetrable obscurity. Even his name
was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins about 1773 discovered it in
connexion with <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> in Thomas Heywood&rsquo;s
<i>Apologie for Actors</i>. But by the industry of English and German
scholars a great deal of light has since been thrown on his life
and writings. He was the son of Francis Kyd, citizen and scrivener
of London, and was baptized in the church of St Mary
Woolnoth, Lombard Street, on the 6th of November 1558. His
mother, who survived her son, was named Agnes, or Anna. In
October 1565 Kyd entered the newly founded Merchant Taylors&rsquo;
School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge were
at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that Kyd did
not proceed to either of the universities; he apparently followed,
soon after leaving school, his father&rsquo;s business as a scrivener.
But Nashe describes him as a &ldquo;shifting companion that ran
through every art and throve by none.&rdquo; He showed a fairly wide
range of reading in Latin. The author on whom he draws most
freely is Seneca, but there are many reminiscences, and occasionally
mistranslations of other authors. Nashe contemptuously
said that &ldquo;English Seneca read by candlelight yeeldes many good
sentences,&rdquo; no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Thomas
Newton&rsquo;s translation. John Lyly had a more marked influence
on his manner than any of his contemporaries. It is believed that
he produced his famous play, <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i>, between 1584
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span>
and 1589; the quarto in the British Museum (which is probably
earlier than the Göttingen and Ellesmere quartos, dated 1594
and 1599) is undated, and the play was licensed for the press in
1592. The full title runs, <i>The Spanish Tragedie containing the
Lamentable End of Don Horatio and Bel-imperia; with the Pitiful
Death of Old Hieronimo</i>, and the play is commonly referred to by
Henslowe and other contemporaries as <i>Hieronimo</i>. This drama
enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and even of James I.
and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been styled the
most popular of all old English plays. Certain expressions in
Nashe&rsquo;s preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene&rsquo;s <i>Menaphon</i>
may be said to have started a whole world of speculation with
regard to Kyd&rsquo;s activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor
is it really understood why Ben Jonson called him &ldquo;sporting
Kyd.&rdquo; In 1592 there was added a sort of prologue to <i>The Spanish
Tragedy</i>, called <i>The First Part of Jeronimo, or The Warres of
Portugal</i>, not printed till 1605. Professor Boas concludes that
Kyd had nothing to do with this melodramatic production, which
gives a different version of the story and presents Jeronimo
as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand, it becomes
more and more certain that what German criticism calls the <i>Ur-Hamlet</i>,
the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark,
was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 1587.
This theory has been very elaborately worked out by Professor
Sarrazin, and confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are
doubtless right in holding that traces of Kyd&rsquo;s play survive in
the first two acts of the 1603 first quarto of <i>Hamlet</i>, but they
probably go too far in attributing much of the actual language
of the last three acts to Kyd. Kyd&rsquo;s next work was in all probability
the tragedy of <i>Soliman and Perseda</i>, written perhaps in
1588 and licensed for the press in 1592, which, although anonymous,
is assigned to him on strong internal evidence by Mr Boas.
No copy of the first edition has come down to us; but it was reprinted,
after Kyd&rsquo;s death, in 1599. In the summer or autumn
of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and
to have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed
a troop of &ldquo;players.&rdquo; Kyd was probably the private secretary
of this nobleman, in whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe,
afterwards fifth earl of Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget
Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd dedicated in the last year of his life
his translation of Garnier&rsquo;s <i>Cornelia</i> (1594), to the dedication of
which he attached his initials. Two prose works of the dramatist
have survived, a treatise on domestic economy, <i>The Householder&rsquo;s
Philosophy</i>, translated from the Italian of Tasso (1588); and a
sensational account of <i>The Most Wicked and Secret Murdering of
John Brewer, Goldsmith</i> (1592). His name is written on the
title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet at
Lambeth, but probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd&rsquo;s
plays and poems have been lost is proved by the fact that fragments
exist, attributed to him, which are found in no surviving
context. Towards the close of his life Kyd was brought into
relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1590, soon after
he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his acquaintance.
If he is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as a
man &ldquo;intemperate and of a cruel heart&rdquo; and &ldquo;irreligious.&rdquo; This,
however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is
scarcely consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between
him and Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the &ldquo;lewd libels&rdquo; and
&ldquo;blasphemies&rdquo; of Marlowe came before the notice of the Star
Chamber, Kyd was immediately arrested, papers of his having
been found &ldquo;shuffled&rdquo; with some of Marlowe&rsquo;s, who was imprisoned
a week later. A visitation on Kyd&rsquo;s papers was made
in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the
wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was
innocent, but there was found in his chamber a paper of &ldquo;vile
heretical conceits denying the deity of Jesus Christ.&rdquo; Kyd was
arrested and put to the torture in Bridewell. He asserted that
he knew nothing of this document and tried to shift the responsibility
of it upon Marlowe, but he was kept in prison until after
the death of that poet (June 1, 1593). When he was at length
dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his service.
He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of &ldquo;bitter
times and privy broken passions.&rdquo; He must have died late in
1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents renounced
their administration of the goods of their deceased son,
in a document of great importance discovered by Professor Schick.</p>

<p>The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful movement
of secular drama in England, gives great interest to his
works, and we are now able at last to assert what many critics
have long conjectured, that he takes in that movement the position
of a leader and almost of an inventor. Regarded from this point
of view, <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> is a work of extraordinary value,
since it is the earliest specimen of effective stage poetry existing
in English literature. It had been preceded only by the pageant-poems
of Peele and Lyly, in which all that constitutes in the
modern sense theatrical technique and effective construction
was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power of
the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist,
were supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and
were first exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This,
then, is a more or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama,
and of peculiar value to its historians. Curiously enough, <i>The
Spanish Tragedy</i>, which was the earliest stage-play of the great
period, was also the most popular, and held its own right through
the careers of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Fletcher. It was
not any shortcoming in its harrowing and exciting plot, but the
tameness of its archaic versification, which probably led in 1602
to its receiving &ldquo;additions,&rdquo; which have been a great stumbling-block
to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was paid for
these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all other
known writings of his, and several scholars have independently
conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it
seems needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even
Professor Boas seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry
has. He is important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The
influence of Kyd is marked on all the immediate predecessors of
Shakespeare, and the bold way in which scenes of violent crime
were treated on the Elizabethan stage appears to be directly
owing to the example of Kyd&rsquo;s innovating genius. His relation
to <i>Hamlet</i> has already been noted, and <i>Titus Andronicus</i> presents
and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that Mr Sidney
Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of Kyd&rsquo;s
touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings
cogent objections against this theory, founding them on what he
considers the imitative inferiority of <i>Titus Andronicus</i> to <i>The
Spanish Tragedy</i>. The German critics have pushed too far their
attempt to find indications of Kyd&rsquo;s influence on later plays
of Shakespeare. The extraordinary interest felt for Kyd in
Germany is explained by the fact that <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> was
long the best known of all Elizabethan plays abroad. It was
acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards at
Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until
the beginning of the 18th century; it was equally popular in
Holland, and potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Kyd&rsquo;s works were first collected and his life written by Professor
F. S. Boas in 1901. Of modern editions of <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> may
be mentioned that by Professor J. M. Manly in <i>Specimens of the
Pre-Shakespearean Drama</i>, vol. ii. (Boston, 1897), and by J. Schick
in the <i>Temple Dramatists</i> (1898). See also <i>Cornelia</i> (ed. H. Gassner,
1894); C. Markscheffel, <i>T. Kyd&rsquo;s Tragödien</i> (1885); Gregor Sarrazin,
Thomas Kyd und sein Kreis (1892); G. O. Fleischer, &ldquo;Bemerkungen
über Thomas Kyd&rsquo;s Spanish Tragedy&rdquo; (<i>Jahresbericht der Drei-Königschule
zu Dresden-Neustadt</i> (1896); J. Schick, &ldquo;T. Kyd&rsquo;s Spanish
Tragedy&rdquo; (<i>Literarhistorische Forschungen</i>, vol. 19, 1901); and
R. Koppel, in Prölss, <i>Altengl. Theater</i> (vol. i., 1904).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KYFFHÄUSER,<a name="ar322" id="ar322"></a></span> a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany.
The northern part looks steeply down upon the valley of the
Goldene Aue, and is crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg
(1440 ft.) on the west, and Kyffhausen (1542 ft.) on the east.
The latter, built probably in the 10th century, was frequently
the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, and was finally
destroyed in the 16th century. The existing ruins are those of the
Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its chapel.
The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor
William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ft.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span>
high and the height of the whole 210 ft. This was erected
in 1896. According to an old and popular legend, the emperor
Frederick Barbarossa sits asleep beside a marble table in the
interior of the mountain, surrounded by his knights, awaiting
the destined day when he shall awaken and lead the united
peoples of Germany against her enemies, and so inaugurate
an era of unexampled glory. But G. Vogt has advanced cogent
reasons (see <i>Hist. Zeitschrift</i>, xxvi. 131-187) for believing
that the real hero of the legend is the other great Hohenstaufen
emperor, Frederick II., not Frederick I. Around
him gradually crystallized the hopes of the German peoples,
and to him they looked for help in the hour of their sorest need.
But this is not the only legend of a slumbering future deliverer
which lives on in Germany. Similar hopes cling to the memory
of Charlemagne, sleeping in a hill near Paderborn; to that of the
Saxon hero Widukind, in a hill in Westphalia; to Siegfried, in the
hill of Geroldseck; and to Henry I., in a hill near Goslar.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Richter, <i>Das deutsche Kyffhäusergebirge</i> (Eisleben, 1876);
Lemcke, <i>Der deutsche Kaisertraum und der Kyffhäuser</i> (Magdeburg,
1887); and <i>Führer durch das Kyffhäusergebirge</i> (Sangerhausen, 1891);
Baltzer, <i>Das Kyffhäusergebirge</i> (Rudolstadt, 1882); A. Fulda, <i>Die
Kyffhäusersage</i> (Sangerhausen, 1889); and Anemüller, <i>Kyffhäuser und
Rothenburg</i> (Detmold, 1892).</p>
</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KYNASTON, EDWARD<a name="ar323" id="ar323"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1640-1706), English actor, was
born in London and first appeared in Rhodes&rsquo;s company, having
been, like Betterton, a clerk in Rhodes&rsquo;s book-shop before he
set up a company in the Cockpit in Drury Lane. Kynaston
was probably the last and certainly the best of the male actors
of female parts, for which his personal beauty admirably fitted
him. His last female part was Evadne in <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>
in 1661 with Killigrew&rsquo;s company. In 1665 he was playing
important male parts at Covent Garden. He joined Betterton
at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields in 1695, after which he received less
important rôles, retiring in 1699. He died in 1706, and was
buried on the 18th of January.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KYNETON,<a name="ar324" id="ar324"></a></span> a town of Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia,
on the river Campaspe, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne.
Pop. (1901), 3274. It is the centre of a prosperous agricultural
and pastoral district. Important stock sales and an
annual exhibition of stock are held. There are, moreover,
some rich gold quartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyneton
lies at an elevation of 1687 ft., and the scenery of the district,
which includes some beautiful waterfalls, attracts visitors in
summer.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KY&#332;SAI, SHO-FU<a name="ar325" id="ar325"></a></span> (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born
at Koga in the province of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After
working for a short time, as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received
his artistic training in the studio of Kan&#333; D&#333;haku, but soon
abandoned the formal traditions of his master for the greater
freedom of the popular school. During the political ferment
which produced and followed the revolution of 1867, Ky&#333;sai
attained a considerable reputation as a caricaturist. He was
three times arrested and imprisoned by the authorities of the
shogunate. Soon after the assumption of effective power by the
mikado, a great congress of painters and men of letters was held,
at which Ky&#333;sai was present. He again expressed his opinion
of the new movement in a caricature, which had a great popular
success, but also brought him into the hands of the police&mdash;this
time of the opposite party. Ky&#333;sai must be considered
the greatest successor of Hokusai (of whom, however, he was
not a pupil), and as the first political caricaturist of Japan.
His work&mdash;like his life&mdash;is somewhat wild and undisciplined,
and &ldquo;occasionally smacks of the <i>sak&#275;</i> cup.&rdquo; But if he did
not possess Hokusai&rsquo;s dignity, power and reticence, he substituted
an exuberant fancy, which always lends interest to
draughtsmanship of very great technical excellence. In
addition to his caricatures, Ky&#333;sai painted a large number
of pictures and sketches, often choosing subjects from the
folk-lore of his country. A fine collection of these works is
preserved in the British Museum; and there are also good
examples in the National Art Library at South Kensington,
and the Musée Guimet at Paris. Among his illustrated books
may be mentioned <i>Yehon Taka-kagami</i>, Illustrations of Hawks
(5 vols., 1870, &amp;c.); <i>Ky&#333;sai Gwafu</i> (1880); <i>Ky&#333;sai Dongwa</i>;
<i>Ky&#333;sai Raku-gwa</i>; <i>Ky&#333;sai Riaku-gwa</i>; <i>Ky&#333;sai Mangwa</i> (1881);
<i>Ky&#333;sai Suigwa</i> (1882); and <i>Ky&#333;sai Gwaden</i> (1887). The latter
is illustrated by him under the name of Kawanabe T&#333;yoku,
and two of its four volumes are devoted to an account of his
own art and life. He died in 1889.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Guimet (É.) and Regamey (F.), <i>Promenades japonaises</i> (Paris,
1880); Anderson (W.), <i>Catalogue of Japanese Painting in the British
Museum</i> (London, 1886); Mortimer Menpes, &ldquo;A Personal View of
Japanese Art: A Lesson from Ky&#333;sai,&rdquo; <i>Magazine of Art</i> (1888).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>


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<p><span class="bold">KYRIE<a name="ar326" id="ar326"></a></span> (in full <i>kyrie eleison</i>, or <i>eleeson</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyrie eleêson">&#954;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#949; &#7952;&#955;&#941;&#951;&#963;&#959;&#957;</span>; cf.
Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. <span class="sc">XV.</span> 22, &amp;c., meaning &ldquo;Lord, have mercy&rdquo;),
the words of petition used at the beginning of the Mass and in
other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In the
Anglican Book of Common Prayer the Kyrie is introduced
into the orders for Morning and Evening Prayer, and also, with
an additional petition, as a response made by the congregation
after the reading of each of the Ten Commandments at the
opening of the Communion Service. These responses are
usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to their
musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is still
said or sung in the original Greek. &ldquo;Kyrielle,&rdquo; a shortened
form of <i>Kyrie eleison</i>, is applied to eight-syllabled four-line verses,
the last line in each verse being repeated as a refrain.</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KYRLE, JOHN<a name="ar327" id="ar327"></a></span> (1637-1724), &ldquo;the Man of Ross,&rdquo; English
philanthropist, was born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucestershire,
on the 22nd of May 1637. His father was a barrister
and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross, in Herefordshire,
for many generations. He was educated at Balliol College,
Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross took
up his abode there. In everything that concerned the welfare
of the little town in which he lived he took a lively interest&mdash;in
the education of the children, the distribution of alms, in
improving and embellishing the town. He delighted in mediating
between those who had quarrelled and in preventing lawsuits.
He was generous to the poor and spent all he had in good works.
He lived a great deal in the open air working with the labourers
on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and was
buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory is preserved
by the Kyrie Society, founded in 1877, to better the
lot of working people, by laying out parks, encouraging house
decoration, window gardening and flower growing. Ross was
eulogized by Pope in the third <i>Moral Epistle</i> (1732), and by
Coleridge in an early poem (1794).</p>


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<p><span class="bold">KYSHTYM,<a name="ar328" id="ar328"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Perm,
56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the same
name which connects two lakes. Pop. (1897), 12,331. The
official name is Verkhne-Kyshtymskiy-Zavod, or Upper Kyshtym
Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhne) Kyshtym
Works, situated two miles lower down the same river.</p>

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<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40641 ***</div>
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