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diff --git a/4061-h/4061-h.htm b/4061-h/4061-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..08539f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/4061-h/4061-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17483 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo, by + Sir Edward Creasy, M.A. + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World +From Marathon to Waterloo, by Edward Creasy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World From Marathon to Waterloo + +Author: Edward Creasy + +Release Date: May, 2003 [EBook #4061] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES *** + + + + +Produced by John Hill and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WORLD FROM MARATHON TO WATERLOO + </h1> + <h2> + By Sir Edward Creasy, M.A. + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p> + (Late Chief Justice of Ceylon) Author of 'The Rise and Progress of the + English Constitution' + </p> + <p> + Dedicated to ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S. Late Fellow of King's + </p> + <p> + College Cambridge; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London. + </p> + <p> + Member of the Ethnological Society, New York; Late Professor of the + English Language and Literature, in University College, London. + </p> + <p> + By his Friend THE AUTHOR. + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p> + Transcriber's Notes: + </p> + <p> + Capital letters have been used to replace text in italics in the printed + text. Accents have been omitted. + </p> + <p> + Footnotes have been inserted into the text enclosed in square [ ] + brackets, near the point where they were indicated by a suffix in the + text. + </p> + <p> + Greek words in the text have been crudely translated into Western + European capital letters. Sincere apologies to Greek scholars! Longer + passages in Greek have been omitted and where possible replaced with a + reference to the original from which they were taken. + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + It is an honourable characteristic of the Spirit of this Age, that + projects of violence and warfare are regarded among civilized states with + gradually increasing aversion. The Universal Peace Society certainly does + not, and probably never will, enrol the majority of statesmen among its + members. But even those who look upon the Appeal of Battle as occasionally + unavoidable in international controversies, concur in thinking it a + deplorable necessity, only to be resorted to when all peaceful modes of + arrangement have been vainly tried; and when the law of self-defence + justifies a State, like an individual, in using force to protect itself + from imminent and serious injury. For a writer, therefore, of the present + day to choose battles for his favourite topic, merely because they were + battles, merely because so many myriads of troops were arrayed in them, + and so many hundreds or thousands of human beings stabbed, hewed, or shot + each other to death during them, would argue strange weakness or depravity + of mind. Yet it cannot be denied that a fearful and wonderful interest is + attached to these scenes of carnage. There is undeniable greatness in the + disciplined courage, and in the love of honour, which make the combatants + confront agony and destruction. And the powers of the human intellect are + rarely more strongly displayed than they are in the Commander, who + regulates, arrays, and wields at his will these masses of armed + disputants; who, cool yet daring, in the midst of peril reflects on all, + and provides for all, ever ready with fresh resources and designs, as the + vicissitudes of the storm of slaughter require. But these qualities, + however high they may appear, are to be found in the basest as well as in + the noblest of mankind. Catiline was as brave a soldier as Leonidas, and a + much better officer. Alva surpassed the Prince of Orange in the field; and + Suwarrow was the military superior of Kosciusko. To adopt the emphatic + words of Byron:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "'Tis the Cause makes all, + Degrades or hallows courage in its fall." +</pre> + <p> + There are some battles, also, which claim our attention, independently of + the moral worth of the combatants, on account of their enduring + importance, and by reason of the practical influence on our own social and + political condition, which we can trace up to the results of those + engagements. They have for us an abiding and actual interest, both while + we investigate the chain of causes and effects, by which they have helped + to make us what we are; and also while we speculate on what we probably + should have been, if any one of those battles had come to a different + termination. Hallam has admirably expressed this in his remarks on the + victory gained by Charles Martel, between Tours and Poictiers, over the + invading Saracens. + </p> + <p> + He says of it, that "it may justly be reckoned among those few battles of + which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the + world in all its subsequent scenes: with Marathon, Arbela, the Metaurus, + Chalons, and Leipsic." It was the perusal of this note of Hallam's that + first led me to the consideration of my present subject. I certainly + differ from that great historian as to the comparative importance of some + of the battles which he thus enumerates, and also of some which he omits. + It is probable, indeed, that no two historical inquirers would entirely + agree in their lists of the Decisive Battles of the World. Different minds + will naturally vary in the impressions which particular events make on + them; and in the degree of interest with which they watch the career, and + reflect on the importance, of different historical personages. But our + concurrence in our catalogues is of little moment, provided we learn to + look on these great historical events in the spirit which Hallam's + observations indicate. Those remarks should teach us to watch how the + interests of many states are often involved in the collisions between a + few; and how the effect of those collisions is not limited to a single + age, but may give an impulse which will sway the fortunes of successive + generations of mankind. Most valuable also is the mental discipline which + is thus acquired, and by which we are trained not only to observe what has + been, and what is, but also to ponder on what might have been. [See + Bolingbroke, On the Study and Use of History, vol. ii. p. 497 of his + collected works.] + </p> + <p> + We thus learn not to judge of the wisdom of measures too exclusively by + the results. We learn to apply the juster standard of seeing what the + circumstances and the probabilities were that surrounded a statesman or a + general at the time when he decided on his plan: we value him not by his + fortune, but by his PROAIRESIZ, to adopt the expressive Greek word, for + which our language gives no equivalent. + </p> + <p> + The reasons why each of the following Fifteen Battles has been selected + will, I trust, appear when it is described. But it may be well to premise + a few remarks on the negative tests which have led me to reject others, + which at first sight may appear equal in magnitude and importance to the + chosen Fifteen. + </p> + <p> + I need hardly remark that it is not the number of killed and wounded in a + battle that determines its general historical importance. It is not + because only a few hundreds fell in the battle by which Joan of Arc + captured the Tourelles and raised the siege of Orleans, that the effect of + that crisis is to be judged: nor would a full belief in the largest number + which Eastern historians state to have been slaughtered in any of the + numerous conflicts between Asiatic rulers, make me regard the engagement + in which they fell as one of paramount importance to mankind. But, besides + battles of this kind, there are many of great consequence, and attended + with circumstances which powerfully excite our feelings, and rivet our + attention, and yet which appear to me of mere secondary rank, inasmuch as + either their effects were limited in area, or they themselves merely + confirmed some great tendency or bias which an earlier battle had + originated. For example, the encounters between the Greeks and Persians, + which followed Marathon, seem to me not to have been phenomena of primary + impulse. Greek superiority had been already asserted, Asiatic ambition had + already been checked, before Salamis and Platea confirmed the superiority + of European free states over Oriental despotism. So, AEgos-Potamos, which + finally crushed the maritime power of Athens, seems to me inferior in + interest to the defeat before Syracuse, where Athens received her first + fatal check, and after which she only struggled to retard her downfall. I + think similarly of Zama with respect to Carthage, as compared with the + Metaurus: and, on the same principle, the subsequent great battles of the + Revolutionary war appear to me inferior in their importance to Valmy, + which first determined the military character and career of the French + Revolution. + </p> + <p> + I am aware that a little activity of imagination, and a slight exercise of + metaphysical ingenuity, may amuse us, by showing how the chain of + circumstances is so linked together, that the smallest skirmish, or the + slightest occurrence of any kind, that ever occurred, may be said to have + been essential, in its actual termination, to the whole order of + subsequent events. But when I speak of Causes and Effects, I speak of the + obvious and important agency of one fact upon another, and not of remote + and fancifully infinitesimal influences. I am aware that, on the other + hand, the reproach of Fatalism is justly incurred by those, who, like the + writers of a certain school in a neighbouring country, recognise in + history nothing more than a series of necessary phenomena, which follow + inevitably one upon the other. But when, in this work, I speak of + probabilities, I speak of human probabilities only. When I speak of Cause + and Effect, I speak of those general laws only, by which we perceive the + sequence of human affairs to be usually regulated; and in which we + recognise emphatically the wisdom and power of the Supreme Lawgiver, the + design of The Designer. + </p> + <p> + MITRE COURT CHAMBERS, TEMPLE, June 26, 1851. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> <big><b>THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE + WORLD.</b></big> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I.—THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. — DEFEAT OF THE ATHENIANS AT + SYRACUSE, B.C.413. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. — THE BATTLE OF ARBELA, B.C. + 331. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. — THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS, + B.C. 207. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. — VICTORY OF ARMINIUS OVER THE + ROMAN LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI — THE BATTLE OF CHALONS, A.D. + 451. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. — THE BATTLE OF TOURS, A.D. + 732, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. — THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS, + 1066. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. — JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY OVER + THE ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, A.D. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. — THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH + ARMADA, A.D. 1588. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. — THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, 1704. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. — THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA, 1709. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. — VICTORY OF THE AMERICANS + OVER BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. — THE BATTLE OF VALMY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. — THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO, 1815. + </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + DETAILED CONTENTS. + </h2> + <p> + CHAP. I. <br /> THE BATTLE OF MARATHON <br /> Explanatory Remarks on some of + the circumstances of the Battle of <br /> Marathon. <br /> Synopsis of + Events between the Battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, and the <br /> Defeat of + the Athenians at Syracuse, B.C. 413. <br /> CHAP. II. <br /> DEFEAT OF THE + ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE, B.C. 413. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the + Defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse and <br /> the Battle of Arbela. <br /> + CHAP. III. <br /> THE BATTLE OF ARBELA, B.C. 331. <br /> Synopsis of Events + between the Battle of Arbela and the Battle of the <br /> Metaurus. <br /> + CHAP. IV. <br /> THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS, B.C. 207. <br /> Synopsis of + Events between the Battle of the Metaurus, B.C. 207, and <br /> Arminius's + Victory over the Roman Legions under Varus. A.D. 9. <br /> CHAP. V. <br /> + VICTORY OF ARMINIUS OVER THE ROMAN LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, A.D. 9. <br /> + Arminius. Synopsis of Events between Arminius's Victory over Varus and + <br /> the Battle of Chalons. <br /> CHAP. VI. <br /> THE BATTLE OF CHALONS, + A.D. 451. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Chalons, A.D. + 451, and the <br /> Battle of Tours, 732. <br /> CHAP. VII. <br /> THE BATTLE + OF TOURS, A.D. 732. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the Battle of Tours, + A.D. 732 and the Battle <br /> of Hastings, 1066. <br /> CHAP. VIII. <br /> + THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS, A.D. 1066. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the + Battle of Hastings, A.D. 1066, and Joan <br /> of Arc's Victory at Orleans, + 1429. <br /> CHAP. IX. <br /> JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE ENGLISH AT + ORLEANS, A.D. 1429. <br /> Synopsis of Events between Joan of Arc's Victory + at Orleans, A.D. 1429, <br /> and the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588. + <br /> CHAP. X. <br /> THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, A.D. 1588. <br /> + Synopsis of events between the Defeat of the Spanish Armada A.D. 1588, + <br /> and the Battle of Blenheim, 1704. <br /> CHAP. XI. <br /> THE BATTLE + OF BLENHEIM, A.D. 1704. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the Battle of + Blenheim, 1704, and the Battle <br /> of Pultowa, 1709. <br /> CHAP. XII. + <br /> THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA, A.D. 1709. <br /> Synopsis of Events between + the Battle of Pultowa, 1709, and the Defeat <br /> of Burgoyne at Saratoga, + 1777. <br /> CHAP. XIII. <br /> VICTORY OF THE AMERICANS OVER BURGOYNE AT + SARATOGA, A.D. 1777. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the Defeat of + Burgoyne at Saratoga, 1777, and <br /> the Battle of Valmy, 1792. <br /> + CHAP. XIV. <br /> THE BATTLE OF VALMY. <br /> Synopsis of Events between the + Battle of Valmy, 1792, and the Battle of <br /> Waterloo, 1815. <br /> CHAP. + XV. <br /> THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO, 1815. <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WORLD. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I.—THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Quibus actus uterque + Europae atque Asiae fatis concurrerit orbis." +</pre> + <p> + Two thousand three hundred and forty years ago, a council of Athenian + officers was summoned on the slope of one of the mountains that look over + the plain of Marathon, on the eastern coast of Attica. The immediate + subject of their meeting was to consider whether they should give battle + to an enemy that lay encamped on the shore beneath them; but on the result + of their deliberations depended not merely the fate of two armies, but the + whole future progress of human civilization. + </p> + <p> + There were eleven members of that council of war. Ten were the generals, + who were then annually elected at Athens, one for each of the local tribes + into which the Athenians were divided. Each general led the men of his own + tribe, and each was invested with equal military authority. One also of + the Archons was associated with them in the joint command of the + collective force. This magistrate was termed the Polemarch or War-Ruler: + he had the privilege of leading the right wing of the army in battle, and + of taking part in all councils of war. A noble Athenian, named + Callimachus, was the War-Ruler of this year; and as such, stood listening + to the earnest discussion of the ten generals. They had, indeed, deep + matter for anxiety, though little aware how momentous to mankind were the + votes they were about to give, or how the generations to come would read + with interest that record of their debate. They saw before them the + invading forces of a mighty empire, which had in the last fifty years + shattered and enslaved nearly all the kingdoms and principalities of the + then known world. They knew that all the resources of their own country + were comprised in the little army entrusted to their guidance. They saw + before them a chosen host of the Great King sent to wreak his special + wrath on that country, and on the other insolent little Greek community, + which had dared to aid his rebels and burn the capital of one of his + provinces. That victorious host had already fulfilled half its mission of + vengeance. Eretria, the confederate of Athens in the bold march against + Sardis nine years before, had fallen in the last few days; and the + Athenian generals could discern from the heights the island of AEgilia, in + which the Persians had deposited their Eretrian prisoners, whom they had + reserved to be led away captives into Upper Asia, there to hear their doom + from the lips of King Darius himself. Moreover, the men of Athens knew + that in the camp before them was their own banished tyrant, Hippias, who + was seeking to be reinstated by foreign scimitars in despotic sway over + any remnant of his countrymen that might survive the sack of their town, + and might be left behind as too worthless for leading away into Median + bondage. + </p> + <p> + The numerical disparity between the force which the Athenian commanders + had under them, and that which they were called on to encounter, was + fearfully apparent to some of the council. The historians who wrote + nearest to the time of the battle do not pretend to give any detailed + statements of the numbers engaged, but there are sufficient data for our + making a general estimate. Every free Greek was trained to military duty: + and, from the incessant border wars between the different states, few + Greeks reached the age of manhood without having seen some service. But + the muster-roll of free Athenian citizens of an age fit for military duty + never exceeded thirty thousand, and at this epoch probably did not amount + to two-thirds of that number. Moreover, the poorer portion of these were + unprovided with the equipments, and untrained to the operations of the + regular infantry. Some detachments of the best armed troops would be + required to garrison the city itself, and man the various fortified posts + in the territory; so that it is impossible to reckon the fully equipped + force that marched from Athens to Marathon, when the news of the Persian + landing arrived, at higher than ten thousand men. [The historians who + lived long after the time of the battle, such as Justin, Plutarch and + others, give ten thousand as the number of the Athenian army. Not much + reliance could be placed on their authority, if unsupported by other + evidence; but a calculation made from the number of the Athenian free + population remarkably confirms it. For the data of this, see Boeck's + "Public Economy of Athens," vol. i. p. 45. Some METOIKOI probably served + as Hoplites at Marathon, but the number of resident aliens at Athens + cannot have been large at this period.] + </p> + <p> + With one exception, the other Greeks held back from aiding them. Sparta + had promised assistance; but the Persians had landed on the sixth day of + the moon, and a religious scruple delayed the march of Spartan troops till + the moon should have reached its full. From one quarter only, and that a + most unexpected one, did Athens receive aid at the moment of her great + peril. + </p> + <p> + For some years before this time, the little state of Plataea in Boeotia, + being hard pressed by her powerful neighbour, Thebes, had asked the + protection of Athens, and had owed to an Athenian army the rescue of her + independence. Now when it was noised over Greece that the Mede had come + from the uttermost parts of the earth to destroy Athens, the brave + Plataeans, unsolicited, marched with their whole force to assist in the + defence, and to share the fortunes of their benefactors. The general levy + of the Plataeans only amounted to a thousand men: and this little column, + marching from their city along the southern ridge of Mount Cithaeron, and + thence across the Attic territory, joined the Athenian forces above + Marathon almost immediately before the battle. The reinforcement was + numerically small; but the gallant spirit of the men who composed it must + have made it of tenfold value to the Athenians: and its presence must have + gone far to dispel the cheerless feeling of being deserted and friendless, + which the delay of the Spartan succours was calculated to create among the + Athenian ranks. + </p> + <p> + This generous daring of their weak but true-hearted ally was never + forgotten at Athens. The Plataeans were made the fellow-countrymen of the + Athenians, except the right of exercising certain political functions; and + from that time forth in the solemn sacrifices at Athens, the public + prayers were offered up for a joint blessing from Heaven upon the + Athenians, and the Plataeans also. [Mr. Grote observes (vol. iv. p. 484), + that "this volunteer march of the whole Plataean force to Marathon is one + of the most affecting incidents of all Grecian history." In truth, the + whole career of Plataea, and the friendship, strong even unto death, + between her and Athens, form one of the most affecting episodes in the + history of antiquity. In the Peloponnesian War the Plataeans again were + true to the Athenians against all risks and all calculation of + self-interest; and the destruction of Plataea was the consequence. There + are few nobler passages in the classics than the speech in which the + Plataean prisoners of war, after the memorable siege of their city, + justify before their Spartan executioners their loyal adherence to Athens. + (See Thucydides, lib. iii. secs. 53-60.)] + </p> + <p> + After the junction of the column from Plataea, the Athenians commanders + must have had under them about eleven thousand fully-armed and disciplined + infantry, and probably a larger number of irregular light-armed troops; + as, besides the poorer citizens who went to the field armed with javelins, + cutlasses, and targets, each regular heavy-armed soldier was attended in + the camp by one or more slaves, who were armed like the inferior freemen. + [At the battle of Plataea, eleven years after Marathon, each of the eight + thousand Athenian regular infantry who served there, was attended by a + light-armed slave. (Herod. lib. viii. c. 28,29.)] Cavalry or archers the + Athenians (on this occasion) had none: and the use in the field of + military engines was not at that period introduced into ancient warfare. + </p> + <p> + Contrasted with their own scanty forces, the Greek commanders saw + stretched before them, along the shores of the winding bay, the tents and + shipping of the varied nations that marched to do the bidding of the King + of the Eastern world. The difficulty of finding transports and of securing + provisions would form the only limit to the numbers of a Persian army. Nor + is there any reason to suppose the estimate of Justin exaggerated, who + rates at a hundred thousand the force which on this occasion had sailed, + under the satraps Datis and Artaphernes, from the Cilician shores, against + the devoted coasts of Euboea and Attica. And after largely deducting from + this total, so as to allow for mere mariners and camp followers, there + must still have remained fearful odds against the national levies of the + Athenians. Nor could Greek generals then feel that confidence in the + superior quality of their troops which ever since the battle of Marathon + has animated Europeans in conflicts with Asiatics; as, for instance, in + the after struggles between Greece and Persia, or when the Roman legions + encountered the myriads of Mithridates and Tigranes, or as is the case in + the Indian campaigns of our own regiments. On the contrary, up to the day + of Marathon the Medes and Persians were reputed invincible. They had more + than once met Greek troops in Asia Minor, in Cyprus, in Egypt, and had + invariably beaten them. Nothing can be stronger than the expressions used + by the early Creek writers respecting the terror which the name of the + Medes inspired, and the prostration of men's spirits before the apparently + resistless career of the Persian arms. It is therefore, little to be + wondered at, that five of the ten Athenian generals shrank from the + prospect of fighting a pitched battle against an enemy so superior in + numbers, and so formidable in military renown. Their own position on the + heights was strong, and offered great advantages to a small defending + force against assailing masses. They deemed it mere foolhardiness to + descend into the plain to be trampled down by the Asiatic horse, + overwhelmed with the archery, or cut to pieces by the invincible veterans + of Cambyses and Cyrus. Moreover, Sparta, the great war-state of Greece, + had been applied to, and had promised succour to Athens, though the + religious observance which the Dorians paid to certain times and seasons + had for the present delayed their march. Was it not wise, at any rate, to + wait till the Spartans came up, and to have the help of the best troops in + Greece, before they exposed themselves to the shock of the dreaded Medes? + </p> + <p> + Specious as these reasons might appear, the other five generals were for + speedier and bolder operations. And, fortunately for Athens and for the + world, one of them was a man, not only of the highest military genius, but + also of that energetic character which impresses its own type and ideas + upon spirits feebler in conception. + </p> + <p> + Miltiades was the head of one of the noblest houses at Athens: he ranked + the AEacidae among his ancestry, and the blood of Achilles flowed in the + veins of the hero of Marathon. One of his immediate ancestors had acquired + the dominion of the Thracian Chersonese, and thus the family became at the + same time Athenian citizens and Thracian princes. This occurred at the + time when Pisistratus was tyrant of Athens. Two of the relatives of + Miltiades—an uncle of the same name, and a brother named Stesagoras—had + ruled the Chersonese before Miltiades became its prince. He had been + brought up at Athens in the house of his father Cimon, [Herodotus, lib. + vi. c. 102] who was renowned throughout Greece for his victories in the + Olympic chariot-races, and who must have been possessed of great wealth. + The sons of Pisistratus, who succeeded their father in the tyranny at + Athens, caused Cimon to be assassinated, but they treated the young + Miltiades with favour and kindness; and when his brother Stesagoras died + in the Chersonese, they sent him out there as lord of the principality. + This was about twenty-eight years before the battle of Marathon, and it is + with his arrival in the Chersonese that our first knowledge of the career + and character of Miltiades commences. We find, in the first act recorded + of him, proof of the same resolute and unscrupulous spirit that marked his + mature age. His brother's authority in the principality had been shaken by + war and revolt: Miltiades determined to rule more securely. On his arrival + he kept close within his house, as if he was mourning for his brother. The + principal men of the Chersonese, hearing of this, assembled from all the + towns and districts, and went together to the house of Miltiades on a + visit of condolence. As soon as he had thus got them in his power, he made + them all prisoners. He then asserted and maintained his own absolute + authority in the peninsula, taking into his pay a body of five hundred + regular troops, and strengthening his interest by marrying the daughter of + the king of the neighbouring Thracians. + </p> + <p> + When the Persian power was extended to the Hellespont and its + neighbourhood, Miltiades, as prince of the Chersonese, submitted to King + Darius; and he was one of the numerous tributary rulers who led their + contingents of men to serve in the Persian army in the expedition against + Scythia. Miltiades and the vassal Greeks of Asia Minor were left by the + Persian king in charge of the bridge across the Danube, when the invading + army crossed that river, and plunged into the wilds of the country that + now is Russia, in vain pursuit of the ancestors of the modern Cossacks. On + learning the reverses that Darius met with in the Scythian wilderness, + Miltiades proposed to his companions that they should break the bridge + down, and leave the Persian king and his army to perish by famine and the + Scythian arrows. The rulers of the Asiatic Greek cities whom Miltiades + addressed, shrank from this bold and ruthless stroke against the Persian + power, and Darius returned in safety. But it was known what advice + Miltiades had given; and the vengeance of Darius was thenceforth specially + directed against the man who had counselled such a deadly blow against his + empire and his person. The occupation of the Persian arms in other + quarters left Miltiades for some years after this in possession of the + Chersonese; but it was precarious and interrupted. He, however, availed + himself of the opportunity which his position gave him of conciliating the + goodwill of his fellow-countrymen at Athens, by conquering and placing + under Athenian authority the islands of Lemnos and Imbros, to which Athens + had ancient claims, but which she had never previously been able to bring + into complete subjection. At length, in 494 B.C., the complete suppression + of the Ionian revolt by the Persians left their armies and fleets at + liberty to act against the enemies of the Great King to the west of the + Hellespont. A strong squadron of Phoenician galleys was sent against the + Chersonese. Miltiades knew that resistance was hopeless; and while the + Phoenicians were at Tenedos, he loaded five galleys with all the treasure + that he could collect, and sailed away for Athens. The Phoenicians fell in + with him, and chased him hard along the north of the AEgean. One of his + galleys, on board of which was his eldest son, Metiochus, was actually + captured; but Miltiades, with the other four, succeeded in reaching the + friendly coast of Imbros in safety. Thence he afterwards proceeded to + Athens, and resumed his station as a free citizen of the Athenian + commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians at this time had recently expelled Hippias, the son of + Pisistratus, the last of their tyrants. They were in the full glow of + their newly-recovered liberty and equality; and the constitutional changes + of Cleisthenes had inflamed their republican zeal to the utmost. Miltiades + had enemies at Athens; and these, availing themselves of the state of + popular feeling, brought him to trial for his life for having been tyrant + of the Chersonese. The charge did not necessarily import any acts of + cruelty or wrong to individuals: it was founded on so specific law; but it + was based on the horror with which the Greeks of that age regarded every + man who made himself compulsory master of his fellow-men, and exercised + irresponsible dominion over them. The fact of Miltiades having so ruled in + the Chersonese was undeniable; but the question which the Athenians, + assembled in judgment, must have tried, was, whether Miltiades, by + becoming tyrant of the Chersonese, deserved punishment as an Athenian + citizen. The eminent service that he had done the state in conquering + Lemnos and Imbros for it, pleaded strongly in his favour. The people + refused to convict him. He stood high in public opinion; and when the + coming invasion of the Persians was known, the people wisely elected him + one of their generals for the year. + </p> + <p> + Two other men of signal eminence in history, though their renown was + achieved at a later period than that of Miltiades, were also among the ten + Athenian generals at Marathon. One was Themistocles, the future founder of + the Athenian navy and the destined victor of Salamis: the other was + Aristides, who afterwards led the Athenian troops at Plataea, and whose + integrity and just popularity acquired for his country, when the Persians + had finally been repulsed, the advantageous pre-eminence of being + acknowledged by half of the Greeks as their impartial leader and + protector. It is not recorded what part either Themistocles or Aristides + took in the debate of the council of war at Marathon. But from the + character of Themistocles, his boldness, and his intuitive genius for + extemporizing the best measures in every emergency (a quality which the + greatest of historians ascribes to him beyond all his contemporaries), we + may well believe that the vote of Themistocles was for prompt and decisive + action. [See the character of Themistocles in the 138th section of the + first book of Thucydides, especially the last sentence.] On the vote of + Aristides it may be more difficult to speculate. His predilection for the + Spartans may have made him wish to wait till they came up; but, though + circumspect, he was neither timid as a soldier nor as a politician; and + the bold advice of Miltiades may probably have found in Aristides a + willing, most assuredly it found in him a candid, hearer. + </p> + <p> + Miltiades felt no hesitation as to the course which the Athenian army + ought to pursue: and earnestly did he press his opinion on his + brother-generals. Practically acquainted with the organization of the + Persian armies, Miltiades was convinced of the superiority of the Greek + troops, if properly handled: he saw with the military eye of a great + general the advantage which the position of the forces gave him for a + sudden attack, and as a profound politician he felt the perils of + remaining inactive, and of giving treachery time to ruin the Athenian + cause. + </p> + <p> + One officer in the council of war had not yet voted. This was Callimachus, + the War-Ruler. The votes of the generals were five and five, so that the + voice of Callimachus would be decisive. + </p> + <p> + On that vote, in all human probability, the destiny of all the nations of + the world depended. Miltiades turned to him, and in simple soldierly + eloquence, the substance of which we may read faithfully reported in + Herodotus, who had conversed with the veterans of Marathon, the great + Athenian thus adjured his countryman to vote for giving battle:— + </p> + <p> + "It now rests with you, Callimachus, either to enslave Athens, or, by + assuring her freedom, to win yourself an immortality of fame, such as not + even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have acquired. For never, since the + Athenians were a people, were they in such danger as they are in at this + moment. If they bow the knee to these Medes, they are to be given up to + Hippias, and you know what they then will have to suffer. But if Athens + comes victorious out of this contest, she has it in her to become the + first city of Greece. Your vote is to decide whether we are to join battle + or not. If we do not bring on a battle presently, some factious intrigue + will disunite the Athenians, and the city will be betrayed to the Medes. + But if we fight, before there is anything rotten in the state of Athens, I + believe that, provided the Gods will give fair play and no favour, we are + able to get the best of it in the engagement." [Herodotus, lib. vi. sec. + 209. The 116th section is to my mind clear proof that Herodotus had + personally conversed with Epizelus, one of the veterans of Marathon. The + substance of the speech of Miltiades would naturally become known by the + report of some of his colleagues.] + </p> + <p> + The vote of the brave War-Ruler was gained; the council determined to give + battle; and such was the ascendancy and military eminence of Miltiades, + that his brother-generals, one and all, gave up their days of command to + him, and cheerfully acted under his orders. Fearful, however, of creating + any jealousy, and of so failing to obtain the co-operation of all parts of + his small army, Miltiades waited till the day when the chief command would + have come round to him in regular rotation, before he led the troops + against the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The inaction of the Asiatic commanders, during this interval, appears + strange at first sight; but Hippias was with them, and they and he were + aware of their chance of a bloodless conquest through the machinations of + his partisans among the Athenians. The nature of the ground also explains, + in many points, the tactics of the opposite generals before the battle, as + well as the operations of the troops during the engagement. + </p> + <p> + The plain of Marathon, which is about twenty-two miles distant from + Athens, lies along the bay of the same name on the north-eastern coast of + Attica. The plain is nearly in the form of a crescent, and about six miles + in length. It is about two miles broad in the centre, where the space + between the mountains and the sea is greatest, but it narrows towards + either extremity, the mountains coming close down to the water at the + horns of the bay. There is a valley trending inwards from the middle of + the plain, and a ravine comes down to it to the southward. Elsewhere it, + is closely girt round on the land side by rugged limestone mountains, + which are thickly studded with pines, olive-trees, and cedars, and + overgrown with the myrtle, arbutus, and the other low odoriferous shrubs + that everywhere perfume the Attic air. The level of the ground is now + varied by the mound raised over those who fell in the battle, but it was + an unbroken plain when the Persians encamped on it. There are marshes at + each end, which are dry in spring and summer, and then offer no + obstruction to the horseman, but are commonly flooded with rain, and so + rendered impracticable for cavalry, in the autumn, the time of year at + which the action took place. + </p> + <p> + The Greeks, lying encamped on the mountains, could watch every movement of + the Persians on the plain below, while they were enabled completely to + mask their own. Miltiades also had, from his position, the power of giving + battle whenever he pleased, or of delaying it at his discretion, unless + Datis were to attempt the perilous operation of storming the heights. + </p> + <p> + If we turn to the map of the old world, to test the comparative + territorial resources of the two states whose armies were now about to + come into conflict, the immense preponderance of the material power of the + Persian king over that of the Athenian republic is more striking than any + similar contrast which history can supply. It has been truly remarked, + that, in estimating mere areas, Attica, containing on its whole surface + only seven hundred square miles, shrinks into insignificance if compared + with many a baronial fief of the Middle Ages, or many a colonial allotment + of modern times. Its antagonist, the Persian empire, comprised the whole + of modern Asiatic and much of modern European Turkey, the modern kingdom + of Persia, and the countries of modern Georgia, Armenia, Balkh, the + Punjaub, Affghanistan, Beloochistan, Egypt, and Tripoli. + </p> + <p> + Nor could a European, in the beginning of the fifth century before our + era, look upon this huge accumulation of power beneath the sceptre of a + single Asiatic ruler, with the indifference with which we now observe on + the map the extensive dominions of modern Oriental sovereigns. For, as has + been already remarked, before Marathon was fought, the prestige of success + and of supposed superiority of race was on the side of the Asiatic against + the European. Asia was the original seat of human societies and long + before any trace can be found of the inhabitants of the rest of the world + having emerged from the rudest barbarism, we can perceive that mighty and + brilliant empires flourished in the Asiatic continent. They appear before + us through the twilight of primeval history, dim and indistinct, but + massive and majestic, like mountains in the early dawn. + </p> + <p> + Instead, however, of the infinite variety and restless change which have + characterised the institutions and fortunes of European states ever since + the commencement of the civilization of our continent, a monotonous + uniformity pervades the histories of nearly all Oriental empires, from the + most ancient down to the most recent times. They are characterised by the + rapidity of their early conquests; by the immense extent of the dominions + comprised in them; by the establishment of a satrap or pacha system of + governing the provinces; by an invariable and speedy degeneracy in the + princes of the royal house, the effeminate nurslings of the seraglio + succeeding to the warrior-sovereigns reared in the camp; and by the + internal anarchy and insurrections, which indicate and accelerate the + decline and fall of those unwieldy and ill-organized fabrics of power. It + is also a striking fact that the governments of all the great Asiatic + empires have in all ages been absolute despotisms. And Heeren is right in + connecting this with another great fact, which is important from its + influence both on the political and the social life of Asiatics. "Among + all the considerable nations of Inner Asia, the paternal government of + every household was corrupted by polygamy; where that custom exists, a + good political constitution is impossible. Fathers being converted into + domestic despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their + sovereign which they exact from their family and dependants in their + domestic economy." We should bear in mind also the inseparable connexion + between the state religion and all legislation, which has always prevailed + in the East, and the constant existence of a powerful sacerdotal body, + exercising some check, though precarious and irregular, over the throne + itself, grasping at all civil administration, claiming the supreme control + of education, stereotyping the lines in which literature and science must + move, and limiting the extent to which it shall be lawful for the human + mind to prosecute its inquiries. + </p> + <p> + With these general characteristics rightly felt and understood, it becomes + a comparatively easy task to investigate and appreciate the origin, + progress, and principles of Oriental empires in general, as well as of the + Persian monarchy in particular. And we are thus better enabled to + appreciate the repulse which Greece gave to the arms of the East, and to + judge of the probable consequences to human civilization, if the Persians + had succeeded in bringing Europe under their yoke, as they had already + subjugated the fairest portions of the rest of the then known world. + </p> + <p> + The Greeks, from their geographical position, formed the natural vanguard + of European liberty against Persian ambition; and they pre-eminently + displayed the salient points of distinctive national character, which have + rendered European civilization so far superior to Asiatic. The nations + that dwelt in ancient times around and near the northern shores of the + Mediterranean Sea, were the first in our continent to receive from the + East the rudiments of art and literature, and the germs of social and + political organization. Of these nations, the Greeks, through their + vicinity to Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Egypt, were among the very foremost + in acquiring the principles and habits of civilized life; and they also at + once imparted a new and wholly original stamp on all which they received. + Thus, in their religion they received from foreign settlers the names of + all their deities and many of their rites, but they discarded the + loathsome monstrosities of the Nile, the Orontes, and the Ganges;—they + nationalized their creed; and their own poets created their beautiful + mythology. No sacerdotal caste ever existed in Greece. So, in their + governments they lived long under hereditary kings, but never endured the + permanent establishment of absolute monarchy. Their early kings were + constitutional rulers, governing with defined prerogatives. And long + before the Persian invasion the kingly form of government had given way in + almost all the Greek states to republican institutions, presenting + infinite varieties of the balancing or the alternate predominance of the + oligarchical and democratical principles. In literature and science the + Greek intellect followed no beaten track, and acknowledged no limitary + rules. The Greeks thought their subjects boldly out; and the novelty of a + speculation invested it in their minds with interest, and not with + criminality. Versatile, restless, enterprising and self-confident, the + Greeks presented the most striking contrast to the habitual quietude and + submissiveness of the Orientals. And, of all the Greeks, the Athenians + exhibited these national characteristics in the strongest degree. This + spirit of activity and daring, joined to a generous sympathy for the fate + of their fellow-Greeks in Asia, had led them to join in the last Ionian + war; and now, mingling with their abhorrence of the usurping family of + their own citizens, which for a period had forcibly seized on and + exercised despotic power at Athens, it nerved them to defy the wrath of + King Darius, and to refuse to receive back at his bidding the tyrant whom + they had some years before driven from their land. + </p> + <p> + The enterprise and genius of an Englishman have lately confirmed by fresh + evidence, and invested with fresh interest, the might of the Persian + monarch, who sent his troops to combat at Marathon. Inscriptions in a + character termed the Arrow-headed, or Cuneiform, had long been known to + exist on the marble monuments at Persepolis, near the site of the ancient + Susa, and on the faces of rocks in other places formerly ruled over by the + early Persian kings. But for thousands of years they had been mere + unintelligible enigmas to the curious but baffled beholder: and they were + often referred to as instances of the folly of human pride, which could + indeed write its own praises in the solid rock, but only for the rock to + outlive the language as well as the memory of the vain-glorious + inscribers. The elder Niebuhr, Grotefend, and Lassen had made some guesses + at the meaning of the Cuneiform letters; but Major Rawlinson, of the East + India Company's service, after years of labour, has at last accomplished + the glorious achievement of fully revealing the alphabet and the grammar + of this long unknown tongue. He has, in particular, fully deciphered and + expounded the inscriptions on the sacred rock of Behistun, on the western + frontiers of Media. These records of the Achaemenidae have at length found + their interpreter; and Darius himself speaks to us from the consecrated + mountain, and tells us the names of the nations that obeyed him, the + revolts that he suppressed, his victories, his piety, and his glory. [See + the tenth volume of the "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society."] + </p> + <p> + Kings who thus seek the admiration of posterity are little likely to dim + the record of their successes by the mention of their occasional defeats; + and it throws no suspicion on the narrative of the Greek historians, that + we find these inscriptions silent respecting the overthrow of Datis and + Artaphernes, as well as respecting the reverses which Darius sustained in + person during his Scythian campaigns. But these indisputable monuments of + Persian fame confirm, and even increase, the opinion with which Herodotus + inspires us, of the vast power which Cyrus founded and Cambyses increased; + which Darius augmented by Indian and Arabian conquests, and seemed likely, + when he directed his arms against Europe, to make the predominant monarchy + of the world. + </p> + <p> + With the exception of the Chinese empire, in which, throughout all ages + down to the last few years, one-third of the human race has dwelt almost + unconnected with the other portions, all the great kingdoms which we know + to have existed in Ancient Asia, were, in Darius's time, blended with the + Persian. The northern Indians, the Assyrians, the Syrians, the + Babylonians, the Chaldees, the Phoenicians, the nations of Palestine, the + Armenians, the Bactrians, the Lydians, the Phrygians, the Parthians, and + the Medes,—all obeyed the sceptre of the Great King: the Medes + standing next to the native Persians in honour, and the empire being + frequently spoken of as that of the Medes, or as that of the Medes and + Persians. Egypt and Cyrene were Persian provinces; the Greek colonists in + Asia Minor and the islands of the AEgean were Darius's subjects; and their + gallant but unsuccessful attempts to throw off the Persian yoke had only + served to rivet it more strongly, and to increase the general belief: that + the Greeks could not stand before the Persians in a field of battle. + Darius's Scythian war, though unsuccessful in its immediate object, had + brought about the subjugation of Thrace and the submission of Macedonia. + From the Indus to the Peneus, all was his. + </p> + <p> + We may imagine the wrath with which the lord of so many nations must have + heard, nine years before the battle of Marathon, that a strange nation + towards the setting sun, called the Athenians, had dared to help his + rebels in Ionia against him, and that they had plundered and burnt the + capital of one of his provinces. Before the burning of Sardis, Darius + seems never to have heard of the existence of Athens; but his satraps in + Asia Minor had for some time seen Athenian refugees at their provincial + courts imploring assistance against their fellow-countrymen. When Hippias + was driven away from Athens, and the tyrannic dynasty of the Pisistratidae + finally overthrown in 510 B.C., the banished tyrant and his adherents, + after vainly seeking to be restored by Spartan intervention, had betaken + themselves to Sardis, the capital city of the satrapy of Artaphernes. + There Hippias (in the expressive words of Herodotus) [Herod. lib. v. c. + 96.] began every kind of agitation, slandering the Athenians before + Artaphernes, and doing all he could to induce the satrap to place Athens + in subjection to him, as the tributary vassal of King Darius. When the + Athenians heard of his practices, they sent envoys to Sardis to + remonstrate with the Persians against taking up the quarrel of the + Athenian refugees. But Artaphernes gave them in reply a menacing command + to receive Hippias back again if they looked for safety. The Athenians + were resolved not to purchase safety at such a price; and after rejecting + the satrap's terms, they considered that they and the Persians were + declared enemies. At this very crisis the Ionian Greeks implored the + assistance of their European brethren, to enable them to recover their + independence from Persia. Athens, and the city of Eretria in Euboea, alone + consented. Twenty Athenian galleys, and five Eretrian, crossed the AEgean + Sea; and by a bold and sudden march upon Sardis the Athenians and their + allies succeeded in capturing the capital city of the haughty satrap, who + had recently menaced them with servitude or destruction. The Persian + forces were soon rallied, and the Greeks were compelled to retire. They + were pursued, and defeated on their return to the coast, and Athens took + no further part in the Ionian war. But the insult that she had put upon + the Persian power was speedily made known throughout that empire, and was + never to be forgiven or forgotten. In the emphatic simplicity of the + narrative of Herodotus, the wrath of the Great King is thus described:—"Now + when it was told to King Darius that Sardis had been taken and burnt by + the Athenians and Ionians, he took small heed of the Ionians, well knowing + who they were, and that their revolt would soon be put down: but he asked + who, and what manner of men, the Athenians were. And when he had been + told, he called for his bow; and, having taken it, and placed an arrow on + the string, he let the arrow fly towards heaven; and as he shot it into + the air, he said, 'O Supreme God! grant me that I may avenge myself on the + Athenians.' And when he had said this, he appointed one of his servants to + say to him every day as he sat at meat, 'Sire, remember the Athenians.'" + </p> + <p> + Some years were occupied in the complete reduction of Ionia. But when this + was effected, Darius ordered his victorious forces to proceed to punish + Athens and Eretria, and to conquer European Greece. The first armament + sent for this purpose was shattered by shipwreck, and nearly destroyed off + Mount Athos, But the purpose of King Darius was not easily shaken. A + larger army was ordered to be collected in Cilicia; and requisitions were + sent to all the maritime cities of the Persian empire for ships of war, + and for transports of sufficient size for carrying cavalry as well as + infantry across the AEgean. While these preparations were being made, + Darius sent heralds round to the Grecian cities demanding their submission + to Persia. It was proclaimed in the market-place of each little Hellenic + state (some with territories not larger than the Isle of Wight), that King + Darius, the lord of all men, from the rising to the setting sun, required + earth and water to be delivered to his heralds, as a symbolical + acknowledgment that he was head and master of the country. [Aeschines in + Ctes. p. 622, ed. Reiske. Mitford, vol. i. p. 485. AEschines is speaking + of Xerxes, but Mitford is probably right in considering it as the style of + the Persian kings in their proclamations. In one of the inscriptions at + Persepolis, Darius terms himself "Darius the great king, king of kings, + the king of the many peopled countries, the supporter also of this great + world." In another, he styles himself "the king of all inhabited + countries." (See "Asiatic Journal" vol. X pp. 287 and 292, and Major + Rawlinson's Comments.)] Terror-stricken at the power of Persia and at the + severe punishment that had recently been inflicted on the refractory + Ionians, many of the continental Greeks and nearly all the islanders + submitted, and gave the required tokens of vassalage. At Sparta and Athens + an indignant refusal was returned: a refusal which was disgraced by + outrage and violence against the persons of the Asiatic heralds. + </p> + <p> + Fresh fuel was thus added to the anger of Darius against Athens, and the + Persian preparations went on with renewed vigour. In the summer of 490 + B.C., the army destined for the invasion was assembled in the Aleian plain + of Cilicia, near the sea. A fleet of six hundred galleys and numerous + transports was collected on the coast for the embarkation of troops, horse + as well as foot. A Median general named Datis, and Artaphernes, the son of + the satrap of Sardis, and who was also nephew of Darius, were placed in + titular joint command of the expedition. That the real supreme authority + was given to Datis alone is probable, from the way in which the Greek + writers speak of him. We know no details of the previous career of this + officer; but there is every reason to believe that his abilities and + bravery had been proved by experience, or his Median birth would have + prevented his being placed in high command by Darius. He appears to have + been the first Mede who was thus trusted by the Persian kings after the + overthrow of the conspiracy of the Median Magi against the Persians + immediately before Darius obtained the throne. Datis received instructions + to complete the subjugation of Greece, and especial orders were given him + with regard to Eretria and Athens. He was to take these two cities; and he + was to lead the inhabitants away captive, and bring them as slaves into + the presence of the Great King. + </p> + <p> + Datis embarked his forces in the fleet that awaited them; and coasting + along the shores of Asia Minor till he was off Samos, he thence sailed due + westward through the AEgean Sea for Greece, taking the islands in his way. + The Naxians had, ten years before, successfully stood a siege against a + Persian armament, but they now were too terrified to offer any resistance, + and fled to the mountain-tops, while the enemy burnt their town and laid + waste their lands. Thence Datis, compelling the Greek islanders to join + him with their ships and men, sailed onward to the coast of Euboea. The + little town of Carystus essayed resistance, but was quickly overpowered. + He next attacked Eretria. The Athenians sent four thousand men to its aid. + But treachery was at work among the Eretrians; and the Athenian force + received timely warning from one of the leading men of the city to retire + to aid in saving their own country, instead of remaining to share in the + inevitable destruction of Eretria. Left to themselves, the Eretrians + repulsed the assaults of the Persians against their walls for six days; on + the seventh day they were betrayed by two of their chiefs and the Persians + occupied the city. The temples were burnt in revenge for the burning of + Sardis, and the inhabitants were bound and placed as prisoners in the + neighbouring islet of AEgylia, to wait there till Datis should bring the + Athenians to join them in captivity, when both populations were to be led + into Upper Asia, there to learn their doom from the lips of King Darius + himself. + </p> + <p> + Flushed with success, and with half his mission thus accomplished, Datis + reimbarked his troops, and crossing the little channel that separates + Euboea from the mainland, he encamped his troops on the Attic coast at + Marathon, drawing up his galleys on the shelving beach, as was the custom + with the navies of antiquity. The conquered islands behind him served as + places of deposit for his provisions and military stores. His position at + Marathon seemed to him in every respect advantageous; and the level nature + of the ground on which he camped was favourable for the employment of his + cavalry, if the Athenians should venture to engage him. Hippias, who + accompanied him, and acted as the guide of the invaders, had pointed out + Marathon as the best place for a landing, for this very reason. Probably + Hippias was also influenced by the recollection, that forty-seven years + previously he, with his father Pisistratus, had crossed with an army from + Eretria to Marathon, and had won an easy victory over their Athenian + enemies on that very plain, which had restored them to tyrannic power. The + omen seemed cheering. The place was the same; but Hippias soon learned to + his cost how great a change had come over the spirit of the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + But though "the fierce democracy" of Athens was zealous and true against + foreign invader and domestic tyrant, a faction existed in Athens, as at + Eretria, of men willing to purchase a party triumph over their + fellow-citizens at the price of their country's ruin. Communications were + opened between these men and the Persian camp, which would have led to a + catastrophe like that of Eretria, if Miltiades had not resolved, and had + not persuaded his colleagues to resolve, on fighting at all hazards. + </p> + <p> + When Miltiades arrayed his men for action, he staked on the arbitrement of + one battle not only the fate of Athens, but that of all Greece; for if + Athens had fallen, no other Greek state, except Lacedaemon, would have had + the courage to resist; and the Lacedaemonians, though they would probably + have died in their ranks to the last man, never could have successfully + resisted the victorious Persians, and the numerous Greek troops, which + would have soon marched under the Persian satraps, had they prevailed over + Athens. + </p> + <p> + Nor was there any power to the westward of Greece that could have offered + an effectual opposition to Persia, had she once conquered Greece, and made + that country a basis for future military operations. Rome was at this time + in her season of utmost weakness. Her dynasty of powerful Etruscan kings + had been driven out, and her infant commonwealth was reeling under the + attacks of the Etruscans and Volscians from without, and the fierce + dissensions between the patricians and plebeians within. Etruria, with her + Lucumos and serfs, was no match for Persia. Samnium had not grown into the + might which she afterwards put forth: nor could the Greek colonies in + South Italy and Sicily hope to survive when their parent states had + perished. Carthage had escaped the Persian yoke in the time of Cambyses, + through the reluctance of the Phoenician mariners to serve against their + kinsmen. But such forbearance could not long have been relied on, and the + future rival of Rome would have become as submissive a minister of the + Persian power as were the Phoenician cities themselves. If we turn to + Spain, or if we pass the great mountain chain which, prolonged through the + Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps, and the Balkan, divides Northern from + Southern Europe, we shall find nothing at that period but mere savage + Finns, Celts, Slaves, and Teutons. Had Persia beaten Athens at Marathon, + she could have found no obstacle to prevent Darius, the chosen servant of + Ormuzd, from advancing his sway over all the known Western races of + mankind. The infant energies of Europe would have been trodden out beneath + universal conquest; and the history of the world, like the history of + Asia, would have become a mere record of the rise and fall of despotic + dynasties, of the incursions of barbarous hordes, and of the mental and + political prostration of millions beneath the diadem, the tiara, and the + sword. + </p> + <p> + Great as the preponderance of the Persian over the Athenian power at that + crisis seems to have been, it would be unjust to impute wild rashness to + the policy of Miltiades, and those who voted with him in the Athenian + council of war, or to look on the after-current of events as the mere + result of successful indiscretion, as before has been remarked, Miltiades, + whilst prince of the Chersonese, had seen service in the Persian armies; + and he knew by personal observation how many elements of weakness lurked + beneath their imposing aspect of strength. He knew that the bulk of their + troops no longer consisted of the hardy shepherds and mountaineers from + Persia Proper and Kurdistan, who won Cyrus's battles: but that unwilling + contingents from conquered nations now largely filled up the Persian + muster rolls, fighting more from compulsion than from any zeal in the + cause of their masters. He had also the sagacity and the spirit to + appreciate the superiority of the Greek armour and organization over the + Asiatic, notwithstanding former reverses. Above all, he felt and worthily + trusted the enthusiasm of the men under his command. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians, whom he led, had proved by their new-born valour in recent + wars against the neighbouring states, that "Liberty and Equality of civic + rights are brave spirit-stirring things: and they who, while under the + yoke of a despot, had been no better men of war than any of their + neighbours, as soon as they were free, became the foremost men of all; for + each felt that in fighting for a free commonwealth, he fought for himself, + and, whatever he took in hand, he was zealous to do the work thoroughly." + So the nearly contemporaneous historian describes the change of spirit + that was seen in the Athenians after their tyrants were expelled; [Herod. + lib. v. c. 87.] and Miltiades knew that in leading them against the + invading army, where they had Hippias, the foe they most hated, before + them, he was bringing into battle no ordinary men, and could calculate on + no ordinary heroism. As for traitors, he was sure, that whatever treachery + might lurk among some of the higher-born and wealthier Athenians, the rank + and file whom he commanded were ready to do their utmost in his and their + own cause. With regard to future attacks from Asia, he might reasonably + hope that one victory would inspirit all Greece to combine against common + foe; and that the latent seeds of revolt and disunion in the Persian + empire would soon burst forth and paralyse its energies, so as to leave + Greek independence secure. + </p> + <p> + With these hopes and risks, Miltiades, on the afternoon of a September + day, 490 B.C., gave the word for the Athenian army to prepare for battle. + There were many local associations connected with those mountain heights, + which were calculated powerfully to excite the spirits of the men, and of + which the commanders well knew how to avail themselves in their + exhortations to their troops before the encounter. Marathon itself was a + region sacred to; Hercules. Close to them was the fountain of Macaria, who + had in days of yore devoted herself to death for the liberty of her + people. The very plain on which they were to fight was the scene of the + exploits of their national hero, Theseus; and there, too, as old legends + told, the Athenians and the Heraclidae had routed the invader, Eurystheus. + These traditions were not mere cloudy myths, or idle fictions, but matters + of implicit earnest faith to the men of that day: and many a fervent + prayer arose from the Athenian ranks to the heroic spirits who while on + earth had striven and suffered on that very spot, and who were believed to + be now heavenly powers, looking down with interest on their still beloved + country, and capable of interposing with superhuman aid in its behalf. + </p> + <p> + According to old national custom, the warriors of each tribe were arrayed + together; neighbour thus fighting by the side of neighbour, friend by + friend, and the spirit of emulation and the consciousness of + responsibility excited to the very utmost. The War-Ruler, Callimachus, had + the leading of the right wing; the Plataeans formed the extreme left; and + Themistocles and Aristides commanded the centre. The line consisted of the + heavy-armed spearmen only. For the Greeks (until the time of Iphicrates) + took little or no account of light-armed soldiers in a pitched battle, + using them only in skirmishes or for the pursuit of a defeated enemy. The + panoply of the regular infantry consisted of a long spear, of a shield, + helmet, breast-plate, greaves, and short sword. Thus equipped, they + usually advanced slowly and steadily into action in an uniform phalanx of + about eight spears deep. But the military genius of Miltiades led him to + deviate on this occasion from the commonplace tactics of his countrymen. + It was essential for him to extend his line so as to cover all the + practicable ground, and to secure himself from being outflanked and + charged in the rear by the Persian horse. This extension involved the + weakening of his line. Instead of an uniform reduction of its strength, he + determined on detaching principally from his centre, which, from the + nature of the ground, would have the best opportunities for rallying if + broken; and on strengthening his wings, so as to insure advantage at those + points; and he trusted to his own skill, and to his soldiers' discipline, + for the improvement of that advantage into decisive victory. + </p> + <p> + [It is remarkable that there is no other instance of a Greek general + deviating from the ordinary mode of bringing a phalanx of spearmen into + action, until the battles of Leuctra and Mantineia, more than a century + after Marathon, when Epaminondas introduced the tactics (which Alexander + the Great in ancient times, and Frederic the Great in modern times, made + so famous) of concentrating an overpowering force on some decisive point + of the enemy's line, while he kept back, or, in military phrase, refused + the weaker part of his own.] + </p> + <p> + In this order, and availing himself probably of the inequalities of the + ground, so as to conceal his preparations from the enemy till the last + possible moment, Miltiades drew up the eleven thousand infantry whose + spears were to decide this crisis in the struggle between the European and + the Asiatic worlds. The sacrifices, by which the favour of Heaven was + sought, and its will consulted, were announced to show propitious omens. + The trumpet sounded for action, and, chanting the hymn of battle, the + little army bore down upon the host of the foe. Then, too, along the + mountain slopes of Marathon must have resounded the mutual exhortation + which AEschylus, who fought in both battles, tells us was afterwards heard + over the waves of Salamis,—"On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the + freedom of your country! strike for the freedom of your children and of + your wives—for the shrines of your fathers' gods, and for the + sepulchres of your sires. All—all are now staked upon the strife!" + </p> + <p> + Instead of advancing at the usual slow pace of the phalanx, Miltiades + brought his men on at a run. They were all trained in the exercises of the + palaestra, so that there was no fear of their ending the charge in + breathless exhaustion: and it was of the deepest importance for him to + traverse as rapidly as possible the space of about a mile of level ground, + that lay between the mountain foot and the Persian outposts, and so to get + his troops into close action before the Asiatic cavalry could mount, form, + and manoeuvre against him, or their archers keep him long under bow-shot, + and before the enemy's generals could fairly deploy their masses. + </p> + <p> + "When the Persians," says Herodotus, "saw the Athenians running down on + them, without horse or bowmen, and scanty in numbers, they thought them a + set of madmen rushing upon certain destruction." They began, however, to + prepare to receive them and the Eastern chiefs arrayed, as quickly as time + and place allowed, the varied races who served in their motley ranks. + Mountaineers from Hyrcania and Affghanistan, wild horsemen from the + steppes of Khorassan, the black archers of Ethiopia, swordsmen from the + banks of the Indus, the Oxus, the Euphrates, and the Nile, made ready + against the enemies of the Great King. But no national cause inspired + them, except the division of native Persians; and in the large host there + was no uniformity of language, creed, race, or military system. Still, + among them there were many gallant men, under a veteran general; they were + familiarized with victory; and in contemptuous confidence their infantry, + which alone had time to form, awaited the Athenian charge. On came the + Greeks, with one unwavering line of levelled spears, against which the + light targets, the short lances and scymetars of the Orientals offered + weak defence. The front rank of the Asiatics must have gone down to a man + at the first shock. Still they recoiled not, but strove by individual + gallantry, and by the weight of numbers, to make up for the disadvantages + of weapons and tactics, and to bear back the shallow line of the + Europeans. In the centre, where the native Persians and the Sacae fought, + they succeeded in breaking through the weaker part of the Athenian + phalanx; and the tribes led by Aristides and Themistocles were, after a + brave resistance, driven back over the plain, and chased by the Persians + up the valley towards the inner country. There the nature of the ground + gave the opportunity of rallying and renewing the struggle: and meanwhile, + the Greek wings, where Miltiades had concentrated his chief strength, had + routed the Asiatics opposed to them; and the Athenian and Plataean + officers, instead of pursuing the fugitives, kept their troops well in + hand, and wheeling round they formed the two wings together. Miltiades + instantly led them against the Persian centre, which had hitherto been + triumphant, but which now fell back, and prepared to encounter these new + and unexpected assailants. Aristides and Themistocles renewed the fight + with their re-organized troops, and the full force of the Greeks was + brought into close action with the Persian and Sacian divisions of the + enemy. Datis's veterans strove hard to keep their ground, and evening + [ARISTOPH. Vesvoe 1085.] was approaching before the stern encounter was + decided. + </p> + <p> + But the Persians, with their slight wicker shields, destitute of + body-armour, and never taught by training to keep the even front and act + with the regular movement of the Greek infantry, fought at grievous + disadvantage with their shorter and feebler weapons against the compact + array of well-armed Athenian and Plataean spearmen, all perfectly drilled + to perform each necessary evolution in concert, and to preserve an uniform + and unwavering line in battle. In personal courage and in bodily activity + the Persians were not inferior to their adversaries. Their spirits were + not yet cowed by the recollection of former defeats; and they lavished + their lives freely, rather than forfeit the fame which they had won by so + many victories. While their rear ranks poured an incessant shower of + arrows over the heads of their comrades, the foremost Persians kept + rushing forward, sometimes singly, sometimes in desperate groups of twelve + or ten upon the projecting spears of the Greeks, striving to force a lane + into the phalanx, and to bring their scimetars and daggers into play. But + the Greeks felt their superiority, and though the fatigue of the + long-continued action told heavily on their inferior numbers, the sight of + the carnage that they dealt amongst their assailants nerved them to fight + still more fiercely on. + </p> + <p> + [See the description, in the 62nd section of the ninth book of Herodotus, + of the gallantry shown by the Persian infantry against the Lacedaemonians + at Plataea. We have no similar detail of the fight at Marathon, but we + know that it was long and obstinately contested (see the 113th section of + the sixth book of Herodotus, and the lines from the "Vespae" already + quoted), and the spirit of the Persians must have been even higher at + Marathon than at Plataea. In both battles it was only the true Persians + and the Sacae who showed this valour; the other Asiatics fled like sheep.] + </p> + <p> + At last the previously unvanquished lords of Asia turned their backs and + fled, and the Greeks followed, striking them down, to the water's edge, + where the invaders were now hastily launching their galleys, and seeking + to embark and fly. Flushed with success, the Athenians dashed at the + fleet. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [The flying Mede, his shaftless broken bow; + The fiery Greek, his red pursuing spear; + Mountains above, Earth's, Ocean's plain below, + Death in the front, Destruction in the rear! + Such was the scene.—Byron's CHILDE HARROLD.] +</pre> + <p> + "Bring fire, bring fire," was their cry; and they began to lay hold of the + ships. But here the Asiatics resisted desperately, and the principal loss + sustained by the Greeks was in the assault on the fleet. Here fell the + brave War-Ruler Callimachus, the general Stesilaus, and other Athenians of + note. Conspicuous among them was Cynaegeirus, the brother of the tragic + poet AEschylus. He had grasped the ornamental work on the stern of one of + the galleys, and had his hand struck off by an axe. Seven galleys were + captured; but the Persians succeeded in saving the rest. They pushed off + from the fatal shore: but even here the skill of Datis did not desert him, + and he sailed round to the western coast of Attica, in hopes to find the + city unprotected, and to gain possession of it from some of the partisans + of Hippias. Miltiades, however, saw and counteracted his manoeuvre. + Leaving Aristides, and the troops of his tribe, to guard the spoil and the + slain, the Athenian commander led his conquering army by a rapid + night-march back across the country to Athens. And when the Persian fleet + had doubled the Cape of Sunium and sailed up to the Athenian harbour in + the morning, Datis saw arrayed on the heights above the city the troops + before whom his men had fled on the preceding evening. All hope of further + conquest in Europe for the time was abandoned, and the baffled armada + returned to the Asiatic coasts. + </p> + <p> + After the battle had been fought, but while the dead bodies were yet on + the ground, the promised reinforcement from Sparta arrived. Two thousand + Lacedaemonian spearmen, starting immediately after the full moon, had + marched the hundred and fifty miles between Athens and Sparta in the + wonderfully short time of three days. Though too late to share in the + glory of the action, they requested to be allowed to march to the + battle-field to behold the Medes. They proceeded thither, gazed on the + dead bodies of the invaders, and then, praising the Athenians and what + they had done, they returned to Lacedaemon. + </p> + <p> + The number of the Persian dead was six thousand four hundred; of the + Athenians, a hundred and ninety-two. The number of Plataeans who fell is + not mentioned, but as they fought in the part of the army which was not + broken, it cannot have been large. + </p> + <p> + The apparent disproportion between the losses of the two armies is not + surprising, when we remember the armour of the Greek spearmen, and the + impossibility of heavy slaughter being inflicted by sword or lance on + troops so armed, as long as they kept firm in their ranks. [Mitford well + refers to Crecy, Poictiers, and Agincourt, as instances of similar + disparity of loss between the conquerors and the conquered.] + </p> + <p> + The Athenian slain were buried on the field of battle. This was contrary + to the usual custom, according to which the bones of all who fell fighting + for their country in each year were deposited in a public sepulchre in the + suburb of Athens called the Cerameicus. But it was felt that a distinction + ought to be made in the funeral honours paid to the men of Marathon, even + as their merit had been distinguished over that of all other Athenians. A + lofty mound was raised on the plain of Marathon, beneath which the remains + of the men of Athens who fell in the battle were deposited. Ten columns + were erected on the spot, one for each of the Athenian tribes; and on the + monumental column of each tribe were graven the names of those of its + members whose glory it was to have fallen in the great battle of + liberation. The antiquary Pausanias read those names there six hundred + years after the time when they were first graven. The columns have long + perished, but the mound still marks the spot where the noblest heroes of + antiquity, the MARATHONOMAKHOI repose. [Pausanias states, with implicit + belief, that the battlefield was haunted at night by supernatural beings, + and that the noise of combatants and the snorting of horses were heard to + resound on it. The superstition has survived the change of creeds, and the + shepherds of the neighbourhood still believe that spectral warriors + contend on the plain at midnight, and they say that they have heard the + shouts of the combatants and the neighing of the steeds. See Grote and + Thirlwall.] + </p> + <p> + A separate tumulus was raised over the bodies of the slain Plataeans, and + another over the light-armed slaves who had taken part and had fallen in + the battle. [It is probable that the Greek light-armed irregulars were + active in the attack on the Persian ships and it was in this attack that + the Greeks suffered their principal loss.] There was also a distinct + sepulchral monument to the general to whose genius the victory was mainly + due. Miltiades did not live long after his achievement at Marathon, but he + lived long enough to experience a lamentable reverse of his popularity and + good fortune. As soon as the Persians had quitted the western coasts of + the AEgean, he proposed to an assembly of the Athenian people that they + should fit out seventy galleys, with a proportionate force of soldiers and + military stores, and place them at his disposal; not telling them whither + he meant to proceed, but promising them that if they would equip the force + he asked for, and give him discretionary powers, he would lead it to a + land where there was gold in abundance to be won with ease. The Greeks of + that time believed in the existence of Eastern realms teeming with gold, + as firmly as the Europeans of the sixteenth century believed in Eldorado + of the West. The Athenians probably thought that the recent victor of + Marathon, and former officer of Darius, was about to guide them on a + secret expedition against some wealthy and unprotected cities of treasure + in the Persian dominions. The armament was voted and equipped, and sailed + eastward from Attica, no one but Miltiades knowing its destination, until + the Greek isle of Paros was reached, when his true object appeared. In + former years, while connected with the Persians as prince of the + Chersonese, Miltiades had been involved in a quarrel with one of the + leading men among the Parians, who had injured his credit and caused some + slights to be put upon him at the court of the Persian satrap, Hydarnes. + The feud had ever since rankled in the heart of the Athenian chief, and he + now attacked Paros for the sake of avenging himself on his ancient enemy. + His pretext, as general of the Athenians, was, that the Parians had aided + the armament of Datis with a war-galley. The Parians pretended to treat + about terms of surrender, but used the time which they thus gained in + repairing the defective parts of the fortifications of their city; and + they then set the Athenians at defiance. So far, says Herodotus, the + accounts of all the Greeks agree. But the Parians, in after years, told + also a wild legend, how a captive priestess of a Parian temple of the + Deities of the Earth promised Miltiades to give him the means of capturing + Paros: how, at her bidding, the Athenian general went alone at night and + forced his way into a holy shrine, near the city gate, but with what + purpose it was not known: how a supernatural awe came over him, and in his + flight he fell and fractured his leg: how an oracle afterwards forbad the + Parians to punish the sacrilegious and traitorous priestess, "because it + was fated that Miltiades should come to an ill end, and she was only the + instrument to lead him to evil." Such was the tale that Herodotus heard at + Paros. Certain it was that Miltiades either dislocated or broke his leg + during an unsuccessful siege of that city, and returned home in evil + plight with his baffled and defeated forces. + </p> + <p> + The indignation of the Athenians was proportionate to the hope and + excitement which his promises had raised. Xanthippus, the head of one of + the first families in Athens, indicted him before the supreme popular + tribunal for the capital offence of having deceived the people. His guilt + was undeniable, and the Athenians passed their verdict accordingly. But + the recollections of Lemnos and Marathon, and the sight of the fallen + general who lay stretched on a couch before them, pleaded successfully in + mitigation of punishment, and the sentence was commuted from death to a + fine of fifty talents. This was paid by his son, the afterwards + illustrious Cimon, Miltiades dying, soon after the trial, of the injury + which he had received at Paros. + </p> + <p> + [The common-place calumnies against the Athenians respecting Miltiades + have been well answered by Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton in his "Rise and Fall + of Athens," and Bishop Thirlwall in the second volume of his "History of + Greece;" but they have received their most complete refutation from Mr. + Grote in the fourth volume of his History, p.490 et seq., and notes. I + quite concur with him that, "looking to the practice of the Athenian + dicastery in criminal cases, fifty talents was the minor penalty actually + proposed by the defenders of Miltiades themselves as a substitute for the + punishment of death. In those penal cases at Athens, where the punishment + was not fixed beforehand by the terms of the law, if the person accused + was found guilty, it was customary to submit to the jurors subsequently + and separately, the question as to the amount of punishment. First, the + accuser named the penalty which he thought suitable; next, the accused + person was called upon to name an amount of penalty for himself, and the + jurors were constrained to take their choice between these two; no third + gradation of penalty being admissible for consideration. Of course, under + such circumstances, it was the interest of the accused party to name, even + in his own case, some real and serious penalty, something which the jurors + might be likely to deem not wholly inadequate to his crime just proved; + for if he proposed some penalty only trifling, he drove them to far the + heavier sentence recommended by his opponent." The stories of Miltiades + having been cast into prison and died there, and of his having been saved + from death only by the interposition of the Prytanis of the day, are, I + think, rightly rejected by Mr. Grote as the fictions of after ages. The + silence of Herodotus respecting them is decisive. It is true that Plato, + in the Gorgias, says that the Athenians passed a vote to throw Miltiades + into the Barathrum, and speaks of the interposition of the Prytanis in his + favour; but it is to be remembered that Plato, with all his transcendent + genius, was (as Niebuhr has termed him) a very indifferent patriot, who + loved to blacken the character of his country's democratic institutions; + and if the fact was that the Prytanis, at the trial of Miltiades, opposed + the vote of capital punishment, and spoke in favour of the milder + sentence, Plato (in a passage written to show the misfortunes that befell + Athenian statesmen) would readily exaggerate this fact into the story that + appears in his text.] + </p> + <p> + The melancholy end of Miltiades, after his elevation to such a height of + power and glory, must often have been recalled to the mind of the ancient + Greeks by the sight of one, in particular, of the memorials of the great + battle which he won. This was the remarkable statue (minutely described by + Pausanias) which the Athenians, in the time of Pericles, caused to be hewn + out of a huge block of marble, which, it was believed, had been provided + by Datis to form a trophy of the anticipated victory of the Persians. + Phidias fashioned out of this a colossal image of the goddess Nemesis, the + deity whose peculiar function was to visit the exuberant prosperity both + of nations and individuals with sudden and awful reverses. This statue was + placed in a temple of the goddess at Rhamnus, about eight miles from + Marathon, Athens herself contained numerous memorials of her primary great + victory. Panenus, the cousin of Phidias, represented it in fresco on the + walls of the painted porch; and, centuries afterwards, the figures of + Miltiades and Callimachus at the head of the Athenians were conspicuous in + the fresco. The tutelary deities were exhibited taking part in the fray. + In the back-ground were seen the Phoenician galleys; and nearer to the + spectator, the Athenians and the Plataeans (distinguished by their + leathern helmets) were chasing routed Asiatics into the marshes and the + sea. The battle was sculptured also on the Temple of Victory in the + Acropolis; and even now there may be traced on the frieze the figures of + the Persian combatants with their lunar shields, their bows and quivers, + their curved scimetars, their loose trowsers, and Phrygian tiaras. + [Wordsworth's "Greece," p. 115.] + </p> + <p> + These and other memorials of Marathon were the produce of the meridian age + of Athenian intellectual splendour—of the age of Phidias and + Pericles. For it was not merely by the generation of men whom the battle + liberated from Hippias and the Medes, that the transcendent importance of + their victory was gratefully recognised. Through the whole epoch of her + prosperity, through the long Olympiads of her decay, through centuries + after her fall, Athens looked back on the day of Marathon as the brightest + of her national existence. + </p> + <p> + By a natural blending of patriotic pride with grateful piety, the very + spirits of the Athenians who fell at Marathon were deified by their + countrymen. The inhabitants of the districts of Marathon paid religious + rites to them; and orators solemnly invoked them in their most impassioned + adjurations before the assembled men of Athens. "Nothing was omitted that + could keep alive the remembrance of a deed which had first taught the + Athenian people to know its own strength, by measuring it with the power + which had subdued the greater part of the known world. The consciousness + thus awakened fixed its character, its station, and its destiny; it was + the spring of its later great actions and ambitious enterprises." + [Thirlwall.] + </p> + <p> + It was not indeed by one defeat, however signal, that the pride of Persia + could be broken, and her dreams of universal empire be dispelled. Ten + years afterwards she renewed her attempts upon Europe on a grander scale + of enterprise, and was repulsed by Greece with greater and reiterated + loss. Larger forces and heavier slaughter than had been seen at Marathon + signalised the conflicts of Greeks and Persians at Artemisium, Salamis, + Plataea, and the Eurymedon. But mighty and momentous as these battles + were, they rank not with Marathon in importance. They originated no new + impulse. They turned back no current of fate. They were merely + confirmatory of the already existing bias which Marathon had created. The + day of Marathon is the critical epoch in the history of the two nations. + It broke for ever the spell of Persian invincibility, which had paralysed + men's minds. It generated among the Greeks the spirit which beat back + Xerxes, and afterwards led on Xenophon, Agesilaus, and Alexander, in + terrible retaliation, through their Asiatic campaigns. It secured for + mankind the intellectual treasures of Athens, the growth of free + institutions the liberal enlightenment of the Western world, and the + gradual ascendency for many ages of the great principles of European + civilisation. + </p> + <p> + EXPLANATORY REMARKS ON SOME OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE BATTLE OF + MARATHON. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is said by Herodotus of the Persian cavalry taking any part in the + battle, although he mentions that Hippias recommended the Persians to land + at Marathon, because the plain was favourable for cavalry evolutions. In + the life of Miltiades, which is usually cited as the production of + Cornelius Nepos, but which I believe to be of no authority whatever, it is + said that Miltiades protected his flanks from the enemy's horse by an + abattis of felled trees. While he was on the high ground he would not have + required this defence; and it is not likely that the Persians would have + allowed him to erect it on the plain. + </p> + <p> + Bishop Thirlwall calls our attention to a passage in Suidas, where the + proverb KHORIS HIPPEIS is said to have originated from some Ionian Greeks, + who were serving compulsorily in the army of Datis, contriving to inform + Miltiades that the Persian cavalry had gone away, whereupon Miltiades + immediately joined battle and gained the victory. There may probably be a + gleam of truth in this legend. If Datis's cavalry was numerous, as the + abundant pastures of Euboea were close at hand, the Persian general, when + he thought, from the inaction of his enemy, that they did not mean to come + down from the heights and give battle, might naturally send the larger + part of his horse back across the channel to the neighbourhood of Eretria, + where he had already left a detachment, and where his military stores must + have been deposited. The knowledge of such a movement would of course + confirm Miltiades in his resolution to bring on a speedy engagement. + </p> + <p> + But, in truth, whatever amount of cavalry we suppose Datis to have had + with him on the day of Marathon, their inaction in the battle is + intelligible, if we believe the attack of the Athenian spearmen to have + been as sudden as it was rapid. The Persian horse-soldier, on an alarm + being given, had to take the shackles off his horse, to strap the saddle + on, and bridle him, besides equipping himself (see Xenoph. Anab. lib.iii + c.4); and when each individual horseman was ready, the line had to be + formed; and the time that it takes to form the Oriental cavalry in line + for a charge, has, in all ages, been observed by Europeans. + </p> + <p> + The wet state of the marshes at each end of the plain, in the time of year + when the battle was fought, has been adverted to by Mr Wordsworth; and + this would hinder the Persian general from arranging and employing his + horsemen on his extreme wings, while it also enabled the Greeks, as they + came forward, to occupy the whole breadth of the practicable ground with + an unbroken line of levelled spears, against which, if any Persian horse + advanced they would be driven back in confusion upon their own foot. + </p> + <p> + Even numerous and fully-arrayed bodies of cavalry have been repeatedly + broken, both in ancient and modern warfare, by resolute charges of + infantry. For instance, it was by an attack of some picked cohorts that + Caesar routed the Pompeian cavalry, which had previously defeated his own + at Pharsalia. + </p> + <p> + I have represented the battle of Marathon as beginning in the afternoon, + and ending towards evening. If it had lasted all day, Herodotus would have + probably mentioned that fact. That it ended towards evening is, I think, + proved by the line from the "Vespae" which I have already quoted, and to + which my attention was called by Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton's account of the + battle. I think that the succeeding lines in Aristophanes, also already + quoted, justify the description which I have given of the rear-ranks of + the Persians keeping up a flight of arrows over the heads of their + comrades against the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF MARATHON, B.C. 490, AND THE + DEFEAT OF THE ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE, B.C. 413. + </p> + <p> + B.C. 490 to 487. All Asia is filled with the preparations made by King + Darius for a new expedition against Greece. Themistocles persuades the + Athenians to leave off dividing the proceeds of their silver mines among + themselves, and to employ the money in strengthening their navy. + </p> + <p> + 487. Egypt revolts from the Persians, and delays the expedition against + Greece. + </p> + <p> + 485. Darius dies, and Xerxes his son becomes King of Persia in his stead. + </p> + <p> + 484 The Persians recover Egypt. + </p> + <p> + 480 Xerxes invades Greece. Indecisive actions between the Persian and + Greek fleets at Artemisium. Destruction of the three hundred Spartans at + Thermopyae. The Athenians abandon Attica and go on shipboard. Great naval + victory of the Greeks at Salamis. Xerxes returns to Asia, leaving a chosen + army under Mardonius, to carry on the war against the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + 478. Mardonius and his army destroyed by the Greeks at Plataea The Greeks + land in Asia Minor, and defeat a Persian force at Mycale. In this and the + following years the Persians lose all their conquests in Europe, and many + on the coast of Asia. + </p> + <p> + 477. Many of the Greek maritime states take Athens as their leader, + instead of Sparta. + </p> + <p> + 466. Victories of Cimon over the Persians at the Eurymedon. + </p> + <p> + 464. Revolt of the Helots against Sparta. Third Messenian war. + </p> + <p> + 460. Egypt again revolts against Persia. The Athenians send a powerful + armament to aid the Egyptians, which, after gaining some successes, is + destroyed, and Egypt submits. This war lasted six years. + </p> + <p> + 457. Wars in Greece between the Athenian and several Peloponnesian states. + Immense exertions of Athens at this time. There is an original inscription + still preserved in the Louvre, which attests the energies of Athens at + this crisis, when Athens, like England in modern wars, at once sought + conquests abroad, and repelled enemies at home. At the period we now + advert to (B.C. 457), an Athenian armament of two hundred galleys was + engaged in a bold though unsuccessful expedition against Egypt. The + Athenian crews had landed, had won a battle; they had then re-embarked and + sailed up the Nile, and were busily besieging the Persian garrison in + Memphis. As the complement of a trireme galley was at least two hundred + men, we cannot estimate the forces then employed by Athens against Egypt + at less than forty thousand men. At the same time she kept squadrons on + the coasts of Phoenicia and Cyprus, and yet maintained a home-fleet that + enabled her to defeat her Peloponnesian enemies at Cecryphalae and AEgina, + capturing in the last engagement seventy galleys. This last fact may give + us some idea of the strength of the Athenian home-fleet that gained the + victory; and by adopting the same ratio of multiplying whatever number of + galleys we suppose to have been employed, by two hundred, so as to gain + the aggregate number of the crews, we may form some estimate of the forces + which this little, Greek state then kept on foot. Between sixty and + seventy thousand men must have served in her fleets during that year. Her + tenacity of purpose was equal to her boldness of enterprise. Sooner than + yield or withdraw from any of their expeditions the Athenians at this very + time, when Corinth sent an army to attack their garrison at Megara, did + not recall a single crew or a single soldier from AEgina or from abroad; + but the lads and old men, who had been left to guard the city, fought and + won a battle against these new assailants. The inscription which we have + referred to is graven on a votive tablet to the memory of the dead, + erected in that year by the Erecthean tribe, one of the ten into which the + Athenians were divided. It shows, as Thirlwall has remarked, "that the + Athenians were conscious of the greatness of their own effort;" and in it + this little civic community of the ancient world still "records to us with + emphatic simplicity, that 'its slain fell in Cyprus, in Egypt, in + Phoenicia, at Haliae, in AEgina, and in Megara, IN THE SAME YEAR.'" + [Paeans of the Athenian Navy.] + </p> + <p> + 455. A thirty years' truce concluded between Athens and Lacedaemon. + </p> + <p> + 440. The Samians endeavour to throw off the supremacy of Athens. Samos + completely reduced to subjection. Pericles is now sole director of the + Athenian councils. + </p> + <p> + 431. Commencement of the great Peloponnesian war, in which Sparta, at the + head of nearly all the Peloponnesian states, and aided by the Boeotians + and some of the other Greeks beyond the Isthmus, endeavours to reduce the + power of Athens, and to restore independence to the Greek maritime states + who were the subject allies of Athens. At the commencement of the war the + Peloponnesian armies repeatedly invade and ravage Attica, but Athens + herself is impregnable, and her fleets secure her the dominion of the sea. + </p> + <p> + 430. Athens visited by a pestilence, which sweeps off large numbers of her + population. + </p> + <p> + 426. The Athenians gain great advantages over the Spartans at Sphacteria, + and by occupying Cythera; but they suffer a severe defeat in Boeotia, and + the Spartan general Brasidas, leads an expedition to the Thracian coasts, + and conquers many of the most valuable Athenian possessions in those + regions. + </p> + <p> + 421. Nominal truce for thirty years between Athens and Sparta, but + hostilities continue on the Thracian coast and in other quarters. + </p> + <p> + 415. The Athenians send an expedition to conquer Sicily. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. — DEFEAT OF THE ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE, B.C.413. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The Romans knew not, and could not know, how deeply the + greatness of their own posterity, and the fate of the whole + Western world, were involved in the destruction of the fleet of + Athens in the harbour of Syracuse. Had that great expedition + proved victorious, the energies of Greece during the next + eventful century would have found their field in the West no less + than in the East; Greece, and not Rome, might have conquered + Carthage; Greek instead of Latin might have been at this day the + principal element of the language of Spain, of France, and of + Italy; and the laws of Athens, rather than of Rome, might be the + foundation of the law of the civilized world."—ARNOLD. + + "The great expedition to Sicily, one of the most decisive events in + the history of the world."—NIEBUHR. +</pre> + <p> + Few cities have undergone more memorable sieges during ancient and + mediaeval times, than has the city of Syracuse. Athenian, Carthaginian, + Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Saracen, and Norman, have in turns beleaguered + her walls; and the resistance which she successfully opposed to some of + her early assailants was of the deepest importance, not only to the + fortunes of the generations then in being, but to all the subsequent + current of human events. To adopt the eloquent expressions of Arnold + respecting the check which she gave to the Carthaginian arms, "Syracuse + was a breakwater, which God's providence raised up to protect the yet + immature strength of Rome." And her triumphant repulse of the great + Athenian expedition against her was of even more wide-spread and enduring + importance. It forms a decisive epoch in the strife for universal empire, + in which all the great states of antiquity successively engaged and + failed. + </p> + <p> + The present city of Syracuse is a place of little or no military strength, + as the fire of artillery from the neighbouring heights would almost + completely command it. But in ancient warfare its position, and the care + bestowed on its walls, rendered it formidably strong against the means of + offence which then were employed by besieging armies. + </p> + <p> + The ancient city, in the time of the Peloponnesian war, was chiefly built + on the knob of land which projects into the sea on the eastern coast of + Sicily, between two bays; one of which, to the north, was called the bay + of Thapsus, while the southern one formed the great harbour of the city of + Syracuse itself. A small island, or peninsula (for such it soon was + rendered), lies at the south-eastern extremity of this knob of land, + stretching almost entirely across the mouth of the great harbour, and + rendering it nearly land-locked. This island comprised the original + settlement of the first Greek colonists from Corinth, who founded Syracuse + two thousand five hundred years ago; and the modern city has shrunk again + into these primary limits. But, in the fifth century before our era, the + growing wealth and population of the Syracusans had led them to occupy and + include within their city walls portion after portion of the mainland + lying next to the little isle; so that at the time of the Athenian + expedition the seaward part of the land between the two bays already + spoken of was built over, and fortified from bay to bay; constituting the + larger part of Syracuse. + </p> + <p> + The landward wall, therefore, of the city traversed this knob of land, + which continues to slope upwards from the sea, and which to the west of + the old fortifications (that is, towards the interior of Sicily) rises + rapidly for a mile or two, but diminishes in width, and finally terminates + in a long narrow ridge, between which and Mount Hybla a succession of + chasms and uneven low ground extend. On each flank of this ridge the + descent is steep and precipitous from its summits to the strips of level + land that lie immediately below it, both to the south-west and north-west. + </p> + <p> + The usual mode of assailing fortified towns in the time of the + Peloponnesian war, was to build a double wall round them, sufficiently + strong to check any sally of the garrison from within, or any attack of a + relieving force from without. The interval within the two walls of the + circumvallation was roofed over, and formed barracks, in which the + besiegers posted themselves, and awaited the effects of want or treachery + among the besieged in producing a surrender. And, in every Greek city of + those days, as in every Italian republic of the middle ages, the rage of + domestic sedition between aristocrats and democrats ran high. Rancorous + refugees swarmed in the camp of every invading enemy; and every blockaded + city was sure to contain within its walls a body of intriguing + malcontents, who were eager to purchase a party-triumph at the expense of + a national disaster. Famine and faction were the allies on whom besiegers + relied. The generals of that time trusted to the operation of these sure + confederates as soon as they could establish a complete blockade. They + rarely ventured on the attempt to storm any fortified post. For the + military engines of antiquity were feeble in breaching masonry, before the + improvements which the first Dionysius effected in the mechanics of + destruction; and the lives of spearmen the boldest and most highly-trained + would, of course, have been idly spent in charges against unshattered + walls. + </p> + <p> + A city built, close to the sea, like Syracuse, was impregnable, save by + the combined operations of a superior hostile fleet and a superior hostile + army. And Syracuse, from her size, her population, and her military and + naval resources, not unnaturally thought herself secure from finding in + another Greek city a foe capable of sending a sufficient armament to + menace her with capture and subjection. But in the spring of 414 B.C. the + Athenian navy was mistress of her harbour and the adjacent seas; an + Athenian army had defeated her troops, and cooped them within the town; + and from bay to bay a blockading wall was being rapidly carried across the + strips of level ground and the high ridge outside the city (then termed + Epipolae), which, if completed, would have cut the Syracusans off from all + succour from the interior of Sicily, and have left them at the mercy of + the Athenian generals. The besiegers' works were, indeed, unfinished; but + every day the unfortified interval in their lines grew narrower, and with + it diminished all apparent hope of safety for the beleaguered town. + </p> + <p> + Athens was now staking the flower of her forces, and the accumulated + fruits of seventy years of glory, on one bold throw for the dominion of + the Western world. As Napoleon from Mount Coeur de Lion pointed to St. + Jean d'Acre, and told his staff that the capture of that town would decide + his destiny, and would change the face of the world; so the Athenian + officers, from the heights of Epipolae, must have looked on Syracuse, and + felt that with its fall all the known powers of the earth would fall + beneath them. They must have felt also that Athens, if repulsed there, + must pause for ever in her career of conquest, and sink from an imperial + republic into a ruined and subservient community. + </p> + <p> + At Marathon, the first in date of the Great Battles of the World, we + beheld Athens struggling for self-preservation against the invading armies + of the East. At Syracuse she appears as the ambitious and oppressive + invader of others. In her, as in other republics of old and of modern + times, the same energy that had inspired the most heroic efforts in + defence of the national independence, soon learned to employ itself in + daring and unscrupulous schemes of self-aggrandizement at the expense of + neighbouring nations. In the interval between the Persian and + Peloponnesian wars she had rapidly grown into a conquering and dominant + state, the chief of a thousand tributary cities, and the mistress of the + largest and best-manned navy that the Mediterranean had yet beheld. The + occupations of her territory by Xerxes and Mardonius, in the second + Persian war, had forced her whole population to become mariners; and the + glorious results of that struggle confirmed them in their zeal for their + country's service at sea. The voluntary suffrage of the Greek cities of + the coasts and islands of the AEgean first placed Athens at the head of + the confederation formed for the further prosecution of the war against + Persia. But this titular ascendancy was soon converted by her into + practical and arbitrary dominion. She protected them from piracy and the + Persian power, which soon fell into decrepitude and decay; but she exacted + in return implicit obedience to herself. She claimed and enforced a + prerogative of taxing them at her discretion; and proudly refused to be + accountable for her mode of expending their supplies. Remonstrance against + her assessments was treated as factious disloyalty; and refusal to pay was + promptly punished as revolt. Permitting and encouraging her subject allies + to furnish all their contingents in money, instead of part consisting of + ships and men, the sovereign republic gained the double object of training + her own citizens by constant and well-paid service in her fleets, and of + seeing her confederates lose their skill and discipline by inaction, and + become more and more passive and powerless under her yoke. Their towns + were generally dismantled; while the imperial city herself was fortified + with the greatest care and sumptuousness: the accumulated revenues from + her tributaries serving to strengthen and adorn to the utmost her havens, + her docks, her arsenals, her theatres, and her shrines; and to array her + in that plenitude of architectural magnificence, the ruins of which still + attest the intellectual grandeur of the age and people, which produced a + Pericles to plan and a Phidias to execute. + </p> + <p> + All republics that acquire supremacy over other nations, rule them + selfishly and oppressively. There is no exception to this in either + ancient or modern times. Carthage, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, + Holland, and Republican France, all tyrannized over every province and + subject state where they gained authority. But none of them openly avowed + their system of doing so upon principle, with the candour which the + Athenian republicans displayed, when any remonstrance was made against the + severe exactions which they imposed upon their vassal allies. They avowed + that their empire was a tyranny, and frankly stated that they solely + trusted to force and terror to uphold it. They appealed to what they + called "the eternal law of nature, that the weak should be coerced by the + strong." [THUC. i. 77.] Sometimes they stated, and not without some truth, + that the unjust hatred of Sparta against themselves forced them to be + unjust to others in self-defence. To be safe they must be powerful; and to + be powerful they must plunder and coerce their neighbours. They never + dreamed of communicating any franchise, or share in office, to their + dependents; but jealously monopolized every post of command, and all + political and judicial power; exposing themselves to every risk with + unflinching gallantry; enduring cheerfully the laborious training and + severe discipline which their sea-service required; venturing readily on + every ambitious scheme; and never suffering difficulty or disaster to + shake their tenacity of purpose. Their hope was to acquire unbounded + empire for their country, and the means of maintaining each of the thirty + thousand citizens who made up the sovereign republic, in exclusive + devotion to military occupations, and to those brilliant sciences and arts + in which Athens already had reached the meridian of intellectual + splendour. + </p> + <p> + Her great political, dramatist speaks of the Athenian empire as + comprehending a thousand states. The language of the stage must not be + taken too literally; but the number of the dependencies of Athens, at the + time when the Peloponnesian confederacy attacked her, was undoubtedly very + great. With a few trifling exceptions, all the islands of the AEgean, and + all the Greek cities, which in that age fringed the coasts of Asia Minor, + the Hellespont, and Thrace paid tribute to Athens, and implicitly obeyed + her orders. The AEgean Sea was an Attic lake. Westward of Greece, her + influence though strong, was not equally predominant. She had colonies and + allies among the wealthy and populous Greek settlements in Sicily and + South Italy, but she had no organized system of confederates in those + regions; and her galleys brought her no tribute from the western seas. The + extension of her empire over Sicily was the favourite project of her + ambitious orators and generals. While her great statesman Pericles lived, + his commanding genius kept his countrymen under control and forbade them + to risk the fortunes of Athens in distant enterprises, while they had + unsubdued and powerful enemies at their own doors. He taught Athens this + maxim; but he also taught her to know and to use her own strength, and + when Pericles had departed the bold spirit which he had fostered + overleaped the salutary limits which he had prescribed. When her bitter + enemies, the Corinthians, succeeded, in 431 B.C., in inducing Sparta to + attack her, and a confederacy was formed of five-sixths of the continental + Greeks, all animated by anxious jealousy and bitter hatred of Athens; when + armies far superior in numbers and equipment to those which had marched + against the Persians were poured into the Athenian territory, and laid it + waste to the city walls; the general opinion was that Athens would, in two + or three years at the farthest, be reduced to submit to the requisitions + of her invaders. But her strong fortifications, by which she was girt and + linked to her principal haven, gave her, in those ages, almost all the + advantages of an insular position. Pericles had made her trust to her + empire of the seas. Every Athenian in those days was a practised seaman. A + state indeed whose members, of an age fit for service, at no time exceeded + thirty thousand, and whose territorial extent did not equal half Sussex, + could only have acquired such a naval dominion as Athens once held, by + devoting, and zealously training, all its sons to service in its fleets. + In order to man the numerous galleys which she sent out, she necessarily + employed also large numbers of hired mariners and slaves at the oar; but + the staple of her crews was Athenian, and all posts of command were held + by native citizens. It was by reminding them of this, of their long + practice in seamanship, and the certain superiority which their discipline + gave them over the enemy's marine, that their great minister mainly + encouraged them to resist the combined power of Lacedaemon and her allies. + He taught them that Athens might thus reap the fruit of her zealous + devotion to maritime affairs ever since the invasion of the Medes; "she + had not, indeed, perfected herself; but the reward of her superior + training was the rule of the sea—a mighty dominion, for it gave her + the rule of much fair land beyond its waves, safe from the idle ravages + with which the Lacedaemonians might harass Attica, but never could subdue + Athens." [THUC. lib. i. sec. 144.] + </p> + <p> + Athens accepted the war with which her enemies threatened her, rather than + descend from her pride of place. And though the awful visitation of the + Plague came upon her, and swept away more of her citizens than the Dorian + spear laid low, she held her own gallantly against her foes. If the + Peloponnesian armies in irresistible strength wasted every spring her corn + lands, her vineyards, and her olive groves with fire and sword, she + retaliated on their coasts with her fleets; which, if resisted, were only + resisted to display the pre-eminent skill and bravery of her seamen. Some + of her subject-allies revolted, but the revolts were in general sternly + and promptly quelled. The genius of one enemy had, indeed, inflicted blows + on her power in Thrace which she was unable to remedy; but he fell in + battle in the tenth year of the war; and with the loss of Brasidas the + Lacedaemonians seemed to have lost all energy and judgment. Both sides at + length grew weary of the war; and in 421 B.C. a truce of fifty years was + concluded, which, though ill kept, and though many of the confederates of + Sparta refused to recognise it, and hostilities still continued in many + parts of Greece, protected the Athenian territory from the ravages of + enemies, and enabled Athens to accumulate large sums out of the proceeds + of her annual revenues. So also, as a few years passed by, the havoc which + the pestilence and the sword had made in her population was repaired; and + in 415 B.C. Athens was full of bold and restless spirits, who longed for + some field of distant enterprise, wherein they might signalize themselves, + and aggrandize the state; and who looked on the alarm of Spartan hostility + as a mere old woman's tale. When Sparta had wasted their territory she had + done her worst; and the fact of its always being in her power to do so, + seemed a strong reason for seeking to increase the transmarine dominion of + Athens. + </p> + <p> + The West was now the quarter towards which the thoughts of every aspiring + Athenian were directed. From the very beginning of the war Athens had kept + up an interest in Sicily; and her squadrons had from time to time appeared + on its coasts and taken part in the dissensions in which the Sicilian + Greeks were universally engaged one against the other. There were + plausible grounds for a direct quarrel, and an open attack by the + Athenians upon Syracuse. + </p> + <p> + With the capture of Syracuse all Sicily, it was hoped, would be secured. + Carthage and Italy were next to be assailed. With large levies of Iberian + mercenaries she then meant to overwhelm her Peloponnesian enemies. The + Persian monarchy lay in hopeless imbecility, inviting Greek invasion; nor + did the known world contain the power that seemed capable of checking the + growing might of Athens, if Syracuse once could be hers. + </p> + <p> + The national historian of Rome has left us, as an episode of his great + work, a disquisition on the probable effects that would have followed, if + Alexander the Great had invaded Italy. Posterity has generally regarded + that disquisition as proving Livy's patriotism more strongly than his + impartiality or acuteness. Yet, right or wrong, the speculations of the + Roman writer were directed to the consideration of a very remote + possibility. To whatever age Alexander's life might have been prolonged, + the East would have furnished full occupation for his martial ambition, as + well as for those schemes of commercial grandeur and imperial amalgamation + of nations, in which the truly great qualities of his mind loved to + display themselves. With his death the dismemberment of his empire among + his generals was certain, even as the dismemberment of Napoleon's empire + among his marshals would certainly have ensued, if he had been cut off in + the zenith of his power. Rome, also, was far weaker when the Athenians + were in Sicily, than she was a century afterwards, in Alexander's time. + There can be little doubt but that Rome would have been blotted out from + the independent powers of the West, had she been attacked at the end of + the fifth century B.C., by an Athenian army, largely aided by Spanish + mercenaries, and flushed with triumphs over Sicily and Africa; instead of + the collision between her and Greece having been deferred until the latter + had sunk into decrepitude, and the Roman Mars had grown into full vigour. + </p> + <p> + The armament which the Athenians equipped against Syracuse was in every + way worthy of the state which formed such projects of universal empire; + and it has been truly termed "the noblest that ever yet had been sent + forth by a free and civilized commonwealth." [Arnold's History of Rome.] + The fleet consisted of one hundred and thirty-four war galleys, with a + multitude of store ships. A powerful force of the best heavy-armed + infantry that Athens and her allies could furnish was sent on board, + together with a smaller number of slingers and bowmen. The quality of the + forces was even more remarkable than the number. The zeal of individuals + vied with that of the republic in giving every galley the best possible + crew, and every troop the most perfect accoutrements. And with private as + well as public wealth eagerly lavished on all that could give splendour as + well as efficiency to the expedition, the fated fleet began its voyage for + the Sicilian shores in the summer of 415 B.C. + </p> + <p> + The Syracusans themselves, at the time of the Peloponnesian war, were a + bold and turbulent democracy, tyrannizing over the weaker Greek cities in + Sicily, and trying to gain in that island the same arbitrary supremacy + which Athens maintained along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. In + numbers and in spirit they were fully equal to the Athenians, but far + inferior to them in military and naval discipline. When the probability of + an Athenian invasion was first publicly discussed at Syracuse, and efforts + were made by some of the wiser citizens to improve the state of the + national defences, and prepare for the impending danger, the rumours of + coming war and the proposals for preparation were received by the mass of + the Syracusans with scornful incredulity. The speech of one of their + popular orators is preserved to us in Thucydides, [Lib. vi. sec. 36 et + seq., Arnold's edition. I have almost literally transcribed some of the + marginal epitomes of the original speech.] and many of its topics might, + by a slight alteration of names and details, serve admirably for the party + among ourselves at present which opposes the augmentation of our forces, + and derides the idea of our being in any peril from the sudden attack of a + French expedition. The Syracusan orator told his countrymen to dismiss + with scorn the visionary terrors which a set of designing men among + themselves strove to excite, in order to get power and influence thrown + into their own hands. He told them that Athens knew her own interest too + well to think of wantonly provoking their hostility:—"EVEN IF THE + ENEMIES WERE TO COME," said he, "SO DISTANT FROM THEIR RESOURCES, AND + OPPOSED TO SUCH A POWER AS OURS, THEIR DESTRUCTION WOULD BE EASY AND + INEVITABLE. THEIR SHIPS WILL HAVE ENOUGH TO DO TO GET TO OUR ISLAND AT + ALL, AND TO CARRY SUCH STORES OF ALL SORTS AS WILL BE NEEDED. THEY CANNOT + THEREFORE CARRY, BESIDES, AN ARMY LARGE ENOUGH TO COPE WITH SUCH A + POPULATION AS OURS. THEY WILL HAVE NO FORTIFIED PLACE FROM WHICH TO + COMMENCE THEIR OPERATIONS; BUT MUST REST THEM ON NO BETTER BASE THAN A SET + OF WRETCHED TENTS, AND SUCH MEANS AS THE NECESSITIES OF THE MOMENT WILL + ALLOW THEM. BUT IN TRUTH I DO NOT BELIEVE THAT THEY WOULD EVEN BE ABLE TO + EFFECT A DISEMBARKATION. LET US, THEREFORE, SET AT NOUGHT THESE REPORTS AS + ALTOGETHER OF HOME MANUFACTURE; AND BE SURE THAT IF ANY ENEMY DOES COME, + THE STATE WILL KNOW HOW TO DEFEND ITSELF IN A MANNER WORTHY OF THE + NATIONAL HONOUR." + </p> + <p> + Such assertions pleased the Syracusan assembly; and their counterparts + find favour now among some portion of the English public. But the invaders + of Syracuse came; made good their landing in Sicily; and, if they had + promptly attacked the city itself, instead of wasting nearly a year in + desultory operations in other parts of the island, the Syracusans must + have paid the penalty of their self-sufficient carelessness in submission + to the Athenian yoke. But, of the three generals who led the Athenian + expedition, two only were men of ability, and one was most weak and + incompetent. Fortunately for Syracuse, Alcibiades, the most skilful of the + three, was soon deposed from his command by a factious and fanatic vote of + his fellow-countrymen, and the other competent one, Lamachus, fell early + in a skirmish: while, more fortunately still for her, the feeble and + vacillating Nicias remained unrecalled and unhurt, to assume the undivided + leadership of the Athenian army and fleet, and to mar, by alternate + over-caution and over-carelessness, every chance of success which the + early part of the operations offered. Still, even under him, the Athenians + nearly won the town. They defeated the raw levies of the Syracusans, + cooped them within the walls, and, as before mentioned, almost effected a + continuous fortification from bay to bay over Epipolae, the completion of + which would certainly have been followed by capitulation. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades, the most complete example of genius without principle that + history produces, the Bolingbroke of antiquity, but with high military + talents superadded to diplomatic and oratorical powers, on being summoned + home from his command in Sicily to take his trial before the Athenian + tribunal had escaped to Sparta; and he exerted himself there with all the + selfish rancour of a renegade to renew the war with Athens, and to send + instant assistance to Syracuse. + </p> + <p> + When we read his words in the pages of Thucydides (who was himself an + exile from Athens at this period, and may probably have been at Sparta, + and heard Alcibiades speak), we are at loss whether most to admire or + abhor his subtile and traitorous counsels. After an artful exordium, in + which he tried to disarm the suspicions which he felt must be entertained + of him, and to point out to the Spartans how completely his interests and + theirs were identified, through hatred of the Athenian democracy, he thus + proceeded:—"Hear me, at any rate, on the matters which require your + grave attention, and which I, from the personal knowledge that I have of + them, can and ought to bring before you. We Athenians sailed to Sicily + with the design of subduing, first the Greek cities there, and next those + in Italy. Then we intended to make an attempt on the dominions of + Carthage, and on Carthage itself. [Arnold, in his notes on this passage, + well reminds the reader that Agathocles, with a Greek force far inferior + to that of the Athenians at this period, did, a century afterwards, very + nearly conquer Carthage.] If all these projects succeeded (nor did we + limit ourselves to them in these quarters), we intended to increase our + fleet with the inexhaustible supplies of ship timber which Italy affords, + to put in requisition the whole military force of the conquered Greek + states, and also to hire large armies of the barbarians; of the Iberians, + and others in those regions, who are allowed to make the best possible + soldiers. [It will be remembered that Spanish infantry were the staple of + the Carthaginian armies. Doubtless Alcibiades and other leading Athenians + had made themselves acquainted with the Carthaginian system of carrying on + war, and meant to adopt it. With the marvellous powers which Alcibiades + possessed of ingratiating himself with men of every class and every + nation, and his high military genius, he would have been as formidable a + chief of an army of CONDOTTIERI as Hannibal afterwards was.] Then, when we + had done all this, we intended to assail Peloponnesus with our collected + force. Our fleets would blockade you by sea, and desolate your coasts; our + armies would be landed at different points, and assail your cities. Some + of these we expected to storm and others we meant to take by surrounding + them with fortified lines. [Alcibiades here alluded to Sparta itself, + which was unfortified. His Spartan hearers must have glanced round them at + these words, with mixed alarm and indignation.] We thought that it would + thus be an easy matter thoroughly to war you down; and then we should + become the masters of the whole Greek race. As for expense, we reckoned + that each conquered state would give us supplies of money and provisions + sufficient to pay for its own conquest, and furnish the means for the + conquest of its neighbours. + </p> + <p> + "Such are the designs of the present Athenian expedition to Sicily, and + you have heard them from the lips of the man who, of all men living, is + most accurately acquainted with them. The other Athenian generals, who + remain with the expedition, will endeavour to carry out these plans. And + be sure that without your speedy interference they will all be + accomplished. The Sicilian Greeks are deficient in military training; but + still if they could be at once brought to combine in an organised + resistance to Athens, they might even now be saved. But as for the + Syracusans resisting Athens by themselves, they have already with the + whole strength of their population fought a battle and been beaten; they + cannot face the Athenians at sea; and it is quite impossible for them to + hold out against the force of their invaders. And if this city falls into + the hands of the Athenians, all Sicily is theirs, and presently Italy + also: and the danger which I warned you of from that quarter will soon + fall upon yourselves. You must, therefore, in Sicily fight for the safety + of Peloponnesus. Send some galleys thither instantly. Put men on board who + can work their own way over, and who, as soon as they land, can do duty as + regular troops. But above all, let one of yourselves, let a man of Sparta, + go over to take the chief command, to bring into order and effective + discipline the forces that are in Syracuse, and urge those, who at present + hang back to come forward and aid the Syracusans. The presence of a + Spartan general at this crisis will do more to save the city than a whole + army." [THUC., lib. vi sec. 90,91.] The renegade then proceeded to urge on + them the necessity of encouraging their friends in Sicily, by showing that + they themselves were earnest in hostility to Athens. He exhorted them not + only to march their armies into Attica again, but to take up a permanent + fortified position in the country: and he gave them in detail information + of all that the Athenians most dreaded, and how his country might receive + the most distressing and enduring injury at their hands. + </p> + <p> + The Spartans resolved to act on his advice, and appointed Gylippus to the + Sicilian command. Gylippus was a man who, to the national bravery and + military skill of a Spartan, united political sagacity that was worthy of + his great fellow-countryman Brasidas; but his merits were debased by mean + and sordid vice; and his is one of the cases in which history has been + austerely just, and where little or no fame has been accorded to the + successful but venal soldier. But for the purpose for which he was + required in Sicily, an abler man could not have been found in Lacedaemon. + His country gave him neither men nor money, but she gave him her + authority; and the influence of her name and of his own talents was + speedily seen in the zeal with which the Corinthians and other + Peloponnesian Greeks began to equip a squadron to act under him for the + rescue of Sicily. As soon as four galleys were ready, he hurried over with + them to the southern coast of Italy; and there, though he received such + evil tidings of the state of Syracuse that he abandoned all hope of saving + that city, he determined to remain on the coast, and do what he could in + preserving the Italian cities from the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + So nearly, indeed, had Nicias completed his beleaguering lines, and so + utterly desperate had the state of Syracuse seemingly become, that an + assembly of the Syracusans was actually convened, and they were discussing + the terms on which they should offer to capitulate, when a galley was seen + dashing into the great harbour, and making her way towards the town with + all the speed that her rowers could supply. From her shunning the part of + the harbour where the Athenian fleet lay, and making straight for the + Syracusan side, it was clear that she was a friend; the enemy's cruisers, + careless through confidence of success, made no attempt to cut her off; + she touched the beach, and a Corinthian captain springing on shore from + her, was eagerly conducted to the assembly of the Syracusan people, just + in time to prevent the fatal vote being put for a surrender. + </p> + <p> + Providentially for Syracuse, Gongylus, the commander of the galley, had + been prevented by an Athenian squadron from following Gylippus to South + Italy, and he had been obliged to push direct for Syracuse from Greece. + </p> + <p> + The sight of actual succour, and the promise of more, revived the drooping + spirits of the Syracusans. They felt that they were not left desolate to + perish; and the tidings that a Spartan was coming to command them + confirmed their resolution to continue their resistance. Gylippus was + already near the city. He had learned at Locri that the first report which + had reached him of the state of Syracuse was exaggerated; and that there + was an unfinished space in the besiegers' lines through which it was + barely possible to introduce reinforcements into the town. Crossing the + straits of Messina, which the culpable negligence of Nicias had left + unguarded, Gylippus landed on the northern coast of Sicily, and there + began to collect from the Greek cities an army, of which the regular + troops that he brought from Peloponnesus formed the nucleus. Such was the + influence of the name of Sparta, [The effect of the presence of a Spartan + officer on the troops of the other Greeks, seems to have been like the + effect of the presence of an English officer upon native Indian troops.] + and such were his own abilities and activity, that he succeeded in raising + a force of about two thousand fully armed infantry, with a larger number + of irregular troops. Nicias, as if infatuated, made no attempt to + counteract his operations; nor, when Gylippus marched his little army + towards Syracuse, did the Athenian commander endeavour to check him. The + Syracusans marched out to meet him: and while the Athenians were solely + intent on completing their fortifications on the southern side towards the + harbour, Gylippus turned their position by occupying the high ground in + the extreme rear of Epipolae. He then marched through the unfortified + interval of Nicias's lines into the besieged town; and, joining his troops + with the Syracusan forces, after some engagements with varying success, + gained the mastery over Nicias, drove the Athenians from Epipolae, and + hemmed them into a disadvantageous position in the low grounds near the + great harbour. + </p> + <p> + The attention of all Greece was now fixed on Syracuse; and every enemy of + Athens felt the importance of the opportunity now offered of checking her + ambition, and, perhaps, of striking a deadly blow at her power. Large + reinforcements from Corinth, Thebes, and other cities, now reached the + Syracusans; while the baffled and dispirited Athenian general earnestly + besought his countrymen to recall him, and represented the further + prosecution of the siege as hopeless. + </p> + <p> + But Athens had made it a maxim never to let difficulty or disaster drive + her back from any enterprise once undertaken, so long as she possessed the + means of making any effort, however desperate, for its accomplishment. + With indomitable pertinacity she now decreed, instead of recalling her + first armament from before Syracuse, to send out a second, though her + enemies near home had now renewed open warfare against her, and by + occupying a permanent fortification in her territory, had severely + distressed her population, and were pressing her with almost all the + hardships of an actual siege. She still was mistress of the sea, and she + sent forth another fleet of seventy galleys, and another army, which + seemed to drain the very last reserves of her military population, to try + if Syracuse could not yet be won, and the honour of the Athenian arms be + preserved from the stigma of a retreat. Hers was, indeed, a spirit that + might be broken, but never would bend. At the head of this second + expedition she wisely placed her best general Demosthenes, one of the most + distinguished officers whom the long Peloponnesian war had produced, and + who, if he had originally held the Sicilian command, would soon have + brought Syracuse to submission. + </p> + <p> + The fame of Demosthenes the general, has been dimmed by the superior + lustre of his great countryman, Demosthenes the orator. When the name of + Demosthenes is mentioned, it is the latter alone that is thought of. The + soldier has found no biographer. Yet out of the long list of the great men + of the Athenian republic, there are few that deserve to stand higher than + this brave, though finally unsuccessful, leader of her fleets and armies + in the first half of the Peloponnesian war. In his first campaign in + AEtolia he had shown some of the rashness of youth, and had received a + lesson of caution, by which he profited throughout the rest of his career, + but without losing any of his natural energy in enterprise or in + execution. He had performed the eminent service of rescuing Naupactus from + a powerful hostile armament in the seventh year of the war; he had then, + at the request of the Acarnanian republics, taken on himself the office of + commander-in-chief of all their forces, and at their head he had gained + some important advantages over the enemies of Athens in Western Greece. + His most celebrated exploits had been the occupation of Pylos on the + Messenian coast, the successful defence of that place against the fleet + and armies of Lacedaemon, and the subsequent capture of the Spartan forces + on the isle of Sphacteria; which was the severest blow dealt to Sparta + throughout the war, and which had mainly caused her to humble herself to + make the truce with Athens. Demosthenes was as honourably unknown in the + war of party politics at Athens, as he was eminent in the war against the + foreign enemy. We read of no intrigues of his on either the aristocratic + or democratic side. He was neither in the interest of Nicias, nor of + Cleon. His private character was free from any of the stains which + polluted that of Alcibiades. On all these points the silence of the comic + dramatist is decisive evidence in his favour. He had also the moral + courage, not always combined with physical of seeking to do his duty to + his country, irrespectively of any odium that he himself might incur, and + unhampered by any petty jealousy of those who were associated with him in + command. There are few men named in ancient history, of whom posterity + would gladly know more, or whom we sympathise with more deeply in the + calamities that befel them, than Demosthenes, the son of Alcisthenes, who, + in the spring of the year 413 B.C., left Piraeus at the head of the second + Athenian expedition against Sicily. + </p> + <p> + His arrival was critically timed; for Gylippus had encouraged the + Syracusans to attack the Athenians under Nicias by sea as well as by land, + and by an able stratagem of Ariston, one of the admirals of the Corinthian + auxiliary squadron, the Syracusans and their confederates had inflicted on + the fleet of Nicias the first defeat that the Athenian navy had ever + sustained from a numerically inferior foe. Gylippus was preparing to + follow up his advantage by fresh attacks on the Athenians on both + elements, when the arrival of Demosthenes completely changed the aspect of + affairs, and restored the superiority to the invaders. With seventy-three + war-galleys in the highest state of efficiency, and brilliantly equipped, + with a force of five thousand picked men of the regular infantry of Athens + and her allies, and a still larger number of bowmen, javelin-men, and + slingers on board, Demosthenes rowed round the great harbour with loud + cheers and martial music, as if in defiance of the Syracusans and their + confederates. His arrival had indeed changed their newly-born hopes into + the deepest consternation. The resources of Athens seemed inexhaustible, + and resistance to her hopeless. They had been told that she was reduced to + the last extremities, and that her territory was occupied by an enemy; and + yet, here they saw her, as if in prodigality of power, sending forth, to + make foreign conquests, a second armament, not inferior to that with which + Nicias had first landed on the Sicilian shores. + </p> + <p> + With the intuitive decision of a great commander, Demosthenes at once saw + that the possession of Epipolae was the key to the possession of Syracuse, + and he resolved to make a prompt and vigorous attempt to recover that + position, while his force was unimpaired, and the consternation which its + arrival had produced among the besieged remained unabated. The Syracusans + and their allies had run out an outwork along Epipolae from the city + walls, intersecting the fortified lines of circumvallation which Nicias + had commenced, but from which they had been driven by Gylippus. Could + Demosthenes succeed in storming this outwork, and in re-establishing the + Athenian troops on the high ground, he might fairly hope to be able to + resume the circumvallation of the city, and become the conqueror of + Syracuse: for, when once the besiegers' lines were completed, the number + of the troops with which Gylippus had garrisoned the place would only tend + to exhaust the stores of provisions, and accelerate its downfall. + </p> + <p> + An easily-repelled attack was first made on the outwork in the day-time, + probably more with the view of blinding the besieged to the nature of the + main operations than with any expectation of succeeding in an open + assault, with every disadvantage of the ground to contend against. But, + when the darkness had set in, Demosthenes formed his men in columns, each + soldier taking with him five days' provisions, and the engineers and + workmen of the camp following the troops with their tools, and all + portable implements of fortification, so as at once to secure any + advantage of ground that the army might gain. Thus equipped and prepared, + he led his men along by the foot of the southern flank of Epipolae, in a + direction towards the interior of the island, till he came immediately + below the narrow ridge that forms the extremity of the high ground looking + westward. He then wheeled his vanguard to the right, sent them rapidly up + the paths that wind along the face of the cliff, and succeeded in + completely surprising the Syracusan outposts, and in placing his troops + fairly on the extreme summit of the all-important Epipolae. Thence the + Athenians marched eagerly down the slope towards the town, routing some + Syracusan detachments that were quartered in their way, and vigorously + assailing the unprotected part of the outwork. All at first favoured them. + The outwork was abandoned by its garrison, and the Athenian engineers + began to dismantle it. In vain Gylippus brought up fresh troops to check + the assault: the Athenians broke and drove them back, and continued to + press hotly forward, in the full confidence of victory. But, amid the + general consternation of the Syracusans and their confederates, one body + of infantry stood firm. This was a brigade of their Boeotian allies, which + was posted low down the slope of Epipolae, outside the city walls. Coolly + and steadily the Boeotian infantry formed their line, and, undismayed by + the current of flight around them, advanced against the advancing + Athenians. This was the crisis of the battle. But the Athenian van was + disorganized by its own previous successes; and, yielding to the + unexpected charge thus made on it by troops in perfect order, and of the + most obstinate courage, it was driven back in confusion upon the other + divisions of the army that still continued to press forward. When once the + tide was thus turned, the Syracusans passed rapidly from the extreme of + panic to the extreme of vengeful daring, and with all their forces they + now fiercely assailed the embarrassed and receding Athenians. In vain did + the officers of the latter strive to re-form their line. Amid the din and + the shouting of the fight, and the confusion inseparable upon a night + engagement, especially one where many thousand combatants were pent and + whirled together in a narrow and uneven area, the necessary manoeuvres + were impracticable; and though many companies still fought on desperately, + wherever the moonlight showed them the semblance of a foe, [THUC. vii. 44. + Compare Tacitus's description of the night engagement in the civil war + between Vespasian and Vitellius: "Neutro inclinaverat fortuna, donec + adulta nocte, LUNA OSTENDERET ACIES, FALERESQUE."—Hist. Lib. iii. + sec. 23.] they fought without concert or subordination; and not + unfrequently, amid the deadly chaos, Athenian troops assailed each other. + Keeping their ranks close, the Syracusans and their allies pressed on + against the disorganized masses of the besiegers; and at length drove + them, with heavy slaughter, over the cliffs, which, scarce an hour before, + they had scaled full of hope, and apparently certain of success. + </p> + <p> + This defeat was decisive of the event of the siege. The Athenians + afterwards struggled only to protect themselves from the vengeance which + the Syracusans sought to wreak in the complete destruction of their + invaders. Never, however, was vengeance more complete and terrible. A + series of sea-fights followed, in which the Athenian galleys were utterly + destroyed or captured. The mariners and soldiers who escaped death in + disastrous engagements, and in a vain: attempt to force a retreat into the + interior of the island, became prisoners of war. Nicias and Demosthenes + were put to death in cold blood; and their men either perished miserably + in the Syracusan dungeons, or were sold into slavery to the very persons + whom, in their pride of power, they had crossed the seas to enslave. + </p> + <p> + All danger from Athens to the independent nations of the West was now for + ever at an end. She, indeed, continued to struggle against her combined + enemies and revolted allies with unparalleled gallantry; and many more + years of varying warfare passed away before she surrendered to their arms. + But no success in subsequent conquests could ever have restored her to the + pre-eminence in enterprise, resources, and maritime skill which she had + acquired before her fatal reverses in Sicily. Nor among the rival Greek + republics, whom her own rashness aided to crush her, was there any capable + of reorganizing her empire, or resuming her schemes of conquest. The + dominion of Western Europe was left for Rome and Carthage to dispute two + centuries later, in conflicts still more terrible, and with even higher + displays of military daring and genius, than Athens had witnessed either + in her rise, her meridian, or her fall. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF THE EVENTS BETWEEN THE DEFEAT OF THE ATHENIANS AT SYRACUSE, + AND THE BATTLE OF ARBELA. + </p> + <p> + 412 B.C. Many of the subject allies of Athens revolt from her, on her + disasters before Syracuse being known; the seat of war is transferred to + the Hellespont and eastern side of the AEgean. + </p> + <p> + 410. The Carthaginians attempt to make conquests in Sicily. + </p> + <p> + 407. Cyrus the Younger is sent by the king of Persia to take the + government of all the maritime parts of Asia Minor, and with orders to + help the Lacedaemonian fleet against the Athenian. + </p> + <p> + 406. Agrigentum taken by the Carthaginians. + </p> + <p> + 405. The last Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at AEgospotamos. Athens + closely besieged. Rise of the power of Dionysius at Syracuse. + </p> + <p> + 404. Athens surrenders. End of the Peloponnesian war. The ascendancy of + Sparta complete throughout Greece. + </p> + <p> + 403. Thrasybulus, aided by the Thebans and with the connivance of one of + the Spartan kings, liberates Athens from the Thirty Tyrants, and restores + the democracy. + </p> + <p> + 401. Cyrus the Younger commences his expedition into Upper Asia to + dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon. He takes with him an auxiliary + force of ten thousand Greeks. He in killed in battle at Cunaxa; and the + ten thousand, led by Xenophon, effect their retreat in spite of the + Persian armies and the natural obstacles of their march. + </p> + <p> + 399. In this, and the five following years, the Lacedaemonians under + Agesilaus and other commanders, carry on war against the Persian satraps + in Asia Minor. + </p> + <p> + 396. Syracuse is besieged by the Carthaginians, and successfully defended + by Dionysius. + </p> + <p> + 394. Rome makes her first great stride in the career of conquest by the + capture of Veii. + </p> + <p> + 393. The Athenian admiral Conon, in conjunction with the Persian satrap + Pharnabazus, defeats the Lacedaemonian fleet off Cnidus, and restores the + fortifications of Athens. Several of the former allies of Sparta in Greece + carry on hostilities against her. + </p> + <p> + 388. The nations of Northern Europe now first appear in authentic history. + The Gauls overrun great part of Italy, and burn Rome. Rome recovers from + the blow, but her old enemies, the AEquians and Volscians, are left + completely crushed by the Gallic invaders. + </p> + <p> + 387. The peace of Antalcidas is concluded among the Greeks by the + mediation, and under the sanction, of the Persian king. + </p> + <p> + 378 to 361. Fresh wars in Greece. Epaminondas raises Thebes to be the + leading state of Greece, and the supremacy of Sparta is destroyed at the + battle of Leuctra. Epaminondas is killed in gaining the victory of + Mantinea, and the power of Thebes falls with him. The Athenians attempt a + balancing system between Sparta and Thebes. + </p> + <p> + 359. Philip becomes king of Macedon. + </p> + <p> + 357. The Social War breaks out in Greece, and lasts three years. Its + result checks the attempt of Athens to regain her old maritime empire. + </p> + <p> + 356. Alexander the Great is born. + </p> + <p> + 343. Rome begins her wars with the Samnites: they extend over a period of + fifty years. The result of this obstinate contest is to secure for her the + dominion of Italy. + </p> + <p> + 340. Fresh attempts of the Carthaginians upon Syracuse. Timoleon defeats + them with great slaughter. + </p> + <p> + 338. Philip defeats the confederate armies of Athens and Thebes at + Chaeronea, and the Macedonian supremacy over Greece is firmly established. + </p> + <p> + 336. Philip is assassinated, and Alexander the Great becomes king of + Macedon. He gains several victories over the northern barbarians who had + attacked Macedonia, and destroys Thebes, which, in conjunction with + Athens, had taken up arms against the Macedonians. + </p> + <p> + 334. Alexander passes the Hellespont. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. — THE BATTLE OF ARBELA, B.C. 331. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Alexander deserves the glory which he has enjoyed for so + many centuries and among all nations; but what if he had + been beaten at Arbela having the Euphrates, the Tigris, and + the deserts in his rear, without any strong places of + refuge, nine hundred leagues from Macedonia?"—NAPOLEON. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Asia beheld with astonishment and awe the uninterrupted + progress of a hero, the sweep of whose conquests was as wide + and rapid as that of her own barbaric kings, or the Scythian + or Chaldaean hordes; but, far unlike the transient + whirlwinds of Asiatic warfare, the advance of the Macedonian + leader was no less deliberate than rapid; at every step the + Greek power took root, and the language and the civilization + of Greece were planted from the shores of the AEgean to the + banks of the Indus, from the Caspian and the great Hyrcanian + plain to the cataracts of the Nile; to exist actually for + nearly a thousand years, and in their effects to endure for + ever."—ARNOLD. +</pre> + <p> + A long and not uninstructive list might be made out of illustrious men, + whose characters have been vindicated during recent times from aspersions + which for centuries had been thrown on them. The spirit of modern inquiry, + and the tendency of modern scholarship, both of which are often said to be + solely negative and destructive, have, in truth, restored to splendour, + and almost created anew, far more than they have assailed with censure, or + dismissed from consideration as unreal. The truth of many a brilliant + narrative of brilliant exploits has of late years been triumphantly + demonstrated; and the shallowness of the sceptical scoffs with which + little minds have carped at the great minds of antiquity, has been in many + instances decisively exposed. The laws, the politics, and the lines of + action adopted or recommended by eminent men and powerful nations have + been examined with keener investigation, and considered with more + comprehensive judgment, than formerly were brought to bear on these + subjects. The result has been at least as often favourable as unfavourable + to the persons and the states so scrutinized; and many an oft-repeated + slander against both measures and men has thus been silenced, we may hope, + for ever. + </p> + <p> + The veracity of Herodotus, the pure patriotism of Pericles, of + Demosthenes, and of the Gracchi, the wisdom of Cleisthenes and of Licinius + as constitutional reformers, may be mentioned as facts which recent + writers have cleared from unjust suspicion and censure. And it might be + easily shown that the defensive tendency which distinguishes the present + and recent best historians of Germany, France, and England, has been + equally manifested in the spirit in which they have treated the heroes of + thought and the heroes of action who lived during what we term the Middle + Ages and whom it was so long the fashion to sneer at or neglect. + </p> + <p> + The name of the victor of Arbela has led to these reflections; for, + although the rapidity and extent of Alexander's conquests have through all + ages challenged admiration and amazement, the grandeur of genius which he + displayed in his schemes of commerce, civilization, and of comprehensive + union and unity amongst nations, has, until lately, been comparatively + unhonoured. This long-continued depreciation was of early date. The + ancient rhetoricians—a class of babblers, a school for lies and + scandal, as Niebuhr justly termed them—chose among the stock themes + for their commonplaces, the character and exploits of Alexander. They had + their followers in every age; and until a very recent period, all who + wished to "point a moral or adorn a tale" about unreasoning ambition, + extravagant pride, and the formidable frenzies of free will when leagued + with free power, have never failed to blazon forth the so-called madman of + Macedonia as one of the most glaring examples. Without doubt, many of + these writers adopted with implicit credence traditional ideas and + supposed, with uninquiring philanthropy, that in blackening Alexander they + were doing humanity good service. But also, without doubt, many of his + assailants, like those of other great men, have been mainly instigated by + "that strongest of all antipathies, the antipathy of a second-rate mind to + a first-rate one," [De Stael.] and by the envy which talent too often + bears to genius. + </p> + <p> + Arrian, who wrote his history of Alexander when Hadrian was emperor of the + Roman world, and when the spirit of declamation and dogmatism was at its + full height, but who was himself, unlike the dreaming pedants of the + schools, a statesman and a soldier of practical and proved ability, well + rebuked the malevolent aspersions which he heard continually thrown upon + the memory of the great conqueror of the East. He truly says, "Let the man + who speaks evil of Alexander not merely bring forward those passages of + Alexander's life which were really evil, but let him collect and review + all the actions of Alexander, and then let him thoroughly consider first + who and what manner of man he himself is, and what has been his own + career; and then let him consider who and what manner of man Alexander + was, and to what an eminence of human grandeur HE arrived. Let him + consider that Alexander was a king, and the undisputed lord of the two + continents; and that his name is renowned throughout the whole earth. Let + the evil-speaker against Alexander bear all this in mind, and then let him + reflect on his own insignificance, the pettiness of his own circumstances + and affairs, and the blunders that he makes about these, paltry and + trifling as they are. Let him then ask himself whether he is a fit person + to censure and revile such a man as Alexander. I believe that there was in + his time no nation of men, no city, nay, no single individual, with whom + Alexander's name had not become a familiar word. I therefore hold that + such a man, who was like no ordinary mortal was not born into the world + without some special providence." [Arrian, lib. vii. AD FINEM.] + </p> + <p> + And one of the most distinguished soldiers and writers of our own nation, + Sir Walter Raleigh, though he failed to estimate justly the full merits of + Alexander, has expressed his sense of the grandeur of the part played in + the world by "The Great Emathian Conqueror" in language that well deserves + quotation:—"So much hath the spirit of some one man excelled as it + hath undertaken and effected the alteration of the greatest states and + commonwealths, the erection of monarchies, the conquest of kingdoms and + empires, guided handfuls of men against multitudes of equal bodily + strength, contrived victories beyond all hope and discourse of reason, + converted the fearful passions of his own followers into magnanimity, and + the valour of his enemies into cowardice; such spirits have been stirred + up in sundry ages of the world, and in divers parts thereof, to erect and + cast down again, to establish and to destroy, and to bring all things, + persons, and states to the same certain ends, which the infinite spirit of + the UNIVERSAL, piercing, moving, and governing all things, hath ordained. + Certainly, the things that this king did were marvellous, and would hardly + have been undertaken by any one else: and though his father had determined + to have invaded the Lesser Asia, it is like that he would have contented + himself with some part thereof, and not have discovered the river of + Indus, as this man did." ["The Historie of the World," by Sir Walter + Raleigh, Knight, p. 628.] + </p> + <p> + A higher authority than either Arrian or Raleigh may now be referred to by + those who wish to know the real merit of Alexander as a general, and how + far the commonplace assertions are true, that his successes were the mere + results of fortunate rashness and unreasoning pugnacity, Napoleon selected + Alexander as one of the seven greatest generals whose noble deeds history + has handed down to us, and from the study of whose campaigns the + principles of war are to be learned. The critique of the greatest + conqueror of modern times on the military career of the great conqueror of + the old world, is no less graphic than true. + </p> + <p> + "Alexander crossed the Dardanelles 334 B.C. with an army of about forty + thousand men, of which one-eighth was cavalry; he forced the passage of + the Granicus in opposition to an army under Memnon, the Greek, who + commanded for Darius on the coast of Asia, and he spent the whole of the + year 333 in establishing his power in Asia Minor. He was seconded by the + Greek colonists, who dwelt on the borders of the Black Sea, and on the + Mediterranean, and in Smyrna, Ephesus, Tarsus, Miletus, &c. The kings + of Persia left their provinces and towns to be governed according to their + own particular laws. Their empire was a union of confederated states, and + did not form one nation; this facilitated its conquest. As Alexander only + wished for the throne of the monarch, he easily effected the change, by + respecting the customs, manners, and laws of the people, who experienced + no change in their condition. + </p> + <p> + "In the year 332, he met with Darius at the head of sixty thousand men, + who had taken up a position near Tarsus, on the banks of the Issus, in the + province of Cilicia. He defeated him, entered Syria, took Damascus, which + contained all the riches of the Great King, and laid siege to Tyre. This + superb metropolis of the commerce of the world detained him nine months. + He took Gaza after a siege of two months; crossed the Desert in seven + days; entered Pelusium and Memphis, and founded Alexandria. In less than + two years, after two battles and four or five sieges, the coasts of the + Black Sea from Phasis to Byzantium, those of the Mediterranean as far as + Alexandria, all Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, had submitted to his arms. + </p> + <p> + "In 331, he repassed the Desert, encamped in Tyre, recrossed Syria, + entered Damascus, passed the Euphrates and Tigris, and defeated Darius on + the field of Arbela, when he was at the head of a still stronger army than + that which he commanded on the Issus, and Babylon opened her gates to him. + In 330, he overran Susa, and took that city, Persepolis, and Pasargada, + which contained the tomb of Cyrus. In 329, he directed his course + northward, entered Ecbatana, and extended his conquests to the coasts of + the Caspian, punished Bessus, the cowardly assassin of Darius, penetrated + into Scythia, and subdued the Scythians. In 328, he forced the passage of + the Oxus, received sixteen thousand recruits from Macedonia, and reduced + the neighbouring people to subjection. In 327, he crossed the Indus, + vanquished Poros in a pitched battle, took him prisoner, and treated him + as a king. He contemplated passing the Ganges, but his army refused. He + sailed down the Indus, in the year 326, with eight hundred vessels; having + arrived at the ocean, he sent Nearchus with a fleet to run along the + coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, as far as the mouth of + the Euphrates. In 325, he took sixty days in crossing from Gedrosia, + entered Keramania, returned to Pasargada, Persepolis, and Susa, and + married Statira, the daughter of Darius. In 324, he marched once more to + the north, passed Ecbatana, and terminated his career at Babylon." [See + Count Montolon's Memoirs of Napoleon.] + </p> + <p> + The enduring importance of Alexander's conquests is to be estimated not by + the duration of his own life and empire, or even by the duration of the + kingdoms which his generals after his death formed out of the fragments of + that mighty dominion. In every region of the world that he traversed, + Alexander planted Greek settlements, and founded cities, in the + populations of which the Greek element at once asserted its predominance. + Among his successors, the Seleucids and the Ptolemies imitated their great + captain in blending schemes of civilization, of commercial intercourse, + and of literary and scientific research with all their enterprises of + military aggrandizement, and with all their systems of civil + administration. Such was the ascendancy of the Greek genius, so + wonderfully comprehensive and assimilating was the cultivation which it + introduced, that, within thirty years after Alexander crossed the + Hellespont, the language, the literature, and the arts of Hellas, enforced + and promoted by the arms of semi-Hellenic Macedon, predominated in every + country from the shores of that sea to the Indian waters. Even sullen + Egypt acknowledged the intellectual supremacy of Greece; and the language + of Pericles and Plato became the language of the statesmen and the sages + who dwelt in the mysterious land of the Pyramids and the Sphinx. It is not + to be supposed that this victory of the Greek tongue was so complete as to + exterminate the Coptic, the Syrian, the Armenian, the Persian, or the + other native languages of the numerous nations and tribes between the + AEgean, the Iaxertes, the Indus, and the Nile; they survived as provincial + dialects. Each probably was in use as the vulgar tongue of its own + district. But every person with the slightest pretence to education spoke + Greek. Greek was universally the State language, and the exclusive + language of all literature and science, It formed also for the merchant, + the trader, and the traveller, as well as for the courtier, the government + official, and the soldier, the organ of intercommunication among the + myriads of mankind inhabiting these large portions of the Old World. [See + Arnold, Hist. Rome, ii. 406.] Throughout Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, the + Hellenic character that was thus imparted, remained in full vigour down to + the time of the Mahometan conquests. The infinite value of this to + humanity in the highest and holiest point of view has often been pointed + out; and the workings of the finger of Providence have been gratefully + recognised by those who have observed how the early growth and progress of + Christianity were aided by that diffusion of the Greek language and + civilization throughout Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt which had been caused + by the Macedonian conquest of the East. + </p> + <p> + In Upper Asia, beyond the Euphrates, the direct and material influence of + Greek ascendancy was more short-lived. Yet, during the existence of the + Hellenic kingdoms in these regions, especially of the Greek kingdom of + Bactria, the modern Bokhara, very important effects were produced on the + intellectual tendencies and tastes of the inhabitants of those countries + and of the adjacent ones, by the animating contact of the Grecian spirit. + Much of Hindoo science and philosophy, much of the literature of the later + Persian kingdom of the Arsacidae, either originated from, or was largely + modified by, Grecian influences. So, also, the learning and science of the + Arabians were in a far less degree the result of original invention and + genius, than the reproduction, in an altered form, of the Greek philosophy + and the Greek lore, acquired by the Saracenic conquerors together with + their acquisition of the provinces which Alexander had subjugated nearly a + thousand years before the armed disciples of Mahomet commenced their + career in the East. It is well known that Western Europe in the Middle + ages drew its philosophy, its arts, and its science, principally from + Arabian teachers. And thus we see how the intellectual influence of + ancient Greece, poured on the Eastern world by Alexander's victories, and + then brought back to bear on Mediaeval Europe by the spread of the + Saracenic powers, has exerted its action on the elements of modern + civilization by this powerful though indirect channel as well as by the + more obvious effects of the remnants of classic civilization which + survived in Italy, Gaul, Britain, and Spain, after the irruption of the + Germanic nations. [See Humboldt's Cosmos.] + </p> + <p> + These considerations invest the Macedonian triumphs in the East with + never-dying interest, such as the most showy and sanguinary successes of + mere "low ambition and the pride of kings," however they may dazzle for a + moment, can never retain with posterity. Whether the old Persian empire, + which Cyrus founded, could have survived much longer than it did, even if + Darius had been victorious at Arbela, may safely be disputed. That ancient + dominion, like the Turkish at the present time, laboured under every cause + of decay and dissolution. The satraps, like the modern pachas, continually + rebelled against the central power, and Egypt, in particular, was almost + always in a state of insurrection against its nominal sovereign. There was + no longer any effective central control, or any internal principle of + unity fused through the huge mass of the empire, and binding it together. + Persia was evidently about to fall; but, had it not been for Alexander's + invasion of Asia, she would most probably have fallen beneath some other + Oriental power, as Media and Babylon had formerly fallen before herself, + and as, in after times, the Parthian supremacy gave way to the revived + ascendancy of Persia in the East, under the sceptres of the Arsacidae. A + revolution that merely substituted one Eastern power for another would + have been utterly barren and unprofitable to mankind. + </p> + <p> + Alexander's victory at Arbela not only overthrew an Oriental dynasty, but + established European rulers in its stead. It broke the monotony, of the + Eastern world by the impression of Western energy and superior + civilization; even as England's present mission is to break up the mental + and moral stagnation of India and Cathay, by pouring upon and through them + the impulsive current of Anglo-Saxon commerce and conquest. + </p> + <p> + Arbela, the city which has furnished its name to the decisive battle that + gave Asia to Alexander, lies more than twenty miles from the actual scene + of conflict. The little village then named Gaugamela is close to the spot + where the armies met, but has ceded the honour of naming the battle to its + more euphonious neighbour. Gaugamela is situate in one of the wide plains + that lie between the Tigris and the mountains of Kurdistan. A few + undulating hillocks diversify the surface of this sandy track; but the + ground is generally level, and admirably qualified for the evolutions of + cavalry, and also calculated to give the larger of two armies the full + advantage of numerical superiority. The Persian King (who before he came + to the throne, had proved his personal valour as a soldier, and his skill + as a general) had wisely selected this region for the third and decisive + encounter between his forces and the invaders. The previous defeats of his + troops, however severe they had been, were not looked on as irreparable, + The Granicus had been fought by his generals rashly and without mutual + concert. And, though Darius himself had commanded and been beaten at + Issus, that defeat might be attributed to the disadvantageous nature of + the ground; where, cooped up between the mountains, the river, and the + sea, the numbers of the Persians confused and clogged alike the general's + skill and the soldiers' prowess, so that their very strength became their + weakness. Here, on the broad plains of Kurdistan, there was scope for + Asia's largest host to array its lines, to wheel, to skirmish, to condense + or expand its squadrons, to manoeuvre, and to charge at will. Should + Alexander and his scanty band dare to plunge into that living sea of war, + their destruction seemed inevitable. + </p> + <p> + Darius felt, however, the critical nature to himself as well as to his + adversary of the coming encounter. He could not hope to retrieve the + consequences of a third overthrow. The great cities of Mesopotamia and + Upper Asia, the central provinces of the Persian empire, were certain to + be at the mercy of the victor. Darius knew also the Asiatic character well + enough to be aware how it yields to the prestige of success, and the + apparent career of destiny. He felt that the diadem was now either to be + firmly replaced on his own brow, or to be irrevocably transferred to the + head of his European conqueror. He, therefore, during the long interval + left him after the battle of Issus, while Alexander was subjugating Syria + and Egypt, assiduously busied himself in selecting the best troops which + his vast empire supplied, and in training his varied forces to act + together with some uniformity of discipline and system. + </p> + <p> + The hardy mountaineers of Affghanistan, Bokhara, Khiva, and Thibet, were + then, as at present, far different from the generality of Asiatics in + warlike spirit and endurance. From these districts Darius collected large + bodies of admirable infantry; and the countries of the modern Kurds and + Turkomans supplied, as they do now, squadrons of horsemen, strong, + skilful, bold, and trained to a life of constant activity and warfare. It + is not uninteresting to notice that the ancestors of our own late enemies, + the Sikhs, served as allies of Darius against the Macedonians. They are + spoken of in Arrian as Indians who dwelt near Bactria. They were attached + to the troops of that satrapy, and their cavalry was one of the most + formidable forces in the whole Persian army. + </p> + <p> + Besides these picked troops, contingents also came in from the numerous + other provinces that yet obeyed the Great King. Altogether, the horse are + said to have been forty thousand, the scythe-bearing chariots two hundred, + and the armed elephants fifteen in number. The amount of the infantry is + uncertain; but the knowledge which both ancient and modern times supply of + the usual character of Oriental armies, and of their populations of + camp-followers, may warrant us in believing that many myriads were + prepared to fight, or to encumber those who fought, for the last Darius. + </p> + <p> + The position of the Persian king near Mesopotamia was chosen with great + military skill. It was certain that Alexander on his return from Egypt + must march northward along the Syrian coast, before he attacked the + central provinces of the Persian empire. A direct eastward march from the + lower part of Palestine across the great Syrian Desert was then, as now, + utterly impracticable. Marching eastward from Syria, Alexander would, on + crossing the Euphrates, arrive at the vast Mesopotamian plains. The + wealthy capitals of the empire, Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, would then + lie to his south; and if he marched down through Mesopotamia to attack + them, Darius might reasonably hope to follow the Macedonians with his + immense force of cavalry, and, without even risking a pitched battle, to + harass and finally overwhelm them. We may remember that three centuries + afterwards a Roman army under Crassus was thus actually destroyed by the + Oriental archers and horsemen in these very plains; [See Mitford.] and + that the ancestors of the Parthians who thus vanquished the Roman legions, + served by thousands under King Darius. If, on the contrary, Alexander + should defer his march against Babylon, and first seek an encounter with + the Persian army, the country on each side of the Tigris in this latitude + was highly advantageous for such an army as Darius commanded; and he had + close in his rear the mountainous districts of Northern Media, where he + himself had in early life been satrap, where he had acquired reputation as + a soldier and a general, and where he justly expected to find loyalty to + his person, and a safe refuge in case of defeat. [Mitford's remarks on the + strategy of Darius in his last campaign are very just. After having been + unduly admired as an historian, Mitford is now unduly neglected. His + partiality, and his deficiency in scholarship, have been exposed + sufficiently to make him no longer a dangerous guide as to Greek polities; + while the clearness and brilliancy of his narrative, and the strong common + sense of his remarks (where his party prejudices do not interfere) must + always make his volumes valuable as well as entertaining.] + </p> + <p> + His great antagonist came on across the Euphrates against him, at the head + of an army which Arrian, copying from the journals of Macedonian officers, + states to have consisted of forty thousand foot, and seven thousand horse. + In studying the campaigns of Alexander, we possess the peculiar advantage + of deriving our information from two of Alexander's generals of division, + who bore an important part in all his enterprises. Aristobulus and Ptolemy + (who afterwards became king of Egypt) kept regular journals of the + military events which they witnessed; and these journals were in the + possession of Arrian, when he drew up his history of Alexander's + expedition. The high character of Arrian for integrity makes us confident + that he used them fairly, and his comments on the occasional discrepancies + between the two Macedonian narratives prove that he used them sensibly. He + frequently quotes the very words of his authorities: and his history thus + acquires a charm such as very few ancient or modern military narratives + possess. The anecdotes and expressions which he records we fairly believe + to be genuine, and not to be the coinage of a rhetorician, like those in + Curtius. In fact, in reading Arrian, we read General Aristobulus and + General Ptolemy on the campaigns of the Macedonians; and it is like + reading General Jomini or General Foy on the campaigns of the French. + </p> + <p> + The estimate which we find in Arrian of the strength of Alexander's army, + seems reasonable when we take into account both the losses which he had + sustained, and the reinforcements which he had received since he left + Europe. Indeed, to Englishmen, who know with what mere handfuls of men our + own generals have, at Plassy, at Assaye, at Meeanee, and other Indian + battles, routed large hosts of Asiatics, the disparity of numbers that we + read of in the victories won by the Macedonians over the Persians presents + nothing incredible. The army which Alexander now led was wholly composed + of veteran troops in the highest possible state of equipment and + discipline, enthusiastically devoted to their leader, and full of + confidence in his military genius and his victorious destiny. + </p> + <p> + The celebrated Macedonian phalanx formed the main strength of his + infantry. This force had been raised and organized by his father Philip, + who on his accession to the Macedonian throne needed a numerous and + quickly-formed army, and who, by lengthening the spear of the ordinary + Greek phalanx, and increasing the depth of the files, brought the tactic + of armed masses to the greatest efficiency of which it was capable with + such materials as he possessed. [See Niebuhr's Hist. of Rome, iii. 488.] + He formed his men sixteen deep, and placed in their grasp the SARISSA, as + the Macedonian pike was called, which was four-and-twenty feet in length, + and when couched for action, reached eighteen feet in front of the + soldier: so that, as a space of about two feet was allowed between the + ranks, the spears of the five files behind him projected in advance of + each front-rank man. The phalangite soldier was fully equipped in the + defensive armour of the regular Greek infantry. And thus the phalanx + presented a ponderous and bristling mass, which as long as its order was + kept compact, was sure to bear down all opposition. The defects of such an + organization are obvious, and were proved in after years, when the + Macedonians were opposed to the Roman legions. But it is clear that, under + Alexander, the phalanx was not the cumbrous unwieldy body which it was at + Cynoscephalae and Pydna. His men were veterans; and he could obtain from + them an accuracy of movement and steadiness of evolution, such as probably + the recruits of his father would only have floundered in attempting, and + such as certainly were impracticable in the phalanx when handled by his + successors: especially as under them it ceased to be a standing force, and + became only a militia. [See Niebuhr.] Under Alexander the phalanx + consisted of an aggregate of eighteen thousand men, who were divided into + six brigades of three thousand each. These were again subdivided into + regiments and companies; and the men were carefully trained to wheel, to + face about, to take more ground, or to close up, as the emergencies of the + battle required. Alexander also arrayed in the intervals of the regiments + of his phalangites, troops armed in a different manner, which could + prevent their line from being pierced, and their companies taken in flank, + when the nature of the ground prevented a close formation; and which could + be withdrawn, when a favourable opportunity arrived for closing up the + phalanx or any of its brigades for a charge, or when it was necessary to + prepare to receive cavalry. + </p> + <p> + Besides the phalanx, Alexander had a considerable force of infantry who + were called shield-bearers: they were not so heavily armed as the + phalangites, or as was the case with the Greek regular infantry in + general; but they were equipped for close fight, as well as for + skirmishing, and were far superior to the ordinary irregular troops of + Greek warfare. They were about six thousand strong. Besides these, he had + several bodies of Greek regular infantry; and he had archers, slingers, + and javelin-men, who fought also with broadsword and target. These were + principally supplied to him by the highlanders of Illyria and Thracia. The + main strength of his cavalry consisted in two chosen corps of cuirassiers, + one Macedonian, and one Thessalian each of which was about fifteen hundred + strong. They were provided with long lances and heavy swords, and horse as + well as man was fully equipped with defensive armour. Other regiments of + regular cavalry were less heavily armed, and there were several bodies of + light horsemen, whom Alexander's conquests in Egypt and Syria had enabled + him to mount superbly. + </p> + <p> + A little before the end of August, Alexander crossed the Euphrates at + Thapsacus, a small corps of Persian cavalry under Mazaeus retiring before + him. Alexander was too prudent to march down through the Mesopotamian + deserts, and continued to advance eastward with the intention of passing + the Tigris, and then, if he was unable to find Darius and bring him to + action, of marching southward on the left side of that river along the + skirts of a mountainous district where his men would suffer less from heat + and thirst, and where provisions would be more abundant. + </p> + <p> + Darius, finding that his adversary was not to be enticed into the march + through Mesopotamia against his capital, determined to remain on the + battle-ground which he had chosen on the left of the Tigris; where, if his + enemy met a defeat or a check, the destruction of the invaders would be + certain with two such rivers as the Euphrates and the Tigris in their + rear. The Persian king availed himself to the utmost of every advantage in + his power. He caused a large space of ground to be carefully levelled for + the operation of his scythe-armed chariots; and he deposited his military + stores in the strong town of Arbela, about twenty miles in his rear. The + rhetoricians of after ages have loved to describe Darius Codomannus as a + second Xerxes in ostentation and imbecility; but a fair examination of his + generalship in this his last campaign, shows that he was worthy of bearing + the same name as his great predecessor, the royal son of Hystaspes. + </p> + <p> + On learning that Darius was with a large army on the left of the Tigris, + Alexander hurried forward and crossed that river without opposition. He + was at first unable to procure any certain intelligence of the precise + position of the enemy, and after giving his army a short interval of rest, + he marched for four days down the left bank of the river. A moralist may + pause upon the fact, that Alexander must in this march have passed within + a few miles of the remains of Nineveh, the great, city of the primaeval + conquerors of the human race. Neither the Macedonian king nor any of his + followers knew what those vast mounds had once been. They had already + become nameless masses of grass-grown ruins; and it is only within the + last few years that the intellectual energy of one of our own countrymen + has rescued Nineveh from its long centuries of oblivion. [See Layard's + "Nineveh," and also Vaux's "Nineveh and Persepolis," p. 16.] + </p> + <p> + On the fourth day of Alexander's southward march, his advanced guard + reported that a body of the enemy's cavalry was in sight. He instantly + formed his army in order for battle, and directing them to advance + steadily, he rode forward at the head of some squadrons of cavalry, and + charged the Persian horse whom he found before him. This was a mere + reconnoitring party, and they broke and fled immediately; but the + Macedonians made some prisoners, and from them Alexander found that Darius + was posted only a few miles off and learned the strength of the army that + he had with him. On receiving this news, Alexander halted, and gave his + men repose for four days, so that they should go into action fresh and + vigorous. He also fortified his camp, and deposited in it all his military + stores, and all his sick and disabled soldiers; intending to advance upon + the enemy with the serviceable part of his army perfectly unencumbered. + After this halt, he moved forward, while it was yet dark, with the + intention of reaching the enemy, and attacking them at break of day. About + half-way between the camps there were some undulations of the ground, + which concealed the two armies from each other's view. But, on Alexander + arriving at their summit, he saw by the early light the Persian host + arrayed before him; and he probably also observed traces of some + engineering operation having been carried on along part of the ground in + front of them. Not knowing that these marks had been caused by the + Persians having levelled the ground for the free use of their + war-chariots, Alexander suspected that hidden pitfalls had been prepared + with a view of disordering the approach of his cavalry. He summoned a + council of war forthwith, some of the officers were for attacking + instantly at all hazards, but the more prudent opinion of Parmenio + prevailed, and it was determined not to advance farther till the + battle-ground had been carefully surveyed. + </p> + <p> + Alexander halted his army on the heights; and taking with him some + light-armed infantry and some cavalry, he passed part of the day in + reconnoitring the enemy, and observing the nature of the ground which he + had to fight on. Darius wisely refrained from moving from his position to + attack the Macedonians on eminences which they occupied, and the two + armies remained until night without molesting each other. On Alexander's + return to his head-quarters, he summoned his generals and superior + officers together, and telling them that he well knew that THEIR zeal + wanted no exhortation, he besought them to do their utmost in encouraging + and instructing those whom each commanded, to do their best in the next + day's battle. They were to remind them that they were now not going to + fight for a province, as they had hitherto fought, but they were about to + decide by their swords the dominion of all Asia. Each officer ought to + impress this upon his subalterns and they should urge it on their men. + Their natural courage required no long words to excite its ardour: but + they should be reminded of the paramount importance of steadiness in + action. The silence in the ranks must be unbroken as long as silence was + proper; but when the time came for the charge, the shout and the cheer + must be full of terror for the foe. The officers were to be alert in + receiving and communicating orders; and every one was to act as if he felt + that the whole result of the battle depended on his own single good + conduct. + </p> + <p> + Having thus briefly instructed his generals, Alexander ordered that the + army should sup, and take their rest for the night. + </p> + <p> + Darkness had closed over the tents of the Macedonians, when Alexander's + veteran general, Parmenio, came to him, and proposed that they should make + a night attack on the Persians. The King is said to have answered, that he + scorned to such a victory, and that Alexander must conquer openly and + fairly. Arrian justly remarks that Alexander's resolution was as wise as + it was spirited. Besides the confusion and uncertainty which are + inseparable from night engagements, the value of Alexander's victory would + have been impaired, if gained under circumstances which might supply the + enemy with any excuse for his defeat, and encourage him to renew the + contest. It was necessary for Alexander not only to beat Darius, but to + gain such a victory as should leave his rival without apology for defeat, + and without hope of recovery. + </p> + <p> + The Persians, in fact, expected, and were prepared to meet a night attack. + Such was the apprehension that Darius entertained of it, that he formed + his troops at evening in order of battle, and kept them under arms all + night. The effect of this was, that the morning found them jaded and + dispirited, while it brought their adversaries all fresh and vigorous + against them. + </p> + <p> + The written order of battle which Darius himself caused to be drawn up, + fell into the hands of the Macedonians after the engagement, and + Aristobulus copied it into his journal. We thus possess, through Arrian, + unusually authentic information as to the composition and arrangement of + the Persian army. On the extreme left were the Bactrian, Daan, and + Arachosian cavalry. Next to these Darius placed the troops from Persia + proper, both horse and foot. Then came the Susians, and next to these the + Cadusians. These forces made up the left wing. Darius's own station was in + the centre. This was composed of the Indians, the Carians, the Mardian + archers, and the division of Persians who were distinguished by the golden + apples that formed knobs of their spears. Here also were stationed the + body-guard of the Persian nobility. Besides these, there were in the + centre, formed in deep order, the Uxian and Babylonian troops, and the + soldiers from the Red Sea. The brigade of Greek mercenaries, whom Darius + had in his service, and who were alone considered fit to stand in the + charge of the Macedonian phalanx, was drawn up on either side of the royal + chariot. The right wing was composed of the Coelosyrians and + Mesopotamians, the Medes, the Parthians, the Sacians, the Tapurians, + Hyrcanians, Albanians, and Sacesinae. In advance of the line on the left + wing were placed the Scythian cavalry, with a thousand of the Bactrian + horse, and a hundred scythe-armed chariots. The elephants and fifty + scythe-armed chariots were ranged in front of the centre; and fifty more + chariots, with the Armenian and Cappadocian cavalry, were drawn up in + advance of the right wing. + </p> + <p> + Thus arrayed, the great host of King Darius passed the night, that to many + thousands of them was the last of their existence. The morning of the + first of October, two thousand one hundred and eighty-two years ago, + dawned slowly to their wearied watching, and they could hear the note of + the Macedonian trumpet sounding to arms, and could see King Alexander's + forces descend from their tents on the heights, and form in order of + battle on the plain. [See Clinton's "Fasti Hellenici." The battle was + fought eleven days after an eclipse of the moon, which gives the means of + fixing the precise date.] + </p> + <p> + There was deep need of skill, as well as of valour, on Alexander's side; + and few battle-fields have witnessed more consummate generalship than was + now displayed by the Macedonian king. There were no natural barriers by + which he could protect his flanks; and not only was he certain to be + overlapped on either wing by the vast lines of the Persian army, but there + was imminent risk of their circling round him and charging him in the + rear, while he advanced against their centre. He formed, therefore, a + second or reserve line, which was to wheel round, if required, or to + detach troops to either flank; as the enemy's movements might necessitate: + and thus, with their whole army ready at any moment to be thrown into one + vast hollow square, the Macedonians advanced in two lines against the + enemy, Alexander himself leading on the right wing, and the renowned + phalanx forming the centre, while Parmenio commanded on the left. + </p> + <p> + Such was the general nature of the disposition which Alexander made of his + army. But we have in Arrian the details of the position of each brigade + and regiment; and as we know that these details were taken from the + journals of Macedonian generals, it is interesting to examine them, and to + read the names and stations of King Alexander's generals and colonels in + this the greatest of his battles. + </p> + <p> + The eight troops of the royal horse-guards formed the right of Alexander's + line. Their captains were Cleitus (whose regiment was on the extreme + right, the post of peculiar danger), Graucias, Ariston, Sopolis, + Heracleides, Demetrias, Meleager, and Hegelochus. Philotas was general of + the whole division. Then came the shield-bearing infantry: Nicanor was + their general. Then came the phalanx, in six brigades. Coenus's brigade + was on the right, and nearest to the shield-bearers; next to this stood + the brigade of Perdiccas, then Meleager's, then Polysperchon's; and then + the brigade of Amynias, but which was now commanded by Simmias, as Amynias + had been sent to Macedonia to levy recruits. Then came the infantry of the + left wing, under the command of Craterus. Next to Craterus's infantry were + placed the cavalry regiments of the allies, with Eriguius for their + general. The Messalian cavalry, commanded by Philippus, were next, and + held the extreme left of the whole army. The whole left wing was entrusted + to the command of Parmenio, who had round his person the Pharsalian troop + of cavalry, which was the strongest and best amid all the Thessalian + horse-regiments. + </p> + <p> + The centre of the second line was occupied by a body of phalangite + infantry, formed of companies, which were drafted for this purpose from + each of the brigades of their phalanx. The officers in command of this + corps were ordered to be ready to face about, if the enemy should succeed + in gaining the rear of the army. On the right of this reserve of infantry, + in the second line, and behind the royal horse-guards, Alexander placed + half the Agrian light-armed infantry under Attalus, and with them Brison's + body of Macedonian archers, and Cleander's regiment of foot. He also + placed in this part of his army Menidas's squadron of cavalry, and + Aretes's and Ariston's light horse. Menidas was ordered to watch if the + enemy's cavalry tried to turn the flank, and if they did so, to charge + them before they wheeled completely round, and so take them in flank + themselves. A similar force was arranged on the left of the second line + for the same purpose, The Thracian infantry of Sitalces was placed there, + and Coeranus's regiment of the cavalry of the Greek allies, and Agathon's + troops of the Odrysian irregular horse. The extreme left of the second + line in this quarter was held by Andromachus's cavalry. A division of + Thracian infantry was left in guard of the camp. In advance of the right + wing and centre was scattered a number of light-armed troops, of + javelin-men and bowmen, with the intention of warding off the charge of + the armed chariots. [Kleber's arrangement of his troops at the battle of + Heliopolis, where, with ten thousand Europeans, he had to encounter eighty + thousand Asiatics in an open plain, is worth comparing with Alexander's + tactics at Arbela. See Thiers's "Histoire du Consulat," &c. vol. ii. + livre v.] + </p> + <p> + Conspicuous by the brilliancy of his armour, and by the chosen band of + officers who were round his person, Alexander took his own station, as his + custom was, in the right wing, at the head of his cavalry: and when all + the arrangements for the battle were complete, and his generals were fully + instructed how to act in each probable emergency, he began to lead his men + towards the enemy. + </p> + <p> + It was ever his custom to expose his life freely in battle, and to emulate + the personal prowess of his great ancestor, Achilles. Perhaps in the bold + enterprise of conquering Persia, it was politic for Alexander to raise his + army's daring to the utmost by the example of his own heroic valour: and, + in his subsequent campaigns, the love of the excitement, of "the rapture + of the strife," may have made him, like Murat, continue from choice a + custom which he commenced from duty. But he never suffered the ardour of + the soldier to make him lose the coolness of the general; and at Arbela, + in particular, he showed that he could act up to his favourite Homeric + maxim. + </p> + <p> + Great reliance had been placed by the Persian king on the effects of the + scythe-bearing chariots. It was designed to launch these against the + Macedonian phalanx, and to follow them up by a heavy charge of cavalry, + which it was hoped would find the ranks of the spearmen disordered by the + rush of the chariots, and easily destroy this most formidable part of + Alexander's force. In front, therefore, of the Persian centre, where + Darius took his station, and which it was supposed the phalanx would + attack, the ground had been carefully levelled and smoothed, so as to + allow the chariots to charge over it with their full sweep and speed. As + the Macedonian army approached the Persian, Alexander found that the front + of his whole line barely equalled the front of the Persian centre, so that + he was outflanked on his right by the entire left; wing of the enemy, and + by their entire right wing on his left. His tactics were to assail some + one point of the hostile army, and gain a decisive advantage; while he + refused, as far as possible, the encounter along the rest of the line. He + therefore inclined his order of march to the right so as to enable his + right wing and centre to come into collision with the enemy on as + favourable terms as possible though the manoeuvre might in some respects + compromise his left. + </p> + <p> + The effect of this oblique movement was to bring the phalanx and his own + wing nearly beyond the limits of the ground which the Persians had + prepared for the operations of the chariots; and Darius, fearing to lose + the benefit of this arm against the most important parts of the Macedonian + force, ordered the Scythian and Bactrian cavalry, who were drawn up on his + extreme left, to charge round upon Alexander's right wing, and check its + further lateral progress. Against these assailants Alexander sent from his + second line Menidas's cavalry. As these proved too few to make head + against the enemy, he ordered Ariston also from the second line with his + light horse, and Cleander with his foot, in support of Menidas. The + Bactrians and Scythians now began to give way, but Darius reinforced them + by the mass of Bactrian cavalry from his main line, and an obstinate + cavalry fight now took place. The Bactrians and Scythians were numerous, + and were better armed than the horseman under Menidas and Ariston; and the + loss at first was heaviest on the Macedonian side. But still the European + cavalry stood the charge of the Asiatics, and at last, by their superior + discipline, and by acting in squadrons that supported each other, instead + of fighting in a confused mass like the barbarians, the Macedonians broke + their adversaries, and drove them off the field. [The best explanation of + this may be found in Napoleon's account of the cavalry fights between the + French and the Mamelukes:—"Two Mamelukes were able to make head + against three Frenchmen, because they were better armed, better mounted, + and better trained; they had two pair of pistols, a blunderbuss, a + carbine, a helmet with a vizor, and a coat of mail; they had several + horses, and several attendants on foot. One hundred cuirassiers, however + were not afraid of one hundred Mamelukes; three hundred could beat; an + equal number, and one thousand could easily put to the rout fifteen + hundred, so great is the influence of tactics, order, and evolutions! + Leclerc and Lasalle presented their men to the Mamelukes in several lines. + When the Arabs were on the point of overwhelming the first, the second + came to its assistance on the right and left; the Mamelukes then halted + and wheeled, in order to turn the wings of this new line; this moment was + always seized upon to charge them, and they were uniformly broken."—MONTHOLON'S + HISTORY OF THE CAPTIVITY OF NAPOLEON, iv. 70.] + </p> + <p> + Darius, now directed the scythe-armed chariots to be driven against + Alexander's horse-guards and the phalanx; and these formidable vehicles + were accordingly sent rattling across the plain, against the Macedonian + line. When we remember the alarm which the war-chariots of the Britons + created among Caesar's legions, we shall not be prone to deride this arm + of ancient warfare as always useless. The object of the chariots was to + create unsteadiness in the ranks against which they were driven, and + squadrons of cavalry followed close upon them, to profit by such disorder. + But the Asiatic chariots were rendered ineffective at Arbela by the + light-armed troops whom Alexander had specially appointed for the service, + and who, wounding the horses and drivers with their missile weapons, and + running alongside so as to cut the traces or seize the reins, marred the + intended charge; and the few chariots that reached the phalanx passed + harmlessly through the intervals which the spearmen opened for them, and + were easily captured in the rear. + </p> + <p> + A mass of the Asiatic cavalry was now, for the second time, collected + against Alexander's extreme right, and moved round it, with the view of + gaining the flank of his army. At the critical moment, Aretes, with his + horsemen from Alexander's second line, dashed on the Persian squadrons + when their own flanks were exposed by this evolution. While Alexander thus + met and baffled all the flanking attacks of the enemy with troops brought + up from his second line, he kept his own horse-guards and the rest of the + front line of his wing fresh, and ready to take advantage of the first + opportunity for striking a decisive blow. This soon came. A large body of + horse, who were posted on the Persian left wing nearest to the centre, + quitted their station, and rode off to help their comrades in the cavalry + fight that still was going on at the extreme right of Alexander's wing + against the detachments from his second line. This made a huge gap in the + Persian array, and into this space Alexander instantly dashed with his + guard; and then pressing towards his left, he soon began to make havoc in + the left flank of the Persian centre. The shield-bearing infantry now + charged also among the reeling masses of the Asiatics; and five of the + brigades of the phalanx, with the irresistible might of their sarissas, + bore down the Greek mercenaries of Darius, and dug their way through the + Persian centre. In the early part of the battle, Darius had showed skill + and energy; and he now for some time encouraged his men, by voice and + example, to keep firm. But the lances of Alexander's cavalry, and the + pikes of the phalanx now gleamed nearer and nearer to him. His charioteer + was struck down by a javelin at his side; and at last Darius's nerve + failed him; and, descending from his chariot, he mounted on a fleet horse + and galloped from the plain, regardless of the state of the battle in + other parts of the field, where matters were going on much more favourably + for his cause, and where his presence might have done much towards gaining + a victory. + </p> + <p> + Alexander's operations with his right and centre had exposed his left to + an immensely preponderating force of the enemy. Parmenio kept out of + action as long as possible; but Mazaeus, who commanded the Persian right + wing, advanced against him, completely outflanked him, and pressed him + severely with reiterated charges by superior numbers. Seeing the distress + of Parmenio's wing, Simmias, who commanded the sixth brigade of the + phalanx, which was next to the left wing, did not advance with the other + brigades in the great charge upon the Persian centre, but kept back to + cover Parmenio's troops on their right flank; as otherwise they would have + been completely surrounded and cut off from the rest of the Macedonian + army. By so doing, Simmias had unavoidably opened a gap in the Macedonian + left centre; and a large column of Indian and Persian horse, from the + Persian right centre, had galloped forward through this interval, and + right through the troops of the Macedonian second line. Instead of then + wheeling round upon Sarmenio, or upon the rear of Alexander's conquering + wing, the Indian and Persian cavalry rode straight on to the Macedonian + camp, overpowered the Thracians who were left in charge of it, and began + to plunder. This was stopped by the phalangite troops of the second line, + who, after the enemy's horsemen had rushed by them, faced about, + countermarched upon the camp, killed many of the Indians and Persians in + the act of plundering, and forced the rest to ride off again. Just at this + crisis, Alexander had been recalled from his pursuit of Darius, by tidings + of the distress of Parmenio, and of his inability to bear up any longer + against the hot attacks of Mazaeus. Taking his horse-guards with him, + Alexander rode towards the part of the field where his left wing was + fighting; but on his way thither he encountered the Persian and Indian + cavalry, on their return from his camp. + </p> + <p> + These men now saw that their only chance of safety was to cut their way + through; and in one huge column they charged desperately upon the + Macedonians. There was here a close hand-to-hand fight, which lasted some + time, and sixty of the royal horse-guards fell, and three generals, who + fought close to Alexander's side, were wounded. At length the Macedonian, + discipline and valour again prevailed, and a large number of the Persian + and Indian horsemen were cut down; some few only succeeded in breaking + through and riding away. Relieved of these obstinate enemies, Alexander + again formed his horse-guards, and led them towards Parmenio; but by this + time that general also was victorious. Probably the news of Darius's + flight had reached Mazaeus, and had damped the ardour of the Persian right + wing; while the tidings of their comrades' success must have + proportionally encouraged the Macedonian forces under Parmenio. His + Thessalian cavalry particularly distinguished themselves by their + gallantry and persevering good conduct; and by the time that Alexander had + ridden up to Parmenio, the whole Persian army was in full flight from the + field. + </p> + <p> + It was of the deepest importance to Alexander to secure the person of + Darius, and he now urged on the pursuit. The river Lycus was between the + field of battle and the city of Arbela, whither the fugitives directed + their course, and the passage of this river was even more destructive to + the Persians than the swords and spears of the Macedonians had been in the + engagement. [I purposely omit any statement of the loss in the battle. + There is a palpable error of the transcribers in the numbers which we find + in our present manuscripts of Arrian; and Curtius is of no authority.] The + narrow bridge was soon choked up by the flying thousands who rushed + towards it, and vast numbers of the Persians threw themselves, or were + hurried by others, into the rapid stream, and perished in its waters. + Darius had crossed it, and had ridden on through Arbela without halting. + Alexander reached that city on the next day, and made himself master of + all Darius's treasure and stores; but the Persian king unfortunately for + himself, had fled too fast for his conqueror: he had only escaped to + perish by the treachery of his Bactrian satrap, Bessus. + </p> + <p> + A few days after the battle Alexander entered Babylon, "the oldest seat of + earthly empire" then in existence, as its acknowledged lord and master. + There were yet some campaigns of his brief and bright career to be + accomplished. Central Asia was yet to witness the march of his phalanx. He + was yet to effect that conquest of Affghanistan in which England since has + failed. His generalship, as well as his valour, were yet to be signalised + on the banks of the Hydaspes, and the field of Chillianwallah; and he was + yet to precede the Queen of England in annexing the Punjaub to the + dominions of an European sovereign. But the crisis of his career was + reached; the great object of his mission was accomplished; and the ancient + Persian empire, which once menaced all the nations of the earth with + subjection, was irreparably crushed, when Alexander had won his crowning + victory at Arbela. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF ARBELA AND THE BATTLE OF THE + METAURUS. + </p> + <p> + B.C. 330. The Lacedaemonians endeavour to create a rising in Greece + against the Macedonian power; they are defeated by Antipater, Alexander's + viceroy; and their king, Agis, falls in the battle. + </p> + <p> + 330 to 327. Alexander's campaigns in Upper Asia. "Having conquered Darius, + Alexander pursued his way, encountering difficulties which would have + appalled almost any other general, through Bactriana, and taking Bactra, + or Zariaspa, (now Balkh), the chief city of that province, where he spent + the winter. Crossing the Oxus, he advanced in the following spring to + Marakanda (Samarcand) to replace the loss of horses which he had sustained + in crossing the Caucasus, to obtain supplies from the rich valley of Sogd + (the Mahometan Paradise of Mader-al-Nahr), and to enforce the submission + of Transoxiana. The northern limit of his march is probably represented by + the modern Uskand, or Aderkand, a village on the Iaxartes, near the end of + the Ferganah district. In Margiana he founded another Alexandria. + Returning from the north, he led on his army in the hope of conquering + India, till at length, marching in a line apparently nearly parallel with + the Kabul river, he arrived at the celebrated rock Aornos, the position of + which must have been on the right bank of the Indus, at some distance from + Attock; and it may perhaps be represented by the modern Akora"—(VAUX.) + </p> + <p> + 327, 326. Alexander marches through, Affghanistan to the Punjaub. He + defeats Porus. His troops refuse to march towards the Ganges, and he + commences the descent of the Indus. On his march he attacks and subdues + several Indian tribes, among others the Malli; in the storming of whose + capital (Mooltan), he is severely wounded. He directs his admiral, + Nearchus, to sail round from the Indus to the Persian Gulf; and leads the + army back across Scinde and Beloochistan. + </p> + <p> + 324. Alexander returns to Babylon. "In the tenth year after he had crossed + the Hellespont, Alexander, having won his vast dominion, entered Babylon; + and resting from his career in that oldest seat of earthly empire, he + steadily surveyed the mass of various nations which owned his sovereignty, + and revolved in his mind the great work of breathing into this huge but + inert body the living spirit of Greek civilization. In the bloom of + youthful manhood, at the age of thirty-two, he paused from the fiery speed + of his earlier course; and for the first time gave the nations an + opportunity of offering their homage before his throne. They came from all + the extremities of the earth to propitiate his anger, to celebrate his + greatness, or to solicit his protection.... History may allow us to think + that Alexander and a Roman ambassador did meet at Babylon; that the + greatest man of the ancient world saw and spoke with a citizen of that + great nation, which was destined to succeed him in his appointed work, and + to found a wider and still more enduring empire. They met, too, in + Babylon, almost beneath the shadow of the temple of Bel, perhaps the + earliest monument ever raised by human pride and power, in a city + stricken, as it were, by the word of God's heaviest judgment, as the + symbol of greatness apart from and opposed to goodness."—(ARNOLD.) + </p> + <p> + 323. Alexander dies at Babylon. On his death being known at Greece, the + Athenians, and others of the southern states, take up arms to shake off + the domination of Macedon. They are at first successful; but the return of + some of Alexander's veterans from Asia enables Antipater to prevail over + them. + </p> + <p> + 317 to 289. Agathocles is tyrant of Syracuse; and carries on repeated wars + with the Carthaginians; in the course of which (311) he invades Africa, + and reduces the Carthaginians to great distress. + </p> + <p> + 306. After a long series of wars with each other, and after all the heirs + of Alexander had been murdered, his principal surviving generals assume + the title of king, each over the provinces which he has occupied. The four + chief among them were Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. + Antipater was now dead, but his son Cassander succeeded to his power in + Macedonia and Greece. + </p> + <p> + 301. Seleucus and Lysimachus defeat Antigonus at Ipsus. Antigonus is + killed in the battle. + </p> + <p> + 280. Seleucus, the last of Alexander's captains, is assassinated. Of all + Alexander's successors, Seleucus had formed the most powerful empire. He + had acquired all the provinces between Phrygia and the Indus. He extended + his dominion in India beyond the limits reached by Alexander. Seleucus had + some sparks of his great master's genius in promoting civilization and + commerce, as well as in gaining victories. Under his successors, the + Seleucidae, this vast empire rapidly diminished; Bactria became + independent, and a separate dynasty of Greek kings ruled there in the year + 125, when it was overthrown by the Scythian tribes. Parthia threw off its + allegiance to the Seleucidae in 250 B.C., and the powerful Parthian + kingdom, which afterwards proved so formidable a foe to Rome, absorbed + nearly all the provinces west of the Euphrates, that had obeyed the first + Seleucus. Before the battle of Ipsus, Mithridates, a Persian prince of the + blood-royal of the Achaemenidae, had escaped to Pontus, and founded there + the kingdom of that name. + </p> + <p> + Besides the kingdom of Seleucus, which, when limited to Syria, Palestine, + and parts of Asia Minor, long survived; the most important kingdom formed + by a general of Alexander was that of the Ptolemies in Egypt. The throne + of Macedonia was long and obstinately contended for by Cassander, + Polysperchon, Lysimachus, Pyrrhus, Antigonus, and others; but at last was + secured by the dynasty of Antigonus Gonatas. The old republics of southern + Greece suffered severely during these tumults, and the only Greek states + that showed any strength and spirit were the cities of the Achaean league, + the AEtolians, and the islanders of Rhodes. + </p> + <p> + 290. Rome had now thoroughly subdued the Samnites and the Etruscans, and + had gained numerous victories over the Cisalpine Gauls. Wishing to confirm + her dominion in Lower Italy, she became entangled in a war with Pyrrhus, + fourth king of Epirus, who was called over by the Tarentines to aid them. + Pyrrhus was at first victorious, but in the year 275 was defeated by the + Roman legions in a pitched battle. He returned to Greece, remarking, "Rome + becomes mistress of all Italy from the Rubicon to the Straits of Messina." + </p> + <p> + 264. The first Punic war begins. Its primary cause was the desire of both + the Romans and the Carthaginians to possess themselves of Sicily. The + Romans form a fleet, and successfully compete with the marine of Carthage. + [There is at this present moment [written in June, 1851] in the Great + Exhibition at Hyde Park a model of a piratical galley of Labuan, part of + the mast of which can be let down on an enemy, and form a bridge for + boarders. It is worth while to compare this with the account in Polybius + of the boarding bridges which the Roman admiral Dullius, affixed to the + masts of his galleys and by means of which he won his great victory over + the Carthaginian fleet.] During the latter half of the war, the military + genius of Hamilcar Barca sustains the Carthaginian cause in Sicily. At the + end of twenty-four years, the Carthaginians sue for peace, though their + aggregate loss in ships and men had been less than that sustained by the + Romans since the beginning of the war. Sicily becomes a Roman province. + </p> + <p> + 240 to 218. The Carthaginian mercenaries who had been brought back from + Sicily to Africa, mutiny against Carthage, and nearly succeed in + destroying her. After a sanguinary and desperate struggle, Hamilcar Barca + crushes them. During this season of weakness to Carthage, Rome takes from + her the island of Sardinia. Hamilcar Barca forms the project of obtaining + compensation by conquests in Spain, and thus enabling Carthage to renew + the struggle with Rome. He takes Hannibal (then a child) to Spain with + him. He and, after his death, his brother, win great part of southern + Spain to the Carthaginian interest. Hannibal obtains the command of the + Carthaginian armies in Spain, 221 B.C., being then twenty-six years old. + He attacks Saguntum, a city on the Ebro in alliance with Rome, which is + the immediate pretext for the second Punic war. + </p> + <p> + During this interval Rome had to sustain a storm from the north. The + Cisalpine Gauls, in 226, formed an alliance with one of the fiercest + tribes of their brethren north of the Alps, and began a furious war + against the Romans, which lasted six years. The Romans gave them several + severe defeats, and took from them part of their territories near the Po. + It was on this occasion that the Roman colonies of Cremona and Placentia + were founded, the latter of which did such essential service to Rome in + the second Punic war, by the resistance which it made to the army of + Hasdrubal. A muster-roll was made in this war of the effective military + force of the Romans themselves, and of those Italian states that were + subject to them. The return showed a force of seven hundred thousand foot, + and seventy thousand horse. Polybius mentions this muster. + </p> + <p> + 228. Hannibal crosses the Alps and invades Italy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. — THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS, B.C. 207. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quid debeas, O Roma, Neronibus, + Testis Metaurum flumen, et Hasdrubal + Devictus, et pulcher fugatis + Ille dies Latio tenebris, + + Qui primus alma risit adorea; + Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas, + Ceu flamma per taedas, vel Eurus + Per Siculas equitavit undas.—HORATIUS, iv. Od. 4. + + "... The consul Nero, who made the unequalled march which + deceived Hannibal, and defeated Hasdrubal, thereby accomplishing + an achievement almost unrivalled in military annals. The first + intelligence of his return, to Hannibal, was the sight of + Hasdrubal's head thrown into his camp. When Hannibal saw this, + he exclaimed with a sigh, that 'Rome would now be the mistress of + the world.' To this victory of Nero's it might be owing that his + imperial namesake reigned at all. But the infamy of the one has + eclipsed the glory of the other. When the name of Nero is heard, + who thinks of the consul! But such are human things."—BYRON. +</pre> + <p> + About midway between Rimini and Ancona a little river falls into the + Adriatic, after traversing one of those districts of Italy, in which a + vain attempt has lately been made to revive, after long centuries of + servitude and shame, the spirit of Italian nationality, and the energy of + free institutions. That stream is still called the Metauro; and wakens by + its name recollections of the resolute daring of ancient Rome, and of the + slaughter that stained its current two thousand and sixty-three years ago, + when the combined consular armies of Livius and Nero encountered and + crushed near its banks the varied hosts which Hannibal's brother was + leading from the Pyrenees, the Rhone, the Alps, and the Po, to aid the + great Carthaginian in his stern struggle to annihilate the growing might + of the Roman Republic, and make the Punic power supreme over all the + nations of the world. + </p> + <p> + The Roman historian, who termed that struggle the most memorable of all + wars that ever were carried on, [Livy, Lib. xxi. sec. 1.] wrote-in no + spirit of exaggeration. For it is not in ancient but in modern history, + that parallels for its incidents and its heroes are to be found. The + similitude between the contest which Rome maintained against Hannibal, and + that which England was for many years engaged in against Napoleon, has not + passed unobserved by recent historians. "Twice," says Arnold, [Vol. iii, + p. 62. See also Alison—PASSIM.] "has there been witnessed the + struggle of the highest individual genius against the resources and + institutions of a great nation; and in both cases the nation has been + victorious. For seventeen years Hannibal strove against Rome; for sixteen + years Napoleon Bonaparte strove against England; the efforts of the first + ended in Zama, those of the second in Waterloo." One point, however, of + the similitude between the two wars has scarcely been adequately dwelt on. + That is, the remarkable parallel between the Roman general who finally + defeated the great Carthaginian, and the English general who gave the last + deadly overthrow to the French emperor. Scipio and Wellington both held + for many years commands of high importance, but distant from the main + theatres of warfare. The same country was the scene of the principal + military career of each. It was in Spain that Scipio, like Wellington, + successively encountered and overthrew nearly all the subordinate generals + of the enemy, before being opposed to the chief champion and conqueror + himself. Both Scipio and Wellington restored their countrymen's confidence + in arms, when shaken by a series of reverses. And each of them closed a + long and perilous war by a complete and overwhelming defeat of the chosen + leader and the chosen veterans of the foe. + </p> + <p> + Nor is the parallel between them limited to their military characters and + exploits. Scipio, like Wellington, became an important leader of the + aristocratic party among his countrymen, and was exposed to the unmeasured + invectives of the violent section of his political antagonists. When, + early in the last reign, an infuriated mob assaulted the Duke of + Wellington in the streets of the English capital on the anniversary of + Waterloo, England was even more disgraced by that outrage, than Rome was + by the factious accusations which demagogues brought against Scipio, but + which he proudly repelled on the day of trial, by reminding the assembled + people that it was the anniversary of the battle of Zama. Happily, a wiser + and a better spirit has now for years pervaded all classes of our + community; and we shall be spared the ignominy of having worked out to the + end the parallel of national iugratitude. Scipio died a voluntary exile + from the malevolent turbulence of Rome. Englishmen of all ranks and + politics have now long united in affectionate admiration of our modern + Scipio: and even those who have most widely differed from the Duke on + legislative or administrative questions, forget what they deem the + political errors of that time-honoured head, while they gratefully call to + mind the laurels that have wreathed it. + </p> + <p> + Scipio at Zama trampled in the dust the power of Carthage; but that power + had been already irreparably shattered in another field, where neither + Scipio nor Hannibal commanded. When the Metaurus witnessed the defeat and + death of Hasdrubal, it witnessed the ruin of the scheme by which alone + Carthage could hope to organise decisive success,—the scheme of + enveloping Rome at once from the north and the south of Italy by chosen + armies, led by two sons of Hamilcar. [See Arnold, vol. iii, p. 387.] That + battle was the determining crisis of the contest, not merely between Rome + and Carthage, but between the two great families of the world, which then + made Italy the arena of their oft-renewed contest for pre-eminence. + </p> + <p> + The French historian Michelet whose "Histoire Romaine" would have been + invaluable, if the general industry and accuracy of the writer had in any + degree equalled his originality and brilliancy, eloquently remarks: "It is + not without reason that so universal and vivid a remembrance of the Punic + wars has dwelt in the memories of men. They formed no mere struggle to + determine the lot of two cities or two empires; but it was a strife on the + event of which depended the fate of two races of mankind, whether the + dominion of the world should belong to the Indo-Germanic or to the Semitic + family of nations. Bear in mind, that the first of these comprises, + besides the Indians and the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, and the + Germans. In the other are ranked the Jews and the Arabs, the Phoenicians + and the Carthaginians. On the one side is the genius of heroism, of art, + and legislation: on the other is the spirit of industry, of commerce, of + navigation. The two opposite races have everywhere come into contact, + everywhere into hostility. In the primitive history of Persia and Chaldea, + the heroes are perpetually engaged in combat with their industrious and + perfidious, neighbours. The struggle is renewed between the Phoenicians + and the Greeks on every coast of the Mediterranean. The Greek supplants + the Phoenician in all his factories, all his colonies in the east: soon + will the Roman come, and do likewise in the west. Alexander did far more + against Tyre than Salmanasar or Nabuchodonosor had done. Not content with + crushing her, he took care that she never should revive: for he founded + Alexandria as her substitute, and changed for ever the track of commerce + of the world. There remained Carthage—the great Carthage, and her + mighty empire,—mighty in a far different degree than Phoenicia's had + been. Rome annihilated it. Then occurred that which has no parallel in + history,—an entire civilisation perished at one blow—vanished, + like a falling star. The 'Periplus' of Hanno, a few coins, a score of + lines in Plautus, and, lo, all that remains of the Carthaginian world! + </p> + <p> + "Many generations must needs pass away before the struggle between the two + races could be renewed; and the Arabs, that formidable rear-guard of the + Semitic world, dashed forth from their deserts. The conflict between the + two races then became the conflict of two religions. Fortunate was it that + those daring Saracenic cavaliers encountered in the East the impregnable + walls of Constantinople, in the West the chivalrous valour of Charles + Martel and the sword of the Cid. The crusades were the natural reprisals + for the Arab invasions, and form the last epoch of that great struggle + between the two principal families of the human race." + </p> + <p> + It is difficult amid the glimmering light supplied by the allusions of the + classical writers to gain a full idea of the character and institutions of + Rome's great rival. But we can perceive how inferior Carthage was to her + competitor in military resources; and how far less fitted than Rome she + was to become the founder of centralized and centralizing dominion, that + should endure for centuries, and fuse into imperial unity the narrow + nationalities of the ancient races that dwelt around and near the shores + of the Mediterranean Sea. + </p> + <p> + Carthage was originally neither the most ancient nor the most powerful of + the numerous colonies which the Phoenicians planted on the coast of + Northern Africa. But her advantageous position, the excellence of her + constitution (of which, though ill-informed as to its details, we know + that it commanded the admiration of Aristotle), and the commercial and + political energy of her citizens, gave her the ascendancy over Hippo, + Utica, Leptis, and her other sister Phoenician cities in those regions; + and she finally seduced them to a condition of dependency, similar to that + which the subject allies of Athens occupied relatively to that once + imperial city. When Tyre and Sidon and the other cities of Phoenicia + itself sank from independent republics into mere vassal states of the + great Asiatic monarchies and obeyed by turns a Babylonian, a Persian, and + a Macedonian master, their power and their traffic rapidly declined; and + Carthage succeeded to the important maritime and commercial character + which they had previously maintained. The Carthaginians did not seek to + compete with the Greeks on the north-eastern shores of the Mediterranean, + or in the three inland seas which are connected with it; but they + maintained an active intercourse with the Phoenicians, and through them + with lower and Central Asia; and they, and they alone, after the decline + and fall of Tyre, navigated the waters of the Atlantic. They had the + monopoly of all the commerce of the world that was carried on beyond the + Straits of Gibraltar. We have yet extant (in a Greek translation) the + narrative of the voyage of Hanno, one of their admirals, along the western + coast of Africa as far as Sierra Leone. And in the Latin poem of Festus + Avienus, frequent references are made to the records of the voyages of + another celebrated Carthaginian admiral, Himilco, who had explored the + north-western coast of Europe. Our own islands are mentioned by Himilco as + the lands of the Hiberni and the Albioni. It is indeed certain that the + Carthaginians frequented the Cornish coast (as the Phoenicians had done + before them) for the purpose of procuring tin; and there is every reason + to believe that they sailed as far as the coasts of the Baltic for amber. + When it is remembered that the mariner's compass was unknown in those + ages, the boldness and skill of the seamen of Carthage, and the enterprise + of her merchants, may be paralleled with any achievements that the history + of modern navigation and commerce can supply. + </p> + <p> + In their Atlantic voyages along the African shores, the Carthaginians + followed the double object of trade and colonization. The numerous + settlements that were planted by them along the coast from Morocco to + Senegal, provided for the needy members of the constantly-increasing + population of a great commercial capital; and also strengthened the + influence which Carthage exercised among the tribes of the African coast. + Besides her fleets, her caravans gave her a large and lucrative trade with + the native Africans; nor must we limit our belief of the extent of the + Carthaginian trade with the tribes of Central and Western Africa, by the + narrowness of the commercial intercourse which civilized nations of modern + times have been able to create in those regions. + </p> + <p> + Although essentially a mercantile and seafaring people, the Carthaginians + by no means neglected agriculture. On the contrary, the whole of their + territory was cultivated like a garden. The fertility of the soil repaid + the skill and toil bestowed on it; and every invader, from Agathocles to + Scipio AEmilianus, was struck with admiration at the rich pasture-lands + carefully irrigated, the abundant harvests, the luxuriant vineyards, the + plantations of fig and olive-trees, the thriving villages, the populous + towns, and the splendid villas of the wealthy Carthaginians, through which + his march lay, as long as he was on Carthaginian ground. + </p> + <p> + The Carthaginians abandoned the Aegean and the Pontus to the Greeks, but + they were by no means disposed to relinquish to those rivals the commerce + and the dominion of the coasts of the Mediterranean westward of Italy. For + centuries the Carthaginians strove to make themselves masters of the + islands that lie between Italy and Spain. They acquired the Balearic + islands, where the principal harbour, Port Mahon, still bears the name of + the Carthaginian admiral. They succeeded in reducing the greater part of + Sardinia; but Sicily could never be brought into their power. They + repeatedly invaded that island, and nearly overran it; but the resistance + which was opposed to them by the Syracusans under Gelon, Dionysius, + Timoleon, and Agathocles, preserved the island from becoming Punic, though + many of its cities remained under the Carthaginian rule, until Rome + finally settled the question to whom Sicily was to belong, by conquering + it for herself. + </p> + <p> + With so many elements of success, with almost unbounded wealth with + commercial and maritime activity, with a fertile territory, with a capital + city of almost impregnable strength, with a constitution that ensured for + centuries the blessings of, social order, with an aristocracy singularly + fertile in men of the highest genius, Carthage yet failed signally and + calamitously in her contest for power with Rome. One of the immediate + causes of this may seem to have been the want, of firmness among her + citizens, which made them terminate the first Punic war by begging peace, + sooner than endure any longer the hardships and burdens caused by a state + of warfare, although their antagonists had suffered far more severely than + themselves. Another cause was the spirit of faction among their leading + men, which prevented Hannibal in the second war from being properly + reinforced and supported. But there were also more general causes why + Carthage proved inferior to Rome. These were her position relatively to + the mass of the inhabitants of the country which she ruled, and her habit + of trusting to mercenary armies in her wars. + </p> + <p> + Our clearest information as to the different races of men in and about + Carthage is derived from Diodorus Siculus. [Vol. ii. p. 447, Wesseling's + ed.] That historian enumerates four different races: first, he mentions + the Phoenicians who dwelt in Carthage: next, he speaks of the + Liby-Phoenicians; these, he tells us, dwelt in many of the maritime + cities, and were connected by intermarriages with the Phoenicians, which + was the cause of their compound name: thirdly, he mentions the Libyans, + the bulk and the most ancient part of the population, hating the + Carthaginians intensely, on account of the oppressiveness of their + domination: lastly, he names the Numidians, the nomad tribes of the + frontier. + </p> + <p> + It is evident, from this description, that the native Libyans were a + subject class, without franchise or political rights; and, accordingly, we + find no instance specified in history of a Libyan holding political office + or military command. The half-castes, the Liby-Phoenicians, seem to have + been sometimes sent out as colonists; [See the "Periplus" of Hanno.] but + it may be inferred, from what Diodorus says of their residence, that they + had not the right of the citizenship of Carthage: and only a solitary case + occurs of one of this race being entrusted with authority, and that, too, + not emanating from the home government. This is the instance of the + officer sent by Hannibal to Sicily, after the fall of Syracuse; whom + Polybius [Lib. ix. 22.] calls Myttinus the Libyan, but whom, from the + fuller account in Livy, we find to have been a Liby-Phoenician [Lib. xxv. + 40.] and it is expressly mentioned what indignation was felt by the + Carthaginian commanders in the island that this half-caste should control + their operations. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the composition of their armies, it is observable that, + though thirsting for extended empire, and though some of the leading men + became generals of the highest order, the Carthaginians, as a people, were + anything but personally warlike. As long as they could hire mercenaries to + fight for them, they had little appetite for the irksome training, and + they grudged the loss of valuable time, which military service would have + entailed on themselves. + </p> + <p> + As Michelet remarks, "The life of an industrious merchant, of a + Carthaginian, was too precious to be risked, as long as it was possible to + substitute advantageously for it that of a barbarian from Spain or Gaul. + Carthage knew, and could tell to a drachma, what the life of a man of each + nation came to. A Greek was worth more than a Campanian, a Campanian worth + more than a Gaul or a Spaniard. When once this tariff of blood was + correctly made out, Carthage began a war as a mercantile speculation. She + tried to make conquests in the hope of getting new mines to work, or to + open fresh markets for her exports. In one venture she could afford to + spend fifty thousand mercenaries, in another, rather more. If the returns + were good, there was no regret felt for the capital that had been lavished + in the investment; more money got more men, and all went on well." + [Histoire Romaine, vol. ii. p. 40.] + </p> + <p> + Armies composed of foreign mercenaries have, in all ages, been as + formidable to their employers as to the enemy against whom they were + directed. We know of one occasion (between the first and second Punic + wars) when Carthage was brought to the very brink of destruction by a + revolt of her foreign troops. Other mutinies of the same kind must from + time to time have occurred. Probably one of these was the cause of the + comparative weakness of Carthage at the time of the Athenian expedition + against Syracuse; so different from the energy with which she attacked + Gelon half a century earlier, and Dionysius half a century later. And even + when we consider her armies with reference only to their efficiency in + warfare, we perceive at once the inferiority of such bands of condottieri, + brought together without any common bond of origin, tactics, or cause, to + the legions of Rome, which at the time of the Punic wars were raised from + the very flower of a hardy agricultural population trained in the + strictest discipline, habituated to victory, and animated by the most + resolute patriotism. And this shows also the transcendency of the genius + of Hannibal, which could form such discordant materials into a compact + organized force, and inspire them with the spirit of patient discipline + and loyalty to their chief; so that they were true to him in his adverse + as well as in his prosperous fortunes; and throughout the chequered series + of his campaigns no panic rout ever disgraced a division under his + command; no mutiny, or even attempt at mutiny, was ever known in his camp; + and, finally, after fifteen years of Italian warfare, his men followed + their old leader to Zama, "with no fear and little hope;" ["We advanced to + Waterloo as the Greeks did to Thermopylae; all of us without fear and most + of us without hope."—SPEECH OF GENERAL FOY.] and there, on that + disastrous field, stood firm around him, his Old Guard, till Scipio's + Numidian allies came up on their flank; when at last, surrounded and + overpowered, the veteran battalions sealed their devotion to their general + with their blood. + </p> + <p> + "But if Hannibal's genius may be likened to the Homeric god, who, in his + hatred to the Trojans, rises from the deep to rally the fainting Greeks, + and to lead them against the enemy, so the calm courage with which Hector + met his more than human adversary in his country's cause, is no unworthy + image of the unyielding magnanimity displayed by the aristocracy of Rome. + As Hannibal utterly eclipses Carthage, so, on the contrary, Fabius, + Marcellus, Claudius Nero, even Scipio himself, are as nothing when + compared to the spirit, and wisdom, and power of Rome. The senate, which + voted its thanks to its political enemy, Varro, after his disastrous + defeat, 'because he had not despaired of the commonwealth,' and which + disdained either to solicit, or to reprove, or to threaten, or in any way + to notice the twelve colonies which had refused their customary supplies + of men for the army, is far more to be honoured than the conqueror of + Zama. This we should the more carefully bear in mind because our tendency + is to admire individual greatness far more than national; and, as no + single Roman will bear comparison to Hannibal, we are apt to murmur at the + event of the contest, and to think that the victory was awarded to the + least worthy of the combatants. On the contrary, never was the wisdom of + God's Providence more manifest than in the issue of the struggle between + Rome and Carthage. It was clearly for the good of man kind that Hannibal + should be conquered: his triumph would have stopped the progress of the + world. For great men can only act permanently by forming great nations; + and no one man, even though it were Hannibal himself, can in one + generation effect such a work. But where the nation has been merely + enkindled for a while by a great man's spirit, the light passes away with + him who communicated it; and the nation, when he is gone, is like a dead + body, to which magic power had, for a moment, given unnatural life: when + the charm has ceased, the body is cold and stiff as before. He who grieves + over the battle of Zama should carry on his thoughts to a period thirty + years later, when Hannibal must, in the course of nature, have been dead, + and consider how the isolated Phoenician city of Carthage was fitted to + receive and to consolidate the civilization of Greece, or by its laws and + institutions to bind together barbarians of every race and language into + an organized empire, and prepare them for becoming, when that empire was + dissolved, the free members of the commonwealth of Christian Europe." + [Arnold, vol. iii. p. 61. The above is one of the numerous bursts of + eloquence that adorn Arnold's third volume, and cause such deep regret + that that volume should have been the last, and its great and good author + have been cut off with his work thus incomplete.] + </p> + <p> + It was in the spring of 207 B.C. that Hasdrubal, after skilfully + disentangling himself from the Roman forces in Spain, and, after a march + conducted with great judgment and little loss, through the interior of + Gaul and the passes of the Alps, appeared in the country that now is the + north of Lombardy, at the head of troops which he had partly brought out + of Spain, and partly levied among the Gauls and Ligurians on his way. At + this time Hannibal with his unconquered, and seemingly unconquerable army, + had been eleven years in Italy, executing with strenuous ferocity the vow + of hatred to Rome which had been sworn by him while yet a child at the + bidding of his father, Hamilcar; who, as he boasted, had trained up his + three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago, Like three lion's whelps, to + prey upon the Romans. But Hannibal's latter campaigns had not been + signalised by any such great victories as marked the first years of his + invasion of Italy. The stern spirit of Roman resolution, ever highest in + disaster and danger, had neither bent nor despaired beneath the merciless + blows which "the dire African" dealt her in rapid succession at Trebia, at + Thrasymene, and at Cannae. Her population was thinned by repeated + slaughter in the field; poverty and actual scarcity wore down the + survivors, through the fearful ravages which Hannibal's cavalry spread + through their corn-fields, their pasture-lands, and their vineyards; many + of her allies went over to the invader's side; and new clouds of foreign + war threatened her from Macedonia and Gaul. But Rome receded not. Rich and + poor among her citizens vied with each other in devotion to their country. + The wealthy placed their stores, and all placed their lives at the state's + disposal. And though Hannibal could not be driven out of Italy, though + every year brought its sufferings and sacrifices, Rome felt that her + constancy had not been exerted in vain. If she was weakened by the + continual strife, so was Hannibal also; and it was clear that the unaided + resources of his army were unequal to the task of her destruction. The + single deer-hound could not pull down the quarry which he had so furiously + assailed. Rome not only stood fiercely at bay, but had pressed back and + gored her antagonist, that still, however, watched her in act to spring. + She was weary, and bleeding at every pore; and there seemed to be little + hope of her escape, if the other hound of old Hamilcar's race should come + up in time to aid his brother in the death-grapple. + </p> + <p> + Hasdrubal had commanded the Carthaginian armies in Spain for some time, + with varying but generally unpropitious fortune. He had not the full + authority over the Punic forces in that country which his brother and his + father had previously exercised. The faction at Carthage, which was at + feud with his family, succeeded in fettering and interfering with his + power; and other generals were from time to time sent into Spain, whose + errors and misconduct caused the reverses that Hasdrubal met with. This is + expressly attested by the Greek historian Polybius, who was the intimate + friend of the younger Africanus, and drew his information respecting the + second Punic war from the best possible authorities. Livy gives a long + narrative of campaigns between the Roman commanders in Spain and + Hasdrubal, which is so palpably deformed by fictions and exaggerations as + to be hardly deserving of attention. [See the excellent criticisms of Sir + Walter Raleigh on this, in his "History of the World," book v. chap. iii. + sec. 11.] + </p> + <p> + It is clear that in the year 208 B.C., at least, Hasdrubal outmanoeuvred + Publius Scipio, who held the command of the Roman forces in Spain; and + whose object was to prevent him from passing the Pyrenees and marching + upon Italy. Scipio expected that Hasdrubal would attempt the nearest + route, along the coast of the Mediterranean; and he therefore carefully + fortified and guarded the passes of the eastern Pyrenees. But Hasdrubal + passed these mountains near their western extremity; and then, with a + considerable force of Spanish infantry, with a small number of African + troops, with some elephants and much treasure, he marched, not directly + towards the coast of the Mediterranean, but in a north-eastern line + towards the centre of Gaul. He halted for the winter in the territory of + the Arverni, the modern Auvergne; and conciliated or purchased the + good-will of the Gauls in that region so far, that he not only found + friendly winter quarters among them, but great numbers of them enlisted + under him, and on the approach of spring marched with him to invade Italy. + </p> + <p> + By thus entering Gaul at the south-west, and avoiding its southern + maritime districts, Hasdrubal kept the Romans in complete ignorance of his + precise operations and movements in that country; all that they knew was + that Hasdrubal had baffled Scipio's attempts to detain him in Spain; that + he had crossed the Pyrenees with soldiers, elephants, and money, and that + he was raising fresh forces among the Gauls. The spring was sure to bring + him into Italy; and then would come the real tempest of the war, when from + the north and from the south the two Carthaginian armies, each under a son + of the Thunderbolt, were to gather together around the seven hills of + Rome. [Hamilcar was surnamed Barca, which means the Thunderbolt. Sultan + Bajazet had the similar surname of Yilderim.] + </p> + <p> + In this emergency the Romans looked among themselves earnestly and + anxiously for leaders fit to meet the perils of the coming campaign. + </p> + <p> + The senate recommended the people to elect, as one of their consuls, Caius + Claudius Nero, a patrician of one of the families of the great Claudian + house. Nero had served during the preceding years of the war, both against + Hannibal in Italy, and against Hasdrubal in Spain; but it is remarkable + that the histories, which we possess, record no successes as having been + achieved by him either before or after his great campaign of the Metaurus. + It proves much for the sagacity of the leading men of the senate, that + they recognised in Nero the energy and spirit which were required at this + crisis, and it is equally creditable to the patriotism of the people, that + they followed the advice of the senate by electing a general who had no + showy exploits to recommend him to their choice. + </p> + <p> + It was a matter of greater difficulty to find a second consul; the laws + required that one consul should be a plebeian; and the plebeian nobility + had been fearfully thinned by the events of the war. While the senators + anxiously deliberated among themselves what fit colleague for Nero could + be nominated at the coming comitia, and sorrowfully recalled the names of + Marcellus, Gracchus, and other plebeian generals who were no more—one + taciturn and moody old man sat in sullen apathy among the conscript + fathers. This was Marcus Livius, who had been consul in the gear before + the beginning of this war, and had then gained a victory over the + Illyrians. After his consulship he had been impeached before the people on + a charge of peculation and unfair division of the spoils among his + soldiers: the verdict was unjustly given against him, and the sense of + this wrong, and of the indignity thus put upon him, had rankled + unceasingly in the bosom of Livius, so that for eight years after his + trial he had lived in seclusion at his country seat, taking no part in any + affairs of state. Latterly the censors had compelled him to come to Rome + and resume his place in the senate, where he used to sit gloomily apart, + giving only a silent vote. At last an unjust accusation against one of his + near kinsmen made him break silence; and he harangued the house in words + of weight and sense, which drew attention to him, and taught the senators + that a strong spirit dwelt beneath that unimposing exterior. Now, while + they were debating on what noble of a plebeian house was fit to assume the + perilous honours of the consulate, some of the elder of them looked on + Marcus Livius, and remembered that in the very last triumph which had been + celebrated in the streets of Rome this grim old man had sat in the car of + victory; and that he had offered the last grand thanksgiving sacrifice for + the success of the Roman arms that had bled before Capitoline Jove. There + had been no triumphs since Hannibal came into Italy. [Marcellus had been + only allowed an ovation for the conquest of Syracuse.] The Illyrian + campaign of Livius was the last that had been so honoured; perhaps it + might be destined for him now to renew the long-interrupted series. The + senators resolved that Livius should be put in nomination as consul with + Nero; the people were willing to elect him; the only opposition came from + himself. He taunted them with their inconsistency is honouring a man they + had convicted of a base crime. "If I am innocent," said he, "why did you + place such a stain on me? If I am guilty, why am I more fit for a second + consulship than I was for my first one?" The other senators remonstrated + with him urging the example of the great Camillus, who, after an unjust + condemnation on a similar charge, both served and saved his country. At + last Livius ceased to object; and Caius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius + were chosen consuls of Rome. + </p> + <p> + A quarrel had long existed between the two consuls, and the senators + strove to effect a reconciliation between them before the campaign. Here + again Livius for a long time obstinately resisted the wish of his + fellow-senators. He said it was best for the state that he and Nero should + continue to hate one another. Each would do his duty better, when he knew + that he was watched by an enemy in the person of his own colleague. At + last the entreaties of the senators prevailed, and Livius consented to + forego the feud, and to co-operate with Nero in preparing for the coming + struggle. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the winter snows were thawed, Hasdrubal commenced his march + from Auvergne to the Alps. He experienced none of the difficulties which + his brother had met with from the mountain tribes. Hannibal's army had + been the first body of regular troops that had ever traversed the regions; + and, as wild animals assail a traveller, the natives rose against it + instinctively, in imagined defence of their own habitations, which they + supposed to be the objects of Carthaginian ambition. But the fame of the + war, with which Italy had now been convulsed for eleven years, had + penetrated into the Alpine passes; and the mountaineers understood that a + mighty city, southward of the Alps, was to be attacked by the troops whom + they saw marching among them. They not only opposed no resistance to the + passage of Hasdrubal, but many of them, out of the love of enterprise and + plunder, or allured by the high pay that he offered, took service with + him; and thus he advanced upon Italy with an army that gathered strength + at every league. It is said, also, that some of the most important + engineering works which Hannibal had constructed, were found by Hasdrubal + still in existence, and materially favoured the speed of his advance. He + thus emerged into Italy from the Alpine valleys much sooner than had been + anticipated. Many warriors of the Ligurian tribes joined him; and, + crossing the river Po, he marched down its southern bank to the city of + Placentia, which he wished to secure as a base for his future operations. + Placentia resisted him as bravely as it had resisted Hannibal eleven years + before; and for some time Hasdrubal was occupied with a fruitless siege + before its walls. + </p> + <p> + Six armies were levied for the defence of Italy when the long-dreaded + approach of Hasdrubal was announced. Seventy thousand Romans served in the + fifteen legions of which, with an equal number of Italian allies, those + armies and the garrisons were composed. Upwards of thirty thousand more + Romans were serving in Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. The whole number of + Roman citizens of an age fit for military duty scarcely exceeded a hundred + and thirty thousand. The census taken before the war had shown a total of + two hundred and seventy thousand, which had been diminished by more than + half during twelve years. These numbers are fearfully emphatic of the + extremity to which Rome was reduced, and of her gigantic efforts in that + great agony of her fate. Not merely men, but money and military stores, + were drained to the utmost; and if the armies of that year should be swept + off by a repetition of the slaughters of Thrasymene and Cannae, all felt + that Rome would cease to exist. Even if the campaign were to be marked by + no decisive success on either side, her ruin seemed certain. In South + Italy Hannibal had either detached Rome's allies from her, or had + impoverished them by the ravages of his army. If Hasdrubal could have done + the same in Upper Italy; if Etruria, Umbria, and Northern Latium had + either revolted or been laid waste, Rome must have sunk beneath sheer + starvation; for the hostile or desolated territory would have yielded no + supplies of corn for her population; and money, to purchase it from + abroad, there was none. Instant victory was a matter of life and death. + Three of her six armies were ordered to the north, but the first of these + was required to overawe the disaffected Etruscans. The second army of the + north was pushed forward, under Porcius, the praetor, to meet and keep in, + check the advanced troops of Hasdrubal; while the third, the grand army of + the north, which was to be under the immediate command of the consul + Livius, who had the chief command in all North Italy, advanced more slowly + in its support. There were similarly three armies in the south, under the + orders of the other consul Claudius Nero. + </p> + <p> + The lot had decided that Livius was to be opposed to Hasdrubal, and that + Nero should face Hannibal. And "when all was ordered as themselves thought + best, the two consuls went forth of the city; each his several way. The + people of Rome were now quite otherwise affected, than they had been, when + L. AEmilius Paulus and C. Tarentius Varro were sent against Hannibal. They + did no longer take upon them to direct their generals, or bid them + dispatch, and win the victory betimes; but rather they stood in fear, lest + all diligence, wisdom, and valour should prove too little. For since, few + years had passed, wherein some one of their generals had not been slain; + and since it was manifest, that if either of these present consuls were + defeated, or put to the worst, the two Carthaginians would forthwith join, + and make short work with the other: it seemed a greater happiness than + could be expected, that each of them should return home victor; and come + off with honour from such mighty opposition as he was like to find. With + extreme difficulty had Rome held up her head ever since the battle of + Cannae; though it were so, that Hannibal alone, with little help from + Carthage, had continued the war in Italy. But there was now arrived + another son of Amilcar; and one that, in his present expedition, had + seemed a man of more sufficiency than Hannibal himself. For, whereas in + that long and dangerous march through barbarous nations, over great rivers + and mountains, that were thought unpassable, Hannibal had lost a great + part of his army; this Asdrubal, in the same places, had multiplied his + numbers; and gathering the people that he found in the way, descended from + the Alps like a rolling snow-ball, far greater than he came over the + Pyrenees at his first setting out of Spain. These considerations, and the + like, of which fear presented many unto them, caused the people of Rome to + wait upon their consuls out of the town, like a pensive train of mourners; + thinking upon Marcellus and Crispinus, upon whom, in the like sort, they + had given attendance the last year, but saw neither of them return alive + from a less dangerous war. Particularly old Q. Fabius gave his accustomed + advice to M. Livius, that he should abstain from giving or taking battle, + until he well understood the enemies' condition. But the consul made him a + froward answer, and said, that he would fight the very first day, for that + he thought it long till he should either recover his honour by victory, + or, by seeing the overthrow of his own unjust citizens, satisfy himself + with the joy of a great, though not an honest revenge. But his meaning was + better than his words." [Sir Walter Raleigh.] + </p> + <p> + Hannibal at this period occupied with his veteran but much reduced forces + the extreme south of Italy. It had not been expected either by friend or + foe, that Hasdrubal would effect his passage of the Alps so early in the + year as actually occurred. And even when Hannibal learned that his brother + was in Italy, and had advanced as far as Placentia, he was obliged to + pause for further intelligence, before he himself commenced active + operations, as he could not tell whether his brother might not be invited + into Etruria, to aid the party there that was disaffected to Rome or + whether he would march down by the Adriatic Sea. Hannibal led his troops + out of their winter quarters in Bruttium, and marched northward as far as + Canusium. Nero had his head-quarters near Venusia, with an army which he + had increased to forty thousand foot and two thousand five hundred horse, + by incorporating under his own command some of the legions which had been + intended to set under other generals in the south. There was another Roman + army twenty thousand strong, south of Hannibal, at Tarentum. The strength + of that city secured this Roman force from any attack by Hannibal, and it + was a serious matter to march northward and leave it in his rear, free to + act against all his depots and allies in the friendly part of Italy, which + for the last two or three campaigns had served him for a base of his + operations. Moreover, Nero's army was so strong that Hannibal could not + concentrate troops enough to assume the offensive against it without + weakening his garrisons, and relinquishing, at least for a time, his grasp + upon the southern provinces. To do this before he was certainly informed + of his brother's operations would have been an useless sacrifice; as Nero + could retreat before him upon the other Roman armies near the capital, and + Hannibal knew by experience that a mere advance of his army upon the walls + of Rome would have no effect on the fortunes of the war. In the hope, + probably, of inducing Nero to follow him, and of gaining an opportunity of + outmanoeuvring the Roman consul and attacking him on his march, Hannibal + moved into Lucania, and then back into Apulis;—he again marched down + into Bruttium, and strengthened his army by a levy of recruits in that + district. Nero followed him, but gave him no chance of assailing him at a + disadvantage. Some partial encounters seem to have taken place; but the + consul could not prevent Hannibal's junction with his Bruttian levies, nor + could Hannibal gain an opportunity of surprising and crushing the consul. + Hannibal returned to his former head-quarters at Canusium, and halted + there in expectation of further tidings of his brother's movements. Nero + also resumed his former position in observation of the Carthaginian army. + </p> + <p> + [The annalists whom Livy copied, spoke of Nero's gaining repeated + victories over Hannibal, and killing; and taking his men by tens of + thousands. The falsehood of all this is self-evident. If Nero could thus + always beat Hannibal, the Romans would not have been in such an agony of + dread about Hasdrubal, as all writers describe. Indeed, we have the + express testimony of Polybius that such statements as we read in Livy of + Marcellus, Nero, and others gaining victories over Hannibal in Italy, must + be all fabrications of Roman vanity. Polybius states (Lib. xv. sec. 16) + that Hannibal was never defeated before the battle of Zama; and in another + passage (Book ix. chap, 3) he mentions that after the defeats which + Hannibal inflicted on the Romans in the early years of the war, they no + longer dared face his army in a pitched battle on a fair field, and yet + they resolutely maintained the war. He rightly explains this by referring + to the superiority of Hannibal's cavalry the arm which gained him all his + victories. By keeping within fortified lines, or close to the sides of the + mountains when Hannibal approached them, the Romans rendered his cavalry + ineffective; and a glance at the geography of Italy will show how an army + can traverse the greater part of that country without venturing far from + the high grounds.] + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, Hasdrubal had raised the siege of Placentia, and was advancing + towards Ariminum on the Adriatic, and driving before him the Roman army + under Porcina. Nor when the consul Livius had come up, and united the + second and third armies of the north, could he make head against the + invaders. The Romans still fell back before Hasdrubal, beyond Ariminum, + beyond the Metaurus, and as far as the little town of Sena, to the + southeast of that river. Hasdrubal was not unmindful of the necessity of + acting in concert with his brother. He sent messengers to Hannibal to + announce his own line of march and to propose that they should unite their + armies in South Umbria, and then wheel round against Rome. Those + messengers traversed the greater part of Italy in safety; but, when close + to the object of their mission, were captured by a Roman detachment; and + Hasdrubal's letter, detailing his whole plan of the campaign, was laid, + not in his brother's hands, but in those of the commander of the Roman + armies of the south. Nero saw at once the full importance of the crisis. + The two sons of Hamilcar were now within two hundred miles of each other, + and if Rome were to be saved, the brothers must never meet alive. Nero + instantly ordered seven thousand picked men, a thousand being cavalry, to + hold themselves in readiness for a secret expedition against one of + Hannibal's garrisons; and as soon as night had set in, he hurried forward + on his bold enterprise: but he quickly left the southern road towards + Lucania, and wheeling round, pressed northward with the utmost rapidity + towards Picenum. He had, during the preceding afternoon, sent messengers + to Rome, who were to lay Hasdrubal's letters before the senate. There was + a law forbidding a consul to make war or to march his army beyond the + limits of the province assigned to him; but in such an emergency Nero did + not wait for the permission of the senate to execute his project, but + informed them that he was already on his march to join Livius against + Hasdrubal. He advised them to send the two legions which formed the home + garrison, on to Narnia, so as to defend that pass of the Flaminian road + against Hasdrubal, in case he should march upon Rome before the consular + armies could attack him. They were to supply the place of those two + legions at Rome by a levy EN MASSE in the city, and by ordering up the + reserve legion from Capua. These were his communications to the senate. He + also sent horseman forward along his line of march, with orders to the + local authorities to bring stores of; provisions and refreshments of every + kind to the road-side, and to have relays of carriages ready for the + conveyance of the wearied soldiers. Such were the precautions which he + took for accelerating his march; and when he had advanced some little + distance from his camp, he briefly informed his soldiers of the real + object of their expedition. He told them that there never was a design + more seemingly audacious, and more really safe. He said he was leading + them to a certain victory, for his colleague had an army large enough to + balance the enemy already, so that THEIR swords would decisively turn the + scale. The very rumour that a fresh consul and a fresh army had come up, + when heard on the battle-field (and he would take care that they should + not be heard of before they were seen and felt) would settle the campaign. + They would have all the credit of the victory, and of having dealt the + final decisive blow, He appealed to the enthusiastic reception which they + already met with on their line of march as a proof and an omen of their + good fortune. [Livy. lib. xxvii. c. 45.] And, indeed, their whole path was + amidst the vows and prayers and praises of their countrymen. The entire + population of the districts through which they passed, flocked to the + road-side to see and bless the deliverers of their country. Food, drink, + and refreshments of every kind were eagerly pressed on their acceptance. + Each peasant thought a favour was conferred on him, if one of Nero's + chosen band would accept aught at his hands. The soldiers caught the full + spirit of their leader. Night and day they marched forwards, taking their + hurried meals in the ranks and resting by relays in the waggons which the + zeal of the country-people provided, and which followed in the rear of the + column. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, at Rome, the news of Nero's expedition had caused the greatest + excitement and alarm. All men felt the full audacity of the enterprise, + but hesitated what epithet to apply to it. It was evident that Nero's + conduct would be judged of by the event, that most unfair criterion, as + the Roman historian truly terms it. ["Adparebat (quo nihil iniquius est) + ex eventu famam habiturum."—LIVY, lib. xxvii. c. 44.] People + reasoned on the perilous state in which Nero had left the rest of his + army, without a general, and deprived of the core of its strength, in the + vicinity of the terrible Hannibal. They speculated on how long it would + take Hannibal to pursue and overtake Nero himself, and his expeditionary + force. They talked over the former disasters of the war, and the fall of + both the consuls of the last year. All these calamities had come on them + while they had only one Carthaginian general and army to deal with in + Italy. Now they had two Punic wars at one time. They had two Carthaginian + armies; they had almost two Hannibals in Italy, Hasdrubal was sprung from + the same father; trained up in the same hostility to Rome; equally + practised in battle against its legions; and, if the comparative speed and + success with which he had crossed the Alps was a fair test, he was even a + better general than his brother. With fear for their interpreter of every + rumour, they exaggerated the strength of their enemy's forces in every + quarter, and criticised and distrusted their own. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately for Rome, while she was thus a prey to terror and anxiety, her + consul's nerves were strong, and he resolutely urged on his march towards + Sena, where his colleague, Livius, and the praetor Portius were encamped; + Hasdrubal's army being in position about half a mile to the north. Nero + had sent couriers forward to apprise his colleague of his project and of + his approach; and by the advice of Livius, Nero so timed his final march + as to reach the camp at Sena by night. According to a previous + arrangement, Nero's men were received silently into the tents of their + comrades, each according to his rank. By these means there was no + enlargement of the camp that could betray to Hasdrubal the accession of + force which the Romans had received. This was considerable; as Nero's + numbers had been increased on the march by the volunteers, who offered + themselves in crowds, and from whom he selected the most promising men, + and especially the veterans of former campaigns. A council of war was held + on the morning after his arrival, in which some advised that time should + be given for Nero's men to refresh themselves, after the fatigue of such a + march. But Nero vehemently opposed all delay. "The officer," said he, "who + is for giving time for my men here to rest themselves, is for giving time + to Hannibal to attack my men, whom I have left in the camp in Apulia. He + is for giving time to Hannibal and Hasdrubal to discover my march, and to + manoeuvre for a junction with each other in Cisalpine Gaul at their + leisure. We must fight instantly, while both the foe here and the foe in + the south are ignorant of our movements. We must destroy this Hasdrubal, + and I must be back In Apulia before Hannibal awakes from his torpor." + [Livy, lib. xxvii. c. 45.] Nero's advice prevailed. It was resolved to + fight directly; and before the consuls and praetor left the tent of + Livius, the red ensign, which was the signal to prepare for immediate + action, was hoisted, and the Romans forthwith drew up in battle array + outside the camp. + </p> + <p> + Hasdrubal had been anxious to bring Livius and Porcius to battle, though + he had not judged it expedient to attack them in their lines. And now, on + hearing that the Romans offered battle, he also drew up his men, and + advanced towards them. No spy or deserter had informed him of Nero's + arrival; nor had he received any direct information that he had more than + his old enemies to deal with. But as he rode forward to reconnoitre the + Roman lines, he thought that their numbers seemed to have increased, and + that the armour of some-of them was unusually dull and stained. He noticed + also that the horses of some of the cavalry appeared to be rough and out + of condition, as if they had just come from a succession of forced + marches. So also, though, owing to the precaution of Livius, the Roman + camp showed no change of size, it had not escaped the quick ear of the + Carthaginian general, that the trumpet, which gave the signal to the Roman + legions, sounded that morning once oftener than usual, as if directing the + troops of some additional superior officer. Hasdrubal, from his Spanish + campaigns, was well acquainted with all the sounds and signals of Roman + war; and from all that he heard and saw, he felt convinced that both the + Roman consuls were before him. In doubt and difficulty as to what might + have taken place between the armies of the south, and probably hoping that + Hannibal also was approaching, Hasdrubal determined to avoid an encounter + with the combined Roman forces, and to endeavour to retreat upon Insubrian + Gaul, where he would be in a friendly country, and could endeavour to + re-open his communications with his brother. He therefore led his troops + back into their camp; and, as the Romans did not venture on an assault + upon his entrenchments, and Hasdrubal did not choose to commence his + retreat in their sight, the day passed away in inaction. At the first + watch of the night, Hasdrubal led his men silently out of their camp, and + moved northwards towards the Metaurus, in the hope of placing that river + between himself and the Romans before his retreat was discovered. His + guides betrayed him; and having purposely led him away from the part of + the river that was fordable, they made their escape in the dark, and left + Hasdrubal and his army wandering in confusion along the steep bank, and + seeking in vain for a spot where the stream could be safely crossed. At + last they halted; and when day dawned on them, Hasdrubal found that great + numbers of his men, in their fatigue and impatience, had lost all + discipline and subordination, and that many of his Gallic auxiliaries had + got drunk, and were lying helpless in their quarters. The Roman cavalry + was soon seen coming up in pursuit, followed at no great distance by the + legions, which marched in readiness for an instant engagement. It was + hopeless for Hasdrubal, to think of continuing his retreat before them. + The prospect of immediate battle might recall the disordered part of his + troops to a sense of duty, and revive the instinct of discipline. He + therefore ordered his men to prepare for action instantly, and made the + best arrangement of them that the nature of the ground would permit. + </p> + <p> + Heeren has well described the general appearance of a Carthaginian army. + He says: "It was an assemblage of the most opposite races of the human + species, from the farthest parts of the globe. Hordes of half-naked Gauls + were ranged next to companies of white clothed Iberians, and savage + Ligurians next to the far-travelled Nasamones and Lotophagi. Carthaginians + and Phoenici-Africans formed the centre; while innumerable troops of + Numidian horse-men, taken from all the tribes of the Desert, swarmed about + on unsaddled horses, and formed the wings; the van was composed of + Balearic slingers; and a line of colossal elephants, with their Ethiopian + guides, formed, as it were, a chain of moving fortresses before the whole + army. Such were the usual materials and arrangements of the hosts that + fought for Carthage; but the troops under Hasdrubal were not in all + respects thus constituted or thus stationed. He seems to have been + especially deficient in cavalry, and he had few African troops, though + some Carthaginians of high rank were with him. His veteran Spanish + infantry, armed with helmets and shields, and short cut-and-thrust swords, + were the best part of his army. These, and his few Africans, he drew up on + his right wing, under his own personal command. In the centre, he placed + his Ligurian infantry, and on the left wing he placed or retained the + Gauls, who were armed with long javelins and with huge broadswords and + targets. The rugged nature of the ground in front and on the flank of this + part of his line, made him hope that the Roman right wing would be unable + to come to close quarters with these unserviceable barbarians, before he + could make some impression with his Spanish veterans on the Roman left. + This was the only chance that he had of victory or safety, and he seems to + have done everything that good generalship could do to secure it. He + placed his elephants in advance of his centre and right wing. He had + caused the driver of each of them to be provided with a sharp iron spike + and a mallet; and had given orders that every beast that became + unmanageable, and ran back upon his own ranks, should be instantly killed, + by driving the spike into the vertebra at the junction of the head and the + spine. Hasdrubal's elephants were ten in number. We have no trustworthy + information as to the amount of his infantry, but it is quite clear that + he was greatly outnumbered by the combined Roman forces." + </p> + <p> + The tactic of the Roman legions had not yet acquired the perfection which + it received from the military genius of Marius, [Most probably during the + period of his prolonged consulship, from B.C. 104 to B.C. 101, while he + was training his army against the Cimbri and the Teutons.] and which we + read of in the first chapter of Gibbon. We possess in that great work an + account of the Roman legions at the end of the commonwealth, and during + the early ages of the empire, which those alone can adequately admire, who + have attempted a similar description. We have also, in the sixth and + seventeenth books of Polybius, an elaborate discussion on the military + system of the Romans in his time, which was not far distant from the time + of the battle of the Metaurus. But the subject is beset with difficulties: + and instead of entering into minute but inconclusive details, I would + refer to Gibbon's first chapter, as serving for a general description of + the Roman army in its period of perfection; and remark, that the training + and armour which the whole legion received in the time of Augustus, was, + two centuries earlier, only partially introduced. Two divisions of troops, + called Hastati and Principes, formed the bulk of each Roman legion in the + second Punic war. Each of these divisions was twelve hundred strong. The + Hastatus and the Princeps legionary bore a breast-plate or coat of mail, + brazen greaves, and a brazen helmet, with a lofty, upright crest of + scarlet or black feathers. He had a large oblong shield; and, as weapons + of offence, two javelins, one of which was light and slender, but the + other was a strong and massive weapon, with a shaft about four feet long, + and an iron head of equal length. The sword was carried on the right + thigh, and was a short cut-and thrust weapon, like that which was used by + the Spaniards. Thus armed, the Hastati formed the front division of the + legion, and the Principes the second. Each division was drawn up about ten + deep; a space of three feet being allowed between the files as well as the + ranks, so as to give each legionary ample room for the use of his + javelins, and of his sword and shield. The men in the second rank did not + stand immediately behind those in the first rank, but the files were + alternate, like the position of the men on a draught board. This was + termed the quincunx order. Niebuhr considers that this arrangement enabled + the legion to keep up a shower of javelins on the enemy for some + considerable time. He says: "When the first line had hurled its pila, it + probably stepped back between those who stood behind it, who with two + steps forward restored the front nearly to its first position; a movement + which, on account of the arrangement of the quincunx, could be executed + without losing a moment. Thus one line succeeded the other in the front + till it was time to draw the swords; nay, when it was found expedient, the + lines which had already been in the front might repeat this change, since + the stores of pila were surely not confined to the two which each soldier + took with him into battle. + </p> + <p> + "The same change must have taken place in fighting with the sword; which, + when the same tactic was adopted on both sides, was anything but a + confused MELEE; on the contrary, it was a series of single combats." He + adds, that a military man of experience had been consulted by him on the + subject, and had given it as his opinion, "that the change of the lines as + described above was by no means impracticable; and in the absence of the + deafening noise of gunpowder, it cannot have had even any difficulty with + trained troops." + </p> + <p> + The third division of the legion was six hundred strong, and acted as a + reserve. It was always composed of veteran soldiers, who were called the + Triarii. Their arms were the same as those of the Principes and Hastati; + except that each Triarian carried a spear instead of javelins. The rest of + the legion consisted of light armed troops, who acted as skirmishers. The + cavalry of each legion was at this period about three hundred strong. The + Italian allies, who were attached to the legion, seem to have been + similarly armed and equipped, but their numerical proportion of cavalry + was much larger. + </p> + <p> + Such was the nature of the forces that advanced on the Roman side to the + battle of the Metaurus. Nero commanded the right wing, Livius the left, + and the praetor Porcius had the command of the centre. "Both Romans and + Carthaginians well understood how much depended upon the fortune of this + day, and how little hope of safety there was for the vanquished. Only the + Romans herein seemed to have had the better in conceit and opinion, that + they were to fight with men desirous to have fled from them. And according + to this presumption came Livius the consul, with a proud bravery, to give + charge on the Spaniards and Africans, by whom he was so sharply + entertained that victory seemed very doubtful. The Africans and Spaniards + were stout soldiers, and well acquainted with the manner of the Roman + fight. The Ligurians, also, were a hardy nation, and not accustomed to + give ground; which they needed the less, or were able now to do, being + placed in the midst. Livius, therefore, and Porcius found great + opposition; and, with great slaughter on both sides, prevailed little or + nothing. Besides other difficulties, they were exceedingly troubled by the + elephants, that brake their first ranks, and put them in such disorder, as + the Roman ensigns were driven to fall back; all this while Claudius Nero, + labouring in vain against a steep hill, was unable to come to blows with + the Gauls that stood opposite him, but out of danger. This made Hasdrubal + the more confident, who, seeing his own left wing safe, did the more + boldly and fiercely make impression on the other side upon the left wing + of the Romans." ["Historie of the World," by Sir Walter Raleigh, p. 946.] + </p> + <p> + But at last Nero, who found that Hasdrubal refused his left wing, and who + could not overcome the difficulties of the ground in the quarter assigned + to him, decided the battle by another stroke of that military genius which + had inspired his march. Wheeling a brigade of his best men round the rear + of the rest of the Roman army, Nero fiercely charged the flank of the + Spaniards and Africans. The charge was as successful as it was sudden. + Rolled back in disorder upon each other, and overwhelmed by numbers, the + Spaniards and Ligurians died, fighting gallantly to the last. The Gauls, + who had taken little or no part in the strife of the day, were then + surrounded, and butchered almost without resistance. Hasdrubal, after + having, by the confession of his enemies, done all that a general could + do, when he saw that the victory was irreparably lost, scorning to survive + the gallant; host which he had led, and to gratify, as a captive, Roman + cruelty and pride, spurred his horse into the midst of a Roman cohort; + where, sword in hand, he met the death that was worthy of the son of + Hamilcar and the brother of Hannibal. + </p> + <p> + Success the most complete had crowned Nero's enterprise. Returning as + rapidly as he had advanced, he was again facing the inactive enemies in + the south, before they even knew of his march. But he brought with him a + ghastly trophy of what he had done. In the true spirit of that savage + brutality which deformed the Roman national character, Nero ordered + Hasdrubal's head to be flung into his brother's camp. Eleven years had + passed since Hannibal had last gazed on those features. The sons of + Hamilcar had then planned their system of warfare against Rome, which they + had so nearly brought to successful accomplishment. Year after year had + Hannibal been struggling in Italy, in the hope of one day hailing the + arrival of him whom he had left in Spain; and of seeing his brother's eye + flash with affection and pride at the junction of their irresistible + hosts. He now saw that eye glazed in death and, in the agony of his heart, + the great Carthaginian groaned aloud that he recognised his country's + destiny. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Carthagini jam non ego nuntios + Mittam superbos. Occidit, occidit + Spes omnis et fortuna nostri + Nominis, Hastrubale interemto.—HORACE.] +</pre> + <p> + Rome was almost delirious with joy: [See the splendid description in Livy, + lib. xxvii. sec. 50, 51.] so agonising had been the suspense with which + the battle's verdict on that great issue of a nation's life and death had + been awaited; so overpowering was the sudden reaction to the consciousness + of security, and to the full glow of glory and success. From the time when + it had been known at Rome that the armies were in presence of each other, + the people had never ceased to throng the forum, the Conscript Fathers had + been in permanent sitting at the senate house. Ever and anon a fearful + whisper crept among the crowd of a second Cannae won by a second Hannibal. + Then came truer rumours that the day was Rome's; but the people were sick + at heart, and heeded them not. The shrines were thronged with trembling + women, who seemed to weary heaven with prayers to shield them from the + brutal Gaul and the savage African. Presently the reports of good fortune + assumed a more definite form. It was said that two Narnian horseman had + ridden from the east into the Roman camp of observation in Umbria, and had + brought tidings of the utter slaughter of the foe. Such news seemed too + good to be true, Men tortured their neighbours and themselves by + demonstrating its improbability and by ingeniously criticising its + evidence. Soon, however, a letter came from Lucius Manlius Acidinus, who + commanded in Umbria, and who announced the arrival of the Narnian horsemen + in his camp, and the intelligence which they brought thither. The letter + was first laid before the senate, and then before the assembly of the + people. The excitement grew more and more vehement. The letter was read + and re-read aloud to thousands. It confirmed the previous rumour. But even + this was insufficient to allay the feverish anxiety that thrilled through + every breast in Rome. The letter might be a forgery: the Narnian horseman + might be traitors or impostors. "We must see officers from the army that + fought, or hear despatches from the consuls themselves, and then only will + we believe." Such was the public sentiment, though some of more hopeful + nature already permitted themselves a foretaste of joy. At length came + news that officers who really had been in the battle were near at hand. + Forthwith the whole city poured forth to meet them, each person coveting + to be the first to receive with his own eyes and ears convincing proofs of + the reality of such a deliverance. One vast throng of human beings filled + the road from Rome to the Milvian bridge. The three officers, Lucius + Veturius Pollio, Publius Licinius Vasus, and Quintus Caecilius Metellus + came riding on, making their way slowly through the living sea around + them, As they advanced, each told the successive waves of eager + questioners that Rome was victorious. "We have destroyed Hasdrubal and his + army, our legions are safe, and our consuls are unhurt." Each happy + listener, who caught the welcome sounds from their lips, retired to + communicate his own joy to others, and became himself the centre of an + anxious and inquiring group. When the officers had, with much difficulty, + reached the senate house, and the crowd was with still greater difficulty + put back from entering and mingling with the Conscript Fathers, the + despatches of Livius and Nero were produced and read aloud. From the + senate house the officers proceeded to the public assembly, where the + despatches were read again; and then the senior officer, Lucius Veturius, + gave in his own words a fuller detail of how went the fight. When he had + done speaking to the people, an universal shout of rapture rent the air. + The vast assembly then separated: some hastening to the temples to find in + devotion a vent for the overflowing excitement of their hearts; others + seeking their homes to gladden their wives and children with the good + news, and to feast their own eyes with the sight of the loved ones, who + now, at last, were safe from outrage and slaughter. The senate ordained a + thanksgiving of three days for the great deliverance which had been + vouchsafed to Rome; and throughout that period the temples were + incessantly crowded with exulting worshippers; and the matrons, with their + children round them, in their gayest attire, and with joyous aspects and + voices, offered grateful praises to the immortal gods, as if all + apprehension of evil were over, and the war were already ended. + </p> + <p> + With the revival of confidence came also the revival of activity in + traffic and commerce, and in all the busy intercourse of daily life. A + numbing load was taken off each heart and brain, and once more men bought + and sold, and formed their plans fleely, as had been done before the dire + Carthaginians came into Italy. Hannibal was, certainly, still in the land; + but all felt that his power to destroy was broken, and that the crisis of + the war-fever was past. The Metaurus, indeed, had not only determined the + event of the strife between Rome and Carthage, but it had ensured to Rome + two centuries more of almost unchanged conquest. Hannibal did actually, + with almost superhuman skill, retain his hold on Southern Italy for a few + years longer, but the imperial city, and her allies, were no longer in + danger from his arms; and, after Hannibal's downfall, the great military + republic of the ancient world met in her career of conquest no other + worthy competitor. Byron has termed Nero's march "unequalled," and, in the + magnitude of its consequences, it is so. Viewed only as a military + exploit, it remains unparalleled save by Marlborough's bold march from + Flanders to the Danube, in the campaign of Blenheim, and perhaps also by + the Archduke Charles's lateral march in 1796, by which he overwhelmed the + French under Jourdain, and then, driving Moreau through the Black Forest + and across the Rhine, for a while freed Germany from her invaders. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS, B.C. 207, AND + ARMININIUS'S VICTORY OVER THE ROMAN LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, A.D. 9. + </p> + <p> + B.C. 205 to 201. Scipio is made consul, and carries the war into Africa. + He gains several victories there, and the Carthaginians recall Hannibal + from Italy to oppose him. Battle of Zama in 201: Hannibal is defeated, and + Carthage sues for peace. End of the second Punic war, leaving Rome + confirmed in the dominion of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and + also mistress of great part of Spain, and virtually predominant in North + Africa. + </p> + <p> + 200. Rome makes war upon Philip, king of Macedonia. She pretends to take + the Greek cities of the Achaean league and the AEtolians under her + protection as allies. Philip is defeated by the proconsul Flaminius at + Cynocephalae, 198; and begs for peace. The Macedonian influence is now + completely destroyed in Greece, and the Roman established in its stead, + though Rome nominally acknowledged the independence of the Greek cities. + </p> + <p> + 194. Rome makes war upon Antiochus, king of Syria. He is completely + defeated at the battle of Magnesia, 192, and is glad to accept peace on + conditions which leave him dependent upon Rome. + </p> + <p> + 200-190. "Thus, within the short; space of ten years, was laid the + foundation of the Roman authority in the East, and the general state of + affairs entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least + the arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power + of the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst + not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, Egypt, + had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the guardianship of + Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves: esteeming it an honour + to be called the allies of Rome. With this name the nations were lulled + into security, and brought under the Roman yoke; the new political system + of Rome was founded and strengthened partly by exciting and supporting the + weaker states against the stronger, however unjust the cause of the former + might be, and partly by factions which she found means to raise in every + state, even the smallest."—(HEEREN.) + </p> + <p> + 172. War renewed between Macedon and Rome. Decisive defeat of Perses, the + Macedonian king, by Paulus AEmilius at Pydna, 168, Destruction of the + Macedonian monarchy. + </p> + <p> + 150. Rome oppresses the Carthaginians till they are driven to take up + arms, and the third Punic war begins, Carthage is taken and destroyed by + Scipio AEmilianus, 146, and the Carthaginian territory is made a Roman + province. + </p> + <p> + 146. In the same year in which Carthage falls, Corinth is stormed by the + Roman army under Mummius. The Achaean league had been goaded into + hostilities with Rome, by means similar to those employed against + Carthage. The greater part of Southern Greece is made a Roman province, + under the name of Achaia. + </p> + <p> + 133. Numantium is destroyed by Scipio AEmilianus. "The war against the + Spaniards, who, of all the nations subdued by the Romans, defended their + liberty with the greatest obstinacy, began in the year 200, six years + after the total expulsion of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It + was exceedingly obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, + which was thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; + partly from the courage of the inhabitants; but at last all, owing to the + peculiar policy of the Romans, who yielded to employ their allies to + subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without interruption, + from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part carried on at the same + time in Hispania Citerior, where the Celtiberi were the most formidable + adversaries, and in Hispania Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally + powerful. Hostilities were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who + reduced Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity in 185-179, when the + Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150, when the + Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that nothing was more + dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent there. The extortions and + perfidy of Servius Galba placed Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of + his nations, the Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to + Hispania Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took + up arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and sometimes + defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment of defeat; because + he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge of the country and of the + dispositions of his countrymen. After his murder, caused by the treachery + of Saepio, 140, Lusitania was subdued; but the Numantine war became still + more violent, and the Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a + disadvantageous treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to + this war, Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were + still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia."—HEEREN. + </p> + <p> + 134. Commencement of the revolutionary century at Rome, I.E. from the time + of the excitement produced by the attempts made by the Gracchi to reform + the commonwealth, to the battle of Actium (B.C. 31), which established + Octavianus Caesar as sole master of the Roman world. Throughout this + period Rome was engaged in important foreign wars, most of which procured + large accessions to her territory. + </p> + <p> + 118-106. The Jugurthine war. Numidia is conquered, and made a Roman + province. + </p> + <p> + 113-101. The great and terrible war of the Cimbri and Teutones against + Rome. These nations of northern warriors slaughter several Roman armies in + Gaul, and in 102 attempt to penetrate into Italy, The military genius of + Marius here saves his country; he defeats the Teutones near Aix, in + Provence; and in the following year he destroys the army of the Cimbri, + who had passed the Alps, near Vercellae. + </p> + <p> + 91-88. The war of the Italian allies against Rome. This was caused by the + refusal of Rome to concede to them the rights of Roman citizenship. After + a sanguine struggle, Rome gradually grants it. + </p> + <p> + 89-86. First war of the Romans against Mithridates the Great, king of + Pontus, who had overrun Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece. Sylla defeats + his armies, and forces him to withdraw his forces from Europe. Sylla + returns to Rome to carry on the civil war against the son and partisans of + Marius. He makes himself Dictator. + </p> + <p> + 74-64. The last Mithridatic wars. Lucullus, and after him Pompeius, + command against the great King of Pontus, who at last is poisoned by his + son, while designing to raise the warlike tribes of the Danube against + Rome, and to invade Italy from the north-east. Great Asiatic conquests of + the Romans. Besides the ancient province of Pergamus, the maritime + countries of Bithynia, and nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are formed + into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the southern + coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another, under the name of Cilicia; + Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria. On the other + hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappodocia to Ariobarzanes; the + Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judaea to Hyrcanus; and some other small states + are also given to petty princes, all of whom remain dependent on Rome. + </p> + <p> + 58-50. Caesar conquers Gaul. + </p> + <p> + 54. Crassus attacks the Parthians with a Roman army, but is overthrown and + killed at Carrhae in Mesopotamia. His lieutenant Cassius collects the + wrecks of the army, and prevents the Parthians from conquering Syria. + </p> + <p> + 49-45. The civil war between Caesar and the Pompeian party. Caesar drives + Pompeius out of Italy, conquers his enemy's forces in Spain, and then + passes into Greece, where Pompeius and the other aristocratic chiefs had + assembled a large army. Caesar gives them a decisive defeat at the great + battle of Pharsalia. Pompeius flies for refuge to Alexandria, where he is + assassinated. Caesar, who had followed him thither, is involved in a war + with the Egyptians, in which he is finally victorious. The celebrated + Cleopatra is made Queen of Egypt. Caesar next marches into Pontus, and + defeats the son of Mithridates, who had taken part in the war against him. + He then proceeds to the Roman province of Africa, where some of the + Pompeian chiefs had established themselves, aided by Juba, a native + prince. He over throws them at the battle of Thapsus. He is again obliged + to lead an army into Spain, where the sons of Pompeius had collected the + wrecks of their father's party. He crushes the last of his enemies at the + battle of Munda. Under the title of Dictator, he is the sole master of the + Roman world. + </p> + <p> + 44. Caesar is killed in the Senate-house; the Civil wars are soon renewed, + Brutus and Cassius being at the head of the aristocratic party, and the + party of Caesar being led by Mark Antony and Octavianus Caesar, afterwards + Augustus. + </p> + <p> + 42. Defeat and death of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Dissensions soon + break out between Octavianus Caesar and Antony. + </p> + <p> + 31. Antony is completely defeated by Octavianus Caesar at Actium. He flies + to Egypt with Cleopatra. Octavianus pursues him. Antony and Cleopatra kill + themselves. Egypt becomes a Roman province, and Octavianus Caesar is left + undisputed master of Rome, and all that is Rome's. The state of the Roman + world at this time is best described in two lines of Tacitus:—"Postquam + bellatum apud Actium, atque OMNEM POTESTATEM AD UNUM CONFERRI PACIS + INTERFUIT." (Hist. lib. i. s. 1.) + </p> + <p> + The 44th year of the reign of Augustus, and the 1st year of the 195th + Olympiad, is commonly assigned as the date of THE NATIVITY OF OUR LORD. + There is much of the beauty of holiness in the remarks with which the + American historian, Eliot, closes his survey of the conquering career and + civil downfall of the Roman Commonwealth:— + </p> + <p> + "So far as humility amongst men was necessary for the preparation of a + truer freedom than could ever be known under heathenism, the part of Rome, + however dreadful was yet sublime. It was not to unite, to discipline, or + to fortify humanity, but to enervate, to loosen, and to scatter its + forces, that the people whose history we have read were allowed to conquer + the earth, and were then themselves reduced to deep submission. Every good + labour of theirs that failed was, by reason of what we esteem its failure, + a step gained nearer to the end of the well-nigh universal evil that + prevailed; while every bad achievement that may seem to us to have + succeeded, temporarily or lastingly, with them was equally, by reason of + its success, a progress towards the good of which the coming would have + been longed and prayed for, could it have been comprehended. Alike in the + virtues and in the vices of antiquity, we may read the progress towards + its humiliation. ["The Christian revelation," says Leland, in his truly + admirable work on the subject (vol. i. p. 488), "was made to the world at + a time when it was most wanted; when the darkness and corruption of + mankind were arrived at the height.... if it had been published much + sooner, and before there had been a full trial made of what was to be + expected from human wisdom and philosophy, the great need men stood in of + such an extraordinary divine dispensation would not have been so + apparent."] Yet, on the other hand, it must not seem, at the last, that + the disposition of the Romans or of mankind to submission was secured + solely through the errors, and the apparently ineffectual toils which we + have traced back to these times of old. Desires too true to have been + wasted, and strivings too humane to have been unproductive, though all + were overshadowed by passing wrongs, still gleam as if in anticipation or + in preparation of the advancing day. + </p> + <p> + "At length, when it had been proved by ages of conflict and loss, that no + lasting joy and no abiding truth could be procured through the power, the + freedom, or the faith of mankind, the angels sang their song in which the + glory of God and the good-will of men were together blended. The universe + was wrapped In momentary tranquillity, and 'peaceful was the night' above + the manger at Bethlehem. We may believe, that when the morning came, the + ignorance, the confusion, and the servitude of humanity had left their + darkest forms amongst the midnight clouds. It was still, indeed, beyond + the power of man to lay hold securely of the charity and the regeneration + that were henceforth to be his law; and the indefinable terrors of the + future, whether seen from the West or from the East, were not at once to + be dispelled. But before the death of the Emperor Augustus, in the midst + of his fallen subjects, the business of THE FATHER had already been begun + in the Temple at Jerusalem; and near by, THE SON was increasing in wisdom + and in stature, and in favour with God and man." [Eliot's "Liberty of + Rome," vol. ii. p. 521.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. — VICTORY OF ARMINIUS OVER THE ROMAN LEGIONS UNDER VARUS, + </h2> + <p> + A.D. 9. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Hac clade factum, ut Imperium quod in littore oceani non + steterat, in ripa Rheni fluminis staret."—FLORUS. +</pre> + <p> + To a truly illustrious Frenchman, whose reverses as a minister can never + obscure his achievements in the world of letters, we are indebted for the + most profound and most eloquent estimate that we possess of the importance + of the Germanic element in European civilization, and of the extent to + which the human race is indebted to those brave warriors, who long were + the unconquered antagonists, and finally became the conquerors, of + Imperial Rome. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-three eventful years have passed away since M. Guizot delivered + from the chair of modern history at Paris his course of lectures on the + History of Civilization in Europe. During those years the spirit of + earnest inquiry into the germs and early developments of existing + institutions has become more and more active and universal; and the + merited celebrity of M. Guizot's work has proportionally increased. Its + admirable analysis of the complex political and social organizations of + which the modern civilized world is made up, must have led thousands to + trace with keener interest the great crises of times past, by which the + characteristics of the present were determined. The narrative of one of + these great crises, of the epoch A.D. 9, when Germany took up arms for her + independence against Roman invasion, has for us this special attraction—that + it forms part of our own national history. Had Arminius been supine or + unsuccessful, our Germanic ancestors would have been enslaved or + exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder and the Elbe; this + island would never have borne the name of England, and "we, this great + English nation, whose race and language are now over-running the earth, + from one end of it to the other," [Arnold's Lectures on Modern History.] + would have been utterly cut off from existence. + </p> + <p> + Arnold may, indeed, go too far in holding that we are wholly unconnected + in race with the Romans and Britons who inhabited this country before the + coming over of the Saxons; that, "nationally speaking, the history of + Caesar's invasion has no more to do with us than the natural history of + the animals which then inhabited our forests." There seems ample evidence + to prove that the Romanized Celts, whom our Teutonic forefathers found + here, influenced materially the character of our nation. But the main + stream of our people was and is Germanic. Our language alone decisively + proves this. Arminius is far more truly one of our national heroes than + Caractacus: and it was our own primeval fatherland that the brave German + rescued, when he slaughtered the Roman legions eighteen centuries ago in + the marshy glens between the Lippe and the Ems. [See post, remarks on the + relationship between the Cherusci and the English.] + </p> + <p> + Dark and disheartening, even to heroic spirits, must have seemed the + prospects of Germany when Arminius planned the general rising of his + countrymen against Rome. Half the land was occupied by Roman garrisons; + and, what was worse, many of the Germans seemed patiently acquiescent in + their state of bondage. The braver portion, whose patriotism could be + relied on, was ill-armed and undisciplined; while the enemy's troops + consisted of veterans in the highest state of equipment and training, + familiarized with victory, and commanded by officers of proved skill and + valour. The resources of Rome seemed boundless; her tenacity of purpose + was believed to be invincible. There was no hope of foreign sympathy or + aid; for "the self-governing powers that had filled the old world, had + bent one after another before the rising power of Rome, and had vanished. + The earth seemed left void of independent nations." [Ranke.] + </p> + <p> + The (German) chieftain knew well the gigantic power of the oppressor. + Arminius was no rude savage, fighting out of mere animal instinct, or in + ignorance of the might of his adversary. He was familiar with the Roman + language and civilization; he had served in the Roman armies; he had been + admitted to the Roman citizenship, and raised to the dignity of the + equestrian order. It was part of the subtle policy of Rome to confer rank + and privileges on the youth of the leading families in the nations which + she wished to enslave. Among other young German chieftains, Arminius and + his brother, who were the heads of the noblest house in the tribe of the + Cherusci, had been selected as fit objects for the exercise of this + insidious system. Roman refinements and dignities succeeded in + denationalizing the brother, who assumed the Roman name of Flavius, and + adhered to Rome throughout all her wars against his country. Arminius + remained unbought by honours or wealth, uncorrupted by refinement or + luxury. He aspired to and obtained from Roman enmity a higher title than + ever could have been given him by Roman favour. It is in the page of + Rome's greatest historian, that his name has come down to us with the + proud addition of "Liberator haud dubie Germaniae." [Tacitus, Annals, ii. + 88.] + </p> + <p> + Often must the young chieftain, while meditating the exploit which has + thus immortalised him, have anxiously revolved in his mind the fate of the + many great men who had been crushed in the attempt which he was about to + renew,—the attempt to stay the chariot-wheels of triumphant Rome. + Could he hope to succeed where Hannibal and Mithridates had perished? What + had been the doom of Viriathus? and what warning against vain valour was + written on the desolate site where Numantia once had fourished? Nor was a + caution wanting in scenes nearer home and in more recent times. The Gauls + had fruitlessly struggled for eight years against Caesar; and the valiant + Vercingetorix, who in the last year of the war had roused all his + countrymen to insurrection, who had cut off Roman detachments, and brought + Caesar himself to the extreme of peril at Alesia—he, too, had + finally succumbed, had been led captive in Caesar's triumph, and had then + been butchered in cold blood in a Roman dungeon. + </p> + <p> + It was true that Rome was no longer the great military republic which for + so many ages had shattered the kingdoms of the world. Her system of + government was changed; and, after a century of revolution and civil war, + she had placed herself under the despotism of a single ruler. But the + discipline of her troops was yet unimpaired, and her warlike spirit seemed + unabated. The first wars of the empire had been signalised by conquests as + valuable as any gained by the republic in a corresponding period. It is a + great fallacy, though apparently sanctioned by great authorities, to + suppose that the foreign policy pursued by Augustus was pacific. He + certainly recommended such a policy to his successors, either from + timidity, or from jealousy of their fame outshining his own; ["Incertum + metu an per invidiam."—Tac. Ann. i. 11] but he himself, until + Arminius broke his spirit, had followed a very different course. Besides + his Spanish wars, his generals, in a series of principally aggressive + campaigns, had extended the Roman frontier from the Alps to the Danube; + and had reduced into subjection the large and important countries that now + form the territories of all Austria south of that river, and of East + Switzerland, Lower Wirtemberg, Bavaria, the Valteline, and the Tyrol. + While the progress of the Roman arms thus pressed the Germans from the + south, still more formidable inroads had been made by the Imperial legions + in the west. Roman armies, moving from the province of Gaul, established a + chain of fortresses along the right as well as the left bank of the Rhine, + and, in a series of victorious campaigns, advanced their eagles as far as + the Elbe; which now seemed added to the list of vassal rivers, to the + Nile, the Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, the Tagus, the Seine, and many + more, that acknowledged the supremacy of the Tiber. Roman fleets also, + sailing from the harbours of Gaul along the German coasts, and up the + estuaries, co-operated with the land-forces of the empire; and seemed to + display, even more decisively than her armies, her overwhelming + superiority over the rude Germanic tribes. Throughout the territory thus + invaded, the Romans had, with their usual military skill, established + chains of fortified posts; and a powerful army of occupation was kept on + foot, ready to move instantly on any spot where a popular outbreak might + be attempted. + </p> + <p> + Vast however, and admirably organized as the fabric of Roman power + appeared on the frontiers and in the provinces, there was rottenness at + the core. In Rome's unceasing hostilities with foreign foes, and, still + more, in her long series of desolating civil wars, the free middle classes + of Italy had almost wholly disappeared. Above the position which they had + occupied, an oligarchy of wealth had reared itself: beneath that position + a degraded mass of poverty and misery was fermenting. Slaves, the chance + sweepings of every conquered country, shoals of Africans, Sardinians, + Asiatics, Illyrians, and others, made up the bulk of the population of the + Italian peninsula. The foulest profligacy of manners was general in all + ranks. In universal weariness of revolution and civil war, and in + consciousness of being too debased for self-government, the nation had + submitted itself to the absolute authority of Augustus. Adulation was now + the chief function the senate: and the gifts of genius and accomplishments + of art were devoted to the elaboration of eloquently false panegyrics upon + the prince and his favourite courtiers. With bitter indignation must the + German chieftain have beheld all this, and contrasted with it the rough + worth of his own countrymen;—their bravery, their fidelity to their + word, their manly independence of spirit their love of their national free + institutions, and their loathing of every pollution and meanness. Above + all, he must have thought of the domestic virtues that hallowed a German + home; of the respect there shown to the female character, and of the pure + affection by which that respect was repaid. His soul must have burned + within him at the contemplation of such a race yielding to these debased + Italians. + </p> + <p> + Still, to persuade the Germans to combine, in spite of their frequent + feuds among themselves, in one sudden outbreak against Rome; to keep the + scheme concealed from the Romans until the hour for action had arrived; + and then, without possessing a single walled town, without military + stores, without training, to teach his insurgent countrymen to defeat + veteran armies, and storm fortifications, seemed so perilous an + enterprise, that probably Arminius would have receded from it, had not a + stronger feeling even than patriotism urged him on. Among the Germans of + high rank who had most readily submitted to the invaders, and become + zealous partisans of Roman authority, was a chieftain named Segestes. His + daughter, Thusnelda, was pre-eminent among the noble maidens of Germany. + Arminius had sought her hand in marriage; but Segestes, who probably + discerned the young chief's disaffection to Rome, forbade his suit, and + strove to preclude all communication between him and his daughter. + Thusnelda, however, sympathised far more with the heroic spirit of her + lover, than with the time serving policy of her father. An elopement + baffled the precautions of Segestes; who, disappointed in his hope of + preventing the marriage, accused Arminius, before the Roman governor, of + having carried off his daughter, and of planning treason against Rome. + Thus assailed, and dreading to see his bride torn from him by the + officials of the foreign oppressor, Arminius delayed no longer, but bent + all his energies to organize and execute a general insurrection of the + great mass of his countrymen, who hitherto had submitted in sullen + inertness to the Roman dominion. + </p> + <p> + A change of governors had recently taken place, which, while it materially + favoured the ultimate success of the insurgents, served, by the immediate + aggravation of the Roman oppressions which it produced, to make the native + population more universally eager to take arms. Tiberius, who was + afterwards emperor, had lately been recalled from the command in Germany, + and sent into Pannonia to put down a dangerous revolt which had broken out + against the Romans in that province. The German patriots were thus + delivered from the stern supervision of one of the most auspicious of + mankind, and were also relieved from having to contend against the high + military talents of a veteran commander, who thoroughly understood their + national character, and the nature of the country, which he himself had + principally subdued. In the room of Tiberius, Augustus sent into Germany + Quintilius Varus, who had lately returned from the proconsulate of Syria. + Varus was a true representative of the higher classes of the Romans; among + whom a general taste for literature, a keen susceptibility to all + intellectual gratifications, a minute acquaintance with the principles and + practice of their own national jurisprudence, a careful training in the + schools of the rhetoricians, and a fondness for either partaking in or + watching the intellectual strife of forensic oratory, had become generally + diffused; without, however, having humanized the old Roman spirit of cruel + indifference for human feelings and human sufferings, and without acting + as the least check on unprincipled avarice and ambition, or on habitual + and gross profligacy. Accustomed to govern the depraved and debased + natives of Syria, a country where courage in man, and virtue in woman, had + for centuries been unknown, Varus thought that he might gratify his + licentious and rapacious passions with equal impunity among the + high-minded sons and pure-spirited daughters of Germany. When the general + of an army sets the example of outrages of this description, he is soon + faithfully imitated by his officers, and surpassed by his still more + brutal soldiery. The Romans now habitually indulged in those violations of + the sanctity of the domestic shrine, and those insults upon honour and + modesty, by which far less gallant spirits than those of our Teutonic + ancestors have often been maddened into insurrection. + </p> + <p> + [I cannot forbear quoting Macaulay's beautiful lines, where he describes + how similar outrages in the early times of Rome goaded the plebeians to + rise against the patricians:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Heap heavier still the fetters; bar closer still the grate; + Patient as sheep we yield us up unto your cruel hate. + But by the shades beneath us, and by the gods above, + Add not unto your cruel hate your still more cruel love. + * * * + Then leave the poor plebeian his single tie to life— + The sweet, sweet love of daughter, of sister, and of wife, + The gentle speech, the balm for all that his vext soul endures, + The kiss in which he half forgets even such a yoke as yours. + Still let the maiden's beauty swell the father's breast with + pride; + Still let the bridegroom's arms enfold an unpolluted bride. + Spare us the inexpiable wrong, the unutterable shame, + That turns the coward's heart to steel, the sluggard's blood to + flame; + Lest when our latest hope is fled ye taste of our despair, + And learn by proof in some wild hour, how much the wretched + dare."] +</pre> + <p> + Arminius found among the other German chiefs many who sympathised with him + in his indignation at their country's debasement, and many whom private + wrongs had stung yet more deeply. There was little difficulty in + collecting bold leaders for an attack on the oppressors, and little fear + of the population not rising readily at those leaders' call. But to + declare open war against Rome, and to encounter Varus's army in a pitched + battle, would have been merely rushing upon certain destruction. Varus had + three legions under him, a force which, after allowing for detachments, + cannot be estimated at less than fourteen thousand Roman infantry. He had + also eight or nine hundred Roman cavalry, and at least an equal number of + horse and foot sent from the allied states, or raised among those + provincials who had not received the Roman franchise. + </p> + <p> + It was not merely the number, but the quality of this force that made it + formidable; and however contemptible Varus might be as a general, Arminius + well knew how admirably the Roman armies were organized and officered, and + how perfectly the legionaries understood every manoeuvre and every duty + which the varying emergencies of a stricken field might require. Stratagem + was, therefore, indispensable; and it was necessary to blind Varus to his + schemes until a favourable opportunity should arrive for striking a + decisive blow. + </p> + <p> + For this purpose the German confederates frequented the headquarters of + Varus, which seem to have been near the centre of the modern country of + Westphalia, where the Roman general conducted himself with all the + arrogant security of the governor of a perfectly submissive province. + There Varus gratified at once his vanity, his rhetorical taste, and his + avarice, by holding courts, to which he summoned the Germans for the + settlement of all their disputes, while a bar of Roman advocates attended + to argue the cases before the tribunal of the Proconsul; who did not omit + the opportunity of exacting court-fees and accepting bribes. Varus trusted + implicitly to the respect which the Germans pretended to pay to his + abilities as a judge, and to the interest which they affected to take in + the forensic eloquence of their conquerors. Meanwhile a succession of + heavy rains rendered the country more difficult for the operations of + regular troops; and Arminius, seeing that the infatuation of Varus was + complete, secretly directed the tribes near the Weser and the Ems to take + up arms in open revolt against the Romans. This was represented to Varus + as an occasion which required his prompt attendance at the spot; but he + was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national + rising; and he still looked on Arminius as his submissive vassal, whose + aid he might rely on in facilitating the march of his troops against the + rebels, and in extinguishing the local disturbance. He therefore set his + army in motion, and marched eastward in a line parallel to the course of + the Lippe. For some distance his route lay along a level plain; but on + arriving at the tract between the curve of the upper part of that stream + and the sources of the Ems, the country assumes a very different + character; and here, in the territory of the modern little principality of + Lippe, it was that Arminius had fixed the scene of his enterprise. + </p> + <p> + A woody and hilly region intervenes between the heads of the two rivers, + and forms the water-shed of their streams. This region still retains the + name (Teutoberger wald—Teutobergiensis saltus) which it bore in the + days of Arminius. The nature of the ground has probably also remained + unaltered. The eastern part of it, round Detmoldt, the present capital of + the principality of Lippe, is described by a modern German scholar, Dr. + Plate, as being "a table-land intersected by numerous deep and narrow + valleys, which in some places form small plains, surrounded by steep + mountains and rocks, and only accessible by narrow defiles. All the + valleys are traversed by rapid streams, shallow in the dry season, but + subject to sudden swellings in autumn and winter. The vast forests which + cover the summits and slopes of the hills consist chiefly of oak; there is + little underwood, and both men and horse would move with ease in the + forests if the ground were not broken by gulleys, or rendered + impracticable by fallen trees." This is the district to which Varus is + supposed to have marched; and Dr. Plate adds, that "the names of several + localities on and near that spot seem to indicate that a great battle had + once been fought there. We find the names 'das Winnefeld' (the field of + victory), 'die Knochenbahn' (the bone-lane), 'die Knochenleke' (the + bone-brook), 'der Mordkessel' (the kettle of slaughter), and others." [I + am indebted for much valuable information on this subject to my friend Mr. + Henry Pearson.] + </p> + <p> + Contrary to the usual strict principles of Roman discipline, Varus had + suffered his army to be accompanied and impeded by an immense train of + baggage-waggons, and by a rabble of camp followers; as if his troops had + been merely changing their quarters in a friendly country. When the long + array quitted the firm level ground, and began to wind its way among the + woods, the marshes, and the ravines, the difficulties of the march, even + without the intervention of an armed foe, became fearfully apparent. In + many places the soil, sodden with rain, was impracticable for cavalry and + even for infantry, until trees had been felled, and a rude causeway formed + through the morass. + </p> + <p> + The duties of the engineer were familiar to all who served in the Roman + armies. But the crowd and confusion of the columns embarrassed the working + parties of the soldiery, and in the midst of their toil and disorder the + word was suddenly passed through their ranks that the rear-guard was + attacked by the barbarians. Varus resolved on pressing forward; but a + heavy discharge of missiles from the woods on either flank taught him how + serious was the peril, and he saw the best men falling round him without + the opportunity of retaliation; for his light-armed auxiliaries, who were + principally of Germanic race, now rapidly deserted, and it was impossible + to deploy the legionaries on such broken ground for a charge against the + enemy. Choosing one of the most open and firm spots which they could force + their way to, the Romans halted for the night; and, faithful to their + national discipline and tactics, formed their camp amid the harassing + attacks of the rapidly thronging foes, with the elaborate toil and + systematic skill, the traces of which are impressed permanently on the + soil of so many European countries, attesting the presence in the olden + time of the imperial eagles. + </p> + <p> + On the morrow the Romans renewed their march; the veteran officers who + served under Varus now probably directing the operations, and hoping to + find the Germans drawn up to meet them; in which case they relied on their + own superior discipline and tactics for such a victory as should reassure + the supremacy of Rome. But Arminius was far too sage a commander to lead + on his followers, with their unwieldy broadswords and inefficient + defensive armour, against the Roman legionaries, fully armed with helmet, + cuirass, greaves, and shield; who were skilled to commence the conflict + with a murderous volley of heavy javelins, hurled upon the foe when a few + yards distant, and then, with their short cut-and-thrust swords, to hew + their way through all opposition; preserving the utmost steadiness and + coolness, and obeying each word of command. In the midst of strife and + slaughter with the same precision and alertness as if upon parade. [See + Gibbon's description (vol. i, chap. 1) of the Roman legions in the time of + Augustus; and see the description in Tacitus (Ann. lib. i) of the + subsequent battles between Caecina and Arminius.] Arminius suffered the + Romans to march out from their camp, to form first in line for action, and + then in column for marching, without the show of opposition. For some + distance Varus was allowed to move on, only harassed by slight skirmishes, + but struggling with difficulty through the broken ground; the toil and + distress of his men being aggravated by heavy torrents of rain, which + burst upon the devoted legions as if the angry gods of Germany were + pouring out the vials of their wrath upon the invaders. After some little + time their van approached a ridge of high woody ground, which is one of + the off-shoots of the great Hercynian forest, and is situate between the + modern villages of Driburg and Bielefeld. Arminius had caused barricades + of hewn trees to be formed here, so as to add to the natural difficulties + of the passage. Fatigue and discouragement now began to betray themselves + in the Roman ranks. Their line became less steady; baggage-waggons were + abandoned from the impossibility of forcing them along; and, as this + happened, many soldiers left their ranks and crowded round the waggons to + secure the most valuable portions of their property; each was busy about + his own affairs, and purposely slow in hearing the word of command from + his officers. Arminius now gave the signal for a general attack. The + fierce shouts of the Germans pealed through the gloom of the forests, and + in thronging multitudes they assailed the flanks of the invaders, pouring + in clouds of darts on the encumbered legionaries, as they struggled up the + glens or floundered in the morasses, and watching every opportunity of + charging through the intervals of the disjointed column, and so cutting + off the communication between its several brigades. Arminius, with a + chosen band of personal retainers round him, cheered on his countrymen by + voice and example. He and his men aimed their weapons particularly at the + horses of the Roman cavalry. The wounded animals, slipping about in the + mire and their own blood, threw their riders, and plunged among the ranks + of the legions, disordering all round them. Varus now ordered the troops + to be countermarched, in the hope of reaching the nearest Roman garrison + on the Lippe. [The circumstances of the early part of the battle which + Arminius fought with Caecina six years afterwards, evidently resembled + those of his battle with Varus, and the result was very near being the + same: I have therefore adopted part of the description which Tacitus gives + (Ann. lib. i. c. 65) of the last mentioned engagement: "Neque tamen + Arminius, quamquam libero in cursu, statim prorupit: sed ut haesere caeno + fossisque impedimenta, turbati circum milites; incertus signorum ordo; + utque tali in tempore sibi quisque properus, et lentae adversum imperia + aures, irrumpere Germanos jubet, clamitans 'En Varus, et eodem iterum fato + victae legiones!' Simul haec, et cum delectis scindit agmen, equisque + maxime vulnera ingerit; illi sanguine suo et lubrico paludum lapsantes, + excussis rectoribus, disjicere obvios, proterere jacentes."] But retreat + now was as impracticable as advance; and the falling back of the Romans + only augmented the courage of their assailants, and caused fiercer and + more frequent charges on the flanks of the disheartened army. The Roman + officer who commanded the cavalry, Numonius Vala, rode off with his + squadrons, in the vain hope of escaping by thus abandoning his comrades. + Unable to keep together, or force their way across the woods and swamps, + the horsemen were overpowered in detail and slaughtered to the last man. + The Roman infantry still held together and resisted, but more through the + instinct of discipline and bravery than from any hope of success or + escape. Varus, after being severely wounded in a charge of the Germans + against his part of the column, committed suicide to avoid falling into + the hands of those whom he had exasperated by his oppressions. One of the + lieutenant-generals of the army fell fighting; the other surrendered to + the enemy. But mercy to a fallen foe had never been a Roman virtue, and + those among her legions who now laid down their arms in hope of quarter, + drank deep of the cup of suffering, which Rome had held to the lips of + many a brave but unfortunate enemy. The infuriated Germans slaughtered + their oppressors with deliberate ferocity; and those prisoners who were + not hewn to pieces on the spot, were only preserved to perish by a more + cruel death in cold blood. + </p> + <p> + The bulk of the Roman army fought steadily and stubbornly, frequently + repelling the masses of the assailants, but gradually losing the + compactness of their array, and becoming weaker and weaker beneath the + incessant shower of darts and the reiterated assaults of the vigorous and + unencumbered Germans. At last, in a series of desperate attacks the column + was pierced through and through, two of the eagles captured, and the Roman + host, which on the yester morning had marched forth in such pride and + might, now broken up into confused fragments, either fell fighting beneath + the overpowering numbers of the enemy, or perished in the swamps and woods + in unavailing efforts at flight. Few, very few, ever saw again the left + bank of the Rhine. One body of brave veterans, arraying themselves in a + ring on a little mound, beat off every charge of the Germans, and + prolonged their honourable resistance to the close of that dreadful day. + The traces of a feeble attempt at forming a ditch and mound attested in + after years the spot where the last of the Romans passed their night of + suffering and despair. But on the morrow this remnant also, worn out with + hunger, wounds, and toil, was charged by the victorious Germans, and + either massacred on the spot, or offered up in fearful rites at the alters + of the deities of the old mythology of the North. + </p> + <p> + A gorge in the mountain ridge, through which runs the modern road between + Paderborn and Pyrmont, leads from the spot where the heat of the battle + raged, to the Extersteine, a cluster of bold and grotesque rocks of + sandstone; near which is a small sheet of water, overshadowed by a grove + of aged trees. According to local tradition, this was one of the sacred + groves of the ancient Germans, and it was here that the Roman captives + were slain in sacrifice by the victorious warriors of Arminius. ["Lucis + propinquis barbarae arae, apud quas tribunos ac primorum ordinam + centuriones mactaverant."—TACITUS, Ann. lib. i. c. 61.] + </p> + <p> + Never was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an oppressed + people more instantaneous and complete. Throughout Germany the Roman + garrisons were assailed and cut off; and, within a few weeks after Varus + had fallen, the German soil was freed from the foot of an invader. + </p> + <p> + At Rome, the tidings of the battle was received with an agony of terror, + the descriptions of which we should deem exaggerated, did they not come + from Roman historians themselves. These passages in the Roman writers not + only tell emphatically how great was the awe which the Romans felt of the + prowess of the Germans, if their various tribes could be brought to + reunite for a common purpose, but also they reveal bow weakened and + debased the population of Italy had become. [It is clear that the Romans + followed the policy of fomenting dissension and wars of the Germans among + themselves. See the thirty-third section of the "Germania" of Tacitus, + where he mentions the destruction of the Bructeri by the neighbouring + tribes: "Favore quodam erga nos deorum: nam ne spectaculo quidem proelii + invidere: super LX. millia non armis telisque Romanis, sed, quod + magnificentius est, oblectationi oculisque ceciderunt. Maneat quaeso, + duretque gentibus, si non amor nostri at certe odium sui quando urgentibus + imperii fatis, nihil jam praestare fortuna majus potes quam hostiam + discordiam."] Dion Cassius says: [Lib. lvi. sec. 23.] "Then Augustus, when + he heard the calamity of Varus, rent his garments, and was in great + affliction for the troops he had lost, and for terror respecting the + Germans and the Gauls. And his chief alarm was, that he expected them to + push on against Italy and Rome: and there remained no Roman youth fit for + military duty, that were worth speaking of, and the allied populations + that were at all serviceable had been wasted away. Yet he prepared for the + emergency as well as his means allowed; and when none of the citizens of + military age were willing to enlist he made them cast lots, and punished + by confiscation of goods and disfranchisement every fifth man among those + under thirty-five, and every tenth man of those above that age. At last, + when he found that not even thus; could he make many come forward, he put + some of them to death. So he made a conscription of discharged veterans + and emancipated slaves, and collecting as large a force as he could, sent + it, under Tiberius, with all speed into Germany." + </p> + <p> + Dion mentions, also, a number of terrific portents that were believed to + have occurred at the time; and the narration of which is not immaterial, + as it shows the state of the public mind, when such things were so + believed in, and so interpreted. The summits of the Alps were said to have + fallen, and three columns of fire to have blazed up from them. In the + Campus Martius, the temple of the War-God, from whom the founder of Rome + had sprung, was struck by a thunderbolt. The nightly heavens glowed + several times, as if on fire. Many comets blazed forth together; and fiery + meteors shaped like spears, had shot from the northern quarter of the sky, + down into the Roman camps. It was said, too, that a statue of Victory, + which had stood at a place on the frontier, pointing the way towards + Germany, had of its own accord turned round, and now pointed to Italy. + These and other prodigies were believed by the multitude to accompany the + slaughter of Varus's legions, and to manifest the anger of the gods + against Rome, Augustus himself was not free from superstition; but on this + occasion no supernatural terrors were needed to increase the alarm and + grief that he felt; and which made him, even for months after the news of + the battle had arrived, often beat his head against the wall, and exclaim, + "Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!" We learn this from his + biographer, Suetonius; and, indeed, every ancient writer who alludes to + the overthrow of Varus, attests the importance of the blow against the + Roman power, and the bitterness with which it was felt. [Florus expresses + its effect most pithily: "Hac clade factum est ut imperium quod in litore + oceani non steterat, in ripa Rheni fluminis staret" (iv. 12).] + </p> + <p> + The Germans did not pursue their victory beyond their own territory. But + that victory secured at once and for ever the independence of the Teutonic + race. Rome sent, indeed, her legions again into Germany, to parade a + temporary superiority; but all hopes of permanent conquest were abandoned + by Augustus and his successors. + </p> + <p> + The blow which Arminius had struck never was forgotten, Roman fear + disguised itself under the specious title of moderation; and the Rhine + became the acknowledged boundary of the two nations until the fifth + century of our era, when the Germans became the assailants, and carved + with their conquering swords the provinces of Imperial Rome into the + kingdoms of modern Europe. + </p> + <p> + ARMINIUS. + </p> + <p> + I have said above that the great Cheruscan is more truly one of our + national heroes than Caractacus is. It may be added that an Englishman is + entitled to claim a closer degree of relationship with Arminius than can + be claimed by any German of modern Germany. The proof of this depends on + the proof of four facts: first, that the Cherusci were Old Saxons, or + Saxons of the interior of Germany; secondly, that the Anglo-Saxons, or + Saxons of the coast of Germany, were more closely akin than other German + tribes were to the Cheruscan Saxons; thirdly, that the Old Saxons were + almost exterminated by Charlemagne; fourthly, that the Anglo-Saxons are + our immediate ancestors. The last of these may be assumed as an axiom in + English history. The proofs of the other three are partly philological, + and partly historical. I have not space to go into them here, but they + will be found in the early chapters of the great work of Dr. Robert Gordon + Latham on the "English Language;" and in the notes to his edition of the + "Germania of Tacitus." It may be, however, here remarked that the present + Saxons of Germany are of the High Germanic division of the German race, + whereas both the Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon were of the Low Germanic. + </p> + <p> + Being thus the nearest heirs of the glory of Arminius, we may fairly + devote more attention to his career than, in such a work as the present, + could be allowed to any individual leader, and it is interesting to trace + how far his fame survived during the middle ages, both among the Germans + of the Continent and among ourselves. + </p> + <p> + It seems probable that the jealousy with which Maraboduus, the king of the + Suevi and Marcomanni, regarded Arminius, and which ultimately broke out + into open hostilities between those German tribes and the Cherusci, + prevented Arminius from leading the confederate Germans to attack Italy + after his first victory. Perhaps he may have had the rare moderation of + being content with the liberation of his country, without seeking to + retaliate on her former oppressors. When Tiberius marched into Germany in + the year 10, Arminius was too cautious to attack him on ground favourable + to the legions, and Tiberius was too skilful, to entangle his troops in + difficult parts of the country. His march and counter-march were as + unresisted as they were unproductive. A few years later, when a dangerous + revolt of the Roman legions near the frontier caused their generals to + find them active employment by leading them into the interior of Germany, + we find Arminius again energetic in his country's defence. The old quarrel + between him and his father-in-law, Segestes, had broken out afresh. + Segestes now called in the aid of the Roman general, Germanicus, to whom + he surrendered himself; and by his contrivance his daughter Thusnelda, the + wife of Arminius, also came into the hands of the Romans, being far + advanced in pregnancy. She showed, as Tacitus relates, [Ann. i. 57.] more + of the spirit of her husband than of her father, a spirit that could not + be subdued into tears or supplications. She was sent to Ravenna, and there + gave birth to a son, whose life we find, from an allusion in Tacitus, to + have been eventful and unhappy; but the part of the great historian's work + which narrated his fate has perished, and we only know from another + quarter that the son of Arminius was, at the age of four years, led + captive in a triumphal pageant along the streets of Rome. + </p> + <p> + The high spirit of Arminius was goaded almost into frenzy by these + bereavements. The fate of his wife, thus torn from him, and of his babe + doomed to bondage even before its birth, inflamed the eloquent invectives + with which he roused his countrymen against the home traitors, and against + their invaders, who thus made war upon women and children. Germanicus had + marched his army to the place where Varus had perished, and had there paid + funeral honours to the ghastly relics of his predecessor's legions that he + found heaped around him. [In the Museum of Rhenish antiquities at Bonn + there is a Roman sepulchral monument, the inscription on which records + that it was erected to the memory of M. Coelius, who fell "BELLO + VARIANO."] Arminius lured him to advance a little further into the + country, and then assailed him, and fought a battle, which, by the Roman + accounts, was a drawn one. The effect of it was to make Germanicus resolve + on retreating to the Rhine. He himself, with part of his troops, embarked + in some vessels on the Ems, and returned by that river, and then by sea; + but part of his forces were entrusted to a Roman general, named Caecina, + to lead them back by land to the Rhine. Arminius followed this division on + its march, and fought several battles with it, in which he inflicted heavy + loss on the Romans, captured the greater part of their baggage, and would + have destroyed them completely, had not his skilful system of operations + been finally thwarted by the haste of Inguiomerus, a confederate German + chief who insisted on assaulting the Romans in their camp, instead of + waiting till they were entangled in the difficulties of the country, and + assailing their columns on the march. + </p> + <p> + In the following year the Romans were inactive; but in the year afterwards + Germanicus led a fresh invasion. He placed his army on ship-board, and + sailed to the mouth of the Ems, where he disembarked, and marched to the + Weser, where he encamped, probably in the neighbourhood of Minden. + Arminius had collected his army on the other side of the river; and a + scene occurred, which is powerfully told by Tacitus, and which is the + subject of a beautiful poem by Praed. It has been already mentioned that + the brother of Arminius, like himself, had been trained up, while young, + to serve in the Roman armies; but, unlike Arminius, he not only refused to + quit the Roman service for that of his country, but fought against his + country with the legions of Germanicus. He had assumed the Roman name of + Flavius, and had gained considerable distinction in the Roman service, in + which he had lost an eye from a wound in battle. When the Roman outposts + approached the river Weser, Arminius called out to them from the opposite + bank, and expressed a wish to see his brother. Flavius stepped forward, + and Arminius ordered his own followers to retire, and requested that the + archers should be removed from the Roman bank of the river. This was done: + and the brothers, who apparently had not seen each other for some years, + began a conversation from the opposite sides of the stream, in which + Arminius questioned his brother respecting the loss of his eye, and what + battle it had been lost in, and what reward he had received for his wound. + Flavius told him how the eye was destroyed, and mentioned the increased + pay that he had on account of its loss, and showed the collar and other + military decorations that had been given him. Arminius mocked at these as + badges of slavery; and then each began to try to win the other over; + Flavius boasting the power of Rome, and her generosity to the submissive; + Arminius appealing to him in the name of their country's gods, of the + mother that had borne them, and by the holy names of fatherland and + freedom, not to prefer being the betrayer to being the champion of his + country. They soon proceeded to mutual taunts and menaces, and Flavius + called aloud for his horse and his arms, that he might dash across the + river and attack his brother; nor would he have been checked from doing + so, had not the Roman general, Stertinius, run up to him, and forcibly + detained him. Arminius stood on the other bank, threatening the renegade, + and defying him to battle. + </p> + <p> + I shall not be thought to need apology for quoting here the stanzas in + which Praed has described this scene—a scene among the most + affecting, as well as the most striking, that history supplies. It makes + us reflect on the desolate position of Arminius, with his wife and child + captives in the enemy's hands, and with his brother a renegade in arms + against him. The great liberator of our German race stood there, with + every source of human happiness denied him, except the consciousness of + doing his duty to his country. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Back, back! he fears not foaming flood + Who fears not steel-clad line:— + No warrior thou of German blood, + No brother thou of mine. + Go, earn Rome's chain to load thy neck, + Her gems to deck thy hilt; + And blazon honour's hapless wreck + With all the gauds of guilt. + + "But wouldst thou have ME share the prey? + By all that I have done,— + The Varian bones that day by day + Lie whitening in the sun, + The legion's trampled panoply, + The eagle's shattered wing,— + I would not be for earth or sky + So scorn'd and mean a thing. + + "Ho, call me here the wizard, boy, + Of dark and subtle skill, + To agonise but not destroy, + To curse, but not to kill. + When swords are out, and shriek and shout, + Leave little room for prayer, + No fetter on man's arm or heart + Hangs half so heavy there. + + "I curse him by the gifts the land + Hath won from him and Rome— + The riving axe, the wasting brand, + Rent forest, blazing home. + I curse him by our country's gods, + The terrible, the dark, + The breakers of the Roman rods, + The smiters of the bark. + + "Oh misery, that such a ban + On such a brow should be! + Why comes he not in battle's van + His country's chief to be?— + To stand a comrade by my side, + The sharer of my fame, + And worthy of a brother's pride + And of a brother's name? + + "But it is past!—where heroes press + And cowards bend the knee + Arminius is not brotherless; + His brethren are the free. + They come around: one hour, and light + Will fade from turf and tide, + Then onward, onward to the fight + With darkness for our guide. + + "To-night, to-night, when we shall meet + In combat face to face, + Then only would Arminius greet + The renegade's embrace. + The canker of Rome's guilt shall be + Upon his dying name; + And as he lived in slavery, + So shall he fall in shame. +</pre> + <p> + On the day after the Romans had reached the Weser, Germanicus led his army + across that river, and a partial encounter took place, in which Arminius + was successful. But on the succeeding day a general action was fought, in + which Arminius was severely wounded, and the German infantry routed with + heavy loss. The horsemen of the two armies encountered without either + party gaining the advantage. But the Roman army remained master of the + ground, and claimed a complete victory. Germanicus erected a trophy in the + field, with a vaunting inscription, that the nations between the Rhine and + the Elbe had been thoroughly conquered by his army. But that army speedily + made a final retreat to the left bank of the Rhine; nor was the effect of + their campaign more durable than their trophy. The sarcasm with which + Tacitus speaks of certain other triumphs of Roman generals over Germans, + may apply to the pageant which Germanicus celebrated on his return to Rome + from his command of the Roman army of the Rhine. The Germans were + "TRIUMPHATI POTIUS QUAM VICTI." + </p> + <p> + After the Romans had abandoned their attempts on Germany, we find Arminius + engaged in hostilities with Maroboduus, the king of the Suevi and + Marcomanni who was endeavouring to bring the other German tribes into a + state of dependency on him. Arminius was at the head of the Germans who + took up arms against this home invader of their liberties. After some + minor engagements, a pitched battle was fought between the two + confederacies, A.D. 16, in which the loss on each side was equal; but + Maroboduus confessed the ascendency of his antagonist by avoiding a + renewal of the engagement, and by imploring the intervention of the Romans + in his defence. The younger Drusus then commanded the Roman legions in the + province of Illyricum, and by his mediation a peace was concluded between + Arminius and Maroboduus, by the terms of which it is evident that the + latter must have renounced his ambitious schemes against the freedom of + the other German tribes. + </p> + <p> + Arminius did not long survive this second war of independence, which he + successfully waged for his country. He was assassinated in the + thirty-seventh year of his age, by some of his own kinsmen, who conspired + against him. Tacitus says that this happened while he was engaged in a + civil war, which had been caused by his attempts to make himself king over + his countrymen. It is far more probable (as one of the best biographers of + Arminius has observed) that Tacitus misunderstood an attempt of Arminius + to extend his influence as elective war-chieftain of the Cherusci, and + other tribes, for an attempt to obtain the royal dignity. [Dr. Plate, in + Biographical Dictionary commenced by the Society for the Diffusion of + Useful Knowledge.] When we remember that his father-in-law and his brother + were renegades, we can well understand that a party among his kinsmen may + have been bitterly hostile to him, and have opposed his authority with the + tribe by open violence, and when that seemed ineffectual, by secret + assassination. + </p> + <p> + Arminius left a name, which the historians of the nation against which he + combated so long and so gloriously have delighted to honour. It is from + the most indisputable source, from the lips of enemies, that we know his + exploits. [See Tacitus, Ann. lib. ii. sec. 88; Velleius Paterculus, lib. + ii. sec. 118.] His country men made history, but did not write it. But his + memory lived among them in the lays of their bards, who recorded + </p> + <p> + "The deeds he did, the fields he won, The freedom he restored." + </p> + <p> + Tacitus, many years after the death of Arminius, says of him, "Canitur + adhuc barbaras apud gentes." As time passed on, the gratitude of ancient + Germany to her great deliverer grew into adoration, and divine honours + were paid for centuries to Arminius by every tribe of the Low Germanic + division of the Teutonic races. The Irmin-sul, or the column of Herman, + near Eresburg, the modern Stadtberg, was the chosen object of worship to + the descendants of the Cherusci, the Old Saxons, and in defence of which + they fought most desperately against Charlemagne and his christianized + Franks. "Irmin, in the cloudy Olympus of Teutonic belief, appears as a + king and a warrior; and the pillar, the 'Irmin-sul,' bearing the statue, + and considered as the symbol of the deity, was the Palladium of the Saxon + nation, until the temple of Eresburg was destroyed by Charlemagne, and the + column itself transferred to the monastery of Corbey, where, perhaps, a + portion of the rude rock idol yet remains, covered by the ornaments of the + Gothic era." [Palgrave on the English Commonwealth, vol. ii. p. 140.] + </p> + <p> + Traces of the worship of Arminius are to be found among our Anglo-Saxon + ancestors, after their settlement in this island. One of the four great + highways was held to be under the protection of the deity, and was called + the "Irmin-street." The name Arminius is, of course, the mere Latinized + form of "Herman," the name by which the hero and the deity were known by + every man of Low German blood, on either side of the German Sea. It means, + etymologically, the "War-man," the "man of hosts." No other explanation of + the worship of the "Irmin-sul," and of the name of the "Irmin-street," is + so satisfactory as that which connects them with the deified Arminius. We + know for certain of the existence of other columns of an analogous + character. Thus, there was the Roland-seule in North Germany; there was a + Thor-seule in Sweden, and (what is more important) there was an + Athelstan-seule in Saxon England. [See Lappenburg's Anglo-Saxons, p. 378. + For nearly all the philological and ethnographical facts respecting + Arminius, I am indebted to Dr. R. G. Latham.] + </p> + <p> + There is at the present moment a song respecting the Irmin-sul current in + the bishopric of Minden, one version of which might seem only to refer to + Charlemagne having pulled down the Irmin-sul:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Herman, sla dermen, Sla pipen, sla trummen, + De Kaiser will kummen, + Met hamer un stangen, + Will Herman uphangen." +</pre> + <p> + But there is another version, which probably is the oldest, and which + clearly refers to the great Arminius:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Un Herman slaug dermen; Slaug pipen, slaug trummen; + De fursten sind kammen, + Met all eren-mannen + Hebt VARUS uphangen." + [See Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, p. 329.] +</pre> + <p> + About ten centuries and a half after the demolition of the Irmin-sul, and + nearly eighteen after the death of Arminius, the modern Germans conceived + the idea of rendering tardy homage to their great hero; and, accordingly + some eight or ten years ago, a general subscription was organized in + Germany, for the purpose of erecting on the Osning—a conical + mountain, which forms the highest summit of the Teutoberger Wald, and is + eighteen hundred feet above the level of the sea—a colossal bronze + statue of Arminius. The statue was designed by Bandel. The hero was to + stand uplifting a sword in his right hand, and looking towards the Rhine. + The height of the statue was to be eighty feet from the base to the point + of the sword, and was to stand on a circular Gothic temple, ninety feet + high, and supported by oak trees as columns. The mountain, where it was to + be erected, is wild and stern, and overlooks the scene of the battle. It + was calculated that the statue would be clearly visible at a distance of + sixty miles. The temple is nearly finished, and the statue itself has been + cast at the copper works at Lemgo. But there, through want of funds to set + it up, it has lain for some years, in disjointed fragments, exposed to the + mutilating homage of relic-seeking travellers. The idea of honouring a + hero who belongs to ALL Germany, is not one which the present rulers of + that divided country have any wish to encourage; and the statue may long + continue to lie there, and present too true a type of the condition of + Germany herself. [On the subject of this statue I must repeat an + acknowledgment of my obligations to my friend Mr. Henry Pearson.] + </p> + <p> + Surely this is an occasion in which Englishmen might well prove, by acts + as well as words, that we also rank Arminius among our heroes. + </p> + <p> + I have quoted the noble stanzas of one of our modern English poets on + Arminius, and I will conclude this memoir with one of the odes of the + great poet of modern Germany, Klopstock, on the victory to which we owe + our freedom, and Arminius mainly owes his fame. Klopstock calls it the + "Battle of Winfield." The epithet of "Sister of Cannae" shows that + Klopstock followed some chronologers, according to whom, Varus was + defeated on the anniversary of the day on which Paulus and Varro were + defeated by Hannibal. + </p> + <p> + SONG OF TRIUMPH AFTER THE VICTORY OF HERRMAN, THE DELIVERER OF GERMANY + FROM THE ROMANS. + </p> + <p> + FROM KLOPSTOCK'S "HERRMAN UND DIE FURSTEN." Supposed to be sung by a + Chorus of Bards. + </p> + <p> + A CHORUS. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sister of Cannae! Winfield's fight! + We saw thee with thy streaming bloody hair, + With fiery eye, bright with the world's despair, + Sweep by Walhalla's bards from out our sight. + Herrman outspake—"Now Victory or Death!" + The Romans,... "Victory!" + And onward rushed their eagles with the cry. + —So ended the FIRST day. + + "Victory or Death!" began + Then, first, the Roman chief; and Herrman spake + Not, but home struck: the eagles fluttered—brake. + —So sped the SECOND day. + + TWO CHORUSES. + + And the third came.... The cry was "Flight or Death!" + Flight left they not for them who'd make them slaves— + Men who stab children!—flight for THEM!... no! graves! + —'Twas their LAST day. + + TWO BARDS. + + Yet spared they messengers: two came to Rome. + How drooped the plume! the lance was left to trail + Down in the dust behind: their cheek was pale: + So came the messengers to Rome. + + High in his hall the Imperator sate— + OCTAVIANUS CAESAR AUGUSTUS sate. + They filled up wine-cups, wine-cups filled they up + For him the highest, Jove of all their state. + + The flutes of Lydia hushed before their voice, + Before the messengers—the "Highest" sprung— + The god against the marble pillars, wrung + By the dred words, striking his brow, and thrice + Cried he aloud in anguish—"Varus! Varus! + Give back my legions, Varus!" + + And now the world-wide conquerors shrunk and feared + For fatherland and home + The lance to raise; and 'mongst those false to Rome + The death-lot rolled, and still they shrunk and feared; + + "For she her face hath turned, + The victor goddess," cried these cowards—(for aye + Be it!)—"from Rome and Romans, and her day + Is done!"—And still be mourned + And cried aloud in anguish—"Varus! Varus! + Give back my legions, Varus!" +</pre> + <p> + [Notes:—The battle of Cannae, B.C. 216—Hannibal's victory over + the Romans. Winfield—the probable site of the "Herrmanschladt." See + SUPRA. Augustus was worshipped as a deity in his lifetime. I have taken + this translation from an anonymous writer in FRASER, two years ago.] + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN ARMINIUS'S VICTORY OVER VARUS, AND THE BATTLE + OF CHALONS. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 43. The Romans commence the conquest of Britain, Claudius being then + Emperor of Rome. The population of this island was then Celtic. In about + forty years all the tribes south of the Clyde were subdued, and their land + made a Roman province. + </p> + <p> + 68-60. Successful campaigns of the Roman general Corbulo against the + Parthians. + </p> + <p> + 64. First persecution of the Christians at Rome under Nero. + </p> + <p> + 68-70. Civil wars in the Roman World. The emperors Nero, Galba, Otho, and + Vitellius, cut off successively by violent deaths. Vespasian becomes + emperor. + </p> + <p> + 70. Jerusalem destroyed by the Romans under Titus. + </p> + <p> + 83. Futile attack of Domitian on the Germans. + </p> + <p> + 86. Beginning of the wars between the Romans and the Dacians. + </p> + <p> + 98-117. Trajan, emperor of Rome. Under him the empire acquires its + greatest territorial extent by his conquests in Dacia and in the East. His + successor, Hadrian, abandons the provinces beyond the Euphrates, which + Trajan had conquered. + </p> + <p> + 138-180. Era of the Antonines. + </p> + <p> + 167-176. A long and desperate war between Rome and a great confederacy of + the German nations. Marcus Antoninus at last succeeds in repelling them. + </p> + <p> + 192-197. Civil Wars throughout the Roman world. Severus becomes emperor. + He relaxes the discipline of the soldiers. After his death in 211, the + series of military insurrections, civil wars, and murders of emperors + recommences. + </p> + <p> + 226. Artaxerxes (Ardisheer) overthrows the Parthian, and restores the + Persian kingdom in Asia. He attacks the Roman possessions in the East. + </p> + <p> + 260. The Goths invade the Roman provinces. The emperor Decius is defeated + and slain by them. + </p> + <p> + 253-260. The Franks and Alemanni invade Gaul, Spain, and Africa. The Goths + attack Asia Minor and Greece. The Persians conquer Armenia. Their king, + Sapor, defeats the Roman emperor Valerian, and takes him prisoner. General + distress of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + 268-283. The emperors Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus + defeat the various enemies of Rome, and restore order in the Roman state. + </p> + <p> + 285. Diocletian divides and reorganizes the Roman empire. After his + abdication in 305 a fresh series of civil wars and confusion ensues. + Constantine, the first Christian emperor, reunites the empire in 324. + </p> + <p> + 330. Constantine makes Constantinople the seat of empire instead of Rome. + </p> + <p> + 363. The emperor Julian is killed in action against the Persians. + </p> + <p> + 364-375. The empire is again divided, Valentinian being emperor of the + West, and Valens of the East. Valentinian repulses the Alemanni, and other + German invaders from Gaul. Splendour of the Gothic kingdom under + Hermanric, north of the Danube. + </p> + <p> + 376-395. The Huns attack the Goths, who implore the protection of the + Roman emperor of the East. The Goths are allowed to pass the Danube, and + to settle in the Roman provinces. A war soon breaks out between them and + the Romans, and the emperor Valens and his army are destroyed by them. + They ravage the Roman territories. The emperor Theodosius reduces them to + submission. They retain settlements in Thrace and Asia Minor. + </p> + <p> + 395. Final division of the Roman empire between Arcadius and Honorius, the + two sons of Theodosius. The Goths revolt, and under Alaric attack various + parts of both the Roman empires. + </p> + <p> + 410. Alaric takes the city of Rome. + </p> + <p> + 412. The Goths march into Gaul, and in 414 into Spain, which had been + already invaded by hosts of Vandals, Suevi, Alani, and other Germanic + nations. Britain is formally abandoned by the Roman emperor of the West. + </p> + <p> + 428. Genseric, king of the Vandals, conquers the Roman province of North + Africa. + </p> + <p> + 441. The Huns attack the Eastern empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI — THE BATTLE OF CHALONS, A.D. 451. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The discomfiture of the mighty attempt of Attila to found a new + anti-Christian dynasty upon the wreck of the temporal power of + Rome, at the end of the term of twelve hundred years, to which + its duration had been limited by the forebodings of the + heathen."—HERBERT. +</pre> + <p> + A broad expanse of plains, the Campi Catalaunici of the ancients, spreads + far and wide around the city of Chalons, in the north-east of France. The + long rows of poplars, through which the river Marne winds its way, and a + few thinly-scattered villages, are almost the only objects that vary the + monotonous aspect of the greater part of this region. But about five miles + from Chalons, near the little hamlets of Chaps and Cuperly, the ground is + indented and heaped up in ranges of grassy mounds and trenches, which + attest the work of man's hand in ages past; and which, to the practised + eye, demonstrate that this quiet spot has once been the fortified position + of a huge military host. + </p> + <p> + Local tradition gives to these ancient earthworks the name of Attila's + Camp. Nor is there any reason to question the correctness of the title, or + to doubt that behind these very ramparts it was that, 1400 years ago, the + most powerful heathen king that ever ruled in Europe mustered the remnants + of his vast army, which had striven on these plains against the Christian + soldiery of Thoulouse and Rome. Here it was that Attila prepared to resist + to the death his victors in the field; and here he heaped up the treasures + of his camp in one vast pile, which was to be his funeral pyre should his + camp be stormed. It was here that the Gothic and Italian forces watched + but dared not assail, their enemy in his despair, after that great and + terrible day of battle, when + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The sound + Of conflict was o'erpast, the shout of all + Whom earth could send from her remotest bounds, + Heathen or faithful;—from thy hundred mouths, + That feed the Caspian with Riphean snows, + Huge Volga! from famed Hypanis, which once + Cradled the Hun; from all the countless realms + Between Imaus and that utmost strand + Where columns of Herculean rock confront + The blown Atlantic; Roman, Goth, and Hun, + And Scythian strength of chivalry, that tread + The cold Codanian shore, or what far lands + Inhospitable drink Cimmerian floods, + Franks, Saxons, Suevic, and Sarmartian chiefs, + And who from green Armorica or Spain + Flocked to the work of death." + [Herbert's Attila, book i. line 13.] +</pre> + <p> + The victory which the Roman general Aetius, with his Gothic allies, had + then gained over the Huns, was the last victory of Imperial Rome. But + among the long Fasti of her triumphs, few can be found that, for their + importance and ultimate benefit to mankind, are comparable with this + expiring effort of her arms. It did not, indeed, open to her any new + career of conquest; it did not consolidate the relics of her power; it did + not turn the rapid ebb of her fortunes. The mission of Imperial Rome was, + in truth, already accomplished. She had received and transmitted through + her once ample dominion the civilization of Greece. She had broken up the + barriers of narrow nationalities among the various states and tribes that + dwelt around the coast of the Mediterranean. She had fused these and many + other races into one organized empire, bound together by a community of + laws, of government and institutions. Under the shelter of her full power + the True Faith had arisen in the earth and during the years of her decline + it had been nourished to maturity, and had overspread all the provinces + that ever obeyed her sway. [See the Introduction to Ranke's History of the + Popes.] For no beneficial purpose to mankind could the dominion of the + seven-hilled city have been restored or prolonged. But it was + all-important to mankind what nations should divide among them Rome's rich + inheritance of empire: whether the Germanic and Gothic warriors should + form states and kingdoms out of the fragments of her dominions, and become + the free members of the commonwealth of Christian Europe; or whether pagan + savages from the wilds of Central Asia should crush the relics of classic + civilization, and the early institutions of the christianized Germans, in + one hopeless chaos of barbaric conquest. The Christian Vistigoths of King + Theodoric fought and triumphed at Chalons, side by side with the legions + of Aetius. Their joint victory over the Hunnish host not only rescued for + a time from destruction the old age of Rome, but preserved for centuries + of power and glory the Germanic element in the civilization of modern + Europe. + </p> + <p> + In order to estimate the full importance to mankind of the battle of + Chalons, we must keep steadily in mind who and what the Germans were, and + the important distinctions between them and the numerous other races that + assailed the Roman Empire: and it is to be understood that the Gothic and + the Scandinavian nations are included in the German race. Now, "in two + remarkable traits the Germans differed from the Sarmatic, as well as from + the Slavic nations, and, indeed, from all those other races to whom the + Greeks and Romans gave the designation of barbarians. I allude to their + personal freedom and regards for the rights of men; secondly, to the + respect paid by them to the female sex and the chastity for which the + latter were celebrated among the people of the North. These were the + foundations of that probity of character, self-respect, and purity of + manners which may be traced among the Germans and Goths even during pagan + times, and which, when their sentiments were enlightened by Christianity, + brought out those splendid traits of character which distinguish the age + of chivalry and romance." [See Prichard's Researches into the Physical + History of Mankind, vol iii. p. 423.] What the intermixture of the German + stock with the classic, at the fall of the Western Empire, has done for + mankind may be best felt by watching, with Arnold, over how large a + portion of the earth the influence of the German element is now extended. + </p> + <p> + "It affects, more or less, the whole west of Europe, from the head of the + Gulf of Bothnia to the most southern promontory of Sicily, from the Oder + and the Adriatic to the Hebrides and to Lisbon. It is true that the + language spoken over a large portion of this space is not predominantly + German; but even in France, and Italy, and Spain, the influence of the + Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Lombards, while it has + coloured even the language, has in blood and institutions left its mark + legibly and indelibly. Germany, the Low Countries, Switzerland for the + most part, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and our own islands, are all in + language, in blood, and in institutions, German most decidedly. But all + South America is peopled with Spaniards and Portuguese; all North America, + and all Australia with Englishmen. I say nothing of the prospects and + influence of the German race in Africa and in India: it is enough to say + that half of Europe, and all America and Australia, are German, more or + less completely, in race, in language, or in institutions, or in all." + [Arnold's Lectures on Modern History, p. 35.] + </p> + <p> + By the middle of the fifth century, Germanic nations had settled + themselves in many of the fairest regions of the Roman empire, had imposed + their yoke on the provincials, and had undergone, to a considerable + extent, that moral conquest which the arts and refinements of the + vanquished in arms have so often achieved over the rough victor. The + Visigoths held the north of Spain and Gaul south of the Loire. Franks, + Alemanni, Alans, and Burgundians had established themselves in other + Gallic provinces, and the Suevi were masters of a large southern portion + of the Spanish peninsula. A king of the Vandals reigned in North Africa, + and the Ostrogoths had firmly planted themselves in the provinces north of + Italy. Of these powers and principalities, that of the Visigoths, under + their king Theodoric, son of Alaric, was by far the first in power and in + civilization. + </p> + <p> + The pressure of the Huns upon Europe had first been felt in the fourth + century of our era. They had long been formidable to the Chinese empire; + but the ascendency in arms which another nomadic tribe of Central Asia, + the Sienpi gained over them, drove the Huns from their Chinese conquests + westward; and this movement once being communicated to the whole chain of + barbaric nations that dwelt northward of the Black Sea and the Roman + empire, tribe after tribe of savage warriors broke in upon the barriers of + civilized Europe, "velut unda supervenit undam." The Huns crossed the + Tanais into Europe in 375, and rapidly reduced to subjection the Alans, + the Ostrogoths, and other tribes that were then dwelling along the course + of the Danube. The armies of the Roman emperor that tried to check their + progress were cut to pieces by them; and Panonia and other provinces south + of the Danube were speedily occupied by the victorious cavalry of these + new invaders. Not merely the degenerate Romans, but the bold and hardy + warriors of Germany and Scandinavia were appalled at the numbers, the + ferocity, the ghastly appearance, and the lightning-like rapidity of the + Huns. Strange and loathsome legends were coined and credited, which + attributed their origin to the union of "Secret, black, and midnight hags" + with the evil spirits of the wilderness. + </p> + <p> + Tribe after tribe, and city after city, fell before them. Then came a + pause in their career of conquest in South-western Europe caused probably + by dissensions among their chiefs, and also by their arms being employed + in attack upon the Scandinavian nations. But when Attila (or Atzel, as he + is called in the Hungarian language) became their ruler, the torrent of + their arms was directed with augmented terrors upon the west and the + south; and their myriads marched beneath the guidance of one master-mind + to the overthrow both of the new and the old powers of the earth. + </p> + <p> + Recent events have thrown such a strong interest over everything connected + with the Hungarian name, that even the terrible name of Attila now + impresses us the more vividly through our sympathising admiration of the + exploits of those who claim to be descended from his warriors, and + "ambitiously insert the name of Attila among their native kings." The + authenticity of this martial genealogy is denied by some writers, and + questioned by more. But it is at least certain that the Magyars of Arpad, + who are the immediate ancestors of the bulk of the modern Hungarians, and + who conquered the country which bears the name of Hungary in A.D. 889, + were of the same stock of mankind as were the Huns of Attila, even if they + did not belong to the same subdivision of that stock. Nor is there any + improbability in the tradition, that after Attila's death many of his + warriors remained in Hungary, and that their descendants afterwards joined + the Huns of Arpad in their career of conquest. It is certain that Attila + made Hungary the seat of his empire. It seems also susceptible of clear + proof that the territory was then called Hungvar, and Attila's soldiers + Hungvari. Both the Huns of Attila and those of Arpad came from the family + of nomadic nations, whose primitive regions were those vast wildernesses + of High Asia which are included between the Altaic and the Himalayan + mountain-chains. The inroads of these tribes upon the lower regions of + Asia and into Europe, have caused many of the most remarkable revolutions + in the history of the world. There is every reason to believe that swarms + of these nations made their way into distant parts of the earth, at + periods long before the date of the Scythian invasion of Asia, which is + the earliest inroad of the nomadic race that history records. The first, + as far as we can conjecture, in respect to the time of their descent were + the Finnish and Ugrian tribes, who appear to have come down from the + Asiatic border of High Asia towards the north-west, in which direction + they advanced to the Uralian mountains. There they established themselves: + and that mountain chain, with its valleys and pasture-lands, became to + them a new country, whence they sent out colonies on every side; but the + Ugrian colony, which under Arpad occupied Hungary, and became the + ancestors of the bulk of the present Hungarian nation, did not quit their + settlements on the Uralian mountains till a very late period, not until + four centuries after the time when Attila led from the primary seats of + the nomadic races in High Asia the host with which he advanced into the + heart of France. [See Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of + Mankind.] That host was Turkish; but closely allied in origin, language, + and habits, with the Finno-Ugrian settlers on the Ural. + </p> + <p> + Attila's fame has not come down to us through the partial and suspicious + medium of chroniclers and poets of his own race. It is not from Hunnish + authorities that we learn the extent of his might: It is from his enemies, + from the literature and the legends of the nations whom he afflicted with + his arms, that we draw the unquestionable evidence of his greatness. + Besides the express narratives of Byzantine, Latin, and Gothic writers, we + have the strongest proof of the stern reality of Attila's conquests in the + extent to which he and his Huns have been the themes of the earliest + German and Scandinavian lays. Wild as many of these legends are, they bear + concurrent and certain testimony to the awe with which the memory of + Attila was regarded by the bold warriors who composed and delighted in + them. Attila's exploits, and the wonders of his unearthly steed and magic + sword, repeatedly occur in the Sagas of Norway and Iceland; and the + celebrated Niebelungen Lied, the most ancient of Germanic poetry, is full + of them. There Etsel or Attila, is described as the wearer of twelve + mighty crowns, and as promising to his bride the lands of thirty kings, + whom his irresistible sword has subdued. He is, in fact, the hero of the + latter part of this remarkable poem; and it is at his capital city, + Etselenburgh, which evidently corresponds to the modern Buda, that much of + its action takes place. + </p> + <p> + When we turn from the legendary to the historic Attila, we see clearly + that he was not one of the vulgar herd of barbaric conquerors. Consummate + military skill may be traced in his campaigns; and he relied far less on + the brute force of armies for the aggrandizement of his empire, than on + the unbounded influence over the affections of friends and the fears of + foes which his genius enabled him to acquire. Austerely sober in his + private life, severely just on the judgment-seat, conspicuous among a + nation of warriors for hardihood, strength, and skill in every martial + exercise, grave and deliberate in counsel, but rapid and remorseless in + execution, he gave safety and security to all who were under his dominion, + while he waged a warfare of extermination against all who opposed or + sought to escape from it. He matched the national passions, the + prejudices, the creeds, and the superstitions of the varied nations over + which he ruled, and of those which he sought to reduce beneath his sway: + and these feelings he had the skill to turn to his own account. His own + warriors believed him to be the inspired favourite of their deities, and + followed him with fanatic zeal: his enemies looked on him as the + pre-appointed minister of Heaven's wrath against themselves; and, though + they believed not in his creed, their own made them tremble before him. + </p> + <p> + In one of his early campaigns he appeared before his troops with an + ancient iron sword in his grasp, which he told them was the god of war + whom their ancestors had worshipped. It is certain that the nomadic tribes + of Northern Asia, whom Herodotus described under the name of Scythians, + from the earliest times worshipped as their god a bare sword. That + sword-God was supposed, in Attila's time, to have disappeared from earth; + but the Hunnish king now claimed to have received it by special + revelation. It was said that a herdsman, who was tracking in the desert a + wounded heifer by the drops of blood, found the mysterious sword standing + fixed in the ground, as if it had been darted down from heaven. The + herdsman bore it to Attila, who thenceforth was believed by the Huns to + wield the Spirit of Death in battle; and the seers prophesied that that + sword was to destroy the world. A Roman, [Priscus.] who was on an embassy + to the Hunnish camp, recorded in his memoirs Attila's acquisition of this + supernatural weapon, and the immense influence over the minds of the + barbaric tribes which its possession gave him. In the title which he + assumed, we shall see the skill with which he availed himself of the + legends and creeds of other nations as well as of his own. He designated + himself "ATTILA, Descendant of the Great Nimrod. Nurtured in Engaddi. By + the Grace of God, King of the Huns, the Goths, the Danes, and the Medes. + The Dread of the World." + </p> + <p> + Herbert states that Attila is represented on an old medallion with a + Teraphim, or a head, on his breast; and the same writer adds: "We know, + from the 'Hamartigenea' of Prudentius, that Nimrod, with a snaky-haired + head, was the object of adoration to the heretical followers of Marcion; + and the same head was the palladium set up by Antiochus Epiphanes over the + gates of Antioch, though it has been called the visage of Charon. The + memory of Nimrod was certainly regarded with mystic veneration by many; + and by asserting himself to be the heir of that mighty hunter before the + Lord, he vindicated to himself at least the whole Babylonian kingdom. + </p> + <p> + "The singular assertion in his style, that he was nurtured in Engaddi + where he certainly, had never been, will be more easily understood on + reference to the twelfth chapter of the Book of Revelation, concerning the + woman clothed with the sun, who was to bring forth in the wilderness—'where + she hath a place prepared of God'—a man-child, who was to contend + with the dragon having seven heads and ten horns, and rule all nations + with a rod of iron. This prophecy was at that time understood universally + by the sincere Christians to refer to the birth of Constantine, who was to + overwhelm the paganism of the city on the seven hills, and it is still so + explained; but it is evident that the heathens must have looked on it in a + different light, and have regarded it as a foretelling of the birth of + that Great One who should master the temporal power of Rome. The + assertion, therefore, that he was nurtured in Engaddi, is a claim to be + looked upon as that man-child who was to be brought forth in a place + prepared of God in the wilderness. Engaddi means, a place of palms and + vines, in the desert; it was hard by Zoar, the city of refuge, which was + saved in the vale of Siddim, or Demons, when the rest were destroyed by + fire and brimstone from the Lord in heaven, and might, therefore, be + especially called a place prepared of God in the wilderness." + </p> + <p> + It is obvious enough why he styled himself "By the grace of God, King of + the Huns and Goths;" and it seems far from difficult to see why he added + the names of the Medes and the Danes. His armies had been engaged in + warfare against the Persian kingdom of the Sassanidae; and it is certain + [See the narrative of Priscus.] that he meditated the attack and overthrow + of the Medo-Persian power. Probably some of the northern provinces of that + kingdom had been compelled to pay him tribute; and this would account for + his styling himself King of the Medes, they being his remotest subjects to + the south. From a similar cause he may have called himself King of the + Danes, as his power may well have extended northwards as far as the + nearest of the Scandinavian nations; and this mention of Medes and Danes + as his subjects would serve at once to indicate the vast extent of his + dominion. [In the "Niebelungen-Lied," the old poet who describes the + reception of the heroine Chrimhild by Attila (Etsel) says that Attila's + dominions were so vast, that among his subject-warriors there were + Russian, Greek, Wallachian, Polish, and even DANISH KNIGHTS.] + </p> + <p> + The extensive territory north of the Danube and Black sea, and eastward of + Caucasus, over which Attila ruled, first in conjunction with his brother + Bleda, and afterwards alone, cannot be very accurately defined; but it + must have comprised within it, besides the Huns, many nations of Slavic, + Gothic, Teutonic, and Finnish origin. South also of the Danube, the + country from the river Sau as far as Novi in Thrace was a Hunnish + province. Such was the empire of the Huns in A.D. 445; a memorable year, + in which Attila founded Buda on the Danube as his capital city; and ridded + himself of his brother by a crime, which seems to have been prompted not + only by selfish ambition, but also by a desire of turning to his purpose + the legends and forebodings which then were universally spread throughout + the Roman empire, and must have been well known to the watchful and + ruthless Hun. + </p> + <p> + The year 445 of our era completed the twelfth century from the foundation + of Rome, according to the best chronologers. It had always been believed + among the Romans that the twelve vultures which were said to have appeared + to Romulus when he founded the city, signified the time during which the + Roman power should endure. The twelve vultures denoted twelve centuries. + This interpretation of the vision of the birds of destiny was current + among learned Romans, even when there were yet many of the twelve + centuries to run, and while the imperial city was at the zenith of its + power. But as the allotted time drew nearer and nearer to its conclusion, + and as Rome grew weaker and weaker beneath the blows of barbaric invaders, + the terrible omen was more and more talked and thought of; and in Attila's + time, men watched for the momentary extinction of the Roman state with the + last beat of the last vulture's wing. Moreover, among the numerous legends + connected with the foundation of the city, and the fratricidal death of + Remus, there was one most terrible one, which told that Romulus did not + put his brother to death in accident, or in hasty quarrel, but that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "He slew his gallant twin + With inexpiable sin." +</pre> + <p> + deliberately, and in compliance with the warnings of supernatural powers. + The shedding of a brother's blood was believed to have been the price at + which the founder of Rome had purchased from destiny her twelve centuries + of existence. [See a curious justification of Attila's murder of his + brother, by a zealous Hungarian advocate, in the note to Pray's "Annales + Hunnorum," p. 117. The example of Romulus is the main authority quoted.] + </p> + <p> + We may imagine, therefore, with what terror in this, the twelve-hundredth + year after the foundation of Rome, the inhabitants of the Roman empire + must have heard the tidings that the royal brethren, Attila and Bleda, had + founded a new capitol on the Danube, which was designed to rule over the + ancient capitol on the Tiber; and that Attila, like Romulus, had + consecrated the foundations of his new city by murdering his brother; so + that, for the new cycle of centuries then about to commence, dominion had + been bought from the gloomy spirits of destiny in favour of the Hun, by a + sacrifice of equal awe and value with that which had formerly obtained it + for the Romans. + </p> + <p> + It is to be remembered that not only the pagans, but also the Christians + of that age, knew and believed in these legends and omens, however they + might differ as to the nature of the superhuman agency by which such + mysteries had been made known to mankind. And we may observe, with + Herbert, a modern learned dignitary of our Church, how remarkably this + augury was fulfilled. For, "if to the twelve centuries denoted by the + twelve vultures that appeared to Romulus, we add for the six birds that + appeared to Remus six lustra, or periods of five years each, by which the + Romans were wont to number their time, it brings us precisely to the year + 476, in which the Roman empire was finally extinguished by Odoacer." + </p> + <p> + An attempt to assassinate Attila, made, or supposed to have been made, at + the instigation of Theodosius the Younger, the Emperor of Constantinople, + drew the Hunnish armies, in 445, upon the Eastern empire, and delayed for + a time the destined blow against Rome. Probably a more important cause of + delay was the revolt of some of the Hunnish tribes to the north of the + Black Sea against Attila, which broke out about this period, and is + cursorily mentioned by the Byzantine writers. Attila quelled this revolt; + and having thus consolidated his power, and having punished the + presumption of the Eastern Roman emperor by fearful ravages of his fairest + provinces, Attila, A.D. 450, prepared to set his vast forces in motion for + the conquest of Western Europe. He sought unsuccessfully by diplomatic + intrigues to detach the King of the Visigoths from his alliance with Rome, + and he resolved first to crush the power of Theodoric, and then to advance + with overwhelming power to trample out the last sparks of the doomed Roman + empire. + </p> + <p> + A strong invitation from a Roman princess gave him a pretext for the war, + and threw an air of chivalric enterprise over his invasion. Honoria, + sister of Valentinian III., the Emperor of the West, had sent to Attila to + offer him her hand, and her supposed right to share in the imperial power. + This had been discovered by Romans, and Honoria had been forthwith closely + imprisoned, Attila now pretended to take up arms in behalf of his + self-promised bride, and proclaimed that he was about to march to Rome to + redress Honoria's wrongs. Ambition and spite against her brother must have + been the sole motives that led the lady to woo the royal Hun for Attila's + face and person had all the national ugliness of his race and the + description given of him by a Byzantine ambassador must have been well + known in the imperial courts. Herbert has well versified the portrait + drawn by Priscus of the great enemy of both Byzantium and Rome:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Terrific was his semblance, in no mould + Of beautiful proportion cast; his limbs + Nothing exalted, but with sinews braced + Of Chalybaean temper, agile, lithe, + And swifter than the roe; his ample chest + Was overbrowed by a gigantic head, + With eyes keen, deeply sunk, and small, that gleam'd + Strangely in wrath, as though some spirit unclean + Within that corporal tenement installed + Look'd from its windows, but with temper'd fire + Beam'd mildly on the unresisting. Thin + His beard and hoary; his flat nostrils crown'd + A cicatrised, swart visage,—but withal + That questionable shape such glory wore + That mortals quail'd beneath him." +</pre> + <p> + Two chiefs of the Franks, who were then settled on the lower Rhine, were + at this period engaged in a feud with each other: and while one of them + appealed to the Romans for aid, the other invoked the assistance and + protection of the Huns. Attila thus obtained an ally whose co-operation + secured for him the passage of the Rhine; and it was this circumstance + which caused him to take a northward route from Hungary for his attack + upon Gaul. The muster of the Hunnish hosts was swollen by warriors of + every tribe that they had subjugated; nor is there any reason to suspect + the old chroniclers of wilful exaggeration in estimating Attila's army at + seven hundred thousand strong. Having crossed the Rhine, probably a little + below Coblentz, he defeated the King of the Burgundians, who endeavoured + to bar his progress. He then divided his vast forces into two armies,—one + of which marched north-west upon Tongres and Arras, and the other cities + of that part of France; while the main body, under Attila himself marched + up the Moselle, and destroyed Besancon, and other towns in the country of + the Burgundians. One of the latest and best biographers of Attila well + observes, that, "having thus conquered the eastern part of France, Attila + prepared for an invasion of the West Gothic territories beyond the Loire. + He marched upon Orleans, where he intended to force the passage of that + river; and only a little attention is requisite to enable us to perceive + that he proceeded on a systematic plan: he had his right wing on the + north, for the protection of his Frank allies; his left wing on the south, + for the purpose of preventing the Burgundians from rallying, and of + menacing the passes of the Alps from Italy; and he led his centre towards + the chief object of the campaign—the conquest of Orleans, and an + easy passage into the West Gothic dominion. The whole plan is very like + that of the allied powers in 1814, with this difference, that their left + wing entered France through the defiles of the Jura, in the direction of + Lyons, and that the military object of the campaign was the capture of + Paris." [Biographical Dictionary commenced by the Useful Knowledge Society + in 1844.] + </p> + <p> + It was not until the year 451 that the Huns commenced the siege of + Orleans; and during their campaign in Eastern Gaul, the Roman general + Aetius had strenuously exerted himself in collecting and organizing such + an army as might, when united to the soldiery of the Visigoths, be fit to + face the Huns in the field. He enlisted every subject of the Roman empire + whom patriotism, courage, or compulsion could collect beneath the + standards; and round these troops, which assumed the once proud title of + the legions of Rome, he arrayed the large forces of barbaric auxiliaries + whom pay, persuasion, or the general hate and dread of the Huns, brought + to the camp of the last of the Roman generals. King Theodoric exerted + himself with equal energy, Orleans resisted her besiegers bravely as in + after times. The passage of the Loire was skilfully defended against the + Huns; and Aetius and Theodoric, after much manoeuvring and difficulty, + effected a junction of their armies to the south of that important river. + </p> + <p> + On the advance of the allies upon Orleans, Attila instantly broke up the + siege of that city, and retreated towards the Marne. He did not choose to + risk a decisive battle with only the central corps of his army against the + combined power of his enemies; and he therefore fell back upon his base of + operations; calling in his wings from Arras and Besancon, and + concentrating the whole of the Hunnish forces on the vast plains of + Chalons-sur-Marne. A glance at the map will show how scientifically this + place was chosen by the Hunnish general, as the point for his scattered + forces to converge upon; and the nature of the ground was eminently + favourable for the operations of cavalry, the arm in which Attila's + strength peculiarly lay. + </p> + <p> + It was during the retreat from Orleans that a Christian is reported to + have approached the Hunnish king, and said to him, "Thou art the Scourge + of God for the chastisement of Christians." Attila instantly assumed this + new title of terror, which thenceforth became the appellation by which he + was most widely and most fearfully known. + </p> + <p> + The confederate armies of Romans and Visigoths at last met their great + adversary, face to face, on the ample battle-ground of the Chalons plains. + Aetius commanded on the right of the allies; King Theodoric on the left; + and Sangipan, king of the Alans, whose fidelity was suspected, was placed + purposely in the centre and in the very front of the battle. Attila + commanded his centre in person, at the head of his own countrymen, while + the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae, and the other subject allies of the Huns, + were drawn up on the wings. Some manoeuvring appears to have occurred + before the engagement, in which Attila had the advantage, inasmuch as he + succeeded in occupying a sloping hill, which commanded the left flank of + the Huns. Attila saw the importance of the position taken by Aetius on the + high ground, and commenced the battle by a furious attack on this part of + the Roman line, in which he seems to have detached some of his best troops + from his centre to aid his left. The Romans having the advantage of the + ground, repulsed the Huns, and while the allies gained this advantage on + their right, their left, under King Theodoric, assailed the Ostrogoths, + who formed the right of Attila's army. The gallant king was himself struck + down by a javelin, as he rode onward at the head of his men, and his own + cavalry charging over him trampled him to death in the confusion. But the + Visigoths, infuriated, not dispirited, by their monarch's fall, routed the + enemies opposed to them, and then wheeled upon the flank of the Hunnish + centre, which had been engaged in a sanguinary and indecisive contest with + the Alans. + </p> + <p> + In this peril Attila made his centre fall back upon his camp; and when the + shelter of its entrenchments and waggons had once been gained, the Hunnish + archers repulsed, without difficulty, the charges of the vengeful Gothic + cavalry. Aetius had not pressed the advantage which he gained on his side + of the field, and when night fell over the wild scene of havoc, Attila's + left was still unbroken, but his right had been routed, and his centre + forced back upon his camp. + </p> + <p> + Expecting an assault on the morrow, Attila stationed his best archers in + front of the cars and waggons, which were drawn up as a fortification + along his lines, and made every preparation for a desperate resistance. + But the "Scourge of God" resolved that no man should boast of the honour + of having either captured or slain him; and he caused to be raised in the + centre of his encampment a huge pyramid of the wooden saddles of his + cavalry: round it he heaped the spoils and the wealth that he had won; on + it he stationed his wives who had accompanied him in the campaign; and on + the summit he placed himself, ready to perish in the flames, and baulk the + victorious foe of their choicest booty, should they succeed in storming + his defences. + </p> + <p> + But when the morning broke, and revealed the extent of the carnage, with + which the plains were heaped for miles, the successful allies saw also and + respected the resolute attitude of their antagonist. Neither were any + measures taken to blockade him in his camp, and so to extort by famine + that submission which it was too plainly perilous to enforce with the + sword. Attila was allowed to march back the remnants of his army without + molestation, and even with the semblance of success. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that the crafty Aetius was unwilling to be too victorious. + He dreaded the glory which his allies the Visigoths had acquired; and + feared that Rome might find a second Alaric in Prince Thorismund, who had + signalized himself in the battle, and had been chosen on the field to + succeed his father Theodoric. He persuaded the young king to return at + once to his capital: and thus relieved himself at the same time of the + presence of a dangerous friend, as well as of a formidable though beaten + foe. + </p> + <p> + Attila's attacks on the Western, empire were soon renewed; but never with + such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it before his defeat at + Chalons. And on his death, two years after that battle, the vast empire + which his genius had founded was soon dissevered by the successful revolts + of the subject nations. The name of the Huns ceased for some centuries to + inspire terror in Western Europe, and their ascendency passed away with + the life of the great king by whom it had been so fearfully augmented. [If + I seem to have given fewer of the details of the battle itself than its + importance would warrant, my excuse must be, that Gibbon has enriched our + language with a description of it, too long for quotation and too splendid + for rivalry. I have not, however, taken altogether the same view of it + that he has. The notes to Mr. Herbert's poem of "Attila" bring together + nearly all the authorities on the subject.] + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF CHALONS, A.D. 451, AND THE BATTLE + OF TOURS, 732. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 476. The Roman Empire of the West extinguished by Odoacer. + </p> + <p> + 482. Establishment of the French monarchy in Gaul by Clovis. + </p> + <p> + 455-482. The Saxons, Angles, and Frisians conquer Britain except the + northern parts, and the districts along the west coast. The German + conquerors found eight independent kingdoms. + </p> + <p> + 533-568. The generals of Justinian, the Emperor of Constantinople, conquer + Italy and North Africa; and these countries are for a short time annexed + to the Roman Empire of the East. + </p> + <p> + 568-570. The Lombards conquer great part of Italy. + </p> + <p> + 570-627. The wars between the Emperors of Constantinople and the Kings of + Persia are actively continued. + </p> + <p> + 622. The Mahometan era of the Hegira. Mahomet is driven from Mecca, and is + received as prince of Medina. + </p> + <p> + 629-632. Mahomet conquers Arabia. + </p> + <p> + 632-651. The Mahometan Arabs invade and conquer Persia. + </p> + <p> + 632-709. They attack the Roman Empire of the East. They conquer Syria, + Egypt, and Africa. + </p> + <p> + 709-713. They cross the straits of Gibraltar, and invade and conquer + Spain. + </p> + <p> + "At the death of Mohammad, in 632, his temporal and religious sovereignty + embraced and was limited by the Arabian Peninsula. The Roman and Persian + empires, engaged in tedious and indecisive hostility upon the rivers of + Mesopotamia and the Armenian mountains, were viewed by the ambitious + fanatics of his creed as their quarry. In the very first year of + Mohammad's immediate successor, Abubeker, each of these mighty empires was + invaded. The crumbling fabric of Eastern despotism is never secured + against rapid and total subversion; a few victories, a few sieges, carried + the Arabian arms from the Tigris to the Oxus, and overthrew, with the + Sassanian dynasty, the ancient and famous religion they had professed. + Seven years of active and unceasing warfare sufficed to subjugate the rich + province of Syria, though defended by numerous armies and fortified + cities; and the Khalif Omar had scarcely returned thanks for the + accomplishment of this conquest, when Amrou, his lieutenant, announced to + him the entire reduction of Egypt. After some interval, the Saracens won + their way along the coast of Africa, as far as the Pillars of Hercules, + and a third province was irretrievably torn from the Greek empire. These + western conquests introduced them to fresh enemies, and ushered in more + splendid successes. Encouraged by the disunion of the Visigoths, and + invited by treachery, Musa, the general of a master who sat beyond the + opposite extremity of the Mediterranean Sea, passed over into Spain, and + within about two years the name of Mohammad was invoked under the + Pyrenees."—[HALLAM.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. — THE BATTLE OF TOURS, A.D. 732, + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The events that rescued our ancestors of Britain, and our + neighbours of Gaul, from the civil and religious yoke of the + Koran."—GIBBON. +</pre> + <p> + The broad tract of champaign country which intervenes between the cities + of Poictiers and Tours is principally composed of a succession of rich + pasture lands, which are traversed and fertilized by the Cher, the Creuse, + the Vienne, the Claine, the Indre, and other tributaries of the river + Loire. Here and there, the ground swells into picturesque eminences; and + occasionally a belt of forest land, a brown heath, or a clustering series + of vineyards, breaks the monotony of the wide-spread meadows; but the + general character of the land is that of a grassy plain, and it seems + naturally adapted for the evolutions of numerous armies, especially of + those vast bodies of cavalry which, principally decided the fate of + nations during the centuries that followed the downfall of Rome, and + preceded the consolidation of the modern European powers. + </p> + <p> + This region has been signalized by more than one memorable conflict; but + it is principally interesting to the historian, by having been the scene + of the great victory won by Charles Martel over the Saracens, A.D. 732, + which gave a decisive check to the career of Arab conquest in Western + Europe, rescued Christendom from Islam, preserved the relics of ancient + and the germs of modern civilization, and re-established the old + superiority of the Indo-European over the Semitic family of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Sismondi and Michelet have underrated the enduring interest of this great + Appeal of Battle between the champions of the Crescent and the Cross. But, + if French writers have slighted the exploits of their national hero, the + Saracenic trophies of Charles Martel have had full justice done to them by + English and German historians. Gibbon devotes several pages of his great + work to the narrative of the battle of Tours, and to the consideration of + the consequences which probably would have resulted, if Abderrahman's + enterprise had not been crushed by the Frankish chief. [Vol, vii. p. 11, + ET SEQ. Gibbon's remark, that if the Saracen conquest had not then been + checked, "Perhaps the interpretation of the Koran would now be taught in + the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised + people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of Mahomat," has almost an + air of regret.] Schlegel speaks of this "mighty victory" in terms of + fervent gratitude; and tells how "the arms of Charles Martel saved and + delivered the Christian nations of the West from the deadly grasp of + all-destroying Islam;" [Philosophy of History, p. 331.] and Ranke points + out, as "one of the most important epochs in the history of the world, the + commencement of the eighth century; when, on the one side, Mahommedanism + threatened to overspread Italy and Gaul, and on the other, the ancient + idolatry of Saxony and Friesland once more forced its way across the + Rhine. In this peril of Christian institutions, a youthful prince of + Germanic race, Karl Martell, arose as their champion; maintained them with + all the energy which the necessity for self-defence calls forth, and + finally extended them into new regions." [History of the Reformation in + Germany, vol. i. p. 5.] + </p> + <p> + Arnold ranks the victory of Charles Martel even higher than the victory of + Arminius, "among those signal deliverances which have affected for + centuries the happiness of mankind." [History of the later Roman + Commonwealth, vol ii. p. 317.] In fact, the more we test its importance, + the higher we shall be led to estimate it; and, though the authentic + details which we possess of its circumstances and its heroes are but + meagre, we can trace enough of its general character to make us watch with + deep interest this encounter between the rival conquerors of the decaying + Roman empire. That old classic world, the history of which occupies so + large a portion of our early studies, lay, in the eighth century of our + era, utterly exanimate and overthrown. On the north the German, on the + south the Arab, was rending away its provinces. At last the spoilers + encountered one another, each striving for the full mastery of the prey. + Their conflict brought back upon the memory of Gibbon the old Homeric + simile, where the strife of Hector and Patroclus over the dead body of + Cebriones is compared to the combat of two lions, that in their hate and + hunger fight together on the mountain-tops over the carcass of a + slaughtered stag: and the reluctant yielding of the Saracen power to the + superior might of the Northern warriors, might not inaptly recall those + other lines of the same book of the Iliad, where the downfall of Patroclus + beneath Hector is likened to the forced yielding of the panting and + exhausted wild boar, that had long and furiously fought with a superior + beast of prey for the possession of the fountain among the rocks, at which + each burned to drink. + </p> + <p> + Although three centuries had passed away since the Germanic conquerors of + Rome had crossed the Rhine, never to repass that frontier stream, no + settled system of institutions or government, no amalgamation of the + various races into one people, no uniformity of language or habits, had + been established in the country, at the time when Charles Martel was + called on to repel the menacing tide of Saracenic invasion from the south. + Gaul was not yet France. In that, as in other provinces of the Roman + empire of the West, the dominion of the Caesars had been shattered as + early as the fifth century, and barbaric kingdoms and principalities had + promptly arisen on the ruins of the Roman power. But few of these had any + permanency; and none of them consolidated the rest, or any considerable + number of the rest, into one coherent and organized civil and political + society. The great bulk of the population still consisted of the conquered + provincials, that is to say, of Romanized Celts, of a Gallic race which + had long been under the dominion of the Caesars, and had acquired, + together with no slight infusion of Roman blood, the language, the + literature, the laws, and the civilization of Latium. Among these, and + dominant over them, roved or dwelt the German victors: some retaining + nearly all the rude independence of their primitive national character; + others, softened and disciplined by the aspect and contact of the manners + and institutions of civilized life. For it is to be borne in mind, that + the Roman empire in the West was not crushed by any sudden avalanche of + barbaric invasion. The German conquerors came across the Rhine, not in + enormous hosts, but in bands of a few thousand warriors at a time. The + conquest of a province was the result of an infinite series of partial + local invasions, carried on by little armies of this description. The + victorious warriors either retired with their booty, or fixed themselves + in the invaded district, taking care to keep sufficiently concentrated for + military purposes, and ever ready for some fresh foray, either against a + rival Teutonic band, or some hitherto unassailed city of the provincials. + Gradually, however, the conquerors acquired a desire for permanent landed + possessions. They lost somewhat of the restless thirst for novelty and + adventure which had first made them throng beneath the banner of the + boldest captains of their tribe, and leave their native forests for a + roving military Life on the left bank of the Rhine. They were converted to + the Christian faith; and gave up with their old creed much of the coarse + ferocity, which must have been fostered in the spirits of the ancient + warriors of the North by a mythology which promised, as the reward of the + brave on earth, an eternal cycle of fighting and drunkenness in heaven. + </p> + <p> + But, although their conversion and other civilizing influences operated + powerfully upon the Germans in Gaul; and although the Franks (who were + originally a confederation of the Teutonic tribes that dwelt between the + Rhine, the Maine, and the Weser) established a decided superiority over + the other conquerors of the province, as well as over the conquered + provincials, the country long remained a chaos of uncombined and shifting + elements. The early princes of the Merovingian dynasty were generally + occupied in wars against other princes of their house, occasioned by the + frequent subdivisions of the Frank monarchy: and the ablest and best of + them had found all their energies tasked to the utmost to defend the + barrier of the Rhine against the Pagan Germans, who strove to pass that + river and gather their share of the spoils of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The conquests which the Saracens effected over the southern and eastern + provinces of Rome were far more rapid than those achieved by the Germans + in the north; and the new organizations of society which the Moslems + introduced were summarily and uniformly enforced. Exactly a century passed + between the death of Mohammed and the date of the battle of Tours. During + that century the followers of the Prophet had torn away half the Roman + empire; and besides their conquests over Persia, the Saracens had overrun + Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain, in an unchequered and apparently + irresistible career of victory. Nor, at the commencement of the eighth + century of our era, was the Mohammedan world divided against itself, as it + subsequently became. All these vast regions obeyed the Caliph; throughout + them all, from the Pyrenees to the Oxus, the name of Mohammed was invoked + in prayer, and the Koran revered as the book of the law. + </p> + <p> + It was under one of their ablest and most renowned commanders, with a + veteran army, and with every apparent advantage of time, place, and + circumstance, that the Arabs made their great effort at the conquest of + Europe north of the Pyrenees. The victorious Moslem soldiery in Spain, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A countless multitude; + Syrian, Moor, Saracen, Greek renegade, + Persian, and Copt, and Tartar, in one bond + Of erring faith conjoined—strong in the youth + And heat of zeal—a dreadful brotherhood," +</pre> + <p> + were eager for the plunder of more Christian cities and shrines, and full + of fanatic confidence in the invincibility of their arms. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Nor were the chiefs + Of victory less assured, by long success + Elate, and proud of that o'erwhelming strength + Which surely, they believed, as it had rolled + Thus far uncheck'd, would roll victorious on, + Till, like the Orient, the subjected West + Should bow in reverence at Mahommed's name; + And pilrims from remotest Arctic shores + Tread with religious feet the burning sands + Of Araby and Mecca's stony soil." + SOUTHEY'S RODERICK. +</pre> + <p> + It is not only by the modern Christian poet, but by the old Arabian + chroniclers also, that these feelings of ambition and arrogance are + attributed to the Moslems, who had overthrown the Visigoth power in Spain. + And their eager expectations of new wars were excited to the utmost on the + re-appointment by the Caliph of Abderrahman Ibn Abdillah Alghafeki to the + government of that country, A.D. 729, which restored them a general who + had signalized his skill and prowess during the conquests of Africa and + Spain, whose ready valour and generosity had made him the idol of the + troops, who had already been engaged in several expeditions into Gaul, so + as to be well acquainted with the national character and tactics of the + Franks; and who was known to thirst, like a good Moslem, for revenge for + the slaughter of some detachments of the true believers, which had been + cut off on the north of the Pyrenees. + </p> + <p> + In addition to his cardinal military virtues, Abderrahman is described by + the Arab writers as a model of integrity and justice. The first two years + of his second administration in Spain were occupied in severe reforms of + the abuses which under his predecessors had crept into the system of + government, and in extensive preparations for his intended conquest of + Gaul. Besides the troops which he collected from his province, he obtained + from Africa a large body of chosen Barber cavalry, officered by Arabs of + proved skill and valour: and in the summer of 732 he crossed the Pyrenees + at the head of an army which some Arab writers rate at eighty thousand + strong, while some of the Christian chroniclers swell its numbers to many + hundreds of thousands more. Probably the Arab account diminishes, but of + the two keeps nearer to the truth. It was from this formidable host, after + Eudes, the Count of Acquitaine, had vainly striven to check it, after many + strong cities had fallen before it, and half the land been overrun, that + Gaul and Christendom were at last rescued by the strong arm of Prince + Charles, who acquired a surname, [Martel—'The Hammer.' See the + Scandinavian Sagas for an account of the favourite weapon of Thor.] like + that of the war-god of his forefathers' creed, from the might with which + he broke and shattered his enemies in the battle. + </p> + <p> + The Merovingian kings had sunk into absolute insignificance, and had + become mere puppets of royalty before the eighth century. Charles Martel + like his father, Pepin Heristal, was Duke of the Austrasian Franks, the + bravest and most thoroughly Germanic part of the nation: and exercised, in + the name of the titular king, what little paramount authority the + turbulent minor rulers of districts and towns could be persuaded or + compelled to acknowledge. Engaged with his national competitors in + perpetual conflicts for power, engaged also in more serious struggles for + safety against the fierce tribes of the unconverted Frisians, Bavarians, + Saxons, and Thuringians, who at that epoch assailed with peculiar ferocity + the christianized Germans on the left bank of the Rhine, Charles Martel + added experienced skill to his natural courage, and he had also formed a + militia of veterans among the Franks. Hallam has thrown out a doubt + whether, in our admiration of his victory at Tours, we do not judge a + little too much by the event, and whether there was not rashness in his + risking the fate of France on the result of a general battle with the + invaders. But, when we remember that Charles had no standing army, and the + independent spirit of the Frank warriors who followed his standard, it + seems most probable that it was not in his power to adopt the cautious + policy of watching the invaders, and wearing out their strength by delay. + So dreadful and so wide-spread were the ravages of the Saracenic light + cavalry throughout Gaul that it must have been impossible to restrain for + any length of time the indignant ardour of the Franks. And, even if + Charles could have persuaded his men to look tamely on while the Arabs + stormed more towns and desolated more districts, he could not have kept an + army together when the usual period of a military expedition had expired. + If, indeed, the Arab account of the disorganization of the Moslem forces + be correct, the battle was as well-timed on the part of Charles as it was + beyond all question, well-fought. + </p> + <p> + The monkish chroniclers, from whom we are obliged to glean a narrative of + this memorable campaign, bear full evidence to the terror which the + Saracen invasion inspired, and to the agony of that; great struggle. The + Saracens, say they, and their king, who was called Abdirames, came out of + Spain, with all their wives, and their children, and their substance, in + such great multitudes that no man could reckon or estimate them. They + brought with them all their armour, and whatever they had, as if they were + thence forth always to dwell in France. ["Lors issirent d'Espaigne li + Sarrazins, et un leur Roi qui avoit nom Abdirames, et ont leur fames et + leur enfans at touts leur substance an si grand plente que nus ne le + prevoit nombrer ne estimer: tout leur harnois et quanques il avoient + amenement avec ents, aussi comme si ils deussent toujours mes habiter en + France."] + </p> + <p> + "Then Abderrahman, seeing the land filled with the multitude of his army, + pierces through the mountains, tramples over rough and level ground + plunders far into the country of the Franks, and smites all with the + sword, insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with him at the river + Garonne, and fled before him, God alone knows the number of the slain. + Then Abderrahman pursued after Count Eudo, and while he strives to spoil + and burn the holy shrine at Tours, he encounters the chief of the + Austrasian Franks, Charles, a man of war from his youth up, to whom Eudo + had sent warning. There for nearly seven days they strive intensely, and + at last they set themselves in battle array; and the nations of the north + standing firm as a wall, and impenetrable as a zone of ice, utterly slay + the Arabs with the edge of the sword." ["Tunc Abdirrahman, multitudine sui + exercitus repletam prospiciane terram," &c.—SCRIPT. GEST. FRANC. + p. 785.] + </p> + <p> + The European writers all concur in speaking of the fall of Abderrahman as + one of the principal causes of the defeat of the Arabs; who, according to + one writer, after finding that their leader was slain, dispersed in the + night, to the agreeable surprise of the Christians, who expected the next + morning to see them issue from their tents, and renew the combat. One + monkish chronicler puts the loss of the Arabs at 375,000 men, while he + says that only 1,007 Christians fell—a disparity of loss which he + feels bound to account for by a special interposition of Providence. I + have translated above some of the most spirited passages of these writers; + but it is impossible to collect from them anything like a full or + authentic description of the great battle itself, or of the operations + which preceded or followed it. + </p> + <p> + Though, however, we may have cause to regret the meagreness and doubtful + character of these narratives, we have the great advantage of being able + to compare the accounts given of Abderrahman's expedition by the national + writers of each side. This is a benefit which the inquirer into antiquity + so seldom can obtain, that the fact of possessing it, in the instance of + the battle of Tours, makes us think the historical testimony respecting + that great event more certain and satisfactory than is the case in many + other instances, where we possess abundant details respecting military + exploits, but where those details come to us from the annalist of one + nation only; and where we have, consequently, no safeguard against the + exaggerations, the distortions, and the fictions which national vanity has + so often put forth in the garb and under the title of history. The Arabian + writers who recorded the conquests and wars of their countrymen in Spain, + have narrated also the expedition into Gaul of their great Emir, and his + defeat and death near Tours in battle with the host of the Franks under + King Caldus, the name into which they metamorphose Charles. [The Arabian + chronicles were compiled and translated into Spanish by Don Jose Antonio + Conde, in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabos an Espana," + published at Madrid in 1820. Conde's plan, which I have endeavoured to + follow, was to present both the style and spirit of his oriental + authorities, so that we find in his pages a genuine Saracenic narrative of + the wars in Western Europe between the Mahommedans and the Christians.] + </p> + <p> + They tell us how there was war between the count of the Frankish frontier + and the Moslems, and how the count gathered together all his people, and + fought for a time with doubtful success. "But," say the Arabian + chroniclers, "Abderrahman drove them back; and the men of Abderrahman were + puffed up in spirit by their repeated successes, and they were full of + trust in the valour and the practice in war of their Emir. So the Moslems + smote their enemies, and passed the river Garonne, and laid waste the + country, and took captives without number. And that army went through all + places like a desolating storm. Prosperity made those warriors insatiable. + At the passage of the river, Abderrahman overthrew the count, and the + count retired into his stronghold, but the Moslems fought against it, and + entered it by force, and slew the count; for everything gave way to their + scimetars, which were the robbers of lives. All the nations of the Franks + trembled at that terrible army, and they betook them to their king Caldus, + and told him of the havoc made by the Moslem horsemen, and how they rode + at their will through all the land of Narbonne Toulouse, and Bordeaux, and + they told the king of the death of their count. Then the king bade them be + of good cheer, and offered to aid them. And in the 114th year [Of the + Hegira.] he mounted his home, and he took with him a host that could not + be numbered, and went against the Moslems. And he came upon them at the + great city of Tours. And Abderrahman and other prudent cavaliers saw the + disorder of the Moslem troops, who were loaded with spoil; but they did + not venture to displease the soldiers by ordering them to abandon + everything except their arms and war-horses. And Abderrahman trusted in + the valour of his soldiers, and in the good fortune which had ever + attended him. But (the Arab writer remarks) such defect of discipline + always is fatal to armies. So Abderrahman and his host attacked Tours to + gain still more spoil, and they fought against it so fiercely that they + stormed the city almost before the eyes of the army that came to save it; + and the fury and the cruelty of the Moslems towards the inhabitants of the + city were like the fury and cruelty of raging tigers. It was manifest," + adds the Arab, "that God's chastisement was sure to follow such excesses; + and fortune thereupon turned her back upon the Moslems." + </p> + <p> + Near the river Owar, [Probably the Loire.] the two great hosts of the two + languages and the two creeds were set in array against each other. The + hearts of Abderrahman, his captains, and his men were filled with wrath + and pride, and they were the first to begin the fight. The Moslem horseman + dashed fierce and frequent forward against the battalions of the Franks, + who resisted manfully, and many fell dead on either side, until the going + down of the sun. Night parted the two armies: but in the grey of the + morning the Moslems returned to the battle. Their cavaliers had soon hewn + their way into the centre of the Christian host. But many of the Moslems + were fearful for the safety of the spoil which they had stored in their + tents, and a false cry arose in their ranks that some of the enemy were + plundering the camp; whereupon several squadrons of the Moslem horseman + rode off to protect their tents. But it seemed as if they fled; and all + the host was troubled. And while Abderrahman strove to check their tumult, + and to lead them back to battle, the warriors of the Franks came around + him, and he was pierced through with many spears, so that he died. Then + all the host fled before the enemy, and many died in the flight. This + deadly defeat of the Moslems, and the loss of the great leader and good + cavalier Abderrahman, took place in the hundred and fifteenth year. + </p> + <p> + It would be difficult to expect from an adversary a more explicit + confession of having been thoroughly vanquished, than the Arabs here + accord to the Europeans. The points on which their narrative differs from + those of the Christians,—as to how many days the conflict lasted, + whether the assailed city was actually rescued or not, and the like,—are + of little moment compared with the admitted great fact that there was a + decisive trial of strength between Frank and Saracen, in which the former + conquered. The enduring importance of the battle of Tours in the eyes of + the Moslems, is attested not only by the expressions of "the deadly + battle," and "the disgraceful overthrow," which their writers constantly + employ when referring to it, but also by the fact that no further serious + attempts at conquest beyond the Pyrenees were made by the Saracens. + Charles Martel, and his son and grandson, were left at leisure to + consolidate and extend their power. The new Christian Roman Empire of the + West, which the genius of Charlemagne founded, and throughout which his + iron will imposed peace on the old anarchy of creeds and races, did not + indeed retain its integrity after its great ruler's death. Fresh troubles + came over Europe; but Christendom, though disunited, was safe. The + progress of civilization, and the development of the nationalities and + governments of modern Europe, from that time forth, went forward in not + uninterrupted, but, ultimately, certain career. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF TOURS, A.D. 732, AND THE BATTLE + OF HASTINGS, 1066. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 768-814. Reign of Charlemagne. This monarch has justly been termed + the principal regenerator of Western Europe, after the destruction of the + Roman empire. The early death of his brother, Carloman, left him sole + master of the dominions of the Franks, which, by a succession of + victorious wars, he enlarged into the new Empire of the West. He conquered + the Lombards, and re-established the Pope at Rome, who, in return, + acknowledged Charles as suzerain of Italy; and in the year 800, Leo III, + in the name of the Roman people, solemnly crowned Charlemagne at Rome, as + Emperor of the Roman Empire of the West. In Spain, Charlemagne ruled the + country between the Pyrenees and the Ebro; but his most important + conquests were effected on the eastern side of his original kingdom, over + the Sclavonians of Bohemia, the Avars of Pannonia, and over the previously + uncivilized German tribes who had remained in their fatherland. The old + Saxons were his most obstinate antagonists, and his wars with them lasted + for thirty years. Under him the greater part of Germany was compulsorily + civilized, and converted from Paganism to Christianity, His empire + extended eastward as far as the Elbe, the Saal, the Bohemian mountains, + and a line drawn from thence crossing the Danube above Vienna, and + prolonged to the Gulf of Istria. [Hallam's Middle Ages.] + </p> + <p> + Throughout this vast assemblage of provinces, Charlemagne established an + organized and firm government. But it is not as a mere conqueror that he + demands admiration. "In a life restlessly active, we see him reforming the + coinage, and establishing the legal divisions of money, gathering about + him the learned of every country; founding schools and collecting + libraries; interfering, with the air of a king, in religious + controversies; attempting, for the sake of commerce, the magnificent + enterprise of uniting the Rhine and the Danube, and meditating to mould + the discordant code of Roman and barbarian laws into an uniform system." + [Hallam, UT SUPRA.] + </p> + <p> + 814-888. Repeated partitions of the empire and civil wars between + Charlemagne's descendants. Ultimately, the kingdom of France is finally + separated from Germany and Italy. In 982, Otho the Great, of Germany, + revives the imperial dignity. + </p> + <p> + 827. Egbert, king of Wessex, acquires the supremacy over the Anglo-Saxon + kingdoms. + </p> + <p> + 832. The first Danish squadron attacks part of the English coast. The + Danes, or Northmen, had begun their ravages in France a few years earlier. + For two centuries Scandinavia sends out fleet after fleet of sea-rovers, + who desolate all the western kingdoms of Europe, and in many cases effect + permanent conquests. + </p> + <p> + 871-900. Reign of Alfred in England. After a long and varied struggle, he + rescues England from the Danish invaders. + </p> + <p> + 911, The French king cedes Neustria to Hrolf the Northman. Hrolf (or Duke + Rollo, as he thenceforth was termed) and his army of Scandinavian + warriors, become the ruling class of the population of the province, which + is called after them Normandy. + </p> + <p> + 1016. Four knights from Normandy, who had been on a pilgrimage to the Holy + Land, while returning through Italy, head the people of Salerno in + repelling an attack of a band of Saracen corsairs. In the next year many + adventurers from Normandy settle in Italy, where they conquer Apulia + (1040), and afterwards (1060) Sicily. + </p> + <p> + 1017. Canute, king of Denmark, becomes king of England. On the death of + the last of his sons, in 1041, the Saxon line is restored, and Edward the + Confessor (who had been bred in the court of the Duke of Normandy), is + called by the English to the throne of this island, as the representative + of the House of Cerdic. + </p> + <p> + 1035. Duke Robert of Normandy dies on his return from a pilgrimage to the + Holy Land, and his son William (afterwards the conqueror of England) + succeeds to the dukedom of Normandy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. — THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS, 1066. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Eis vos la Bataille assemblee, + Dunc encore est grant renomee." + ROMAN DE ROU, 1. 3183. +</pre> + <p> + Arletta's pretty feet twinkling in the brook gained her a duke's love, and + gave us William the Conqueror. Had she not thus fascinated Duke Robert, + the Liberal, of Normandy, Harold would not have fallen at Hastings, no + Anglo-Norman dynasty could have arisen, no British empire. The reflection + is Sir Francis Palgrave's: [History of Normandy and England, vol. i. p. + 528.] and it is emphatically true. If any one should write a history of + "Decisive loves that; have materially influenced the drama of the world in + all its subsequent scenes," the daughter of the tanner of Falaise would + deserve a conspicuous place in his pages. But it is her son, the victor of + Hastings, who is now the object of our attention; and no one, who + appreciates the influence of England and her empire upon the destinies of + the world, will ever rank that victory as one of secondary importance. + </p> + <p> + It is true that in the last century some writers of eminence on our + history and laws mentioned the Norman Conquest in terms, from which it + might be supposed that the battle of Hastings led to little more than the + substitution of one royal family for another on the throne of this + country, and to the garbling and changing of some of our laws through the + "cunning of the Norman lawyers." But, at least since the appearance of the + work of Augustin Thierry on the Norman Conquest, these forensic fallacies + have been exploded. Thierry made his readers keenly appreciate the + magnitude of that political and social catastrophe. He depicted in vivid + colours the atrocious cruelties of the conquerors, and the sweeping and + enduring innovations that they wrought, involving the overthrow of the + ancient constitution, as well as of the last of the Saxon kings. In his + pages we see new tribunals and tenures superseding the old ones, new + divisions of race and class introduced, whole districts devastated to + gratify the vengeance or the caprice of the new tyrant, the greater part + of the lands of the English confiscated and divided among aliens, the very + name of Englishmen turned into a reproach, the English language rejected + as servile and barbarous, and all the high places in Church and State for + upwards of a century filled exclusively by men of foreign race. + </p> + <p> + No less true than eloquent is Thierry's summing up of the social effects + of the Norman Conquest on the generation that witnessed it, and on many of + their successors. He tells his reader that "if he would form a just idea + of England conquered by William of Normandy, he must figure to himself, + not a mere change of political rule, not the triumph of one candidate over + another candidate, of the man of one party over the man of another party; + but the intrusion of one people into the bosom of another people, the + violent placing of one society over another society, which it came to + destroy, and the scattered fragments of which it retained only as personal + property, or (to use the words of an old act) as 'the clothing of the + soil:' he must not picture to himself on the one hand, William, a king and + a despot—on the other, subjects of William's, high and low, rich and + poor, all inhabiting England, and consequently all English; but he must + imagine two nations, of one of which William is a member and the chief—two + nations which (if the term must be used) were both subject to William, but + as applied to which the word has quite different senses, meaning in the + one case subordinate, in the other subjugated. He must consider that there + are two countries, two soils, included in the same geographical + circumference; that of the Normans rich and free, that of the Saxons poor + and serving, vexed by RENT and TAILLAGE; the former full of spacious + mansions, and walled and moated castles, the latter scattered over with + huts and straw, and ruined hovels; that peopled with the happy and the + idle, with men of the army and of the court, with knights and nobles,—this + with men of pain and labour, with farmers and artizans: on the one side, + luxury and insolence, on the other, misery and envy—not the envy of + the poor at the sight of opulence they cannot reach, but the envy of the + despoiled when in presence of the despoilers." + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the effect of Thierry's work has been to cast into the shade the + ultimate good effects on England of the Norman Conquest. Yet these are as + undeniable as are the miseries which that conquest inflicted on our Saxon + ancestors from the time of the battle of Hastings to the time of the + signing of the Great Charter at Runnymede. That last is the true epoch of + English nationality: it is the epoch when Anglo-Norman and Anglo-Saxon + ceased to keep aloof from each other, the one in haughty scorn, the other + in sullen abhorrence; and when all the free men of the land; whether + barons, knights, yeomen, or burghers, combined to lay the foundations of + English freedom. + </p> + <p> + Our Norman barons were the chiefs of that primary constitutional movement; + those "iron barons" whom Chatham has so nobly eulogized. This alone should + make England remember her obligations to the Norman Conquest, which + planted far and wide, as a dominant class in her land, a martial nobility + of the bravest and most energetic race that ever existed. + </p> + <p> + It may sound paradoxical, but it is in reality no exaggeration to say, + with Guizot, [Essais sur l'Histoirs de France, p. 273, et seq.] that + England owes her liberties to her having been conquered by the Normans. It + is true that the Saxon institutions were the primitive cradle of English + liberty, but by their own intrinsic force they could never have founded + the enduring free English constitution. It was the Conquest that infused + into them a new virtue; and the political liberties of England arose from + the situation in which the Anglo-Saxon and the Anglo-Norman populations + and laws found themselves placed relatively to each other in this island. + The state of England under her last Anglo-Saxon kings closely resembled + the state of France under the last Carlovingian, and the first Capetian + princes. The crown was feeble, the great nobles were strong and turbulent. + And although there was more national unity in Saxon England than in + France; although the English local free institutions had more reality and + energy than was the case with anything analogous to them on the Continent + in the eleventh century, still the probability is that the Saxon system of + polity, if left to itself, would have fallen into utter confusion, out of + which would have arisen first an aristocratic hierarchy like that which + arose in France, next an absolute monarchy, and finally a series of + anarchical revolutions, such as we now behold around, but not among us. + [See Guizot, UT SUPRA.] + </p> + <p> + The latest conquerors of this island were also the bravest and the best. I + do not except even the Romans. And, in spite of our sympathies with Harold + and Hereward, and our abhorrence of the founder of the New Forest, and the + desolator of Yorkshire, we must confess the superiority of the Normans to + the Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Danes, whom they met here in 1066, as well as + to the degenerate Frank noblesse and the crushed and servile Romanesque + provincials, from whom, in 912, they had wrested the district in the north + of Gaul which still bears the name of Normandy. + </p> + <p> + It was not merely by extreme valour and ready subordination or military + discipline, that the Normans were pre-eminent among all the conquering + races of the Gothic stock, but also by their instinctive faculty of + appreciating and adopting the superior civilizations which they + encountered. Thus Duke Rollo and his Scandinavian warriors readily + embraced the creed, the language, the laws, and the arts which France, in + those troubled and evil times with which the Capetian dynasty commenced, + still inherited from imperial Rome and imperial Charlemagne. They adopted + the customs, the duties, the obedience that the capitularies of emperors + and kings had established; but that which they brought to the application + of those laws, was the spirit of life, the spirit of liberty—the + habits also of military subordination, and the aptness for a state + politic, which could reconcile the security of all with the independence + of each. [Sismondi, Histoire des Francais, vol. iii. p. 174.] So also in + all chivalric feelings, in enthusiastic religious zeal, in almost + idolatrous respect to females of gentle birth, in generous fondness for + the nascent poetry of the time, in a keen intellectual relish for subtle + thought and disputation, in a taste for architectural magnificence, and + all courtly refinement and pageantry, the Normans were the Paladins of the + world. Their brilliant qualities were sullied by many darker traits of + pride, of merciless cruelty, and of brutal contempt for the industry, the + rights, and the feelings of all whom they considered the lower classes of + mankind. + </p> + <p> + Their gradual blending with the Saxons softened these harsh and evil + points of their national character, and in return they fired the duller + Saxon mass with a new spirit of animation and power. As Campbell boldly + expressed it, "THEY HIGH-METTLED THE BLOOD OF OUR VEINS." Small had been + the figure which England made in the world before the coming over of the + Normans; and without them she never would have emerged from + insignificance. The authority of Gibbon may be taken as decisive when he + pronounces that, "Assuredly England was a gainer by the Conquest." and we + may proudly adopt the comment of the Frenchman Rapin, who, writing of the + battle of Hastings more than a century ago, speaks of the revolution + effected by it, as "the first step by which England has arrived to that + height of grandeur and glory we behold it in at present." [Rapin, Hist. + England, p. 164. See also Sharon Turner, vol. iv. p. 72; and, above all, + Palgrave's Normandy and England.] + </p> + <p> + The interest of this eventful struggle, by which William of Normandy + became King of England, is materially enhanced by the high personal + characters of the competitors for our crown. They were three in number. + One was a foreign prince from the North. One was a foreign prince from the + South: and one was a native hero of the land. Harald Hardrada, the + strongest and the most chivalric of the kings of Norway, was the first; + [See in Snerre the Saga of Harald Hardrada.] Duke William of Normandy was + the second; and the Saxon Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, was the third. + Never was a nobler prize sought by nobler champions, or striven for more + gallantly. The Saxon triumphed over the Norwegian, and the Norman + triumphed over the Saxon: but Norse valour was never more conspicuous than + when Harald Hardrada and his host fought and fell at Stamford Bridge; nor + did Saxons ever face their foes more bravely than our Harold and his men + on the fatal day of Hastings. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of King Edward the Confessor over this land, the claims + of the Norwegian king to our Crown were little thought of; and though + Hardrada's predecessor, King Magnus of Norway had on one occasion asserted + that, by virtue of a compact with our former king, Hardicanute, he was + entitled to the English throne, no serious attempt had been made to + enforce his pretensions. But the rivalry of the Saxon Harold and the + Norman William was foreseen and bewailed by the Confessor, who was + believed to have predicted on his death-bed the calamities that were + pending over England. Duke William was King Edward's kinsman. Harold was + the head of the most powerful noble house, next to the royal blood, in + England; and personally, he was the bravest and most popular chieftain in + the land. King Edward was childless, and the nearest collateral heir was a + puny unpromising boy. England had suffered too severely during royal + minorities, to make the accession of Edgar Atheling desirable; and long + before King Edward's death, Earl Harold was the destined king of the + nation's choice, though the favour of the Confessor was believed to lean + towards the Norman duke. + </p> + <p> + A little time before the death of King Edward, Harold was in Normandy. The + causes of the voyage of the Saxon earl to the continent are doubtful; but + the fact of his having been, in 1065, at the ducal court, and in the power + of his rival, is indisputable. William made skilful and unscrupulous use + of the opportunity. Though Harold was treated with outward courtesy and + friendship, he was made fully aware that his liberty and life depended on + his compliance with the Duke's requests. William said to him, in apparent + confidence and cordiality, "When King Edward and I once lived like + brothers under the same roof, he promised that if ever he became King of + England, he would make me heir to his throne. Harold, I wish that thou + wouldst assist me to realize this promise." Harold replied with + expressions of assent: and further agreed, at William's request, to marry + William's daughter Adela, and to send over his own sister to be married to + one of William's barons. The crafty Norman was not content with this + extorted promise; he determined to bind Harold by a more solemn pledge, + which if broken, would be a weight on the spirit of the gallant Saxon, and + a discouragement to others from adopting his cause. Before a full assembly + of the Norman barons, Harold was required to do homage to Duke William, as + the heir-apparent of the English crown. Kneeling down, Harold placed his + hands between those of the Duke, and repeated the solemn form, by which he + acknowledged the Duke as his lord, and promised to him fealty and true + service. But William exacted more. He had caused all the bones and relics + of saints, that were preserved in the Norman monasteries and churches, to + be collected into a chest, which was placed in the council-room, covered + over with a cloth of gold. On the chest of relics, which were thus + concealed, was laid a missal. The Duke then solemnly addressed his titular + guest and real captive, and said to him, "Harold, I require thee, before + this noble assembly, to confirm by oath the promises which thou hast made + me, to assist me in obtaining the crown of England after King Edward's + death, to marry my daughter Adela, and to send me thy sister, that I may + give her in marriage to one of my barons." Harold, once more taken by + surprise, and not able to deny his former words, approached the missal, + and laid his hand on it, not knowing that the chest of relics was beneath. + The old Norman chronicler, who describes the scene most minutely, [Wace, + Roman de Rou. I have nearly followed his words.] says, when Harold placed + his hand on it, the hand trembled, and the flesh quivered; but he swore, + and promised upon his oath, to take Ele [Adela] to wife, and to deliver up + England to the Duke, and thereunto to do all in his power, according to + his might and wit, after the death of Edward, if he himself should live: + so help him God. Many cried, "God grant it!" and when Harold rose from his + knees, the Duke made him stand close to the chest, and took off the pall + that had covered it, and showed Harold upon what holy relics he had sworn; + and Harold was sorely alarmed at the sight. + </p> + <p> + Harold was soon, after this permitted to return to England; and, after a + short interval, during which he distinguished himself by the wisdom and + humanity with which he pacified some formidable tumults of the Anglo-Danes + in Northumbria, he found himself called on to decide whether he would keep + the oath which the Norman had obtained from him, or mount the vacant + throne of England in compliance with the nation's choice. King Edward the + Confessor died on the 5th of January, 1066, and on the following day an + assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of the citizens + of-the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king. It was + reported that the dying Edward had nominated him as his successor; but the + sense which his countrymen entertained of his pre-eminent merit was the + true foundation of his title to the crown. Harold resolved to disregard + the oath which he made in Normandy, as violent and void, and on the 7th + day of that January he was anointed King of England, and received from the + archbishop's hands the golden crown and sceptre of England, and also an + ancient national symbol, a weighty battle-axe. He had deep and speedy need + of this significant part of the insignia of Saxon royalty. + </p> + <p> + A messenger from Normandy soon arrived to remind Harold of the oath which + he had sworn to the Duke "with his mouth, and his hand upon good and holy + relics." "It is true," replied the Saxon king, "that I took an oath to + William; but I took it under constraint: I promised what did not belong to + me—what I could not in any way hold: my royalty is not my own; I + could not lay it down against the will of the country, nor can I against + the will of the country take a foreign wife. As for my sister, whom the + Duke claims that he may marry her to one of his chiefs, she has died + within the year; would he have me send her corpse?" + </p> + <p> + William sent another message, which met with a similar answer; and then + the Duke published far and wide through Christendom what he termed the + perjury and bad faith of his rival; and proclaimed his intention of + asserting his rights by the sword before the year should expire, and of + pursuing and punishing the perjurer even in those places where he thought + he stood most strongly and most securely. + </p> + <p> + Before, however, he commenced hostilities, William, with deep laid policy + submitted his claims to the decision of the Pope. Harold refused to + acknowledge this tribunal, or to answer before an Italian priest for his + title as an English king. After a formal examination of William's + complaints by the Pope and the cardinals, it was solemnly adjudged at Rome + that England belonged to the Norman duke; and a banner was sent to William + from the holy see, which the Pope himself had consecrated and blessed for + the invasion of this island. The clergy throughout the continent were now + assiduous and energetic in preaching up William's enterprise as undertaken + in the cause of God. Besides these spiritual arms (the effect of which in + the eleventh century must not be measured by the philosophy or the + indifferentism of the nineteenth), the Norman duke applied all the + energies of his mind and body, all the resources of his duchy, and all the + influence he possessed among vassals or allies, to the collection of "the + most remarkable and formidable armament which the Western nations had + witnessed." [Sir James Mackintosh's History of England, vol. i. p. 97.] + All the adventurous spirits of Christendom flocked to the holy banner, + under which Duke William, the most renowned knight and sagest general of + the age, promised to lead them to glory and wealth in the fair domains of + England. His army was filled with the chivalry of continental Europe, all + eager to save their souls by fighting at the Pope's bidding, ardent to + signalise their valour in so great an enterprise, and longing also for the + pay and the plunder which William liberally promised. But the Normans + themselves were the pith and the flower of the army; and William himself + was the strongest, the sagest, and fiercest spirit of them all. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the spring and summer of 1066, all the seaports of Normandy, + Picardy, and Brittany rang with the busy sound of preparation. On the + opposite side of the Channel, King Harold collected the army and the fleet + with which he hoped to crush the southern invaders. But the unexpected + attack of King Harald Hardrada of Norway upon another part of England, + disconcerted the skilful measures which the Saxon had taken against the + menacing armada of Duke William. + </p> + <p> + Harold's renegade brother, Earl Tostig, had excited the Norse king to this + enterprise, the importance of which has naturally been eclipsed by the + superior interest attached to the victorious expedition of Duke William, + but which was on a scale of grandeur which the Scandinavian ports had + rarely, if ever, before witnessed. Hardrada's fleet consisted of two + hundred war-ships, and three hundred other vessels, and all the best + warriors of Norway were in his host. He sailed first to the Orkneys, where + many of the islanders joined him, and then to Yorkshire. After a severe + conflict near York, he completely routed Earls Edwin and Morcar, the + governors of Northumbria. The city of York opened its gates, and all the + country, from the Tyne to the Humber, submitted to him. The tidings of the + defeat of Edwin and Morcar compelled Harold to leave his position an the + southern coast, and move instantly against the Norwegians. By a remarkably + rapid, march, he reached Yorkshire in four days, and took the Norse king + and his confederates by surprise. Nevertheless, the battle which ensued, + and which was fought near Stamford Bridge, was desperate, and was long + doubtful. Unable to break the ranks of the Norwegian phalanx by force, + Harold at length tempted them to quit their close order by a pretended + flight. Then the English columns burst in among them, and a carnage + ensued, the extent of which may be judged of by the exhaustion and + inactivity of Norway for a quarter of a century afterwards. King Harald + Hardrada, and all the flower of his nobility, perished on the 25th of + September, 1066, at Stamford Bridge; a battle which was a Flodden to + Norway. + </p> + <p> + Harold's victory was splendid; but he had bought it dearly by the fall of + many of his best officers and men; and still more dearly by the + opportunity which Duke William had gained of effecting an unopposed + landing on the Sussex coast. The whole of William's shipping had assembled + at the mouth of the Dive, a little river between the Seine and the Orme, + as early as the middle of August. The army which he had collected, + amounted to fifty thousand knights, and ten thousand soldiers of inferior + degree. Many of the knights were mounted, but many must have served on + foot; as it is hardly possible to believe that William could have found + transports for the conveyance of fifty thousand war-horses across the + Channel. For a long time the winds were adverse; and the Duke employed the + interval that passed before he could set sail in completing the + organization and in improving the discipline of his army; which he seems + to have brought into the same state of perfection, as was seven centuries + and a half afterwards the boast of another army assembled on the same + coast, and which Napoleon designed (but providentially in vain) for a + similar descent upon England. + </p> + <p> + It was not till the approach of the equinox that the wind veered from the + north-east to the west, and gave the Normans an opportunity of quitting + the weary shores of the Dive. They eagerly embarked, and set sail; but the + wind soon freshened to a gale, and drove them along the French coast to + St. Valery, where the greater part of them found shelter; but many of + their vessels were wrecked and the whole coast of Normandy was strewn with + the bodies of the drowned. William's army began to grow discouraged and + averse to the enterprise, which the very elements thus seemed to fight + against; though in reality the north-east wind which had cooped them so + long at the mouth of the Dive, and the western gale which had forced them + into St. Valery, were the best possible friends to the invaders. They + prevented the Normans from crossing the Channel until the Saxon king and + his army of defence had been called away from the Sussex coast to + encounter Harald Hardrada in Yorkshire: and also until a formidable + English fleet, which by King Harold's orders had been cruising in the + Channel to intercept the Normans, had been obliged to disperse temporarily + for the purpose of refitting and taking in fresh stores of provisions. + </p> + <p> + Duke William used every expedient to re-animate the drooping spirits of + his men at St. Valery; and at last he caused the body of the patron saint + of the place to be exhumed and carried in solemn procession, while the + whole assemblage of soldiers, mariners, and appurtenant priests implored + the saint's intercession for a change of wind. That very night the wind + veered, and enabled the mediaeval Agamemnon to quit his Aulia. + </p> + <p> + With full sails, and a following southern breeze, the Norman armada left + the French shores and steered for England. The invaders crossed an + undefended sea, and found an undefended coast. It was in Pevensey Bay in + Sussex, at Bulverhithe, between the castle of Pevensey and Hastings, that + the last conquerors of this island landed, on the 29th of September, 1066. + </p> + <p> + Harold was at York, rejoicing over his recent victory, which had delivered + England from her ancient Scandinavian foes, and resettling the government + of the counties which Harald Hardrada had overrun, when the tidings + reached him that Duke William of Normandy and his host had landed on the + Sussex shore. Harold instantly hurried southward to meet this + long-expected enemy. The severe loss which his army had sustained in the + battle with the Norwegians must have made it impossible for any large + number of veteran troops to accompany him in his forced march to London, + and thence to Sussex. He halted at the capital only six days; and during + that time gave orders for collecting forces from his southern and midland + counties, and also directed his fleet to reassemble off the Sussex coast. + Harold was well received in London, and his summons to arms was promptly + obeyed by citizen, by thane, by sokman, and by ceorl; for he had shown + himself during his brief reign a just and wise king, affable to all men, + active for the good of his country, and (in the words of the old + historian) sparing himself from no fatigue by land or sea. [See Roger de + Hoveden and William of Malmesbury, cited in Thierry, book iii.] He might + have gathered a much more numerous force than that of William, but his + recent victory had made, him over-confident, and he was irritated by the + reports of the country being ravaged by the invaders. As soon therefore, + as he had collected a small army in London, he marched off towards the + coast: pressing forward as rapidly as his men could traverse Surrey and + Sussex in the hope of taking the Normans unawares, as he had recently by a + similar forced march succeeded in surprising the Norwegians. But he had + now to deal with a foe equally brave with Harald Hardrada, and far more + skilful and wary. + </p> + <p> + The old Norman chroniclers describe the preparations of William on his + landing, with a graphic vigour, which would be wholly lost by transfusing + their racy Norman couplets and terse Latin prose into the current style of + modern history. It is best to follow them closely, though at the expense + of much quaintness and occasional uncouthness of expression. They tell us + how Duke William's own ship was the first of the Norman fleet. "It was + called the Mora, and was the gift of his duchess, Matilda. On the head of + the ship in the front, which mariners call the prow, there was a brazen + child bearing an arrow with a bended bow. His face was turned towards + England, and thither he looked, as though he was about to shoot. The + breeze became soft and sweet, and the sea was smooth for their landing. + The ships ran on dry land, and each ranged by the other's side. There you + might see the good sailors, the sergeants, and squires sally forth and + unload the ships; cast the anchors, haul the ropes, bear out shields and + saddles, and land the war-horses and palfreys. The archers came forth, and + touched land the first, each with his bow strong and with his quiver full + of arrows, slung at his side. All were shaven and shorn; and all clad in + short garments, ready to attack, to shoot, to wheel about and skirmish. + All stood well equipped, and of good courage for the fight; and they + scoured the whole shore, but found not an armed man there. After the + archers had thus gone forth, the knights landed all armed, with their + hauberks on, their shields slung at their necks, and their helmets laced. + They formed together on the shore, each armed, and mounted on his + war-horse: all had their swords girded on, and rode forward into the + country with their lances raised. Then the carpenters landed, who had + great axes in their hands, and planes and adzes hung at their sides. They + took counsel together, and sought for a good spot to place a castle on. + They had brought with them in the fleet, three wooden castles from + Normandy, in pieces, all ready for framing together, and they took the + materials of one of these out of the ships, all shaped and pierced to + receive the pins which they had brought cut and ready in large barrels; + and before evening had set in, they had finished a good fort on the + English ground, and there they placed their stores. All then ate and drank + enough, and were right glad that they were ashore. + </p> + <p> + "When Duke William himself landed, as he stepped on the shore, he slipped + and fell forward upon his two hands. Forthwith all raised a loud cry of + distress. 'An evil sign,' said they, 'is here.' But he cried out lustily, + 'See, my lords! by the splendour of God, [William's customary oath.] I + have taken possession of England with both my hands. It is now mine; and + what is mine is yours.' + </p> + <p> + "The next day they marched along the sea-shore to Hastings. Near that + place the Duke fortified a camp, and set up the two other wooden castles. + The foragers, and those who looked out for booty, seized all the clothing + and provisions they could find, lest what had been brought by the ships + should fail them. And the English were to be seen fleeing before them, + driving off their cattle, and quitting their houses. Many took shelter in + burying-places, and even there they were in grievous alarm." + </p> + <p> + Besides the marauders from the Norman camp, strong bodies of cavalry were + detached by William into the country, and these, when Harold and his army + made their rapid march from London southward, fell, back in good order + upon the main body of the Normans, and reported that the Saxon king was + rushing on like a madman. But Harold, when he found that his hopes of + surprising his adversary were vain changed his tactics, and halted about + seven miles from the Norman lines. He sent some spies, who spoke the + French language, to examine the number and preparations of the enemy, who, + on their return, related with astonishment that there were more priests in + William's camp than there were fighting men in the English army. They had + mistaken for priests all the Norman soldiers who had short hair and shaven + chins; for the English layman were then accustomed to wear long hair and + mustachios, Harold, who knew the Norman usages, smiled at their words and + said, "Those whom you have seen in such numbers are not priests, but stout + soldiers, as they will soon make us feel." + </p> + <p> + Harold's army was far inferior in number to that of the Normans, and some + of his captains advised him to retreat upon London, and lay waste the + country, so as to starve down the strength, of the invaders. The policy + thus recommended was unquestionably the wisest; for the Saxon fleet had + now reassembled, and intercepted all William's communications with + Normandy; so that as soon as his stores of provisions were exhausted he + must have moved forward upon London; where Harold, at the head of the full + military strength of the kingdom, could have defied his assault, and + probably might have witnessed his rival's destruction by famine and + disease, without having to strike a single blow. But Harold's bold blood + was up, and his kindly heart could not endure to inflict on his South + Saxon subjects even the temporary misery of wasting the country. "He would + not burn houses and villages, neither would he take away the substance of + his people." + </p> + <p> + Harold's brothers, Gurth and Leofwine, were with him in the camp, and + Gurth endeavoured to persuade him to absent himself from the battle. The + incident shows how well devised had been William's scheme of binding + Harold by the oath on the holy relics. "My brother", said the young Saxon + prince, "thou canst not deny that either by force or free-will thou hast + made Duke William an oath on the bodies of saints. Why then risk thyself + in the battle with a perjury upon thee? To us, who have sworn nothing, + this is a holy and a just war, for we are fighting for our country. Leave + us then, alone to fight this battle, and he who has the right will win." + Harold replied that he would not look on while others risked their lives + for him. Men would hold him a coward, and blame him for sending his best + friends where he dared not go himself. He resolved, therefore, to fight, + and to fight in person: but he was still too good a general to be the + assailant in the action. He strengthened his position on the hill where he + had halted, by a palisade of stakes interlaced with osier hurdles, and + there, he said, he would defend himself against whoever should seek him. + </p> + <p> + The ruins of Battle Abbey at this hour attest the place where Harold's + army was posted. The high altar of the abbey stood on the very spot where + Harold's own standard was planted during the fight, and where the carnage + was the thickest. Immediately after his victory William vowed to build an + abbey on the site; and a fair and stately pile soon rose there, where for + many ages the monks prayed, and said masses for the souls of those who + were slain in the battle, whence the abbey took its name. Before that time + the place was called Senlac. Little of the ancient edifice now remains: + but it is easy to trace among its relics and in the neighbourhood the + scenes of the chief incidents in the action; and it is impossible to deny + the generalship shown by Harold in stationing his men; especially when we + bear in mind that he was deficient in cavalry, the arm in which his + adversary's main strength consisted. + </p> + <p> + A neck of hills trends inwards for nearly seven miles from the high ground + immediately to the north-east of Hastings. The line of this neck of hills + is from south-east to north-west, and the usual route from Hastings to + London must, in ancient as in modern times, have been along its summits. + At the distance from Hastings which has been mentioned, the continuous + chain of hills ceases. A valley must be crossed, and on the other side of + it, opposite to the last of the neck of hills, rises a high ground of some + extent, facing to the south-east. This high ground, then termed Senlac, + was occupied by Harold's army. It could not be attacked in front without + considerable disadvantage to the assailants, and could hardly be turned + without those engaged in the manoeuvre exposing themselves to a fatal + charge in flank, while they wound round the base of the height, and + underneath the ridges which project from it on either side. There was a + rough and thickly-wooded district in the rear, which seemed to offer + Harold great facilities for rallying his men, and checking the progress of + the enemy, if they should succeed in forcing him back from his post. And + it seemed scarcely possible that the Normans, if they met with any + repulse, could save themselves from utter destruction. With such hopes and + expectations (which cannot be termed unreasonable, though "Successum Dea + dira negavit,") King Harold bade his standard be set up a little way down + the slope of Senlac-hill, at the point where the ascent from the valley + was least steep, and on which the fiercest attacks of the advancing enemy + were sure to be directed. + </p> + <p> + The foundation-stones of the high altar of Battle Abbey have, during late + years, been discovered; and we may place our feet on the very spot where + Harold stood with England's banner waving over him; where, when the battle + was joined, he defended himself to the utmost; where the fatal arrow came + down on him; where he "leaned in agony on his shield;" and where at last + he was beaten to the earth, and with him the Saxon banner was beaten down, + like him never to rise again. The ruins of the altar are a little to the + west of the high road, which leads from Hastings along the neck of hills + already described, across the valley, and through the modern town of + Battle, towards London. Before a railway was made along this valley, some + of the old local features were more easy than now to recognise. The eye + then at once saw that the ascent from the valley was least steep at the + point which Harold selected for his own post in the engagement. But this + is still sufficiently discernible; and we can fix the spot, a little lower + down the slope, immediately in front of the high altar, where the brave + Kentish men stood, "whose right it was to strike first when ever the king + went to battle," and who, therefore, were placed where the Normans would + be most likely to make their first charge. Round Harold himself, and where + the plantations wave which now surround the high altar's ruins, stood the + men of London, "whose privilege it was to guard the king's body, to place + themselves around it, and to guard his standard." On the right and left + were ranged the other warriors of central and southern England, whose + shires the old Norman chronicler distorts in his French nomenclature. + Looking thence in the direction of Hastings, we can distinguish the "ridge + of the rising ground over which the Normans appeared advancing." It is the + nearest of the neck of hills. It is along that hill that Harold and his + brothers saw approach in succession the three divisions of the Norman + army. The Normans came down that slope, and then formed in the valley, so + as to assault the whole front of the English position. Duke William's own + division, with "the best men and greatest strength of the army," made the + Norman centre, and charged the English immediately in front of Harold's + banner, as the nature of the ground had led the Saxon king to anticipate. + </p> + <p> + There are few battles the localities of which can be more completely + traced; and the whole scene is fraught with associations of deep interest: + but the spot which, most of all, awakens our sympathy and excites our + feelings, is that where Harold himself fought and fell. The crumbling + fragments of the grey altar-stones, with the wild flowers that cling + around their base, seem fitting memorials of the brave Saxon who there + bowed his head in death; while the laurel-trees that are planted near, and + wave over the ruins, remind us of the Conqueror, who there, at the close + of that dreadful day, reared his victorious standard high over the + trampled banner of the Saxon, and held his triumphant carousal amid the + corses of the slain, with his Norman chivalry exulting around him. + </p> + <p> + When it was known in the invaders' camp at Hastings that King Harold had + marched southward with his power, but a brief interval ensued before the + two hosts met in decisive encounter. + </p> + <p> + William's only chance of safety lay in bringing on a general engagement; + and he joyfully advanced his army from their camp on the hill over + Hastings, nearer to the Saxon position. But he neglected no means of + weakening his opponent, and renewed his summonses and demands on Harold + with an ostentatious air of sanctity and moderation. + </p> + <p> + "A monk named Hugues Maigrot came in William's name to call upon the Saxon + king to do one of three things—either to resign his royalty in + favour of William, or to refer it to the arbitration of the Pope to decide + which of the two ought to be king, or to let it be determined by the issue + of a single combat. Harold abruptly replied, 'I will not resign my title, + I will not refer it to the Pope, nor will I accept the single combat.' He + was far from being deficient in bravery; but he was no more at liberty to + stake the crown which he had received from a whole people on the chance of + a duel, than to deposit it in the hands of an Italian priest. William was + not at all ruffled by the Saxon's refusal, but steadily pursuing the + course of his calculated measures, sent the Norman monk again, after + giving him these instructions:—'Go and tell Harold, that if he will + keep his former compact with me, I will leave to him all the country which + is beyond the Humber, and will give his brother Gurth all the lands which + Godwin held. If he still persist in refusing my offers, then thou shalt + tell him, before all his people, that he is a perjurer and a liar; that + he, and all who shall support him, are excommunicated by the mouth of the + Pope; and that the bull to that effect is in my hands.' + </p> + <p> + "Hugues Maigrot delivered this message in a solemn tone; and the Norman + chronicle says that at the word EXCOMMUNICATION, the English chiefs looked + at one another as if some great danger were impending. One of them then + spoke as follows: 'We must fight, whatever may be the danger to us; for + what we have to consider is not whether we shall accept and receive a new + lord as if our king were dead: the case is quite otherwise. The Norman has + given our lands to his captains, to his knights, to all his people, the + greater part of whom have already done homage to him for them; they will + all look for their gift, if their Duke become our king; and he himself is + bound to deliver up to them our goods, our wives, and our daughters: all + is promised to them beforehand. They come, not only to ruin us, but to + ruin our descendants also, and to take from us the country of our + ancestors and what shall we do—whither shall we go—when we + have no longer a country?' The English promised by a unanimous oath, to + make neither peace, nor truce nor treaty, with the invader, but to die, or + drive away the Normans." [Thierry.] + </p> + <p> + The 13th of October was occupied in these negotiations; and at night the + Duke announced to his men that the next day would, be the day of battle. + That night is said to have been passed by the two armies in very different + manners. The Saxon soldiers spent it in joviality, singing their national + songs, and draining huge horns of ale and wine round their camp-fires. The + Normans, when they had looked to their arms and horses, confessed + themselves to the priests, with whom their camp was thronged, and received + the sacrament by thousands at a time. + </p> + <p> + On Saturday, the 14th of October, was fought the great battle. + </p> + <p> + It is not difficult to compose a narrative of its principal incidents, + from the historical information which we possess, especially if aided by + an examination of the ground. But it is far better to adopt the + spirit-stirring words of the old chroniclers, who wrote while the + recollections of the battle were yet fresh, and while the feelings and + prejudices of the combatants yet glowed in the bosoms of their near + descendants. Robert Wace, the Norman poet, who presented his "Roman de + Rou" to our Henry II., is the most picturesque and animated of the old + writers; and from him we can obtain a more vivid and full description of + the conflict, than even the most brilliant romance-writer of the present + time can supply. We have also an antique memorial of the battle, more to + be relied on than either chronicler or poet (and which confirms Wace's + narrative remarkably), in the celebrated Bayeux tapestry, which represents + the principal scenes of Duke William's expedition, and of the + circumstances connected with it, in minute though occasionally grotesque + details, and which was undoubtedly the production of the same age in which + the battle took place; whether we admit or reject the legend that Queen + Matilda and the ladies of her court wrought it with their own hands in + honour of the royal Conqueror. + </p> + <p> + Let us therefore suffer the old Norman chronicler to transport our + imaginations to the fair Sussex scenery, north-west of Hastings, with its + breezy uplands, its grassy slopes, and ridges of open down swelling inland + from the sparkling sea, its scattered copses, and its denser glades of + intervening forests, clad in all the varied tints of autumn, as they + appeared on the morning of the fourteenth of October, seven hundred and + eighty-five years ago. The Norman host is pouring forth from its tents; + and each troop, and each company, is forming fast under the banner of its + leader. The masses have been sung, which were finished betimes in the + morning; the barons have all assembled round Duke William; and the Duke + has ordered that the army shall be formed in three divisions, so as to + make the attack upon the Saxon position in three places. The Duke stood on + a hill where he could best see his men; the barons surrounded him, and he + spake to them proudly. He told them how he trusted them, and how all that + he gained should be theirs; and how sure he felt of conquest, for in all + the world there was not so brave an army or such good men and true as were + then forming around him. Then they cheered him in turn, and cried out, + "'You will not see one coward; none here will fear to die for love of you, + if need be.' And he answered them, 'I thank you well. For God's sake spare + not; strike hard at the beginning; stay not to take spoil; all the booty + shall be in common, and there will be plenty for everyone. There will be + no safety in asking quarter or in fight: the English will never love or + spare a Norman. Felons they were, and felons they are; false they were, + and false they will be. Show no weakness towards them, for they will have + no pity on you. Neither the coward for running well, nor the bold man for + smiting well, will be the better liked by the English, nor will any be the + more spared on either account. You may fly to the sea, but you can fly no + further; you will find neither ships nor bridge there; there will be no + sailors to receive you; and the English will overtake you there and slay + you in your shame. More of you will die in flight than in the battle. + Then, as flight will not secure you, fight, and you will conquer. I have + no doubt of the victory: we are come for glory, the victory is in our + hands, and we may make sure of obtaining it if we so please.' As the Duke + was speaking thus, and would yet have spoken more, William Fitz Osber rode + up with his horse all coated with iron: 'Sire,' said he, 'we tarry here + too long, let us all arm ourselves. ALLONS! ALLONS!' + </p> + <p> + "Then all went to their tents and armed themselves as they best might; and + the Duke was very busy, giving every one his orders; and he was courteous + to all the vassals, giving away many arms and horses to them. When he + prepared to arm himself, he called first for his good hauberk, and a man + brought it on his arm, and placed it before him, but in putting his head + in, to get it on, he unawares turned it the wrong way, with the back part + in front. He soon changed it, but when he saw that those who stood by were + sorely alarmed, he said, 'I have seen many a man who, if such a thing had + happened to him, would not have borne arms, or entered the field the same + day; but I never believed in omens, and I never will. I trust in God, for + He does in all things His pleasure, and ordains what is to come to pass, + according to His will. I have never liked fortune-tellers, nor believed in + diviners; but I commend myself to our Lady. Let not this mischance give + you trouble. The hauberk which was turned wrong, and then set right by me, + signifies that a change will arise out of the matter which we are now + stirring. You shall see the name of duke changed into king. Yea, a king + shall I be, who hitherto have been but duke.' Then he crossed himself and + straightway took his hauberk, stooped his head, and put it on aright, and + laced his helmet, and girt on his sword, which a varlet brought him. Then + the Duke called for his good horse—a better could not be found. It + had been sent him by a king of Spain, out of very great friendship. + Neither arms nor the press of fighting men did it fear, if its lord + spurred it on. Walter Giffard brought it. The Duke stretched out his hand, + took the reins, put foot in stirrup, and mounted; and the good horse + pawed, pranced, reared himself up, and curvetted. The Viscount of Toarz + saw how the Duke bore himself in arms, and said to his people that were + around him, 'Never have I seen a man so fairly armed, nor one who rods so + gallantly, or bore his arms or became his hauberk so well; neither any one + who bore his lance so gracefully, or sat his horse and managed him so + nobly. There is no such knight under heaven! a fair count he is, and fair + king he will be. Let him fight, and he shall overcome: shame be to the man + who shall fail him.' + </p> + <p> + "Then the Duke called for the standard which the Pope had sent him, and he + who bore it having unfolded it, the Duke took it, and, called to Raol de + Conches. 'Bear my standard,' said he, 'for I would not but do you right; + by right and by ancestry your line are standard-bearers of Normandy, and + very good knights have they all been.' But Raol said that he would serve + the Duke that day in other guise, and would fight the English with his + hand as long as life should last. Then the Duke bade Galtier Giffart bear + the standard. But he was old and white-headed, and bade the Duke give the + standard to some younger and stronger man to carry. Then the Duke said + fiercely, 'By the splendour of God, my lords, I think you mean to betray + and fail me in this great need.'—'Sire,' said Giffart, 'not so! we + have done no treason, nor do I refuse from any felony towards you; but I + have to lead a great chivalry, both hired men and the men of my fief. + Never had I such good means of serving you as I now have; and if God + please, I will serve you; if need be, I will die for you, and will give my + own heart for yours. + </p> + <p> + "'By my faith,' quoth the Duke, 'I always loved thee, and now I love thee + more; if I survive this day, thou shalt be the better for it all thy + days.' Then he called out a knight, whom he had heard much praised, + Tosteins Fitz-Rou le Blanc by name, whose abode was at Bec-en-Caux. To him + he delivered the standard; and Tosteins took it right cheerfully, and + bowed low to him in thanks, and bore it gallantly, and with good heart. + His kindred still have quittance of all service for their inheritance on + that account, and their heirs are entitled so to hold their inheritance + for ever. + </p> + <p> + "William sat on his war-horse, and called on Rogier, whom they call De + Mongomeri. 'I rely much upon you,' said he: 'lead your men thitherward, + and attack them from that side. William, the son of Osber the seneschal, a + right good vassal, shall go with you and help in the attack, and you shall + have the men of Boulogne and Poix, and all my soldiers. Alain Fergert and + Ameri shall attack on the other side; they shall lead the Poitevins and + the Bretons, and all the Barons of Maine; and I, with my own great men, my + friends and kindred, will fight in the middle throng, where the battle + shall be the hottest.' + </p> + <p> + "The barons, and knights, and men-at-arms were all now armed; the + foot-soldiers were well equipped, each bearing bow and sword; on their + heads were caps, and to their feet were bound buskins. Some had good hides + which they had bound round their bodies; and many were clad in frocks, and + had quivers and bows hung to their girdles. The knights had hauberks and + swords, boots of steel and shining helmets; shields at their necks, and in + their hands lances. And all had their cognizances, so that each might know + his fellow, and Norman might not strike Norman, nor Frenchman kill his + countryman by mistake. Those on foot led the way, with serried ranks, + bearing their bows. The knights rode next, supporting the archers from + behind. Thus both horse and foot kept their course and order of march as + they began; in close ranks at a gentle pace, that the one might not pass + or separate from the other. All went firmly and compactly, bearing + themselves gallantly. + </p> + <p> + "Harold had summoned his men, earls, barons, and vavassours, from, the + castles and the cities; from the ports, the villages, and boroughs. The + peasants were also called together from the villages, bearing such arms as + they found; clubs and great picks, iron forge and stages. The English had + enclosed the place where Harold was, with his friends and the barons of + the country whom he had summoned and called together. + </p> + <p> + "Those of London had come at once, and those of Kent, Hartfort, and of + Essesse; those of Suree and Susesse, of St. Edmund and Sufoc; of Norwis + and Norfoc; of Cantorbierre and Stanfort Bedefort and Hundetone. The men + of Northanton also came; and those of Eurowic and Bokingkeham, of Bed and + Notinkeham, Lindesie and Nichole. There came also from the west all, who + heard the summons; and very many were to be seen coming from Salebiere and + Dorset, from Bat and from Somerset. Many came, too, from about Glocestre, + and many from Wirecestre, from Wincestre, Hontesire, and Brichesire; and + many more from other counties that we have not named, and cannot indeed + recount. All who could bear arms, and had learnt the news of the Duke's + arrival, came to defend the land. But none came from beyond Humbre, for + they had other business upon their hands; the Danes and Tosti having much + damaged and weakened them. + </p> + <p> + "Harold knew that the Normans would come and attack him hand to hand; so + he had early enclosed the field in which he placed his men. He made them + arm early, and range themselves for the battle; he himself having put on + arms and equipments that became such a lord. The Duke, he said, ought to + seek him, as he wanted to conquer England; and it became him to abide the + attack who had to defend the land. He commanded the people, and counselled + his barons to keep themselves altogether, and defend themselves in a body; + for if they once separated, they would with difficulty recover themselves. + 'The Normans,' he said, 'are good vassals, valiant on foot and on + horseback; good knights are they on horseback, and well used to battle; + all is lost if they once penetrate our ranks. They have brought long + lances and swords, but you have pointed lances and keen-edged bills; and I + do not expect that their arms can stand against yours. Cleave wherever you + can; it will be ill done if you spare aught.' + </p> + <p> + "The English had built up a fence before them with their shields, and with + ash and other wood; and had well joined and wattled in the whole work, so + as not to leave even a crevice; and thus they had a barricade in their + front, through which any Norman who would attack them must first pass. + Being covered in this way by their shields and barricades, their aim was + to defend themselves: and if they had remained steady for that purpose, + they would not have been conquered that day; for every Norman who made his + way in, lost his life, either by hatchet, or bill, by club, or other + weapons. They wore short and close hauberks, and helmets that hung over + their garments. King Harold issued orders and made proclamation round, + that all should be ranged with their faces towards the enemy; and that no + one should move from where he was; so that, whoever came, might find them + ready; and that whatever any one, be he Norman or other, should do, each + should do his best to defend his own place. Then he ordered the men of + Kent to go where the Normans were likely to make the attack; for they say + that the men of Kent are entitled to strike first; and that whenever the + king goes to battle, the first blow belongs to them. The right of the men + of London is to guard the king's body, to place themselves around him, and + to guard his standard; and they were accordingly placed by the standard to + watch and defend it. + </p> + <p> + "When Harold had made his reply, and given his orders, he came into the + midst of the English, and dismounted by the side of the standard: Leofwin + and Gurth, his brothers, were with him, and around him he had barons + enough, as he stood by his standard, which was in truth a noble one, + sparkling with gold and precious stones. After the victory, William sent + it to the Pope, to prove and commemorate his great conquest and glory. The + English stood in close ranks, ready and eager for the fight; and they + moreover made a fosse, which went across the field, guarding one side of + their army, + </p> + <p> + "Meanwhile the Normans appeared advancing over the ridge of a rising + ground; and the first division of their troops moved onwards along the + hill and across a vallley. And presently another division, still larger, + came in sight, close following upon the first, and they were led towards + another part of the field, forming together as the first body had done. + And while Harold saw and examined them, and was pointing them out to + Gurth, a fresh company came in sight, covering all the plain; and in the + midst of them was raised the standard that came from Rome. Near it was the + Duke, and the best men and greatest strength of the army were there. The + good knights, the good vassals, and brave warriors were there; and there + were gathered together the gentle barons, the good archers, and the + men-at-arms, whose duty it was to guard the Duke, and range themselves + around him. The youths and common herd of the camp, whose business was not + to join in the battle, but to take care of the harness and stores, moved + on towards a rising ground. The priests and the clerks also ascended a + hill, there to offer up prayers to God, and watch the event of the battle. + </p> + <p> + "The English stood firm on foot in close ranks, and carried themselves + right boldly. Each man had his hauberk on, with his sword girt, and his + shield at his neck. Great hatchets were also slung at their necks, with + which they expected to strike heavy blows. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans brought on the three divisions of their army to attack at + different places. They set out in three companies, and in three companies + did they fight. The first and second had come up, and then advanced the + third, which was the greatest; with that came the Duke with his own men, + and all moved boldly forward. + </p> + <p> + "As soon as the two armies were in full view of each other, great noise + and tumult arose. You might hear the sound of many trumpets, of bugles, + and of horns: and then you might see men ranging themselves in line, + lifting their shields, raising their lances, bending their bows, handling + their arrows, ready for assault and defence. + </p> + <p> + "The English stood ready to their post, the Normans still moved on; and + when they drew near, the English were to be seen stirring to and fro; were + going and coming; troops ranging themselves in order; some with their + colour rising, others turning pale; some making ready their arms, others + raising their shields; the brave man rousing himself to fight, the coward + trembling at the approach of danger. + </p> + <p> + "Then Taillefer, who sang right well, rode mounted on a swift horse, + before the Duke, singing of Charlemagne and of Roland, of Olivier and the + Peers who died in Roncesvalles, and when they drew nigh to the English, 'A + boon, sire!' cried Taillefer; 'I have long served you, and you owe me for + all such service. To-day, so please you, you shall repay it. I ask as my + guerdon, and beseech you for it earnestly, that you will allow me to + strike the first blow in the battle!' And the Duke answered, 'I grant it.' + Then Taillefer put his horse to a gallop, charging before all the rest, + and struck an Englishman dead, driving his lance below the breast into his + body, and stretching him upon the ground. Then he drew his sword, and + struck another, crying out, 'Come on, come on! What do ye, sirs! lay on, + lay on!' At the second blow he struck, the English pushed forward, and + surrounded and slew him. Forthwith arose the noise and cry of war, and on + either side the people put themselves in motion. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans moved on to the assault, and the English defended themselves + well. Some were striking, others urging onwards; all were bold, and cast + aside fear. And now, behold, that battle was gathered, whereof the fame is + yet mighty. + </p> + <p> + "Loud and far resounded the bray of the horns; and the shocks of the + lances, the mighty strokes of maces, and the quick clashing of swords. One + while the Englishmen rushed on, another while they fell back; one while + the men from over the sea charged onwards, and again at other times + retreated. The Normans shouted 'Dex aie,' the English people 'Out.' Then + came the cunning manoeuvres, the rude shocks and strokes of the lance and + blows of the swords, among the sergeants and soldiers, both English and + Norman. + </p> + <p> + "When the English fall, the Normans shout. Each side taunts and defies the + other, yet neither knoweth what the other saith; and the Normans say the + English bark, because they understand not their speech. + </p> + <p> + "Some wax strong, others weak: the brave exult, but the cowards tremble, + as men who are sore dismayed. The Normans press on the assault, and the + English defend their post well: they pierce the hauberks, and cleave the + shields, receive and return mighty blows. Again, some press forwards, + others yield; and thus in various ways the struggle proceeds. In the plain + was a fosse, which the Normans had now behind them, having passed it in + the fight without regarding it. But the English charged, and drove the + Normans before them till they made them fall back upon this fosse, + overthrowing into it horses and men. Many were to be seen falling therein, + rolling one over the other, with their faces to the earth, and unable to + rise. Many of the English, also, whom the Normans drew down along with + them, died there. At no time during the day's battle did so many Normans + die as perished in that fosse. So those said who saw the dead. + </p> + <p> + "The varlets who were set to guard the harness began to abandon it as they + saw the loss of the Frenchmen, when thrown back upon the fosse without + power to recover themselves. Being greatly alarmed at seeing the + difficulty in restoring order, they began to quit the harness, and sought + around, not knowing where to find shelter. Then Duke William's brother, + Odo, the good priest, the Bishop of Bayeux, galloped up, and said to them, + 'Stand fast! stand fast! be quiet and move not! fear nothing, for if God + please, we shall conquer yet.' So they took courage, and rested where they + were; and Odo returned galloping back to where the battle was most fierce, + and was of great service on that day. He had put hauberk on, over a white + aube, wide in the body, with the sleeve tight; and sat on a white horse, + so that all might recognise him. In his hand he held a mace, and wherever + he saw most need he held up and stationed the knights, and often urged + them on to assault and strike the enemy. + </p> + <p> + "From nine o'clock in the morning, when the combat began, till three + o'clock came, the battle was up and down, this way and that, and no one + knew who would conquer and win the land. Both sides stood so firm and + fought so well, that no one could guess which would prevail. The Norman + archers with their bows shot thickly upon the English; but they covered + themselves with their shields, so that the arrows could not reach their + bodies, nor do any mischief, how true soever was their aim, or however + well they shot. Then the Normans determined to shoot their arrows upwards + into the air, so that they might fall on their enemies' heads, and strike + their faces. The archers adopted this scheme, and shot up into the air + towards the English; and the arrows in falling struck their heads and + faces, and put out the eyes of many; and all feared to open their eyes, or + leave their faces unguarded. + </p> + <p> + "The arrows now flew thicker than rain before the wind; fast sped the + shafts that the English called 'wibetes.' Then it was that an arrow, that + had been thus shot upwards, struck Harold above his right eye and put it + out. In his agony he drew the arrow and threw it away, breaking it with + his hands; and the pain to his head was so great, that he leaned upon his + shield. So the English were wont to say, and still say to the French, that + the arrow was well shot which was so sent up against their king; and that + the archer won them great glory, who thus put out Harold's eye. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans saw that the English defended themselves well, and were so + strong in their position that they could do little against them. So they + consulted together privily, and arranged to draw off, and pretend to flee, + till the English should pursue and scatter themselves over the field; for + they saw that if they could once get their enemies to break: their ranks, + they might be attacked and discomfited much more easily. As they had said, + so they did. The Normans by little and little fled, the English following + them. As the one fell back, the other pressed after; and when the + Frenchmen retreated, the English thought and cried out that the men of + France fled, and would never return. + </p> + <p> + "Thus they were deceived by the pretended flight, and great mischief + thereby befell them; for if they had not moved from their position, it is + not likely that they would have been conquered at all; but like fools they + broke their lines and pursued. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans were to be seen following up their stratagem, retreating + slowly so as to draw the English further on. As they still flee, the + English pursue; they push out their lances and stretch forth their + hatchets: following the Normans, as they go rejoicing in the success of + their scheme, and scattering themselves over the plain. And the English + meantime jeered and insulted their foes with words. 'Cowards,' they cried, + 'you came hither in an evil hour, wanting our lands, and seeking to seize + our property, fools that ye were to come! Normandy is too far off and you + will not easily reach it. It is of little use to run back; unless you can + cross the sea at a leap, or can drink it dry, your sons and daughters are + lost to you. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans bore it all, but in fact they knew not what the English said: + their language seemed like the baying of dogs, which they could not + understand. At length they stopped and turned round, determined to recover + their ranks; and the barons might be heard crying 'Dex aie!' for a halt. + Then the Normans resumed their former position, turning their faces + towards the enemy; and their men were to be seen facing round and rushing + onwards to a fresh MELEE; the one party assaulting the other; this man + striking, another pressing onwards. One hits, another misses; one flies, + another pursues; one is aiming a stroke, while another discharges his + blow. Norman strives with Englishman again, and aims his blows afresh. One + flies, another pursues swiftly: the combatants are many, the plain wide, + the battle and the MELEE fierce. On every hand they fight hard, the blows + are heavy, and the struggle becomes fierce. + </p> + <p> + "The Normans were playing their part well, when an English knight came + rushing up, having in his company a hundred men, furnished with various + arms. He wielded a northern hatchet, with the blade a full foot long; and + was well armed after his manner, being tall, bold, and of noble carriage. + In the front of the battle where the Normans thronged most, he came + bounding on swifter than the stag, many Normans falling before him and his + company. He rushed straight upon a Norman who was armed and riding on a + war-horse, and tried with, his hatchet of steel to cleave his helmet; but + the blow miscarried and the sharp blade glanced down before the + saddle-bow, driving through the horse's neck down to the ground, so that + both horse and master fell together to the earth. I know not whether the + Englishman struck another blow; but the Normans who saw the stroke were + astonished and about to abandon the assault, when Roger de Mongomeri came + galloping up, with his lance set, and heeding not the long-handled axe, + which the English-man wielded aloft, struck him down, and left him + stretched upon the ground. Then Roger cried out, 'Frenchmen, strike! the + day is ours!' and again a fierce MELEE was to be seen, with many a blow of + lance and sword; the English still defending themselves, killing the + horses and cleaving the shields. + </p> + <p> + "There was a French soldier of noble mien, who sat his horse gallantly. He + spied two Englishmen who were also carrying themselves boldly. They were + both men of great worth, and had become companions in arms and fought + together, the one protecting the other. They bore two long and broad + bills, and did great mischief to the Normans, killing both horses and men. + The French soldier looked at them and their bills, and was sore alarmed, + for he was afraid of losing his good horse, the best that he had; and + would willingly have turned to some other quarter, if it would not have + looked like cowardice. He soon, however, recovered his courage, and + spurring his horse gave him the bridle, and galloped swiftly forward. + Fearing the two bills, he raised his shield, and struck one of the + Englishmen with his lance on the breast, so that the iron passed out at + his back; at the moment that he fell the lance broke, and the Frenchmen + seized the mace that hung at his right side, and struck the other + Englishman a blow that completely broke his skull. + </p> + <p> + "On the other side was an Englishman who much annoyed the French, + continually assaulting them with a keen-edged hatchet. He had a helmet + made of wood, which he had fastened down to his coat, and laced round his + neck, so that no blows could reach his head. The ravage he was making was + seen by a gallant Norman knight, who rode a horse that neither fire nor + water could stop in its career, when its master urged it on. The knight + spurred, and his horse carried him on well till he charged the Englishman, + striking him over the helmet, so that it fell down over his eyes; and as + he stretched out his hand to raise it and uncover the face, the Norman cut + off his right hand, so that his hatchet fell to the ground. Another Norman + sprang forward and eagerly seized the prize with both his hands, but he + kept it little space, and paid dearly for it, for as he stooped to pick up + the hatchet, an Englishman with his long-handled axe struck him over the + back, breaking all his bones, so that his entrails and lungs gushed forth. + The knight of the good horse meantime returned without injury; but on his + way he met another Englishman, and bore him down under his his horse, + wounding him grievously, and trampling him altogether under foot. + </p> + <p> + "And now might be heard the loud clang and cry of battle, and the clashing + of lances. The English stood firm in their barricades, and shivered the + lances, beating them into pieces with their bills and maces. The Normans + drew their swords, and hewed down the barricades, and the English in great + trouble fell back upon their standard, where were collected the maimed and + wounded. + </p> + <p> + "There were many knights of Chauz, who jousted and made attacks. The + English knew not how to joust, or bear arms on horseback but fought with + hatchets and bills. A man when he wanted to strike with one of their + hatchets, was obliged to hold it with both his hands, and could not at the + same time, as it seems to me, both cover himself and strike with any + freedom. + </p> + <p> + "The English fell back towards the standard, which was upon a rising + ground, and the Normans followed them across the valley, attacking them on + foot and horseback. Then Hue de Mortemer, with the sires D'Auviler, + D'Onebac, and St. Cler, rode up and charged, overthrowing many. + </p> + <p> + "Robert Fitz Erneis fixed his lance, took his shield, and, galloping + towards the standard, with his keen-edged sword struck an Englishman who + was in front, killed him, and then drawing back his sword, attacked many + others, and pushed straight for the standard, trying to beat it down, but + the English surrounded it, and killed him with their bills. He was found + on the spot, when they afterwards sought for him, dead, and lying at the + standard's foot. + </p> + <p> + "Duke William pressed close upon the English with his lance; striving hard + to reach the standard with the great troop he led; and seeking earnestly + for Harold, on whose account the whole war was. The Normans follow their + lord, and press around him; they ply their blows upon the English; and + these defend themselves stoutly, striving hard with their enemies, + returning blow for blow. + </p> + <p> + "One of them was a man of great strength, a wrestler, who did great + mischief to the Normans with his hatchet; all feared him, for he struck + down a great many Normans. The Duke spurred on his horse, and aimed a blow + at him, but he stooped, and so escaped the stroke; then jumping on one + side, he lifted his hatchet aloft, and as the Duke bent to avoid the blow + the Englishman boldly struck him on the head, and beat in his helmet, + though without doing much injury. He was very near falling, however, but + bearing on his stirrups he recovered himself immediately; and when he + thought to have revenged himself upon the churl by killing him, he had + escaped, dreading the Duke's blow. He ran back in among the English, but + he was not safe even there; for the Normans seeing him, pursued and caught + him; and having pierced him through and through with their lances, left + him dead on the ground. + </p> + <p> + "Where the throng of the battle was greatest, the men of Kent and Essex + fought wondrously well, and made the Normans again retreat, but without + doing them much injury. And when the Duke saw his men fall back and the + English triumphing over them, his spirit rose high, and he seized his + shield and his lance, which a vassal handed to him, and took his post by + his standard. + </p> + <p> + "Then those who kept close guard by him and rode where he rode, being + about a thousand armed men, came and rushed with closed ranks upon the + English; and with the weight of their good horses, and the blows the + knights gave, broke the press of the enemy, and scattered the crowd before + them, the good Duke leading them on in front. Many pursued and many fled; + many were the Englishmen who fell around, and were trampled under the + horses, crawling upon the earth, and not able to rise. Many of the richest + and noblest men fell in that rout, but the English still rallied in + places; smote down those whom they reached, and maintained the combat the + best they could; beating down the men and killing the horses. One + Englishman watched the Duke, and plotted to kill him; he would have struck + him with his lance, but he could not, for the Duke struck him first, and + felled him to the earth. + </p> + <p> + "Loud was now the clamour, and great the slaughter; many a soul then + quitted the body it inhabited. The living marched over the heaps of dead, + and each side was weary of striking. He charged on who could, and he who + could no longer strike still pushed forward. The strong struggled with the + strong; some failed, others triumphed; the cowards fell back, the brave + pressed on; and sad was his fate who fell in the midst, for he had little + chance of rising again; and many in truth fell, who never rose at all, + being crushed under the throng. + </p> + <p> + "And now the Normans pressed on so far, that at last they had reached the + standard. There Harold had remained, defending himself to the utmost; but + he was sorely wounded in his eye by the arrow, and suffered grievous pain + from the blow. An armed man came in the throng of the battle, and struck + him on the ventaille of his helmet, and beat him to the ground; and as he + sought to recover himself, a knight beat him down again, striking him on + the thick of his thigh, down to the bone. + </p> + <p> + "Gurth saw the English falling around, and that there was no remedy. He + saw his race hastening to ruin, and despaired of any aid; he would have + fled but could not, for the throng continually increased and the Duke + pushed on till he reached him, and struck him with great force. Whether he + died of that blow I know not, but it was said that he fell under it, and + rose no more. + </p> + <p> + "The standard was beaten down, the golden standard was taken, and Harold + and the best of his friends were slain; but there was so much eagerness, + and throng of so many around, seeking to kill him, that I know not who it + was that slew him. + </p> + <p> + "The English were in great trouble at having lost their king, and at the + Duke's having conquered and beat down the standard; but they still fought + on, and defended themselves long, and in fact till the day drew to a + close. Then it clearly appeared to all that the standard was lost, and the + news had spread throughout the army that Harold for certain was dead; and + all saw that there was no longer any hope, so they left the field, and + those fled who could. + </p> + <p> + "William fought well; many an assault did he lead, many a blow did he + give, and many receive, and many fell dead under his hand. Two horses were + killed under him, and he took a third at time of need, so that he fell not + to the ground; and he lost not a drop of blood. But whatever any one did, + and whoever lived or died, this is certain, that William conquered, and + that many of the English fled from the field, and many died on the spot. + Then he returned thanks to God, and in his pride ordered his standard to + be brought and set up on high where the English standard had stood; and + that was the signal of his having conquered and beaten down the foe. And + he ordered his tent to be raised on the spot among the dead, and had his + meat brought thither, and his supper prepared there. + </p> + <p> + "Then he took off his armour; and the barons and knights, pages and + squires came, when he had unstrung his shield: and they took the helmet + from his head, and the hauberk from his back, and saw the heavy blows upon + his shield, and how his helmet was dinted in. And all greatly wondered, + and said, 'Such a baron never bestrode war-horse, or dealt such blows, or + did such feats of arms; neither has there been on earth such a knight + since Rollant and Olivier.' + </p> + <p> + "Thus they lauded and extolled him greatly, and rejoiced in what they saw; + but grieving also for their friends who were slain in the battle. And the + Duke stood meanwhile among them of noble stature and mien; and rendered + thanks to the King of Glory, through whom he had the victory; and thanked + the knights around him, mourning also frequently for the dead. And he ate + and drank among the dead, and made his bed that night upon the field. + </p> + <p> + "The morrow was Sunday; and those who had slept upon the field of battle, + keeping watch around, and suffering great fatigue, bestirred themselves at + break of day and sought out and buried such of the bodies of their dead + friends as they might find. The noble ladies of the land also came, some + to seek their husbands, and others their fathers, sons, or brothers. They + bore the bodies to their villages, and interred them at the churches; and + the clerks and priests of the country were ready, and at the request of + their friends, took the bodies that were found, and prepared graves and + laid them therein. + </p> + <p> + "King Harold was carried and buried at Varham; but I know not who it was + that bore him thither, neither do I know who buried him. Many remained on + the field, and many had fled in the night." + </p> + <p> + Such is a Norman account of the battle of Hastings, which does full + justice to the valour of the Saxons, as well as to the skill and bravery + of the victors. [In the preceding pages, I have woven together the + "purpureos pannos" of the old chronicler. In so doing, I have largely + availed myself of Mr. Edgar Taylor's version of that part of the "Roman de + Rou" which describes the conquest. By giving engravings from the Bayeux + Tapestry, and excellent notes, Mr. Taylor has added much to the value and + interest of his volume.] It is indeed evident that the loss of the battle + to the English was owing to the wound which Harold received in the + afternoon, and which must have incapacitated him from effective command. + When we remember that he had himself just won the battle of Stamford + Bridge over Harald Hardrada by the manoeuvre of a feigned flight, it is + impossible to suppose that he could be deceived by the same stratagem on + the part of the Normans at Hastings. But his men, when deprived of his + control would very naturally be led by their inconsiderate ardour into the + pursuit that proved so fatal to them. All the narratives of the battle, + however much they may vary as to the precise time and manner of Harold's + fall, eulogise the generalship and the personal prowess which he + displayed, until the fatal arrow struck him. The skill with which he had + posted his army was proved, both by the slaughter which it cost the + Normans to force the position, and also by the desperate rally which some + of the Saxons made, after the battle, in the forest in the rear, in which + they cut off a large number of the pursuing Normans. This circumstance is + particularly mentioned by William of Poictiers, the Conqueror's own + chaplain. Indeed, if Harold, or either of his brothers, had survived, the + remains of the English army might have formed again in the wood, and could + at least have effected an orderly retreat, and prolonged the war. But both + Gurth and Leofwine, and all the bravest thanes of Southern England, lay + dead on Senlac, around their fallen king and the fallen standard of their + country. The exact number of the slain on the Saxon side is unknown; but + we read that on the side of the victors, out of sixty thousand men who had + been engaged, no less than a fourth perished: so well had the English + bill-men "plied the ghastly blow" and so sternly had the Saxon battle-axe + cloven Norman casque and mail. [The Conqueror's chaplain calls the Saxon + battle-axes "saevissimas secures."] The old historian Daniel justly as + well as forcibly remarks, [As cited in the "Pictorial History."] "Thus was + tried, by the great assize of God's judgment in battle, the right of power + between the English and Norman nations; a battle the most memorable of all + others; and, however miserably lost, yet most nobly fought on the part of + England." + </p> + <p> + Many a pathetic legend was told in after years respecting the discovery + and the burial of the corpse of our last Saxon king. The main + circumstances, though they seem to vary, are perhaps reconcilable. [See + them collected in Lingard, vol. i p. 452, ET SEQ.; Thierry, vol i. p. 299; + Sharon Turner, Vol. i. p. 82; and Histoire de Normandie par Lieguet, p. + 242.] Two of the monks of Waltham abbey, which Harold had founded a little + time before his election to the throne, had accompanied him to the battle. + On the morning after the slaughter they begged and gained permission of + the Conqueror to search for the body of their benefactor. The Norman + soldiery and camp-followers had stripped and gashed the slain; and the two + monks vainly strove to recognise from among the mutilated and gory heaps + around them the features of their former king. They sent for Harold's + mistress, Edith, surnamed "the Fair" and the "Swan-necked," to aid them. + The eye of love proved keener than the eye of gratitude, and the Saxon + lady, even in that Aceldama, knew her Harold. + </p> + <p> + The king's mother now sought the victorious Norman, and begged the dead + body of her son. But William at first answered in his wrath, and in the + hardness of his heart, that a man who had been false to his word and his + religion should have no other sepulchre than the sand of the shore. He + added, with a sneer, "Harold mounted guard on the coast while he was + alive; he may continue his guard now he is dead." The taunt was an + unintentional eulogy; and a grave washed by the spray of the Sussex waves + would have been the noblest burial-place for the martyr of Saxon freedom. + But Harold's mother was urgent in her lamentations and her prayers: the + Conqueror relented: like Achilles, he gave up the dead body of his fallen + foe to a parent's supplications; and the remains of King Harold were + deposited with regal honours in Waltham Abbey. + </p> + <p> + On Christmas day of the same year, William the Conqueror was crowned at + London, King of England. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS, A.D. 1066, AND JOAN OF + ARC'S VICTORY AT ORLEANS, 1429. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1066-1087. Reign of William the Conqueror. Frequent risings of the + English against him, which are quelled with merciless rigour. + </p> + <p> + 1096. The first Crusade. + </p> + <p> + 1112. Commencement of the disputes about investitures between the emperors + and the popes. + </p> + <p> + 1140. Foundation of the city of Lubeck, whence originated the Hanseatic + League. Commencement of the feuds in Italy between the Guelphs and + Ghibellines. + </p> + <p> + 1146. The second Crusade. + </p> + <p> + 1154. Henry II. becomes King of England. Under him Thomas a Becket is made + Archbishop of Canterbury: the first instance of any man of the Saxon race + being raised to high office in Church or State since the Conquest. + </p> + <p> + 1170. Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, lands with an English army in Ireland. + </p> + <p> + 1189. Richard Coeur de Lion becomes King of England. He and King Philip + Augustus of France join in the third Crusade. + </p> + <p> + 1199-1204. On the death of King Richard, his brother John claims and makes + himself master of England and Normandy and the other large continental + possessions of the early Plantagenet princes. Philip Augustus asserts the + cause of Prince Arthur, John's nephew, against him. Arthur is murdered, + but the French king continues the war against John, and conquers from him + Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and Poictiers. + </p> + <p> + 1216. The barons, the freeholders, the citizens, and the yeomen of England + rise against the tyranny of John and his foreign favourites. They compel + him to sign Magna Charta. This is the commencement of our nationality: for + our history from this time forth is the history of a national life, then + complete, and still in being. All English history before this period is a + mere history of elements, of their collisions, and of the processes of + their fusion. For upwards of a century after the Conquest, Anglo-Norman + and Anglo-Saxon had kept aloof from each other: the one in haughty scorn, + the other in sullen abhorrence. They were two peoples, though living in + the same land. It is not until the thirteenth century, the period of the + reigns of John and his son and grandson, that we can perceive the + existence of any feeling of common patriotism among them. But in studying + the history of these reigns, we read of the old dissensions no longer. The + Saxon no more appears in civil war against the Norman; the Norman no + longer scorns the language of the Saxon, or refuses to bear together with + him the name of Englishman. No part of the community think themselves + foreigners to another part. They feel that they are all one people, and + they have learned to unite their efforts for the common purpose of + protecting the rights and promoting the welfare of all. The fortunate loss + of the Duchy of Normandy in John's reign greatly promoted these new + feelings. Thenceforth our barons' only homes were in England. One language + had, in the reign of Henry III., become the language of the land; and + that, also, had then assumed the form in which we still possess it. One + law, in the eye of which all freemen are equal without distinction of + race, was modelled, and steadily enforced, and still continues to form the + groundwork of our judicial system. [Creasy's Text-book of the + Constitution, p. 4.] + </p> + <p> + 1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg chosen Emperor of Germany. + </p> + <p> + 1283. Edward I. conquers Wales. + </p> + <p> + 1346. Edward III. invades France, and gains the battle of Cressy. + </p> + <p> + 1356. Battle of Poictiers. + </p> + <p> + 1360. Treaty of Bretigny between England and France. By it Edward III. + renounces his pretensions to the French crown. The treaty is ill kept, and + indecisive hostilities continue between the forces of the two countries. + </p> + <p> + 1414. Henry V. of England claims the crown of France, and resolves to + invade and conquer that kingdom. At this time France was in the most + deplorable state of weakness and suffering, from the factions that raged + among her nobility, and from the cruel oppressions which the rival nobles + practised on the mass of the community. "The people were exhausted by + taxes, civil wars, and military executions; and they had fallen into that + worst of all states of mind, when the independence of one's country is + thought no longer a paramount and sacred object. 'What can the English do + to us worse than the things we suffer at the hands of our own princes?' + was a common exclamation among the poor people of France." [Pictorial + Hist. of England, vol. i. p. 28.] + </p> + <p> + 1415. Henry invades France, takes Harfleur, and wins the great battle of + Agincourt. + </p> + <p> + 1417-1419. Henry conquers Normandy. The French Dauphin assassinates the + Duke of Burgundy, the most powerful of the French nobles, at Montereau. + The successor of the murdered duke becomes the active ally of the English. + </p> + <p> + 1420. The Treaty of Troyes is concluded between Henry V. of England and + Charles VI. of France, and Philip, duke of Burgundy. By this treaty it was + stipulated that Henry should marry the Princess Catherine of France; that + King Charles, during his life-time, should keep the title and dignity of + King of France, but that Henry should succeed him, and should at once be + entrusted with the administration of the government, and that the French + crown should descend to Henry's heirs; that France and England should for + ever be united under one king, but should still retain their several + usages, customs, and privileges; that all the princes, peers, vassals, and + communities of France should swear allegiance to Henry as their future + king, and should pay him present obedience as regent; that Henry should + unite his arms to those of King Charles and the Duke of Burgundy, in order + to subdue the adherents of Charles, the pretended dauphin; and that these + three princes should make no truce or peace with the Dauphin, but by the + common consent of all three. + </p> + <p> + 1421. Henry V. gains several victories over the French, who refuse to + acknowledge the treaty of Troyes. His son, afterwards Henry VI., is born. + </p> + <p> + 1422. Henry V. and Charles VI. of France die. Henry VI. is proclaimed at + Paris, King of England and France. The followers of the French Dauphin + proclaim him Charles VII., King of France. The Duke of Bedford, the + English Regent in France, defeats the army of the Dauphin at Crevant. + </p> + <p> + 1424. The Duke of Bedford gains the great victory of Verneuil over the + French partizans of the Dauphin, and their Scotch auxiliaries. + </p> + <p> + 1428. The English begin the siege of Orleans. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. — JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY OVER THE ENGLISH AT ORLEANS, + A.D. + </h2> + <p> + 1429. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The eyes of all Europe were turned towards this scene; where, it + was reasonably supposed, the French were to make their last stand + for maintaining the independence of their monarchy and the rights + of their; sovereign"—HUME. +</pre> + <p> + When, after their victory at Salamis, the generals of the various Greek + states voted the prizes for distinguished individual merit, each assigned + the first place of excellence to himself, but they all concurred in giving + their second votes to Themistocles. [Plutarch, Vit. Them. 17.] This was + looked on as a decisive proof that Themistocles ought to be ranked first + of all. If we were to endeavour, by a similar test, to ascertain which + European nation has contributed the most to the progress of European + civilization, we should find Italy, Germany, England, and Spain, each + claiming the first degree, but each also naming France as clearly next in + merit. It is impossible to deny her paramount importance in history. + Besides the formidable part that she has for nearly three centuries + played, as the Bellona of the European commonwealth of states, her + influence during all this period over the arts, the literature, the + manners and the feelings of mankind, has been such as to make the crisis + of her earlier fortunes a point of world-wide interest; and it may be + asserted without exaggeration, that the future career of every nation was + involved in the result of the struggle by which the unconscious heroine of + France, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, rescued her country + from becoming a second Ireland under the yoke of the triumphant English. + </p> + <p> + Seldom has the extinction of a a nation's independence appeared more + inevitable than was the case in France, when the English invaders + completed their lines round Orleans, four hundred and twenty-three years + ago. A series of dreadful defeats had thinned the chivalry of France, and + daunted the spirits of her soldiers. A foreign King had been proclaimed in + her capital; and foreign armies of the bravest veterans, and led by the + ablest captains then known in the world, occupied the fairest portions of + her territory. Worse to her even than the fierceness and the strength of + her foes were the factions, the vices, and the crimes of her own children. + Her native prince was a dissolute trifler, stained with the assassination + of the most powerful noble of the land, whose son, in revenge, had leagued + himself with the enemy. Many more of her nobility, many of her prelates, + her magistrates, and rulers, had sworn fealty to the English king. The + condition of the peasantry amid the general prevalence of anarchy and + brigandage, which were added to the customary devastations of contending + armies, was wretched beyond the power of language to describe. The sense + of terror and suffering seemed to have extended itself even to the brute + creation. + </p> + <p> + "In sooth, the estate of France was then most miserable. There appeared + nothing but a horrible face, confusion, poverty, desolation, + solitarinesse, and feare. The lean and bare labourers in the country did + terrifie even theeves themselves, who had nothing left them to spoile but + the carkasses of these poore miserable creatures, wandering up and down + like ghostes drawne out of their graves. The least farmes and hamlets were + fortified by these robbers, English, Bourguegnons, and French, every one + striving to do his worst; all men-of-war were well agreed to spoile the + countryman and merchant. EVEN THE CATTELL, ACCUSTOMED TO THE LARUME BELL, + THE SIGNE OF THE ENEMY'S APPROACH, WOULD RUN HOME OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT + ANY GUIDE BY THIS ACCUSTOMED MISERY." [De Serres, quoted in the notes to + Southey's Joan of Arc.] + </p> + <p> + In the autumn of 1428, the English, who were already masters of all France + north of the Loire, prepared their forces for the conquest of the southern + provinces, which yet adhered to the cause of the Dauphin. The city of + Orleans, on the banks of that river, was looked upon as the last + stronghold of the French national party. If the English could once obtain + possession of it, their victorious progress through the residue of the + kingdom seemed free from any serious obstacle. Accordingly, the Earl of + Salisbury, one of the bravest and most experienced of the English + generals, who had been trained under Henry V., marched to the attack of + the all-important city; and, after reducing several places of inferior + consequence in the neighbourhood, appeared with his army before its walls + on the 12th of October, 1428. + </p> + <p> + The city of Orleans itself was on the north side of the Loire, but its + suburbs extended far on the southern side, and a strong bridge connected + them with the town. A fortification which in modern military phrase would + be termed a tete-du-pont, defended the bridge-head on the southern side, + and two towers, called the Tourelles, were built on the bridge itself, + where it rested on an island at a little distance from the tete-du-pont. + Indeed, the solid masonry of the bridge terminated at the Tourelles; and + the communication thence with the tete-du-pont on the southern shore was + by means of a drawbridge. The Tourelles and the tete-du-pont formed + together a strong fortified post, capable of containing a garrison of + considerable strength; and so long as this was in possession of the + Orleannais, they could communicate freely with the southern provinces, the + inhabitants of which, like the Orleannais themselves, supported the cause + of their Dauphin against the foreigners. Lord Salisbury rightly judged the + capture of the Tourelles to be the most material step towards the + reduction of the city itself. Accordingly he directed his principal + operations against this post, and after some severe repulses, he carried + the Tourelles by storm, on the 23d of October. The French, however, broke + down the part of the bridge which was nearest to the north bank and thus + rendered a direct assault from the Tourelles upon the city impossible. But + the possession of this post enabled the English to distress the town + greatly by a battery of cannon which they planted there, and which + commanded some of the principal streets. + </p> + <p> + It has been observed by Hume, that this is the first siege in which any + important use appears to have been made of artillery. And even at Orleans + both besiegers and besieged seem to have employed their cannons more as + instruments of destruction against their enemy's men, than as engines of + demolition against their enemy's walls and works. The efficacy of cannon + in breaching solid masonry was taught Europe by the Turks, a few years + after wards, at the memorable siege of Constantinople. In our French wars, + as in the wars of the classic nations, famine was looked on as the surest + weapon to compel the submission of a well-walled town and the great object + of the besiegers was to effect a complete circumvallation. The great ambit + of the walls of Orleans, and the facilities which the river gave for + obtaining succour and supplies, rendered the capture of the place by this + process a matter of great difficulty. Nevertheless, Lord Salisbury, and + Lord Suffolk, who succeeded him in command of the English after his death + by a cannon-ball, carried on the necessary works with great skill and + resolution. Six strongly fortified posts, called bastillos, were formed at + certain intervals round the town and the purpose of the English engineers + was to draw strong lines between them. During the winter little progress + was made with the entrenchments, but when the spring of 1429 came, the + English resumed their works with activity; the communications between the + city and the country became more difficult, and the approach of want began + already to be felt in Orleans. + </p> + <p> + The besieging force also fared hardly for stores and provisions, until + relieved by the effects of a brilliant victory which Sir John Fastolfe, + one of the best English generals, gained at Rouvrai, near Orleans, a few + days after Ash Wednesday, 1429. With only sixteen hundred fighting men, + Sir John completely defeated an army of French and Scots, four thousand + strong, which had been collected for the purpose of aiding the Orleannais, + and harassing the besiegers. After this encounter, which seemed decisively + to confirm the superiority of the English in battle over their + adversaries, Fastolfe escorted large supplies of stores and food to + Suffolk's camp, and the spirits of the English rose to the highest pitch + at the prospect of the speedy capture of the city before them, and the + consequent subjection of all France beneath their arms. + </p> + <p> + The Orleannais now in their distress offered to surrender the city into + the hands of the Duke of Burgundy, who, though the ally of the English, + was yet one of their native princes. The Regent Bedford refused these + terms, and the speedy submission of the city to the English seemed + inevitable. The Dauphin Charles, who was now at Chinon with his remnant of + a court, despaired of maintaining any longer the struggle for his crown; + and was only prevented from abandoning the country by the more masculine + spirits of his mistress and his queen. Yet neither they, nor the boldest + of Charles's captains, could have shown him where to find resources for + prolonging the war; and least of all could any human skill have predicted + the quarter whence rescue was to come to Orleans and to France. + </p> + <p> + In the village of Domremy, on the borders of Lorraine, there was a poor + peasant of the name of Jacques d'Arc, respected in his station of life, + and who had reared a family in virtuous habits and in the practice of the + strictest devotion. His eldest daughter was named by her parents + Jeannette, but she was called Jeanne by the French, which was Latinised + into Johanna, and anglicised into Joan. ["Respondit quod in partibus suis + vocabatur Johanneta, et postquam venit in Franciam vocata est Johanna."—PROCES + DE JEANNE D'ARC, vol i. p. 46.] + </p> + <p> + At the time when Joan first attracted attention, she was about eighteen + years of age. She was naturally of a susceptible disposition, which + diligent attention to the legends of saints, and tales of fairies, aided + by the dreamy loneliness of her life while tending her father's flocks, + had made peculiarly prone to enthusiastic fervour. At the same time she + was eminent for piety and purity of soul, and for her compassionate + gentleness to the sick and the distressed. + </p> + <p> + [Southey, in one of the speeches which he puts in the mouth of his Joan of + Arc, has made her beautifully describe the effect; on her mind of the + scenery in which she dwelt:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Here in solitude and peace + My soul was nurst, amid the loveliest scenes + Of-unpolluted nature. Sweet it was, + As the white mists of morning roll'd away, + To see the mountain's wooded heights appear + Dark in the early dawn, and mark its slope + With gorse-flowers glowing, as the rising sun + On the golden ripeness pour'd a deepening light. + Pleasant at noon beside the vocal brook + To lay me down, and watch the the floating clouds, + And shape to Fancy's wild similitudes + Their ever-varying forms; and oh, how sweet, + To drive my flock at evening to the fold, + And hasten to our little hut, and hear + The voice of kindness bid me welcome home!" +</pre> + <p> + The only foundation for the story told by the Burgundian partisan + Monstrelet, and adopted by Hume, of Joan having been brought up as servant + at an inn, is the circumstance of her having been once, with the rest of + her family, obliged to take refuge in an AUBERGE in Neufchateau for + fifteen days, when a party of Burgundian cavalry made an incursion into + Domremy. (See the Quarterly Review, No. 138.)] + </p> + <p> + The district where she dwelt had escaped comparatively free from the + ravages of war, but the approach of roving bands of Burgundian or English + troops frequently spread terror through Domremy. Once the village had been + plundered by some of these marauders, and Joan and her family had been + driven from their home, and forced to seek refuge for a time at + Neufchateau. The peasantry in Domremy were principally attached to the + House of Orleans and the Dauphin; and all the miseries which France + endured, were there imputed to the Burgundian faction and their allies, + the English, who were seeking to enslave unhappy France. + </p> + <p> + Thus from infancy to girlhood Joan had heard continually of the woes of + the war, and she had herself witnessed some of the wretchedness that it + caused. A feeling of intense patriotism grew in her with her growth. The + deliverance of France from the English was the subject of her reveries by + day and her dreams by night. Blended with these aspirations were + recollections of the miraculous interpositions of Heaven in favour of the + oppressed, which she had learned from the legends of her Church. Her faith + was undoubting; her prayers were fervent. "She feared no danger, for she + felt no sin;" and at length she believed herself to have received the + supernatural inspiration which, she sought. + </p> + <p> + According to her own narrative, delivered by her to her merciless + inquisitors in the time of her captivity and approaching death, she was + about thirteen years old when her revelations commenced. Her own words + describe them best: [Proces de Jeanne d'Arc, vol. i. p. 52.] "At the age + of thirteen, a voice from God came near to her to help her in ruling + herself, and that voice came to her about the hour of noon, in summer + time, while she was in her father's garden. And she had fasted the day + before. And she heard the voice on her right, in the direction of the + church; and when she heard the voice she also saw a bright light. + Afterwards, St. Michael and St. Margaret and St. Catherine appeared to + her. They were always in a halo of glory; she could see that their heads + were crowned with jewels: and she heard their voices, which were sweet and + mild. She did not distinguish their arms or limbs. She heard them more + frequently than she saw them; and the usual time when she heard them was + when the church bells were sounding for prayer. And if she was in the + woods when she heard them, she could plainly distinguish their voices + drawing near to her. When she thought that she discerned the Heavenly + Voices, she knelt down, and bowed herself to the ground. Their presence + gladdened her even to tears; and after they departed she wept because they + had not taken her with them back to Paradise. They always spoke soothingly + to her. They told her that France would be saved, and that she was to save + it." Such were the visions and the Voices that moved the spirit of the + girl of thirteen; and as she grew older they became more frequent and more + clear. At last the tidings of the siege of Orleans reached Domremy, Joan + heard her parents and neighbours talk of the sufferings of its population, + of the ruin which its capture would bring on their lawful sovereign, and + of the distress of the Dauphin and his court. Joan's heart was sorely + troubled at the thought of the fate of Orleans; and her Voices now ordered + her to leave her home; and warned her that she was the instrument chosen + by Heaven for driving away the English from that city, and for taking the + Dauphin to be anointed king at Rheims. At length she informed her parents + of her divine mission, and told them that she must go to the Sire de + Baudricourt, who commanded at Vaucouleurs, and who was the appointed + person to bring her into the presence of the king, whom she was to save. + Neither the anger nor the grief of her parents, who said that they would + rather see her drowned than exposed to the contamination of the camp, + could move her from her purpose. One of her uncles consented to take her + to Vaucouleurs, where De Baudricourt at first thought her mad, and derided + her; but by degrees was led to believe, if not in her inspiration, at + least in her enthusiasm and in its possible utility to the Dauphin's + cause. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants of Vaucouleurs were completely won over to her side, by + the piety and devoutness which she displayed and by her firm assurance in + the truth of her mission. She told them that it was God's will that she + should go to the King, and that no one but her could save the kingdom of + France. She said that she herself would rather remain with her poor mother + and spin; but the Lord had ordered her forth. The fame of "The Maid," as + she was termed, the renown of her holiness, and of her mission, spread far + and wide. Baudricourt sent her with an escort to Chinon, where the Dauphin + Charles was dallying away his time. Her Voices had bidden her assume the + arms and the apparel of a knight; and the wealthiest inhabitants of + Vaucouleurs had vied with each other in equipping her with warhorse, + armour, and sword. On reaching Chinon, she was, after some delay, admitted + into the presence of the Dauphin. Charles designedly dressed himself far + less richly than many of his courtiers were apparelled, and mingled with + them, when Jean was introduced, in order to see if the Holy Maid would + address her exhortations to the wrong person. But she instantly singled + him out, and kneeling before him, said, "Most noble Dauphin, the King of + Heaven announces to you by me, that you shall be anointed and crowned king + in the city of Rheims, and that you shall be His viceregent in France." + His features may probably have been seen by her previously in portraits, + or have been described to her by others; but she herself believed that her + Voices inspired her when she addressed the King; [Proces de Jeanne d'Arc, + vol. i. p. 56.] and the report soon spread abroad that the Holy Maid had + found the King by a miracle; and this, with many other similar rumours, + augmented the renown and influence that she now rapidly acquired. + </p> + <p> + The state of public feeling in France was not favourable to an + enthusiastic belief in Divine interposition in favour of the party that + had hitherto been unsuccessful and oppressed. The humiliations which had + befallen the French royal family and nobility were looked on as the just + judgments of God upon them for their vice and impiety. The misfortunes + that had come upon France as a nation, were believed to have been drawn + down by national sins. The English, who had been the instruments of + Heaven's wrath against France, seemed now by their pride and cruelty to be + fitting objects of it themselves. France in that age was a profoundly + religious country. There was ignorance, there was superstition there was + bigotry; but there was Faith—a Faith that itself worked true + miracles, even while it believed in unreal ones. At this time, also, one + of those devotional movements began among the clergy in France, which from + time to time occur in national Churches, without it being possible for the + historian to assign any adequate human cause for their immediate date or + extension. Numberless friars and priests traversed the rural districts and + towns of France, preaching to the people that they must seek from Heaven a + deliverance from the pillages of the soldiery, and the insolence of the + foreign oppressors. [See, Sismondi vol. xiii. p. 114; Michelet, vol. v. + Livre x.] The idea of a Providence that works only by general laws was + wholly alien to the feelings of the age. Every political event, as well as + every natural phenomenon, was believed to be the immediate result of a + special mandate of God. This led to the belief that His holy angels and + saints were constantly employed in executing His commands and mingling in + the affairs of men. The Church encouraged these feelings; and at the same + time sanctioned; the concurrent popular belief that hosts of evil spirits + were also ever actively interposing in the current of earthly events, with + whom sorcerers and wizards could league themselves, and thereby obtain the + exercise of supernatural power. + </p> + <p> + Thus all things favoured the influence which Joan obtained both over + friends and foes. The French nation, as well as the English and the + Burgundians, readily admitted that superhuman beings inspired her: the + only question was, whether these beings were good or evil angels; whether + she brought with her "airs from heaven, or blasts from hell." This + question seemed to her countrymen to be decisively settled in her favour, + by the austere sanctity of her life, by the holiness of her conversation, + but, still more, by her exemplary attention to all the services and rites + of the Church. The dauphin at first feared the injury that might be done + to his cause if he had laid himself open to the charge of having leagued + himself with a sorceress. Every imaginable test, therefore, was resorted + to in order to set Joan's orthodoxy and purity beyond suspicion. At last + Charles and his advisers felt safe in accepting her services as those of a + true and virtuous daughter of the Holy Church. + </p> + <p> + It is indeed probable that Charles himself, and some of his counsellors, + may have suspected Joan of being a mere enthusiast; and it is certain that + Dunois, and others of the best generals, took considerable latitude in + obeying or deviating from the military orders that she gave. But over the + mass of the people and the soldiery, her influence was unbounded. While + Charles and his doctors of theology, and court ladies, had been + deliberating as to recognising or dismissing the Maid, a considerable + period had passed away, during which a small army, the last gleanings, as + it seemed, of the English sword, had been assembled at Blois, under + Dunois, La Hire, Xaintrailles, and other chiefs, who to their natural + valour were now beginning to unite the wisdom that is taught by + misfortune. It was resolved to send Joan with this force and a convoy of + provisions to Orleans. The distress of that city had now become urgent. + But the communication with the open country was not entirely cut off: the + Orleannais had heard of the Holy Maid whom Providence had raised up for + their deliverance, and their messengers urgently implored the dauphin to + send her to them without delay. + </p> + <p> + Joan appeared at the camp at Blois, clad in a new suit of brilliant white + armour, mounted on a stately black war-horse, and with a lance in her + right hand, which she had learned to wield with skill and grace. [See the + description of her by Gui de Laval, quoted in the note to Michelet, p. 69; + and see the account of the banner at Orleans, which is believed to bear an + authentic portrait of the Maid, in Murray's Handbook for France, p. 175.] + Her head was unhelmeted; so that all could behold her fair and expressive + features, her deep-set and earnest eyes, and her long black hair, which + was parted across her forehead, and bound by a ribbon behind her back. She + wore at her side a small battle-axe, and the consecrated sword, marked on + the blade with five crosses, which had at her bidding been taken for her + from the shrine of St. Catherine at Fierbois. A page carried her banner, + which she had caused to be made and embroidered as her Voices enjoined. It + was white satin [Proces de Jeanne d'Arc, vol. i. p. 238.] strewn with + fleur-de-lis; and on it were the words "JHESUS MARIA," and the + representation of the Saviour in His glory. Joan afterwards generally bore + her banner herself in battle; she said that though she loved her sword + much, she loved her banner forty times as much; and she loved to carry it + because it could not kill any one. + </p> + <p> + Thus accoutred, she came to lead the troops of France, who looked with + soldierly admiration on her well-proportioned and upright figure, the + skill with which she managed her war-horse, and the easy grace with which + she handled her weapons. Her military education had been short, but she + had availed herself of it well. She had also the good sense to interfere + little with the manoeuvres of the troops, leaving those things to Dunois, + and others whom she had the discernment to recognise as the best officers + in the camp. Her tactics in action were simple enough. As she herself + described it—"I used to say to them, 'Go boldly in among the + English,' and then I used to go boldly in myself." [Ibid.] Such, as she + told her inquisitors, was the only spell she used; and it was one of + power. But while interfering little with the military discipline of the + troops, in all matters of moral discipline she was inflexibly strict. All + the abandoned followers of the camp were driven away. She compelled both + generals and soldiers to attend regularly at confessional. Her chaplain + and other priests marched with the army under her orders; and at every + halt, an altar was set up and the sacrament administered. No oath or foul + language passed without punishment or censure. Even the roughest and most + hardened veterans obeyed her. They put off for a time the bestial + coarseness which had grown on them during a life of bloodshed and rapine; + they felt that they must go forth in a new spirit to a new career, and + acknowledged the beauty of the holiness in which the heaven-sent Maid was + leading them to certain victory. + </p> + <p> + Joan marched from Blois on the 26th of April with a convoy of provisions + for Orleans, accompanied by Dunois, La Hire, and the other chief captains + of the French; and on the evening of the 28th they approached the town. In + the words of the old chronicler Hall: [Hall, f. 127.] "The Englishmen, + perceiving that they within could not long continue for faute of vitaile + and pouder, kepte not their watche so diligently as thei were accustomed, + nor scoured now the countrey environed as thei before had ordained. Whiche + negligence the citizens shut in perceiving, sente worde thereof to the + French captaines, which with Pucelle in the dedde tyme of the nighte, and + in a greats rayne and thunders, with all their vitaile and artillery + entered into the citie." + </p> + <p> + When it was day, the Maid rode in solemn procession through the city, clad + in complete armour, and mounted on a white horse. Dunois was by her side, + and all the bravest knights of her army and of the garrison followed in + her train. The whole population thronged around her; and men, women, and + children strove to touch her garments, or her banner, or her charger. They + poured forth blessings on her, whom they already considered their + deliverer. In the words used by two of them afterwards before the + tribunal, which reversed the sentence, but could not restore the life of + the Virgin-martyr of France, "the people of Orleans, when they first saw + her in their city, thought that it was an angel from heaven that had come + down to save them." Joan spoke gently in reply to their acclamations and + addresses. She told them to fear God, and trust in Him for safety from the + fury of their enemies. She first went to the principal church, where TE + DEUM was chaunted; and then she took up her abode in the house of Jacques + Bourgier, one of the principal citizens, and whose wife was a matron of + good repute. She refused to attend a splendid banquet which had been + provided for her, and passed nearly all her time in prayer. + </p> + <p> + When it was known by the English that the Maid was in Orleans, their minds + were not less occupied about her than were the minds of those in the city; + but it was in a very different spirit. The English believed in her + supernatural mission as firmly as the French did; but they thought her a + sorceress who had come to overthrow them by her enchantments. An old + prophecy, which told that a damsel from Lorraine was to save France, had + long been current; and it was known and applied to Joan by foreigners as + well as by the natives. For months the English had heard of the coming + Maid; and the tales of miracles which she was said to have wrought, had + been listened to by the rough yeomen of the English camp with anxious + curiosity and secret awe. She had sent a herald to the English generals + before she marched for Orleans; and he had summoned the English generals + in the name of the Most High to give up to the Maid who was sent by + Heaven, the keys of the French cities which they had wrongfully taken: and + he also solemnly adjured the English troops, whether archers, or men of + the companies of war, or gentlemen, or others, who were before the city of + Orleans, to depart thence to their homes, under peril of being visited by + the judgment of God. On her arrival in Orleans, Joan sent another similar + message; but the English scoffed at her from their towers, and threatened + to burn her heralds. She determined before she shed the blood of the + besiegers, to repeat the warning with her own voice; and accordingly she + mounted one of the boulevards of the town, which was within hearing of the + Tourelles; and thence she spoke to the English, and bade them depart, + otherwise they would meet with shame and woe. Sir William Gladsdale (whom + the French call GLACIDAS) commanded the English post at the Tourelles, and + he and another English officer replied by bidding her go home and keep her + cows, and by ribald jests, that brought tears of shame and indignation + into her eyes. But though the English leaders vaunted aloud, the effect + produced on their army by Joan's presence in Orleans, was proved four days + after her arrival; when, on the approach of reinforcements and stores to + the town, Joan and La Hire marched out to meet them, and escorted the long + train of provision waggons safely into Orleans, between the bastilles of + the English, who cowered behind their walls, instead of charging fiercely + and fearlessly, as had been their wont, on any French band that dared to + show itself within reach. + </p> + <p> + Thus far she had prevailed without striking a blow; but the time was now + come to test her courage amid the horrors of actual slaughter. On the + afternoon of the day on which she had escorted the reinforcements into the + city, while she was resting fatigued at home, Dunois had seized an + advantageous opportunity of attacking the English bastille of St. Loup: + and a fierce assault of the Orleannais had been made on it, which the + English garrison of the fort stubbornly resisted. Joan was roused by a + sound which she believed to be that of Her Heavenly Voices; she called for + her arms and horse, and quickly equipping herself she mounted to ride off + to where the fight was raging. In her haste she had forgotten her banner; + she rode back, and, without dismounting, had it given to her from the + window, and then she galloped to the gate, whence the sally had been made. + On her way she met some of the wounded French who had been carried back + from the fight. "Ha," she exclaimed, "I never can see French blood flow, + without my hair standing on end." She rode out of the gate, and met the + tide of her countrymen, who had been repulsed from the English fort, and + were flying back to Orleans in confusion. At the sight of the Holy Maid + and her banner they rallied and renewed the assault. Joan rode forward at + their head, waving her banner and cheering them on. The English quailed at + what they believed to be the charge of hell; St. Loup was stormed, and its + defenders put to the sword, except some few, whom Jean succeeded in + saving. All her woman's gentleness returned when the combat was over. It + was the first time that she had ever seen a battle-field. She wept at the + sight of so many blood-stained and mangled corpses; and her tears flowed + doubly when she reflected that they were the bodies of Christian men who + had died without confession. + </p> + <p> + The next day was ascension-day, and it was passed by Joan in prayer. But + on the following morrow it was resolved by the chiefs of the garrison to + attack the English forts on the south of the river. For this purpose they + crossed the river in boats, and after some severe fighting, in which the + Maid was wounded in the heel, both the English bastilles of the Augustins + and St. Jean de Blanc were captured. The Tourelles were now the only post + which the besiegers held on the south of the river. But that post was + formidably strong, and by its command of the bridge, it was the key to the + deliverance of Orleans. It was known that a fresh English army was + approaching under Falstolfe to reinforce the besiegers, and should that + army arrive, while the Tourelles were yet in the possession of their + comrades, there was great peril of all the advantages which the French had + gained being nullified, and of the siege being again actively carried on. + </p> + <p> + It was resolved, therefore, by the French, to assail the Tourelles at + once, while the enthusiasm which the presence and the heroic valour of the + Maid had created was at its height. But the enterprise was difficult. The + rampart of the tete-du-pont, or landward bulwark, of the Tourelles was + steep and high; and Sir John Gladsdale occupied this all-important fort + with five hundred archers and men-at-arms, who were the very flower of the + English army. + </p> + <p> + Early in the morning of the 7th of May, some thousands of the best French + troops in Orleans heard mass and attended the confessional by Joan's + orders; and then crossing the river in boats, as on the preceding day they + assailed the bulwark of the Tourelles, "with light hearts and heavy + hands." But Gladsdale's men, encouraged by their bold and skilful leader, + made a resolute and able defence. The Maid planted her banner on the edge + of the fosse, and then springing down into the ditch, she placed the first + ladder against the wall, and began to mount. An English archer sent an + arrow at her, which pierced her corslet and wounded her severely between + the neck and shoulder. She fell bleeding from the ladder; and the English + were leaping down from the wall to capture her, but her followers bore her + off. She was carried to the rear, and laid upon the grass; her armour was + taken off, and the anguish of her wound and the sight of her blood, made + her at first tremble and weep. But her confidence in her celestial mission + soon returned: her patron saints seemed to stand before her and reassure + her. She sate up and drew the arrow out with her own hands. Some of the + soldiers who stood by wished to stanch the blood, by saying a charm over + the wound; but she forbade them, saying, that she did not wish to be cured + by unhallowed means. She had the wound dressed with a little oil, and then + bidding her confessor come to her, she betook herself to prayer. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the English in the bulwark of the Tourelles, had + repulsed the oft-renewed efforts of the French to scale the wall. Dunois, + who commanded the assailants, was at first discouraged, and gave orders + for a retreat to be sounded, Joan sent for him and the other generals, and + implored them not to despair. "By my God" she said to them, "you shall + soon enter in there. Do not doubt it. When you see my banner wave again up + to the wall, to your arms again! the fort is yours. For the present rest a + little, and take some food and drink. They did so," says the old + chronicler of the siege, [Journal du Siege d'Orleans, p. 87.] "for they + obeyed her marvellously." The faintness caused by her wound had now passed + off, and she headed the French in another rush against the bulwark. The + English, who had thought her slain, were alarmed at her reappearance; + while the French pressed furiously and fanatically forward. A Biscayan + soldier was carrying Joan's banner. She had told the troops that directly + the banner touched the wall they should enter. The Biscayan waved the + banner forward from the edge of the fosse, and touched the wall with it; + and then all the French host swarmed madly up the ladders that now were + raised in all directions against the English fort. At this crisis, the + efforts of the English garrison were distracted by an attach from another + quarter. The French troops who had been left in Orleans, had placed some + planks over the broken part of the bridge, and advanced across them to the + assault of the Tourelles on the northern side. Gladsdale resolved to + withdraw his men from the landward bulwark, and concentrate his whole + force in the Tourelles themselves. He was passing for this purpose across + the drawbridge that connected the Tourelles and the tete-du-pont, when + Joan, who by this time had scaled the wall of the bulwark, called out to + him, "Surrender, surrender to the King of Heaven. Ah, Glacidas, you have + foully wronged me with your words, but I have great pity on your soul and + the souls of your men." The Englishman, disdainful of her summons, was + striding on across the drawbridge, when a cannon-shot from the town + carried it away, and Gladsdale perished in the water that ran beneath. + After his fall, the remnant of the English abandoned all further + resistance. Three hundred of them had been killed in the battle, and two + hundred were made prisoners. + </p> + <p> + The broken arch was speedily repaired by the exulting Orleannais; and Joan + made her triumphal re-entry into the city by the bridge that had so long + been closed. Every church in Orleans rang out its gratulating peal; and + throughout the night the sounds of rejoicing echoed, and the bonfires + blazed up from the city. But in the lines and forts which the besiegers + yet retained on the northern shore, there was anxious watching of the + generals, and there was desponding gloom among the soldiery. Even Talbot + now counselled retreat. On the following morning, the Orleannais, from + their walls, saw the great forts called "London" and "St. Lawrence," in + flames; and witnessed their invaders busy in destroying the stores and + munitions which had been relied on for the destruction of Orleans. Slowly + and sullenly the English army retired; but not before it had drawn up in + battle array opposite to the city, as if to challenge the garrison to an + encounter. The French troops were eager to go out and attack, but Joan + forbade it. The day was Sunday. "In the name of God," she said, "let them + depart, and let us return thanks to God." She led the soldiers and + citizens forth from Orleans, but not for the shedding of blood. They + passed in solemn procession round the city walls; and then, while their + retiring enemies were yet in sight, they knelt in thanksgiving to God for + the deliverance which he had vouchsafed them. + </p> + <p> + Within three months from the time of her first interview with the Dauphin, + Joan had fulfilled the first part of her promise, the raising of the siege + of Orleans. Within three months more she fulfilled the second part also; + and she stood with her banner in her hand by the high altar at Rheims + while he was anointed and crowned as King Charles VII. of France. In the + interval she had taken Jargeau, Troyes, and other strong places; and she + had defeated an English army in a fair field at Patay. The enthusiasm of + her countrymen knew no bounds; but the importance of her services, and + especially of her primary achievement at Orleans, may perhaps be best + proved by the testimony of her enemies. There is extant a fragment of a + letter from the Regent Bedford to his royal nephew, Henry VI., in which he + bewails the turn that the war had taken, and especially attributes it to + the raising of the siege of Orleans by Joan. Bedford's own words, which + are preserved in Rymer, [Vol. x. p. 403.] are as follows:— + </p> + <p> + "AND ALLE THING THERE PROSPERED FOR YOU TIL THE TYME OF THE SIEGE OF + ORLEANS, TAKEN IN HAND, GOD KNOWETH BY WHAT ADVIS. + </p> + <p> + "AT THE WHICHE TYME, AFTER THE ADVENTURE FALLEN TO THE PERSONE OF MY + COUSIN OF SALISBURY, WHOM GOD ASSOILLE, THERE FELLE, BY THE HAND OF GOD AS + IT SEEMETH, A GREAT STROOK UPON YOUR PEUPLE THAT WAS ASSEMBLED THERE IN + GRETE NOMBRE, CAUSED IN GRETE PARTIE, AS Y TROWE, OF LAKKE OF SADDE + BELEVE, AND OF UNLEVEFULLE DOUBTE, THAT THEI HADDE OF A DISCIPLE AND LYME + OF THE FEENDE, CALLED THE PUCELLE, THAT USED FALS ENCHANTMENTS AND + SORCERIE. + </p> + <p> + "THE WHICHE STROOKE AND DISCOMFITURE NOT OONLY LESSED IN GRETE PARTIE THE + NOMBRE OF YOUR PEUPLE THERE, BUT AS WELL WITHDREWE THE COURAGE OF THE + REMENANT IN MERVEILLOUS WYSE, AND COURAIGED YOUR ADVERSE PARTIE AND + ENNEMYS TO ASSEMBLE THEM FORTHWITH IN GRETE NOMBRE." + </p> + <p> + When Charles had been anointed King of France, Joan believed that her + mission was accomplished. And in truth the deliverance of France from the + English, though not completed for many years afterwards, was then insured. + The ceremony of a royal coronation and anointment was not in those days + regarded as a mere costly formality. It was believed to confer the + sanction and the grace of heaven upon the prince, who had previously ruled + with mere human authority. Thenceforth he was the Lord's Anointed. + Moreover, one of the difficulties that had previously lain in the way of + many Frenchman when called on to support Charles VII. was now removed. He + had been publicly stigmatised, even by his own parents, as no true son of + the royal race of France. The queen-mother, the English, and the partisans + of Burgundy, called him the "Pretender to the title of Dauphin;" but those + who had been led to doubt his legitimacy, were cured of their scepticism + by the victories of the Holy Maid, and by the fulfilment of her pledges. + They thought that heaven had now declared itself in favour of Charles as + the true heir of the crown of St. Louis; and the tales about his being + spurious were thenceforth regarded as mere English calumnies. With this + strong tide of national feeling in his favour, with victorious generals + and soldiers round him, and a dispirited and divided enemy before him, he + could not fail to conquer; though his own imprudence and misconduct, and + the stubborn valour which some of the English still displayed, prolonged + the war in France nearly to the time when the civil war of the Roses broke + out in England, and insured for France peace and repose. + </p> + <p> + Joan knelt before the new-crowned king in the cathedral of Rheims, and + shed tears of joy. She said that she had then fulfilled the work which the + Lord had commanded her. The young girl now asked for her dismissal. She + wished to return to her peasant home, to tend her parent's flocks again, + and to live at her own will in her native village. ["Je voudrais bien + qu'il voulut me faire ramener aupres mes pere et mere, et garder leurs + brebis et betail, et faire ce que je voudrois faire."] She had always + believed that her career would be a short one. But Charles and his + captains were loth to lose the presence of one who had such an influence + upon the soldiery and the people. They persuaded her to stay with the + army. She still showed the same bravery and zeal for the cause of France. + She was as fervent as before in her prayers, and as exemplary in all + religious duties. She still heard her Heavenly Voices, but; she now no + longer thought herself the appointed minister of heaven to lead her + countrymen to certain victory. Our admiration for her courage and + patriotism ought to be increased a hundred-fold by her conduct throughout + the latter part of her career, amid dangers, against which she no longer + believed herself to be divinely secured. Indeed she believed herself + doomed to perish in little more than a year; ["Des le commencement elle + avait dit, 'Il me faut employer: je ne durerai qu'un an, ou guere plus."—MICHELAIT + v. p. 101.] but she still fought on as resolutely, if not as exultingly as + ever. + </p> + <p> + As in the case of Arminius, the interest attached to individual heroism + and virtue makes us trace the fate of Joan of Arc after she had saved her + country. She served well with Charles's army in the capture of Laon, + Soissons, Compeigne, Beauvais, and other strong places; but in a premature + attack on Paris, in September 1429, the French were repulsed, and Joan was + severely wounded in the winter she was again in the field with some of the + French troops; and in the following spring she threw herself into the + fortress of Compeigne, which she had herself won for the French king in + the preceding autumn, and which was now besieged by a strong Burgundian + force. + </p> + <p> + She was taken prisoner in a sally from Compeigne, on the 24th of May, and + was imprisoned by the Burgundians first at Arras, and then at a place + called Crotoy, on the Flemish coast, until November, when for payment of a + large sum of money, she was given up to the English, and taken to Rouen, + which was then their main stronghold in France. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sorrow it were, and shame to tell, + The butchery that there befell:" +</pre> + <p> + And the revolting details of the cruelties practised upon this young girl + may be left to those, whose duty as avowed biographers, it is to describe + them. [The whole of the "Proces de Condamnation at de Rehabilitation de + Jeanne d'Arc" has been published in five volumes, by the Societe de + l'Histoire de France. All the passages from contemporary chroniclers and + poets are added; and the most ample materials are thus given for acquiring + full information on a subject which is, to an Englishman, one of painful + interest. There is an admirable essay on Joan of Arc, in the 138th number + of the QUARTERLY.] She was tried before an ecclesiastical tribunal on the + charge of witchcraft, and on the 30th of May, 1431, she was burnt alive in + the market-place at Rouen. + </p> + <p> + I will add but one remark on the character of the truest heroine that the + world has ever seen. + </p> + <p> + If any person can be found in the present age who would join in the scoffs + of Voltaire against the Maid of Orleans and the Heavenly Voices by which + she believed herself inspired, let him read the life of the wisest and + best man that the heathen nations ever produced. Let him read of the + Heavenly Voice, by which Socrates believed himself to be constantly + attended; which cautioned him on his way from the field of battle at + Delium, and which from his boyhood to the time of his death visited him + with unearthly warnings. [See Cicero, de Divinatione, lib. i. sec. 41; and + see the words of Socrates himself, in Plato, Apol. Soc.] Let the modern + reader reflect upon this; and then, unless he is prepared to term Socrates + either fool or impostor, let him not dare to deride or vilify Joan of Arc. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY AT ORLEANS, A.D. 1429, + AND THE DEFEAT OP THE SPANISH ARMADA, A.D. 1588. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1452. Final expulsion of the English from France. + </p> + <p> + 1453. Constantinople taken, and the Roman empire of the East destroyed by + the Turkish Sultan Mahomet II. + </p> + <p> + 1455. Commencement of the civil wars in England between the Houses of York + and Lancaster. + </p> + <p> + 1479. Union of the Christian kingdoms of Spain under Ferdinand and + Isabella. + </p> + <p> + 1492. Capture of Grenada by Ferdinand and Isabella, and end of the Moorish + dominion in Spain. + </p> + <p> + 1492. Columbus discovers the New World. + </p> + <p> + 1494. Charles VIII. of France invades Italy. + </p> + <p> + 1497. Expedition of Vasco di Gama to the East Indies round the Cape of + Good Hope. + </p> + <p> + 1503. Naples conquered from the French by the great Spanish general, + Gonsalvo of Cordova. + </p> + <p> + 1508. League of Cambray, by the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of France, + against Venice. + </p> + <p> + 1509. Albuquerque establishes the empire of the Portuguese in the East + Indies. + </p> + <p> + 1516. Death of Ferdinand of Spain; he is succeeded by his grandson + Charles, afterwards the Emperor Charles V. + </p> + <p> + 1517. Dispute between Luther and Tetzel respecting the sale of + indulgences, which is the immediate cause of the Reformation. + </p> + <p> + 1519. Charles V. is elected Emperor of Germany. + </p> + <p> + 1520. Cortez conquers Mexico. + </p> + <p> + 1525. Francis I. of France defeated and taken prisoner by the imperial + army at Pavia. + </p> + <p> + 1529. League of Smalcald formed by the Protestant princes of Germany. + </p> + <p> + 1533. Henry VIII. renounces the Papal supremacy. + </p> + <p> + 1533. Pizarro conquers Peru. + </p> + <p> + 1556. Abdication of the Emperor Charles V. Philip II. becomes King of + Spain, and Ferdinand I. Emperor of Germany. + </p> + <p> + 1557.[sic] Elizabeth becomes Queen of England. + </p> + <p> + 1557. The Spaniards defeat the French at the battle of St. Quentin. + </p> + <p> + 1571. Don John of Austria at the head of the Spanish fleet, aided by the + Venetian and the Papal squadrons, defeats the Turks at Lepanto. + </p> + <p> + 1572. Massacre of the Protestants in France on St. Bartholomew's day. + </p> + <p> + 1579. The Netherlands revolt against Spain. + </p> + <p> + 1580. Philip II. conquers Portugal. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. — THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, A.D. 1588. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "In that memorable year, when the dark cloud gathered round our + coasts, when Europe stood by in fearful suspense to behold what + should be the result of that great cast in the game of human + politics, what the craft of Rome, the power of Philip, the genius + of Farnese, could achieve against the island-queen, with her + Drakes and Cecils,—in that agony of the Protestant faith and + English name."—HALLAM, CONST. HIST. vol. i. p. 220. +</pre> + <p> + On the afternoon of the 19th of July, A.D. 1588, a group of English + captains was collected at the Bowling Green on the Hoe at Plymouth, whose + equals have never before or since been brought together, even at that + favourite mustering-place of the heroes of the British navy. There was Sir + Francis Drake, the first English circumnavigator of the globe, the terror + of every Spanish coast in the Old World and the New; there was Sir John + Hawkins, the rough veteran of many a daring voyage on the African and + American seas, and of many a desperate battle; there was Sir Martin + Frobisher, one of the earliest explorers of the Arctic seas in search of + that North-West Passage which is still the darling object of England's + boldest mariners. There was the high-admiral of England, Lord Howard of + Effingham, prodigal of all things in his country's cause, and who had + recently had the noble daring to refuse to dismantle part of the fleet, + though the Queen had sent him orders to do so, in consequence of an + exaggerated report that the enemy had been driven back and shattered by a + storm. Lord Howard (whom contemporary writers describe as being of a wise + and noble courage, skilful in sea matters, wary and provident, and of + great esteem among the sailors) resolved to risk his sovereign's anger, + and to keep the ships afloat at his own charge, rather than that England + should run the peril of losing their protection. + </p> + <p> + Another of our Elizabethan sea-kings, Sir Walter Raleigh, was at that time + commissioned to raise and equip the land-forces of Cornwall; but, as he + was also commander of Plymouth, we may well believe that he must have + availed himself of the opportunity of consulting with the lord-admiral and + other high officers which was offered by the English fleet putting into + that port; and we may look on Raleigh as one of the group that was + assembled at the Bowling Green on the Hoe. Many other brave men and + skilful mariners, besides the chiefs whose names have been mentioned, were + there, enjoying, with true sailor-like merriment, their temporary + relaxation from duty. In the harbour lay the English fleet with which they + had just returned from a cruise to Corunna in search of information + respecting the real condition and movements of the hostile, Armada. Lord + Howard had ascertained that our enemies, though tempest-tost, were still + formidably strong; and fearing that part of their fleet might make for + England in his absence, he had hurried back to the Devonshire coast. He + resumed his station at Plymouth, and waited there for certain tidings of + the Spaniard's approach. + </p> + <p> + A match at bowls was being played, in which Drake and other high officers + of the fleet were engaged, when a small armed vessel was seen running + before the wind into Plymouth harbour, with all sails set. Her commander + landed in haste, and eagerly sought the place where the English + lord-admiral and his captains were standing. His name was Fleming; he was + the master of a Scotch privateer; and he told the English officers that he + had that morning seen the Spanish Armada off the Cornish coast. At this + exciting information the captains began to hurry down to the water, and + there was a shouting for the ship's boats: but Drake coolly checked his + comrades, and insisted that the match should be played out. He said that + there was plenty of time both to win the game and beat the Spaniards. The + best and bravest match that ever was scored was resumed accordingly. Drake + and his friends aimed their last bowls with the same steady calculating + coolness with which they were about to point their guns. The winning cast + was made; and then they went on board and prepared for action, with their + hearts as light and their nerves as firm as they had been on the Hoe + Bowling Green. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the messengers and signals had been despatched fast and far + through England, to warn each town and village that the enemy had come at + last. In every seaport there was instant making ready by land and by sea; + in every shire and every city there was instant mustering of horse and + man. [In Macaulay's Ballad on the Spanish Armada, the transmission of the + tidings of the Armada's approach, and the arming of the English nation, + are magnificently described. The progress of the fire-signals is depicted + in lines which are worthy of comparison with the renowned passage in the + Agamemnon, which describes the transmission of the beacon-light announcing + the fall of Troy, from Mount Ida to Argos.] But England's best defence + then, as ever, was her fleet; and after warping laboriously out of + Plymouth harbour against the wind, the lord-admiral stood westward under + easy sail, keeping an anxious look-out for the Armada, the approach of + which was soon announced by Cornish fishing-boats, and signals from the + Cornish cliffs. + </p> + <p> + The England of our own days is so strong, and the Spain of our own days is + so feeble, that it is not possible, without some reflection and care, to + comprehend the full extent of the peril which England then ran from the + power and the ambition of Spain, or to appreciate the importance of that + crisis in the history of the world. We had then no Indian or Colonial + Empire save the feeble germs of our North American settlements, which + Raleigh and Gilbert had recently planted. Scotland was a separate kingdom; + and Ireland was then even a greater source of weakness, and a worse nest + of rebellion than she has been in after times. Queen Elizabeth had found + at her accession an encumbered revenue, a divided people and an + unsuccessful foreign war, in which the last remnant of our possessions in + France had been lost; she had also a formidable pretender to her crown, + whose interests were favoured by all the Roman Catholic powers; and even + some of her subjects were warped by religious bigotry to deny her title, + and to look on her as an heretical usurper. It is true that during the + years of her reign which had passed away before the attempted invasion of + 1588, she had revived the commercial prosperity, the national spirit, and + the national loyalty of England. But her resources, to cope with the + colossal power of Philip II., still seemed most scanty; and she had not a + single foreign ally, except the Dutch, who were themselves struggling + hard, and, as it seemed, hopelessly, to maintain their revolt against + Spain. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand Philip II, was absolute master of an empire so superior + to the other states of the world in extent, in resources and especially in + military and naval forces, as to make the project of enlarging that empire + into a universal monarchy seem a perfectly feasible scheme; and Philip had + both the ambition to form that project, and the resolution to devote all + his energies, and all his means, to its realization. Since the downfall of + the Roman empire no such preponderating power had existed in the world. + During the mediaeval centuries the chief European kingdoms were slowly + moulding themselves out of the feudal chaos. And, though their wars with + each other were numerous and desperate, and several of their respective + kings figured for a time as mighty conquerors, none of them in those times + acquired the consistency and perfect organization which are requisite for + a long-sustained career of aggrandizement. After the consolidation of the + great kingdoms, they for some time kept each other in mutual check. During + the first half of the sixteenth century, the balancing system was + successfully practised by European statesmen. But when Philip II. reigned, + France had become so miserably weak through her civil wars, that he had + nothing to dread from the rival state, which had so long curbed his father + the Emperor Charles V. In Germany, Italy, and Poland he had either zealous + friends and dependents, or weak and divided enemies. Against the Turks he + had gained great and glorious successes; and he might look round the + continent of Europe without discerning a single antagonist of whom he + could stand in awe. Spain, when he acceded to the throne, was at the + zenith of her power. The hardihood and spirit which the Arragonese, the + Castilians, and the other nations of the peninsula had acquired during + centuries of free institutions and successful war against the Moors, had + not yet become obliterated. Charles V. had, indeed, destroyed the + liberties of Spain; but that had been done too recently for its full evil + to be felt in Philip's time. A people cannot be debased in a single + generation; and the Spaniards under Charles V. and Philip II. proved the + truth of the remark, that no nation is ever so formidable to its + neighbours, for a time, as is a nation, which, after being trained up in + self-government, passes suddenly under a despotic ruler. The energy of + democratic institutions survives for a few generations, and to it are + superadded the decision and certainty which are the attributes of + government, when all its powers are directed by a single mind. It is true + that this preter-natural vigour is short-lived: national corruption and + debasement gradually follow the loss of the national liberties; but there + is an interval before their workings are felt, and in that interval the + most ambitious schemes of foreign conquest are often successfully + undertaken. + </p> + <p> + Philip had also the advantage of finding himself at the head of a large + standing army in a perfect state of discipline and equipment, in an age + when, except some few insignificant corps, standing armies were unknown in + Christendom. The renown of the Spanish troops was justly high, and the + infantry in particular was considered the best in the world. His fleet, + also, was far more numerous, and better appointed, than that of any other + European power; and both his soldiers and his sailors had the confidence + in themselves and their commanders, which a long career of successful + warfare alone can create. + </p> + <p> + Besides the Spanish crown, Philip succeeded to the kingdom, of Naples and + Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Franche-Comte, and the Netherlands. In Africa + he possessed Tunis, Oran, the Cape Verde and the Canary Islands; and in + Asia, the Philippine and Sunda Islands and a part of the Moluccas. Beyond + the Atlantic he was lord of the most splendid portions of the New world + which "Columbus found for Castile and Leon." The empire of Peru and + Mexico, New Spain, and Chili, with their abundant mines of the precious + metals, Hispaniola and Cuba, and many other of the American Islands, were + provinces of the sovereign of Spain. + </p> + <p> + Philip had, indeed, experienced the mortification of seeing the + inhabitants of the Netherlands revolt against his authority, nor could he + succeed in bringing back beneath the Spanish sceptre all the possessions + which his father had bequeathed to him. But he had reconquered a large + number of the towns and districts that originally took up arms against + him. Belgium was brought more thoroughly into implicit obedience to Spain + than she had been before her insurrection, and it was only Holland and the + six other Northern States that still held out against his arms. The + contest had also formed a compact and veteran army on Philip's side, + which, under his great general, the Prince of Parma, had been trained to + act together under all difficulties and all vicissitudes of warfare; and + on whose steadiness and loyalty perfect reliance might be placed + throughout any enterprise, however difficult and tedious. Alexander + Farnese, Prince of Parma, captain-general of the Spanish armies, and + governor of the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands was beyond all + comparison the greatest military genius of his age. He was also highly + distinguished for political wisdom and sagacity, and for his great + administrative talents. He was idolised by his troops, whose affections he + knew how to win without relaxing their discipline or diminishing his own + authority. Pre-eminently cool and circumspect in his plans, but swift and + energetic when the moment arrived for striking a decisive blow, neglecting + no risk that caution could provide against, conciliating even the + populations of the districts which he attacked by his scrupulous good + faith, his moderation, and his address, Farnese was one of the most + formidable generals that ever could be placed at the head of an army + designed not only to win battles, but to effect conquests. Happy it is for + England and the world that this island was saved from becoming an arena + for the exhibition of his powers. + </p> + <p> + Whatever diminution the Spanish empire might have sustained in the + Netherlands, seemed to be more than compensated by the acquisition of + Portugal, which Philip had completely conquered in 1580. Not only that + ancient kingdom itself, but all the fruits of the maritime enterprises of + the Portuguese had fallen into Philip's hands. All the Portuguese colonies + in America, Africa, and the East Indies, acknowledged the sovereignty of + the King of Spain; who thus not only united the whole Iberian peninsula + under his single sceptre, but had acquired a transmarine empire, little + inferior in wealth and extent to that which he had inherited at his + accession. The splendid victory which his fleet, in conjunction with the + Papal and Venetian galleys, had gained at Lepanto over the Turks, had + deservedly exalted the fame of the Spanish marine throughout Christendom; + and when Philip had reigned thirty-five years, the vigour of his empire + seemed unbroken, and the glory of the Spanish arms had increased, and was + increasing throughout the world. + </p> + <p> + One nation only had been his active, his persevering, and his successful + foe. England had encouraged his revolted subjects in Flanders against him, + and given them the aid in men and money without which they must soon have + been humbled in the dust. English ships had plundered his colonies; had + denied his supremacy in the New World, as well as the Old; they had + inflicted ignominious defeats on his squadrons; they had captured his + cities, and burned his arsenals on the very coasts of Spain. The English + had made Philip himself the object of personal insult. He was held up to + ridicule in their stage plays and masks, and these scoffs at the man had + (as is not unusual in such cases) excited the anger of the absolute king, + even more vehemently than the injuries inflicted on his power. [See + Ranke's Hist. Popes, vol. ii. p. 170.] Personal as well as political + revenge urged him to attack England. Were she once subdued, the Dutch must + submit; France could not cope with him, the empire would not oppose him; + and universal dominion seemed sure to be the result of the conquest of + that malignant island. + </p> + <p> + There was yet another and a stronger feeling which armed King Philip + against England. He was one of the sincerest and sternest bigots of his + age. He looked on himself, and was looked on by others, as the appointed + champion to extirpate heresy and re-establish the Papal power throughout + Europe. A powerful reaction against Protestantism had taken place since + the commencement of the second half of the sixteenth century, and Philip + believed that he was destined to complete it. The Reform doctrines had + been thoroughly rooted out from Italy and Spain. Belgium, which had + previously been half Protestant, had been reconquered both in allegiance + and creed by Philip, and had become one of the most Catholic countries in + the world. Half Germany had been won back to the old faith. In Savoy, in + Switzerland and many other countries, the progress of the + counter-Reformation had been rapid and decisive. The Catholic league + seemed victorious in France. The Papal Court itself had shaken off the + supineness of recent centuries; and, at the head of the Jesuits and the + other new ecclesiastical orders, was displaying a vigour and a boldness + worthy of the days of Hildebrand or Innocent III. + </p> + <p> + Throughout continental Europe, the Protestants, discomfited and dismayed, + looked to England as their protector and refuge. England was the + acknowledged central point of Protestant power and policy; and to conquer + England was to stab Protestantism to the very heart. Sixtus V., the then + reigning pope, earnestly exhorted Philip to this enterprise. And when the + tidings reached Italy and Spain that the Protestant Queen of England had + put to death her Catholic prisoner, Mary Queen of Scots, the fury of the + Vatican and Escurial knew no bounds. + </p> + <p> + The Prince of Parma, who was appointed military chief of the expedition, + collected on the coast of Flanders a veteran force that was to play a + principal part in the conquest of England. Besides the troops who were in + his garrisons, or under his colours, five thousand infantry were sent to + him from northern and central Italy, four thousand from the kingdom of + Naples, six thousand from Castile, three thousand from Arragon, three + thousand from Austria and Germany, together with four squadrons of + heavy-armed horse; besides which he received forces from the Franche-Comte + and the Walloon country. By his command, the forest of Waes was felled for + the purpose of building flat-bottomed boats, which, floating down the + rivers and canals to Meinport and Dunkerque, were to carry this large army + of chosen troops to the mouth of the Thames, under the escort of the great + Spanish fleet. Gun-carriages, fascines, machines used in sieges, together + with every material requisite for building bridges, forming camps, and + raising fortresses, were to be placed on board the flotillas of the Prince + of Parma, who followed up the conquest of the Netherlands, whilst he was + making preparations for the invasion of this island. Favoured by the + dissensions between the insurgents of the United Provinces and Leicester, + the Prince of Parma had recovered Deventer, as well as a fort before + Zutphen, which the English commanders, Sir William Stanley, the friend of + Babbington, and Sir Roland York, had surrendered to him, when with their + troops they passed over to the service of Philip II., after the death of + Mary Stuart, and he had also made himself master of the Sluys. His + intention was to leave to the Count de Mansfeldt sufficient forces to + follow up the war with the Dutch, which had now become a secondary object, + whilst he himself went at the head of fifty thousand men of the Armada and + the flotilla, to accomplish the principal enterprise—that + enterprise, which, in the highest degree, affected the interests of the + pontifical authority. In a bull, intended to be kept secret until the day + of landing, Sixtus V., renewing the anathema fulminated against Elizabeth + by Pius V. and Gregory XIII., affected to depose her from our throne. [See + Mignet's Mary Queen of Scots vol. ii.] + </p> + <p> + Elizabeth was denounced as a murderous heretic whose destruction was an + instant duty. A formal treaty was concluded (in June, 1587), by which the + pope bound himself to contribute a million of scudi to the expenses of the + war; the money to be paid as soon as the king had actual possession of an + English port. Philip, on his part, strained the resources of his vast + empire to the utmost. The French Catholic chiefs eagerly co-operated with + him. In the sea-ports of the Mediterranean, and along almost the whole + coast from Gibraltar to Jutland, the preparations for the great armament + were urged forward with all the earnestness of religious zeal, as well as + of angry ambition.—"Thus," says the German historian of the Popes, + [Ranke, vol ii. p. 172.] "thus did the united powers of Italy and Spain, + from which such mighty influences had gone forth over the whole world, now + rouse themselves for an attack upon England! The king had already + compiled, from the archives of Simancas, a statement of the claims which + he had to the throne of that country on the extinction of the Stuart line; + the most brilliant prospects, especially that of an universal dominion of + the seas, were associated in his mind with this enterprise. Everything + seemed to conspire to such end; the predominance of Catholicism in + Germany, the renewed attack upon the Huguenots in France, the attempt upon + Geneva, and the enterprise against England. At the same moment a + thoroughly Catholic prince, Sigismund III., ascended the throne of Poland, + with the prospect also of future succession to the throne of Sweden. But + whenever any principle or power, be it what it may, aims at unlimited + supremacy in Europe, some vigorous resistance to it, having its origin in + the deepest springs of human nature, invariably arises. Philip II. had + had, to encounter newly-awakened powers, braced by the vigour of youth, + and elevated by a sense of their future destiny. The intrepid corsairs, + who had rendered every sea insecure, now clustered round the coasts of + their native island. The Protestants in a body,—even the Puritans, + although they had been subjected to as severe oppressions as the + Catholics,—rallied round their queen, who now gave admirable proof + of her masculine courage, and her princely talent of winning the + affections, and leading the minds, and preserving the allegiance of men." + </p> + <p> + Ranke should have added that the English Catholics at this crisis proved + themselves as loyal to their queen, and true to their country, as were the + most vehement anti-Catholic zealots in the island. Some few traitors there + were; but, as a body, the Englishmen who held the ancient faith, stood the + trial of their patriotism nobly. The lord-admiral himself was a Catholic, + and (to adopt the words of Hallam) "then it was that the Catholics in + every county repaired to the standard of the lord-lieutenant, imploring + that they might not be suspected of bartering the national independence + for their religion itself." The Spaniard found no partisans in the country + which he assailed, nor did England, self-wounded, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Lie at the proud foot of her enemy." +</pre> + <p> + For some time the destination of the enormous armament of Philip was not + publicly announced. Only Philip himself, the Pope Sixtus, the Duke of + Guise, and Philip's favourite minister, Mendoza, at first knew its real + object. Rumours were sedulously spread that it was designed to proceed to + the Indies to realize vast projects of distant conquest. Sometimes hints + were dropped by Philip's ambassadors in foreign courts, that his master + had resolved on a decisive effort to crush his rebels in the Low + Countries. But Elizabeth and her statesmen could not view the gathering of + such a storm without feeling the probability of its bursting on their own + shores. As early as the spring of 1587, Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake + to cruise off the Tagus. Drake sailed into the Bay of Cadiz and the Lisbon + Roads, and burnt much shipping and military stores, causing thereby an + important delay in the progress of the Spanish preparations. Drake called + this "Singeing the King of of Spain's beard." Elizabeth also increased her + succours of troops to the Netherlanders, to prevent the Prince of Parma + from overwhelming them, and from thence being at full leisure to employ + his army against her dominions. + </p> + <p> + Each party at this time thought it politic to try to amuse its adversary + by pretending to treat for peace, and negotiations were opened at Ostend + in the beginning of 1588, which were prolonged during the first six months + of that year. Nothing real was effected, and probably nothing real had + been intended to be effected by them. But, in the meantime, each party had + been engaged in important communications with the chief powers in France, + in which Elizabeth seemed at first to have secured a great advantage, but + in which Philip ultimately prevailed. "Henry III. of France was alarmed at + the negotiations that were going on at Ostend; and he especially dreaded + any accommodation between Spain and England, in consequence of which + Philip II. might be enabled to subdue the United Provinces, and make + himself master of France. In order, therefore, to dissuade Elizabeth from + any arrangement, he offered to support her, in case she were attacked by + the Spaniards, with twice the number of troops, which he was bound by the + treaty of 1574 to send to her assistance. He had a long conference with + her ambassador, Stafford, upon this subject, and told him that the Pope + and the Catholic King had entered into a league against the queen, his + mistress, and had invited himself and the Venetians to join them, but they + had refused to do so. 'If the Queen of England,' he added, 'concludes a + peace with the Catholic king, that peace will not last three months, + because the Catholic king will aid the League with all his forces to + overthrow her, and you may imagine what fate is reserved for your mistress + after that.' On the other hand, in order most effectually to frustrate + this negotiation, he proposed to Philip II. to form a still closer union + between the two crowns of France and Spain: and, at the same time, he + secretly despatched a confidential envoy to Constantinople to warn the + Sultan, that if he did not again declare war against the Catholic King, + that monarch, who already possessed the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the + Indies, and nearly all Italy, would soon make himself master of England, + and would then turn the forces of all Europe against the Turks." [Mignet's + History of Mary Queen of Scots. vol. ii.] + </p> + <p> + But Philip had an ally in France, who was far more powerful than the + French king. This was the Duke of Guise, the chief of the League, and the + idol of the fanatic partisans of the Romish faith. Philip prevailed on + Guise openly to take up arms against Henry III. (who was reviled by the + Leaguers as a traitor to the true Church, and a secret friend to the + Huguenots); and thus prevent the French king from interfering in favour of + Queen Elizabeth. "With this object, the commander, Juan Iniguez Moreo, was + despatched by him in the early part of April to the Duke of Guise at + Soissons. He met with complete success. He offered the Duke of Guise, as + soon as he took the field against Henry III., three hundred thousand + crowns, six thousand infantry, and twelve hundred pikemen, on behalf of + the king his master, who would, in addition, withdraw his ambassador from + the court of France, and accredit an envoy to the Catholic party. A treaty + was concluded on these conditions, and the Duke of Guise entered Paris, + where he was expected by the Leaguers, and whence he expelled Henry III. + on the 12th of May, by the insurrection of the barricades. A fortnight + after this insurrection, which reduced Henry III. to impotence, and, to + use the language of the Prince of Parma, did not even 'permit him to + assist the Queen of England with his tears, as he needed them all to weep + over his own misfortunes,' the Spanish fleet left the Tagus and sailed + towards the British isles." [Mignet.] + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile in England, from the sovereign on the throne to the peasant in + the cottage, all hearts and hands made ready to meet the imminent deadly + peril. Circular letters from the queen were sent round to the + lord-lieutenants of the several counties requiring them "to call together + the best sort of gentlemen under their lieutenancy, and to declare unto + them these great preparations and arrogant threatenings, now burst forth + in action upon the seas, wherein every man's particular state, in the + highest degree, could be touched in respect of country, liberty, wives, + children, lands, lives, and (which was specially to be regarded) the + profession of the true and sincere religion of Christ: and to lay before + them the infinite and unspeakable miseries that would fall out upon any + such change, which miseries were evidently seen by the fruits of that hard + and cruel government holden in countries not far distant. We do look," + said the queen, "that the most part of them should have, upon this instant + extraordinary occasion, a larger proportion of furniture, both for + horseman and footmen, but especially horsemen, than hath been certified; + thereby to be in their best strength against any attempt, or to be + employed about our own person, or otherwise. Hereunto as we doubt not but + by your good endeavours they will be the rather conformable, so also we + assure ourselves, that Almighty God will so bless these their loyal hearts + borne towards us, their loving sovereign, and their natural country, that + all the attempts of any enemy whatsoever shall be made void and frustrate, + to their confusion, your comfort, and to God's high glory." [Strype, cited + in Southey's Naval History.] + </p> + <p> + Letters of a similar kind were also sent by the council to each of the + nobility, and to the great cities. The primate called on the clergy for + their contributions; and by every class of the community the appeal was + responded to with liberal zeal, that offered more even than the queen + required. The boasting threats of the Spaniards had roused the spirit of + the nation; and the whole people "were thoroughly irritated to stir up + their whole forces for their defence against such prognosticated + conquests; so that, in a very short time, all the whole realm, and every + corner were furnished with armed men, on horseback and on foot; and these + continually trained, exercised, and put into bands, in warlike manner, as + in no age ever was before in this realm. There was no sparing of money to + provide horse, armour, weapons, powder, and all necessaries; no, nor want + of provision of pioneers, carriages, and victuals, in every county of the + realm, without exception, to attend upon the armies. And to this general + furniture every man voluntarily offered, very many their services + personally without wages, others money for armour and weapons, and to wage + soldiers: a matter strange, and never the like heard of in this realm or + else where. And this general reason moved all men to large contributions, + that when a conquest was to be withstood wherein all should be lost, it + was no time to spare a portion." [Copy of contemporary letter in the + Harleian Collection, quoted by Southey.] + </p> + <p> + Our lion-hearted queen showed herself worthy of such a people. A camp was + formed at Tilbury; and there Elizabeth rode through the ranks, encouraging + her captains and her soldiers by her presence and her words. One of the + speeches which she addressed to them during this crisis has been + preserved; and, though often quoted, it must not be omitted here. + </p> + <p> + "My loving people," she said, "we have been persuaded by some that are + careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed + multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live + to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear! I have always + so behaved myself, that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and + safeguard in the loyal hearts and good will of my subjects; and, + therefore, I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my + recreation or disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the + battle, to live or die amongst you all, to lay down for my God, for my + kingdom, and for my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I + know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart + and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too; and think it foul + scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade + the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour shall grow by + me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and + rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already for + your forwardness you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure + you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the + meantime, my lieutenant-general shall be in my stead, than whom never + prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject, not doubting but by your + obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in + the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my + God, of my kingdom, and of my people." + </p> + <p> + We have minute proofs of the skill with which the government of Elizabeth + made its preparations; for the documents still exist which were drawn up + at that time by the ministers and military men who were consulted by + Elizabeth respecting the defence of the country. [See note in Tytler's + Life of Raleigh, p. 71.] Among those summoned to the advice of their queen + at this crisis, were Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Grey, Sir Francis Knolles, + Sir Thomas Leighton, Sir John Norris, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Richard + Bingham, and Sir Roger Williams; and the biographer of Sir Walter Raleigh + observes that "These councillors were chosen by the queen, as being not + only men bred to arms, and some of them, as Grey, Norris, Bingham, and + Grenville, of high military talents, but of grave experience in affairs of + state, and in the civil government of provinces,—qualities by no + means means unimportant, when the debate referred not merely to the + leading of an army or the plan of a campaign, but to the organization of a + militia, and the communication with the magistrates for arming the + peasantry, and encouraging them to a resolute and simultaneous resistance. + From some private papers of Lord Burleigh, it appears that Sir Walter took + a principal share in these deliberations; and the abstract of their + proceedings, a document still preserved, is supposed to have been drawn up + by him. They first prepared a list of places where it was likely the + Spanish army might attempt a descent, as well as of those which lay most + exposed to the forces under the Duke of Parma. They next considered the + speediest and most effectual means of defence, whether by fortification or + the muster of a military array; and, lastly, deliberated on the course to + be taken for fighting the enemy if he should land." + </p> + <p> + Some of Elizabeth's advisers recommended that the whole care and resources + of the government should be devoted to the equipment of the armies, and + that the enemy, when he attempted to land, should be welcomed with a + battle on the shore. But the wiser counsels of Raleigh and others + prevailed, who urged the importance of fitting out a fleet, that should + encounter the Spaniards at sea, and, if possible, prevent them from + approaching the land at all. In Raleigh's great work on the "History of + the World," he takes occasion, when discussing some of the events of the + first Punic war, to give his reasonings on the proper policy of England + when menaced with invasion. Without doubt, we have there the substance of + the advice which he gave to Elizabeth's council; and the remarks of such a + man, on such a subject, have a general and enduring interest, beyond the + immediate peril which called them forth. Raleigh [Historie of the World + pp. 799—801.] says:—"Surely I hold that the best way is to + keep our enemies from treading upon our ground: wherein if we fail, then + must we seek to make him wish that he had stayed at his own home. In such + a case if it should happen, our judgments are to weigh many particular + circumstances, that belongs not unto this discourse. But making the + question general, the positive, WHETHER England, WITHOUT THE HELP OF HER + FLEET, BE ABLE TO DEBAR AN ENEMY FROM LANDING; I hold that it is unable so + to do; and therefore I think it most dangerous to make the adventure. For + the encouragement of a first victory to an enemy, and the discouragement + of being beaten, to the invaded, may draw after it a most perilous + consequence. + </p> + <p> + "Great difference I know there is, and a diverse consideration to be had, + between such a country as France is, strengthened with many fortified + places; and this of ours, where our ramparts are but the bodies of men. + But I say that an army to be transported over sea, and to be landed again + in an enemy's country, and the place left to the choice of the invader, + cannot be resisted on the coast of England, without a fleet to impeach it; + no, nor on the coast of France, or any other country; except every creek, + port, or sandy bay, had a powerful army, in each of them, to make + opposition. For let the supposition be granted that Kent is able to + furnish twelve thousand foot, and that those twelve thousand be layed in + the three best landing-places within that country, to wit, three thousand + at Margat, three thousand at the Nesse, and six thousand at Foulkstone, + that is, somewhat equally distant from them both; as also that two of + these troops (unless some other order be thought more fit) be directed to + strengthen the third, when they shall see the enemies' fleet to head + towards it: I say, that notwithstanding this provision, if the enemy, + setting sail from the Isle of Wight, in the first watch of the night, and + towing their long boats at their sterns, shall arrive by dawn of day at + the Nesse, and thrust their army on shore there, it will be hard for those + three thousand that are at Margat (twenty-and-four long miles from + thence), to come time enough to reinforce their fellows at the Nesse. Nay, + how shall they at Foulkstone be able to do it, who are nearer by more than + half the way? seeing that the enemy, at his first arrival, will either + make his entrance by force, with three or four shot of great artillery, + and quickly put the first three thousand that are entrenched at the Nesse + to run, or else give them so much to do that they shall be glad to send + for help to Foulkstone, and perhaps to Margat, whereby those places will + be left bare. Now let us suppose that all the twelve thousand Kentish + soldiers arrive at the Nesse, ere the enemy can be ready to disembarque + his army, so that he will find it unsafe to land in the face of so many + prepared to withstand him, yet must we believe that he will play the best + of his own game (having liberty to go which way he list), and under covert + of the night, set sail towards the east, where what shall hinder him to + take ground either at Margat, the Downes, or elsewhere, before they, at + the Nesse, can be well aware of his departure? Certainly there is nothing + more easy than to do it. Yea, the like may be said of Weymouth, Purbeck, + Poole, and of all landing-places on the south-west. For there is no man + ignorant, that ships without putting themselves out of breath, will easily + outrun the souldiers that coast them. 'LES ARMEES NE VOLENT POINT EN + POSTE;'—'Armies neither flye, nor run post,' saith a marshal of + France. And I know it to be true, that a fleet of ships may be seen at + sunset, and after it at the Lizard, yet by the next morning they may + recover Portland, whereas an army of foot shall not be able to march it in + six dayes. Again, when those troops lodged on the sea-shores, shall be + forced to run from place to place in vain, after a fleet of ships, they + will at length sit down in the midway, and leave all at adventure. But say + it were otherwise, that the invading enemy will offer to land in some such + place, where there shall be an army of ours ready to receive him; yet it + cannot be doubted, but that when the choice of all our trained bands, and + the choice of our commanders and captains, shall be drawn together (as + they were at Tilbury in the year 1588) to attend the person of the prince, + and for the defence of the city of London; they that remain to guard the + coast can be of no such force as to encounter an army like unto that + wherewith it was intended that the Prince of Parma should have landed in + England. + </p> + <p> + "For end of this digression, I hope that this question shall never come to + trial; his majestie's many moveable forts will forbid the experience. And + although the English will no less disdain that any nation under heaven can + do, to be beaten, upon their own ground, or elsewhere, by a foreign enemy; + yet to entertain those that shall assail us with their own beef in their + bellies, and before they eat of our Kentish capons, I take it to be the + wisest way; to do which his majesty, after God, will employ his good ships + on the sea, and not trust in any intrenchment upon the shore." + </p> + <p> + The introduction of steam as a propelling power at sea, has added tenfold + weight to these arguments of Raleigh, On the other hand, a + well-constructed system of railways, especially of coast-lines, aided by + the operation or the electric telegraph, would give facilities for + concentrating a defensive army to oppose an enemy on landing, and for + moving troops from place to place in observation of the movements of the + hostile fleet, such as would have astonished Sir Walter even more than the + sight of vessels passing rapidly to and fro without the aid of wind or + tide. The observation of the French marshal, whom he quotes, is now no + longer correct. Armies can be made to pass from place to place almost with + the speed of wings, and far more rapidly than any post-travelling that was + known in the Elizabethan or any other age. Still, the presence of a + sufficient armed force at the right spot, at the right time, can never be + made a matter of certainty; and even after the changes that have taken + place, no one can doubt but that the policy of Raleigh is that which + England should ever seek to follow in defensive war. At the time of the + Armada, that policy certainly saved the country, if not from conquest, at + least from deplorable calamities. If indeed the enemy had landed, we may + be sure that he would have been heroically opposed. But history shows us + so many examples of the superiority of veteran troops over new levies, + however numerous and brave, that without disparaging our countrymen's + soldierly merits, we may well be thankful that no trial of them was then + made on English land. Especially must we feel this, when we contrast the + high military genius of the Prince of Parma, who would have headed the + Spaniards, with the imbecility of the Earl of Leicester, to whom the + deplorable spirit of favouritism, which formed the greatest blemish in + Elizabeth's character, had then committed the chief command of the English + armies. + </p> + <p> + The ships of the royal navy at this time amounted to no more than + thirty-six; but the most serviceable merchant vessels were collected from + all the ports of the country; and the citizens of London, Bristol, and the + other great seats of commerce, showed as liberal a zeal in equipping and + manning vessels as the nobility and gentry displayed in mustering forces + by land. The seafaring population of the coast, of every rank and station, + was animated by the same ready spirit; and the whole number of seamen who + came forward to man the English fleet was 17,472. The number of the ships + that were collected was 191; and the total amount of their tonnage 31,985. + There was one ship in the fleet (the Triumph) of 1100 tons, one of 1000, + one of 900, two of 800 each, three of 600, five of 600, five of 400, six + of 300, six of 250, twenty of 200, and the residue of inferior burden. + Application was made to the Dutch for assistance; and, as Stows expresses + it, "The Hollanders came roundly in, with threescore sail, brave ships of + war, fierce and full of spleen, not so much for England's aid, as in just + occasion for their own defence; these men foreseeing the greatness of the + danger that might ensue, if the Spaniards should chance to win the day and + get the mastery over them; in due regard whereof their manly courage was + inferior to none." + </p> + <p> + We have more minute information of the numbers and equipment of the + hostile forces than we have of our own. In the first volume of Hakluyt's + "Voyages," dedicated to Lord Effingham, who commanded against the Armada, + there is given (from the contemporary foreign writer, Meteran) a more + complete and detailed catalogue than has perhaps ever appeared of a + similar armament. + </p> + <p> + "A very large and particular description of this navie was put in print + and published by the Spaniards; wherein was set downe the number, names, + and burthens of the shippes, the number of mariners and soldiers + throughout the whole fleete; likewise the quantitie of their ordinance, of + their armour of bullets, of match, of gun-poulder, of victuals, and of all + their navall furniture, was in the saide description particularized. Unto + all these were added the names of the governours, captaines, noblemen, and + gentlemen voluntaries, of whom there was so great a multitude, that scarce + was there any family of accompt, or any one principall man throughout all + Spaine, that had not a brother, sonne, or kinsman in that fleete; who all + of them were in good hope to purchase unto themselves in that navie (as + they termed it) invincible, endless glory and renown, and to possess + themselves of great seigniories and riches in England, and in the Low + Countreys. But because the said description was translated and published + out of Spanish into divers other languages, we will here only make an + abridgement or brief rehearsal thereof. + </p> + <p> + "Portugal furnished and set foorth under the conduct of the Duke of Medina + Sidonia, generall of the fleete, ten galeons, two zabraes, 1300 mariners, + 3300 souldiers, 300 great pieces, with all requisite furniture. + </p> + <p> + "Biscay, under the conduct of John Martines de Ricalde, admiral of the + whole fleete, set forth tenne galeons, four pataches, 700 mariners, 2000 + souldiers, 260 great pieces, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Guipusco, under the conduct of Michael de Orquendo, tenne galeons, four + pataches, 700 mariners, 2000 souldiers, 310 great pieces. + </p> + <p> + "Italy with the Levant Islands, under Martine de Vertendona, ten galeons, + 800 mariners, 2000 souldiers, 310 great pieces, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Castile, under Diego Flores de Valdez, fourteen galeons, two pataches, + 1700 mariners, 2400 souldiers, and 388 great pieces, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Andaluzia, under the conduct of Petro de Valdez, ten galeons, one + patache, 800 mariners, 2400 souldiers, 280 great pieces, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Item, under the conduct of John Lopez de Medina, twenty-three great + Flemish hulkes, with 700 mariners, 3200 souldiers, and 400 great pieces, + </p> + <p> + "Item, under Hugo de Moncada, fours galliasses, containing 1200 + gally-slaves, 460 mariners, 870 souldiers, 200 great pieces, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Item, under Diego de Mandrana, fours gallies of Portugall with 888 + gally-slaves, 360 mariners, twenty great pieces, and other requisite + furniture. + </p> + <p> + "Item, under Anthonie de Mendoza, twenty-two pataches and zabraes, with + 574 mariners, 488 souldiers, and 193 great pieces. + </p> + <p> + "Besides the ships aforementioned, there were twenty caravels rowed with + oares, being appointed to perform necessary services under the greater + ships, insomuch that all the ships appertayning to this navie amounted + unto the summe of 150, eche one being sufficiently provided of furniture + and victuals. + </p> + <p> + "The number of mariners in the saide fleete were above 8000, of slaves + 2088, of souldiers 20,000 (besides noblemen and gentlemen voluntaries), of + great cast pieces 2600. The aforesaid ships were of an huge and incredible + capacitie and receipt: for the whole fleete was large enough to contains + the burthen of 60,000 tunnes. + </p> + <p> + "The galeons were 64 in number, being of an huge bignesse, and very + flately built, being of marveilous force also, and so high, that they + resembled great castles, most fit to defend themselves and to withstand + any assault, but in giving any other ships the encounter farr inferiour + unto the English and Dutch ships, which can with great dexteritie weild + and turne themselves at all assayes. The upperworke of the said galeons + was of thicknesse and strength sufficient to bear off musket-shot. The + lower works and the timbers thereof were out of measure strong, being + framed of plankes and ribs fours or five foote in thicknesse, insomuch + that no bullets could pierce them, but such as were discharged hard at + hand; which afterward prooved true, for a great number of bullets were + found to sticke fast within the massie substance of those thicke plankes. + Great and well pitched cables were twined about the masts of their + shippes, to strengthen them against the battery of shot. + </p> + <p> + "The galliasses were of such bignesse, that they contained within them + chambers, chapels, turrets, pulpits, and other commodities of great + houses. The galliasses were rowed with great oares, there being in eche + one of them 300 slaves for the same purpose and were able to do great + service with the force of their ordinance. All these, together with the + residue aforenamed, were furnished and beautified with trumpets, + streamers, banners, warlike ensignes, and other such like ornaments. + </p> + <p> + "Their pieces of brazen ordinance were 1600, and of yron 1000. + </p> + <p> + "The bullets thereto belonging were 120 thousand. + </p> + <p> + "Item of gun-poulder, 5600 quintals. Of matche, 1200 quintals. Of muskets + and kaleivers, 7000. Of haleberts and partisans, 10,000. + </p> + <p> + "Moreover they had great store of canons, double-canons, culverings and + field-pieces for land services. + </p> + <p> + "Likewise they were provided of all instruments necessary on land to + conveigh and transport their furniture from place to place; as namely of + carts, wheeles, wagons, &c. Also they had spades, mattocks, and + baskets, to set pioners to works. They had in like sort great store of + mules and horses, and whatsoever else was requisite for a land-armie. They + were so well stored of biscuit, that for the space of halfe a yeere, they + might allow eche person in the whole fleete halfe a quintall every month; + whereof the whole summe amounteth unto an hundreth thousand quintals. + </p> + <p> + "Likewise of wine they had 147 thousand pipes, sufficient also for halfe a + yeeres expedition. Of bacon, 6500 quintals. Of cheese, three thousand + quintals. Besides fish, rise, beanes, pease, oils, vinegar, &c. + </p> + <p> + "Moreover they had 12,000 pipes of fresh water, and all other necessary + provision, as, namely, candles, lanternes, lampes, sailes, hempe, + oxe-hides, and lead to stop holes that should be made with the battery of + gun-shot. To be short, they brought all things expedient, either for a + fleete by sea, or for an armie by land. + </p> + <p> + "This navie (as Diego Pimentelli afterward confessed) was esteemed by the + king himselfe to containe 32,000 persons, and to cost him every day 30 + thousand ducates. + </p> + <p> + "There were in the said navie five terzaes of Spaniards (which terzaes the + Frenchmen call regiments), under the command of five governours, termed by + the Spaniards masters of the field, and amongst the rest there were many + olde and expert souldiers chosen out of the garisons of Sicilie, Naples, + and Tercera. Their captaines or colonels were Diego Pimentelli, Don + Francisco de Toledo, Don Alonco de Lucon, Don Nicolas de Isla, Don + Augustin de Mexia; who had each of them thirty-two companies under their + conduct. Besides the which companies, there were many bands also of + Castilians and Portugals, every one of which had their peculiar + governours, captains, officers, colours, and weapons." + </p> + <p> + While this huge armada was making ready in the southern ports of the + Spanish dominions, the Prince of Parma, with almost incredible toil and + skill, collected a squadron of war-ships at Dunkirk, and his flotilla of + other ships and of flat-bottomed boats for the transport to England of the + picked troops, which were designed to be the main instruments in subduing + England. Thousands of workmen were employed, night and day, in the + construction of these vessels, in the ports of Flanders and Brabant. One + hundred of the kind called hendes, built at Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent, + and laden with provision and ammunition, together with sixty flat-bottomed + boats, each capable of carrying thirty horses, were brought, by means of + canals and fosses, dug expressly for the purpose, to Nieuport and Dunkirk. + One hundred smaller vessels were equipped at the former place, and + thirty-two at Dunkirk, provided with twenty thousand empty barrels, and + with materials for making pontoons, for stopping up the harbours, and + raising forts and entrenchments. The army which these vessels were + designed to convey to England amounted to thirty thousand strong, besides + a body of four thousand cavalry, stationed at Courtroi, composed chiefly + of the ablest veterans of Europe; invigorated by rest, (the siege of Sluys + having been the only enterprise in which they were employed during the + last campaign,) and excited by the hopes of plunder and the expectation of + certain conquest. [Davis's Holland, vol. ii. p. 219.] And "to this great + enterprise and imaginary conquest, divers princes and noblemen came from + divers countries; out of Spain came the Duke of Pestrana, who was said to + be the son of Ruy Gomez de Silva, but was held to be the king's bastard; + the Marquis of Bourgou, one of the Archduke Ferdinand's sons, by + Philippina Welserine; Don Vespasian Gonzaga, of the house of Mantua, a + great soldier, who had been viceroy in Spain; Giovanni de Medici, Bastard + of Florence; Amedo, Bastard of Savoy, with many such like, besides others + of meaner quality." [Grimstone, cited in Southey.] + </p> + <p> + Philip had been advised by the deserter, Sir William Stanley, not to + attack England in the first instance, but first to effect a landing and + secure a strong position in Ireland; his admiral, Santa Cruz, had + recommended him to make sure, in the first instance, of some large harbour + on the coast of Holland or Zealand, where the Armada, having entered the + Channel, might find shelter in case of storm, and whence it could sail + without difficulty for England; but Philip rejected both these counsels, + and directed that England itself should be made the immediate object of + attack; and on the 20th of May the Armada left the Tagus, in the pomp and + pride of supposed invincibility, and amidst the shouts of thousands, who + believed that England was already conquered. But steering to the + northward, and before it was clear of the coast of Spain, the Armada, was + assailed by a violent storm, and driven back with considerable damage to + the ports of Biscay and Galicia. It had, however, sustained its heaviest + loss before it left the Tagus, in the death of the veteran admiral Santa + Cruz, who had been destined to guide it against England. + </p> + <p> + This experienced sailor, notwithstanding his diligence and success, had + been unable to keep pace with the impatient ardour of his master. Philip + II. had reproached him with his dilatoriness, and had said with ungrateful + harshness, "You make an ill return for all my kindness to you." These + words cut the veteran's heart, and proved fatal to Santa Cruz. Overwhelmed + with fatigue and grief, he sickened and died. Philip II. had replaced him + by Alonzo Perez de Gusman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, one of the most + powerful of the Spanish grandees, but wholly unqualified to command such + an expedition. He had, however, as his lieutenants, two sea men of proved + skill and bravery, Juan de Martinez Recalde of Biscay, and Miguel Orquendo + of Guipuzcoa. + </p> + <p> + The report of the storm which had beaten back the Armada reached England + with much exaggeration, and it was supposed by some of the queen's + counsellors that the invasion would now be deferred to another year. But + Lord Howard of Effingham, the lord high-admiral of the English fleet, + judged more wisely that the danger was not yet passed, and, as already + mentioned, had the moral courage to refuse to dismantle his principal + ships, though he received orders to that effect. But it was not Howard's + design to keep the English fleet in costly inaction, and to wait patiently + in our own harbours, till the Spaniards had recruited their strength, and + sailed forth again to attack us. The English seamen of that age (like + their successors) loved to strike better than to parry, though, when + emergency required, they could be patient and cautious in their bravery. + It was resolved to proceed to Spain, to learn the enemy's real condition, + and to deal him any blow for which there might be opportunity. In this + bold policy we may well believe him to have been eagerly seconded by those + who commanded under him. Howard and Drake sailed accordingly to Corunna, + hoping to surprise and attack some part of the Armada in that harbour; but + when near the coast of Spain, the north wind, which had blown up to that + time, veered suddenly to the south; and fearing that the Spaniards might + put to sea and pass him unobserved, Howard returned to the entrance of the + Channel, where he cruised for some time on the look-out for the enemy. In + part of a letter written by him at this period, he speaks of the + difficulty of guarding so large a breadth of sea—a difficulty that + ought not to be forgotten when modern schemes of defence against hostile + fleets from the south are discussed. "I myself," he wrote, "do lie in the + midst of the Channel, with the greatest force; Sir Francis Drake hath + twenty ships, and four or five pinnaces, which lie towards Ushant; and Mr. + Hawkins, with as many more, lieth towards Scilly. Thus we are fain to do, + or else with this wind they might pass us by, and we never the wiser. The + SLEEVE is another manner of thing than it was taken for: we find it by + experience and daily observation to be 100 miles over: a large room for me + to look unto!" But after some time further reports that the Spaniards were + inactive in their harbour, where they were suffering severely from + sickness, caused Howard also to relax in his vigilance; and he returned to + Plymouth with the greater part of his fleet. + </p> + <p> + On the 12th of July, the Armada having completely refitted, sailed again + for the Channel, and reached it without obstruction or observation by the + English. + </p> + <p> + The design of the Spaniards was, that the Armada should give them, at + least for a time, the command of the sea, and that it should join the + squadron which Parma had collected, off Calais. Then, escorted by an + overpowering naval force, Parma and his army were to embark in their + flotilla, and cross the sea to England where they were to be landed, + together with the troops which the Armada brought from the ports of Spain. + The scheme was not dissimilar to one formed against England a little more + than two centuries afterwards. + </p> + <p> + As Napoleon, in 1805, waited with his army and flotilla at Boulogne, + looking for Villeneuve to drive away the English cruisers, and secure him + a passage across the Channel, so Parma, in 1588, waited for Medina Sidonia + to drive away the Dutch and English squadrons that watched his flotilla, + and to enable his veterans to cross the sea to the land that they were to + conquer. Thanks to Providence, in each case England's enemy waited in + vain! + </p> + <p> + Although the numbers of sail which the queen's government, and the + patriotic zeal of volunteers, had collected for the defence of England + exceeded the number of sail in the Spanish fleet, the English ships were, + collectively, far inferior in size to their adversaries; their aggregate + tonnage being less by half than that of the enemy. In the number of guns, + and weight of metal, the disproportion was still greater. The English + admiral was also obliged to subdivide his force; and Lord Henry Seymour, + with forty of the best Dutch and English ships, was employed in blockading + the hostile ports in Flanders, and in preventing the Prince of Parma from + coming out of Dunkirk. + </p> + <p> + The orders of King Philip to the Duke de Medina Sidonia were, that he + should, on entering the Channel, keep near the French coast, and, if + attacked by the English ships, avoid an action, and steer on to Calais + roads, where the Prince of Parma's squadron was to join him. The hope of + surprising and destroying the English fleet in Plymouth, led the Spanish + admiral to deviate from these orders, and to stand across to the English + shore; but, on finding that Lord Howard was coming out to meet him, he + resumed the original plan, and determined to bend his way steadily towards + Calais and Dunkirk, and to keep merely on the defensive against such + squadrons of the English as might come up with him. + </p> + <p> + It was on Saturday, the 20th of July, that Lord Effingham came in sight of + his formidable adversaries. The Armada was drawn up in form of a crescent, + which from horn to horn measured some seven miles. There was a south-west + wind; and before it the vast vessels sailed slowly on. The English let + them pass by; and then, following in the rear, commenced an attack on + them. A running fight now took place, in which some of the best ships of + the Spaniards were captured; many more received heavy damage; while the + English vessels, which took care not to close with their huge antagonists, + but availed themselves of their superior celerity in tacking and + manoeuvring, suffered little comparative loss. Each day added not only to + the spirit, but to the number of Effingham's force. Raleigh, Oxford, + Cumberland, and Sheffield joined him; and "the gentlemen of England hired + ships from all parts at their own charge, and with one accord came + flocking thither as to a set field, where glory was to be attained, and + faithful service performed unto their prince and their country." + </p> + <p> + Raleigh justly praises the English admiral for his skilful tactics. He + says, [Historie of the World, p. 791.] "Certainly, he that will happily + perform a fight at sea, must be skillful in making choice of vessels to + fight in; he must believe that there is more belonging to a good + man-of-war, upon the waters, than great daring; and must know that there + is a great deal of difference between fighting loose or at large and + grappling. The guns of a slow ship pierce as well, and make as great + holes, as those in a swift. To clap ships together, without consideration, + belongs rather to a madman than to a man of war; for by such an ignorant + bravery was Peter Strossie lost at the Azores, when he fought against the + Marquis of Santa Cruza. In like sort had the Lord Charles Howard, admiral + of England, been lost in the year 1588, if he had not been better advised, + than a great many malignant fools were, that found fault with his + demeanour. The Spaniards had an army aboard them, and he had none; they + had more ships than he had, and of higher building and charging; so that, + had he entangled himself with those great and powerful vessels, he had + greatly endangered this kingdom of England. For, twenty men upon the + defences are equal to a hundred that board and enter; whereas then, + contrariwise, the Spaniards had a hundred, for twenty of ours, to defend + themselves withall. But our admiral knew his advantage, and held it: which + had he not done, he had not been worthy to have held his head." + </p> + <p> + The Spanish admiral also showed great judgment and firmness in following + the line of conduct that had been traced out for him; and on the 27th of + July he brought his fleet unbroken, though sorely distressed, to anchor in + Calais roads. But the King of Spain, had calculated ill the number and + activity of the English and Dutch fleets; as the old historian expresses + it, "It seemeth that the Duke of Parma and the Spaniards grounded upon a + vain and presumptuous expectation, that all the ships of England and of + the Low Countreys would at the first sight of the Spanish and Dunkerk + navie have betaken themselves to flight, yeelding them sea-room, and + endeavouring only to defend themselves, their havens, and sea-coasts from + invasion. Wherefore their intent and purpose was, that the Duke of Parma, + in his small and flat-bottomed ships should, as it were, under the shadow + and wing of the Spanish fleet, convey over all his troupes, armour, and + warlike provisions, and with their forces so united, should invade + England; or, while the English fleet were busied in fight against the + Spanish, should enter upon any part of the coast which he thought to be + most convenient. Which invasion (as the captives afterwards confessed) the + Duke of Parma thought first to have attempted by the river of Thames; upon + the banks whereof, having at the first arrivall landed twenty or thirty + thousand of his principall souldiers, he supposed that he might easily + have wonne the citie of London; both because his small shippes should have + followed and assisted his land-forces, and also for that the citie itselfe + was but meanely fortified and easie to overcome, by reason of the + citizens' delicacie and discontinuance from the warres, who, with + continuall and constant labour, might be vanquished, if they yielded not + at the first assault." [Hakluyt's Voyages, vol. i. 601.] + </p> + <p> + But the English and Dutch found ships and mariners enough to keep the + Armada itself in check, and at the same time to block up Parma's flotilla. + The greater part of Seymour's squadron left its cruising ground off + Dunkirk to join the English admiral off Calais; but the Dutch manned about + five-and-thirty sail of good ships, with a strong force of soldiers on + board, all well seasoned to the sea-service, and with these they blockaded + the Flemish ports that were in Parma's power. Still it was resolved by the + Spanish admiral and the prince to endeavour to effect a junction, which + the English seamen were equally resolute to prevent: and bolder measures + on our side now became necessary. + </p> + <p> + The Armada lay off Calais, with its largest ships ranged outside, "like + strong castles fearing no assault; the lesser placed in the middle ward." + The English admiral could not attack them in their position without great + disadvantage, but on the night of the 29th he sent eight fire-ships among + them, with almost equal effect to that of the fire-ships which the Greeks + so often employed against the Turkish fleets in their late war of + independence. The Spaniards cut their cables and put to sea in confusion. + One of the largest galeasses ran foul of another vessel and was stranded. + The rest of the fleet was scattered about on the Flemish coast, and when + the morning broke, it was with difficulty and delay that they obeyed their + admiral's signal to range themselves round him near Gravelines. Now was + the golden opportunity for the English to assail them, and prevent them + from ever letting loose Parma's flotilla against England; and nobly was + that opportunity used. Drake and Fenner were the first English captains + who attacked the unwieldy leviathans: then came Fenton, Southwell, Burton, + Cross, Raynor, and then the lord admiral, with Lord Thomas Howard and Lord + Sheffield. The Spaniards only thought of forming and keeping close + together, and were driven by the English past Dunkirk, and far away from + the Prince of Parma, who in watching their defeat from the coast, must, as + Drake expressed it, have chafed like a bear robbed of her whelps. This was + indeed the last and the decisive battle between the two fleets. It is, + perhaps, best described in the very words of the contemporary writer as we + may read them in Hakluyt. [Vol. i. p. 602.] + </p> + <p> + "Upon the 29th of July in the morning, the Spanish fleet after the forsayd + tumult, having arranged themselves againe into order, were, within sight + of Greveling, most bravely and furiously encountered by the English; where + they once again got the wind of the Spaniards; who suffered themselves to + be deprived of the commodity of the place in Calais road, and of the + advantage of the wind neer unto Dunkerk, rather than they would change + their array or separate their forces now conjoyned and united together, + standing only upon their defence. + </p> + <p> + "And howbeit there were many excellent and warlike ships in the English + fleet, yet scarce were there 22 or 23 among them all, which matched 90 of + the Spanish ships in the bigness, or could conveniently assault them. + Wherefore the English ships using their prerogative of nimble steerage, + whereby they could turn and wield themselves with the wind which way they + listed, came often times very near upon the Spaniards, and charged them so + sore, that now and then they were but a pike's length asunder: and so + continually giving them one broadside after another, they discharged all + their shot both great and small upon them, spending one whole day from + morning till night in that violent kind of conflict, untill such time as + powder and bullets failed them. In regard of which want they thought it + convenient not to pursue the Spaniards any longer, because they had many + great vantages of the English, namely, for the extraordinary bigness of + their ships, and also for that they were so neerley conjoyned, and kept + together in so good array, that they could by no meanes be fought withall + one to one. The English thought, therefore, that they had right well + acquitted themselves, in chasing the Spaniards first from Caleis, and then + from Dunkerk, and by that meanes to have hindered them from joyning with + the Duke of Parma his forces, and getting the wind of them, to have driven + them from their own coasts. + </p> + <p> + "The Spaniards that day sustained great loss and damage, having many of + their shippes shot thorow and thorow, and they discharged likewise great + store of ordinance against the English; who, indeed, sustained some + hindrance, but not comparable to the Spaniard's loss: for they lost not + any one ship or person of account, for very diligent inquisition being + made, the English men all that time wherein the Spanish navy sayled upon + their seas, are not found to have wanted aboue one hundred of their + people: albeit Sir Francis Drake's ship was pierced with shot above forty + times, and his very cabben was twice shot thorow, and about the conclusion + of the fight, the bed of a certaine gentleman, lying weary thereupon, was + taken quite from under him with the force of a bullet. Likewise, as the + Earle of Northumberland and Sir Charles Blunt were at dinner upon a time, + the bullet of a demy-culverin brake thorow the middest of their cabben, + touched their feet, and strooke downe two of the standers by, with many + such accidents befalling the English shippes, which it were tedious to + rehearse." + </p> + <p> + It reflects little credit on the English Government that the English fleet + was so deficiently supplied with ammunition, as to be unable to complete + the destruction of the invaders. But enough was done to ensure it. Many of + the largest Spanish ships were sunk or captured in the action of this day. + And at length the Spanish admiral, despairing of success, fled northward + with a southerly wind, in the hope of rounding Scotland, and so returning + to Spain without a farther encounter with the English fleet. Lord + Effingham left a squadron to continue the blockade of the Prince of + Parma's armament; but that wise general soon withdrew his troops to more + promising fields of action. Meanwhile the lord-admiral himself and Drake + chased the vincible Armada, as it was now termed, for some distance + northward; and then, when it seemed to bend away from the Scotch coast + towards Norway, it was thought best, in the words of Drake, "to leave them + to those boisterous and uncouth northern seas." + </p> + <p> + The sufferings and losses which the unhappy Spaniards sustained in their + flight round Scotland and Ireland, are well known. Of their whole Armada + only fifty-three shattered vessels brought back their beaten and wasted + crews to the Spanish coast which they had quitted in such pageantry and + pride. + </p> + <p> + Some passages from the writings of those who took part in the struggle, + have been already quoted; and the most spirited description of the defeat + of the Armada which ever was penned, may perhaps be taken from the letter + which our brave vice-admiral Drake wrote in answer to some mendacious + stories by which the Spaniards strove to hide their shame. Thus does he + describe the scenes in which he played so important a part: [See Strypo, + and the notes to the Life of Drake, in the "Biographia Britannica."] + </p> + <p> + "They were not ashamed to publish, in sundry languages in print, great + victories in words, which they pretended to have obtained against this + realm, and spread the same in a most false sort over all parts of France, + Italy, and elsewhere; when, shortly afterwards, it was happily manifested + in very deed to all nations, how their navy, which they termed invincible, + consisting of one hundred and forty sail of ships, not only of their own + kingdom, but strengthened with the greatest argosies, Portugal carracks, + Florentines, and large hulks of other countries, were by thirty of her + majesty's own ships of war, and a few of our own merchants, by the wise, + valiant, and advantageous conduct of the Lord Charles Howard, high-admiral + of England, beaten and shuffled together even from the Lizard in Cornwall, + first to Portland, when they shamefully left Don Pedro de Valdez with his + mighty ship; from Portland to Calais, where they lost Hugh de Moncado, + with the galleys of which he was captain; and from Calais driven with + squibs from their anchors, were chased out of the sight of England, round + about Scotland and Ireland. Where, for the sympathy of their religion, + hoping to find succour and assistance, a great part of them were crushed + against the rocks, and those others that landed, being very many in + number, were, notwithstanding, broken, slain, and taken; and so sent from + village to village, coupled in halters, to be shipped into England, where + her majesty, of her princely and invincible disposition, disdaining to put + them to death, and scorning either to retain or to entertain them, they + were all sent back again to their countries, to witness and recount the + worthy achievement of their invincible and dreadful navy. Of which the + number of soldiers, the fearful burthen of their ships, the commanders' + names of every squadron, with all others, their magazines of provision + were put in print, as an army and navy irresistible and disdaining + prevention: with all which their great and terrible ostentation, they did + not in all their sailing round about England so much as sink or take one + ship, bark, pinnace, or cockboat of ours, or even burn so much as one + sheep-cote on this land." + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, A.D. 1588; + AND THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, A.D. 1704. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1594. Henry IV. of France conforms to the Roman Catholic Church, and + ends the civil wars that had long desolated France. + </p> + <p> + 1598. Philip II. of Spain dies, leaving a ruined navy and an exhausted + kingdom. + </p> + <p> + 1603. Death of Queen Elizabeth. The Scotch dynasty of the Stuarts succeeds + to the throne of England. + </p> + <p> + 1619. Commencement of the Thirty Years' War in Germany. + </p> + <p> + 1624-1642. Cardinal Richelieu is minister of France. He breaks the power + of the nobility, reduces the Huguenots to complete subjection; and by + aiding the Protestant German princes in the latter part of the Thirty + Years' War, he humiliates France's ancient rival, Austria. + </p> + <p> + 1630. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, marches into Germany to the + assistance of the Protestants, who ware nearly crushed by the Austrian + armies. He gains several great victories, and, after his death, Sweden, + under his statesmen and generals, continues to take a leading part in the + war. + </p> + <p> + 1640. Portugal throws off the Spanish yoke: and the House of Braganza + begins to reign. + </p> + <p> + 1642. Commencement of the civil war in England between Charles I. and his + parliament. + </p> + <p> + 1648. The Thirty Years' War in Germany ended by the treaty of Westphalia. + </p> + <p> + 1653. Oliver Cromwell lord-protector of England. + </p> + <p> + 1660. Restoration of the Stuarts to the English throne. + </p> + <p> + 1661. Louis XIV. takes the administration of affairs in France into his + own hands. + </p> + <p> + 1667-1668. Louis XVI. makes war in Spain, and conquers a large part of the + Spanish Netherlands. + </p> + <p> + 1672. Louis makes war upon Holland, and almost overpowers it, Charles II. + of England is his pensioner, and England helps the French in their attacks + upon Holland until 1674. Heroic resistance of the Dutch under the Prince + of Orange. + </p> + <p> + 1674. Louis conquers Franche-Comte. + </p> + <p> + 1679. Peace of Nimeguen. + </p> + <p> + 1681. Louis invades and occupies Alsace. + </p> + <p> + 1682. Accession of Peter the Great to the throne of Russia. + </p> + <p> + 1685. Louis commences a merciless persecution of his Protestant subjects. + </p> + <p> + 1688. The glorious Revolution in England. Expulsion of James II. William + of Orange is made King of England. James takes refuge at the French court, + and Louis undertakes to restore him. General war in the west of Europe. + </p> + <p> + 1691. Treaty of Ryswick. Charles XII. becomes King of Sweden. + </p> + <p> + 1700. Charles II. of Spain dies, having bequeathed his dominions to Philip + of Anjou, Louis XIV.'s grandson. Defeat of the Russians at Narva, by + Charles XII. + </p> + <p> + 1701. William III. forms a "Grand Alliance" of Austria, the Empire, the + United Provinces, England, and other powers, against France. + </p> + <p> + 1702. King William dies; but his successor, Queen Anne, adheres to the + Grand Alliance, and war is proclaimed against France. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. — THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, 1704. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The decisive blow struck at Blenheim resounded through every + part of Europe: it at once destroyed the vast fabric of power + which it had taken Louis XIV., aided by the talents of Turenne, + and the genius of Vauban, so long to construct."—ALISON. +</pre> + <p> + Though more slowly moulded and less imposingly vast than the empire of + Napoleon, the power which Louis XIV. had acquired and was acquiring at the + commencement of the eighteenth century, was almost equally menacing to the + general liberties of Europe. If tested by the amount of permanent + aggrandisement which each procured for France, the ambition of the royal + Bourbon was more successful than were the enterprises of the imperial + Corsican. All the provinces that Bonaparte conquered, were rent again from + France within twenty years from the date when the very earliest of them + was acquired. France is not stronger by a single city or a single acre for + all the devastating wars of the Consulate and the Empire. But she still + possesses Franche-Comte, Alsace, and part of Flanders. She has still the + extended boundaries which Louis XIV. gave her. And the royal Spanish + marriages, a few years ago, proved clearly how enduring has been the + political influence which the arts and arms of France's "Grand Monarque" + obtained for her southward of the Pyrenees. + </p> + <p> + When Louis XIV. took the reins of government into his own hands, after the + death of Cardinal Mazarin, there was a union of ability with opportunity, + such as France had not seen since the days of Charlemagne. Moreover, + Louis's career was no brief one. For upwards of forty years, for a period + nearly equal to the duration of Charlemagne's reign, Louis steadily + followed an aggressive and a generally successful policy. He passed a long + youth and manhood of triumph, before the military genius of Marlborough + made him acquainted with humiliation and defeat. The great Bourbon lived + too long. He should not have outstayed our two English kings—one his + dependent, James II., the other his antagonist, William III. Had he died + in the year within which they died, his reign would be cited as unequalled + in the French annals for its prosperity. But he lived on to see his armies + beaten, his cities captured, and his kingdom wasted by disastrous war. It + is as if Charlemagne had survived to be defeated by the Northmen, and to + witness the misery and shame that actually fell to the lot of his + descendants. + </p> + <p> + Still, Louis XIV. had forty years of success; and from the permanence of + their fruits we may judge what the results would have been if the last + fifteen years of his reign had been equally fortunate. Had it not been for + Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French + conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent, and those of the Romans + in durability. + </p> + <p> + When Louis XIV. began to govern, he found all the materials for a strong + government ready to his hand. Richelieu had completely tamed the turbulent + spirit of the French nobility, and had subverted the "imperium in imperio" + of the Huguenots. The faction of the Frondeurs in Mazarin's time had had + the effect of making the Parisian parliament utterly hateful and + contemptible in the eyes of the nation. The assemblies of the + States-General were obsolete. The royal authority alone remained. The King + was the State. Louis knew his position. He fearlessly avowed it, and he + fearlessly acted up to it. ["Quand Louis XIV. dit, 'L'etat, c'est moi:' il + n'y eut dans cette parole ni enflure, ni vanterie, mais la simple + enonciation d'un fait."—MICHELET, HISTOIRE MODERNE vol. ii. p. 106.] + </p> + <p> + Not only was his government a strong one, but the country which he + governed was strong: strong in its geographical situation, in the + compactness of its territory, in the number and martial spirit of its + inhabitants, and in their complete and undivided nationality. Louis had + neither a Hungary nor an Ireland in his dominions, and it was not till + late in his reign, when old age had made his bigotry more gloomy, and had + given fanaticism the mastery over prudence, that his persecuting + intolerance caused the civil war in the Cevennes. + </p> + <p> + Like Napoleon in after-times, Louis XIV. saw clearly that the great wants + of France were "ships, colonies, and commerce." But Louis did more than + see these wants: by the aid of his great minister, Colbert, he supplied + them. One of the surest proofs of the genius of Louis was his skill in + finding out genius in others, and his promptness in calling it into + action. Under him, Louvois organized, Turenne, Conde, Villars and Berwick, + led the armies of France; and Vauban fortified her frontiers. Throughout + his reign, French diplomacy was marked by skilfulness and activity, and + also by comprehensive far-sightedness, such as the representatives of no + other nation possessed. Guizot's testimony to the vigour that was + displayed through every branch of Louis XIV.'s government, and to the + extent to which France at present is indebted to him, is remarkable. He + says, that, "taking the public services of every kind, the finances, the + departments of roads and public works, the military administration, and + all the establishments which belong to every branch of administration, + there is not one that will not be found to have had its origin, its + development, or its greatest perfection, under the reign of Louis XIV." + [History of European Civilization, Lecture 13.] And he points out to us, + that "the government of Louis XIV. was the first that presented itself to + the eyes of Europe as a power acting upon sure grounds, which had not to + dispute its existence with inward enemies, but was at ease as to its + territory and its people, and solely occupied with the task of + administering government, properly so called. All the European governments + had been previously thrown into incessant wars, which deprived them of all + security as well as of all leisure, or so harassed by internal parties or + antagonists, that their time was passed in fighting for existence. The + government of Louis XIV. was the first to appear as a busy thriving + administration of affairs, as a power at once definitive and progressive, + which was not afraid to innovate, because it could reckon securely on the + future. There have been in fact very few governments equally innovating. + Compare it with a government of the same nature, the unmixed monarchy of + Philip II. in Spain; it was more absolute than that of Louis XIV., and yet + it was far less regular and tranquil. How did Philip II. succeed in + establishing absolute power in Spain? By stifling all activity in the + country, opposing himself to every species of amelioration, and rendering + the state of Spain completely stagnant. The government of Louis XIV., on + the contrary, exhibited alacrity for all sorts of innovations, and showed + itself favourable to the progress of letters, arts, wealth in short, of + civilization. This was the veritable cause of its preponderance in Europe, + which arose to such a pitch, that it became the type of a government not + only to sovereigns, but also to nations, during the seventeenth century." + </p> + <p> + While France was thus strong and united in herself, and ruled by a + martial, an ambitious, and (with all his faults) an enlightened and + high-spirited sovereign, what European power was there fit to cope with + her, or keep her in check? + </p> + <p> + "As to Germany, the ambitious projects of the German branch of Austria had + been entirely defeated, the peace of the empire had been restored, and + almost a new constitution formed, or an old revived, by the treaties of + Westphalia; NAY, THE IMPERIAL EAGLE WAS NOT ONLY FALLEN, BUT HER WINGS + WERE CLIPPED." [Bolingbroke, vol. ii. p. 378. Lord Bolingbroke's "Letters + on the Use of History," and his "Sketch of the History and State of + Europe," abound with remarks on Louis XIV. and his contemporaries, of + which the substance is as sound as the style is beautiful. Unfortunately, + like all his other works, they contain also a large proportion of + sophistry and misrepresentation. The best test to use before we adopt any + opinion or assertion of Bolingbroke's, is to consider whether in writing + it he was thinking either of Sir Robert Walpole or of Revealed Religion. + When either of these objects of his hatred was before his mind, he + scrupled at no artifice or exaggeration that; might serve the purpose of + his malignity. On most other occasions he may be followed with advantage, + as he always may be read with pleasure.] + </p> + <p> + "As to Spain, the Spanish branch of the Austrian house had sunk equally + low. Philip II. left his successors a ruined monarchy. He left them + something worse; he left them his example and his principles of + government, founded in ambition, in pride, in ignorance, in bigotry, and + all the pedantry of state." [Bolingbroke, vol. ii. p. 378.] + </p> + <p> + It is not, therefore, to be wondered at, that France, in the first war of + Louis XIV., despised the opposition of both branches of the once + predominant house of Austria. Indeed, in Germany the French king acquired + allies among the princes of the Empire against the emperor himself. He had + a still stronger support in Austria's misgovernment of her own subjects. + The words of Bolingbroke on this are remarkable, and some of them sound as + if written within the last three years. Bolingbroke says, "It was not + merely the want of cordial co-operation among the princes of the Empire + that disabled the emperor from acting with vigour in the cause of his + family then, nor that has rendered the house of Austria a dead weight upon + all her allies ever since. Bigotry, and its inseparable companion, + cruelty, as well as the tyranny and avarice of the court of Vienna, + created in those days, and has maintained in ours, almost a perpetual + diversion of the imperial arms from all effectual opposition to France. I + MEAN TO SPEAK OF THE TROUBLES IN HUNGARY. WHATEVER THEY BECAME IN THEIR + PROGRESS, THEY WERE CAUSED ORIGINALLY BY THE USERPATIONS AND PERSECUTIONS + OF THE EMPEROR; AND WHEN THE HUNGARIANS WERE CALLED REBELS FIRST, THEY + WERE CALLED SO FOR NO OTHER REASON THAN THIS, THAT THEY WOULD NOT BE + SLAVES. The dominion of the emperor being less supportable than that of + the Turks, this unhappy people opened a door to the latter to infest the + empire, instead of making their country, what it had been before, a + barrier against the Ottoman power. France became a sure though secret ally + of the Turks, as well as the Hungarians, and has found her account in it, + by keeping the emperor in perpetual alarms on that side, while she has + ravaged the Empire and the Low Countries on the other." [Bolingbroke, vol. + ii. p. 397.] + </p> + <p> + If, after having seen the imbecility of Germany and Spain against the + France of Louis XIV., we turn to the two only remaining European powers of + any importance at that time, to England and to Holland, we find the + position of our own country as to European politics, from 1660 to 1688, + most painful to contemplate. From 1660 to 1688, "England, by the return of + the Stuarts, was reduced to a nullity." The words are Michelet's, + [Histoire Moderne, vol. ii. p.106.] and though severe they are just. They + are, in fact, not severe enough: for when England, under her restored + dynasty of the Stuarts, did take any part in European politics, her + conduct, or rather her king's conduct, was almost invariably wicked and + dishonourable. + </p> + <p> + Bolingbroke rightly says that, "previous to the Revolution of 1688, during + the whole progress that Louis XIV. made in obtaining such exorbitant + power, as gave him well-grounded hopes of acquiring at last to his family + the Spanish monarchy, England had been either an idle spectator of what + passed on the continent, or a faint and uncertain ally against France, or + a warm and sure ally on her side, or a partial mediator between her and + the powers confederated together in their common defence. But though the + court of England submitted to abet the usurpations of France, and the King + of England stooped to be her pensioner, the crime was not national. On the + contrary, the nation cried out loudly against it even whilst it was being + committed." [Bolingbroke, vol. ii p. 418.] + </p> + <p> + Holland alone, of all the European powers, opposed from the very beginning + a steady and uniform resistance to the ambition and power of the French + king. It was against Holland that the fiercest attacks of France were + made, and though often apparently on the eve of complete success, they + were always ultimately baffled by the stubborn bravery of the Dutch, and + the heroism of their leader, William of Orange. When he became king of + England, the power of this country was thrown decidedly into the scale + against France; but though the contest was thus rendered less unequal, + though William acted throughout "with invincible firmness, like a patriot + and a hero," [Bolingbroke, vol, ii, p.404.] France had the general + superiority in every war and in every treaty: and the commencement of the + eighteenth century found the last league against her dissolved, all the + forces of the confederates against her dispersed, and many disbanded; + while France continued armed, with her veteran forces by sea and land + increased, and held in readiness to act on all sides, whenever the + opportunity should arise for seizing on the great prizes which, from the + very beginning of his reign, had never been lost sight of by her king. + </p> + <p> + This is not the place for any narrative of the first essay which Louis + XIV. made of his power in the war of 1667; of his rapid conquest of + Flanders and Franche-Comte; of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which "was + nothing more than a composition between the bully and the bullied;" [Ibid + p. 399.] of his attack on Holland in 1672; of the districts and + barrier-towns of the Spanish Netherlands which were secured to him by the + treaty of Nimeguen in 1678; of how, after this treaty, he "continued to + vex both Spain and the Empire, and to extend his conquests in the Low + Countries and on the Rhine, both by the pen and the sword; how he took + Luxembourg by force, stole Strasburg, and bought Casal;" of how the league + of Augsburg was formed against him in 1686, and the election of William of + Orange to the English throne in 1688, gave a new spirit to the opposition + which France encountered; of the long and chequered war that followed, in + which the French armies were generally victorious on the continent, though + his fleet was beaten at La Hogue, and his dependent, James II,, was + defeated at the Boyne, or of the treaty of Ryswick, which left France in + possession of Roussillon, Artois, and Strasburg, which gave Europe no + security against her claims on the Spanish succession, and which Louis + regarded as a mere truce, to gain breathing-time before a more decisive + struggle. It must be borne in mind that the ambition of Louis in these + wars was twofold. It had its immediate and its ulterior objects. Its + immediate object was to conquer and annex to France the neighbouring + provinces and towns that were most convenient for the increase of her + strength; but the ulterior object of Louis, from the time of his marriage + to the Spanish Infanta in 1659, was to acquire for the house of Bourbon + the whole empire of Spain. A formal renunciation of all right to the + Spanish succession had been made at the time of the marriage; but such + renunciations were never of any practical effect, and many casuists and + jurists of the age even held them to be intrinsically void, as time passed + on, and the prospect of Charles II. of Spain dying without lineal heirs + became more and more certain, so did the claims of the house of Bourbon to + the Spanish crown after his death become matters of urgent interest to + French ambition on the one hand, and to the other powers of Europe on the + other. At length the unhappy King of Spain died. By his will he appointed + Philip, Duke of Anjou, one of Louis XIV.'s grandsons, to succeed him on + the throne of Spain, and strictly forbade any partition of his dominions. + Louis well knew that a general European war would follow if he accepted + for his house the crown thus bequeathed. But he had been preparing for + this crisis throughout his reign. He sent his grandson into Spain as King + Philip V. of that country, addressing to him on his departure the + memorable words, "There are no longer any Pyrenees." + </p> + <p> + The empire, which now received the grandson of Louis as its king, + comprised, besides Spain itself, the strongest part of the Netherlands, + Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, the principality of Milan, and other possessions + in Italy, the Philippines and Marilla Islands in Asia, and, in the New + World, besides California and Florida the greatest part of Central and of + Southern America. Philip was well received in Madrid, where he was crowned + as King Philip V. in the beginning of 1701. The distant portions of his + empire sent in their adhesion; and the house of Bourbon, either by its + French or Spanish troops, now had occupation both of the kingdom of + Francis I., and of the fairest and amplest portion of the empire of the + great rival of Francis, Charles V. + </p> + <p> + Loud was the wrath of Austria, whose princes were the rival claimants of + the Bourbons for the empire of Spain. The indignation of William III., + though not equally loud, was far more deep and energetic. By his exertions + a league against the house of Bourbon was formed between England, Holland, + and the Austrian Emperor, which was subsequently joined by the kings of + Portugal and Prussia, by the Duke of Savoy, and by Denmark. Indeed, the + alarm throughout Europe was now general and urgent. It was clear that + Louis aimed a consolidating France and the Spanish dominions into one + preponderating empire. At the moment when Philip was departing to take + possession of Spain, Louis had issued letters-patent in his favour to the + effect of preserving his rights to the throne of France. And Louis had + himself obtained possession of the important frontier of the Spanish + Netherlands, with its numerous fortified cities, which were given up to + his troops under pretence of securing them for the young King of Spain. + Whether the formal union of the two crowns was likely to take place + speedily or not, it was evident that the resources of the whole Spanish + monarchy were now virtually at the French king's disposal. + </p> + <p> + The peril that seemed to menace the empire, England, Holland, and the + other independent powers, is well summed up by Alison: "Spain had + threatened the liberties of Europe in the end of the sixteenth century, + France had all but overthrown them in the close of the seventeenth. What + hope was there of their being able to make head against them both, united + under such a monarch as Louis XIV.?" [Military History of the Duke of + Marlborough, p. 32.] + </p> + <p> + Our knowledge of the decayed state into which the Spanish power had + fallen, ought not to make us regard their alarms as chimerical. Spain + possessed enormous resources, and her strength was capable of being + regenerated by a vigorous ruler. We should remember what Alberoni + effected, even after the close of the War of Succession. By what that + minister did in a few years, we may judge what Louis XIV. would have done + in restoring the maritime and military power of that great country which + nature has so largely gifted, and which man's misgovernment has so + debased. + </p> + <p> + The death of King William on the 8th of March, 1702, at first seemed + likely to paralyse the league against France, for "notwithstanding the + ill-success with which he made war generally, he was looked upon as the + sole centre of union that could keep together the great confederacy then + forming; and how much the French feared from his life, had appeared a few + years before, in the extravagant and indecent joy they expressed on a + false report of his death. A short time showed how vain the fears of some, + and the hopes of others were." [Bolingbroke, vol. ii. p. 445.] Queen Anne, + within three days after her accession, went down to the House of Lords, + and there declared her resolution to support the measures planned by her + predecessor, who had been "the great support, not only of these kingdoms, + but of all Europe." Anne was married to Prince George of Denmark, and by + her accession to the English throne the confederacy against Louis obtained + the aid of the troops of Denmark; but Anne's strong attachment to one of + her female friends led to far more important advantages to the + anti-Gallican confederacy, than the acquisition of many armies, for it + gave them MARLBOROUGH as their Captain-General. + </p> + <p> + There are few successful commanders on whom Fame has shone so unwillingly + as upon John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, Prince of the Holy Roman + Empire,—victor of Blenheim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet,—captor + of Liege, Bonn, Limburg, Landau, Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Oudenarde, + Ostend, Menin, Dendermonde, Ath, Lille, Tourney, Mons, Douay, Aire, + Bethune, and Bouchain; who never fought a battle that he did not win, and + never besieged a place that he did not take. Marlborough's own private + character is the cause of this. Military glory may, and too often does, + dazzle both contemporaries and posterity, until the crimes as well as the + vices of heroes are forgotten. But even a few stains of personal meanness + will dim a soldier's reputation irreparably; and Marlborough's faults were + of a peculiarly base and mean order. Our feelings towards historical + personages are in this respect like our feelings towards private + acquaintances. There are actions of that shabby nature, that, however much + they may be outweighed by a man's good deeds on a general estimate of his + character, we never can feel any cordial liking for the person who has + been guilty of them. Thus, with respect to the Duke of Marlborough, it + goes against our feelings to admire the man, who owed his first + advancement in life to the court-favour which he and his family acquired + through his sister becoming one of the mistresses of the Duke of York. It + is repulsive to know that Marlborough laid the foundation of his wealth by + being the paid lover of one of the fair and frail favourites of Charles + II. His treachery and ingratitude to his patron and benefactor, James II., + stand out in dark relief, even in that age of thankless perfidy. He was + almost equally disloyal to his new master, King William; and a more + un-English act cannot be recorded than Godolphin's and Marlborough's + betrayal to the French court in 1694 of the expedition then designed + against Brest, an act of treason which caused some hundreds of English + soldiers and sailors to be helplessly slaughtered on the beach in Camaret + Bay. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, only in his military career that we have now to consider + him; and there are very few generals, of either ancient or modern times, + whose campaigns will bear a comparison with those of Marlborough, either + for the masterly skill with which they were planned, or for the bold yet + prudent energy with which each plan was carried into execution. + Marlborough had served while young under Turenne, and had obtained the + marked praise of that great tactician. It would be difficult, indeed, to + name a single quality which a general ought to have, and with which + Marlborough was not eminently gifted. What principally attracted the + notice of contemporaries, was the imperturbable evenness of his spirit. + Voltaire [Siecle de Louis Quatorze.] says of him:—"He had, to a + degree above all other generals of his time, that calm courage in the + midst of tumult, that serenity of soul in danger, which the English call a + COOL HEAD (que les Anglais appellant COOL HEAD, TETE FROID), and it was + perhaps this quality, the greatest gift of nature for command, which + formerly gave the English so many advantages over the French in the plains + of Cressy, Poictiers, and Agincourt." + </p> + <p> + King William's knowledge of Marlborough's high abilities, though he knew + his faithlessness equally well, is said to have caused that sovereign in + his last illness to recommend Marlborough to his successor as the fittest + person to command her armies: but Marlborough's favour with the new queen + by means of his wife was so high, that he was certain of obtaining the + highest employment: and the war against Louis opened to him a glorious + theatre for the display of those military talents, which he had before + only had an opportunity of exercising in a subordinate character, and on + far less conspicuous scenes. + </p> + <p> + He was not only made captain-general of the English forces at home and + abroad, but such was the authority of England in the council of the Grand + Alliance, and Marlborough was so skilled in winning golden opinions from + all whom he met with, that, on his reaching the Hague, he was received + with transports of joy by the Dutch, and it was agreed by the heads of + that republic, and the minister of the emperor, that Marlborough should + have the chief command of all the allied armies. + </p> + <p> + It must indeed, in justice to Marlborough, be borne in mind, that mere + military skill was by no means all that was required of him in this + arduous and invidious station. Had it not been for his unrivalled patience + and sweetness of temper, and his marvellous ability in discerning the + character of those with whom he had to act, his intuitive perception of + those who were to be thoroughly trusted, and of those who were to be + amused with the mere semblance of respect and confidence,—had not + Marlborough possessed and employed, while at the head of the allied + armies, all the qualifications of a polished courtier and a great + statesman, he never would have led the allied armies to the Danube. The + Confederacy would not have held together for a single year. His great + political adversary, Bolingbroke, does him ample justice here. + Bolingbroke, after referring to the loss which King William's death seemed + to inflict on the cause of the Allies, observes that, "By his death the + Duke of Marlborough was raised to the head of the army, and, indeed, of + the Confederacy; where he, a new, a private man, a subject, acquired by + merit and by management, a more deciding influence, than high birth, + confirmed authority, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given to + King William. Not only all the parts of that vast machine, the Grand + Alliance, were kept more compact and entire; but a more rapid and vigorous + motion was given to the whole; and instead of languishing and disastrous + campaigns, we saw every scene of the war full of action. All those wherein + he appeared and many of those wherein he was not then an actor, but + abettor, however, of their action, were crowned with the most triumphant + success. + </p> + <p> + "I take with pleasure this opportunity of doing justice to that great man, + whose faults I knew, whose virtues I admired; and whose memory, as the + greatest general and as the greatest minister that our country, or perhaps + any other, has produced, I honour." [Bolingbroke, vol. ii. p. 445.] + </p> + <p> + War, was formally declared by the allies against France on the 4th of May, + 1702. The principal scenes of its operation were, at first, Flanders, the + Upper Rhine, and North Italy. Marlborough headed the allied troops in + Flanders during the first two years of the war, and took some towns from + the enemy, but nothing decisive occurred. Nor did any actions of + importance take place during this period, between the rival armies in + Italy. But in the centre of that line from north to south, from the mouth + of the Scheldt to the mouth of the Po, along which the war was carried on, + the generals of Louis XIV. acquired advantages in 1703, which threatened + one chief member of the Grand Alliance with utter destruction. France had + obtained the important assistance of Bavaria, as her confederate in the + war. The Elector of this powerful German state made himself master of the + strong fortress of Ulm, and opened a communication with the French armies + on the Upper Rhine. By this junction, the troops of Louis were enabled to + assail the Emperor in the very heart of Germany. In the autumn of the year + 1703, the combined armies of the Elector and French king completely + defeated the Imperialists in Bavaria; and in the following winter they + made themselves masters of the important cities of Augsburg and Passau. + Meanwhile the French army of the Upper Rhine and Moselle had beaten the + allied armies opposed to them, and taken Treves and Landau. At the same + time the discontents in Hungary with Austria again broke out into open + insurrection, so as to distract the attention, and complete the terror of + the Emperor and his council at Vienna. + </p> + <p> + Louis XIV. ordered the next campaign to be commenced by his troops on a + scale of grandeur and with a boldness of enterprise, such as even + Napoleon's military schemes have seldom equalled. On the extreme left of + the line of the war, in the Netherlands, the French armies were to act + only on the defensive. The fortresses in the hands of the French there, + were so many and so strong that no serious impression seemed likely to be + made by the Allies on the French frontier in that quarter during one + campaign; and that one campaign was to give France such triumphs elsewhere + as would (it was hoped) determine the war. Large detachments were, + therefore, to be made from the French force in Flanders, and they were to + be led by Marshal Villeroy to the Moselle and Upper Rhine. The French army + already in the neighbourhood of those rivers was to march under Marshal + Tallard through the Black Forest, and join the Elector of Bavaria and the + French troops that were already with the Elector under Marshal Marsin. + Meanwhile the French army of Italy was to advance through the Tyrol into + Austria, and the whole forces were to combine between the Danube and the + Inn. A strong body of troops was to be despatched into Hungary, to assist + and organize the insurgents in that kingdom; and the French grand army of + the Danube was then, in collected and irresistible might, to march upon + Vienna, and dictate terms of peace to the Emperor. High military genius + was shown in the formation of this plan, but it was met and baffled by a + genius higher still. + </p> + <p> + Marlborough had watched, with the deepest anxiety, the progress of the + French arms on the Rhine and in Bavaria, and he saw the futility of + carrying on a war of posts and sieges in Flanders, while death-blows to + the empire were being dealt on the Danube. He resolved therefore to let + the war in Flanders languish for a year, while he moved with all the + disposable forces that he could collect to the central scenes of decisive + operations. Such a march was in itself difficult, but Marlborough had, in + the first instance, to overcome the still greater difficulty of obtaining + the consent and cheerful co-operation of the Allies, especially of the + Dutch, whose frontier it was proposed thus to deprive of the larger part + of the force which had hitherto been its protection. Fortunately, among + the many slothful, the many foolish, the many timid, and the not few + treacherous rulers, statesmen, and generals of different nations with whom + he had to deal, there were two men, eminent both in ability and integrity, + who entered fully into Marlborough's projects, and who, from the stations + which they occupied, were enabled materially to forward them. One of these + was the Dutch statesman Heinsius, who had been the cordial supporter of + King William, and who now, with equal zeal and good faith, supported + Marlborough in the councils of the Allies; the other was the celebrated + general Prince Eugene, whom the Austrian cabinet had recalled from the + Italian frontier, to take the command of one of the Emperor's armies in + Germany. To these two great men, and a few more, Marlborough communicated + his plan freely and unreservedly; but to the general councils of his + allies he only disclosed part, of his daring scheme. He proposed to the + Dutch that he should march from Flanders to the Upper Rhine and Moselle, + with the British troops and part of the Foreign auxiliaries, and commence + vigorous operations against the French armies in that quarter, whilst + General Auverquerque, with the Dutch and the remainder of the auxiliaries, + maintained a defensive war in the Netherlands. Having with difficulty + obtained the consent of the Dutch to this portion of his project, he + exercised the same diplomatic zeal, with the same success, in urging the + King of Prussia, and other princes of the empire, to increase the number + of the troops which they supplied, and to post them in places convenient + for his own intended movements. + </p> + <p> + Marlborough commenced his celebrated march on the 19th of May. The army, + which he was to lead, had been assembled by his brother, General + Churchill, at Bedburg, not far from Maestricht on the Meuse: it included + sixteen thousand English troops, and consisted of fifty-one battalions of + foot, and ninety-two squadrons of horse. Marlborough was to collect and + join with him on his march the troops of Prussia, Luneburg, and Hesse, + quartered on the Rhine, and eleven Dutch battalions that were stationed at + Rothweil. [Coxe's Life of Marlborough.] He had only marched a single day, + when the series of interruptions, complaints, and requisitions from the + other leaders of the Allies began, to which he seemed doomed throughout + his enterprise, and which would have caused its failure in the hands of + any one not gifted with the firmness and the exquisite temper of + Marlborough. One specimen of these annoyances and of Marlborough's mode of + dealing with them may suffice. On his encamping at Kupen, on the 20th, he + received an express from Auverquerque pressing him to halt, because + Villeroy, who commanded the French army in Flanders, had quitted the + lines, which he had been occupying, and crossed the Meuse at Namur with + thirty-six battalions and forty-five squadrons, and was threatening the + town of Huys. At the same time Marlborough received letters from the + Margrave of Baden and Count Wratislaw, who commanded the Imperialist + forces at Stollhoffen near the left bank of the Rhine, stating that + Tallard had made a movement, as if intending to cross the Rhine, and + urging him to hasten his march towards the lines of Stollhoffen. + Marlborough was not diverted by these applications from the prosecution of + his grand design. Conscious that the army of Villeroy would be too much + reduced to undertake offensive operations, by the detachments which had + already been made towards the Rhine, and those which must follow his own + march, he halted only a day to quiet the alarms of Auverquerque. To + satisfy also the margrave he ordered the troops of Hompesch and Bulow to + draw towards Philipsburg, though with private injunctions not to proceed + beyond a certain distance. He even exacted a promise to the same effect + from Count Wratislaw, who at this juncture arrived at the camp to attend + him during the whole campaign. [Coxe.] + </p> + <p> + Marlborough reached the Rhine at Coblentz, where he crossed that river, + and then marched along its right bank to Broubach and Mentz. His march, + though rapid, was admirably conducted, so as to save the troops from all + unnecessary fatigue; ample supplies of provisions were ready, and the most + perfect discipline was maintained. By degrees Marlborough obtained more + reinforcements from the Dutch and the other confederates, and he also was + left more at liberty by them to follow his own course. Indeed, before even + a blow was struck, his enterprise had paralysed the enemy, and had + materially relieved Austria from the pressure of the war. Villeroy, with + his detachments from the French-Flemish army, was completely bewildered by + Marlborough's movements; and, unable to divine where it was that the + English general meant to strike his blow, wasted away the early part of + the summer between Flanders and the Moselle without effecting anything. + ["Marshal Villeroy," says Voltaire, "who had wished to follow Marlborough + on his first marches, suddenly lost sight of him altogether, and only + learned where he really was, on hearing of his victory at Donauwert."—SIECLE + DE LOUIS XIV.] + </p> + <p> + Marshal Tallard, who commanded forty-five thousand men at Strasburg, and + who had been destined by Louis to march early in the year into Bavaria, + thought that Marlborough's march along the Rhine was preliminary to an + attack upon Alsace; and the marshal therefore kept his forty-five thousand + men back in order to support France in that quarter. Marlborough skilfully + encouraged his apprehensions by causing a bridge to be constructed across + the Rhine at Philipsburg, and by making the Landgrave of Hesse advance his + artillery at Manheim, as if for a siege of Landau. Meanwhile the Elector + of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin, suspecting that Marlborough's design might + be what it really proved to be, forbore to press upon the Austrians + opposed to them, or to send troops into Hungary; and they kept back so as + to secure their communications with France. Thus, when Marlborough, at the + beginning of June, left the Rhine and marched for the Danube, the numerous + hostile armies were uncombined, and unable to check him. + </p> + <p> + "With such skill and science had this enterprise been concerted, that at + the very moment when it assumed a specific direction, the enemy was no + longer enabled to render it abortive. As the march was now to be bent + towards the Danube, notice was given for the Prussians, Palatines, and + Hessians, who were stationed on the Rhine, to order their march so as to + join the main body in its progress. At the same time directions were sent + to accelerate the advance of the Danish auxiliaries, who were marching + from the Netherlands." [Coxe.] + </p> + <p> + Crossing the river Neckar, Marlborough marched in a south-eastern + direction to Mundelshene, where he had his first personal interview with + Prince Eugene, who was destined to be his colleague on so many glorious + fields. Thence, through a difficult and dangerous country, Marlborough + continued his march against the Bavarians, whom he encountered on the 2d + of July, on the heights of the Schullenberg near Donauwert. Marlborough + stormed their entrenched camp, crossed the Danube, took several strong + places in Bavaria, and made himself completely master of the Elector's + dominions, except the fortified cities of Munich and Augsburg. But the + Elector's army, though defeated at Donauwert, was still numerous and + strong; and at last Marshal Tallard, when thoroughly apprised of the real + nature of Marlborough's movements, crossed the Rhine. He was suffered + through the supineness of the German general at Stollhoffen, to march + without loss through the Black Forest, and united his powerful army at + Biberach near Augsburg, with that of the Elector and the French troops + under Marshal Marsin, who had previously been co-operating with the + Bavarians. On the other hand, Marlborough re-crossed the Danube, and on + the 11th of August united his army with the Imperialist forces under + Prince Eugene. The combined armies occupied a position near Hochstadt, a + little higher up the left bank of the Danube than Donauwert, the scene of + Marlborough's recent victory, and almost exactly on the ground where + Marshal Villars and the Elector had defeated an Austrian army in the + preceding year. The French marshals and the Elector were now in position a + little farther to the east, between Blenheim and Lutzingen, and with the + little stream of the Nebel between them and the troops of Marlborough and + Eugene. The Gallo-Bavarian army consisted of about sixty thousand men, and + they had sixty-one pieces of artillery. "The army of the Allies was about + fifty-six thousand strong, with fifty-two guns." [A short time before the + War of the Succession the musquet and bayonet had been made the arms of + all the French infantry. It had formerly been usual to mingle pike-men + with musqueteers. The other European nations followed the example of + France, and the weapons used at Blenheim were substantially the same as + those still employed.] + </p> + <p> + Although the French army of Italy had been unable to penetrate into + Austria, and although the masterly strategy of Marlborough had hitherto + warded off the destruction with which the cause of the Allies seemed + menaced at the beginning of the campaign, the peril was still most + serious. It was absolutely necessary for Marlborough to attack the enemy, + before Villeroy should be roused into action. There was nothing to stop + that general and his army from marching into Franconia, whence the Allies + drew their principal supplies; and besides thus distressing them, he + might, by marching on and joining his army to those of Tallard and the + Elector, form a mass which would overwhelm the force under Marlborough and + Eugene. On the other hand, the chances of a battle seemed perilous, and + the fatal consequences of a defeat were certain. The inferiority of the + Allies in point of number was not very great, but still it was not to be + disregarded; and the advantage which the enemy seemed to have in the + composition of their troops was striking. Tallard and Marsin had + forty-five thousand Frenchmen under them, all veterans, and all trained to + act together: the Elector's own troops also were good soldiers. + Marlborough, like Wellington at Waterloo, headed an army, of which the + larger proportion consisted not of English, but of men of many different + nations, and many different languages. He was also obliged to be the + assailant in the action, and thus to expose his troops to comparatively + heavy loss at the commencement of the battle, while the enemy would fight + under the protection of the villages and lines which they were actively + engaged in strengthening. The consequences of a defeat of the confederated + army must have broken up the Grand Alliance, and realised the proudest + hopes of the French king. Mr. Alison, in his admirable military history of + the Duke of Marlborough, has truly stated the effects which would have + taken place if France had been successful in the war. And, when the + position of the Confederates at the time when Blenheim was fought is + remembered; when we recollect the exhaustion of Austria, the menacing + insurrection of Hungary, the feuds and jealousies of the German princes, + the strength and activity of the Jacobite party in England, the imbecility + of nearly all the Dutch statesmen of the time, and the weakness of Holland + if deprived of her allies, we may adopt his words in speculating on what + would have ensued, if France had been victorious in the battle, and "if a + power, animated by the ambition, guided by the fanaticism and directed by + the ability of that of Louis XIV., had gained the ascendancy in Europe. + Beyond all question, a universal despotic dominion would have been + established over the bodies, a cruel spiritual thraldom over the minds of + men. France and Spain united under Bourbon princes, and in a close family + alliance—the empire of Charlemagne with that of Charles V.—the + power which revolted the edict of Nantes, and perpetrated the massacre of + St. Bartholomew, with that which banished the Moriscoes, and established + the Inquisition, would have proved irresistible, and beyond example + destructive to the best interests of mankind. + </p> + <p> + "The Protestants might have been driven, like the Pagan heathens of old by + the son of Pepin, beyond the Elbe; the Stuart race, and with them Romish, + ascendancy, might have been re-established in England; the fire lighted by + Latimer and Ridley might have been extinguished in blood; and the energy + breathed by religious freedom into the Anglo-Saxon race might have + expired. The destinies of the world would have been changed. Europe, + instead of a variety of independent states, whose mutual, hostility kept + alive courage, while their national rivalry stimulated talent, would have + sunk into the slumber attendant on universal dominion. The colonial empire + of England would have withered away and perished, as that of Spain has + done in the grasp of the Inquisition. The Anglo-Saxon race would have been + arrested in its mission to overspread the earth and subdue it. The + centralised despotism of the Roman empire would have been renewed on + Continental Europe; the chains of Romish tyranny, and with them the + general infidelity of France before the Revolution, would have + extinguished or perverted thought in the British islands." [Alison's Life + of Marlborough, p. 248.] + </p> + <p> + Marlborough's words at the council of war, when a battle was resolved on, + are remarkable, and they deserve recording. We know them on the authority + of his chaplain, Mr. (afterwards Bishop) Hare, who accompanied him + throughout the campaign, and in whose journal the biographers of + Marlborough have found many of their best materials. Marborough's words to + the officers who remonstrated with him on the seeming temerity of + attacking the enemy in their position, were—"I know the danger, yet + a battle is absolutely necessary; and I rely on the bravery and discipline + of the troops, which will make amends for our disadvantages." In the + evening orders were issued for a general engagement, and received by the + army with an alacrity which justified his confidence. + </p> + <p> + The French and Bavarians were posted behind a little stream called the + Nebel, which runs almost from north to south into the Danube immediately + in front of the village of Blenheim. The Nebel flows along a little + valley, and the French occupied the rising ground to the west of it. The + village of Blenheim was the extreme right of their position, and the + village of Lutzingen, about three miles north of Blenheim, formed their + left. Beyond Lutzingen are the rugged high grounds of the Godd Berg, and + Eich Berg, on the skirts of which some detachments were posted so as to + secure the Gallo-Bavarian position from being turned on the left flank. + The Danube protected their right flank; and it was only in front that they + could be attacked. The villages of Blenheim and Lutzingen had been + strongly palisadoed and entrenched. Marshal Tallard, who held the chief + command, took his station at Blenheim: Prince Maximilian the Elector, and + Marshal Marsin commanded on the left. Tallard garrisoned Blenheim with + twenty-six battalions of French infantry, and twelve squadrons of French + cavalry. Marsin and the Elector had twenty-two battalions of infantry, and + thirty-six squadrons of cavalry in front of the village of Lutzingen. The + centre was occupied by fourteen battalions of infantry, including the + celebrated Irish Brigade. These were posted in the little hamlet of + Oberglau, which lies somewhat nearer to Lutzingen than to Blenheim. Eighty + squadrons of cavalry and seven battalions of foot were ranged between + Oberglau and Blenheim. Thus the French position was very strong at each + extremity, but was comparatively weak in the centre. Tallard seems to have + relied on the swampy state of the part of the valley that reaches from + below Oberglau to Blenheim, for preventing any serious attack on this part + of his line. + </p> + <p> + The army of the Allies was formed into two great divisions: the largest + being commanded by the Duke in person, and being destined to act against + Tallard, while Prince Eugene led the other division, which consisted + chiefly of cavalry, and was intended to oppose the enemy under Marsin and + the Elector. As they approached the enemy, Marlborough's troops formed the + left and the centre, while Eugene's formed the right of the entire army. + Early in the morning of the 13th of August, the Allies left their own camp + and marched towards the enemy. A thick haze covered the ground, and it was + not until the allied right and centre had advanced nearly within + cannon-shot of the enemy that Tallard was aware of their approach. He made + his preparations with what haste he could, and about eight o'clock a heavy + fire of artillery was opened from the French right on the advancing left + wing of the British. Marlborough ordered up some of his batteries to reply + to it, and while the columns that were to form the allied left and centre + deployed, and took up their proper stations in the line, a warm cannonade + was kept up by the guns on both sides. + </p> + <p> + The ground which Eugene's columns had to traverse was peculiarly + difficult, especially for the passage of the artillery; and it was nearly + mid-day before he could get his troops into line opposite to Lutzingen. + During this interval, Marlborough ordered divine service to be performed + by the chaplains at the head of each regiment; and then rode along the + lines, and found both officers and men in the highest spirits, and waiting + impatiently for the signal for the the attack. At length an aide-de-camp + galloped up from the right with the welcome news that Eugene was ready. + Marlborough instantly sent Lord Cutts, with a strong brigade of infantry, + to assault the village of Blenheim, while he himself led the main body + down the eastward slope of the valley of the Nebel, and prepared to effect + the passage of the stream. + </p> + <p> + The assault on Blenheim, though bravely made, was repulsed with severe + loss; and Marlborough, finding how strongly that village was garrisoned, + desisted from any further attempts to carry it, and bent all his energies + to breaking the enemy's line between Blenheim and Oberglau. Some temporary + bridges had been prepared, and planks and fascinas had been collected; and + by the aid of these and a little stone bridge which crossed the Nebel, + near a hamlet called Unterglau, that lay in the centre of the valley, + Marlborough succeeded in getting several squadrons across the Nebel, + though it was divided into several branches, and the ground between them + was soft, and in places, little better than a mere marsh. But the French + artillery was not idle. The cannon balls plunged incessantly among the + advancing squadrons of the allies; and bodies of French cavalry rode + frequently down from the western ridge, to charge them before they had + time to form on the firm ground. It was only by supporting his men by + fresh troops, and by bringing up infantry, who checked the advance of the + enemy's horse by their steady fire, that Marlborough was able to save his + army in this quarter from a repulse, which, following the failure of the + attack upon Blenheim, would probably have been fatal to the Allies. By + degrees, his cavalry struggled over the blood-stained streams; the + infantry were also now brought across, so as to keep in check the French + troops who held Blenheim, and who, when no longer assailed in front, had + begun to attack the Allies on their left with considerable effect. + </p> + <p> + Marlborough had thus at last succeeded in drawing up the whole left wing + of his army beyond the Nebel, and was about to press forward with it, when + he was called away to another part of the field by a disaster that had + befallen his centre. The Prince of Holstein-Beck had, with eleven + Hanoverian battalions, passed the Nebel opposite to Oberglau, when he was + charged and utterly routed by the Irish brigade which held that village. + The Irish drove the Hanoverians back with heavy slaughter, broke + completely through the line of the Allies, and nearly achieved a success + as brilliant as that which the same brigade afterwards gained at Fontenoy. + But at Blenheim their ardour in pursuit led them too far. Marlborough came + up in person, and dashed in upon their exposed flank with some squadrons + of British cavalry. The Irish reeled back, and as they strove to regain + the height of Oberglau, their column was raked through and through by the + fire of three battalions of the Allies, which Marlborough had summoned up + from the reserve. Marlborough having re-established the order and + communication of the Allies in this quarter, now, as he returned to his + own left wing, sent to learn how his colleague fared against Marsin and + the Elector, and to inform Eugene of his own success. + </p> + <p> + Eugene had hitherto not been equally fortunate. He had made three attacks + on the enemy opposed to him, and had been thrice driven back. It was only + by his own desperate personal exertions, and the remarkable steadiness of + the regiments of Prussian infantry which were under him, that he was able + to save his wing from being totally defeated. But it was on the southern + part of the battle-field, on the ground which Marlborough had won beyond + the Nebel with such difficulty, that the crisis of the battle was to be + decided. + </p> + <p> + Like Hannibal, Marlborough relied principally on his cavalry for achieving + his decisive successes, and it was by his cavalry that Blenheim, the + greatest of his victories, was won. The battle had lasted till five in the + afternoon. Marlborough had now eight thousand horseman drawn up in two + lines, and in the most perfect order for a general attack on the enemy's + line along the space between Blenheim and Oberglau. The infantry was drawn + up in battalions in their rear, so as to support them if repulsed, and to + keep in check the large masses of the French that still occupied the + village of Blenheim. Tallard now interlaced his squadrons of cavalry with + battalions of infantry; and Marlborough by a corresponding movement, + brought several regiments of infantry, and some pieces of artillery, to + his front line, at intervals between the bodies of horse. A little after + five, Marlborough commenced the decisive movement, and the allied cavalry, + strengthened and supported by foot and guns, advanced slowly from the + lower ground near the Nebel up the slope to where the French cavalry, ten + thousand strong, awaited them. On riding over the summit of the acclivity, + the Allies were received with so hot a fire from the French artillery and + small arms, that at first the cavalry recoiled, but without abandoning the + high ground. The guns and the infantry which they had brought with them, + maintained the contest with spirit and effect. The French fire seemed to + slacken Marlborough instantly ordered a charge along the line. The allied + cavalry galloped forward at the enemy's squadrons, and the hearts of the + French horseman failed them. Discharging their carbines at an idle + distance, they wheeled round and spurred from the field, leaving the nine + infantry battalions of their comrades to be ridden down by the torrent of + the allied cavalry. The battle was now won. Tallard and Marsin, severed + from each other, thought only of retreat. Tallard drew up the squadrons of + horse which he had left in a line extended towards Blenheim, and sent + orders to the infantry in that village to leave and join him without + delay. But long ere his orders could be obeyed, the conquering squadrons + of Marlborough had wheeled to the left and thundered down on the feeble + army of the French marshal. Part of the force which Tallard had drawn up + for this last effort was driven into the Danube; part fled with their + general to the village of Sonderheim, where they were soon surrounded by + the victorious Allies, and compelled to surrender. Meanwhile, Eugene had + renewed his attack upon the Gallo-Bavarian left, and Marsin, finding his + colleague utterly routed, and his own right flank uncovered, prepared to + retreat. He and the Elector succeeded in withdrawing a considerable part + of their troops in tolerable order to Dillingen; but the large body of + French who garrisoned Blenheim were left exposed to certain destruction. + Marlborough speedily occupied all the outlets from the village with his + victorious troops, and then, collecting his artillery round it, he + commenced a cannonade that speedily would have destroyed Blenheim itself + and all who were in it. After several gallant but unsuccessful attempts to + cut their way through the Allies, the French in Blenheim were at length + compelled to surrender at discretion; and twenty-four battalions, and + twelve squadrons, with all their officers, laid down their arms, and + became the captives of Marlborough. + </p> + <p> + "Such," says Voltaire, "was the celebrated battle, which the French call + the battle of Hochstet, the Germans Plentheim, and the English Blenheim, + The conquerors had about five thousand killed, and eight thousand wounded, + the greater part being on the side of Prince Eugene. The French army was + almost entirely destroyed: of sixty thousand men, so long victorious, + there never reassembled more than twenty thousand effective. About twelve + thousand killed, fourteen thousand prisoners, all the cannon, a prodigious + number of colours and standards, all the tents and equipages, the general + of the army, and one thousand two hundred officers of mark, in the power + of the conqueror, signalised that day!" + </p> + <p> + Ulm, Landau, Treves, and Traerbach surrendered to the allies before the + close of the year. Bavaria submitted to the emperor, and the Hungarians + laid down their arms. Germany was completely delivered from France; and + the military ascendancy of the arms of the Allies was completely + established. Throughout the rest of the war Louis fought only in defence. + Blenheim had dissipated for ever his once proud visions of almost + universal conquest. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM, 1704, AND THE BATTLE OF + PULTOWA, 1709. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1705. The Archduke Charles lands in Spain with a small English army + under Lord Peterborough, who takes Barcelona. + </p> + <p> + 1706. Marlborough's victory at Ramilies. + </p> + <p> + 1707. The English army in Spain is defeated at the battle of Almanza. + </p> + <p> + 1708. Marlborough's victory at Oudenarde. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. — THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA, 1709. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Dread Pultowa's day, + When fortune left the royal Swede, + Around a slaughtered army lay, + No more to combat and to bleed. + The power and fortune of the war + Had passed to the triumphant Czar."—BYRON. +</pre> + <p> + Napoleon prophesied at St. Helena, that all Europe would soon be either + Cossack or Republican. Four years ago, the fulfilment of the last of these + alternatives appeared most probable. But the democratic movements of 1848 + were sternly repressed in 1849. The absolute authority of a single ruler, + and the austere stillness of martial law, are now paramount in the + capitals of the continent, which lately owned no sovereignty save the will + of the multitude; and where that which the democrat calls his sacred right + of insurrection, was so loudly asserted and so often fiercely enforced. + Many causes have contributed to bring about this reaction, but the most + effective and the most permanent have been Russian influence and Russian + arms. Russia is now the avowed and acknowledged champion of Monarchy + against Democracy;—of constituted authority, however acquired, + against revolution and change for whatever purpose desired;—of the + imperial supremacy of strong states over their weaker neighbours against + all claims for political independence, and all striving for separate + nationality. She has crushed the heroic Hungarians; and Austria, for whom + nominally she crushed them, is now one of her dependents. Whether the + rumours of her being about to engage in fresh enterprises be well or ill + founded, it is certain that recent events must have fearfully augmented + the power of the Muscovite empire, which, even previously, had been the + object of well-founded anxiety to all Western Europe. + </p> + <p> + It was truly stated, twelve years ago, that "the acquisitions which Russia + has made within the [then] last sixty-four years, are equal in extent and + importance to the whole empire she had in Europe before that time; that + the acquisitions she had made from Sweden are greater than what remains of + that ancient kingdom; that her acquisitions from Poland are as large as + the whole Austrian empire; that the territory she has wrested from Turkey + in Europe is equal to the dominions of Prussia, exclusive of her Rhenish + provinces; and that her acquisitions from Turkey in Asia are equal in + extent to all the smaller states of Germany, the Rhenish provinces of + Prussia, Belgium, and Holland taken together; that the country she has + conquered from Persia is about the size of England; that her acquisitions + in Tartary have an area equal to Turkey in Europe, Greece, Italy, and + Spain. In sixty-four years she has advanced her frontier eight hundred and + fifty miles towards Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, Munich, and Paris; she has + approached four hundred and fifty miles nearer to Constantinople; she has + possessed herself of the capital of Poland, and has advanced to within a + few miles of the capital of Sweden, from which, when Peter the Great + mounted the throne, her frontier was distant three hundred miles. Since + that time she has stretched herself forward about one thousand miles + towards India, and the same distance towards the capital of Persia." + [Progress of Russia in the East. p. 142.] + </p> + <p> + Such, at that period, had been the recent aggrandisement of Russia; and + the events of the last few years, by weakening and disuniting all her + European neighbours, have immeasurably augmented the relative superiority + of the Muscovite empire over all the other continental powers. + </p> + <p> + With a population exceeding sixty millions, all implicitly obeying the + impulse of a single ruling mind; with a territorial area of six millions + and a half of square miles; with a standing army eight hundred thousand + strong; with powerful fleets on the Baltic and Black Seas; with a skilful + host of diplomatic agents planted in every court, and among every tribe; + with the confidence which unexpected success creates, and the sagacity + which long experience fosters, Russia now grasps with an armed right hand + the tangled thread of European politics, and issues her mandate as the + arbitress of the movements of the age. Yet a century and a half have + hardly elapsed since she was first recognised as a member of the drama of + modern European history—previously to the battle of Pultowa, Russia + played no part. Charles V. and his great rival our Elizabeth and her + adversary Philip of Spain, the Guises, Sully, Richelieu, Cromwell, De + Witt, William of Orange, and the other leading spirits of the sixteenth + and seventeenth centuries, thought no more about the Muscovite Czar than + we now think about the King of Timbuctoo. Even as late as 1735, Lord + Bollingbroke, in his admirable "Letters on History," speaks of the history + of the Muscovites, as having no relation to the knowledge which a + practical English statesman ought to acquire. [Bolingbroke's Works, vol + ii. p. 374. In the same page he observes how Sweden had often turned her + arms southwards with prodigious effect.] It may be doubted whether a + cabinet council often takes place now in our Foreign Office, without + Russia being uppermost in every English statesman's thoughts. + </p> + <p> + But though Russia remained thus long unheeded amid her snows, there was a + northern power, the influence of which was acknowledged in the principal + European quarrels, and whose good will was sedulously courted by many of + the boldest chiefs and ablest councillors of the leading states. This was + Sweden; Sweden, on whose ruins Russia has risen; but whose ascendancy over + her semi-barbarous neighbours was complete, until the fatal battle that + now forms our subject. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1542 France had sought the alliance of Sweden to aid her in + her struggle against Charles V. And the name of Gustavus Adolphus is of + itself sufficient to remind us, that in the great contest for religious + liberty, of which Germany was for thirty years the arena, it was Sweden + that rescued the falling cause of Protestantism; and it was Sweden that + principally dictated the remodelling of the European state system at the + peace of Westphalia. + </p> + <p> + From the proud pre-eminence in which the valour of the "Lion of the North" + and of Torstenston, Bannier, Wrangel and the other Generals of Gustavus, + guided by the wisdom of Oxenstiern, had placed Sweden, the defeat of + Charles XII. at Pultowa hurled her down at once and for ever. Her efforts + during the wars of the French revolution to assume a leading part in + European politics, met with instant discomfiture, and almost provoked + derision. But the Sweden, whose sceptre was bequeathed to Christina, and + whose alliance Cromwell valued so highly, was a different power from the + Sweden of the present day. Finland, Ingria, Livonia, Esthonia, Carelia, + and other districts east of the Baltic, then were Swedish provinces; and + the possession of Pomerania, Rugen, and Bremen, made her an important + member of the Germanic empire. These territories are now all reft from + her; and the most valuable of them form the staple of her victorious + rival's strength. Could she resume them, could the Sweden of 1648 be + reconstructed, we should have a first-class Scandinavian State in the + North, well qualified to maintain the balance of power, and check the + progress of Russia; whose power, indeed, never could have become + formidable to Europe, save by Sweden becoming weak. + </p> + <p> + The decisive triumph of Russia over Sweden at Pultowa was therefore + all-important to the world, on account of what it overthrew as well as for + what it established; and it is the more deeply interesting because it was + not merely the crisis of a struggle between two states, but it was a trial + of strength between two great races of mankind. We must bear in mind, that + while the Swedes, like the English, the Dutch, and others, belong to the + Germanic race, the Russians are a Sclavonic people. Nations of Sclavonian + origin have long occupied the greater part of Europe eastward of the + Vistula, and the populations also of Bohemia, Croatia, Servia, Dalmatia, + and other important regions westward of that river, are Sclavonic. In the + long and varied conflicts between them and the Germanic nations that + adjoin them, the Germanic race had, before Pultowa, almost always + maintained a superiority. With the single but important exception of + Poland, no Sclavonic state had made any considerable figure in history + before the time when Peter the Great won his great victory over the + Swedish king. [The Hussite wars may, perhaps, entitle Bohemia to be + distinguished.] What Russia has done since that time we know and we feel. + And some of the wisest and best men of our own age and nation, who have + watched with deepest care the annals and the destinies of humanity, have + believed that the Sclavonic element in the population of Europe has as yet + only partially developed its powers: that, while other races of mankind + (our own, the Germanic, included) have exhausted their creative energies, + and completed their allotted achievements, the Sclavonic race has yet a + great career to run: and, that the narrative of Sclavonic ascendancy is + the remaining page that; will conclude the history of the world. [See + Arnold's Lectures on Modern History, pp. 36-39.] + </p> + <p> + Let it not be supposed that in thus regarding the primary triumph of + Russia over Sweden as a victory of the Sclavonic over the Germanic race, + we are dealing with matters of mere ethnological pedantry, or with themes + of mere speculative curiosity. The fact that Russia is a Sclavonic empire, + is a fact of immense practical influence at the present moment. Half the + inhabitants of the Austrian empire are Sclavonian. The population of the + larger part of Turkey in Europe is of the same race. Silesia, Posen, and + other parts of the Prussian dominions are principally Sclavonic. And + during late years an enthusiastic zeal for blending all Sclavonians into + one great united Sclavonic empire, has been growing up in these countries, + which, however we may deride its principle, is not the less real and + active, and of which Russia, as the head and champion of the Sclavonic + race, knows well how to take her advantage. + </p> + <p> + ["The idea of Panslavism had a purely literary origin. It was started by + Pollar, a Protestant clergyman of the Sclavonic congregation at Pesth, in + Hungary, who wished to establish a national literature, by circulating all + works, written in the various Sclavonic dialects, through every country + where any of them are spoken. He suggested, that all the Slavonic literati + should become acguainted with the sister dialects, so that a Bohemian, or + other work, might be read on the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on the + banks of the Volga, or any other place where a Sclavonic language was + spoken; by which means an extensive literature might be created, tending + to advance knowledge in all Sclavonic countries; and he supported his + arguments by observing, that the dialects of ancient Greece differed from + each other, like those of his own language, and yet that they formed only + one Hellenic literature. The idea of an intellectual union of all those + nations naturally led to that of a political one; and the Sclavonians, + seeing that their numbers amounted to about one-third part of the whole + population of Europe, and occupied more than half its territory, began to + be sensible that they might claim for themselves a position, to which they + had not hitherto aspired. + </p> + <p> + "The opinion gained ground; and the question now is, whether the + Slavonians can form a nation independent of Russia; or whether they ought + to rest satisfied in being part of one great race, with the most powerful + member of it as their chief. The latter, indeed, is gaining ground amongst + them; and some Poles are disposed to attribute their sufferings to the + arbitrary will of the Czar, without extending the blame to the Russians + themselves. These begin to think that, if they cannot exist as Poles, the + best thing to be done is to rest satisfied with a position in the + Sclavonic empire, and they hope that, when once they give up the idea of + restoring their country, Russia may grant some concessions to their + separate nationality. + </p> + <p> + "The same idea has been put forward by writers in the Russian interest; + great efforts are making among other Sclavonic people, to induce them to + look upon Russia as their future head; and she has already gained + considerable influence over the Sclavonic populations of Turkey."—WILKINSON'S + DALMATIA.] + </p> + <p> + It is a singular fact that Russia owes her very name to a band of Swedish + invaders who conquered her a thousand years ago. They were soon absorbed + in the Sclavonic population, and every trace of the Swedish character had + disappeared in Russia for many centuries before her invasion by Charles + XII. She was long the victim and the slave of the Tartars; and for many + considerable periods of years the Poles held her in subjugation. Indeed, + if we except the expeditions of some of the early Russian chiefs against + Byzantium, and the reign of Ivan Vasilovitch, the history of Russia before + the time of Peter the Great is one long tale of suffering and degradation. + </p> + <p> + But whatever may have been the amount of national injuries that she + sustained from Swede, from Tartar, or from Pole in the ages of her + weakness, she has certainly retaliated ten-fold during the century and a + half of her strength. Her rapid transition at the commencement of that + period from being the prey of every conqueror to being the conqueror of + all with whom she comes into contact, to being the oppressor instead of + the oppressed, is almost without a parallel in the history of nations. It + was the work of a single ruler; who, himself without education, promoted + science and literature among barbaric millions; who gave them fleets, + commerce, arts, and arms; who, at Pultowa, taught them to face and beat + the previously invincible Swedes: and who made stubborn valour, and + implicit subordination, from that time forth the distinguishing + characteristics of the Russian soldiery, which had before his time been a + mere disorderly and irresolute rabble. + </p> + <p> + The career of Philip of Macedon resembles most nearly that of the great + Muscovite Czar: but there is this important difference, that Philip had, + while young, received in Southern Greece the best education in all matters + of peace and war that the ablest philosophers and generals of the age + could bestow. Peter was brought up among barbarians, and in barbaric + ignorance. He strove to remedy this when a grown man, by leaving all the + temptations to idleness and sensuality, which his court offered, and by + seeking instruction abroad. He laboured with his own hands as a common + artisan in Holland and in England, that he might return and teach his + subjects how ships, commerce, and civilization could be acquired. There is + a degree of heroism here superior to anything that we know of in the + Macedonian king. But Philip's consolidation of the long disunited + Macedonian empire,—his raising a people which he found the scorn of + their civilized southern neighbours, to be their dread,—his + organization of a brave and well-disciplined army, instead of a disorderly + militia,—his creation of a maritime force, and his systematic skill + in acquiring and improving sea-ports and arsenals,—his patient + tenacity of purpose under reverses,—his personal bravery,—and + even his proneness to coarse amusements and pleasures,—all mark him + out as the prototype of the imperial founder of the Russian power. In + justice, however, to the ancient hero, it ought to be added, that we find + in the history of Philip no examples of that savage cruelty which deforms + so grievously the character of Peter the Great. + </p> + <p> + In considering the effects of the overthrow which the Swedish arms + sustained at Pultowa, and in speculating on the probable consequences that + would have followed if the invaders had been successful we must not only + bear in mind the wretched state In which Peter found Russia at his + accession, compared with her present grandeur, but we must also keep in + view the fact, that, at the time when Pultowa was fought, his reforms were + yet incomplete, and his new institutions immature. He had broken up the + old Russia; and the New Russia, which he ultimately created, was still in + embryo. Had he been crushed at Pultowa, his mighty schemes would have been + buried with him; and (to use the words of Voltaire) "the most extensive + empire in the world would have relapsed into the chaos from which it had + been so lately taken." It is this fact that makes the repulse of Charles + XII. the critical point in the fortunes of Russia. The danger which she + incurred a century afterwards from her invasion by Napoleon was in reality + far less than her peril when Charles attacked her; though the French + Emperor, as a military genius, was infinitely superior to the Swedish + King, and led a host against her, compared with which the armies of + Charles seem almost insignificant. But, as Fouche well warned his imperial + master, when he vainly endeavoured to dissuade him from his disastrous + expedition against the empire of the Czars, the difference between the + Russia of 1812 and the Russia of 1709 was greater, than the disparity + between the power of Charles and the might of Napoleon. "If that heroic + king," said Fouche, "had not, like your imperial Majesty, half Europe in + arms to back him, neither had his opponent, the Czar Peter, 400,000 + soldiers, and 60,000 Cossacks." The historians, who describe the state of + the Muscovite empire when revolutionary and imperial France encountered + it, narrate with truth and justice, how "at the epoch of the French + Revolution this immense empire, comprehending nearly half of Europe and + Asia within its dominions, inhabited by a patient and indomitable race, + ever ready to exchange the luxury and adventure of the south for the + hardships and monotony of the north, was daily becoming more formidable to + the liberties of Europe. The Russian infantry had then long been + celebrated for its immoveable firmness. Her immense population, amounting + then in Europe alone to nearly thirty-five millions, afforded an + inexhaustible supply of men. Her soldiers, inured to heat and cold from + their infancy, and actuated by a blind devotion to their Czar, united the + steady valour of the English to the impetuous energy of the French + troops." [Alison.] So, also, we read how the haughty aggressions of + Bonaparte "went to excite a national feeling, from the banks of the + Borysthenes to the wall of China, and to unite against him the wild and + uncivilized inhabitants of an extended empire, possessed by a love to + their religion, their government, and their country, and having a + character of stern devotion, which he was incapable of estimating." + [Scott's Life of Napoleon] But the Russia of 1709 had no such forces to + oppose to an assailant. Her whole population then was below sixteen + millions; and, what is far more important, this population had neither + acquired military spirit, nor strong nationality; nor was it united in + loyal attachment to its ruler. + </p> + <p> + Peter had wisely abolished the old regular troops of the empire, the + Strelitzes; but the forces which he had raised in their stead on a new and + foreign plan, and principally officered with foreigners, had, before the + Swedish invasion, given no proof that they could be relied on. In numerous + encounters with the Swedes, Peter's soldiery had run like sheep before + inferior numbers. Great discontent, also, had been excited among all + classes of the community by the arbitrary changes which their great + emperor introduced, many of which clashed with the most cherished national + prejudices of his subjects. A career of victory and prosperity had not yet + raised Peter above the reach of that disaffection, nor had superstitious + obedience to the Czar yet become the characteristic of the Muscovite mind. + The victorious occupation of Moscow by Charles XII. would have quelled the + Russian nation as effectually, as had been the case when Batou Khan, and + other ancient invaders, captured the capital of primitive Muscovy. How + little such a triumph could effect towards subduing modern Russia, the + fate of Napoleon demonstrated at once and for ever. + </p> + <p> + The character of Charles XII. has been a favourite theme with historians, + moralists, philosophers, and poets. But it is his military conduct during + the campaign in Russia that alone requires comment here. Napoleon, in the + memoirs dictated by him at St. Helena, has given us a systematic criticism + on that, among other celebrated campaigns, his own Russian campaign + included. He labours hard to prove that he himself observed all the true + principles of offensive war: and probably his censures of Charles's + generalship were rather highly coloured, for the sake of making his own + military skill stand out in more favourable relief. Yet, after making all + allowances, we must admit the force of Napoleon's strictures on Charles's + tactics, and own that his judgment, though severe, is correct, when he + pronounces that the Swedish king, unlike his great predecessor Gustavus, + knew nothing of the art of war, and was nothing more than a brave and + intrepid soldier. Such, however, was not the light in which Charles was + regarded by his contemporaries at the commencement of his Russian + expedition. His numerous victories, his daring and resolute spirit, + combined with the ancient renown of the Swedish arms, then filled all + Europe with admiration and anxiety. As Johnson expresses it, his name was + then one at which the world grew pale. Even Louis le Grand earnestly + solicited his assistance; and our own Marlborough, then in the full career + of his victories, was specially sent by the English court to the camp of + Charles, to propitiate the hero of the north in favour of the cause of the + allies and to prevent the Swedish sword from being flung into the scale in + the French king's favour. But Charles at that time was solely bent on + dethroning the sovereign of Russia, as he had already dethroned the + sovereign of Poland, and all Europe fully believed that he would entirely + crush the Czar, and dictate conditions of peace in the Kremlin. [Voltaire + attests, from personal inspection of the letters of several public + ministers to their respective courts, that such was the general + expectation.] Charles himself looked on success as a matter of certainty; + and the romantic extravagance of his views was continually increasing. + "One year, he thought, would suffice for the conquest of Russia. The court + of Rome was next to feel his vengeance, as the pope had dared to oppose + the concession of religious liberty to the Silesian Protestants. No + enterprise at that time appeared impossible to him. He had even dispatched + several officers privately into Asia and Egypt, to take plans of the + towns, and examine into the strength and resources of those countries." + [Crighton's Scandinavia.] + </p> + <p> + Napoleon thus epitomises the earlier operations of Charles's invasion of + Russia:— + </p> + <p> + "That prince set out from his camp at Aldstadt, near Leipsic, in September + 1707, at the head of 46,000 men, and traversed Poland; 20,000 men, under + Count Lewenhaupt, disembarked at Riga; and 15,000 were in Finland. He was + therefore in a condition to have brought together 80,000 of the best + troops in the world. He left 10,000 men at Warsaw to guard King + Stanislaus, and in January 1708, arrived at Grodno, where he wintered. In + June he crossed the forest of Minsk, and presented himself before Borisov; + forced the Russian army, which occupied the left bank of the Beresina; + defeated 20,000 Russians who were strongly entrenched behind marshes; + passed the Borysthenes at Mohiloev, and vanquished a corps of 16,000 + Muscovites near Smolensko, on the 22d of September. He was now advanced to + the confines of Lithuania, and was about to enter Russia Proper: the Czar, + alarmed at his approach, made him proposals of peace. Up to this time all + his movements mere conformable to rule, and his communications were well + secured. He was master of Poland and Riga, and only ten days' march + distant from Moscow: and it is probable that he would have reached that + capital, had he not quitted the high road thither, and directed his steps + towards the Ukraine, in order to form a junction with Mazeppa, who brought + him only 6,000 men. By this movement his line of operations, beginning at + Sweden, exposed his flank to Russia for a distance of four hundred + leagues, and he was unable to protect it, or to receive either + reinforcements or assistance." + </p> + <p> + Napoleon severely censures this neglect of one of the great rules of war. + He points out that Charles had not organized his war like Hannibal, on the + principle of relinquishing all communications with home, keeping all his + forces concentrated, and creating a base of operations in the conquered + country. Such had been the bold system of the Carthaginian general; but + Charles acted on no such principle, inasmuch as he caused Lewenhaupt, one + of his generals who commanded a considerable detachment, and escorted a + most important convoy, to follow him at a distance of twelve days' march. + By this dislocation of his forces he exposed Lewenhaupt to be overwhelmed + separately by the full force of the enemy, and deprived the troops under + his own command of the aid which that general's men and stores might have + afforded, at the very crisis of the campaign. + </p> + <p> + The Czar had collected an army of about a hundred thousand effective men; + and though the Swedes, in the beginning of the invasion, were successful + in every encounter, the Russian troops were gradually acquiring + discipline; and Peter and his officers were learning generalship from + their victors, as the Thebans of old learned it from the Spartans. When + Lewenhaupt, in the October of 1708, was striving to join Charles in the + Ukraine, the Czar suddenly attacked him near the Borysthenes with an + overwhelming force of fifty thousand Russians. Lewenhaupt fought bravely + for three days, and succeeded in cutting his way through the enemy, with + about four thousand of his men, to where Charles awaited him near the + river Desna; but upwards of eight thousand Swedes fell in these battles; + Lewenhaupt's cannon and ammunition were abandoned; and the whole of his + important convoy of provisions, on which Charles and his half-starved + troops were relying, fell into the enemy's hands. Charles was compelled to + remain in the Ukraine during the winter; but in the spring of 1709 he + moved forward towards Moscow, and invested the fortified town of Pultowa, + on the river Vorskla, a place where the Czar had stored up large supplies + of provisions and military stores, and which commanded the roads leading + towards Moscow. The possession of this place would have given Charles the + means of supplying all the wants of his suffering army, and would also + have furnished him with a secure base of operations for his advance + against the Muscovite capital. The siege was therefore hotly pressed by + the Swedes; the garrison resisted obstinately; and the Czar, feeling the + importance of saving the town, advanced in June to its relief, at the head + of an army from fifty to sixty thousand strong. + </p> + <p> + Both sovereigns now prepared for the general action, which each perceived + to be inevitable, and which each felt would be decisive of his own and of + his country's destiny. The Czar, by some masterly manoeuvres, crossed the + Vorskla, and posted his army on the same side of that river with the + besiegers, but a little higher up. The Vorskla falls into the Borysthenes + about fifteen leagues below Pultowa, and the Czar arranged his forces in + two lines, stretching from one river towards the other; so that if the + Swedes attacked him and were repulsed, they would be driven backwards into + the acute angle formed by the two streams at their junction. He fortified + these lines with several redoubts, lined with heavy artillery; and his + troops, both horse and foot, were in the best possible condition, and + amply provided with stores and ammunition. Charles's forces were about + twenty-four thousand strong. But not more than half of these were Swedes; + so much had battle, famine, fatigue, and the deadly frosts of Russia, + thinned the gallant bands which the Swedish king and Lewenhaupt had led to + the Ukraine. The other twelve thousand men under Charles were Cossacks and + Wallachians, who had joined him in that country. On hearing that the Czar + was about to attack him, he deemed that his dignity required that he + himself should be the assailant; and leading his army out of their + entrenched lines before the town, he advanced with them against the + Russian redoubts. + </p> + <p> + He had been severely wounded in the foot in a skirmish a few days before; + and was borne in a litter along the ranks, into the thick of the fight. + Notwithstanding the fearful disparity of numbers and disadvantage of + position, the Swedes never showed their ancient valour more nobly than on + that dreadful day. Nor do their Cossack and Wallachian allies seem to have + been unworthy of fighting side by side with Charles's veterans. Two of the + Russian redoubts were actually entered, and the Swedish infantry began to + raise the cry of victory. But on the other side, neither general nor + soldiers flinched in their duty. The Russian cannonade and musketry were + kept up; fresh masses of defenders were poured into the fortifications, + and at length the exhausted remnants of the Swedish columns recoiled from + the blood-stained redoubts. Then the Czar led the infantry and cavalry of + his first line outside the works, drew them up steadily and skilfully, and + the action was renewed along the whole fronts of the two armies on the + open ground. Each sovereign exposed his life freely in the world-winning + battle; and on each side the troops fought obstinately and eagerly under + their ruler's eye. It was not till two hours from the commencement of the + action that, overpowered by numbers, the hitherto invincible Swedes gave + way. All was then hopeless disorder and irreparable rout. Driven downward + to where the rivers join, the fugitive Swedes surrendered to their + victorious pursuers, or perished in the waters of the Borysthenes. Only a + few hundreds swam that river with their king and the Cossack Mazeppa, and + escaped into the Turkish territory. Nearly ten thousand lay killed and + wounded in the redoubts and on the field of battle. + </p> + <p> + In the joy of his heart the Czar exclaimed, when the strife was over, + "That the son of the morning had fallen from heaven; and that the + foundations of St. Petersburg at length stood firm." Even on that + battle-field, near the Ukraine, the Russian emperor's first thoughts were + of conquests and aggrandisement on the Baltic. The peace of Nystadt, which + transferred the fairest provinces of Sweden to Russia, ratified the + judgment of battle which was pronounced at Pultowa. Attacks on Turkey and + Persia by Russia commenced almost directly after that victory. And though + the Czar failed in his first attempts against the Sultan, the successors + of Peter have, one and all, carried on an uniformly aggressive and + uniformly successful system of policy against Turkey, and against every + other state, Asiatic as well as European, which has had the misfortune of + having Russia for a neighbour. + </p> + <p> + Orators and authors, who have discussed the progress of Russia, have often + alluded to the similitude between the modern extension of the Muscovite + empire and the extension of the Roman dominions in ancient times. But + attention has scarcely been drawn to the closeness of the parallel between + conquering Russia and conquering Rome, not only in the extent of + conquests, but in the means of effecting conquest. The history of Rome + during the century and a half which followed the close of the second Punic + war, and during which her largest acquisitions of territory were made, + should be minutely compared with the history of Russia for the last one + hundred and fifty years. The main points of similitude can only be + indicated in these pages; but they deserve the fullest consideration. + Above all, the sixth chapter of Montesquieu's great Treatise on Rome, the + chapter "DE LA CONDUITE QUE LES ROMAINS TINRENT POUR SOUMETTRE LES + PEUPLES," should be carefully studied by every one who watches the career + and policy of Russia. The classic scholar will remember the state-craft of + the Roman Senate, which took care in every foreign war to appear in the + character of a PROTECTOR. Thus Rome PROTECTED the AEtolians, and the Greek + cities, against Macedon; she PROTECTED Bithynia, and other small Asiatic + states, against the Syrian kings; she protected Numidia against Carthage; + and in numerous other instances assumed the same specious character. But, + "Woe to the people whose liberty depends on the continued forbearance of + an over-mighty protector." [Malkin's History of Greece.] Every state which + Rome protected was ultimately subjugated and absorbed by her. And Russia + has been the protector of Poland, the protector of the Crimea,—the + protector of Courland,—the protector of Georgia, Immeritia, + Mingrelia, the Tcherkessian and Caucasian tribes. She has first protected, + and then appropriated them all. She protects Moldavia and Wallachia. A few + years ago she became the protector of Turkey from Mehemet Ali; and since + the summer of 1849 she has made herself the protector of Austria. + </p> + <p> + When the partisans of Russia speak of the disinterestedness with which she + withdrew her protecting troops from Constantinople, and from Hungary, let + us here also mark the ominous exactness of the parallel between her and + Rome. While the ancient world yet contained a number of independent + states, which might have made a formidable league against Rome if she had + alarmed them by openly avowing her ambitious schemes, Rome's favourite + policy was seeming disinterestedness and moderation. After her first war + against Philip, after that against Antiochus, and many others, victorious + Rome promptly withdrew her troops from the territories which they + occupied. She affected to employ her arms only for the good of others; + but, when the favourable moment came, she always found a pretext for + marching her legions back into each coveted district, and making it a + Roman province. Fear, not moderation, is the only effective check on the + ambition of such powers as Ancient Rome and Modern Russia. The amount of + that fear depends on the amount of timely vigilance and energy which other + states choose to employ against the common enemy of their freedom and + national independence. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS FROM THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA, 1709, AND THE DEFEAT OF + BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 1777. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht. Philip is left by it in possession of the + throne of Spain. But Naples, Milan, the Spanish territories on the Tuscan + coast, the Spanish Netherlands, and some parts of the French Netherlands, + are given to Austria. France cedes to England Hudson's Bay and Straits, + the Island of St. Christopher, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland in America, + Spain cedes to England Gibraltar and Minorca, which the English had taken + during the war. The King of Prussia and the Duke of Savoy both obtain + considerable additions of territory to their dominions. + </p> + <p> + 1714. Death of Queen Anne. The House of Hanover begins to reign in + England. A rebellion in favour of the Stuarts is put down. Death of Louis + XIV. + </p> + <p> + 1718. Charles XII. killed at the siege of Frederickshall. + </p> + <p> + 1725. Death of Peter the Great of Russia. + </p> + <p> + 1740. Frederick II, King of Prussia, begins his reign. He attacks the + Austrian dominions, and conquers Silesia. + </p> + <p> + 1742. War between France and England. + </p> + <p> + 1743. Victory of the English at Dettingen. + </p> + <p> + 1745. Victory of the French at Fontenoy. Rebellion in Scotland in favour + of the House of Stuart: finally quelled by the battle of Culloden in the + next year. + </p> + <p> + 1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. + </p> + <p> + 1756-1763. The Seven Years' War, during which Prussia makes an heroic + resistance against the allies of Austria, Russia, and France. England, + under the administration of the elder Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham), + takes a glorious part in the war in opposition to France and Spain. Wolfe + wins the battle of Quebec, and the English conquer Canada, Cape Breton, + and St. John. Clive begins his career of conquest in India. Cuba, is taken + by the English from Spain. + </p> + <p> + 1763. Treaty of Paris: which leaves the power of Prussia increased, and + its military reputation greatly exalted. + </p> + <p> + "France, by the treaty of Paris, ceded to England Canada, and the island + of Cape Breton, with the islands and coasts of the gulf and river of St. + Lawrence. The boundaries between the two nations in North America were + fixed by a line drawn along the middle of the Mississippi, from its source + to its mouth. All on the left or eastern bank of that river, was given up + to England, except the city of New Orleans, which was reserved to France; + as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the coasts of + Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The islands of St. Peter and + Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their fishermen, but without + permission to raise fortifications. The islands of Martinico, Guadaloupe, + Mariegalante, Desirada, and St. Lucia, were surrendered to France; while + Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, were ceded to + England. This latter power retained her conquests on the Senegal, and + restored to France the island of Gores, on-the coast of Africa. France was + put in possession of the forts and factories which belonged to her in the + East Indies, on the coasts of Coromandel, Orissa, Malabar, and Bengal + under the restriction of keeping up no military force in Bengal. + </p> + <p> + "In Europe, France restored all the conquests she had made in Germany; as + also the island, of Minorca, England gave up to her Belleisle, on the + coast of Brittany; while Dunkirk was kept in the same condition as had + been determined by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The island of Cuba, with + the Havannah, were restored to the King of Spain, who, on his part, ceded + to England Florida, with Port-Augustine and the Bay of Pensacola. The King + of Portugal was restored to the same state in which he had been before the + war. The colony of St. Sacrament in America, which the Spaniards had + conquered, was given back to him. + </p> + <p> + "The peace of Paris, of which we have just now spoken, was the era of + England's greatest prosperity. Her commerce and navigation extended over + all parts of the globe, and were supported by a naval force so much the + more imposing, as it was no longer counter-balanced by the maritime power + of France, which had been almost annihilated in the preceding war. The + immense territories which that peace had secured her, both in Africa and + America, opened up new channels for her industry: and what deserves + specially to be remarked is, that she acquired at the same time vast and + important possessions in the East Indies." [Koch's Revolutions of Europe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. — VICTORY OF THE AMERICANS OVER BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, + </h2> + <p> + A.D. 1777. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Westward the course of empire takes its way; + The first four acts already past, + A fifth shall close the drama with the day: + TIME'S NOBLEST OFFSPRING IS ITS LAST." + BISHOP BERKELEY. +</pre> + <p> + "Even of those great conflicts, in which hundreds of thousands have been + engaged and tens of thousands have fallen, none has been more fruitful of + results than this surrender of thirty-five hundred fighting-men at + Saratoga. It not merely changed the relations of England and the feelings + of Europe towards these insurgent colonies, but it has modified, for all + times to come, the connexion between every colony and every parent state."—LORD + MAHON. + </p> + <p> + Of the four great powers that now principally rule the political destinies + of the world, France and England are the only two whose influence can be + dated back beyond the last century and a half. The third great power, + Russia, was a feeble mass of barbarism before the epoch of Peter the + Great; and the very existence of the fourth great power, as an independent + nation, commenced within the memory of living men. By the fourth great + power of the world I mean the mighty commonwealth of the western + continent, which now commands the admiration of mankind. That homage is + sometimes reluctantly given, and accompanied with suspicion and ill-will. + But none can refuse it. All the physical essentials for national strength + are undeniably to be found in the geographical position and amplitude of + territory which the United States possess: in their almost inexhaustible + tracts of fertile, but hitherto untouched soil; in their stately forests, + in their mountain-chains and their rivers, their beds of coal, and stores + of metallic wealth; in their extensive seaboard along the waters of two + oceans, and in their already numerous and rapidly increasing population. + And, when we examine the character of this population, no one can look on + the fearless energy, the sturdy determination, the aptitude for local self + government, the versatile alacrity, and the unresting spirit of enterprise + which characterise the Anglo-Americans, without feeling that he here + beholds the true moral elements of progressive might. + </p> + <p> + Three quarters of a century have not yet passed away since the United + States ceased to be mere dependencies of England. And even if we date + their origin from the period when the first permanent European + settlements, out of which they grew, were made on the western coast of the + North Atlantic, the increase of their strength is unparalleled, either in + rapidity or extent. + </p> + <p> + The ancient Roman boasted, with reason, of the growth of Rome from humble + beginnings to the greatest magnitude which the world had then ever + witnessed. But the citizen of the United States is still more justly + entitled to claim this praise. In two centuries and a half his country has + acquired ampler dominion than the Roman gained in ten. And even if we + credit the legend of the band of shepherds and outlaws with which Romulus + is said to have colonized the Seven Hills, we find not there so small a + germ of future greatness, as we find in the group of a hundred and five + ill-chosen and disunited emigrants who founded Jamestown in 1607, or in + the scanty band of the Pilgrim-Fathers, who, a few years later, moored + their bark on the wild and rock-bound coast of the wilderness that was to + become New England. The power of the United States is emphatically the + "Imperium quo neque ab exordio ullum fere minus, neque incrementis toto + orbe amplius humans potest memoria recordari." [Eutropius, lib. i. + (exordium).] + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more calculated to impress the mind with a sense of the + rapidity with which the resources of the American republic advance, than + the difficulty which the historical inquirer finds in ascertaining their + precise amount. If he consults the most recent works, and those written by + the ablest investigators of the subject, he finds in them admiring + comments on the change which the last few years, before those books were + written, had made; but when he turns to apply the estimates in those books + to the present moment, he finds them wholly inadequate. Before a book on + the subject of the United States has lost its novelty, those states have + outgrown the description which it contains. The celebrated work of the + French statesman, De Tocqueville, appeared about fifteen years ago. In the + passage which I am about to quote, it will be seen that he predicts the + constant increase of the Anglo-American power, but he looks on the Rocky + Mountains as their extreme western limit for many years to come. He had + evidently no expectation of himself seeing that power dominant along the + Pacific as well as along the Atlantic coast. He says:— + </p> + <p> + "The distance from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico extends from the + 47th to the 30th degree of latitude, a distance of more than 1,200 miles, + as the bird flies. The frontier of the United States winds along the whole + of this immense line; sometimes falling within its limits, but more + frequently extending far beyond it into the waste. It has been calculated + that the Whites, advance every year a mean distance of seventeen miles + along the whole of this vast boundary. Obstacles, such as an unproductive + district, a lake, or an Indian nation unexpectedly encountered, are + sometimes met with. The advancing column then halts for a while; its two + extremities fall back upon themselves, and as soon as they are re-united + they proceed onwards. This gradual and continuous progress of the European + race towards the Rocky Mountains has the solemnity of a Providential + event: it is like a deluge of men rising unabatedly, and daily driven + onwards by the hand of God. + </p> + <p> + "Within this first line of conquering settlers towns are built, and vast + estates founded. In 1790 there were only a few thousand pioneers sprinkled + along the valleys of the Mississippi: and at the present day these valleys + contain as many inhabitants as were to be found in the whole Union in + 1790. Their population amounts to nearly four millions. The city of + Washington was founded in 1800, in the very centre of the Union; but such + are the changes which have taken place, that it now stands at one of the + extremities; and the delegates of the most remote Western States are + already obliged to perform a journey as long so that from Vienna to Paris. + </p> + <p> + "It must not, then, be imagined that the impulse of the British race in + the New World can be arrested. The dismemberment of the Union, and the + hostilities which might ensue, the abolition of republican institutions, + and the tyrannical government which might succeed it, may retard this + impulse, but they cannot prevent it from ultimately fulfilling the + destinies to which that race is reserved. No power upon earth can close + upon the emigrants that fertile wilderness, which offers resources to all + industry, and a refuge from all want. Future events, of whatever nature + they may be, will not deprive the Americans of their climate or of their + inland seas, or of their great rivers, or of their exuberant soil. Nor + will bad laws, revolutions, and anarchy be able to obliterate that love of + prosperity and that spirit of enterprise which seem to be the distinctive + characteristics of their race, or to extinguish that knowledge which + guides them on their way. + </p> + <p> + "Thus, in the midst of the uncertain future, one event at least is sure. + At a period which may be said to be near (for we are speaking of the life + of a nation), the Anglo-Americans will alone cover the immense space + contained between the Polar regions and the Tropics, extending from the + coast of the Atlantic to the shores of the Pacific Ocean; the territory + which will probably be occupied by the Anglo-Americans at some future + time, may be computed to equal three-quarters of Europe in extent. The + climate of the Union is upon the whole preferable to that of Europe, and + its natural advantages are not less great; it is therefore evident that + its population will at some future time be proportionate to our own. + Europe, divided as it is between so many different nations, and torn as it + has been by incessant wars and the barbarous manners of the Middle Ages, + has notwithstanding attained a population of 410 inhabitants to the square + league. What cause can prevent the United States from having as numerous a + population in time? + </p> + <p> + "The time will therefore come when one hundred and fifty millions of men + will be living in North America, equal in condition, the progeny of one + race, owing their origin to the same cause, and preserving the same + civilization, the same language, the same religion, the same habits, the + same manners, and imbued with the same opinions, propagated under the same + forms. The rest is uncertain, but this is certain; and it is a fact new to + the world, a fact fraught with such portentous consequences as to baffle + the efforts even of the imagination." + </p> + <p> + [The original French of these passages will be found in the chapter on + "Quelles sont les chances de duree de l'Union Americaine—Quels + dangers la menacent." in the third volume of the first part of De + Tocqueville, and in the conclusion of the first part. They are (with + others) collected and translated by Mr. Alison, in his "Essays," vol. iii. + p. 374.] + </p> + <p> + Let us turn from the French statesman writing in 1835, to an English + statesman, who is justly regarded as the highest authority on all + statistical subjects, and who described the United States only seven years + ago. Macgregor [Macgregor's Commercial Statistics.] tells us— + </p> + <p> + "The States which, on the ratification of independence, formed the + American Republican Union, were thirteen, viz.:— + </p> + <p> + "Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New + Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South + Carolina, and Georgia." The foregoing thirteen states (THE WHOLE INHABITED + TERRITORY OF WHICH, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF A FEW SMALL SETTLEMENTS, WAS + CONFINED TO THE REGION EXTENDING BETWEEN THE ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS AND THE + ATLANTIC) were those which existed at the period when they became an + acknowledged separate and independent federal sovereign power. The + thirteen stripes of the standard or flag of the United States, continue to + represent the original number, The stars have multiplied to twenty-six, + [Fresh stars have dawned since this was written.] according as the number + of States have increased. + </p> + <p> + "The territory of the thirteen original States of the Union, including + Maine and Vermont, comprehended a superficies of 371,124 English square + miles; that of the whole United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, + 120,354; that of France, including Corsica, 214,910; that of the Austrian + Empire, including Hungary and all the Imperial States, 257,540 English + square miles. + </p> + <p> + "The present superficies of the twenty-six constitutional States of the + Anglo-American Union, and the district of Columbia, and territories of + Florida, include 1,029,025 square miles; to which if we add the + north-west, or Wisconsin territory, east of the Mississippi, and bounded + by Lake Superior on the north, and Michigan on the east, and occupying at + least 100,000 square miles, and then add the great western region, not yet + well-defined territories, but at the most limited calculation + comprehending 700,000 square miles, the whole unbroken in its vast length + and breadth by foreign nations, comprehends a portion of the earth's + surface equal to 1,729,025 English, or 1,296,770 geographical square + miles." + </p> + <p> + We may add that the population of the States, when they declared their + independence, was about two millions and a half; it is now twenty-three + millions. + </p> + <p> + I have quoted Macgregor, not only on account of the clear and full view + which he gives of the progress of America to the date when he wrote, but + because his description may be contrasted with what the United States have + become even since his book appeared. Only three years after the time when + Macgregor thus wrote, the American President truly stated:— + </p> + <p> + "Within less than four years the annexation of Texas to the Union has been + consummated; all conflicting title to the Oregon territory, south of the + 49th degree of north latitude, adjusted; and New Mexico and Upper + California have been acquired by treaty. The area of these several + territories contains 1,193,061 square miles, or 763,559,040 acres; while + the area of the remaining twenty-nine States, and the territory not yet + organized into States east of the Rocky Mountains, contains 2,059,513 + square miles, or 1,318,126,058 acres. These estimates show that the + territories recently acquired, and over which our exclusive jurisdiction + and dominion have been extended, constitute a country more than half as + large as all that which was held by the United States before their + acquisition. If Oregon be excluded from the estimate, there will still + remain within the limits of Texas, New Mexico, and California, 851,598 + square miles, or 545,012,720 acres; being an addition equal to more than + one-third of all the territory owned by the United States before their + acquisition; and, including Oregon, nearly as great an extent of territory + as the whole of Europe, Russia only excepted. THE MISSISSIPPI, SO LATELY + THE FRONTIER OF OUR COUNTRY, IS NOW ONLY ITS CENTRE. With the addition of + the late acquisitions, the United States are now estimated to be nearly as + large as the whole of Europe. The extent of the sea-coast of Texas, on the + Gulf of Mexico, is upwards of 400 miles; of the coast of Upper California, + on the Pacific, of 970 miles; and of Oregon, including the Straits of + Fuca, of 650 miles; MAKING THE WHOLE EXTENT OF SEA-COAST ON THE PACIFIC + 1,620 MILES; and the whole extent on both the Pacific and the Gulf of + Mexico, 2,020 miles. The length of the coast on the Atlantic, from the + northern limits of the United States, round the Capes of Florida to the + Sabine on the eastern boundary of Texas, is estimated to be 3,100 miles, + so that the addition of sea-coast, including Oregon, is very nearly + two-thirds as great as all we possessed before; and, excluding Oregon, is + an addition of 1,370 miles; being nearly equal to one-half of the extent + of coast which we possessed before these acquisitions. We have now three + great maritime fronts—on the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and the + Pacific; making, in the whole, an extent of sea-coast exceeding 5,000 + miles. This is the extent of the sea-coast of the United States, not + including bays, sounds, and small irregularities of the main shore, and of + the sea islands. If these be included, the length of the shore line of + coast, as estimated by the superintendent of the Coast Survey, in his + report, would be 33,063 miles." + </p> + <p> + The importance of the power of the United States being then firmly planted + along the Pacific applies not only to the New World, but to the Old. + Opposite to San Francisco, on the coast of that ocean, lie the wealthy but + decrepit empires of China and Japan. Numerous groups of islets stud the + larger part of the intervening sea, and form convenient stepping-stones + for the progress of commerce or ambition. The intercourse of traffic + between these ancient Asiatic monarchies, and the young Anglo-American + Republic, must be rapid and extensive. Any attempt of the Chinese or + Japanese rulers to check it, will only accelerate an armed collision. The + American will either buy or force his way. Between such populations as + that of China and Japan on the one side, and that of the United States on + the other—the former haughty, formal, and insolent, the latter bold, + intrusive, and unscrupulous—causes of quarrel must, sooner or later, + arise, The results of such a quarrel cannot be doubted. America will + scarcely imitate the forbearance shown by England at the end of our late + war with the Celestial Empire; and the conquests of China and Japan by the + fleets and armies of the United States, are events which many now living + are likely to witness. Compared with the magnitude of such changes in the + dominion of the Old World, the certain ascendancy of the Anglo-Americans + over Central and Southern America, seems a matter of secondary importance. + Well may we repeat De Tocqueville's words, that the growing power of this + commonwealth is, "Un fait entierement nouveau dans le monde, et dont + l'imagination ellememe ne saurait saisir la portee." [These remarks were + written in May 1851, and now, in May 1852, a powerful squadron of American + war-steamers has been sent to Japan, for the ostensible purpose of + securing protection for the crews of American vessels shipwrecked on the + Japanese coasts, but also evidently for important ulterior purposes.] + </p> + <p> + An Englishman may look, and ought to look, on the growing grandeur of the + Americans with no small degree of generous sympathy and satisfaction. + They, like ourselves, are members of the great Anglo-Saxon nation "whose + race and language are now overrunning the world from one end of it to the + other." [Arnold.] and whatever differences of form of government may exist + between us and them; whatever reminiscences of the days when, though + brethren, we strove together, may rankle in the minds of us, the defeated + party; we should cherish the bonds of common nationality that still exist + between us. We should remember, as the Athenians remembered of the + Spartans at a season of jealousy and temptation, that our race is one, + being of the same blood, speaking the same language, having an essential + resemblance in our institutions and usages, and worshipping in the temples + of the same God. [HERODOTUS, viii. 144.] All this may and should be borne + in mind. And yet an Englishman can hardly watch the progress of America, + without the regretful thought that America once was English, and that, but + for the folly of our rulers, she might be English still. It is true that + the commerce between the two countries has largely and beneficially + increased; but this is no proof that the increase would not have been + still greater, had the States remained integral portions of the same great + empire. By giving a fair and just participation in political rights, + these, "the fairest possessions" of the British crown, might have been + preserved to it. "This ancient and most noble monarchy" [Lord Chatham.] + would not have been dismembered; nor should we see that which ought to be + the right arm of our strength, now menacing us in every political crisis, + as the most formidable rival of our commercial and maritime ascendancy. + </p> + <p> + The war which rent away the North American colonies of England is, of all + subjects in history, the most painful for an Englishman to dwell on. It + was commenced and carried on by the British ministry in iniquity and + folly, and it was concluded in disaster and shame. But the contemplation + of it cannot be evaded by the historian, however much it may be abhorred. + Nor can any military event be said to have exercised more important + influence on the future fortunes of mankind, than the complete defeat of + Burgoyne's expedition in 1777; a defeat which rescued the revolted + colonists from certain subjection; and which, by inducing the courts of + France and Spain to attack England in their behalf, ensured the + independence of the United States, and the formation of that + trans-Atlantic power which, not only America, but both Europe and Asia, + now see and feel. + </p> + <p> + Still, in proceeding to describe this "decisive battle of the world," a + very brief recapitulation of the earlier events of the war may be + sufficient; nor shall I linger unnecessarily on a painful theme. + </p> + <p> + The five northern colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, + New Hampshire, and Vermont, usually classed together as the New England + colonies, were the strongholds of the insurrection against the + mother-country. The feeling of resistance was less vehement and general in + the central settlement of New York; and still less so in Pennsylvania, + Maryland, and the other colonies of the south, although everywhere it was + formidably active. Virginia should, perhaps, be particularised for the + zeal which its leading men displayed in the American cause; but it was + among the descendants of the stern Puritans that the spirit of Cromwell + and Vane breathed in all its fervour; it was from the New Englanders that + the first armed opposition to the British crown had been offered; and it + was by them that the most stubborn determination to fight to the last, + rather than waive a single right or privilege, had been displayed. In + 1775, they had succeeded in forcing the British troops to evacuate Boston; + and the events of 1776 had made New York (which the royalists captured in + that year) the principal basis of operations for the armies of the + mother-country. + </p> + <p> + A glance at the map will show that the Hudson river, which falls into the + Atlantic at New York, runs down from the north at the back of the New + England States, forming an angle of about forty-five degrees with the line + of the coast of the Atlantic, along which the New England states are + situate. Northward of the Hudson, we see a small chain of lakes + communicating with the Canadian frontier. It is necessary to attend + closely to these geographical points, in order to understand the plan of + the operations which the English attempted in 1777, and which the battle + of Saratoga defeated. + </p> + <p> + The English had a considerable force in Canada; and in 1776 had completely + repulsed an attack which the Americans had made upon that province. The + British ministry resolved to avail themselves, in the next year, of the + advantage which the occupation of Canada gave them, not merely for the + purpose of defence, but for the purpose of striking a vigorous and + crushing blow against the revolted colonies. With this view, the army in + Canada was largely reinforced. Seven thousand veteran troops were sent out + from England, with a corps of artillery abundantly supplied, and led by + select and experienced officers. Large quantities of military stores were + also furnished for the equipment of the Canadian volunteers, who were + expected to join the expedition. It was intended that the force thus + collected should march southward by the line of the lakes, and thence + along the banks of the Hudson river. The British army in New York (or a + large detachment of it) was to make a simultaneous movement northward, up + the line of the Hudson, and the two expeditions were to unite at Albany, a + town on that river. By these operations all communication between the + northern colonies and those of the centre and south would be cut off. An + irresistible force would be concentrated, so as to crush all further + opposition in New England; and when this was done, it was believed that + the other colonies would speedily submit. The Americans had no troops in + the field that seemed able to baffle these movements. Their principal + army, under Washington, was occupied in watching over Pennsylvania and the + south. At any rate it was believed that, in order to oppose the plan + intended for the new campaign, the insurgents must risk a pitched battle, + in which the superiority of the royalists, in numbers, in discipline, and + in equipment, seemed to promise to the latter a crowning victory. Without + question the plan was ably formed; and had the success of the execution + been equal to the ingenuity of the design, the re-conquest or submission + of the thirteen United States must, in all human probability, have + followed; and the independence which they proclaimed in 1776 would have + been extinguished before it existed a second year. No European power had + as yet come forward to aid America. It is true that England was generally + regarded with jealousy and ill-will, and was thought to have acquired, at + the treaty of Paris, a preponderance of dominion which was perilous to the + balance of power; but though many were willing to wound, none had yet + ventured to strike; and America, if defeated in 1777, would have been + suffered to fall unaided. + </p> + <p> + [In Lord Albemarle's "Memoirs of the Marquis of Rockingham." is contained + the following remarkable state paper, drawn up by King George III himself + respecting the plan of Burgoyne's expedition. The original is in the + king's own hand. + </p> + <p> + "REMARKS ON THE CONDUCT OF THE WAR FROM CANADA. + </p> + <p> + "The outlines of the plan seem to be on a proper foundation. The rank and + file of the army now in Canada (including the 11th Regiment of British, + M'Clean's corps, the Brunswicks and Hanover), amount to 10,527; add the + eleven additional companies and four hundred Hanover Chasseurs, the total + will be 11,443. + </p> + <p> + "As sickness and other contingencies must be expected, I should think not + above 7,000 effectives can be spared over Lake Champlain; for it would be + highly imprudent to run any risk in Canada. + </p> + <p> + "The fixing the stations of those left in the province may not be quite + right, though the plan proposed may be recommended. Indians must be + employed, and this measure must be avowedly directed, and Carleton must be + in the strongest manner directed that the Apollo shall be ready by that + day, to receive Burgoyne. + </p> + <p> + "The magazines must be formed with the greatest expedition, at Crown + Point. + </p> + <p> + "If possible, possession must be taken of Lake George, and nothing but an + absolute impossibility of succeeding in this, can be an excuse for + proceeding by South Bay and Skeenborough. + </p> + <p> + "As Sir W. Howe does not think of acting from Rhode island into the + Massachusets, the force from Canada must join him in Albany. + </p> + <p> + "The diversion on the Mohawk River ought at least to be strengthened by + the addition of the four hundred Hanover Chasseurs. + </p> + <p> + "The Ordnance ought to furnish a complete proportion of intrenching tools. + </p> + <p> + "The provisions ought to be calculated for a third more than the effective + soldiery, and the General ordered to avoid delivering these when the army + can be subsisted by the country. Burgoyne certainly greatly undervalues + the German recruits. + </p> + <p> + "The idea of carrying the army by sea to Sir W. Howe, would certainly + require the leaving a much larger part of it in Canada, as in that case + the rebel army would divide that province from the immense one under Sir + W. Howe. I greatly dislike this last idea."] + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne had gained celebrity by some bold and dashing exploits in + Portugal during the last war; he was personally as brave an officer as + ever headed British troops; he had considerable skill as a tactician; and + his general intellectual abilities and acquirements were of a high order. + He had several very able and experienced officers under him, among whom + were Major-General Phillips and Brigadier-General Fraser. His regular + troops amounted, exclusively of the corps of artillery, to about seven + thousand two hundred men, rank and file. Nearly half of these were + Germans. He had also an auxiliary force of from two to three thousand + Canadians. He summoned the warriors of several tribes of the Red Indians + near the western lakes to join his army. Much eloquence was poured forth, + both in America and in England, in denouncing the use of these savage + auxiliaries. Yet Burgoyne seems to have done no more than Montcalm, Wolfe, + and other French, American, and English generals had done before him. But, + in truth, the lawless ferocity of the Indians, their unskilfulness in + regular action, and the utter impossibility of bringing them under any + discipline, made their services of little or no value in times of + difficulty: while the indignation which their outrages inspired, went far + to rouse the whole population of the invaded districts into active + hostilities against Burgoyne's force. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne assembled his troops and confederates near the river Bouquet, on + the west side of Lake Champlain. He then, on the 21st of June, 1777, gave + his Red Allies a war-feast, and harangued them on the necessity of + abstaining from their usual cruel practices against unarmed people and + prisoners. At the same time he published a pompous manifesto to the + Americans, in which he threatened the refractory with all the horrors of + war, Indian as well as European. The army proceeded by water to Crown + Point, a fortification which the Americans held at the northern extremity + of the inlet by which the water from Lake George is conveyed to Lake + Champlain. He landed here without opposition; but the reduction of + Ticonderoga, a fortification about twelve miles to the south of Crown + Point, was a more serious matter, and was supposed to be the critical part + of the expedition. Ticonderoga commanded the passage along the lakes, and + was considered to be the key to the route which Burgoyne wished to follow. + The English had been repulsed in an attack on it in the war with the + French in 1768 with severe loss. But Burgoyne now invested it with great + skill; and the American general, St. Clair, who had only an ill-equipped + army of about three thousand men, evacuated it on the 5th of July. It + seems evident that a different course would have caused the destruction or + capture of his whole army; which, weak as it was, was the chief force then + in the field for the protection of the New England states. When censured + by some of his countrymen for abandoning Ticonderoga, St. Clair truly + replied, "that he had lost a post, but saved a province." Burgoyne's + troops pursued the retiring Americans, gained several advantages over + them, and took a large part of their artillery and military stores. + </p> + <p> + The loss of the British in these engagements was trifling. The army moved + southward along Lake George to Skenesborough; and thence slowly, and with + great difficulty, across a broken country, full of creeks and marshes, and + clogged by the enemy with felled trees and other obstacles, to Fort + Edward, on the Hudson river, the American troops continuing to retire + before them. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne reached the left bank of the Hudson river on the 30th of July. + Hitherto he had overcome every difficulty which the enemy and the nature + of the country had placed in his way. His army was in excellent order and + in the highest spirits; and the peril of the expedition seemed over, when + they were once on the bank of the river which was to be the channel of + communication between them and the British army in the south. But their + feelings, and those of the English nation in general when their successes + were announced, may best be learned from a contemporary writer. Burke, in + the "Annual Register" for 1777, describes them thus:— + </p> + <p> + "Such was the rapid torrent of success, which swept everything away before + the northern army in its onset. It is not to be wondered at, if both + officers and private men were highly elated with their good fortune, and + deemed that and their prowess to be irresistible; if they regarded their + enemy with the greatest contempt; considered their own toils to be nearly + at an end; Albany to be already in their hands; and the reduction of the + northern provinces to be rather a matter of some time, than an arduous + task full of difficulty and danger. + </p> + <p> + "At home, the joy and exultation was extreme; not only at court, but with + all those who hoped or wished the unqualified subjugation, and + unconditional submission of the colonies. The loss in reputation was + greater to the Americans, and capable of more fatal consequences, than + even that of ground, of posts, of artillery, or of men. All the + contemptuous and most degrading charges which had been made by their + enemies, of their wanting the resolution and abilities of men, even in + their defence of whatever was dear to them, were now repeated and + believed. Those who still regarded them as men, and who had not yet lost + all affection to them as brethren, who also retained hopes that a happy + reconciliation upon constitutional principles, without sacrificing the + dignity or the just authority of government on the one side, or a + dereliction of the rights of freemen on the other, was not even now + impossible, notwithstanding their favourable dispositions in general, + could not help feeling upon this occasion that the Americans sunk not a + little in their estimation. It was not difficult to diffuse an opinion + that the war in effect was over; and that any further resistance could + serve only to render the terms of their submission the worse. Such were + some of the immediate effects of the loss of those grand keys of North + America, Ticonderoga and the lakes." + </p> + <p> + The astonishment and alarm which these events produced among the Americans + were naturally great; but in the midst of their disasters none of the + colonists showed any disposition to submit. The local governments of the + New England States, as well as the Congress, acted with vigour and + firmness in their efforts to repel the enemy. General Gates was sent to + take command of the army at Saratoga; and Arnold, a favourite leader of + the Americans, was despatched by Washington to act under him, with + reinforcements of troops and guns from the main American army. Burgoyne's + employment of the Indians now produced the worst possible effects. Though + he laboured hard to check the atrocities which they were accustomed to + commit, he could not prevent the occurrence of many barbarous outrages, + repugnant both to the feelings of humanity and to the laws of civilized + warfare. The American commanders took care that the reports of these + excesses should be circulated far and wide, well knowing that they would + make the stern New Englanders not droop, but rage. Such was their effect; + and though, when each man looked upon his wife, his children, his sisters, + or his aged parents, the thought of the merciless Indian "thirsting for + the blood of man, woman, and child," of "the cannibal savage torturing, + murdering, roasting, and eating the mangled victims of his barbarous + battles," [Lord Chatham's speech on the employment of Indians in the war.] + "might raise terror in the bravest breasts; this very terror produced a + directly contrary effect to causing submission to the royal army. It was + seen that the few friends of the royal cause, as well as its enemies, were + liable to be the victims of the indiscriminate rage of the savages;" [See + in the "Annual Register" for 1777, p.117, the "Narrative of the Murder of + Miss M'Crea, the daughter of an American loyalist."] and thus "the + inhabitants of the open and frontier countries had no choice of acting: + they had no means of security left, but by abandoning their habitations + and taking up arms. Every man saw the necessity of becoming a temporary + soldier, not only for his own security, but for the protection and defence + of those connexions which are dearer than life itself. Thus an army was + poured forth by the woods, mountains, and marshes, which in this part were + thickly sown with plantations and villages. The Americans recalled their + courage; and when their regular army seemed to be entirely wasted, the + spirit of the country produced a much greater and more formidable force." + [Burke.] + </p> + <p> + While resolute recruits, accustomed to the use of fire-arms, and all + partially trained by service in the provincial militias, were thus + flocking to the standard of Gates and Arnold at Saratoga; and while + Burgoyne was engaged at Port Edward in providing the means for the further + advance of his army through the intricate and hostile country that still + lay before him, two events occurred, in each of which the British + sustained loss, and the Americans obtained advantage, the moral effects of + which were even more important than the immediate result of the + encounters. When Burgoyne left Canada, General St. Leger was detached from + that province with a mixed force of about one thousand men, and some light + field-pieces, across Lake Ontario against Fort Stanwix, which the + Americans held. After capturing this, he was to march along the Mohawk + river to its confluence with the Hudson, between Saratoga and Albany, + where his force and that of Burgoyne were to unite. But, after some + successes, St. Leger was obliged to retreat, and to abandon his tents and + large quantities of stores to the garrison. At the very time that General + Burgoyne heard of this disaster, he experienced one still more severe in + the defeat of Colonel Baum with a large detachment of German troops at + Benington, whither Burgoyne had sent them for the purpose of capturing + some magazines of provisions, of which the British army stood greatly in + need. The Americans, augmented by continual accessions of strength, + succeeded, after many attacks, in breaking this corps, which fled into the + woods, and left its commander mortally wounded on the field: they then + marched against a force of five hundred grenadiers and light infantry, + which was advancing to Colonel Baum's assistance under Lieutenant-Colonel + Breyman; who, after a gallant resistance, was obliged to retreat on the + main army. The British loss in these two actions exceeded six hundred men: + and a party of American loyalists, on their way to join the army, having + attached themselves to Colonel Baum's corps, were destroyed with it. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these reverses, which added greatly to the spirit and + numbers of the American forces, Burgoyne determined to advance. It was + impossible any longer to keep up his communications with Canada by way of + the lakes, so as to supply his army on his southward march; but having by + unremitting exertions collected provisions for thirty days, he crossed the + Hudson by means of a bridge of rafts, and, marching a short distance along + its western bank, he encamped on the 14th of September on the heights of + Saratoga, about sixteen miles from Albany. The Americans had fallen back + from Saratoga, and were now strongly posted near Stillwater, about half + way between Saratoga and Albany, and showed a determination to recede no + farther. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Lord Howe, with the bulk of the British army that had lain at + New York, had sailed away to the Delaware, and there commenced a campaign + against Washington, in which the English general took Philadelphia, and + gained other showy, but unprofitable successes, But Sir Henry Clinton, a + brave and skilful officer, was left with a considerable force at New York; + and he undertook the task of moving up the Hudson to co-operate with + Burgoyne. Clinton was obliged for this purpose to wait for reinforcements + which had been promised from England, and these did not arrive till + September. As soon as he received them, Clinton embarked about 3,000 of + his men on a flotilla, convoyed by some ships of war under Commander + Hotham, and proceeded to force his may up the river, but it was long + before he was able to open any communication with Burgoyne. + </p> + <p> + The country between Burgoyne's position at Saratoga and that of the + Americans at Stillwater was rugged, and seamed with creeks and + water-courses; but after great labour in making bridges and temporary + causeways, the British army moved forward. About four miles from Saratoga, + on the afternoon of the 19th of September, a sharp encounter took place + between part of the English right wing, under Burgoyne himself, and a + strong body of the enemy, under Gates and Arnold. The conflict lasted till + sunset. The British remained masters of the field; but the loss on each + side was nearly equal (from five hundred to six hundred men); and the + spirits of the Americans were greatly raised by having withstood the best + regular troops of the English army. Burgoyne now halted again, and + strengthened his position by field-works and redoubts; and the Americans + also improved their defences. The two armies remained nearly within + cannon-shot of each other for a considerable time, during which Burgoyne + was anxiously looking for intelligence of the promised expedition from New + York, which, according to the original plan, ought by this time to have + been approaching Albany from the south. At last, a messenger from Clinton + made his way, with great difficulty, to Burgoyne's camp, and brought the + information that Clinton was on his way up the Hudson to attack the + American forts which barred the passage up that river to Albany. Burgoyne, + in reply, on the 30th of September, urged Clinton to attack the forts as + speedily as possible, stating that the effect of such an attack, or even + the semblance of it, would be to move the American army from its position + before his own troops. By another messenger, who reached Clinton on the + 5th of October, Burgoyne informed his brother general that he had lost his + communications with Canada, but had provisions which would last him till + the 20th. Burgoyne described himself as strongly posted, and stated that + though the Americans in front of him were strongly posted also, he made no + doubt of being able to force them, and making his way to Albany; but that + he doubted whether he could subsist there, as the country was drained of + provisions. He wished Clinton to meet him there, and to keep open a + communication with New York. [See the letters of General Clinton to + General Harvey, published by Lord Albemarle in his "Memoirs of the Marquis + of Rockingham," vol. ii. p. 335, ET SEQ.] + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne had over-estimated his resources, and in the very beginning of + October found difficulty and distress pressing him hard. + </p> + <p> + The Indians and Canadians began to desert him; while, on the other hand, + Gates's army was continually reinforced by fresh bodies of the militia. An + expeditionary force was detached by the Americans, which made a bold, + though unsuccessful, attempt to retake Ticonderoga. And finding the number + and spirit of the enemy to increase daily, and his own stores of provision + to diminish, Burgoyne determined on attacking the Americans in front of + him, and by dislodging them from their position, to gain the means of + moving upon Albany, or at least of relieving his troops from the + straitened position in which they were cooped up. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne's force was now reduced to less than 6,000 men. The right of his + camp was on some high ground a little to the west of the river; thence his + entrenchments extended along the lower ground to the bank of the Hudson, + the line of their front being nearly at a right angle with the course of + the stream. The lines were fortified with redoubts and field-works, and on + a height on the bank of the extreme right a strong redoubt was reared, and + entrenchments, in a horse-shoe form, thrown up. The Hessians, under + Colonel Breyman, were stationed here, forming a flank defence to + Burgoyne's main army. The numerical force of the Americans was now greater + than the British even in regular troops, and the numbers of the militia + and volunteers which had joined Gates and Arnold were greater still. + </p> + <p> + General Lincoln with 2,000 New England troops, had reached the American + camp on the 29th of September. Gates gave him the command of the right + wing, and took in person the command of the left wing, which was composed + of two brigades under Generals Poor and Leonard, of Colonel Morgan's rifle + corps, and part of the fresh New England Militia. The whole of the + American lines had been ably fortified under the direction of the + celebrated Polish general, Kosciusko, who was now serving as a volunteer + in Gates's army. The right of the American position, that is to say, the + part of it nearest to the river, was too strong to be assailed with any + prospect of success: and Burgoyne therefore determined to endeavour to + force their left. For this purpose he formed a column of 1,500 regular + troops, with two twelve-pounders, two howitzers and six six-pounders. He + headed this in person, having Generals Phillips, Reidesel, and Fraser + under him. The enemy's force immediately in front of his lines was so + strong that he dared not weaken the troops who guarded them, by detaching + any more to strengthen his column of attack. + </p> + <p> + It was on the 7th of October that Burgoyne led his column forward; and on + the preceding day, the 6th, Clinton had successfully executed a brilliant + enterprise against the two American forts which barred his progress up the + Hudson. He had captured them both, with severe loss to the American forces + opposed to him; he had destroyed the fleet which the Americans had been + forming on the Hudson, under the protection of their forts; and the upward + river was laid open to his squadron. He had also, with admirable skill and + industry, collected in small vessels, such as could float within a few + miles of Albany, provisions sufficient to supply Burgoyne's Army for six + months. [See Clinton's letters in Lord Albemarle, p. 337.] He was now only + a hundred and fifty-six miles distant from Burgoyne; and a detachment of + 1,700 men actually advanced within forty miles of Albany. Unfortunately + Burgoyne and Clinton were each ignorant of the other's movements; but if + Burgoyne had won his battle on the 7th, he must on advancing have soon + learned the tidings of Clinton's success, and Clinton would have heard of + his. A junction would soon have been made of the two victorious armies, + and the great objects of the campaign might yet have been accomplished. + All depended on the fortune of the column with which Burgoyne, on the + eventful 7th of October, 1777, advanced against the American position. + There were brave men, both English and German, in its ranks; and in + particular it comprised one of the best bodies of grenadiers in the + British service. [I am indebted for many of the details of the battle, to + Mr Lossing's "Field-book of the Revolution."] + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne pushed forward some bodies of irregular troops to distract the + enemy's attention; and led his column to within three-quarters of a mile + from the left of Gates's camp, and then deployed his men into line. The + grenadiers under Major Ackland, and the artillery under Major Williams, + were drawn up on the left; a corps of Germans under General Reidesel, and + some British troops under General Phillips, were in the centre; and the + English light infantry, and the 24th regiment under Lord Balcarres and + General Fraser, were on the right. But Gates did not wait to be attacked; + and directly the British line was formed and began to advance, the + American general, with admirable skill, caused General Poor's brigade of + New York and New Hampshire troops, and part of General Leonard's brigade, + to make a sudden and vehement rush against its left, and at the same time + sent Colonel Morgan, with his rifle corps and other troops, amounting to + 1,500, to turn the right of the English. The grenadiers under Ackland + sustained the charge of superior numbers nobly. But Gates sent more + Americans forward, and in a few minutes the action became general along + the centre, so as to prevent the Germans from detaching any help to the + grenadiers. Morgan, with his riflemen, was now pressing Lord Balcarres and + General Fraser hard, and fresh masses of the enemy were observed advancing + from their extreme left, with the evident intention of forcing the British + right, and cutting off its retreat. The English light infantry and the + 24th now fell back, and formed an oblique second line, which enabled them + to baffle this manoeuvre, and also to succour their comrades in the left + wing, the gallant grenadiers, who were overpowered by superior numbers, + and, but for this aid, must have been cut to pieces. + </p> + <p> + The contest now was fiercely maintained on both sides. The English cannon + were repeatedly taken and retaken; but when the grenadiers near them were + forced back by the weight of superior numbers, one of the guns was + permanently captured by the Americans, and turned upon the English. Major + Williams and Major Ackland were both made prisoners, and in this part of + the field the advantage of the Americans was decided. The British centre + still held its ground; but now it was that the American general Arnold + appeared upon the scene, and did more for his countrymen than whole + battalions could have effected. Arnold, when the decisive engagement of + the 7th of October commenced, had been deprived of his command by Gates, + in consequence of a quarrel between them about the action of the 19th of + September. He had listened for a short time in the American camp to the + thunder of the battle, in which he had no military right to take part, + either as commander or as combatant. But his excited spirit could not long + endure such a state of inaction. He called for his horse, a powerful brown + charger, and springing on it, galloped furiously to where the fight seemed + to be the thickest. Gates saw him, and sent an aide-de-camp to recall him; + but Arnold spurred far in advance, and placed himself at the head of three + regiments which had formerly been under him, and which welcomed their old + commander with joyous cheers. He led them instantly upon the British + centre; and then galloping along the American line, he issued orders for a + renewed and a closer attack, which were obeyed with alacrity, Arnold + himself setting the example of the most daring personal bravery, and + charging more than once, sword in hand, into the English ranks. On the + British side the officers did their duty nobly; but General Fraser was the + most eminent of them all, restoring order wherever the line began to + waver, and infusing fresh courage into his men by voice and example. + Mounted on an iron-grey charger, and dressed in the full uniform of a + general officer, he was conspicuous to foes as well as to friends. The + American Colonel Morgan thought that the fate of the battle rested on this + gallant man's life, and calling several of his best marksman round him, + pointed Fraser out, and said: "That officer is General Fraser; I admire + him, but he must die. Our victory depends on it. Take your stations in + that clump of bushes, and do your duty." Within five minutes Fraser fell + mortally wounded, and was carried to the British camp by two grenadiers. + Just previously to his being struck by the fatal bullet, one rifle-ball + had cut the crupper of his saddle and smother had passed through his + horse's mane close behind the ears. His aide-de-camp had noticed this, and + said: "It is evident that you are marked out for particular aim; would it + not be prudent; for you to retire from this place?" Fraser replied: "My + duty forbids me to fly from danger;" and the next moment he fell. + [Lossing.] + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne's whole force was now compelled to retreat towards their camp; + the left and centre were in complete disorder, but the light infantry and + the 24th checked the fury of the assailants, and the remains of the column + with great difficulty effected their return to their camp; leaving six of + their cannons in the possession of the enemy, and great numbers of killed + and wounded on the field; and especially a large proportion of the + artillerymen, who had stood to their guns until shot down or bayoneted + beside them by the advancing Americans. + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne's column had been defeated, but the action was not yet over. The + English had scarcely entered the camp, when the Americans, pursuing their + success, assaulted it in several places with remarkable impetuosity, + rushing in upon the intrenchments and redoubts through a severe fire of + grape-shot and musketry. Arnold especially, who on this day appeared + maddened with the thirst of combat and carnage, urged on the attack + against a part of the intrenchments which was occupied by the light + infantry under Lord Balcarres. [Botta's American War, book viii.] But the + English received him with vigour and spirit. The struggle here was + obstinate and sanguinary. At length, as it grew towards evening, Arnold, + having forced all obstacles, entered the works with some of the most + fearless of his followers. But in this critical moment of glory and + danger, he received a painful wound in the same leg which had already been + injured at the assault on Quebec. To his bitter regret he was obliged to + be carried back. His party still continued the attack, but the English + also continued their obstinate resistance, and at last night fell, and the + assailants withdrew from this quarter of the British intrenchments. But, + in another part the attack had been more successful. A body of the + Americans, under Colonel Brooke, forced their way in through a part of the + horse-shoe intrenchments on the extreme right, which was defended by the + Hessian reserve under Colonel Breyman. The Germans resisted well, and + Breyman died in defence of his post; but the Americans made good the + ground which they had won, and captured baggage, tents, artillery, and a + store of ammunition, which they were greatly in need of. They had by + establishing themselves on this point, acquired the means of completely + turning the right flank of the British, and gaining their rear. To prevent + this calamity, Burgoyne effected during the night an entire change of + position. With great skill he removed his whole army to some heights near + the river, a little northward of the former camp, and he there drew up his + men, expecting to be attacked on the following day. But Gates was resolved + not to risk the certain triumph which his success had already secured for + him. He harassed the English with skirmishes, but attempted no regular + attack. Meanwhile he detached bodies of troops on both sides of the Hudson + to prevent the British from recrossing that river, and to bar their + retreat. When night fell, it became absolutely necessary for Burgoyne to + retire again, and, accordingly, the troops were marched through a stormy + and rainy night towards Saratoga, abandoning their sick and wounded, and + the greater part of their baggage to the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Before the rear-guard quitted the camp, the last sad honours were paid to + the brave General Fraser, who expired on the day after the action. + </p> + <p> + He had, almost with his last breath, expressed a wish to be buried in the + redoubt which had formed the part of the British lines where he had been + stationed, but which had now been abandoned by the English, and was within + full range of the cannon which the advancing Americans were rapidly + placing in position to bear upon Burgoyne's force. Burgoyne resolved, + nevertheless, to comply with the dying wish of his comrade; and the + interment took place under circumstances the most affecting that have ever + marked a soldier's funeral. Still more interesting is the narrative of + Lady Ackland's passage from the British to the American camp, after the + battle, to share the captivity and alleviate the sufferings of her husband + who had been severely wounded, and left in the enemy's power. The American + historian, Lossing, has described both these touching episodes of the + campaign, in a spirit that does honour to the writer as well as to his + subject. After narrating the death of General Fraser on the 8th of + October, he says that "It was just at sunset, on that calm October + evening, that the corpse of General Fraser was carried up the hill to the + place of burial within the 'great redoubt.' It was attended only by the + military members of his family and Mr. Brudenell, the chaplain; yet the + eyes of hundreds of both armies followed the solemn procession, while the + Americans, ignorant of its true character, kept up a constant cannonade + upon the redoubt. The chaplain, unawed by the danger to which he was + exposed, as the cannon-balls that struck the hill threw the loose soil + over him, pronounced the impressive funeral service of the Church of + England with an unfaltering voice. The growing darkness added solemnity to + the scene. Suddenly the irregular firing ceased, and the solemn voice of a + single cannon, at measured intervals, boomed along the valley, and + awakened the responses of the hills. It was a minute gun fired by the + Americans in honour of the gallant dead. The moment the information was + given that the gathering at the redoubt was a funeral company, fulfilling, + at imminent peril, the last-breathed wishes of the noble Fraser, orders + were issued to withhold the cannonade with balls, and to render military + homage to the fallen brave. + </p> + <p> + "The case of Major Ackland and his heroic wife presents kindred features. + He belonged to the grenadiers, and was an accomplished soldier. His wife + accompanied him to Canada in 1776; and during the whole campaign of that + year, and until his return to England after the surrender of Burgoyne, in + the autumn of 1777, endured all the hardships, dangers, and privations of + an active campaign in an enemy's country. At Chambly, on the Sorel, she + attended him in illness, in a miserable hut; and when he was wounded in + the battle of Hubbardton, Vermont she hastened to him at Henesborough from + Montreal, where she had been persuaded to remain, and resolved to follow + the army hereafter. Just before crossing the Hudson, she and her husband + had had a narrow escape from losing their lives in consequence of their + tent accidentally taking fire. + </p> + <p> + "During the terrible engagement of the 7th October, she heard all the + tumult and dreadful thunder of the battle in which her husband was + engaged; and when, on the morning of the 8th, the British fell back in + confusion to their new position, she, with the other women, was obliged to + take refuge among the dead and dying; for the tents were all struck, and + hardly a shed was left standing. Her husband was wounded, and a prisoner + in the American camp. That gallant officer was shot through both legs. + When Poor and Learned's troops assaulted the grenadiers and artillery on + the British left, on the afternoon of the 7th, Wilkinson, Gates's + adjutant-general, while pursuing the flying enemy when they abandoned + their battery, heard a feeble voice exclaim 'Protect me, sir, against that + boy.' He turned and saw a lad with a musket taking deliberate aim at a + wounded British officer, lying in a corner of a low fence. Wilkinson + ordered the boy to desist, and discovered the wounded man to be Major + Ackland. He had him conveyed to the quarters of General Poor (now the + residence of Mr. Neilson) on the heights, where every attention was paid + to his wants. + </p> + <p> + "When the intelligence that he was wounded and a prisoner reached his + wife, she was greatly distressed, and, by the advice of her friend, Baron + Reidesel, resolved to visit the American camp, and implore the favour of a + personal attendance upon her husband. On the 9th she sent a message to + Burgoyne by Lord Petersham, his aide-de-camp, asking permission to depart. + 'Though I was ready to believe,' says Burgoyne, 'that patience and + fortitude, in a supreme degree, were to be found, as well as every other + virtue, under the most tender forms, I was astonished at this proposal. + After so long an agitation of spirits, exhausted not only for want of + rest, but absolutely want of food, drenched in rain for twelve hours + together, that a woman should be capable of such an undertaking as + delivering herself to an enemy, probably in the night, and uncertain of + what hands she might fall into, appeared an effort above human nature. The + assistance I was able to give was small indeed. I had not even a cup of + wine to offer her. All I could furnish her with was an open boat, and a + few lines, written upon dirty wet paper, to General Gates, recommending + her to his protection.' The following is a copy of the note sent by + Burgoyne to General Gates:—'Sir,—Lady Harriet Ackland, a lady + of the first distinction of family, rank, and personal virtues, is under + such concern on account of Major Ackland, her husband, wounded and a + prisoner in your hands, that I cannot refuse her request to commit her to + your protection. Whatever general impropriety there may be in persons of + my situation and yours to solicit favours, I cannot see the uncommon + perseverance in every female grace, and the exaltation of character of + this lady, and her very hard fortune, without testifying that your + attentions to her will lay me under obligations. I am, sir, your obedient + servant, J. Burgoyne.' She set out in an open boat upon the Hudson, + accompanied by Mr. Brudenell, the chaplain, Sarah Pollard, her waiting + maid, and her husband's valet, who had been severely wounded while + searching for his master upon the battle-field. It was about sunset when + they started, and a violent storm of rain and wind, which had been + increasing since the morning, rendered the voyage tedious and perilous in + the extreme. It was long after dark when they reached the American + out-posts; the sentinel heard their oars, and hailed them, Lady Harriet + returned the answer herself. The clear, silvery tones of a woman's voice + amid the darkness, filled the soldier on duty with superstitious fear, and + he called a comrade to accompany him to the river bank. The errand of the + voyagers was made known, but the faithful guard, apprehensive of + treachery, would not allow them to laud until they sent for Major + Dearborn. They were invited by that officer to his quarters, where every + attention was paid to them, and Lady Harriet was comforted by the joyful + tidings that her husband was safe. In the morning she experienced parental + tenderness from General Gates who sent her to her husband, at Poor's + quarters, under a suitable escort. There she remained until he was removed + to Albany." + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne now took up his last position on the heights near Saratoga; and + hemmed in by the enemy, who refused any encounter, and baffled in all his + attempts at finding a path of escape, he there lingered until famine + compelled him to capitulate. The fortitude of the British army during this + melancholy period has been justly eulogised by many native historians, but + I prefer quoting the testimony of a foreign writer, as free from all + possibility of partiality. Botta says: [Botta, book viii.] + </p> + <p> + "It exceeds the power of words to describe the pitiable condition to which + the British army was now reduced. The troops were worn down by a series of + toil, privation, sickness, and desperate fighting. They were abandoned by + the Indians and Canadians; and the effective force of the whole army was + now diminished by repeated and heavy losses, which had principally fallen + on the best soldiers and the most distinguished officers, from ten + thousand combatants to less than one-half that number. Of this remnant + little more than three thousand were English. + </p> + <p> + "In these circumstances, and thus weakened, they were invested by an army + of four times their own number, whose position extended three parts of a + circle round them; who refused to fight them, as knowing their weakness, + and who, from the nature of the ground, could not be attacked in any part. + In this helpless condition, obliged to be constantly under arms, while the + enemy's cannon played on every part of their camp, and even the American + rifle-balls whistled in many parts of the lines, the troops of Burgoyne + retained their customary firmness, and, while sinking under a hard + necessity, they showed themselves worthy of a better fate. They could not + be reproached with an action or a word, which betrayed a want of temper or + of fortitude." + </p> + <p> + At length the 13th of October arrived, and as no prospect of assistance + appeared, and the provisions were nearly exhausted, Burgoyne, by the + unanimous advice of a council of war, sent a messenger to the American + camp to treat of a convention. + </p> + <p> + General Gates in the first instance demanded that the royal army should + surrender prisoners of war. He also proposed that the British should + ground their arms. Burgoyne replied, "This article is inadmissible in + every extremity; sooner than this army will consent to ground their arms + in their encampment, they will rush on the enemy, determined to take no + quarter." After various messages, a convention for the surrender of the + army was settled, which provided that "The troops under General Burgoyne + were to march out of their camp with the honours of war, and the artillery + of the intrenchments, to the verge of the river, where the arms and + artillery were to be left. The arms to be piled by word of command from + their own officers. A free passage was to be granted to the army under + Lieutenant-General Burgoyne to Great Britain, upon condition of not + serving again in North America during the present contest." + </p> + <p> + The articles of capitulation were settled on the 15th of October: and on + that very evening a messenger arrived from Clinton with an account of his + successes, and with the tidings that part of his force had penetrated as + far as Esopus, within fifty miles of Burgoyne's camp. But it was too late. + The public faith was pledged; and the army was, indeed, too debilitated by + fatigue and hunger to resist an attack if made; and Gates certainly would + have made it, if the convention had been broken off. Accordingly, on the + 17th, the convention of Saratoga was carried into effect. By this + convention 5,790 men surrendered themselves as prisoners. The sick and + wounded left in the camp when the British retreated to Saratoga, together + with the numbers of the British, German, and Canadian troops, who were + killed, wounded, or taken, and who had deserted in the preceding part of + the expedition, were reckoned to be 4,689. + </p> + <p> + The British sick and wounded who had fallen into the hands of the + Americans after the battle of the 7th, were treated with exemplary + humanity; and when the convention was executed, General Gates showed a + noble delicacy of feeling which deserves the highest degree of honour. + Every circumstance was avoided which could give the appearance of triumph. + The American troops remained within their lines until the British had + piled their arms; and when this was done, the vanquished officers and + soldiers were received with friendly kindness by their victors, and their + immediate wants were promptly and liberally supplied. Discussions and + disputes afterwards arose as to some of the terms of the convention; and + the American Congress refused for a long time to carry into effect the + article which provided for the return of Burgoyne's men to Europe; but no + blame was imputable to General Gates or his army, who showed themselves to + be generous as they had proved themselves to be brave. + </p> + <p> + Gates after the victory, immediately despatched Colonel Wilkinson to carry + the happy tidings to Congress. On being introduced into the hall, he said, + "The whole British army has laid down its arms at Saratoga; our own, full + of vigour and courage, expect your order. It is for your wisdom to decide + where the country may still have need for their service." Honours and + rewards were liberally voted by the Congress to their conquering general + and his men; "and it would be difficult" (says the Italian historian) "to + describe the transports of joy which the news of this event excited among + the Americans. They began to flatter themselves with a still more happy + future. No one any longer felt any doubt about their achieving their + independence. All hoped, and with good reason, that a success of this + importance would at length determine France, and the other European powers + that waited for her example, to declare themselves in favour of America. + THERE COULD NO LONGER BE ANY QUESTION RESPECTING THE FUTURE; SINCE THERE + WAS NO LONGER THE RISK OF ESPOUSING THE CAUSE OF A PEOPLE TOO FEEBLE TO + DEFEND THEMSELVES." + </p> + <p> + The truth of this was soon displayed in the conduct of France. When the + news arrived at Paris of the capture of Ticonderoga, and of the victorious + march of Burgoyne towards Albany, events which seemed decisive in favour + of the English, instructions had been immediately despatched to Nantz, and + the other ports of the kingdom, that no American privateers should be + suffered to enter them, except from indispensable necessity, as to repair + their vessels, to obtain provisions, or to escape the perils of the sea. + The American commissioners at Paris, in their disgust and despair, had + almost broken off all negotiations with the French government; and they + even endeavoured to open communications with the British ministry. But the + British government, elated with the first successes of Burgoyne, refused + to listen to any overtures for accommodation. But when the news of + Saratoga reached Paris, the whole scene was changed. Franklin and his + brother commissioners found all their difficulties with the French + government vanish. The time seemed to have arrived for the House of + Bourbon to take a full revenge for all its humiliations and losses in + previous wars. In December a treaty was arranged, and formally signed in + the February following, by which France acknowledged the INDEPENDENT + UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. This was, of course, tantamount to a declaration + of war with England. Spain soon followed France; and before long Holland + took the same course. Largely aided by French fleets and troops, the + Americans vigorously maintained the war against the armies which England, + in spite of her European foes, continued to send across the Atlantic. But + the struggle was too unequal to be maintained by this country for many + years: and when the treaties of 1783 restored peace to the world, the + independence of the United States was reluctantly recognized by their + ancient parent and recent enemy, England. + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN THE DEFEAT OF BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA, 1777, AND + THE BATTLE OF VALMY, 1792. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1781. Surrender of Lord Cornwallis and the British army to + Washington. + </p> + <p> + 1782. Rodney's victory over the Spanish fleet. Unsuccessful siege of + Gibraltar by the Spaniards and French. + </p> + <p> + 1783. End of the American war. + </p> + <p> + 1788. The States-General are convened in France:—beginning of the + Revolution. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. — THE BATTLE OF VALMY. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Purpurei metuunt tyranni + Injurioso ne pede proruas + Stantem columnam; neu populus frequens + Ad arma cessantes ad arma + Concitet, imperiumque frangat." + HORAT. Od. i 35. + + "A little fire is quickly trodden out, + Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench." + SHAKESPEARE. +</pre> + <p> + A few miles distant from the little town of St. Menehould, in the + north-east of France, are the village and hill of Valmy; and near the + crest of that hill, a simple monument points out the burial-place of the + heart of a general of the French republic, and a marshal of the French + empire. + </p> + <p> + The elder Kellerman (father of the distinguished officer of that name, + whose cavalry-charge decided the battle of Marengo) held high commands in + the French armies throughout the wars of the Convention, the Directory, + the Consulate, and the Empire. He survived those wars, and the empire + itself, dying in extreme old age in 1820. The last wish of the veteran on + his death bed was that his heart should be deposited in the battle-field + of Valmy, there to repose among the remains of his old companions in arms, + who had fallen at his side on that spot twenty-eight years before, on the + memorable day when they won the primal victory of revolutionary France, + and prevented the armies of Brunswick and the emigrant bands of Conde from + marching on defenceless Paris, and destroying the immature democracy in + its cradle. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Valmy (for Kellerman, when made one of Napoleon's military + peers in 1802, took his title from this same battlefield) had + participated, during his long and active career, in the gaining of many a + victory far more immediately dazzling than the the one, the remembrance of + which he thus cherished. He had been present at many a scene of carnage, + where blood flowed in deluges, compared with which the libations of + slaughter poured out at Valmy would have seemed scant and insignificant. + But he rightly estimated the paramount importance of the battle with which + he thus wished his appellation while living, and his memory after his + death, to be identified. The successful resistance, which the new + Carmagnole levies, and the disorganized relics of the old monarchy's army, + then opposed to the combined hosts and chosen leaders of Prussia, Austria, + and the French refugee noblesse, determined at once and for ever the + belligerent character of the revolution. The raw artisans and tradesmen, + the clumsy burghers, the base mechanics and low peasant churls, as it had + been the fashion to term the middle and lower classes in France, found + that they could face cannon-balls, pull triggers, and cross bayonets, + without having been drilled into military machines, and without being + officered by scions of noble houses. They awoke to the consciousness of + their own instinctive soldiership. They at once acquired confidence in + themselves and in each other; and that confidence soon grew into a spirit + of unbounded audacity and ambition. "From the cannonade of Valmy may be + dated the commencement of that career of victory which carried their + armies to Vienna and the Kremlin." [Alison.] + </p> + <p> + One of the gravest reflections that arises from the contemplation of the + civil restlessness and military enthusiasm which the close of the last + century saw nationalised in France, is the consideration that these + disturbing influences have become perpetual. No settled system of + government, that shall endure from generation to generation, that shall be + proof against corruption and popular violence, seems capable of taking + root among the French. And every revolutionary movement in Paris thrills + throughout the rest of the world. Even the successes which the powers + allied against France gained in 1814 and 1815, important as they were, + could not annul the effects of the preceding twenty-three years of general + convulsion and war. + </p> + <p> + In 1830, the dynasty which foreign bayonets had imposed on France was + shaken off; and men trembled at the expected outbreak of French anarchy + and the dreaded inroads of French ambition. They "looked forward with + harassing anxiety to a period of destruction similar to that which the + Roman world experienced about the middle of the third century of our era." + [See Niebuhr's Preface to the second volume of the "History of Rome," + written in October 1830.] Louis Philippe cajoled revolution, and then + strove with seeming success to stifle it. But in spite of Fieschi laws, in + spite of the dazzle of Algerian razzias and Pyrenees-effacing marriages, + in spite of hundreds of armed forts, and hundreds of thousands of coercing + troops, Revolution lived, and struggled to get free. The old Titan spirit + heaved restlessly beneath "the monarchy based on republican institutions." + At last, four years ago, the whole fabric of kingcraft was at once rent + and scattered to the winds, by the uprising of the Parisian democracy; and + insurrections, barricades and dethronements, the downfall of coronets and + crowns, the armed collisions of parties, systems, and populations, became + the commonplaces of recent European history. + </p> + <p> + France now calls herself a republic. She first assumed that title on the + 20th of September, 1792, on the very day on which the battle of Valmy was + fought and won. To that battle the democratic spirit which in 1848, as + well as in 1792, proclaimed the Republic in Paris, owed its preservation, + and it is thence that the imperishable activity of its principles may be + dated. + </p> + <p> + Far different seemed the prospects of democracy in Europe on the eve of + that battle; and far different would have been the present position and + influence of the French nation, if Brunswick's columns had charged with + more boldness, or the lines of Dumouriez resisted with less firmness. When + France, in 1792, declared war with the great powers of Europe, she was far + from possessing that splendid military organization which the experience + of a few revolutionary campaigns taught her to assume, and which she has + never abandoned. The army of the old monarchy had, during the latter part + of the reign of Louis XV. sunk into gradual decay, both in numerical + force, and in efficiency of equipment and spirit. The laurels gained by + the auxiliary regiments which Louis XVI. sent to the American war, did but + little to restore the general tone of the army. The insubordination and + licence, which the revolt of the French guards, and the participation of + other troops in many of the first excesses of the Revolution introduced + among the soldiery, were soon rapidly disseminated through all the ranks. + Under the Legislative Assembly every complaint of the soldier against his + officer, however frivolous or ill-founded, was listened to with eagerness, + and investigated with partiality, on the principles of liberty and + equality. Discipline accordingly became more and more relaxed; and the + dissolution of several of the old corps, under the pretext of their being + tainted with an aristocratic feeling, aggravated the confusion and + inefficiency of the war department. Many of the most effective regiments + during the last period of the monarchy had consisted of foreigners. These + had either been slaughtered in defence of the throne against + insurrections, like the Swiss; or had been disbanded, and had crossed the + frontier to recruit the forces which were assembling for the invasion of + France. Above all, the emigration of the noblesse had stripped the French + army of nearly all its officers of high rank, and of the greatest portion + of its subalterns. More than twelve thousand of the high-born youth of + France, who had been trained to regard military command as their exclusive + patrimony, and to whom the nation had been accustomed to look up as its + natural guides and champions in the storm of war; were now marshalled + beneath the banner of Conde and the other emigrant princes, for the + overthrow of the French armies, and the reduction of the French capital. + Their successors in the French regiments and brigades had as yet acquired + neither skill nor experience: they possessed neither self-reliance nor the + respect of the men who were under them. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of the wrecks of the old army; but the bulk of the + forces with which France began the war, consisted of raw insurrectionary + levies, which were even less to be depended on. The Carmagnoles, as the + revolutionary volunteers were called, flocked, indeed, readily to the + frontier from every department when the war was proclaimed, and the fierce + leaders of the Jacobins shouted that the country was in danger. They were + full of zeal and courage, "heated and excited by the scenes of the + Revolution, and inflamed by the florid eloquence, the songs, dances, and + signal-words with which it had been celebrated." [Scott, Life of Napoleon, + vol. i c. viii.] But they were utterly undisciplined, and turbulently + impatient of superior authority, or systematical control. Many ruffians, + also, who were sullied with participation in the most sanguinary horrors + of Paris, joined the camps, and were pre-eminent alike for misconduct + before the enemy and for savage insubordination against their own + officers. On one occasion during the campaign of Valmy, eight battalions + of federates, intoxicated with massacre and sedition, joined the forces + under Dumouriez, and soon threatened to uproot all discipline, saying + openly that the ancient officers were traitors, and that it was necessary + to purge the army, as they had Paris, of its aristocrats. Dumouriez posted + these battalions apart from the others, placed a strong force of cavalry + behind them, and two pieces of cannon on their flank. Then, affecting to + review them, he halted at the head of the line, surrounded by all his + staff, and an escort of a hundred hussars. "Fellows," said he, "for I will + not call you either citizens or soldiers, you see before you this + artillery, behind you this cavalry; you are stained with crimes, and I do + not tolerate here assassins or executioners. I know that there are + scoundrels amongst you charged to excite you to crime. Drive them from + amongst you, or denounce them to me, for I shall hold you responsible for + their conduct." [Lamartine.] + </p> + <p> + One of our recent historians of the Revolution, who narrates this + incident, [Carlyle.] thus apostrophises the French general:— + </p> + <p> + "Patience, O Dumouriez! This uncertain heap of shriekers, mutineers, were + they once drilled and inured, will become a phalanxed mass of fighters; + and wheel and whirl to order swiftly, like the wind or the whirlwind; + tanned mustachio-figures; often barefoot, even barebacked, with sinews of + iron; who require only bread and gunpowder; very sons of fire; the + adroitest, hastiest, hottest, ever seen perhaps since Attila's time." + </p> + <p> + Such phalanxed masses of fighters did the Carmagnoles ultimately become; + but France ran a fearful risk in being obliged to rely on them when the + process of their transmutation had barely commenced. + </p> + <p> + The first events, indeed, of the war were disastrous and disgraceful to + France, even beyond what might have been expected from the chaotic state + in which it found her armies as well as her government. In the hopes of + profiting by the unprepared state of Austria, then the mistress of the + Netherlands, the French opened the campaign of 1792 by an invasion of + Flanders, with forces whose muster-rolls showed a numerical overwhelming + superiority to the enemy, and seemed to promise a speedy conquest of that + old battle-field of Europe. But the first flash of an Austrian sabre, or + the first sound of Austrian gun, was enough to discomfit the French. Their + first corps, four thousand strong, that advanced from Lille across the + frontier, came suddenly upon a far inferior detachment of the Austrian + garrison of Tournay. Not a shot was fired, not a bayonet levelled. With + one simultaneous cry of panic the French broke and ran headlong back to + Lille, where they completed the specimen of insubordination which they had + given in the field, by murdering their general and several of their chief + officers. On the same day, another division under Biron, mustering ten + thousand sabres and bayonets, saw a few Austrian skirmishers + reconnoitering their position. The French advanced posts had scarcely + given and received a volley, and only a few balls from the enemy's + field-pieces had fallen among the lines, when two regiments of French + dragoons raised the cry, "We are betrayed," galloped off, and were + followed in disgraceful rout by the rest of the whole army. Similar + panics, or repulses almost equally discreditable, occurred whenever + Rochambeau, or Luckner, or La Fayette, the earliest French generals in the + war, brought their troops into the presence of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, the allied sovereigns had gradually collected on the Rhine a + veteran and finely-disciplined army for the invasion of France, which for + numbers, equipment, and martial renown, both of generals and men, was + equal to any that Germany had ever sent forth to conquer. Their design was + to strike boldly and decisively at the heart of France, and penetrating + the country through the Ardennes, to proceed by Chalons upon Paris. The + obstacles that lay in their way seemed insignificant. The disorder and + imbecility of the French armies had been even augmented by the forced + flight of La Fayette, and a sudden change of generals. The only troops + posted on or near the track by which the allies were about to advance, + were the twenty-three thousand men at Sedan, whom La Fayette had + commanded, and a corps of twenty thousand near Metz, the command of which + had just been transferred from Luckner to Kellerman. There were only three + fortresses which it was necessary for the allies to capture or mask—Sedan, + Longwy, and Verdun. The defences and stores of these three were known to + be wretchedly dismantled and insufficient; and when once these feeble + barriers were overcome, and Chalons reached, a fertile and unprotected + country seemed to invite the invaders to that "military promenade to + Paris," which they gaily talked of accomplishing. + </p> + <p> + At the end of July the allied army, having completed all preparations for + the campaign, broke up from its cantonments, and marching from Luxembourg + upon Longwy, crossed the French frontier. Eighty thousand Prussians, + trained in the school, and many of them under the eye of the Great + Frederick, heirs of the glories of the Seven Years' War, and universally + esteemed the best troops in Europe, marched in one column against the + central point of attack. Forty-five thousand Austrians, the greater part + of whom were picked troops, and had served in the recent Turkish war, + supplied two formidable corps that supported the flanks of the Prussians. + There was also a powerful body of Hessians, and leagued with the Germans + against the Parisian democracy, came fifteen thousand of the noblest and + bravest amongst the sons of France. In these corps of emigrants, many of + the highest born of the French nobility, scions of houses whose chivalric + trophies had for centuries filled Europe with renown, served as rank and + file. They looked on the road to Paris as the path which they were to + carve out by their swords to victory, to honour, to the rescue of their + king, to reunion with their families, to the recovery of their patrimony, + and to the restoration of their order. [See Scott, Life of Napoleon, vol. + i. c. xi.] + </p> + <p> + Over this imposing army the allied sovereigns placed as generalissimo the + Duke of Brunswick, one of the minor reigning princes of Germany, a + statesman of no mean capacity, and who had acquired in the Seven Years' + War, a military reputation second only to that of the Great Frederick + himself. He had been deputed a few years before to quell the popular + movements which then took place in Holland; and he had put down the + attempted revolution in that country with a promptitude and completeness, + which appeared to augur equal success to the army that now marched under + his orders on a similar mission into France. + </p> + <p> + Moving majestically forward, with leisurely deliberation, that seemed to + show the consciousness of superior strength, and a steady purpose of doing + their work thoroughly, the Allies appeared before Longwy on the 20th of + August, and the dispirited and dependent garrison opened the gates of that + fortress to them after the first shower of bombs. On the 2d of September + the still more important stronghold of Verdun capitulated after scarcely + the shadow of resistance. + </p> + <p> + Brunswick's superior force was now interposed between Kellerman's troops + on the left, and the other French army near Sedan, which La Fayette's + flight had, for the time, left destitute of a commander. It was in the + power of the German general, by striking with an overwhelming mass to the + right and left, to crush in succession each of these weak armies, and the + allies might then have marched irresistible and unresisted upon Paris. But + at this crisis Dumouriez, the new commander-in-chief of the French, + arrived at the camp near Sedan, and commenced a series of movements, by + which he reunited the dispersed and disorganized forces of his country, + checked the Prussian columns at the very moment when the last obstacles of + their triumph seemed to have given way, and finally rolled back the tide + of invasion far across the enemy's frontier. + </p> + <p> + The French fortresses had fallen; but nature herself still offered to + brave and vigorous defenders of the land, the means of opposing a barrier + to the progress of the Allies. A ridge of broken ground, called the + Argonne, extends from the vicinity of Sedan towards the south-west for + about fifteen or sixteen leagues, The country of L'Argonne has now been + cleared and drained; but in 1792 it was thickly wooded, and the lower + portions of its unequal surface were filled with rivulets and marshes. It + thus presented a natural barrier of from four to five leagues broad, which + was absolutely impenetrable to an army, except by a few defiles, such as + an inferior force might easily fortify and defend. Dumouriez succeeded in + marching his army down from Sedan behind the Argonne, and in occupying its + passes, while the Prussians still lingered on the north-eastern side of + the forest line. Ordering Kellerman to wheel round from Metz to St. + Menehould, and the reinforcements from the interior and extreme north also + to concentrate at that spot, Dumouriez trusted to assemble a powerful + force in the rear of the south-west extremity of the Argonne, while, with + the twenty-five thousand men under his immediate command, he held the + enemy at bay before the passes, or forced him to a long circumvolution + round one extremity of the forest ridge, during which, favourable + opportunities of assailing his flank were almost certain to occur. + Dumouriez fortified the principal defiles, and boasted of the Thermopylae + which he had found for the invaders; but the simile was nearly rendered + fatally complete for the defending force. A pass, which was thought of + inferior importance, had been but slightly manned, and an Austrian corps + under Clairfayt, forced it after some sharp fighting. Dumouriez with great + difficulty saved himself from being enveloped and destroyed by the hostile + columns that now pushed through the forest. But instead of despairing at + the failure of his plans, and falling back into the interior, to be + completely severed from Kellerman's army, to be hunted as a fugitive under + the walls of Paris by the victorious Germans, and to lose all chance of + ever rallying his dispirited troops, he resolved to cling to the difficult + country in which the armies still were grouped, to force a junction with + Kellerman, and so to place himself at the head of a force, which the + invaders would not dare to disregard, and by which he might drag them back + from the advance on Paris, which he had not been able to bar. Accordingly, + by a rapid movement to the south, during which, in his own words, "France + was within a hair's-breadth of destruction," and after, with difficulty, + checking several panics of his troops in which they ran by thousands at + the sight of a few Prussian hussars, Dumouriez succeeded in establishing + his head-quarters in a strong position at St. Menehould, protected by the + marshes and shallows of the river Aisne and Aube, beyond which, to the + north-west, rose a firm and elevated plateau, called Dampierre's Camp, + admirably situated for commanding the road by Chalons to Paris, and where + he intended to post Kellerman's army so soon as it came up. [Some late + writers represent that Brunswick did not wish to check Dumouriez. There is + no sufficient authority for this insinuation, which seems to have been + first prompted by a desire to soothe the wounded military pride of the + Prussians.] + </p> + <p> + The news of the retreat of Dumouriez from the Argonne passes, and of the + panic flight of some divisions of his troops, spread rapidly throughout + the country; and Kellerman, who believed that his comrade's army had been + annihilated, and feared to fall among the victorious masses of the + Prussians, had halted on his march from Metz when almost close to St. + Menehould. He had actually commenced a retrograde movement, when couriers + from his commander-in-chief checked him from that fatal course; and then + continuing to wheel round the rear and left flank of the troops at St. + Menehould, Kellerman, with twenty thousand of the army of Metz, and some + thousands of volunteers who had joined him in the march, made his + appearance to the west of Dumouriez, on the very evening when Westerman + and Thouvenot, two of the staff-officers of Dumouriez, galloped in with + the tidings that Brunswick's army had come through the upper passes of the + Argonne in full force, and was deploying on the heights of La Lune, a + chain of eminences that stretch obliquely from south-west to north-east + opposite the high ground which Dumouriez held, and also opposite, but at a + shorter distance from, the position which Kellerman was designed to + occupy. + </p> + <p> + The Allies were now, in fact, nearer to Paris than were the French troops + themselves; but, as Dumouriez had foreseen, Brunswick deemed it unsafe to + march upon the capital with so large a hostile force left in his rear + between his advancing columns and his base of operations. The young King + of Prussia, who was in the allied camp, and the emigrant princes, eagerly + advocated an instant attack upon the nearest French general. Kellerman had + laid himself unnecessarily open, by advancing beyond Dampierre's Camp, + which Dumouriez had designed for him, and moving forward across the Aube + to the plateau of Valmy, a post inferior in strength and space to that + which he had left, and which brought him close upon the Prussian lines, + leaving him separated by a dangerous interval from the troops under + Dumouriez himself. It seemed easy for the Prussian army to overwhelm him + while thus isolated, and then they might surround and crush Dumouriez at + their leisure. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, the right wing of the allied army moved forward, in the grey + of the morning of the 20th of September, to gain Kellerman's left flank + and rear, and cut him off from retreat upon Chalons, while the rest of the + army, moving from the heights of La Lune, which here converge + semi-circularly round the plateau of Valmy, were to assail his position in + front, and interpose between him and Dumouriez. An unexpected collision + between some of the advanced cavalry on each side in the low ground, + warned Kellerman of the enemy's approach. Dumouriez had not been + unobservant of the danger of his comrade, thus isolated and involved; and + he had ordered up troops to support Kellerman on either flank in the event + of his being attacked. These troops, however, moved forward slowly; and + Kellerman's army, ranged on the plateau of Valmy, "projected like a cape + into the midst of the lines of the Prussian bayonets." [See Lamartine, + Hist. Girond. livre xvii. I have drawn much of the ensuing description + from him.] A thick autumnal mist floated in waves of vapour over the + plains and ravines that lay between the two armies, leaving only the + crests and peaks of the hills glittering in the early light. About ten + o'clock the fog began to clear off, and then the French from their + promontory saw emerging from the white wreaths of mist, and glittering in + the sunshine, the countless Prussian cavalry which were to envelops them + as in a net if once driven from their position, the solid columns of the + infantry that moved forward as if animated by a single will, the bristling + batteries of the artillery, and the glancing clouds of the Austrian light + troops, fresh from their contests with the Spahis of the east. + </p> + <p> + The best and bravest of the French must have beheld this spectacle with + secret apprehension and awe. However bold and resolute a man may be in the + discharge of duty, it is an anxious and fearful thing to be called on to + encounter danger among comrades of whose steadiness you can feel no + certainty. Each soldier of Kellerman's army must have remembered the + series of panic routs which had hitherto invariably taken place on the + French side during the war; and must have cast restless glances to the + right and left, to see if any symptoms of wavering began to show + themselves, and to calculate how long it was likely to be before a general + rush of his comrades to the rear would either harry him off with + involuntary disgrace, or leave him alone and helpless, to be cut down by + assailing multitudes. + </p> + <p> + On that very morning, and at the self-same hour, in which the allied + forces and the emigrants began to descend from La Lune to the attack of + Valmy, and while the cannonade was opening between the Prussian and the + Revolutionary batteries, the debate in the National Convention at Paris + commenced on the proposal to proclaim France a Republic. + </p> + <p> + The old monarchy had little chance of support in the hall of the + Convention; but if its more effective advocates at Valmy had triumphed, + there were yet the elements existing in France for a permanent revival of + the better part of the ancient institutions, and for substituting Reform + for Revolution. Only a few weeks before, numerously signed addresses from + the middle classes in Paris, Rouen, and other large cities, had been + presented to the king, expressive of their horror of the anarchists, and + their readiness to uphold the rights of the crown, together with the + liberties of the subject. And an armed resistance to the authority of the + Convention, and in favour of the king, was in reality at this time being + actively organized in La Vendee and Brittany, the importance of which may + be estimated from the formidable opposition which the Royalists of these + provinces made to the Republican party, at a later period, and under much + more disadvantageous circumstances. It is a fact peculiarly illustrative + of the importance of the battle of Valmy, that "during the summer of 1792, + the gentlemen of Brittany entered into an extensive association for the + purpose of rescuing the country from the oppressive yoke which had been + imposed by the Parisian demagogues. At the head of the whole was the + Marquis de la Rouarie, one of those remarkable men who rise into + pre-eminence during the stormy days of a revolution, from conscious + ability to direct its current. Ardent, impetuous, and enthusiastic, he was + first distinguished in the American war, when the intrepidity of his + conduct attracted the admiration of the Republican troops, and the same + qualities rendered him at first an ardent supporter of the Revolution in + France; but when the atrocities of the people began, he espoused with + equal warmth the opposite side, and used the utmost efforts to rouse the + noblesse of Brittany against the plebeian yoke which had been imposed upon + them by the National Assembly. He submitted his plan to the Count + d'Artois, and had organized one so extensive, as would have proved + extremely formidable to the Convention, if the retreat of the Duke of + Brunswick, in September 1792, had not damped the ardour of the whole of + the west of France, then ready to break out into insurrection." [Alison, + vol. iii. p. 323.] + </p> + <p> + And it was not only among the zealots of the old monarchy that the cause + of the king would then have found friends. The ineffable atrocities of the + September massacres had just occurred, and the reaction produced by them + among thousands who had previously been active on the ultra-democratic + side, was fresh and powerful. The nobility had not yet been made utter + aliens in the eyes of the nation by long expatriation and civil war. There + was not yet a generation of youth educated in revolutionary principles, + and knowing no worship-save that of military glory, Louis XVI. was just + and humane, and deeply sensible of the necessity of a gradual extension of + political rights among all classes of his subjects. The Bourbon throne, if + rescued in 1792, would have had chances of stability, such as did not + exist for it in 1814, and seem never likely to be found again in France. + </p> + <p> + Serving under Kellerman on that day was one who experienced, perhaps the + most deeply of all men, the changes for good and for evil which the French + Revolution has produced. He who, in his second exile, bore the name of the + Count de Neuilly in this country, and who lately was Louis Philippe, King + of the French, figured in the French lines at Valmy, as a young and + gallant officer, cool and sagacious beyond his years, and trusted + accordingly by Kellerman and Dumouriez with an important station in the + national army. The Duc de Chartres (the title he then bore) commanded the + French right, General Valence was on the left, and Kellerman himself took + his post in the centre, which was the strength and key of his position. + </p> + <p> + Besides these celebrated men, who were in the French army, and besides the + King of Prussia, the Duke of Brunswick, and other men of rank and power, + who were in the lines of the Allies, there was an individual present at + the battle of Valmy, of little political note, but who has exercised, and + exercises, a greater influence over the human mind, and whose fame is more + widely spread, than that of either duke, or general, or king. This was the + German poet, Goethe, who had, out of curiosity, accompanied the allied + army on its march into France as a mere spectator. He has given us a + curious record of the sensations which he experienced during the + cannonade. It must be remembered that many thousands in, the French ranks + then, like Goethe, felt the "cannon-fever" for the first time. The German + poet says, [Goethe's Campaign in France in 1792. Farie's translation, + p.77.]— + </p> + <p> + "I had heard so much of the cannon-fever, that I wanted to know what kind + of thing it was. ENNUI, and a spirit which every kind of danger excites to + daring, nay even to rashness, induced me to ride up quite coolly to the + outwork of La Lune. This was again occupied by our people; but it + presented the wildest aspect. The roofs were shot to pieces; the + corn-shocks scattered about, the bodies of men mortally wounded stretched + upon them here and there; and occasionally a spent cannon-ball fell and + rattled among the ruins of the the roofs. + </p> + <p> + "Quite alone, and left to myself, I rode away on the heights to the left, + and could plainly survey the favourable position of the French; they were + standing in the form of a semicircle in the greatest quiet and security; + Kellerman, then on the left wing, being the easiest to reach. + </p> + <p> + "I fell in with good company on the way, officers of my acquaintance, + belonging to the general staff and the regiment, greatly surprised to find + me here. They wanted to take me back again with them; but I spoke to them + of particular objects I had in view, and they left me without further + dissuasion, to my well-known singular caprice. + </p> + <p> + "I had now arrived quite in the region where the balls were playing across + me: the sound of them is curious enough, as if it were composed of the + humming of tops, the gurgling of water, and the whistling of birds. They + were less dangerous, by reason of the wetness of the ground: wherever one + fell, it stuck fast. And thus my foolish experimental ride was secured + against the danger at least of the balls rebounding. + </p> + <p> + "In the midst of these circumstances, I was soon able to remark that + something unusual was taking place within me. I paid close attention to + it, and still the sensation can be described only by similitude. It + appeared as if you were in some extremely hot place, and, at the same + time, quite penetrated by the heat of it, so that you feel yourself, as it + were, quite one with the element in which you are. The eyes lose nothing + of their strength or clearness; but it is as if the world had a kind of + brown-red tint, which makes the situation, as well as the surrounding + objects, more impressive. I was unable to perceive any agitation of the + blood; but everything seemed rather to be swallowed up in the glow of + which I speak. From this, then, it is clear in what sense this condition + can be called a fever. It is remarkable, however, that the horrible uneasy + feeling arising from it is produced in us solely through the ears; for the + cannon-thunder, the howling and crashing of the balls through the air, is + the real cause of these sensations. + </p> + <p> + "After I had ridden back, and was in perfect security, I remarked with + surprise that the glow was completely extinguished, and not the slightest + feverish agitation was left behind. On the whole, this condition is one of + the least desirable; as, indeed, among my dear and noble comrades, I found + scarcely one who expressed a really passionate desire to try it." + </p> + <p> + Contrary to the expectations of both friends and foes, the French infantry + held their ground steadily under the fire of the Prussian guns, which + thundered on them from La Lune; and their own artillery replied with equal + spirit and greater effect on the denser masses of the allied army. + Thinking that the Prussians were slackening in their fire, Kellerman + formed a column in charging order, and dashed down into the valley, in the + hopes of capturing some of the nearest guns of the enemy. A masked battery + opened its fire on the French column, and drove it back in disorder. + Kellerman having his horse shot under him, and being with difficulty + carried off by his men. The Prussian columns now advanced in turn. The + French artillerymen began to waver and desert their posts, but were + rallied by the efforts and example of their officers; and Kellerman, + reorganizing the line of his infantry, took his station in the ranks on + foot, and called out to his men to let the enemy come close up, and then + to charge them with the bayonet. The troops caught the enthusiasm of their + general, and a cheerful shout of VIVE LA NATION! taken by one battalion + from another, pealed across the valley to the assailants. The Prussians + flinched from a charge up-hill against a force that seemed so resolute and + formidable; they halted for a while in the hollow, and then slowly + retreated up their own side of the valley. + </p> + <p> + Indignant at being thus repulsed by such a foe, the King of Prussia formed + the flower of his men in person, and, riding along the column, bitterly + reproached them with letting their standard be thus humiliated. Then he + led them on again to the attack marching in the front line, and seeing his + staff mowed down around him by the deadly fire which the French artillery + re-opened. But the troops sent by Dumouriez were now co-operating + effectually with Kellerman, and that general's own men, flushed by + success, presented a firmer front than ever. Again the Prussians + retreated, leaving eight hundred dead behind, and at nightfall the French + remained victors on the heights of Valmy. + </p> + <p> + All hopes of crushing the revolutionary armies, and of the promenade to + Paris, had now vanished, though Brunswick lingered long in the Argonne, + till distress and sickness wasted away his once splendid force, and + finally but a mere wreck of it recrossed the frontier. France, meanwhile, + felt that she possessed a giant's strength, and like a giant did she use + it. Before the close of that year, all Belgium obeyed the National + Convention at Paris, and the kings of Europe, after the lapse of eighteen + centuries, trembled once more before a conquering military Republic. + </p> + <p> + Goethe's description of the cannonade has been quoted. His observation to + his comrades in the camp of the Allies, at the end of the battle, deserves + citation also. It shows that the poet felt (and, probably, he alone of the + thousands there assembled felt) the full importance of that day. He + describes the consternation and the change of demeanour which he observed + among his Prussian friends that evening, he tells us that "most of them + were silent; and, in fact, the power of reflection and judgment was + wanting to all. At last I was called upon to say what I thought of the + engagement; for I had been in the habit of enlivening and amusing the + troop with short sayings. This time I said: 'FROM THIS PLACE, AND FROM + THIS DAY FORTH, COMMENCES A NEW ERA IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY, AND YOU CAN + ALL SAY THAT YOU WERE PRESENT AT ITS BIRTH.'" + </p> + <p> + SYNOPSIS OP EVENTS BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF VALMY, 1792, AND THE BATTLE OF + WATERLOO, 1815. + </p> + <p> + A.D. 1793. Trial and execution of Louis XVI. at Paris. England and Spain + declare war against France. Royalist war in La Vendee. Second invasion of + France by the Allies. + </p> + <p> + 1794. Lord Howe's victory over the French fleet. Final partition of Poland + by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. + </p> + <p> + 1795. The French armies under Pichegru, conquer Holland. Cessation of the + war in La Vendee. + </p> + <p> + 1796. Bonaparte commands the French army of Italy and gains repeated + victories over the Austrians. + </p> + <p> + 1797. Victory of Jervis, off Cape St. Vincent. Peace of Campo Formio + between France and Austria. Defeat of the Dutch off Camperdown by Admiral + Duncan. + </p> + <p> + 1798. Rebellion in Ireland. Expedition of the French under Bonaparte to + Egypt. Lord Nelson destroys the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + 1799. Renewal of the war between Austria and France. The Russian emperor + sends an army in aid of Austria, under Suwarrow. The French are repeatedly + defeated in Italy. Bonaparte returns from Egypt and makes himself First + Consul of France. Massena wins the battle of Zurich. The Russian emperor + makes peace with France. + </p> + <p> + 1800. Bonaparte passes the Alps and defeats the Austrians at Marengo. + Moreau wins the battle of Hohenlinden. + </p> + <p> + 1801. Treaty of Luneville between France and Austria. The battle of + Copenhagen. + </p> + <p> + 1802. Peace of Amiens. + </p> + <p> + 1803. War between England and France renewed. + </p> + <p> + 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte is made Emperor of France. + </p> + <p> + 1805. Great preparations of Napoleon to invade England. Austria, supported + by Russia, renews war with France. Napoleon marches into Germany, takes + Vienna, and gains the battle of Austerlitz. Lord Nelson destroys the + combined French and Spanish fleets, and is killed at the battle of + Trafalgar. + </p> + <p> + 1806. War between Prussia and France, Napoleon conquers Prussia in the + battle of Jena. + </p> + <p> + 1807. Obstinate warfare between the French and Russian armies in East + Prussia and Poland. Peace of Tilsit. + </p> + <p> + 1808. Napoleon endeavours to make his brother King of Spain. Rising of the + Spanish nation against him. England sends troops to aid the Spaniards. + Battles of Vimiera and Corunna. + </p> + <p> + 1809. War renewed between France and Austria. Battles of Asperne and + Wagram. Peace granted to Austria. Lord Wellington's victory of Talavera, + in Spain. + </p> + <p> + 1810. Marriage of Napoleon and the Arch-duchess Maria Louisa. Holland + annexed to France. + </p> + <p> + 1812. War between England and the United States. Napoleon invades Russia. + Battle of Borodino. The French occupy Moscow, which is burned. Disastrous + retreat and almost total destruction of the great army of France. + </p> + <p> + 1813. Prussia and Austria take up arms again against France. Battles of + Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Culm, and Leipsic. The French are driven out of + Germany. Lord Wellington gains the great battle of Vittoria, which + completes the rescue of Spain from France. + </p> + <p> + 1814. The Allies invade France on the eastern, and Lord Wellington invades + it on the southern frontier. Battles of Laon, Montmirail, Arcis-sur-Aube, + and others in the north-east of France; and of Toulouse in the south. + Paris surrenders to the Allies, and Napoleon abdicates. First restoration + of the Bourbons. Napoleon goes to the isle of Elba, which is assigned to + him by the Allies. Treaty of Ghent, between the United States and England. + </p> + <p> + 1815. Napoleon suddenly escapes from Elba, and lands in France. The French + soldiery join him and Louis XVIII. is obliged to fly from the throne. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. — THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO, 1815. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Thou first and last of fields, king-making victory."—BYRON. +</pre> + <p> + England has now been blest with thirty-seven years of peace. At no other + period of her history can a similarly long cessation from a state of + warfare be found. It is true that our troops have had battles to fight + during this interval for the protection and extension of our Indian + possessions and our colonies; but these have been with distant and + unimportant enemies. The danger has never been brought near our own + shores, and no matter of vital importance to our empire has ever been at + stake. We have not had hostilities with either France, America, or Russia; + and when not at war with any of our peers, we feel ourselves to be + substantially at peace. There has, indeed, throughout this long period, + been no great war, like those with which the previous history of modern + Europe abounds. There have been formidable collisions between particular + states; and there have been still more formidable collisions between the + armed champions of the conflicting principles of absolutism and democracy; + but there has been no general war, like those of the French Revolution, + like the American, or the Seven Years' War, or like the War of the Spanish + Succession. It would be far too much to augur from this, that no similar + wars will again convulse the world; but the value of the period of peace + which Europe has gained, is incalculable; even if we look on it as only a + truce, and expect again to see the nations of the earth recur to what some + philosophers have termed man's natural state of warfare. + </p> + <p> + No equal number of years can be found, during which science, commerce, and + civilization have advanced so rapidly and so extensively, as has been the + case since 1815. When we trace their progress, especially in this country, + it is impossible not to feel that their wondrous development has been + mainly due to the land having been at peace. [See the excellent + Introduction to Mr. Charles Knight's "History of the Thirty Years' + Peace."] Their good effects cannot be obliterated, even if a series of + wars were to recommence. When we reflect on this, and contrast these + thirty-seven years with the period that preceded them, a period of + violence, of tumult, of unrestingly destructive energy,—a period + throughout which the wealth of nations was scattered like sand, and the + blood of nations lavished like water,—it is impossible not to look + with deep interest on the final crisis of that dark and dreadful epoch; + the crisis out of which our own happier cycle of years has been evolved. + The great battle which ended the twenty-three years' war of the first + French Revolution, and which quelled the man whose genius and ambition had + so long disturbed and desolated the world, deserves to be regarded by us, + not only with peculiar pride, as one of our greatest national victories, + but with peculiar gratitude for the repose which it secured for us, and + for the greater part of the human race. + </p> + <p> + One good test for determining the importance of Waterloo, is to ascertain + what was felt by wise and prudent statesmen before that battle, respecting + the return of Napoleon from Elba to the Imperial throne of France, and the + probable effects of his success. For this purpose, I will quote the words, + not of any of our vehement anti-Gallican politicians of the school of + Pitt, but of a leader of our Liberal party, of a man whose reputation as a + jurist, a historian and a far-sighted and candid statesman, was, and is, + deservedly high, not only in this country, but throughout Europe. Sir + James Mackintosh, in the debate in the British House of Commons, on the + 20th April, 1815, spoke thus of the return from Elba:— + </p> + <p> + "Was it in the power of language to describe the evil. Wars which had + raged for more than twenty years throughout Europe; which had spread blood + and desolation from Cadiz to Moscow, and from Naples to Copenhagen; which + had wasted the means of human enjoyment, and destroyed the instruments of + social improvement; which threatened to diffuse among the European + nations, the dissolute and ferocious habits of a predatory soldiery,—at + length, by one of those vicissitudes which bid defiance to the foresight + of man, had been brought to a close, upon the whole, happy beyond all + reasonable expectation, with no violent shock to national independence, + with some tolerable compromise between the opinions of the age and + reverence due to ancient institutions; with no too signal or mortifying + triumph over the legitimate interests or avowable feelings of any numerous + body of men, and, above all, without those retaliations against nations or + parties, which beget new convulsions, often as horrible as those which + they close, and perpetuate revenge and hatred and bloodshed, from age to + age. Europe seemed to breathe after her sufferings. In the midst of this + fair prospect, and of these consolatory hopes, Napoleon Bonaparte escaped + from Elba; three small vessels reached the coast of Provence; our hopes + are instantly dispelled; the work of our toil and fortitude is undone; the + blood of Europe is spilt in vain— + </p> + <p> + "'Ibi omnis effusus labor!'" + </p> + <p> + The Congress of Emperors, Kings, Princes, Generals, and Statesmen, who had + assembled at Vienna to remodel the world after the overthrow of the mighty + conqueror, and who thought that Napoleon had passed away for ever from the + great drama of European politics, had not yet completed their triumphant + festivities, and their diplomatic toils, when Talleyrand, on the 11th of + March, 1815, rose up among them, and announced that the ex-emperor had + escaped from Elba, and was Emperor of France once more. It is recorded by + Sir Walter Scott, as a curious physiological fact, that the first effect + of the news of an event which threatened to neutralise all their labours, + was to excite a loud burst of laughter from nearly every member of the + Congress. [Life of Napoleon, vol. viii. chap. 1.] But the jest was a + bitter one: and they soon were deeply busied in anxious deliberations + respecting the mode in which they should encounter their arch-enemy, who + had thus started from torpor and obscurity into renovated splendour and + strength: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Qualis ubi in lucem coluber mala gramina pastus, + Frigida sub terra tumidum quem bruma tegebat, + Nunc positis novus exuviis nitidusque juventa, + Lubrica convolvit sublato pectore terga + Arduus ad solem, at linguis micat ore trisulcis." Virg. AEN. +</pre> + <p> + Napoleon sought to disunite the formidable confederacy, which he knew + would be arrayed against him, by endeavouring to negotiate separately with + each of the allied sovereigns. It is said that Austria and Russia were at + first not unwilling to treat with him. Disputes and jealousies had been + rife among several of the Allies on the subject of the division of the + conquered countries; and the cordial unanimity with which they had acted + during 1813 and the first months of 1814, had grown chill during some + weeks of discussions. But the active exertions of Tralleyrand, who + represented Louis XVIII. at the Congress, and who both hated and feared + Napoleon with all the intensity of which his powerful spirit was capable, + prevented the secession of any member of the Congress from the new great + league against their ancient enemy. Still it is highly probable that, if + Napoleon had triumphed in Belgium over the Prussians and the English, he + would have succeeded in opening negotiations with the Austrians and + Russians; and he might have thus gained advantages similar to those which + he had obtained on his return from Egypt, when he induced the Czar Paul to + withdraw the Russian armies from co-operating with the other enemies of + France in the extremity of peril to which she seemed reduced in 1799. But + fortune now had deserted him both in diplomacy and in war. + </p> + <p> + On the 13th of March, 1815, the Ministers of the seven powers, Austria, + Spain, England, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and Sweden, signed a manifesto, + by which they declared Napoleon an outlaw; and this denunciation was + instantly followed up by a treaty between England, Austria, Prussia, and + Russia (to which other powers soon acceded), by which the rulers of those + countries bound themselves to enforce that decree, and to prosecute the + war until Napoleon should be driven from the throne of France, and + rendered incapable of disturbing the peace of Europe. The Duke of + Wellington was the representative of England at the Congress of Vienna, + and he was immediately applied to for his advice on the plan of military + operations against France. It was obvious that Belgium would be the first + battle-field; and by the general wish of the Allies, the English Duke + proceeded thither to assemble an army from the contingents of Dutch, + Belgian, and Hanoverian troops, that were most speedily available, and + from the English regiments which his own Government was hastening to send + over from this country. A strong Prussian corps was near Aix-la-Chapelle, + having remained there since the campaign of the preceding year. This was + largely reinforced by other troops of the same nation; and Marshal + Blucher, the favourite hero of the Prussian soldiery, and the deadliest + foe of France, assumed the command of this army, which was termed the Army + of the Lower Rhine; and which, in conjunction with Wellington's forces, + was to make the van of the armaments of the Allied Powers. Meanwhile + Prince Swartzenburg was to collect 130,000 Austrians, and 124,000 troops + of other Germanic States, as "the Army of the Upper Rhine;" and 168,000 + Russians, under the command of Barclay de Tolly, were to form "the Army of + the Middle Rhine," and to repeat the march from Muscovy to that river's + banks. + </p> + <p> + The exertions which the Allied Powers thus made at this crisis to grapple + promptly with the French emperor have truly been termed gigantic; and + never were Napoleon's genius and activity more signally displayed, than in + the celerity and skill by which he brought forward all the military + resources of France, which the reverses of the three preceding years, and + the pacific policy of the Bourbons during the months of their first + restoration, had greatly diminished and disorganized. He re-entered Paris + on the 20th of March, and by the end of May, besides sending a force into + La Vendee to put down the armed rising of the royalists in that province, + and besides providing troops under Massena and Suchet for the defence of + the southern frontiers of France, Napoleon had an army assembled in the + north-east for active operations under his own command, which amounted to + between one hundred and twenty, and one hundred and thirty thousand men, + with a superb park of artillery and in the highest possible state of + equipment, discipline, and efficiency. [See for these numbers Siborne's + History of the Campaign of Waterloo, vol. i. p. 41.] + </p> + <p> + The approach of the multitudinous Russian, Austrian, Bavarian, and other + foes of the French Emperor to the Rhine was necessarily slow; but the two + most active of the allied powers had occupied Belgium with their troops, + while Napoleon was organizing his forces. Marshal Blucher was there with + one hundred and sixteen thousand Prussians; and, before the end of May, + the Duke of Wellington was there also with about one hundred and six + thousand troops, either British or in British pay. [Ibid. vol. i. chap. 3. + Wellington had but a small part of his old Peninsular army in Belgium. The + flower of it had been sent on the expeditions against America. His troops, + in 1815, were chiefly second battalions, or regiments lately filled up + with new recruits. See Scott, vol viii. p. 474.] Napoleon determined to + attack these enemies in Belgium. The disparity of numbers was indeed + great, but delay was sure to increase the proportionate numerical + superiority of his enemies over his own ranks. The French Emperor + considered also that "the enemy's troops were now cantoned under the + command of two generals, and composed of nations differing both in + interest and in feelings." [See Montholon's Memoirs, p. 45.] His own army + was under his own sole command. It was composed exclusively of French + soldiers, mostly of veterans, well acquainted with their officers and with + each other, and full of enthusiastic confidence in their commander. If he + could separate the Prussians from the British, so as to attack each + singly, he felt sanguine of success, not only against these the most + resolute of his many adversaries, but also against the other masses, that + were slowly labouring up against his eastern dominions. + </p> + <p> + The triple chain of strong fortresses, which the French possessed on the + Belgian frontier, formed a curtain, behind which Napoleon was able to + concentrate his army, and to conceal, till the very last moment, the + precise line of attack which he intended to take. On the other hand, + Blucher and Wellington were obliged to canton their troops along a line of + open country of considerable length, so as to watch for the outbreak of + Napoleon from whichever point of his chain of strongholds he should please + to make it. Blucher, with his army, occupied the banks of the Sambre and + the Meuse, from Liege on his left, to Charleroi on his right; and the Duke + of Wellington covered Brussels; his cantonments being partly in front of + that city and between it and the French frontier, and partly on its west + their extreme right reaching to Courtray and Tournay, while the left + approached Charleroi and communicated with the Prussian right. It was upon + Charleroi that Napoleon resolved to level his attack, in hopes of severing + the two allied armies from each other, and then pursuing his favourite + tactic of assailing each separately with a superior force on the + battle-field, though the aggregate of their numbers considerably exceeded + his own. + </p> + <p> + The first French corps d'armee, commanded by Count d'Erlon, was stationed + in the beginning of June in and around the city of Lille, near to the + north-eastern frontier of France. The second corps, under Count Reille, + was at Valenciennes, to the right of the first one. The third corps, under + Count Vandamme, was at Mezieres. The fourth, under Count Gerard, had its + head-quarters at Metz, and the sixth under Count Lobau, was at Laon. [The + fifth corps was under Count Rapp at Strasburg.] Four corps of reserve + cavalry, under Marshal Grouchy, were also near the frontier, between the + rivers Aisne and Sambre. The Imperial Guard remained in Paris until the + 8th of June, when it marched towards Belgium, and reached Avesnes on the + 13th; and in the course of the same and the following day, the five corps + d'armee with the cavalry reserves which have been mentioned, were, in + pursuance of skilfully combined orders, rapidly drawn together, and + concentrated in and around the same place, on the right bank of the river + Sambre. On the 14th Napoleon arrived among his troops, who were exulting + at the display of their commander's skill in the celerity and precision + with which they had been drawn together, and in the consciousness of their + collective strength. Although Napoleon too often permitted himself to use + language unworthy of his own character respecting his great English + adversary, his real feelings in commencing this campaign may be judged + from the last words which he spoke, as he threw himself into his + travelling carriage to leave Paris for the army. "I go," he said, "to + measure myself with Wellington." + </p> + <p> + The enthusiasm of the French soldiers at seeing their Emperor among them, + was still more excited by the "Order of the day," in which he thus + appealed to them: + </p> + <p> + "Napoleon, by the Grace of God, and the Constitution of the Empire, + Emperor of the French, &c. to the Grand Army. + </p> + <p> + "AT THE IMPERIAL HEAD-QUARTERS, AVESNES, JUNE 14th, 1815. + </p> + <p> + "Soldiers! this day is the anniversary of Marengo and of Friedland, which + twice decided the destiny of Europe. Then, as after Austerlitz, as after + Wagram, we were too generous! We believed in the protestations and in the + oaths of princes, whom we left on their thrones. Now, however, leagued + together, they aim at the independence and the most sacred rights of + France. They have commenced the most unjust of aggressions. Let us, then, + march to meet them. Are they and we no longer the same men? + </p> + <p> + "Soldiers! at Jena, against these same Prussians, now so arrogant, you + were one to three, and at Montmirail one to six! + </p> + <p> + "Let those among you who have been captives to the English, describe the + nature of their prison ships, and the frightful miseries they endured. + </p> + <p> + "The Saxons, the Belgians, the Hanoverians, the soldiers of the + Confederation of the Rhine, lament that they are compelled to use their + arms in the cause of princes, the enemies of justice and of the rights of + all nations. They know that this coalition is insatiable! After having + devoured twelve millions of Poles, twelve millions of Italians, one + million of Saxons, and six millions of Belgians, it now wishes to devour + the states of the second rank in Germany. + </p> + <p> + "Madmen! one moment of prosperity has bewildered them. The oppression and + the humiliation of the French people are beyond their power. If they enter + France they will there find their grave. + </p> + <p> + "Soldiers! we have forced marches to make, battles to fight, dangers to + encounter; but, with firmness victory will, be ours. The rights, the + honour, and the happiness of the country will be recovered! + </p> + <p> + "To every Frenchman who has a heart, the moment is now arrived to conquer + or to die. + </p> + <p> + "NAPOLEON." "THE MARSHAL DUKE OF DALMATIA. MAJOR GENERAL." + </p> + <p> + The 15th of June had scarcely dawned before the French army was in motion + for the decisive campaign, and crossed the frontier in three columns, + which were pointed upon Charleroi and its vicinity. The French line of + advance upon Brussels, which city Napoleon resolved to occupy, thus lay + right through the centre of the cantonments of the Allies. + </p> + <p> + Much criticism has been expended on the supposed surprise of Wellington's + army in its cantonments by Napoleon's rapid advance. These comments would + hardly have been made if sufficient attention had been paid to the + geography of the Waterloo campaign; and if it had been remembered that the + protection of Brussels was justly considered by the allied generals a + matter of primary importance. If Napoleon could, either by manoeuvring or + fighting, have succeeded in occupying that city, the greater part of + Belgium would unquestionably have declared in his favour; and the results + of such a success, gained by the Emperor at the commencement of the + campaign, might have decisively influenced the whole after-current of + events. A glance at the map will show the numerous roads that lead from + the different fortresses on the French north-eastern frontier, and + converge upon Brussels; any one of which Napoleon might have chosen for + the advance of a strong force upon that city. The Duke's army was + judiciously arranged, so as to enable him to concentrate troops on any one + of these roads sufficiently in advance of Brussels to check an assailing + enemy. The army was kept thus available for movement in any necessary + direction, till certain intelligence arrived on the 15th of June that the + French had crossed the frontier in large force near Thuin, that they had + driven back the Prussian advanced troops under General Ziethen, and were + also moving across the Sambre upon Charleroi. + </p> + <p> + Marshal Blucher now rapidly concentrated his forces, calling them in from + the left upon Ligny, which is to the north-east of Charleroi. Wellington + also drew his troops together, calling them in from the right. But even + now, though it was certain that the French were in large force at + Charleroi it was unsafe for the English general to place his army directly + between that place and Brussels, until it was certain that no corps of the + enemy was marching upon Brussels by the western road through Mons and Hal. + The Duke therefore, collected his troops in Brussels and its immediate + vicinity, ready to move due southward upon Quatre Bras, and co-operate + with Blucher, who was taking his station at Ligny: but also ready to meet + and defeat any manoeuvre, that the enemy might make to turn the right of + the Allies, and occupy Brussels by a flanking movement. The testimony of + the Prussian general, Baron Muffling, who was attached to the Duke's staff + during the campaign, and who expressly states the reasons on which the + English general acted, ought for ever to have silenced the "weak + inventions of the enemy" about the Duke of Wellington having been deceived + and surprised by his assailant, which some writers of our own nation, as + well as foreigners, have incautiously repeated. [See "Passages from my + Life and Writings," by Baron Muffling, p. 224 of the English Translation, + edited by Col. Yorke. See also the 178th number of the QUARTERLY. It is + strange that Lamartine should, after the appearance of Muffling's work, + have repeated in his "History of the Restoration" the myth of Wellington + having been surprised in the Brussels ball-room, &c.] + </p> + <p> + It was about three o'clock in the afternoon of the 15th, that a Prussian + officer reached Brussels, whom General Ziethen had sent to Muffling to + inform him of the advance of the main French army upon Charleroi. Muffling + immediately communicated this to the Duke of Wellington; and asked him + whether he would now concentrate his army, and what would be his point of + concentration; observing that Marshal Blucher in consequence of this + intelligence would certainly concentrate the Prussians at Ligny. The Duke + replied—"If all is as General Ziethen supposes, I will concentrate + on my left wing, and so be in readiness to fight in conjunction with the + Prussian army. Should, however, a portion of the enemy's force come by + Mons, I must concentrate more towards my centre. This is the reason why I + must wait for positive news from Mons before I fix the rendezvous. Since, + however, it is certain that the troops MUST march, though it is uncertain + upon what precise spot they must march, I will order all to be in + readiness, and will direct a brigade to move at once towards Quatre Bras." + [Muffling, p. 231.] + </p> + <p> + Later in the same day a message from Blucher himself was delivered to + Muffling, in which the Prussian Field-Marshal informed the Baron that he + was concentrating his men at Sombref and Ligny, and charged Muffling to + give him speedy intelligence respecting the concentration of Wellington. + Muffling immediately communicated this to the Duke, who expressed his + satisfaction with Blucher's arrangements, but added that he could not even + then resolve upon his own point of concentration before he obtained the + desired intelligence from Mons. About midnight this information arrived. + The Duke went to the quarters of General Muffling, and told him that he + now had received his reports from Mons, and was sure that no French troops + were advancing by that route, but that the mass of the enemy's force was + decidedly directed on Charleroi. He informed the Prussian general that he + had ordered the British troops to move forward upon Quatre Bras; but with + characteristic coolness and sagacity resolved not to give the appearance + of alarm by hurrying on with them himself. A ball was to be given by the + Duchess of Richmond at Brussels that night, and the Duke proposed to + General Muffling that they should go to the ball for a few hours, and ride + forward in the morning to overtake the troops at Quatre Bras. + </p> + <p> + To hundreds, who were assembled at that memorable ball, the news that the + enemy was advancing, and that the time for battle had come, must have been + a fearfully exciting surprise, and the magnificent stanzas of Byron are as + true as they are beautiful; but the Duke and his principal officers knew + well the stern termination to that festive scene which was approaching. + One by one, and in such a way as to attract as little observation as + possible, the leaders of the various corps left the ball-room, and took + their stations at the head of their men, who were pressing forward through + the last hours of the short summer night to the arena of anticipated + slaughter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [There was a sound of revelry by night, + And Belgium's capital had gather'd then + Her Beauty and her chivalry, and bright + The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men; + A thousand hearts beat happily; and when + Music arose with its voluptuous swell, + Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again, + And all went merry as a marriage bell; + But hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell, + + Did ye not hear it?—No; 'twas but; the wind, + Or the car rattling o'er the stony street; + On with the dance! let joy be unconfined; + No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet + To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet— + But, hark!—that heavy sound breaks in once more, + As if the clouds its echo would repeat; + And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before! + Arm! Arm! it is—it is—the cannon's opening roar! + + Within a window'd niche of that high hall + Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain; he did hear + That sound the first amidst the festival, + And caught its tone with Death's prophetic ear; + And when they smiled because he deem'd it near, + His heart more truly knew that peal too well + Which stretch'd his father on a bloody bier, + And roused the vengeance blood alone could quell; + He rush'd into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. + + Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro, + And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress, + And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago + Blush'd at the praise of their own loveliness; + And there were sudden partings, such as press + The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs + Which ne'er might be repeated; who could guess + If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, + Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise! + + And there was mounting in hot haste: the steed, + The mustering squadron, and the clattering car, + Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, + And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; + And the deep thunder peal on peal afar; + And near, the beat of the alarming drum + Roused up the soldier ere the morning star; + While thronged the citizens with terror dumb, + Or whispering, with white lips—"The foe! + They come! they come!" + + And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, + Dewy with nature's teardrops, as they pass, + Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves, + Over the unreturning brave,—alas! + Ere evening to be trodden like the grass + Which now beneath them, but above shall grow + In its next verdure, when this fiery mass + Of living valour, rolling on the foe + And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low. + + Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, + Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay, + The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife, + The morn the marshalling in arms,—the day + Battle's magnificently stern array! + The thunder-clouds close o'er it, which when rent + The earth is covered thick with other clay, + Which her own clay shall cover, heaped and pent, + Rider and horse,—friend, foe,—in one red burial blent.] +</pre> + <p> + Napoleon's operations on the 16th had been conducted with signal skill and + vigour; and their results had been very advantageous for his plan of the + campaign. With his army formed in three vast columns, [Victoires et + Conquetes des Francais, vol. xxv. p. 177.] he had struck at the centre of + the line of cantonments of his allied foes; and he had so far made good + his blow, that he had affected the passage of the Sambre, he had beaten + with his left wing the Prussian corps of General Ziethen at Thuin, and + with his centre he had in person advanced right through Charleroi upon + Fleurus, inflicting considerable loss upon the Prussians that fell back + before him. His right column had with little opposition moved forward as + far as the bridge of Chatelet. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon had thus a powerful force immediately in front of the point which + Blucher had fixed for the concentration of the Prussian army, and that + concentration was still incomplete. The French Emperor designed to attack + the Prussians on the morrow in person, with the troops of his centre and + right columns, and to employ his left wing in beating back such English + troops as might advance to the help of their allies, and also in aiding + his own attack upon Blucher. He gave the command of this left wing to + Marshal Ney. Napoleon seems not to have originally intended to employ this + celebrated General in the campaign. It was only on the night of the 11th + of June, that Marshal Ney received at Paris an order to join the army. + Hurrying forward to the Belgian frontier, he met the Emperor near + Charleroi. Napoleon immediately directed him to take the command of the + left wing, and to press forward with it upon Quatre Bras by the line of + the road which leads from Charleroi to Brussels, through Gosselies, + Frasne, Quatre Bras, Genappe, and Waterloo. Ney immediately proceeded to + the post assigned him; and before ten on the night of the 15th he had + occupied Gosselies and Frasne, driving out without much difficulty some + weak Belgian detachments which had been stationed in those villages. The + lateness of the hour, and the exhausted state of the French troops, who + had been marching and fighting since ten in the morning, made him pause + from advancing further to attack the much more important position of + Quatre Bras. In truth, the advantages which the French gained by their + almost superhuman energy and activity throughout the long day of the 15th + of June, were necessarily bought at the price of more delay and inertness + during the following night and morrow, than would have been observable if + they had not been thus overtasked. Ney has been blamed for want of + promptness in his attack upon Quatre Bras; and Napoleon has been + criticised for not having fought at Ligny before the afternoon of the + 16th: but their censors should remember that soldiers are but men; and + that there must be necessarily some interval of time, before troops, that + have been worn and weakened by twenty hours of incessant fatigue and + strife, can be fed, rested, reorganized, and brought again into action + with any hope of success. + </p> + <p> + Having on the night of the 15th placed the most advanced of the French + under his command in position in front of Frasne, Ney rode back to + Charleroi, where Napoleon also arrived about midnight, having returned + from directing the operations of the centre and right column of the + French. The Emperor and the Marshal supped together, and remained in + earnest conversation till two in the morning. An hour or two afterwards + Ney rode back to Frasne, where he endeavoured to collect tidings of the + numbers and movements of the enemy in front of him; and also busied + himself in the necessary duty of learning the amount and composition of + the troops which he himself was commanding. He had been so suddenly + appointed to his high station, that he did not know the strength of the + several regiments under him, or even the names of their commanding + officers. He now caused his aides-de-camp to prepare the requisite + returns, and drew together the troops, whom he was thus learning before he + used them. + </p> + <p> + Wellington remained at the Duchess of Richmond's ball at Brussels till + about three o'clock in the morning of the 16th, "showing himself very + cheerful" as Baron Muffling, who accompanied him, observes. [Muffling, p. + 233.] At five o'clock the Duke and the Baron were on horseback, and + reached the position at Quatre Bras about eleven. As the French, who were + in front of Frasne, were perfectly quiet, and the Duke was informed that a + very large force under Napoleon in person was menacing Blucher, it was + thought possible that only a slight detachment of the French was posted at + Frasne in order to mask the English army. In that event Wellington, as he + told Baron Muffling, would be able to employ his whole strength in + supporting the Prussians: and he proposed to ride across from Quatre Bras + to Blucher's position, in order to concert with him personally the + measures which should be taken in order to bring on a decisive battle with + the French. Wellington and Muffling rode accordingly towards Ligny, and + found Marshal Blucher and his staff at the windmill of Bry, near that + village. The Prussian army, 80,000 strong, was drawn up chiefly along a + chain of heights, with the villages of Sombref, St. Amand, and Ligny in + their front. These villages were strongly occupied by Prussian + detachments, and formed the keys of Blucher's position. The heads of the + columns which Napoleon was forming for the attack, were visible in the + distance. The Duke asked Blucher and General Gneisenau (who was Blucher's + adviser in matters of strategy) what they wished him to do, Muffling had + already explained to them in a few words the Duke's earnest desire to + support the Field-Marshal, and that he would do all that they wished, + provided they did not ask him to divide his army, which was contrary to + his principles. The Duke wished to advance with his army (as soon as it + was concentrated) upon Frasne and Gosselies, and thence to move upon + Napoleon's flank and rear. The Prussian leaders preferred that he should + march his men from Quatre Bras by the Namur road, so as to form a reserve + in rear of Blucher's army. The Duke replied, "Well, I will come if I am + not attacked myself," and galloped back with Muffling to Quatre Bras, + where the French attack was now actually raging. + </p> + <p> + Marshal Ney began the battle about two o'clock in the afternoon. He had at + this time in hand about 16,000 infantry, nearly 2,000 cavalry, and 38 + guns. The force which Napoleon nominally placed at his command exceeded + 40,000 men. But more than one half of these consisted of the first French + corps d'armee, under Count d'Erlon; and Ney was deprived of the use of + this corps at the time that he most required it, in consequence of its + receiving orders to march to the aid of the Emperor at Ligny. A + magnificent body of heavy cavalry under Kellerman, nearly 5,000 strong, + and several more battalions of artillery were added to Ney's army during + the battle of Quatre Bras; but his effective infantry force never exceeded + 16,000. + </p> + <p> + When the battle began, the greater part of the Duke's army was yet on its + march towards Quatre Bras from Brussels and the other parts of its + cantonments. The force of the Allies, actually in position there, + consisted only of a Dutch and Belgian division of infantry, not quite + 7,000 strong, with one battalion of foot, and one of horse-artillery. The + Prince of Orange commanded them. A wood, called the Bois de Bossu, + stretched along the right (or western) flank of the position of Quatre + Bras; a farmhouse and building, called Gemiancourt, stood on some elevated + ground in its front; and to the left (or east), were the inclosures of the + village of Pierremont. The Prince of Orange endeavoured to secure these + posts; but Ney carried Gemiancourt in the centre, and Pierremont on the + east, and gained occupation of the southern part of the wood of Bossu. He + ranged the chief part of his artillery on the high ground of Gemiancourt, + whence it played throughout the action with most destructive effect upon + the Allies. He was pressing forward to further advantages, when the fifth + infantry division under Sir Thomas Picton and the Duke of Brunswick's + corps appeared upon the scene. Wellington (who had returned to Quatre Bras + from his interview with Blucher shortly before the arrival of these + forces) restored the fight with them; and, as fresh troops of the Allies + arrived, they were brought forward to stem the fierce attacks which Ney's + columns and squadrons continued to make with unabated gallantry and zeal. + The only cavalry of the anglo-allied army that reached Quatre Bras during + the action, consisted of Dutch and Belgians, and a small force of + Brunswickers, under their Duke, who was killed on the field. These proved + wholly unable to encounter Kellerman's cuirassiers and Pire's lancers; the + Dutch and Belgian infantry also gave way early in the engagement; so that + the whole brunt of the battle fell on the British and German infantry. + They sustained it nobly. Though repeatedly charged by the French cavalry, + though exposed to the murderous fire of the French batteries, which from + the heights of Gemiancourt sent shot and shell into the devoted squares + whenever the French horseman withdrew, they not only repelled their + assailants, but Kempt's and Pack's brigades, led, on by Picton, actually + advanced against and through their charging foes, and with stern + determination made good to the end of the day the ground which they had + thus boldly won. Some, however, of the British regiments were during the + confusion assailed by the French cavalry before they could form squares, + and suffered severely. One regiment, the 92d, was almost wholly destroyed + by the cuirassiers. A French private soldier, named Lami, of the 8th + regiment of cuirassiers, captured one of the English colours, and + presented it to Ney. It was a solitary trophy. The arrival of the English + Guards about half-past six o'clock, enabled the Duke to recover the wood + of Bossu, which the French had almost entirely won, and the possession of + which by them would have enabled Ney to operate destructively upon the + allied flank and rear. Not only was the wood of Bossu recovered on the + British right, but the inclosures of Pierremont were also carried on the + left. When night set in the French had been driven back on all points + towards Frasne; but they still held the farm of Gemiancourt in front of + the Duke's centre. Wellington and Muffling were unacquainted with the + result of the collateral battle between Blucher and Napoleon, the + cannonading of which had been distinctly audible at Quatre Bras throughout + the afternoon and evening. The Duke observed to Muffling, that of course + the two Allied armies would assume the offensive against the enemy on the + morrow; and consequently, it would be better to capture the farm at once, + instead of waiting till next morning. Muffling agreed in the Duke's views + and Gemiancourt was forthwith attacked by the English and captured with + little loss to its assailants. [Muffling, p. 242.] + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the French and the Prussians had been fighting in and round the + villages of Ligny, Sombref, and St. Armand, from three in the afternoon to + nine in the evening, with a savage inveteracy almost unparalleled in + modern warfare. Blucher had in the field, when he began the battle, 83,417 + men, and 224 guns. Bulow's corps, which was 25,000 strong, had not joined + him; but the Field-Marshal hoped to be reinforced by it, or by the English + army before the end of the action. But Bulow, through some error in the + transmission of orders, was far in the rear; and the Duke of Wellington + was engaged, as we have seen, with Marshal Ney. Blucher received early + warning from Baron Muffling that the Duke could not come to his + assistance; but, as Muffling observes, Wellington rendered the Prussians + the great service of occupying more than 40,000 of the enemy, who + otherwise would have crushed Blucher's right flank. For, not only did the + conflict at Quatre Bras detain the French troops which actually took part + in it, but d'Erlon received orders from Ney to join him, which hindered + d'Erlon from giving effectual aid to Napoleon. Indeed, the whole of + d'Erlon's corps, in consequence of conflicting directions from Ney and the + Emperor, marched and countermarched, during the 16th, between Quatre Bras + and Ligny without firing a shot in either battle. + </p> + <p> + Blucher had, in fact, a superiority of more than 12,000 in number over the + French army that attacked him at Ligny. The numerical difference was even + greater at the beginning of the battle, as Lobau's corps did not come up + from Charleroi till eight o'clock. After five hours and a half of + desperate and long-doubtful struggle, Napoleon succeeded in breaking the + centre of the Prussian line at Ligny, and in forcing his obstinate + antagonists off the field of battle. The issue was attributable to his + skill, and not to any want of spirit or resolution on the part of the + Prussian troops; nor did they, though defeated, abate one jot in + discipline, heart, or hope. As Blucher observed, it was a battle in which + his army lost the day but not its honour. The Prussians retreated during + the night of the 16th, and the early part of the 17th, with perfect + regularity and steadiness, The retreat was directed not towards + Maestricht, where their principal depots were established, but towards + Wavre, so as to be able to maintain their communication with Wellington's + army, and still follow out the original plan of the campaign. The heroism + with which the Prussians endured and repaired their defeat at Ligny, is + more glorious than many victories. + </p> + <p> + The messenger who was sent to inform Wellington of the retreat of the + Prussian army, was shot on the way; and it was not until the morning of + the 17th that the Allies, at Quatre Bras, knew the result of the battle of + Ligny. The Duke was ready at daybreak to take the offensive against the + enemy with vigour, his whole army being by that time fully assembled. But + on learning that Blucher had been defeated, a different course of action + was clearly necessary. It was obvious that Napoleon's main army would now + be directed against Wellington, and a retreat was inevitable. On + ascertaining that the Prussian army had retired upon Wavre, that there was + no hot pursuit of them by the French, and that Bulow's corps had taken no + part in the action at Ligny, the Duke resolved to march his army back + towards Brussels, still intending to cover that city, and to halt at a + point in a line with Wavre, and there restore his communication with + Blucher. An officer from Blucher's army reached the Duke about nine + o'clock, from whom he learned the effective strength that Blucher still + possessed, and how little discouraged his ally was by the yesterday's + battle. Wellington sent word to the Prussian commander that he would halt + in the position of Mont St. Jean, and accept a general battle with the + French, if Blucher would pledge himself to come to his assistance with a + single corps of 25,000 men. This was readily promised; and after allowing + his men ample time for rest and refreshment, Wellington retired over about + half the space between Quatre Bras and Brussels. He was pursued, but + little molested, by the main French army, which about noon of the 17th + moved laterally from Ligny, and joined Ney's forces, which had advanced + through Quatre Bras when the British abandoned that position. The Earl of + Uxbridge, with the British cavalry, covered the retreat of the Duke's + army, with great skill and gallantry; and a heavy thunderstorm, with + torrents of rain, impeded the operations of the French pursuing squadrons. + The Duke still expected that the French would endeavour to turn his right, + and march upon Brussels by the high road that leads through Mons and Hal. + In order to counteract this anticipated manoeuvre, he stationed a force of + 18,000 men, under Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, at Hal, with orders + to maintain himself there if attacked, as long as possible. The Duke + halted with the rest of his army at the position near Mont St. Jean, + which, from a village in its neighbourhood, has received the + ever-memorable name of the field of Waterloo. + </p> + <p> + Wellington was now about twelve miles distant, on a line running from west + to east, from Wavre, where the Prussian army had now been completely + reorganised and collected, and where it had been strengthened by the + junction of Bulow's troops, which had taken no part in the battle of + Ligny. Blucher sent word from Wavre to the Duke, that he was coming to + help the English at Mont St. Jean, in the morning, not with one corps, but + with his whole army. The fiery old man only stipulated that the combined + armies, if not attacked by Napoleon on the 18th, should themselves attack + him on the 19th. So far were Blucher and his army from being in the state + of annihilation described in the boastful bulletin by which Napoleon + informed the Parisians of his victory at Ligny. Indeed, the French Emperor + seems himself to have been misinformed as to the extent of loss which he + had inflicted on the Prussians. Had he known in what good order and with + what undiminished spirit they were retiring, he would scarcely have + delayed sending a large force to press them in their retreat until noon on + the 17th. Such, however, was the case. It was about that time that he + confided to Marshal Grouchy the duty of pursuing the defeated Prussians, + and preventing them from joining Wellington. He placed for this purpose + 32,000 men and 96 guns under his orders. Violent complaints and + recriminations passed afterwards between the Emperor and the marshal + respecting the manner in which Grouchy attempted to perform this duty, and + the reasons why he failed on the 18th to arrest the lateral movement of + the Prussians from Wavre to Waterloo. It is sufficient to remark here, + that the force which Napoleon gave to Grouchy (though the utmost that the + Emperor's limited means would allow) was insufficient to make head against + the entire Prussian army, especially after Bulow's junction with Blucher. + We shall presently have occasion to consider what opportunities were given + to Grouchy during the 18th, and what he might have effected if he had been + a man of original military genius. + </p> + <p> + But the failure of Grouchy was in truth mainly owing to the indomitable + heroism of Blucher himself; who, though he had received severe personal + injuries in the battle of Ligny, was as energetic and ready as ever in + bringing his men into action again, and who had the resolution to expose a + part of his army, under Thielman, to be overwhelmed by Grouchy at Wavre on + the 18th, while he urged the march of the mass of his troops upon + Waterloo. "It is not at Wavre, but at Waterloo," said the old + Field-Marshal, "that the campaign is to be decided;" and he risked a + detachment, and won the campaign accordingly. Wellington and Blucher + trusted each other as cordially, and co-operated as zealously, as formerly + had been the case with Marlborough and Eugene. It was in full reliance on + Blucher's promise to join him that the Duke stood his ground and fought at + Waterloo; and those who have ventured to impugn the Duke's capacity as a + general, ought to have had common-sense enough to perceive, that to charge + the Duke with having won the battle of Waterloo by the help of the + Prussians, is really to say that he won it by the very means on which he + relied, and without the expectation of which the battle would not have + been fought. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon himself has found fault with Wellington for not having retreated + further, so as to complete a junction of his army with Blucher's before he + risked a general engagement. [See Montholon's Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 44.] + But, as we have seen, the Duke justly considered it important to protect + Brussels. He had reason to expect that his army could singly resist the + French at Waterloo until the Prussians came up; and that, on the Prussians + joining, there would be a sufficient force united under himself and + Blucher for completely overwhelming the enemy. And while Napoleon thus + censures his great adversary, he involuntarily bears the highest possible + testimony to the military character of the English, and proves decisively + of what paramount importance was the battle to which he challenged his + fearless opponent. Napoleon asks, "IF THE ENGLISH ARMY HAD BEEN BEATEN AT + WATERLOO, WHAT WOULD HAVE BEEN THE USE OF THOSE NUMEROUS BODIES OF TROOPS, + OF PRUSSIANS, AUSTRIANS, GERMANS, AND SPANIARDS, WHICH WERE ADVANCING BY + FORCED MARCHES TO THE RHINE, THE ALPS, AND THE PYRENEES?" [Ibid.] + </p> + <p> + The strength of the army under the Duke of Wellington at Waterloo was + 49,608 infantry, 12,402 cavalry, and 5,645 artillerymen with 156 guns. + [Siborne, vol. i. p. 376.] But of this total of 67,655 men, scarcely + 24,000 were British, a circumstance of very serious importance, if + Napoleon's own estimate of the relative value of troops of different + nations is to be taken. In the Emperor's own words, speaking of this + campaign, "A French soldier would not be equal to more than one English + soldier, but he would not be afraid to meet two Dutchmen, Prussians, or + soldiers of the Confederation." [Montholon's Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 41.] + There were about 6,000 men of the old German Legion with the Duke; these + were veteran troops, and of excellent quality. Of the rest of the army the + Hanoverians and Brunswickers proved themselves deserving of confidence and + praise. But the Nassauers, Dutch, and Belgians were almost worthless; and + not a few of them were justly suspected of a strong wish to fight, if they + fought at all, under the French eagles rather than against them. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon's army at Waterloo consisted of 48,950 infantry, 15,765 cavalry, + 7,232 artillerymen, being a total of 71,947 men, and 246 guns. [See + Siborne, UT SUPRA.] They were the flower of the national forces of France; + and of all the numerous gallant armies which that martial land has poured + forth, never was there one braver, or better disciplined, or better led, + than the host that took up its position at Waterloo on the morning of the + 18th of June, 1815. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps those who have not seen the field of battle at Waterloo, or the + admirable model of the ground, and of the conflicting armies, which was + executed by Captain Siborne, may gain a generally accurate idea of the + localities, by picturing to themselves a valley between two and three + miles long, of various breadths at different points, but generally not + exceeding half a mile. On each side of the valley there is a winding chain + of low hills running somewhat parallel, with each other. The declivity + from each of these ranges of hills to the intervening valley is gentle but + not uniform, the undulations of the ground being frequent and + considerable. The English army was posted on the northern, and the French + army occupied the southern ridge. The artillery of each side thundered at + the other from their respective heights throughout the day, and the + charges of horse and foot were made across the valley that has been + described. The village of Mont St. Jean is situate a little behind the + centre of the northern chain of hills, and the village of La Belle + Alliance is close behind the centre of the southern ridge. The high road + from Charleroi to Brussels (a broad paved causeway) runs through both + these villages, and bisects therefore both the English and the French + positions. The line of this road was the line of Napoleon's intended + advance on Brussels. + </p> + <p> + There are some other local particulars connected with the situation of + each army, which it is necessary to bear in mind. The strength of the + British position did not consist merely in the occupation of a ridge of + high ground. A village and ravine, called Merk Braine, on the Duke of + Wellington's extreme right, secured his flank from being turned on that + side; and on his extreme left, two little hamlets called La Haye and + Papelotte, gave a similar, though a slighter, protection. Behind the whole + British position is the extensive forest of Soignies. As no attempt was + made by the French to turn either of the English flanks, and the battle + was a day of straightforward fighting, it is chiefly important to + ascertain what posts there were in front of the British line of hills, of + which advantage could be taken either to repel or facilitate an attack; + and it will be seen that there were two, and that each was of very great + importance in the action. In front of the British right, that is to say, + on the northern slope of the valley towards its western end, there stood + an old-fashioned Flemish farm-house called Goumont, or Hougoumont, with + out-buildings and a garden, and with a copse of beach trees of about two + acres in extent round it. This was strongly garrisoned by the allied + troops; and, while it was in their possession, it was difficult for the + enemy to press on and force the British right wing. On the other hand, if + the enemy could take it, it would be difficult for that wing to keep its + ground on the heights, with a strong post held adversely in its immediate + front, being one that; would give much shelter to the enemy's marksmen, + and great facilities for the sudden concentration of attacking columns. + Almost immediately in front of the British centre, and not so far down the + slope as Hougoumont, there was another farm-house, of a smaller size, + called La Haye Sainte, [Not to be confounded with the hamlet of La Haye at + the extreme left of the British line.] which was also held by the British + troops, and the occupation of which was found to be of very serious + consequence. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the French position, the principal feature to be noticed + is the village of Planchenoit, which lay a little in the rear of their + right (I.E. on the eastern side), and which proved to be of great + importance in aiding them to check the advance of the Prussians. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon, in his memoirs, and other French writers, have vehemently blamed + the Duke for having given battle in such a position as that of Waterloo. + They particularly object that the Duke fought without having the means of + a retreat, if the attacks of his enemy had proved successful; and that the + English army, if once broken, must have lost all its guns and MATERIEL in + its flight through the Forest of Soignies, that lay in its rear. In answer + to these censures, instead of merely referring to the event of the battle + as proof of the correctness of the Duke's judgment, it is to be observed + that many military critics of high authority, have considered the position + of Waterloo to have been admirably adapted for the Duke's purpose of + protecting Brussels by a battle; and that certainly the Duke's opinion in + favour of it was not lightly or hastily formed. It is a remarkable fact + (mentioned in the speech of Lord Bathurst when moving the vote of thanks + to the Duke in the House of Lords), [Parliamentary Debates, vol. xxxi. p. + 875.] that when the Duke of Wellington was passing through Belgium in the + preceding summer of 1814, he particularly noticed the strength of the + position of Waterloo, and made a minute of it at the time, stating to + those who were with him, that if it ever should be his fate to fight a + battle in that quarter for the protection of Brussels, he should endeavour + to do so in that position. And with respect to the Forest of Soignies, + which the French (and some few English) critics have thought calculated to + prove so fatal to a retreating force, the Duke on the contrary believed it + to be a post that might have proved of infinite value to his army in the + event of his having been obliged to give way. The Forest of Soignies has + no thicket or masses of close-growing trees. It consists of tall beeches, + and is everywhere passable for men and horses. The artillery could have + been withdrawn by the broad road which traverses it towards Brussels; and + in the meanwhile a few regiments of resolute infantry could have held the + forest and kept the pursuers in check. One of the best writers on the + Waterloo campaign, Captain Pringle, [See the Appendix to the 8th volume of + Scott's Life of Napoleon.] well observes that "every person, the least + experienced in war, knows the extreme difficulty of forcing infantry from + a wood which cannot be turned." The defence of the Bois de Bossu near + Quatre Bras on the 16th of June had given a good proof of this; and the + Duke of Wellington, when speaking in after years of the possible events + that might have followed if he had been beaten back from the open field of + Waterloo, pointed to the wood of Soignies as his secure rallying place, + saying, "they never could have beaten us so, that we could not have held + the wood against them." He was always confident that he could have made + good that post until joined by the Prussians, upon whose co-operation he + throughout depended. [See Lord Ellesmere's Life and Character of the Duke + of Wellington, p. 40.] + </p> + <p> + As has been already mentioned, the Prussians, on the morning of the 18th, + were at Wavre, which is about twelve miles to the east of the field of + battle of Waterloo. The junction of Bulow's division had more than made up + for the loss sustained at Ligny; and leaving Thielman with about seventeen + thousand men to hold his ground, as he best could, against the attack + which Grouchy was about to make on Wavre, Bulow and Blucher moved with the + rest of the Prussians through St. Lambert upon Waterloo. It was calculated + that they would be there by three o'clock; but the extremely difficult + nature of the ground which they had to traverse, rendered worse by the + torrents of rain that had just fallen, delayed them long on their twelve + miles' march. + </p> + <p> + An army indeed, less animated by bitter hate against the enemy than was + the Prussians, and under a less energetic chief than Blucher, would have + failed altogether in effecting a passage through the swamps, into which + the incessant rain had transformed the greater part of the ground through + which it was necessary to move not only with columns of foot, but with + cavalry and artillery. At one point of the march, on entering the defile + of St. Lambert, the spirits of the Prussians almost gave way. Exhausted in + the attempts to extricate and drag forward the heavy guns, the men began + to murmur. Blucher came to the spot, and heard cries from the ranks of—"We + cannot get on." "But you must get on," was the old Field-Marshal's answer. + "I have pledged my word to Wellington, and you surely will not make me + break it. Only exert yourselves for a few hours longer, and we are sure of + victory." This appeal from old "Marshal Forwards," as the Prussian + soldiers loved to call Blucher, had its wonted affect. The Prussians again + moved forward, slowly, indeed, and with pain and toil; but still they + moved forward. [See Siborne, vol. ii. p. 137.] + </p> + <p> + The French and British armies lay on the open field during the wet and + stormy night of the 17th; and when the dawn of the memorable 18th of June + broke, the rain was still descending heavily upon Waterloo. The rival + nations rose from their dreary bivouacs, and began to form, each on the + high ground which it occupied. Towards nine the weather grew clearer, and + each army was able to watch the position and arrangements of the other on + the opposite side of the valley. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Wellington drew up his army in two lines; the principal one + being stationed near the crest of the ridge of hills already described, + and the other being arranged along the slope in the rear of his position. + Commencing from the eastward, on the extreme left of the first or main + line, were Vivian's and Vandeleur's brigades of light cavalry, and the + fifth Hanoverian brigade of infantry, under Von Vincke. Then came Best's + fourth Hanoverian brigade. Detachments from these bodies of troops + occupied the little villages of Papelotte and La Haye, down the hollow in + advance of the left of the Duke's position. To the right of Best's + Hanoverians, Bylandt's brigade of Dutch and Belgian infantry was drawn up + on the outer slope of the heights. Behind them were the ninth brigade of + British infantry under Pack; and to the right of these last, but more in + advance, stood the eighth brigade of English infantry under Kempt. These + were close to the Charleroi road, and to the centre of the entire + position. These two English brigades, with the fifth Hanoverian, made up + the fifth division, commanded by Sir Thomas Picton. Immediately to their + right, and westward of the Charleroi road, stood the third division, + commanded by General Alten, and consisting of Ompteda's brigade of the + King's German legion, and Kielmansegge's Hanoverian brigade. The important + post of La Haye Sainte, which it will be remembered lay in front of the + Duke's centre, close to the Charleroi road, was garrisoned with troops + from this division. Westward, and on the right of Kielmansegge's + Hanoverians, stood the fifth British brigade under Halkett; and behind, + Kruse's Nassau brigade was posted. On the right of Halkett's men stood the + English Guards. They were in two brigades, one commanded By Maitland, and + the other by Byng. The entire division was under General Cooke. The + buildings and gardens of Hougoumont, which lay immediately under the + height, on which stood the British Guards, were principally manned by + detachments from Byng's Brigade, aided by some brave Hanoverian riflemen, + and accompanied by a battalion of a Nassau regiment. On a plateau in the + rear of Cooks's division of Guards, and inclining westward towards the + village of Merk Braine, were Clinton's second infantry division, composed + of Adams's third brigade of light infantry, Du Plat's first brigade of the + King's German legion, and third Hanoverian brigade under Colonel Halkett. + </p> + <p> + The Duke formed his second line of cavalry. This only extended behind the + right and centre of his first line. The largest mass was drawn up behind + the brigades of infantry in the centre, on either side of the Charleroi + road. The brigade of household cavalry under Lord Somerset was on the + immediate right of the road, and on the left of it was Ponsonby's brigade. + Behind these were Trip's and Ghingy's brigades of Dutch and Belgian horse. + The third Hussars of the King's German Legion were to the right of + Somerset's brigade. To the right of these, and behind Maitland's infantry, + stood the third brigade under Dornberg, consisting of the 23d English + Light Dragoons, and the regiments of Light Dragoons of the King's German + Legion. The last cavalry on the right was Grant's brigade, stationed in + the rear of the Foot-Guards. The corps of Brunswickers, both horse and + foot, and the 10th British brigade of foot, were in reserve behind the + centre and right of the entire position. The artillery was distributed at + convenient intervals along the front of the whole line. Besides the + Generals who have been mentioned, Lord Hill, Lord Uxbridge (who had the + general command of the cavalry), the Prince of Orange, and General Chasse, + were present, and acting under the Duke. + </p> + <p> + [Prince Frederick's force remained at Hal, and took no part in the battle + of the 18th. The reason for this arrangement (which has been much cavilled + at), may be best given in the words of Baron Muffling:—"The Duke had + retired from Quatre Bras in three columns, by three chaussees; and on the + evening of the 17th, Prince Frederick of Orange was at Hal, Lord Hill at + Braine la Leud, and the Prince of Orange with the reserve, at Mont St. + Jean. This distribution was necessary, as Napoleon could dispose of these + three roads for his advance on Brussels. Napoleon on the 17th had pressed + on by Genappe as far as Rossomme. On the two other roads no enemy had yet + shown himself. On the 18th the offensive was taken by Napoleon on its + greatest scale, but still the Nivelles road was not overstepped by his + left wing. These circumstances made it possible to draw Prince Frederick + to the army, which would certainly have been done if entirely new + circumstances had not arisen. The Duke had, twenty-four hours before, + pledged himself to accept a battle at Mont St. Jean if Blucher would + assist him there with one corps, of 25,000 men. This being promised, the + Duke was taking his measures for defence, when he learned that, in + addition to the one corps promised, Blucher was actually already on the + march with his whole force, to break in by Planchenoit on Napoleon's flank + and rear. If three corps of the Prussian army should penetrate by the + unguarded plateau of Rossomme, which was not improbable, Napoleon would be + thrust from his line of retreat by Genappe, and might possibly lose even + that by Nivelles. In this case Prince Frederick with his 18,000 men (who + might be accounted superfluous at Mont St. Jean), might have rendered the + most essential service."—See Muffling, p. 246 and the QUARTERLY + REVIEW, No. 178. It is also worthy of observation that Napoleon actually + detached a force of 2,000 cavalry to threaten Hal, though they returned to + the main French army during the night of the 17th. See "Victoires at + Conquetes des Francais," vol. xxiv. p 186.] + </p> + <p> + On the opposite heights the French army was drawn up in two general lines, + with the entire force of the Imperial Guards, cavalry as well as infantry, + in rear of the centre, as a reserve. + </p> + <p> + The first line of the French army was formed of the two corps commanded by + Count d'Erlon and Count Reille. D'Erlon's corps was on the right, that is, + eastward of the Charleroi road, and consisted of four divisions of + infantry under Generals Durette, Marcognet, Alix, and Donzelot, and of one + division of light cavalry under General Jaquinot. Count Reille's corps + formed the left or western wing, and was formed of Bachelu's, Foy's, and + Jerome Bonaparte's divisions of infantry, and of Pire's division of + cavalry. The right wing of the second general French line was formed of + Milhaud's corps, consisting of two divisions of heavy cavalry. The left + wing of this line was formed by Kellerman's cavalry corps, also in two + divisions. Thus each of the corps of infantry that composed the first line + had a corps of cavalry behind it; but the second line consisted also of + Lobau's corps of infantry, and Domont and Subervie's divisions of light + cavalry; these three bodies of troops being drawn up on either side of La + Belle Alliance, and forming the centre of the second line. The third, or + reserve line, had its centre composed of the infantry of the Imperial + Guard. Two regiments of grenadiers and two of chasseurs, formed the foot + of the Old Guard under General Friant. The Middle Guard, under Count + Morand, was similarly composed; while two regiments of voltigeurs, and two + of tirailleurs, under Duhesme, constituted the Young Guard. The chasseurs + and lancers of the Guard were on the right of the infantry, under Lefebvre + Desnouettes; and the grenadiers and dragoons of the Guards, under Guyot, + were on the left. All the French corps comprised, besides their cavalry + and infantry regiments, strong batteries of horse artillery; and + Napoleon's numerical superiority in guns was of deep importance throughout + the action. + </p> + <p> + Besides the leading generals who have been mentioned as commanding + particular corps, Ney and Soult were present, and acted as the Emperor's + lieutenants in the battle. + </p> + <p> + English military critics have highly eulogised the admirable arrangement + which Napoleon made of his forces of each arm, so as to give him the most + ample means of sustaining, by an immediate and sufficient support, any + attack, from whatever point he might direct it; and of drawing promptly + together a strong force, to resist any attack that might be made on + himself in any part of the field. [Siborne, vol. i. p. 376.] When his + troops were all arrayed, he rode along the lines, receiving everywhere the + most enthusiastic cheers from his men, of whose entire devotion to him his + assurance was now doubly sure. On the northern side of the valley the + Duke's army was also drawn up, and ready to meet the menaced attack. + </p> + <p> + Wellington had caused, on the preceding night, every brigade and corps to + take up its station on or near the part of the ground which it was + intended to hold in the coming battle. He had slept a few hours at his + headquarters in the village of Waterloo; and rising on the 18th, while it + was yet deep night, he wrote several letters to the Governor of Antwerp, + to the English Minister at Brussels, and other official personages, in + which he expressed his confidence that all would go well, but "as it was + necessary to provide against serious losses; should any accident occur," + he gave a series of judicious orders for what should be done in the rear + of the army, in the event of the battle going against the Allies. He also, + before he left the village of Waterloo, saw to the distribution of the + reserves of ammunition which had been parked there, so that supplies + should be readily forwarded to every part of the line of battle, where + they might be required, The Duke, also, personally inspected the + arrangements that had been made for receiving the wounded, and providing + temporary hospitals in the houses in the rear of the army. Then, mounting + a favourite charger, a small thorough-bred chestnut horse, named + "Copenhagen," Wellington rode forward to the range of hills where his men + were posted. Accompanied by his staff and by the Prussian General + Muffling, he rode along his lines, carefully inspecting all the details of + his position. Hougoumont was the object of his special attention. He rode + down to the south-eastern extremity of its enclosures, and after having + examined the nearest French troops, he made some changes in the + disposition of his own men, who were to defend that important post. + </p> + <p> + Having given his final orders about Hougoumont, the Duke galloped back to + the high ground in the right centre of his position; and halting there, + sat watching the enemy on the opposite heights, and conversing with his + staff with that cheerful serenity which was ever his characteristic in the + hour of battle. + </p> + <p> + Not all brave men are thus gifted; and many a glance of anxious excitement + must have been cast across the valley that separated the two hosts during + the protracted pause which ensued between the completion of Napoleon's + preparations for attack and the actual commencement of the contest. It + was, indeed, an awful calm before the coming storm, when armed myriads + stood gazing on their armed foes, scanning their number, their array, + their probable powers of resistance and destruction, and listening with + throbbing hearts for the momentarily expected note of death; while visions + of victory and glory came thronging on each soldier's high-strung brain, + not unmingled with recollections of the home which his fall might soon + leave desolate, nor without shrinking nature sometimes prompting the cold + thought, that in a few moments he might be writhing in agony, or lie a + trampled and mangled mass of clay on the grass now waving so freshly and + purely before him. + </p> + <p> + Such thoughts WILL arise in human breasts, though the brave man soon + silences "the child within us that trembles before death," [See Plato, + Phaedon, c. 60; and Grote's History of Greece, vol. viii. p. 656.] and + nerves himself for the coming struggle by the mental preparation which + Xenophon has finely called "the soldier's arraying his own soul for + battle." [Hellenica, lib. vii. c. v. s. 22.] Well, too, may we hope and + believe that many a spirit sought aid from a higher and holier source; and + that many a fervent though silent prayer arose on that Sabbath morn (the + battle of Waterloo was fought on a Sunday) to the Lord of Sabaoth, the God + of Battles, from the ranks, whence so many thousands were about to appear + that day before his judgment-seat. + </p> + <p> + Not only to those who were thus present as spectators and actors in the + dread drama, but to all Europe, the decisive contest then impending + between the rival French and English nations, each under its chosen chief + was the object of exciting interest and deepest solicitude. "Never, + indeed, had two such generals as the Duke of Wellington and the Emperor + Napoleon encountered since the day when Scipio and Hannibal met at Zama." + [See SUPRA, p. 82.] + </p> + <p> + The two great champions, who now confronted each other, were equals in + years, and each had entered the military profession at the same early age. + The more conspicuous stage, on which the French general's youthful genius + was displayed, his heritage of the whole military power of the French + Republic, the position on which for years he was elevated as sovereign + head of an empire surpassing that of Charlemagne, and the dazzling results + of his victories, which made and unmade kings, had given him a formidable + pre-eminence in the eyes of mankind. Military men spoke with justly + rapturous admiration of the brilliancy of his first Italian campaigns, + when he broke through the pedantry of traditional tactics, and with a + small but promptly-wielded force, shattered army after army of the + Austrians, conquered provinces and capitals, dictated treaties, and + annihilated or created states. The iniquity of his Egyptian expedition was + too often forgotten in contemplating the skill and boldness with which he + destroyed the Mameluke cavalry at the Pyramids, and the Turkish infantry + at Aboukir. None could forget the marvellous passage of the Alps in 1800, + or the victory of Marengo, which wrested Italy back from Austria, and + destroyed the fruit of twenty victories, which the enemies of France had + gained over her in the absence of her favourite chief. Even higher seemed + the glories of his German campaigns, the triumphs of Ulm, of Austerlitz, + of Jena, of Wagram. Napoleon's disasters in Russia, in 1812, were imputed + by his admirers to the elements; his reverses in Germany, in 1813, were + attributed by them to treachery: and even those two calamitous years had + been signalised by his victories at Borodino, at Lutzen, at Bautzen, at + Dresden, and at Hanau. His last campaign, in the early months of 1814, was + rightly cited as the most splendid exhibition of his military genius, + when, with a far inferior army, he long checked and frequently defeated + the vast hosts that were poured upon France. His followers fondly hoped + that the campaign of 1815 would open with another "week of miracles," like + that which had seen his victories at Montmirail and Montereau. The laurel + of Ligny was even now fresh upon his brows. Blucher had not stood before + him; and who was the Adversary that now should bar the Emperor's way? + </p> + <p> + That Adversary had already overthrown the Emperor's best generals, and the + Emperor's best armies; and, like Napoleon himself, had achieved a + reputation in more than European wars. Wellington was illustrious as the + destroyer of the Mahratta power, as the liberator of Portugal and Spain, + and the successful invader of Southern France. In early youth he had held + high command in India; and had displayed eminent skill in planning and + combining movements, and unrivalled celerity and boldness in execution. On + his return to Europe several years passed away before any fitting + opportunity was accorded for the exercise of his genius. In this important + respect, Wellington, as a subject, and Napoleon, as a sovereign, were far + differently situated. At length his appointment to the command in the + Spanish Peninsula gave him the means of showing Europe that England had a + general who could revive the glories of Crecy, of Poictiers, of Agincourt, + of Blenheim, and of Ramilies. At the head of forces always numerically far + inferior to the armies with which Napoleon deluged the Peninsula;—thwarted + by jealous and incompetent allies;—ill-supported by friends, and + assailed by factious enemies at home; Wellington maintained the war for + several years, unstained by any serious reverse, and marked by victory in + thirteen pitched battles, at Vimiera, the Douro, Talavera, Busaco, Fuentes + d'Onore, Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, the Bidassoa, the Nive, the + Nivelle, Orthes, and Toulouse. Junot, Victor, Massena, Ney, Marmont, and + Jourdain,—marshals whose names were the terrors of continental + Europe—had been baffled by his skill, and smitten down by his + energy, while he liberated the kingdoms of the Peninsula from them and + their Imperial master. In vain did Napoleon at last despatch Soult, the + ablest of his lieutenants, to turn the tide of Wellington's success and + defend France against the English invader. Wellington met Soult's + manoeuvres with superior skill, and his boldness with superior vigour. + When Napoleon's first abdication, in 1814, suspended hostilities, + Wellington was master of the fairest districts of Southern France; and had + under him a veteran army, with which (to use his own expressive phrase) + "he felt he could have gone anywhere and done anything." The fortune of + war had hitherto kept separate the orbits in which Napoleon and he had + moved. Now, on the ever memorable 18th of June, 1815, they met at last. + </p> + <p> + It is, indeed, remarkable that Napoleon, during his numerous campaigns in + Spain as well as other countries, not only never encountered the Duke of + Wellington before the day of Waterloo, but that he was never until then + personally engaged with British troops, except at the siege of Toulon, in + 1793, which was the very first incident of his military career. Many, + however, of the French generals who were with him in 1815, knew well, by + sharp experience, what English soldiers were, and what the leader was who + now headed them. Ney, Foy, and other officers who had served in the + Peninsula, warned Napoleon that he would find the English infantry "very + devils in fight." The Emperor, however, persisted in employing the old + system of attack, with which the French generals often succeeded against + continental troops, but which had always failed against the English in the + Peninsula. He adhered to his usual tactics of employing the order of the + column; a mode of attack probably favoured by him (as Sir Walter Scott + remarks) on account of his faith in the extreme valour of the French + officers by whom the column was headed. It is a threatening formation, + well calculated to shake the firmness of ordinary foes; but which, when + steadily met, as the English have met it, by heavy volleys of musketry + from an extended line, followed up by a resolute bayonet charge, has + always resulted in disaster to the assailants. [See especially Sir W. + Napier's glorious pictures of the battles of Busaco and Albuera. The + THEORETICAL advantages of the attack in column, and its peculiar fitness + for a French army, are set forth in the Chevalier Folard's "Traite de la + Colonne," prefixed to the first volume of his "Polybius," See also the + preface to his sixth volume.] + </p> + <p> + It was approaching noon before the action commenced. Napoleon, in his + Memoirs, gives as the reason for this delay, the miry state of the ground + through the heavy rain of the preceding night and day, which rendered it + impossible for cavalry or artillery to manoeuvre on it till a few hours of + dry weather had given it its natural consistency. It has been supposed, + also, that he trusted to the effect which the sight of the imposing array + of his own forces was likely to produce on the part of the allied army. + The Belgian regiments had been tampered with; and Napoleon had + well-founded hopes of seeing them quit the Duke of Wellington in a body, + and range themselves under his own eagles. The Duke, however, who knew and + did not trust them, had guarded against the risk of this, by breaking up + the corps of Belgians, and distributing them in separate regiments among + troops on whom he could rely. [Siborne, vol. i. p. 373.] + </p> + <p> + At last, at about half-past eleven o'clock, Napoleon began the battle by + directing a powerful force from his left wing under his brother, Prince + Jerome, to attack Hougoumont. Column after column of the French now + descended from the west of the southern heights, and assailed that post + with fiery valour, which was encountered with the most determined bravery. + The French won the copse round the house, but a party of the British + Guards held the house itself throughout the day. The whole of Byng's + brigade was required to man this hotly-contested post. Amid shell and + shot, and the blazing fragments of part of the buildings, this obstinate + contest was continued. But still the English were firm in Hougoumont; + though the French occasionally moved forward in such numbers as enabled + them to surround and mask it with part of their troops from their left + wing, while others pressed onward up the slope, and assailed the British + right. + </p> + <p> + The cannonade, which commenced at first between the British right and the + French left, in consequence of the attack on Hougoumont, soon became + general along both lines; and about one o'clock, Napoleon directed a grand + attack to be made under Marshal Ney upon the centre and left wing of the + allied army. For this purpose four columns of infantry, amounting to about + eighteen thousand men, were collected, supported by a strong division of + cavalry under the celebrated Kellerman; and seventy-four guns were brought + forward ready to be posted on the ridge of a little undulation of the + ground in the interval between the two principal chains of heights, so as + to bring their fire to bear on the Duke's line at a range of about seven + hundred yards. By the combined assault of these formidable forces, led on + by Ney, "the bravest of the brave," Napoleon hoped to force the left + centre of the British position, to take La Haye Sainte, and then pressing + forward, to occupy also the farm of Mont St. Jean. He then could cut the + mass of Wellington's troops off from their line of retreat upon Brussels, + and from their own left, and also completely sever them from any Prussian + troops that might be approaching. + </p> + <p> + The columns destined for this great and decisive operation descended + majestically from the French line of hills, and gained the ridge of the + intervening eminence, on which the batteries that supported them were now + ranged. As the columns descended again from this eminence, the + seventy-four guns opened over their heads with terrible effect upon the + troops of the Allies that were stationed on the heights to the left of the + Charleroi road. One of the French columns kept to the east, and attacked + the extreme left of the Allies; the other three continued to move rapidly + forwards upon the left centre of the allied position. The front line of + the Allies here was composed of Bylandt's brigade of Dutch and Belgians. + As the French columns moved up the southward slope of the height on which + the Dutch and Belgians stood, and the skirmishers in advance began to open + their fire, Bylandt's entire brigade turned and fled in disgraceful and + disorderly panic; but there were men more worthy of the name behind. + </p> + <p> + In this part of-the second line of the Allies were posted Pack and Kempt's + brigades of English infantry, which had suffered severely at Quatre Bras. + But Picton was here as general of division, and not even Ney himself + surpassed in resolute bravery that stern and fiery spirit. Picton brought + his two brigades forward, side by side, in a thin, two-deep line. Thus + joined together, they were not three thousand strong. With these Picton + had to make head against the three victorious French columns, upwards of + four times that strength, and who, encouraged by the easy rout of the + Dutch and Belgians, now came confidently over the ridge of the hill. The + British infantry stood firm; and as the French halted and began to deploy + into line, Picton seized the critical moment. He shouted in his stentorian + voice to Kempt's brigade: "A volley, and then charge!" At a distance of + less than thirty yards that volley was poured upon the devoted first + sections of the nearest column; and then, with a fierce hurrah, the + British dashed in with the bayonet. Picton was shot dead as he rushed + forward, but his men pushed on with the cold steel. The French reeled back + in confusion. Pack's infantry had checked the other two columns and down + came a whirlwind of British horse on the whole mass, sending them + staggering from the crest of the hill, and cutting them down by whole + battalions. Ponsonby's brigade of heavy cavalry (the Union Brigade as it + was called, from its being made up of the British Royals, the Scots Greys, + and the Irish Inniskillings), did this good service. On went the horsemen + amid the wrecks of the French columns, capturing two eagles, and two + thousand prisoners; onwards still they galloped, and sabred the + artillerymen of Ney's seventy-four advanced guns; then severing the + traces, and cutting the throats of the artillery horses, they rendered + these guns totally useless to the French throughout the remainder of the + day. While thus far advanced beyond the British position and disordered by + success, they were charged by a large body of French lancers, and driven + back with severe loss, till Vandeleur's Light horse came to their aid, and + beat off the French lancers in their turn. + </p> + <p> + Equally unsuccessful with the advance of the French infantry in this grand + attack, had been the efforts of the French cavalry who moved forward in + support of it, along the east of the Charleroi road. Somerset's cavalry of + the English Household Brigade had been launched, on the right of Picton's + division, against the French horse, at the same time that the English + Union Brigade of heavy horse charged the French infantry columns on the + left. + </p> + <p> + Somerset's brigade was formed of the Life Guards, the Blues, and the + Dragoon Guards. The hostile cavalry, which Kellerman led forward, + consisted chiefly of Cuirassiers. This steel-clad mass of French horsemen + rode down some companies of German infantry, near La Haye Sainte, and + flushed with success, they bounded onward to the ridge of the British + position. The English Household Brigade, led on by the Earl of Uxbridge in + person, spurred forward to the encounter, and in an instant, the two + adverse lines of strong swordsmen, on their strong steeds, dashed + furiously together. A desperate and sanguinary hand-to-hand fight ensued, + in which the physical superiority of the Anglo-Saxons, guided by equal + skill, and animated with equal valour, was made decisively manifest. Back + went the chosen cavalry of France; and after them, in hot pursuit, spurred + the English Guards. They went forward as far and as fiercely as their + comrades of the Union Brigade; and, like them, the Household cavalry + suffered severely before they regained the British position, after their + magnificent charge and adventurous pursuit. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon's grand effort to break the English left centre had thus + completely failed; and his right wing was seriously weakened by the heavy + loss which it had sustained. Hougoumont was still being assailed, and was + still successfully resisting. Troops were now beginning to appear at the + edge of the horizon on Napoleon's right, which he too well knew to be + Prussian, though he endeavoured to persuade his followers that they were + Grouchy's men coming to their aid. + </p> + <p> + Grouchy was in fact now engaged at Wavre with his whole force, against + Thielmam's single Prussian corps, while the other three corps of the + Prussian army were moving without opposition, save from the difficulties + of the ground, upon Waterloo. Grouchy believed, on the 17th, and caused + Napoleon to believe, that the Prussian army was retreating by lines of + march remote from Waterloo upon Namur and Maestricht. Napoleon learned + only on the 18th, that there were Prussians in Wavre, and felt jealous + about the security of his own right. He accordingly, before he attacked + the English, sent Grouchy orders to engage the Prussians at Wavre without + delay, AND TO APPROACH THE MAIN FRENCH ARMY, SO AS TO UNITE HIS + COMMUNICATIONS WITH THE EMPEROR'S. Grouchy entirely neglected this last + part of his instructions; and in attacking the Prussians whom he found at + Wavre, he spread his force more and more towards his right, that is to + say, in the direction most remote from Napoleon. He thus knew nothing of + Blucher's and Bulow's flank march upon Waterloo, till six in the evening + of the 18th, when he received a note which Soult by Napoleon's orders had + sent off from the field of battle at Waterloo at one o'clock, to inform + Grouchy that Bulow was coming over the heights of St. Lambert, on the + Emperor's right flank, and directing Grouchy to approach and join the main + army instantly, and crush Bulow EN FLAGRANT DELIT. It was then too late + for Grouchy to obey; but it is remarkable that as early as noon on the + 18th, and while Grouchy had not proceeded as far as Wavre, he and his + suite heard, the sound of heavy cannonading In the direction of + Planchenoit and Mont St. Jean. General Gerard, who was with Grouchy, + implored him to march towards the cannonade, and join his operations with + those of Napoleon, who was evidently engaged with the English. Grouchy + refused to do so, or even to detach part of his force in that direction. + He said that his instructions were to fight the Prussians at Wavre. He + marched upon Wavre and fought for the rest of the day with Thielman + accordingly, while Blucher and Bulow were attacking the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + [I have heard the remark made that Grouchy twice had in his hands the + power of changing the destinies of Europe, and twice wanted nerve to act: + first when he flinched from landing the French army at Bantry Bay in 1796 + (he was second in command to Hoche, whose ship was blown back by a storm), + and secondly, when he failed to lead his whole force from Wavre to the + scene of decisive conflict at Waterloo. But such were the arrangements of + the Prussian General, that even if Grouchy had marched upon Waterloo, he + would have been held in check by the nearest Prussian corps, or certainly + by the two nearest ones, while the rest proceeded to join Wellington. + This, however, would have diminished the number of Prussians who appeared + at Waterloo, and (what is still more important) would have kept them back + to a later hour.—See Siborne, vol i. p. 323, and Gleig, p. 142. + </p> + <p> + There are some very valuable remarks on this subject in the 70th No. of + the QUARTERLY in an article on the "Life of Blucher," usually attributed + to Sir Francis Head. The Prussian writer, General Clausewitz, is there + cited as "expressing a positive opinion, in which every military critic + but a Frenchman must concur, that, even had the whole of Grouchy's force + been at Napoleon's disposal, the Duke had nothing to fear pending + Blucher's arrival. + </p> + <p> + "The Duke is often talked of as having exhausted his reserves in the + action. This is another gross error, which Clausewitz has thoroughly + disposed of. He enumerates the tenth British Brigade, the division of + Chasse, and the cavalry of Collaert, as having been little or not at all + engaged; and he might have also added two brigades of light cavalry." The + fact, also, that Wellington did not at any part of the day order up Prince + Frederick's corps from Hal, is a conclusive proof that the Duke was not so + distressed as some writers have represented. Hal is not ten miles from the + field of Waterloo.] + </p> + <p> + Napoleon had witnessed with bitter disappointment the rout of his troops,—foot, + horse, and artillery,—which attacked the left centre of the English, + and the obstinate resistance which the garrison of Hougoumont opposed to + all the exertions of his left wing. He now caused the batteries along the + line of high ground held by him to be strengthened, and for some time an + unremitting and most destructive cannonade raged across the valley, to the + partial cessation of other conflict. But the superior fire of the French + artillery, though it weakened, could not break the British line, and more + close and summary measures were requisite. + </p> + <p> + It was now about half-past three o'clock; and though Wellington's army had + suffered severely by the unremitting cannonade, and in the late desperate + encounter, no part of the British position had been forced. Napoleon + determined therefore to try what effect he could produce on the British + centre and right by charges of his splendid cavalry, brought on in such + force that the Duke's cavalry could not check them. Fresh troops were at + the same time sent to assail La Haye Sainte and Hougoumont, the possession + of these posts being the Emperor's unceasing object. Squadron after + squadron of the French cuirassiers accordingly ascended the slopes on the + Duke's right, and rode forward with dauntless courage against the + batteries of the British artillery in that part of the field. The + artillery-men were driven from their guns, and the cuirassiers cheered + loudly at their supposed triumph. But the Duke had formed his infantry in + squares, and the cuirassiers charged in vain against the impenetrable + hedges of bayonets, while the fire from the inner ranks of the squares + told with terrible effect on their squadrons. Time after time they rode + forward with invariably the same result: and as they receded from each + attack the British artillerymen rushed forward from the centres of the + squares, where they had taken refuge, and plied their guns on the retiring + horsemen. Nearly the whole of Napoleon's magnificent body of heavy cavalry + was destroyed in these fruitless attempts upon the British right. But in + another part of the field fortune favoured him for a time. Two French + columns of infantry from Donzelot's division took La Haye Sainte between + six and seven o'clock, and the means were now given for organizing another + formidable attack on the centre of the Allies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ["On came the whirlwind—like the last + But fiercest sweep of tempest blast— + On came the whirlwind—steel-gleams broke + Like lightning through the rolling smoke; + The war was waked anew, + Three hundred cannon-mouths roar'd loud, + And from their throats, with flash and cloud, + Their showers of iron threw. + Beneath their fire in full career, + Rush'd on the ponderous cuirassier, + The lancer couch'd his ruthless spear, + And hurrying as to havoc near, + The cohorts' eagles flew. + In one dark torrent, broad and strong, + The advancing onset roll'd along, + Forth harbinger'd by fierce acclaim, + That, from the shroud of smoke and flame, + Peal'd wildly the imperial name. + + "But on the British heart were lost + The terrors of the charging host; + For not an eye the storm that view'd + Changed its proud glance of fortitude, + Nor was one forward footstep staid, + As dropp'd the dying and the dead. + Fast as their ranks the thunders tear, + Fast they renew'd each serried square; + And on the wounded and the slain + Closed their diminish'd files again, + Till from their line scarce spears' lengths three, + Emerging from the smoke they see + Helmet, and plume, and panoply,— + Then waked their fire at once! + Each musketeer's revolving knell, + As fast, as regularly fell, + As when they practise to display + Their discipline on festal day. + Then down went helm and lance, + Down were the eagle banners sent, + Down reeling steeds and riders went, + Corslets were pierced, and pennons rent; + And, to augment the fray, + Wheeled full against their staggering flanks, + The English horsemen's foaming ranks + Forced their resistless way. + Then to the musket-knell succeeds + The clash of swords—the neigh of steeds— + As plies the smith his clanging trade, + Against the cuirass rang the blade; + And while amid their close array + The well-served cannon rent their way, + And while amid their scatter'd band + Raged the fierce rider's bloody brand, + Recoil'd in common rout and fear, + Lancer and guard and cuirassier, + Horseman and foot,—a mingled host, + Their leaders fall'n, their standards lost."—SCOTT.] +</pre> + <p> + There was no time to be lost—Blucher and Bulow were beginning to + press hard upon the French right. As early as five o'clock, Napoleon had + been obliged to detach Lobau's infantry and Domont's horse to check these + new enemies. They succeeded in doing so for a time; but as larger numbers + of the Prussians came on the field, they turned Lobau's right flank, and + sent a strong force to seize the village of Planchenoit, which, it will be + remembered, lay in the rear of the French right. + </p> + <p> + The design of the Allies was not merely to prevent Napoleon from advancing + upon Brussels, but to cut off his line of retreat and utterly destroy his + army. The defence of Planchenoit therefore became absolutely essential for + the safety of the French, and Napoleon was obliged to send his Young Guard + to occupy that village, which was accordingly held by them with great + gallantry against the reiterated assaults of the Prussian left, under + Bulow. Three times did the Prussians fight their way into Planchenoit, and + as often did the French drive them out: the contest was maintained with + the fiercest desperation on both sides, such being the animosity between + the two nations that quarter was seldom given or even asked. Other + Prussian forces were now appearing on the field nearer to the English + left; whom also Napoleon kept in check, by troops detached for that + purpose. Thus a large part of the French army was now thrown back on a + line at right angles with the line of that portion which still confronted + and assailed the English position. But this portion was now numerically + inferior to the force under the Duke of Wellington, which Napoleon had + been assailing throughout the day, without gaining any other advantage + than the capture of La Haye Sainte. It is true that, owing to the gross + misconduct of the greater part of the Dutch and Belgian troops, the Duke + was obliged to rely exclusively on his English and German soldiers, and + the ranks of these had been fearfully thinned; but the survivors stood + their ground heroically, and opposed a resolute front to every forward + movement of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + On no point of the British line was the pressure more severe than on + Halkett's brigade in the right centre which was composed of battalions of + the 30th, the 33d, the 69th, and the 73d British regiments. We fortunately + can quote from the journal of a brave officer of the 30th, a narrative of + what took place in this part of the field. [This excellent journal was + published in the "United Service Magazine" during the year 1852.] The late + Major Macready served at Waterloo in the light company of the 30th. The + extent of the peril and the carnage which Halkett's brigade had to + encounter, may be judged of by the fact that this light company marched + into the field three officers and fifty-one men, and that at the end of + the battle they stood one officer and ten men. Major Macready's blunt + soldierly account of what he actually saw and felt, gives a far better + idea of the terrific scene, than can be gained from the polished + generalisations which the conventional style of history requires, or even + from the glowing stanzas of the poet. During the earlier part of the day + Macready and his light company were thrown forward as skirmishers in front + of the brigade; but when the French cavalry commenced their attacks on the + British right centre, he and his comrades were ordered back. The brave + soldier thus himself describes what passed: + </p> + <p> + "Before the commencement of this attack our company and the Grenadiers of + the 73d were skirmishing briskly in the low ground, covering our guns, and + annoying those of the enemy. The line of tirailleurs opposed to us was not + stronger than our own, but on a sudden they were reinforced by numerous + bodies, and several guns began playing on us with canister. Our poor + fellows dropped very fast, and Colonel Vigoureux, Rumley, and Pratt, were + carried off badly wounded in about two minutes. I was now commander of our + company. We stood under this hurricane of small shot till Halkett sent to + order us in, and I brought away about a third of the light bobs; the rest + were killed or wounded, and I really wonder how one of them escaped. As + our bugler was killed, I shouted and made signals to move by the left, in + order to avoid the fire of our guns, and to put as good a face upon the + business as possible. + </p> + <p> + "When I reached Lloyd's abandoned guns, I stood near them for about a + minute to contemplate the scene: it was grand beyond description. + Hougoumont and its wood sent up a broad flame through the dark masses of + smoke that overhung the field; beneath this cloud the French were + indistinctly visible. Here a waving mass of long red feathers could be + seen; there, gleams as from a sheet of steel showed that the cuirassiers + were moving; 400 cannon were belching forth fire and death on every side; + the roaring and shouting were indistinguishably commixed—together + they gave me an idea of a labouring volcano. Bodies of infantry and + cavalry were pouring down on us, and it was time to leave contemplation, + so I moved towards our columns, which were standing up in square. Our + regiment and 73d formed one, and 33d and 69th another; to our right beyond + them were the Guards, and on our left the Hanoverians and German legion of + our division. As I entered the rear face of our square I had to step over + a body, and looking down, recognised Harry Beers, an officer of our + Grenadiers, who about an hour before shook hands with me, laughing, as I + left the columns. I was on the usual terms of military intimacy with poor + Harry—that is to say, if either of us had died a natural death, the + other would have pitied him as a good fellow, and smiled at his neighbour + as he congratulated him on the step; but seeing his herculean frame and + animated countenance thus suddenly stiff and motionless before me (I know + not whence the feeling could originate, for I had just seen my dearest + friend drop, almost with indifference), the tears started in my eyes as I + sighed out, 'Poor Harry!' The tear was not dry on my cheek when poor Harry + was no longer thought of. In a few minutes after, the enemy's cavalry + galloped up and crowned the crest of our position. Our guns were + abandoned, and they formed between the two brigades, about a hundred paces + in our front. Their first charge was magnificent. As soon as they + quickened their trot into a gallop, the cuirassiers bent their heads so + that the peaks of their helmets looked like vizors, and they seemed cased + in armour from the plume to the saddle. Not a shot was fired till they + were within thirty yards, when the word was given, and our men fired away + at them. The effect was magical. Through the smoke we could see helmets + falling, cavaliers starting from their seats with convulsive springs as + they received our balls, horses plunging and rearing in the agonies of + fright and pain, and crowds of the soldiery dismounted, part of the + squadron in retreat, but the more daring remainder backing their horses to + force them on our bayonets. Our fire soon disposed of these gentlemen. The + main body re-formed in our front, and rapidly and gallantly repeated their + attacks, In fact, from this time (about four o'clock) till near six, we + had a constant repetition of these brave but unavailing charges. There was + no difficulty in repulsing them, but our ammunition decreased alarmingly. + At length an artillery wagon galloped up, emptied two or three casks of + cartridges into the square, and we were all comfortable. + </p> + <p> + "The best cavalry is contemptible to a steady and well-supplied infantry + regiment; even our men saw this, and began to pity the useless + perseverance of their assailants, and, as they advanced, would growl out, + 'Here come these fools again!' One of their superior officers tried a RUSE + DE GUERRE, by advancing and dropping his sword, as though he surrendered; + some of us were deceived by him, but Halkett ordered the men to fire, and + he coolly retired, saluting us. Their devotion was invincible. One officer + whom we had taken prisoner was asked what force Napoleon might have in the + field, and replied with a smile of mingled derision and threatening, 'Vous + verrez bientot sa force, messieurs.' A private cuirassier was wounded and + dragged into the square; his only cry was, 'Tuez donc, tuez, tuez moi, + soldats!' and as one of our men dropped dead close to him, he seized his + bayonet, and forced it into his own neck; but this not despatching him, he + raised up his cuirass, and plunging the bayonet into his stomach, kept + working it about till he ceased to breathe. + </p> + <p> + "Though we constantly thrashed our steel-clad opponents, we found more + troublesome customers in the round shot and grape, which all this time + played on us with terrible effect, and fully avenged the cuirassiers. + Often as the volleys created openings in our square would the cavalry dash + on, but they were uniformly unsuccessful. A regiment on our right seemed + sadly disconcerted, and at one moment was in considerable confusion. + Halkett rode out to them, and seizing their colour, waved it over his + head, and restored them to something like order, though not before his + horse was shot under him. At the height of their unsteadiness we got the + order to 'right face' to move to their assistance; some of the men mistook + it for 'right about face,' and faced accordingly, when old Major M'Laine, + 73d, called out, 'No, my boys, its "right face;" you'll never hear the + right about as long as a French bayonet is in front of you!' In a few + moments he was mortally wounded. A regiment of light Dragoons, by their + facings either the 16th or 23d, came up to our left and charged the + cuirassiers. We cheered each other as they passed us; they did all they + could, but were obliged to retire after a few minutes at the sabre. A body + of Belgian cavalry advanced for the same purpose, but on passing our + square, they stopped short. Our noble Halkett rode out to them and offered + to charge at their head; it was of no use; the Prince of Orange came up + and exhorted them to do their duty, but in vain. They hesitated till a few + shots whizzed through them, when they turned about, and galloped like + fury, or, rather, like fear. As they passed the right face of our square + the men, irritated by their rascally conduct, unanimously took up their + pieces and fired a volley into them, and 'many a good fellow was destroyed + so cowardly.' + </p> + <p> + "The enemy's cavalry were by this time nearly disposed of, and as they had + discovered the inutility of their charges, they commenced annoying us by a + spirited and well-directed carbine fire. While we were employed in this + manner it was impossible to see farther than the columns on our right and + left, but I imagine most of the army were similarly situated: all the + British and Germans were doing their duty. About six o'clock I perceived + some artillery trotting up our hill, which I knew by their caps to belong + to the Imperial Guard. I had hardly mentioned this to a brother officer + when two guns unlimbered within seventy paces of us, and, by their first + discharge of grape, blew seven men into the centre of the square. They + immediately reloaded, and kept up a constant and destructive fire. It was + noble to see our fellows fill up the gaps after every discharge. I was + much distressed at this moment; having ordered up three of my light bobs, + they had hardly taken their station when two of them fell horribly + lacerated. One of them looked up in my face and uttered a sort of + reproachful groan, and I involuntarily exclaimed, 'I couldn't help it.' We + would willingly have charged these guns, but, had we deployed, the cavalry + that flanked them would have made an example of us. + </p> + <p> + "The 'vivida vis animi'—the glow which fires one upon entering into + action—had ceased; it was now to be seen which side had most bottom, + and would stand killing longest. The Duke visited us frequently at this + momentous period; he was coolness personified. As he crossed the rear face + of our square a shell fell amongst our grenadiers, and he checked his + horse to see its effect. Some men were blown to pieces by the explosion, + and he merely stirred the rein of his charger, apparently as little + concerned at their fate as at his own danger. No leader ever possessed so + fully the confidence of his soldiery: wherever he appeared, a murmur of + 'Silence—stand to your front—here's the Duke,' was heard + through the column, and then all was steady as on a parade. His + aides-de-camp, Colonels Canning and Gordon, fell near our square, and the + former died within it. As he came near us late in the evening, Halkett + rode out to him and represented our weak state, begging his Grace to + afford us a little support. 'It's impossible, Halkett,' said he. And our + general replied, 'If so, sir, you may depend on the brigade to a man!'" + </p> + <p> + All accounts of the battle show that the Duke was ever present at each + spot where danger seemed the most pressing; inspiriting his men by a few + homely and good-humoured words; and restraining their impatience to be led + forward to attack in their turn.—"Hard pounding this, gentlemen: we + will try who can pound the longest," was his remark to a battalion, on + which the storm from the French guns was pouring with peculiar fury. + Riding up to one of the squares, which had been dreadfully weakened, and + against which a fresh attack of French cavalry was coming, he called to + them: "Stand firm, my lads; what will they say of this in England?" As he + rode along another part of the line where the men had for some time been + falling fast beneath the enemy's cannonade, without having any close + fighting, a murmur reached his ear of natural eagerness to advance and do + something more than stand still to be shot at. The Duke called to them: + "Wait a little longer, my lads, and you shall have your wish." The men + were instantly satisfied and steady. It was, indeed, indispensable for the + Duke to bide his time. The premature movement of a single corps down from + the British line of heights, would have endangered the whole position, and + have probably made Waterloo a second Hastings. + </p> + <p> + But the Duke inspired all under him with his own spirit of patient + firmness. When other generals besides Halkett sent to him, begging for + reinforcements, or for leave to withdraw corps which were reduced to + skeletons, the answer was the same: "It is impossible; you must hold your + ground to the last man, and all will be well." He gave a similar reply to + some of his staff; who asked instructions from him, so that, in the event + of his falling, his successor might follow out his plan. He answered, "My + plan is simply to stand my ground here to the last man." His personal + danger was indeed imminent throughout the day; and though he escaped + without injury to himself or horse, one only of his numerous staff was + equally fortunate. + </p> + <p> + ["As far as the French accounts would lead us to infer, it appears that + the losses among Napoleon's staff were comparatively trifling. On this + subject perhaps the marked contrast afforded by the following anecdotes, + which have been related to me on excellent authority, may tend to throw + some light. At one period of the battle, when the Duke was surrounded by + several of his staff, it was very evident that the group had become the + object of the fire of a French battery. The shot fell fast about them, + generally striking and turning up the ground on which they stood. Their + horses became restive and 'Copenhagen' himself so fidgetty, that the Duke, + getting impatient, and having reasons for remaining on the spot, said to + those about him, 'Gentlemen we are rather too close together—better + to divide a little.' Subsequently, at another point of the line, an + officer of artillery came up to the Duke, and stated that he had a + distinct view of Napoleon, attended by his staff; that he had the guns of + his battery well pointed in that direction, and was prepared to fire. His + Grace instantly and emphatically exclaimed, 'No! no! I'll not allow it. It + is not the business of commanders to be firing upon each other.'"—Siborne, + vol. ii. p. 263. How different is this from Napoleon's conduct at the + battle of Dresden, when he personally directed the fire of the battery + which, as he thought, killed the Emperor Alexander, and actually killed + Moreau.] + </p> + <p> + Napoleon had stationed himself during the battle on a little hillock near + La Belle Alliance, in the centre of the French position. Here he was + seated, with a large table from the neighbouring farm-house before him, on + which maps and plans were spread; and thence with his telescope he + surveyed the various points of the field. Soult watched his orders close + at his left hand, and his staff was grouped on horseback a few paces in + the rear. ["Souvenirs Militaires," par Col. Lemonnier-Delafosse, p. 407. + "Ouvrard, who attended Napoleon as chief commissary of the French army on + that occasion, told me that Napoleon was suffering from a complaint which + made it very painful for him to ride."—Lord Ellesmere, p. 47.] Here + he remained till near the close of the day, preserving the appearance at + least of calmness, except some expressions of irritation which escaped + him, when Ney's attack on the British left centre was defeated. But now + that the crisis of the battle was evidently approaching, he mounted a + white Persian charger, which he rode in action because the troops easily + recognised him by the horse colour. He had still the means of effecting a + retreat. His Old Guard had yet taken no part in the action. Under cover of + it, he might have withdrawn his shattered forces and retired upon the + French frontier. But this would only have given the English and Prussians + the opportunity of completing their junction; and he knew that other + armies were fast coming up to aid them in a march upon Paris, if he should + succeed in avoiding an encounter with them, and retreating upon the + capital. A victory at Waterloo was his only alternative from utter ruin, + and he determined to employ his Guard in one bold stroke more to make that + victory his own. + </p> + <p> + Between seven and eight o'clock, the infantry of the Old Guard was formed + into two columns, on the declivity near La Belle Alliance. Ney was placed + at their head. Napoleon himself rode forward to a spot by which his + veterans were to pass; and, as they approached, he raised his arm, and + pointed to the position of the Allies, as if to tell them that their path + lay there. They answered with loud cries of "Vive l'Empereur!" and + descended the hill from their own side, into that "valley of the shadow of + death" while the batteries thundered with redoubled vigour over their + heads upon the British line. The line of march of the columns of the Guard + was directed between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte, against the British + right centre; and at the same time the French under Donzelot, who had + possession of La Haye Sainte, commenced a fierce attack upon the British + centre, a little more to its left. This part of the battle has drawn less + attention than the celebrated attack of the Old Guard; but it formed the + most perilous crisis for the allied army; and if the Young Guard had been + there to support Donzelot, instead of being engaged with the Prussians at + Planchenoit, the consequences to the Allies in that part of the field must + have been most serious. The French tirailleurs, who were posted in clouds + in La Haye Sainte, and the sheltered spots near it, picked off the + artillerymen of the English batteries near them: and taking advantage of + the disabled state of the English guns, the French brought some + field-pieces up to La Haye Sainte, and commenced firing grape from them on + the infantry of the Allies, at a distance of not more than a hundred + paces. The allied infantry here consisted of some German brigades, who + were formed in squares, as it was believed that Donzelot had cavalry ready + behind La Haye Sainte to charge them with, if they left that order of + formation. In this state the Germans remained for some time with heroic + fortitude, though the grape-shot was tearing gaps in their ranks and the + side of one square was literally blown away by one tremendous volley which + the French gunners poured into it. The Prince of Orange in vain + endeavoured to lead some Nassau troops to the aid of the brave Germans. + The Nassauers would not or could not face the French; and some battalions + of Brunswickers, whom the Duke of Wellington had ordered up as a + reinforcement, at first fell back, until the Duke in person rallied them, + and led them on. Having thus barred the farther advance of Donzelot, the + Duke galloped off to the right to head his men who were exposed to the + attack of the Imperial Guard. He had saved one part of his centre from + being routed; but the French had gained ground and kept it; and the + pressure on the allied line in front of La Haye Sainte was fearfully + severe, until it was relieved by the decisive success which the British in + the right centre achieved over the columns of the Guard. + </p> + <p> + The British troops on the crest of that part of the position, which the + first column of Napoleon's Guards assailed, were Maitland's brigade of + British Guards, having Adams's brigade (which had been brought forward + during the action) on their right. Maitland's men were lying down, in + order to avoid as far as possible the destructive effect of the French + artillery, which kept up an unremitting fire from the opposite heights, + until the first column of the Imperial Guard had advanced so far up the + slope towards the British position, that any further firing of the French + artillerymen would have endangered their own comrades. Meanwhile the + British guns were not idle; but shot and shell ploughed fast through the + ranks of the stately array of veterans that still moved imposingly on. + Several of the French superior officers were at its head. Ney's horse was + shot under him, but he still led the way on foot, sword in hand. The front + of the massive column now was on the ridge of the hill. To their surprise + they saw no troops before them. All they could discern through the smoke + was a small band of mounted officers. One of them was the Duke himself. + The French advanced to about fifty yards from where the British Guards + were lying down when the voice of one of the group of British officers was + heard calling, as if to the ground before him, "Up, Guards, and at them!" + It was the Duke who gave the order; and at the words, as if by magic, up + started before them a line of the British Guards four deep, and in the + most compact and perfect order. They poured an instantaneous volley upon + the head of the French column, by which no less than three hundred of + those chosen veterans are said to have fallen. The French officers rushed + forwards; and, conspicuous in front of their men, attempted to deploy them + into a more extended line, so as to enable them to reply with effect to + the British fire. But Maitland's brigade kept showering in volley after + volley with deadly rapidity. The decimated column grew disordered in its + vain efforts to expand itself into a more efficient formation. The right + word was given at the right moment to the British for the bayonet-charge, + and the brigade sprang forward with a loud cheer against their dismayed + antagonists. In an instant the compact mass of the French spread out into + a rabble, and they fled back down the hill, pursued by Maitland's men, + who, however, returned to their position in time to take part in the + repulse of the second column of the Imperial Guard. + </p> + <p> + This column also advanced with great spirit and firmness under the + cannonade which was opened on it; and passing by the eastern wall of + Hougoumont, diverged slightly to the right as it moved up the slope + towards the British position, so as to approach nearly the same spot where + the first column had surmounted the height, and been defeated. This + enabled the British regiments of Adams's brigade to form a line parallel + to the left flank of the French column; so that while the front of this + column of French Guards had to encounter the cannonade of the British + batteries, and the musketry of Maitlands Guards, its left flank was + assailed with a destructive fire by a four-deep body of British infantry, + extending all along it. In such a position all the bravery and skill of + the French veterans were vain. The second column, like its predecessor, + broke and fled, taking at first a lateral direction along the front of the + British line towards the rear of La Haye Sainte, and so becoming blended + with the divisions of French infantry, which under Donzelot had been + assailing the Allies so formidably in that quarter. The sight of the Old + Guard broken and in flight checked the ardour which Donzelot's troops had + hitherto displayed. They, too, began to waver. Adams's victorious brigade + was pressing after the flying Guard, and now cleared away the assailants + of the allied centre. But the battle was not yet won. Napoleon had still + some battalions in reserve near La Belle Alliance. He was rapidly rallying + the remains of the first column of his Guards, and he had collected into + one body the remnants of the various corps of cavalry, which had suffered + so severely in the earlier part of the day. The Duke instantly formed the + bold resolution of now himself becoming the assailant, and leading his + successful though enfeebled army forward, while the disheartening effect + of the repulse of the Imperial Guard on the rest of the French army was + still strong, and before Napoleon and Ney could rally the beaten veterans + themselves for another and a fiercer charge. As the close approach of the + Prussians now completely protected the Duke's left, he had drawn some + reserves of horse from that quarter, and he had a brigade of Hussars under + Vivian fresh and ready at hand. Without a moment's hesitation he launched + these against the cavalry near La Belie Alliance. The charge was as + successful as it was daring: and as there was now no hostile cavalry to + check the British infantry in a forward movement, the Duke gave the + long-wished-for command for a general advance of the army along the whole + line upon the foe. It was now past eight o'clock, and for nearly nine + deadly hours had the British and German regiments stood unflinching under + the fire of artillery, the charge of cavalry, and every variety of + assault, which the compact columns or the scattered tirailleurs of the + enemy's infantry could inflict. As they joyously sprang forward against + the discomfited masses of the French, the setting sun broke through the + clouds which had obscured the sky during the greater part of the day, and + glittered on the bayonets of the Allies, while they poured down into the + valley and towards the heights that were held by the foe. The Duke himself + was among the foremost in the advance, and personally directed the + movements against each body of the French that essayed resistance. He rode + in front of Adams's brigade, cheering it forward, and even galloped among + the most advanced of the British skirmishers, speaking joyously to the + men, and receiving their hearty shouts of congratulation. The bullets of + both friends and foes were whistling fast round him; and one of the few + survivors of his staff remonstrated with him for thus exposing a life of + such value. "Never mind," was the Duke's answer;—"Never mind, let + them fire away; the battle's won, and my life is of no consequence now." + And, indeed, almost the whole of the French host was now in irreparable + confusion. The Prussian army was coming more and more rapidly forwards on + their right; and the Young Guard, which had held Planchenoit so bravely, + was at last compelled to give way. Some regiments of the Old Guard in vain + endeavoured to form in squares and stem the current. They were swept away, + and wrecked among the waves of the flyers. Napoleon had placed himself in + one of these squares: Marshal Soult, Generals Bertrand, Drouot, Corbineau, + De Flahaut, and Gourgaud, were with him. The Emperor spoke of dying on the + field, but Soult seized his bridle and turned his charger round, + exclaiming, "Sire, are not the enemy already lucky enough?" [Colonel + Lemonnier-Delafosse, "Memoires," p. 388. The Colonel states that he heard + these details from General Gourgaud himself. The English reader will be + reminded of Charles I.'s retreat from Naseby.] With the greatest + difficulty, and only by the utmost exertion of the devoted officers round + him, Napoleon cleared the throng of fugitives, and escaped from the scene + of the battle and the war, which he and France had lost past all recovery. + Meanwhile the Duke of Wellington still rode forward with the van of his + victorious troops, until he reined up on the elevated ground near + Rossomme. The daylight was now entirely gone; but the young moon had + risen, and the light which it cast, aided by the glare from the burning + houses and other buildings in the line of the flying French and pursuing + Prussians, enabled the Duke to assure himself that his victory was + complete. He then rode back along the Charleroi road toward Waterloo: and + near La Belle Alliance he met Marshal Blucher. Warm were the + congratulations that were exchanged between the Allied Chiefs. It was + arranged that the Prussians should follow up the pursuit, and give the + French no chance of rallying. Accordingly the British army, exhausted by + its toils and sufferings during that dreadful day, did not advance beyond + the heights which the enemy had occupied. But the Prussians drove the + fugitives before them in merciless chase throughout the night. Cannon, + baggage, and all the materiel of the army were abandoned by the French; + and many thousands of the infantry threw away their arms to facilitate + their escape. The ground was strewn for miles with the wrecks of their + host. There was no rear-guard; nor was even the semblance of order + attempted, an attempt at resistance was made at the bridge and village of + Genappe, the first narrow pass through which the bulk of the French + retired. The situation was favourable; and a few resolute battalions, if + ably commanded, might have held their pursuers at bay there for some + considerable time. But despair and panic were now universal in the beaten + army. At the first sound of the Prussian drums and bugles, Genappe was + abandoned, and nothing thought of but headlong flight. The Prussians, + under General Gneisenau, still followed and still slew; nor even when the + Prussian infantry stopped in sheer exhaustion, was the pursuit given up. + Gneisenau still pushed on with the cavalry; and by an ingenious stratagem, + made the French believe that his infantry were still close on them, and + scared them from every spot where they attempted to pause and rest. He + mounted one of his drummers on a horse which had been taken from the + captured carriage of Napoleon, and made him ride along with the pursuing + cavalry, and beat the drum whenever they came on any large number of the + French. The French thus fled, and the Prussians pursued through Quatre + Bras, and even over the heights of Frasne; and when at length Gneisenau + drew bridle, and halted a little beyond Frasne with the scanty remnant of + keen hunters who had kept up the chace with him to the last, the French + were scattered through Gosselies, Marchiennes, and Charleroi; and were + striving to regain the left bank of the river Sambre, which they had + crossed in such pomp and pride not a hundred hours before. + </p> + <p> + Part of the French left wing endeavoured to escape from the field without + blending with the main body of the fugitives who thronged the Genappe + causeway. A French officer, who was among those who thus retreated across + the country westward of the high-road, has vividly described what he + witnessed and what he suffered. Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse served in the + campaign of 1815 in General Foy's staff, and was consequently in that part + of the French army at Waterloo, which acted against Hougoumont and the + British right wing. When the column of the Imperial Guard made their great + charge at the end of the day, the troops of Foy's division advanced in + support of them, and Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse describes the confident + hopes of victory and promotion with which he marched to that attack, and + the fearful carnage and confusion of the assailants, amid which he was + helplessly hurried back by his flying comrades. He then narrates the + closing scene, [Col. Lemonnier-Delafosse, "Memoires," pp. 385-405. There + are omissions and abridgments in the translation which I have given.]: + </p> + <p> + "Near one of the hedges of Hougoumont farm, without even a drummer to beat + the RAPPEL, we succeeded in rallying under the enemy's fire 300 men: they + were nearly all that remained of our splendid division, Thither came + together a band of generals. There was Reille, whose horse had been shot + under him; there were D'Erlon, Bachelu, Foy, Jamin, and others. All were + gloomy and sorrowful, like vanquished men. Their words were,—'Here + is all that is left of my corps, of my division, of my brigade. I, + myself.' We had seen the fall of Duhesme, of Pelet-de-Morvan, of Michel—generals + who had found a glorious death. My General, Foy, had his shoulder pierced + through by a musket-ball: and out of his whole staff two officers only + were left to him, Cahour Duhay and I. Fate had spared me in the midst of + so many dangers, though the first charger I rode had been shot and had + fallen on me. + </p> + <p> + "The enemy's horse were coming down on us, and our little group was + obliged to retreat. 'What had happened to our division of the left wing + had taken place all along the line. The movement of the hostile cavalry, + which inundated the whole plain, had demoralised our soldiers, who seeing + all regular retreat of the army cut off, strove each man to effect one for + himself. At each instant the road became more encumbered. Infantry, + cavalry, and artillery, were pressing along pell-mell: jammed together + like a solid mass. Figure to yourself 40,000 men struggling and thrusting + themselves along a single causeway. We could not take that way without + destruction; so the generals who had collected together near the + Hougoumont hedge dispersed across the fields. General Foy alone remained + with the 300 men whom he had gleaned from the field of battle, and marched + at their head. Our anxiety was to withdraw from the scene of action + without being confounded with the fugitives. Our general wished to retreat + like a true soldier. Seeing three lights in the southern horizon, like + beacons, General Foy asked me what I thought of the position of each. I + answered, 'The first to the left is Genappe, the second is at Bois de + Bossu, near the farm of Quatre Bras; the third is at Gosselies.' 'Let us + march on the second one, then,' replied Foy, 'and let no obstacle stop us—take + the head of the column, and do not lose sight of the guiding light.' Such + was his order, and I strove to obey. + </p> + <p> + "After all the agitation and the incessant din of a long day of battle, + how imposing was the stillness of that night! We proceeded on our sad and + lonely march. We were a prey to the most cruel reflections, we were + humiliated, we were hopeless; but not a word of complaint was heard. We + walked silently as a troop of mourners, and it might have been said that + we were attending the funeral of our country's glory. Suddenly the + stillness was broken by a challenge,—'QUI VIVE?' 'France!' + 'Kellerman!' 'Foy!' 'Is it you, General? come nearer to us.' At that + moment we were passing over a little hillock, at the foot of which was a + hut, in which Kellerman and some of his officers had halted. They came out + to join as Foy said to me, 'Kellerman knows the country: he has been along + here before with his cavalry; we had better follow him.' But we found that + the direction which Kellerman chose was towards the first light, towards + Genappe. That led to the causeway which our general rightly wished to + avoid I went to the left to reconnoitre, and was soon convinced that such + was the case. It was then that I was able to form a full idea of the + disorder of a routed army. What a hideous spectacle! The mountain torrent, + that uproots and whirls along with it every momentary obstacle, is a + feeble image of that heap of men, of horses, of equipages, rushing one + upon another; gathering before the least obstacle which dams up their way + for a few seconds, only to form a mass which overthrows everything in the + path which it forces for itself. Woe to him whose footing failed him in + that deluge! He was crushed, trampled to death! I returned and told my + general what I had seen, and he instantly abandoned Kellerman, and resumed + his original line of march. + </p> + <p> + "Keeping straight across the country over fields and the rough thickets, + we at last arrived at the Bois de Bossu, where we halted. My General said + to me, 'Go to the farm of Quatre Bras and announce that we are here. The + Emperor or Soult must be there. Ask for orders, and recollect that I am + waiting here for you. The lives of these men depend on your exactness.' To + reach the farm I was obliged to cross the high road: I was on horseback, + but nevertheless was borne away by the crowd that fled along the road, and + it was long are I could extricate myself and reach the farmhouse. General + Lobau was there with his staff, resting in fancied security. They thought + that their troops had halted there; but, though a halt had been attempted, + the men had soon fled forwards, like their comrades of the rest of the + army. The shots of the approaching Prussians were now heard; and I believe + that General Lobau was taken prisoner in that farmhouse. I left him to + rejoin my general, which I did with difficulty. I found him alone. His + men, as they came near the current of flight, were infected with the + general panic, and fled also. + </p> + <p> + "What was to be done? Follow that crowd of runaways? General Foy would not + hear of it. There were five of us still with him, all officers. He had + been wounded at about five in the afternoon, and the wound had not been + dressed. He suffered severely; but his moral courage was unbroken. 'Let us + keep,' he said, 'a line parallel to the high road, and work our way hence + as we best can.' A foot-track was before us, and we followed it. + </p> + <p> + "The moon shone out brightly, and revealed the full wretchedness of the + TABLEAU which met our eyes. A brigadier and four cavalry soldiers, whom we + met with, formed our escort. We marched on; and, as the noise grew more + distant, I thought that we were losing the parallel of the highway. + Finding that we had the moon more and more on the left, I felt sure of + this, and mentioned it to the General. Absorbed in thought, he made me no + reply. We came in front of a windmill, and endeavoured to procure some + information; but we could not gain an entrance, or make any one answer, + and we continued our nocturnal march. At last we entered a village, but + found every door closed against us, and were obliged to use threats in + order to gain admission into a single house. The poor woman to whom it + belonged, more dead than alive, received us as if we had been enemies. + Before asking where we were, 'Food, give as some food!' was our cry. Bread + and butter and beer were brought, and soon disappeared before men who had + fasted for twenty-four hours. A little revived, we ask, 'Where are we? + what is the name of this village?'—'Vieville.' + </p> + <p> + "On looking at the map, I saw that in coming to that village we had leaned + too much to the right, and that we were in the direction of Mons. In order + to reach the Sambre at the bridge of Marchiennes, we had four leagues to + traverse; and there was scarcely time to march the distance before + daybreak. I made a villager act as our guide, and bound him by his arm to + my stirrup. He led us through Roux to Marchiennes. The poor fellow ran + alongside of my horse the whole way. It was cruel, but necessary to compel + him, for we had not an instant to spare. At six in the morning we entered + Marchiennes. + </p> + <p> + "Marshal Ney was there. Our general went to see him, and to ask what + orders he had to give. Ney was asleep; and, rather than rob him of the + first repose he had had for four days, our General returned to us without + seeing him. And, indeed, what orders could Marshal Ney have given? The + whole army was crossing the Sambre, each man where and now he chose; some + at Charleroi, some at Marchiennes. We were about to do the same thing. + When once beyond the Sambre we might safely halt; and both men and horses + were in extreme need of rest. We passed through Thuin; and finding a + little copse near the road, we gladly sought its shelter. While our horses + grazed, we lay down and slept. How sweet was that sleep after the fatigues + of the long day of battle, and after the night of retreat more painful + still! We rested in the little copse till noon, and sate there watching + the wrecks of our army defile along the road before us. It was a + soul-harrowing sight! Yet the different arms of the service had resumed a + certain degree of order amid their disorder; and our General, feeling his + strength revive, resolved to follow a strong column of cavalry which was + taking the direction of Beaumont, about four leagues off. We drew near + Beaumont, when suddenly a regiment of horse was seen debouching from a + wood on our left. The column that we followed shouted out, 'The Prussians! + the Prussians!' and galloped off in utter disorder. The troops that thus + alarmed them were not a tenth part of their number, and were in reality + our own 8th Hussars, who wore green uniforms. But the panic had been + brought even thus far from the battle-field, and the disorganized column + galloped into Beaumont, which was already crowded with our infantry. We + were obliged to follow that DEBACLE. On entering Beaumont we chose a house + of superior appearance, and demanded of the mistress of it refreshments + for the General. 'Alas!' said the lady, 'this is the tenth General who has + been to this house since this morning. I have nothing left. Search, if you + please, and see.' Though unable to find food for the General, I persuaded + him to take his coat off and let me examine his wound. The bullet had gone + through the twists of the left epaulette, and penetrating the skin, had + run round the shoulder without injuring the bone. The lady of the house + made some lint for me; and without any great degree of surgical skill I + succeeded in dressing the wound. + </p> + <p> + "Being still anxious to procure some food for the General and ourselves, + if it were but a loaf of ammunition bread, I left the house and rode out + into the town. I saw pillage going on in every direction: open caissons, + stripped and half-broken, blocked up the streets. The pavement was covered + with plundered and torn baggage. Pillagers and runaways, such were all the + comrades I met with. Disgusted at them, I strove, sword in hand, to stop + one of the plunderers; but, more active than I, he gave me a bayonet stab + in my left arm, in which I fortunately caught his thrust, which had been + aimed full at my body. He disappeared among the crowd, through which I + could not force my horse. My spirit of discipline had made me forget that + in such circumstances the soldier is a mere wild beast. But to be wounded + by a fellow-countryman after having passed unharmed through all the perils + of Quatre Bras and Waterloo!—this did seem hard, indeed. I was + trying to return to General Foy, when another horde of flyers burst into + Beaumont, swept me into the current of their flight, and hurried me out of + the town with them. Until I received my wound I had preserved my moral + courage in full force; but now, worn out with fatigue, covered with blood, + and suffering severe pain from the wound, I own that I gave way to the + general demoralisation, and let myself be inertly borne along with the + rushing mass. At last I reached Landrecies, though I know not how or when. + But I found there our Colonel Hurday, who had been left behind there in + consequence of an accidental injury from a carriage. He took me with him + to Paris, where I retired amid my family, and got cured of my wound, + knowing nothing of the rest of political and military events that were + taking place." + </p> + <p> + No returns ever were made of the amount of the French loss in the battle + of Waterloo; but it must have been immense, and may be partially judged of + by the amount of killed and wounded in the armies of the conquerors. On + this subject both the Prussian and British official evidence is + unquestionably full and authentic. The figures are terribly emphatic. + </p> + <p> + Of the army that fought under the Duke of Wellington nearly 15,000 men + were killed and wounded on this single day of battle. Seven thousand + Prussians also fell at Waterloo. At such a fearful price was the + deliverance of Europe purchased. + </p> + <p> + By none was the severity of that loss more keenly felt than by our great + deliverer himself. As may be seen in Major Macready's narrative, the Duke, + while the battle was raging, betrayed no sign of emotion at the most + ghastly casualties; but, when all was over, the sight of the carnage with + which the field was covered, and still more, the sickening spectacle of + the agonies of the wounded men who lay moaning in their misery by + thousands and tens of thousands, weighed heavily on the spirit of the + victor, as he rode back across the scene of strife. On reaching his + head-quarters in the village of Waterloo, the Duke inquired anxiously + after the numerous friends who had been round him in the morning, and to + whom he was warmly attached. Many he was told were dead; others were lying + alive, but mangled and suffering, in the houses round him. It is in our + hero's own words alone that his feelings can be adequately told. In a + letter written by him almost immediately after his return from the field, + he thus expressed himself:—"My heart is broken by the terrible loss + I have sustained in my old friends and companions, and my poor soldiers. + Believe me, nothing except a battle lost, can be half so melancholy as a + battle won; the bravery of my troops has hitherto saved me from the + greater evil; but to win such a battle as this of Waterloo, at the expense + of so many gallant friends, could only be termed a heavy misfortune but + for the result to the public." + </p> + <p> + It is not often that a successful General in modern warfare is called on, + like the victorious commander of the ancient Greek armies, to award a + prize of superior valour to one of his soldiers. Such was to some extent + the case with respect to the battle of Waterloo. In the August of 1818, an + English clergyman offered to confer a small annuity on some Waterloo + soldier, to be named by the Duke. [Siborne, vol. i. p. 391.] The Duke + requested Sir John Byng to choose a man from the 2d Brigade of Guards, + which had so highly distinguished itself in the defence of Hougoumont. + There were many gallant candidates, but the election fell on Sergeant + James Graham, of the light company of the Coldstreams. This brave man had + signalised himself, throughout the day, in the defence of that important + post, and especially in the critical struggle that took place at the + period when the French, who had gained the wood, the orchard, and detached + garden, succeeded in bursting open a gate of the courtyard of the chateau + itself, and rushed in in large masses, confident of carrying all before + them. A hand-to-hand fight, of the most desperate character, was kept up + between them and the Guards for a few minutes; but at last the British + bayonets prevailed. Nearly all the Frenchmen who had forced their way in + were killed on the spot; and, as the few survivors ran back, five of the + Guards, Colonel Macdonnell, Captain Wyndham, Ensign Gooch, Ensign Hervey, + and Sergeant Graham, by sheer strength, closed the gate again, in spite of + the efforts of the French from without, and effectually barricaded it + against further assaults. Over and through the loopholed wall of the + courtyard, the English garrison now kept up a deadly fire of musketry, + which was fiercely answered by the French, who swarmed round the curtilage + like ravening wolves. Shells, too, from their batteries, were falling fast + into the besieged place, one of which set part of the mansion and some of + the out-buildings on fire. Graham, who was at this time standing near + Colonel Macdonnell at the wall, and who had shown the most perfect + steadiness and courage, now asked permission of his commanding officer to + retire for a moment. Macdonnell replied, "By all means, Graham; but I + wonder you should ask leave now." Graham answered, "I would not, sir, only + my brother is wounded, and he is in that out-building there, which has + just caught fire." Laying down his musket, Graham ran to the blazing spot, + lifted up his brother, and laid him in a ditch. Then he was back at his + post, and was plying his musket against the French again, before his + absence was noticed, except by his colonel. + </p> + <p> + Many anecdotes of individual prowess have been preserved: but of all the + brave men who were in the British army on that eventful day, none deserve + more honour for courage and indomitable resolution than Sir Thomas Picton, + who, as has been mentioned, fell in repulsing the great attack of the + French upon the British left centre. It was not until the dead body was + examined after the battle, that the full heroism of Picton was discerned. + He had been wounded on the 16th, at Quatre Bras, by a musket-ball, which + had broken two of his ribs, and caused also severe internal injuries; but + he had concealed the circumstance, evidently in expectation that another + and greater battle would be fought in a short time, and desirous to avoid + being solicited to absent himself from the field. His body was blackened + and swollen by the wound, which must have caused severe and incessant + pain; and it was marvellous how his spirit had borne him up, and enabled + him to take part in the fatigues and duties of the field. The bullet + which, on the 18th, killed the renowned loader of "the fighting Division" + of the Peninsula, entered the head near the left temple, and passed + through the brain; so that Picton's death must have been instantaneous. + </p> + <p> + One of the most interesting narratives of personal adventure at Waterloo, + is that of Colonel Frederick Ponsonby, of the 12th Light Dragoons, who was + severely wounded when Vandeleur's brigade, to which he belonged, attacked + the French lancers, in order to bring off the Union Brigade, which was + retiring from its memorable charge. [See p. 361, SUPRA.] The 12th, like + those whom they rescued, advanced much further against the French position + than prudence warranted. Ponsonby, with many others, was speared by a + reserve of Polish lancers, and left for dead on the field. It is well to + refer to the description of what he suffered (as he afterwards gave it, + when almost miraculously recovered from his numerous wounds), because his + fate, or worse, was the fate of thousands more; and because the narrative + of the pangs of an individual, with whom we can identify ourselves, always + comes more home to us than a general description of the miseries of whole + masses. His tale may make us remember what are the horrors of war as well + as its glories. It is to be remembered that the operations which he refers + to, took place about three o'clock in the day, and that the fighting went + on for at least five hours more. After describing how he and his men + charged through the French whom they first encountered, and went against + other enemies, he states:— + </p> + <p> + "We had no sooner passed them than we were ourselves attacked before we + could form, by about 300 Polish lancers, who had hastened to their relief; + the French artillery pouring in among us a heavy fire of grape, though for + one of our men they killed three of their own. + </p> + <p> + "In the MELEE I was almost instantly disabled in both arms, losing first + my sword, and then my reins, and followed by a few men, who were presently + cut down, no quarter being allowed, asked or given, I was carried along by + my horse, till, receiving a blow from a sabre, I fell senseless on my face + to the ground. + </p> + <p> + "Recovering, I raised myself a little to look round, being at that time, I + believe, in a condition to get up and run away; when a lancer passing by, + cried out, 'Tu n'est pas mort, coquin!' and struck his lance through my + back. My head dropped, the blood gushed into my mouth, a difficulty of + breathing came on, and I thought all was over. + </p> + <p> + "Not long afterwards (it was impossible to measure time, but I must have + fallen in less than ten minutes after the onset), a tirailleur stopped to + plunder me, threatening my life. I directed him to a small side-pocket, in + which he found three dollars, all I had; but he continued to threaten, and + I said he might search me: this he did immediately, unloosing my stock and + tearing open my waistcoat, and leaving me in a very uneasy posture. + </p> + <p> + "But he was no sooner gone, than an officer bringing up some troops, to + which probably the tirailleur belonged and happening to halt where I lay, + stooped down and addressed me, saying, he feared I was badly wounded; I + said that I was, and expressed a wish to be removed to the rear. He said + it was against their orders to remove even their own men; but that if they + gained the day (and he understood that the Duke of Wellington was killed, + and that some of our battalions had surrendered), every attention in his + power would be shown me. I complained of thirst, and he held his + brandy-bottle to my lips, directing one of the soldiers to lay me straight + on my side, and place a knapsack under my head. He then passed on into + action—soon, perhaps, to want, though not receive, the same + assistance; and I shall never know to whose generosity I was indebted, as + I believe, for my life. Of what rank he was, I cannot say: he wore a great + coat. By-and-by another tirailleur came up, a fine young man, full of + ardour. He knelt down and fired over me, loading and firing many times, + and conversing with me all the while." The Frenchman, with strange + coolness, informed Ponsonby of how he was shooting, and what he thought of + the progress of the battle. "At last he ran off, exclaiming, 'You will + probably not be sorry to hear that we are going to retreat. Good day, my + friend.' It was dusk," Ponsonby adds, "when two squadrons of Prussian + cavalry, each of them two deep, came across the valley, and passed over me + in full trot, lifting me from the ground, and tumbling me about cruelly. + The clatter of of their approach and the apprehensions they excited, may + be imagined; a gun taking that direction must have destroyed me. + </p> + <p> + "The battle was now at an end, or removed to a distance. The shouts, the + imprecations, the outcries of 'Vive l'Empereur!' the discharge of musketry + and cannon, were over; and the groans of the wounded all around me, became + every moment more and more audible. I thought the night would never end. + </p> + <p> + "Much about this time I found a soldier of the Royals lying across my + legs: he had probably crawled thither in his agony; and his weight, his + convulsive motions, and the air issuing through a wound in his side, + distressed me greatly; the last circumstance most of all, as I had a wound + of the same nature myself. It was not a dark night, and the Prussians were + wandering about to plunder; the scene in Ferdinand Count Fathom came into + my mind, though no women appeared. Several stragglers looked at me, as + they passed by, one after another, and at last one of them stopped to + examine me. I told him as well as I could, for I spoke German very + imperfectly, that I was a British officer, and had been plundered already; + he did not desist, however, and pulled me about roughly. + </p> + <p> + "An hour before midnight I saw a man in an English uniform walking towards + me. He was, I suspect, on the same errand, and he came and looked in my + face. I spoke instantly, telling him who I was, and assuring him of a + reward if he would remain by me. He said he belonged to the 40th, and had + missed his regiment; he released me from the dying soldier, and being + unarmed, took up a sword from the ground, and stood over me, pacing + backwards and forwards. + </p> + <p> + "Day broke; and at six o'clock in the morning some English were seen at a + distance, and he ran to them. A messenger being sent off to Hervey, a cart + came for me, and I was placed in it, and carried to the village of + Waterloo, a mile and a half off, and laid in the bed from which as I + understood afterwards, Gordon had been just carried out. I had received + seven wounds; a surgeon slept in my room, and I was saved by excessive + bleeding." + </p> + <p> + Major Macready, in the journal already cited, [See SUPRA. p. 368.] justly + praises the deep devotion to their Emperor which, marked the French at + Waterloo. Never, indeed, had the national bravery of the French people + been more nobly shown. One soldier in the French ranks was seen, when his + arm was shattered by a cannon-ball, to wrench it off with the other; and + throwing it up in the air, he exclaimed to his comrades, "Vive l'Empereur + jusqu'a la mort!" Colonel Lemonnier-Delafosse mentions in his Memoirs, + [Page 388.] that at the beginning of the action, a French soldier who had + had both legs carried off by a cannon-ball, was borne past the front of + Foy's division, and called out to them, "Ca n'est rien, camarades; Vive + l'Empereur! Gloire a la France!" The same officer, at the end of the + battle, when all hope was lost, tells us that he saw a French grenadier, + blackened with powder, and with his clothes torn and stained, leaning on + his musket, and immoveable as a statue. The colonel called to him to join + his comrades and retreat; but the grenadier showed him his musket and his + hands; and said, "These hands have with this musket used to-day more than + twenty packets of cartridges: it was more than my share: I supplied myself + with ammunition from the dead. Leave me to die here on the field of + battle. It is not courage that fails me, but strength." Then, as Colonel + Delafosse left him, the soldier stretched himself on the ground to meet + his fate, exclaiming, "Tout est perdu! pauvre France!" The gallantry of + the French officers at least equalled that of their men. Ney, in + particular, set the example of the most daring courage. Here, as in every + French army in which he ever served or commanded, he was "le brave des + braves." Throughout the day he was in the front of the battle; and was one + of the very last Frenchmen who quitted the field. His horse was killed + under him in the last attack made on the English position; but he was seen + on foot, his clothes torn with bullets, his face smirched with powder, + striving, sword in hand, first to urge his men forward, and at last to + check their flight. + </p> + <p> + There was another brave general of the French army, whose valour and good + conduct on that day of disaster to his nation should never be unnoticed + when the story of Waterloo is recounted. This was General Polet, who, + about seven in the evening, led the first battalion of the 2d regiment of + the Chasseurs of the Guard to the defence of Planchenoit; and on whom + Napoleon personally urged the deep importance of maintaining possession of + that village. Pelet and his men took their post in the central part of the + village, and occupied the church and churchyard in great strength. There + they repelled every assault of the Prussians, who in rapidly increasing + numbers rushed forward with infuriated pertinacity. They held their post + till the utter rout of the main army of their comrades was apparent, and + the victorious Allies were thronging around Planchenoit. When Pelet and + his brave chasseurs quitted the churchyard, and retired with steady march, + though they suffered fearfully from the moment they left their shelter, + and Prussian cavalry as well as infantry dashed fiercely after them. Pelet + kept together a little knot of 250 veterans, and had the eagle covered + over, and borne along in the midst of them. At one time the inequality of + the ground caused his ranks to open a little; and in an instant the + Prussian horseman were on them, and striving to capture the eagle. Captain + Siborne relates the conduct of Pelet with the admiration worthy of one + brave soldier for another:— + </p> + <p> + "Pelet, taking advantage of a spot of ground which afforded them some + degree of cover against the fire of grape by which they were constantly + assailed, halted the standard-bearer, and called out, "A moi chasseurs! + sauvons l'aigle ou mourons autour d'elle!" The chasseurs immediately + pressed around him, forming what is usually termed the rallying square, + and, lowering their bayonets, succeeded in repulsing the charge of + cavalry. Some guns were then brought to bear upon them, and subsequently a + brisk fire of musketry; but notwithstanding the awful sacrifice which was + thus offered up in defence of their precious charge, they succeeded in + reaching the main line of retreat, favoured by the universal confusion, as + also by the general obscurity which now prevailed; and thus saved alike + the eagle and the honour of the regiment." + </p> + <p> + French writers do injustice to their own army and general, when they + revive malignant calumnies against Wellington, and speak of his having + blundered into victory. No blunderer could have successfully encountered + such troops as those of Napoleon, and under such a leader. It is + superfluous to cite against these cavils the testimony which other + continental critics have borne to the high military genius of our + illustrious chief. I refer to one only, which is of peculiar value, on + account of the quarter whence it comes. It is that of the great German + writer Niebuhr, whose accurate acquaintance with every important scene of + modern as well as ancient history was unparalleled: and who was no mere + pedant, but a man practically versed in active life, and had been + personally acquainted with most of the leading men in the great events of + the early part of this century. Niebuhr, in the passage which I allude to, + [Roman History, vol. v. p. 17.] after referring to the military "blunders" + of Mithridates, Frederick the Great, Napoleon, Pyrrhus, and Hannibal, uses + these remarkable words, "The Duke of Wellington is, I believe, the only + general in whose conduct of war we cannot discover any important mistake." + Not that it is to be supposed that the Duke's merits were simply of a + negative order, or that he was merely a cautious, phlegmatic general fit + only for defensive warfare, as some recent French historians have + described him. On the contrary, he was bold even to audacity when boldness + was required. "The intrepid advance and fight at Assaye, the crossing of + the Douro, and the movement on Talavera in 1809, the advance to Madrid and + Burgos in 1812, the actions before Bayonne in 1813, and the desperate + stand made at Waterloo itself, when more tamely-prudent generals would + have retreated beyond Brussels, place this beyond a doubt." [See the + admirable parallel of Wellington and Marlborough at the end of Sir + Archibald Alison's "Life of the Duke of Marlborough." Sir Archibald justly + considers Wellington the more daring general of the two.] + </p> + <p> + The overthrow of the French military power at Waterloo was so complete, + that the subsequent events of the brief campaign have little interest. + Lamartine truly says: "This defeat left nothing undecided in future + events, for victory had given judgment. The war began and ended in a + single battle." Napoleon himself recognised instantly and fully the deadly + nature of the blow which had been dealt to his empire. In his flight from + the battle-field he first halted at Charleroi, but the approach of the + pursuing Prussians drove him thence before he had rested there an hour. + With difficulty getting clear of the wrecks of his own army, he reached + Philippeville, where he remained a few hours, and sent orders to the + French generals in the various extremities of France to converge with + their troops upon Paris. He ordered Soult to collect the fugitives of his + own force, and lead them to Laon. He then hurried forward to Paris, and + reached his capital before the news of his own defeat. But the stern truth + soon transpired. At the demand of the Chambers of Peers and + Representatives, he abandoned the throne by a second and final abdication + on the 22d of June. On the 29th of June he left the neighbourhood of + Paris, and proceeded to Rochefort in the hope of escaping to America; but + the coast was strictly watched, and on the 15th of July the ex-emperor + surrendered himself on board of the English man-of-war the Bellerophon. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the allied armies had advanced steadily upon Paris, driving + before them Grouchy's corps, and the scanty force which Soult had + succeeded in rallying at Laon. Cambray, Peronne, and other fortresses were + speedily captured; and by the 29th of June the invaders were taking their + positions in front of Paris. The Provisional Government, which acted in + the French capital after the Emperor's abdication, opened negotiations + with the allied chiefs. Blucher, in his quenchless hatred of the French, + was eager to reject all proposals for a suspension of hostilities, and to + assault and storm the city. But the sager and calmer spirit of Wellington + prevailed over his colleague; the entreated armistice was granted; and on + the 3d of July the capitulation of Paris terminated the War of the Battle + of Waterloo. + </p> + <p> + In closing our observations on this the last of the Decisive Battles of + the World, it is pleasing to contrast the year which it signalized with + the year that is now [Written in June 1851.] passing over our heads. We + have not (and long may we be without) the stern excitement of martial + strife, and we see no captive standards of our European neighbours brought + in triumph to our shrines. But we behold an infinitely prouder spectacle. + We see the banners of every civilized nation waving over the arena of our + competition with each other, in the arts that minister to our race's + support and happiness, and not to its suffering and destruction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Peace hath her victories + No less renowned than War;" +</pre> + <p> + and no battle-field ever witnessed a victory more noble than that which + England, under her Sovereign Lady and her Royal Prince, is now teaching + the peoples of the earth to achieve over selfish prejudices and + international feuds, in the great cause of the general promotion of the + industry and welfare of mankind. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The +World From Marathon to Waterloo, by Edward Creasy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES *** + +***** This file should be named 4061-h.htm or 4061-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/6/4061/ + +Produced by John Hill and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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