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diff --git a/40590-h/40590-h.htm b/40590-h/40590-h.htm index 81ce0fa..d735022 100644 --- a/40590-h/40590-h.htm +++ b/40590-h/40590-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Century Of Science, by John Fiske. @@ -140,45 +140,7 @@ table { </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's A Century of Science and Other Essays, by John Fiske - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: A Century of Science and Other Essays - -Author: John Fiske - -Release Date: August 27, 2012 [EBook #40590] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A CENTURY OF SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, -Josephine Paolucci and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team at http://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from -images generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40590 ***</div> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;"> <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="435" height="650" alt="" /> @@ -464,7 +426,7 @@ has enlarged in space since the day when Priestley set free his dephlogisticated air.</p> <p>The known solar system then consisted of sun, moon, earth, and the five -planets visible to the naked eye. Since the days of the Chaldæan +planets visible to the naked eye. Since the days of the Chaldæan shepherds there had been no additions except the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. Herschel's telescope was to win its first triumph in the detection of Uranus in 1781. The Newtonian theory, promulgated in 1687, @@ -477,7 +439,7 @@ discovery of the planet Neptune, by purely mathematical reasoning from the observed effects of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> gravitation, furnished for the Newtonian theory the grandest confirmation known in the whole history of science. In Priestley's time, sidereal astronomy was little more than the -cataloguing of such stars and nebulæ as could be seen with the +cataloguing of such stars and nebulæ as could be seen with the telescopes then at command. Sixty years after the discovery of oxygen the distance of no star had been measured. In 1836, Auguste Comte assured his readers that such a feat was impossible, that the Newtonian @@ -494,7 +456,7 @@ discovery of spectrum analysis and the invention of the spectroscope, completed in 1861 by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, have supplied data for the creation of a stellar chemistry; showing us, for example, hydrogen in Sirius and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> nebula of Orion, sodium and potassium, calcium and iron, -in the sun; demonstrating the gaseous character of nebulæ; and revealing +in the sun; demonstrating the gaseous character of nebulæ; and revealing chemical elements hitherto unknown, such as helium, a mineral first detected in the sun's atmosphere, and afterward found in Norway. A still more wonderful result of spectrum analysis is our ability to measure the @@ -517,7 +479,7 @@ sun-spots and preserve them for study; we detect the feeble self-luminosity still left in such a slowly cooling planet as Jupiter; and since the metallic plate does not quickly weary, like the human retina, the cumulative effects of its long exposure reveal the existence -of countless stars and nebulæ too remote to be otherwise reached by any +of countless stars and nebulæ too remote to be otherwise reached by any visual process. By such photographic methods George Darwin has caught an equatorial ring in the act of detachment from its parent nebula, and the successive phases of the slow process may be watched and recorded by @@ -647,7 +609,7 @@ lower organisms could not fail to be strongly suggested to a mind like his as soon as the classification of plants and animals had begun to be conducted upon scientific principles. It is not for nothing that a table of classes, orders, families, genera, and species, when graphically laid -out, resembles a family tree. It was not long after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> Linnæus that +out, resembles a family tree. It was not long after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> Linnæus that believers in some sort of a development theory, often fantastic enough, began to be met with. The facts of morphology gave further suggestions in the same direction. Such facts were first generalized on a grand @@ -665,27 +627,27 @@ scheme of the vertebrate skeleton a pectoral fin, a fore leg, and a wing occupy the same positions: thus was strongly suggested the idea that what under some circumstances developed into a fin might under other circumstances develop into a leg or a wing. The revelations of -palæontology, showing various extinct adult forms, with corresponding +palæontology, showing various extinct adult forms, with corresponding organs in various degrees of development, went far to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> strengthen this suggestion, until an unanswerable argument was reached with the study of rudimentary organs, which have no meaning except as remnants of a vanished past during which the organism has been changing. The study of comparative embryology pointed in the same direction; for it was soon -observed that the embryos and larvæ of the higher forms of each group of +observed that the embryos and larvæ of the higher forms of each group of animals pass, "in the course of their development, through a series of stages in which they more or less completely resemble the lower forms of the group."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> <p>Before the full significance of such facts of embryology and morphology could be felt, it was necessary that the work of classification should -be carried far beyond the point at which it had been left by Linnæus. In +be carried far beyond the point at which it had been left by Linnæus. In mapping out the relationships in the animal kingdom, the great Swedish naturalist had relied less than his predecessors upon external or superficial characteristics; the time was arriving when classification should be based upon a thorough study of internal structure, and this was done by a noble company of French anatomists, among whom Cuvier was chief. It was about 1817 that Cuvier's gigantic work reached its climax -in bringing palæontology into alliance with systematic zoölogy, and +in bringing palæontology into alliance with systematic zoölogy, and effecting that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> grand classification of animals in space and time which at once cast into the shade all that had gone before it. During the past fifty years there have been great changes made in Cuvier's @@ -742,7 +704,7 @@ could frame no satisfactory theory to account for it. The weight of evidence was already in favour of such evolution, and these men could not fail to see it. Foremost among them was Jean Baptiste Lamarck, whose work was of supreme importance. His views were stated in 1809 in his -"Philosophic Zoölogique," and further illustrated in 1815, in his +"Philosophic Zoölogique," and further illustrated in 1815, in his voluminous treatise on invertebrate animals. Lamarck entirely rejected the notion of special creations, and he pointed out some of the important factors in evolution,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> especially the law that organs and @@ -980,7 +942,7 @@ change resulting in forms that are more or less divergent from their originals. In one quarter a form is retained with little modification; in another it is completely blurred, as the Latin <i>metipsissimus</i> becomes <i>medesimo</i> in Italian, but <i>mismo</i> in Spanish, while in modern -French there is nothing left of it but <i>même</i>. So in Sanskrit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> and in +French there is nothing left of it but <i>même</i>. So in Sanskrit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> and in Lithuanian we find a most ingenious and elaborate system of conjugation and declension, which in such languages as Greek and Latin is more or less curtailed and altered, and which in English is almost completely @@ -1037,7 +999,7 @@ development, along which, owing to special circumstances, some peoples have advanced a great way, some a less way, some but a very little way; and that by studying existing savages and barbarians we get a valuable clue to the interpretation of prehistoric times. All these things are -to-day commonplaces among students of history and archæology; sixty +to-day commonplaces among students of history and archæology; sixty years ago they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> would have been scouted as idle vagaries. It is the introduction of such methods of study that is making history scientific. It is enabling us to digest the huge masses of facts that are daily @@ -1160,7 +1122,7 @@ of the "Origin of Species."</p> <p>The clue which Mr. Spencer followed was given him by the great embryologist, Karl Ernst von Baer, and an adumbration of it may perhaps -be traced back through Kaspar Friedrich Wolf to Linnæus. Hints of it may +be traced back through Kaspar Friedrich Wolf to Linnæus. Hints of it may be found, too, in Goethe and in Schelling. The advance from simplicity to complexity in the development of an egg is too obvious to be overlooked by any one, and was remarked upon, I believe, by Harvey; but @@ -1198,7 +1160,7 @@ governmental functions, a series of changes in the relations of the individual to the community. To see so much as this is to whet one's craving for enlarged resources wherewith to study human progress. Mr. Spencer had a wide, accurate, and often profound acquaintance with -botany, zoölogy, and allied studies. The question naturally occurred to +botany, zoölogy, and allied studies. The question naturally occurred to him, Where do we find the process of development most completely exemplified from beginning to end, so that we can follow and exhaustively describe its consecutive phases? Obviously in the @@ -1296,7 +1258,7 @@ women. The highest development of this psychical life is the end for which the world exists. The object of social life is the highest spiritual welfare of the individual members of society. The individual human soul thus comes to be as much the centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> of the Spencerian world -as it was the centre of the world of mediæval theology; and the history +as it was the centre of the world of mediæval theology; and the history of the evolution of conscious intelligence becomes a theme of surpassing interest.</p> @@ -1388,7 +1350,7 @@ dogmatic assertion:</p> <p>5. "The beliefs in an 'immortal soul' and in 'a personal God' are therewith" (<i>i. e.</i>, with the four preceding statements) "completely -ununitable (<i>völlig unvereinbar</i>)."</p> +ununitable (<i>völlig unvereinbar</i>)."</p> <p>Now, if Professor Haeckel had contented himself with asserting that these two beliefs are not susceptible of scientific demonstration; if he @@ -1426,7 +1388,7 @@ inconsistent with the monism which he professes. But he would say that this infinite and eternal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> principle of life is not psychical, and therefore cannot be called in any sense "a personal God." In an ultimate analysis, I suspect Professor Haeckel's ubiquitous monistic principle -would turn out to be neither more nor less than Dr. Büchner's mechanical +would turn out to be neither more nor less than Dr. Büchner's mechanical force (<i>Kraft</i>). On the other hand, I have sought to show—in my little book "The Idea of God"—that the Infinite and Eternal Power that animates the universe must be psychical in its nature, that any attempt @@ -1897,7 +1859,7 @@ a third venture resulted in a brilliant success. We have observed the eagerness with which, as a schoolboy, Mr. Youmans entered upon the study of chemistry. His interest in this science grew with years, and he devoted himself to it so far as was practicable. For a blind man to -carry on the study of a science which is preëminently one of observation +carry on the study of a science which is preëminently one of observation and experiment might seem hopeless. It was at any rate absolutely necessary to see with the eyes of others, if not with his own. Here the assistance rendered by his sister was invaluable. During most of this @@ -2132,7 +2094,7 @@ those of Buckle, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Haeckel, and others of like character; always paying a royalty to the authors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> the same as to American authors, in spite of the absence of an international copyright law. As publishers of books of this sort the Appletons have come to be -preëminent. It is obvious enough nowadays that such books are profitable +preëminent. It is obvious enough nowadays that such books are profitable from a business point of view; but thirty years and more ago this was by no means obvious. We Americans were terribly provincial. Reprints of English books and translations from French and German were sadly behind @@ -2218,7 +2180,7 @@ manner of unsuspected ways strengthened and enriched.</p> would no longer be able to go on issuing his works. In London they were published at his own expense and risk, and those books which now yield a handsome profit did not then pay the cost of making them. By the summer -of 1865 there was a balance of £1100 against Spencer, and his property +of 1865 there was a balance of £1100 against Spencer, and his property was too small to admit of his going on and losing at such a rate. As soon as this was known, John Stuart Mill begged to be allowed to assume the entire pecuniary responsibility of continuing the publication; but @@ -2707,12 +2669,12 @@ mechanical arts.</p> <p>Now, at the same time, to go back once more into that dim past, when ethics and religion, manual art and scientific thought, found -expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> in the crudest form of myths, the æsthetic sense was +expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> in the crudest form of myths, the æsthetic sense was germinating likewise. Away back in the glacial period you find pictures drawn and scratched upon the reindeer's antler, portraitures of mammoths and primitive pictures of the chase; you see the trinkets, the personal -decorations, proving beyond question that the æsthetic sense was there. -There has been an immense æsthetic development since then. And I believe +decorations, proving beyond question that the æsthetic sense was there. +There has been an immense æsthetic development since then. And I believe that in the future it is going to mean far more to us than we have yet begun to realize. I refer to the kind of training that comes to mankind through direct operation upon his environment, the incarnation of his @@ -3018,10 +2980,10 @@ Antwerp and Ghent. A careful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_13 abiding antagonism between commerce and the ecclesiastical spirit. A general connection between the predominance of international trade and the secularization of public life is distinctly traceable. On the map of -mediæval Europe one may point out peculiar spots where the Papacy never +mediæval Europe one may point out peculiar spots where the Papacy never gained complete sway. In some of these, as in Bohemia and southern Gaul, -the resistance was due to Manichæan heresies brought in from the Eastern -Empire, giving rise to a kind of mediæval Puritanism; in these we do not +the resistance was due to Manichæan heresies brought in from the Eastern +Empire, giving rise to a kind of mediæval Puritanism; in these we do not find a spirit of liberal thought developed, but rather an anti-Catholic fanaticism. The other peculiar spots lie in the great pathway of commerce between the Levant and the northern seas. In the free cities of @@ -3040,7 +3002,7 @@ distressing struggle. From the time of Edward III. commercial intercourse with the great Dutch and Flemish cities was one of the most potent civilizing influences at work in England. It was a liberalizing influence in religion and in politics, and must be named among the -causes which made the eastern counties preëminent for heresy. In later +causes which made the eastern counties preëminent for heresy. In later days, when the Dutch provinces had saved their Protestantism and recovered political freedom, they adopted a policy of toleration so broad as to seem to most contemporaries very eccentric. Their noble @@ -3132,7 +3094,7 @@ refused to allow the civil power of Rhode Island to be used against Quakers. Massachusetts in fury threatened to cut off the trade of the weaker colony, but nothing could intimidate Williams into what he termed "exercising a civil power over men's consciences." Among the public men -of the seventeenth century Roger Williams deserves a preëminent place; +of the seventeenth century Roger Williams deserves a preëminent place; he was the first to conceive thoroughly and carry out consistently, in the face of strong opposition, a theory of religious liberty broad enough to win assent and approval from advanced thinkers of the present @@ -3295,7 +3257,7 @@ later age.</p> exercised in America by the English deists, and at the very end of the century by Thomas Paine. There is no reason to suppose that any appreciable effect was produced by the atheism of the French -encyclopædists, which was mainly a reaction, largely emotional and aided +encyclopædists, which was mainly a reaction, largely emotional and aided by the shallowest of metaphysics, against the effete ecclesiastical system in France. It was too remote from American ideas to exert much influence here. The deism of Voltaire found a few scattered admirers. A @@ -3324,7 +3286,7 @@ bibliolatry, it might indeed be said that the promise of the Protestant Reformation was at length fulfilled. The change wrought in the Unitarian church since Parker began his preaching has been to some extent followed by analogous changes in other churches. On every side, the last quarter -of the nineteenth century has been preëminently the age of the +of the nineteenth century has been preëminently the age of the decomposition of orthodoxies. Here and there and everywhere they are crumbling into ruins; and as the world has long since left behind the age of trilobites and the age of dinosaurs, so in the world to which we @@ -3843,7 +3805,7 @@ and Brazil, 1886.</p> <p>Arbitration by Spain between Colombia and Venezuela, 1887.</p> -<p>Arbitration by the minister of Spain at Bogotá between +<p>Arbitration by the minister of Spain at Bogotá between Italy and Colombia, 1887.</p> <p>Arbitration by President Cleveland between Nicaragua and @@ -3978,7 +3940,7 @@ upon frequent warfare between their city-states. Among the Italian republics of the Middle Ages, disputes were sometimes submitted to the arbitration of learned professors in the universities at Bologna and other towns. But such methods could not prevail over the ruder fashions -of Europe north of the Alps. As mediæval Italy was the industrial and +of Europe north of the Alps. As mediæval Italy was the industrial and commercial centre of the world, so in our day it is the nations most completely devoted to industry and commerce, the English-speaking nations, that are foremost in bringing into practice the methods of @@ -4027,12 +3989,12 @@ for the sake of its moral effect.</p> <p>The method at present in vogue on the continent of Europe for averting warfare is the excessively cumbrous expedient of keeping up great armaments in time of peace. The origin of this expedient may be traced -back to the <i>levée en masse</i> to which revolutionary France resorted in -the agonies of self-defence in 1792. The <i>levée en masse</i> proved to be a +back to the <i>levée en masse</i> to which revolutionary France resorted in +the agonies of self-defence in 1792. The <i>levée en masse</i> proved to be a far more formidable engine of warfare than the small standing armies with which Europe had long been familiar; and so, after the old military system of Prussia had been overthrown in 1806,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> the reforms of Stein and -Scharnhorst introduced the principle of the <i>levée en masse</i> into times +Scharnhorst introduced the principle of the <i>levée en masse</i> into times of peace, dividing the male population into classes which could be kept in training, and might be successively called to the field as soon as military exigencies should demand it. The prodigious strength which @@ -4300,7 +4262,7 @@ and peopled it forever with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199 and terrible, or sprightly and gay. Never shall be forgotten the beautiful earnestness, the devout serenity, the blithe courage, of Champlain; never can we forget the saintly Marie de l'Incarnation, the -delicate and long-suffering Lalemant, the lionlike Brébeuf, the +delicate and long-suffering Lalemant, the lionlike Brébeuf, the chivalrous Maisonneuve, the grim and wily Pontiac, or that man against whom fate sickened of contending, the mighty and masterful La Salle. These, with many a comrade and foe, have now their place in literature @@ -4338,7 +4300,7 @@ unreal Indians as factors in the development of a narrative without throwing a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> shimmer of unreality about the whole story. It is like bringing in ghosts or goblins among live men and women: it instantly converts sober narrative into fairy tale; the two worlds will no more -mix than oil and water. The ancient and mediæval minds did not find it +mix than oil and water. The ancient and mediæval minds did not find it so, as the numberless histories encumbered with the supernatural testify; but the modern mind does find it so. The modern mind has taken a little draught, the prelude to deeper draughts, at the healing and @@ -4565,7 +4527,7 @@ often dim, but sometimes wonderfully suggestive and instructive. It is a light that reveals among primeval Greeks ideas and customs essentially similar to those of the Iroquois. It is a light that grows steadier and brighter as it leads us to the conclusion that five or six thousand -years before Christ white men around the Ægean Sea had advanced about as +years before Christ white men around the Ægean Sea had advanced about as far as the red men in the Mohawk Valley two centuries ago. The one phase of this primitive society illuminates the other, though extreme caution is necessary in drawing our inferences. Now Parkman's minute and vivid @@ -4581,7 +4543,7 @@ of that breezy bit of autobiography, "The Oregon Trail," all Parkman's books are the closely related volumes of a single comprehensive work. From the adventures of "The Pioneers of France" a consecutive story is developed through "The Jesuits in North America" and "The Discovery of -the Great West." In "The Old Régime in Canada" it is continued with a +the Great West." In "The Old Régime in Canada" it is continued with a masterly analysis of French methods of colonization in this their greatest colony, and then from "Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV." we are led through "A Half-Century of Conflict" to the grand @@ -4642,8 +4604,8 @@ destruction of the other. Probably the French perceived this somewhat earlier than the English; they felt it to be necessary to stamp out the English before the latter had more than realized the necessity of defending themselves against the French. For the type of political -society represented by Louis XIV. was preëminently militant, as the -English type was preëminently industrial. The aggressiveness of the +society represented by Louis XIV. was preëminently militant, as the +English type was preëminently industrial. The aggressiveness of the former was more distinctly conscious of its own narrower aims, and was more deliberately set at work to attain them, while the English, on the other hand, rather drifted into a tremendous world fight without @@ -4686,7 +4648,7 @@ colony of New France.</p> <p>Nowhere can we find a description of despotic government more careful and thoughtful, or more graphic and lifelike, than Parkman has given us -in his volume on "The Old Régime in Canada." Seldom, too, will one find +in his volume on "The Old Régime in Canada." Seldom, too, will one find a book fuller of political wisdom. The author never preaches like Carlyle, nor does he hurl huge generalizations at our heads like Buckle; he simply describes a state of society that has been. But I hardly need @@ -4913,7 +4875,7 @@ instinct showed itself at Chauncy Hall School, where we find him, at fourteen years of age, eagerly and busily engaged in the study and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> practice of English composition. It was natural that tales of heroes should be especially charming at that time of life, and among Parkman's -efforts were paraphrasing parts of the Æneid, and turning into rhymed +efforts were paraphrasing parts of the Æneid, and turning into rhymed verse the scene of the tournament in "Ivanhoe." From the artificial stupidity which is too often superinduced in boys by their early schooling he was saved by native genius and breezy woodland life, and @@ -5245,7 +5207,7 @@ seems to have resented such presumption. Toward the end of the journey Parkman found himself ill in much the same way as at the beginning, and craved medical advice. It was in mid-September, on a broad meadow in the wild valley of the Arkansas, where his party had fallen in with a huge -Santa Fé caravan of white-topped wagons, with great droves of mules and +Santa Fé caravan of white-topped wagons, with great droves of mules and horses; and we may let Parkman tell the story in his own words, in the last of our extracts from his fascinating book. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> of the guides had told him that in this caravan was a physician from St. Louis, by the @@ -5561,7 +5523,7 @@ made. The writer looks, however, for a fair degree of success."</p> <p>After 1865 the progress was certainly much more rapid than before. The next fourteen years witnessed the publication of "The Jesuits," "La -Salle," "The Old Régime," and "Frontenac," and saw "Montcalm and Wolfe" +Salle," "The Old Régime," and "Frontenac," and saw "Montcalm and Wolfe" well under way; while the "Half-Century of Conflict," intervening between "Frontenac" and "Montcalm and Wolfe," was reserved until the last-mentioned work should be done, for the same reason that led Herbert @@ -5664,7 +5626,7 @@ on the one hand by philosophical breadth of view, and on the other hand by extreme accuracy of statement, and such loving minuteness of detail as is apt to mark the local antiquary whose life has been spent in studying only one thing. It was to the combination of these two -characteristics that the preëminent greatness of his historical work was +characteristics that the preëminent greatness of his historical work was due. We see the combination already prefigured, and to some extent realized, in his first book, "A History of Architecture," published in 1849, although this can hardly be called such a work of original @@ -5707,9 +5669,9 @@ our time has made more effective use of the comparative method.</p> with Mediterranean history viewed on the broadest scale in relation to all those movements of progressive humanity which have had that great inland sea for a common centre. Here came those brilliant essays on -"Ancient Greece and Mediæval Italy," "Homer and the Homeric Age," "The +"Ancient Greece and Mediæval Italy," "Homer and the Homeric Age," "The Athenian Democracy," "Alexander the Great," "Greece during the -Macedonian Period," "Mommsen's History of Rome," "The Flavian Cæsars," +Macedonian Period," "Mommsen's History of Rome," "The Flavian Cæsars," and others since collected in the second series of his "Historical Essays." To this period also belongs the little book on the "History of the Saracens," based upon lectures given at the Philosophical @@ -5726,7 +5688,7 @@ came after. Such a habit is fatal to all correct understanding of history, even that of the ages upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> which attention is thus unwisely concentrated. Freeman understood that in some respects, if not in others, the history of Greece is just as important after the battle of -Chæronea as before; and he became especially interested in the history +Chæronea as before; and he became especially interested in the history of the Achaian League and other Greek attempts at federation. Thence grew the idea of studying the development of federal union as the highest form of nation-building, beginning with its germs in the leagues @@ -5916,7 +5878,7 @@ England" (1886-88). Meanwhile, the colossal work on "Sicily" was rapidly assuming its final shape. This topic obviously touched upon Freeman's other two chief topics at two points. Ancient Sicily was part of that Greek world which he had so thoroughly studied in connection with the -beginnings of federal government. Mediæval Sicily was one of the most +beginnings of federal government. Mediæval Sicily was one of the most important of the Norman's fields of activity. But the thought of writing the history of that fateful island did not come to Freeman as an afterthought suggested by his other two great works. On the contrary, @@ -6012,7 +5974,7 @@ excellent; his account of the death of William Rufus, for example, is a masterpiece of impressive narrative. In description and in argument alike Freeman usually confined his attention to political history, except when he dealt in his suggestive way with architecture and -archæology. To art in general, to the history of philosophy and of +archæology. To art in general, to the history of philosophy and of scientific ideas, to the development of literary expression, of manners and customs, of trade and the industrial arts, he devoted much less thought. I believe he did not fully approve of his friend Green's method @@ -6151,7 +6113,7 @@ against frontier barbarism of the New World type; not the formidable destructive power of an Attila or a Bayazet, but the feeble barbarism of the red men and the Stone Age, so that a wall of masonry was not required, but a wooden palisade would do. In 1632 the Court of -Assistants imposed a tax of £60 for the purpose of building this +Assistants imposed a tax of £60 for the purpose of building this palisade; but the men of Watertown refused to pay their share, on the ground that they were not represented in the taxing body. The ensuing discussion resulted in the establishment of a House of Deputies, in @@ -6249,7 +6211,7 @@ comprised between Harvard Street and the marshes which cut off approach to the river bank. Afterward, the "West End," from Harvard Square to Sparks Street, was gradually covered with homesteads. The common began, as now, hard by God's Acre, the venerable burying ground, and afforded -pasturage for the village cattle as far as Linnæan Street. The regions +pasturage for the village cattle as far as Linnæan Street. The regions now occupied by Cambridgeport and East Cambridge contained the arable district with many farms, small and large, but everywhere salt marshes bordered the river, and much of the country was a wild woodland. The @@ -6500,7 +6462,7 @@ have spoken as beginning in 1639. Of the wise and genial founder of the Riverside Press—who once was mayor of our city, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> whose memory we love and revere—it may be said that few men of recent times have had a higher conception of bookmaking as one of the fine arts. These two -institutions have set a lofty standard for the Athenæum Press, which has +institutions have set a lofty standard for the Athenæum Press, which has lately come to bear them company. The past half century has seen Cambridge come into the foremost rank among the few publishing centres of the world, where books are printed with faultless accuracy and @@ -6567,7 +6529,7 @@ all studied a book of chemistry; how many of us ever really looked at such things as manganese or antimony? For the student of biology the provision was better, for the Botanic Garden was very helpful, and in the autumn of 1860 was opened the first section of our glorious Museum -of Comparative Zoölogy.</p> +of Comparative Zoölogy.</p> <p>Here one is naturally led to the reflection that in that day of small things, as some might call it, there were spiritual influences operative @@ -6659,7 +6621,7 @@ to send him to the White House! In some cities one finds people inclined to give up the problem as insoluble.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> I was lately assured by a gentleman in a city which I will not name, but more than a thousand miles from here, that the only cure for the accumulated wrongs of that -community would be an occasional <i>coup d'état</i>, with the massacre of all +community would be an occasional <i>coup d'état</i>, with the massacre of all the city officers. So the last word of our boasted progress, when it comes to municipal government, is declared to be the Oriental idea of "despotism tempered by assassination"! Now to what cause or causes are @@ -6694,7 +6656,7 @@ and the fear of the Lord.</p> <h3>A HARVEST OF IRISH FOLK-LORE</h3> -<p>Since the days when Castrèn made his arduous journeys of linguistic +<p>Since the days when Castrèn made his arduous journeys of linguistic exploration in Siberia, or when the brothers Grimm collected their rich treasures of folk-lore from the lips of German peasants, an active quest of vocables and myths has been conducted with much zeal and energy in @@ -6815,7 +6777,7 @@ always a person of known condition in a specified place"<span class="pagenum"><a an experienced observer can entertain no doubt. His book is certainly the most considerable achievement in the field of Gaelic mythology since the publication, thirty years ago, of Campbell's "Tales of the West -Highlands;" and it does for the folk-lore of Ireland what Asbjörnsen and +Highlands;" and it does for the folk-lore of Ireland what Asbjörnsen and Moe's collection (the English translation of which is commonly, and with some injustice, known by the name of the translator as Dasent's "Norse Tales") did for the folk-lore of Norway. This is, of course, very high @@ -6855,15 +6817,15 @@ Fin and his redoubtable dog Bran, the one-eyed Gruagach, the hero Diarmuid, the old hag with the life-giving ointment, the weird hand of Mal MacMulcan, and the cowherd that was son of the king of Alban make a charming series of pictures. Among Fin's followers there is a certain -Conán Maol, "who never had a good word in his mouth for any man," and +Conán Maol, "who never had a good word in his mouth for any man," and for whom no man had a good word. This counterpart of Thersites, as Mr. Curtin tells us, figures as conspicuously in North American as in Aryan -myths. Conán was always at Fin's side, and advising him to mischief. -Once it had like to have gone hard with Conán. The Fenians had been +myths. Conán was always at Fin's side, and advising him to mischief. +Once it had like to have gone hard with Conán. The Fenians had been inveigled into an enchanted castle, and could not rise from their chairs till two of Fin's sons had gone and beheaded three kings in the north of Erin, and put their blood into three goblets, and come back and rubbed -the blood on the chairs. Conán had no chair, but was sitting on the +the blood on the chairs. Conán had no chair, but was sitting on the floor, with his back to the wall, and just before they came to him the last drop of blood gave out. The Fenians were hurrying past without minding the mischief-maker, when, upon his earnest appeal, Diarmuid @@ -6872,7 +6834,7 @@ with all their might, tore him from the wall and the floor. But if they did, he left all the skin of his back, from his head to his heels, on the floor and the wall behind him. But when they were going home through the hills of Tralee, they found a sheep on the way, killed it, and -clapped the skin on Conán. The sheepskin grew to his body; and he was so +clapped the skin on Conán. The sheepskin grew to his body; and he was so well and strong that they sheared him every year, and got wool enough from his back to make flannel and frieze for the Fenians of Erin ever after." This is a favourite incident, and recurs in the story of the @@ -7170,7 +7132,7 @@ Cook proceeds to show his respect for the learning of his audience in some remarks on <i>bathybius</i>, which, as he condescendingly explains, is a name derived from two Greek words, meaning <i>deep</i> and <i>sea</i>!! The profound knowledge of Greek thus exhibited is quite equalled by his -account of bathybius from the zoölogical point of view. He begins by +account of bathybius from the zoölogical point of view. He begins by telling his hearers that, in a paper published in the "Microscopical Journal" in 1868, Professor Huxley "announced his belief that the gelatinous substance found in the ooze of the beds of the deep seas is a @@ -7210,7 +7172,7 @@ appears to have been chiefly done with his own very brazen instrument.</p> <p>I said a moment ago that Mr. Cook's system of quotation is peculiar. The following instance is so good that it will bear citing at some length. According to Mr. Cook, Professor Huxley says, in his article on Biology -in the ninth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica:" "<i>Throughout +in the ninth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica:" "<i>Throughout almost the whole series of living beings, we find agamogenesis, or not-sexual generation.</i>" After a pause, Mr. Cook proceeded in a lower voice: "When the topic of the origin of the life of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> Lord on the @@ -7388,7 +7350,7 @@ entitled her to the woman's privilege of the last word.</p> had its day and been flung aside. If Wolf himself were living, he would be the first to laugh at it. Its original prop has been knocked away, since it has become pretty clear that the art of writing was practised -about the shores of the Ægean Sea long before 1100 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> Even Wolf would +about the shores of the Ægean Sea long before 1100 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> Even Wolf would now admit that it might have been a real letter that Bellerophon carried to the father of Anteia.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> All attempts to show a lack of unity in the design of the Iliad and the Odyssey have failed irretrievably, and the @@ -7838,11 +7800,11 @@ acquainted with one another; it is a very rare exception when it is not so. Before his thirtieth year, Shakespeare was well known in London as an actor, a writer of plays, and the manager of a prominent theatre. It was in that year that Spenser, in his "Colin Clout's Come Home Again," -alluding to Shakespeare under the name of Aëtion, or "eagle-like," paid +alluding to Shakespeare under the name of Aëtion, or "eagle-like," paid him this compliment:—</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"And there, though last, not least, is Aëtion;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">"And there, though last, not least, is Aëtion;<br /></span> <span class="i4">A gentler shepherd may nowhere be found;<br /></span> <span class="i2">Whose muse, full of high thought's invention,<br /></span> <span class="i4">Doth, like himself, heroically sound."<br /></span> @@ -7994,7 +7956,7 @@ to the conclusion that it must have been written by a lord chancellor.</p> <p>If Shakespeare's dramas are proved by such internal evidence to have been written by a lawyer, that lawyer, by parity of reasoning, could -hardly have been Francis Bacon. For he was preëminently a chancery +hardly have been Francis Bacon. For he was preëminently a chancery lawyer, and chancery phrases are in Shakespeare conspicuously absent. The word "injunctions" occurs five times in the plays, once perhaps with a reference to its legal use ("Merchant of Venice," II. ix.); but @@ -8097,7 +8059,7 @@ have done.</p> <p>So much for Bacon himself. With regard to him as possible author of the Shakespeare poems and plays, it is difficult to imagine so learned a scholar making the kind of mistakes that abound in those writings. Bacon -would hardly have introduced clocks into the Rome of Julius Cæsar; nor +would hardly have introduced clocks into the Rome of Julius Cæsar; nor would he have made Hector quote Aristotle, nor Hamlet study at the University of Wittenberg, founded five hundred years after Hamlet's time; nor would he have put pistols into the age of Henry IV., nor @@ -8468,7 +8430,7 @@ contain some queer things.</p> <p>When I consulted the subject catalogue, to see under what head it had been customary to classify these lucubrations on Pi, I found, sure -enough, that it was Mathematics § Circle-Squaring. Following this cue, I +enough, that it was Mathematics § Circle-Squaring. Following this cue, I explored the drawers in other directions, and found books on "perpetual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> motion" formed a section under Physics, while crazy interpretations of the book of Daniel were grouped along with works of solid Biblical @@ -8605,12 +8567,12 @@ society "craven dunghill cocks," and bestrewed them, with other choice flowers of rhetoric, much to the relief of his feelings.</p> <p>One of this naval officer's fellow sufferers was a farm labourer, who -took it into his head that the Lord Chancellor had offered £100,000 +took it into his head that the Lord Chancellor had offered £100,000 reward to any one who should square the circle. So Hodge went to work and squared it, and then hied him to London, blissfully dreaming of sudden wealth. Hearing that De Morgan was a great mathematician, he left his papers with him, including a letter to the Lord Chancellor, claiming -the £100,000. De Morgan returned the papers with a note, saying that no +the £100,000. De Morgan returned the papers with a note, saying that no such prize had ever been offered, and gently hinting that the worthy Hodge had not sufficient knowledge to see in what the problem consisted. This elicited from the rustic philosopher a long letter, from which I @@ -8808,7 +8770,7 @@ von Humboldt as my protectors. I ask one hundred brave companions, well equipped, to start from Siberia, in the fall season, with reindeer and sleighs, on the ice of the frozen sea. I engage we find a warm and rich land, stocked with thrifty vegetables and animals, if not men, on -reaching one degree northward of latitude 82°. We will return in the +reaching one degree northward of latitude 82°. We will return in the succeeding spring."</p> <p>This circular was sent by mail to men of science, colleges, learned @@ -8926,7 +8888,7 @@ cranks, or "pyramidalists," as they have been called?</p> <p>According to them, the builders of the Great Pyramid were supernaturally instructed, probably by Melchizedek, King of Salem. Thus they were -enabled to place it in latitude 30° N.; to make its four sides face the +enabled to place it in latitude 30° N.; to make its four sides face the cardinal points; to adopt the sacred cubit, or one twenty millionth part of the earth's polar axis, as their unit of length; "and to make the side of the square base equal to just so many of these sacred cubits as @@ -9035,10 +8997,10 @@ break them up (Heaven knows why!) each into four periods of 68, 204, 269, and 541 years. Then we are treated to the following equations:—</p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i3">68 = 2 × 34<br /></span> -<span class="i2">204 = 6 × 34<br /></span> -<span class="i2">269 = 5 × 34 + 3 × 33<br /></span> -<span class="i2">541 = 13 × 34 + 3 × 33<br /></span> +<span class="i3">68 = 2 × 34<br /></span> +<span class="i2">204 = 6 × 34<br /></span> +<span class="i2">269 = 5 × 34 + 3 × 33<br /></span> +<span class="i2">541 = 13 × 34 + 3 × 33<br /></span> </div></div> <p>Hence, "with such a fulcrum as the Lamb slain before the foundation of @@ -9521,11 +9483,11 @@ surgeon's tools, its shelves of mysterious liquids in vials, its slabs of Portland sandstone bearing footprints of Triassic dinosaurs, and near the door a grim pterodactyl keeping guard over all, it might have been the necromancing den of a Sidrophel. Maps and crayon sketches, mingled -with femurs and vertebræ, sprawled over tables and sofas and cumbered +with femurs and vertebræ, sprawled over tables and sofas and cumbered the chairs, till there was scarcely a place to sit down, while everywhere in direst helter-skelter yawned and toppled the books. And such books! There I first browsed in Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Lamarck -and Blainville, and passed enchanted hours with the "Règne Animal." The +and Blainville, and passed enchanted hours with the "Règne Animal." The doctor was a courtly gentleman of the old stripe, and never did he clear a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> chair for me without an apology, saying that he only awaited a leisure day to put all things in strictest order. Dear soul! that day @@ -9578,7 +9540,7 @@ for a beast of burden, sir, I prefer the neuter form. A gigantic pachyderm, sir; and Dr. Hitchcock, sir, perfect fool, sir, says it was a bullfrog!"</p> -<p>The mortal remains of this gentle palæontologist rest in the beautiful +<p>The mortal remains of this gentle palæontologist rest in the beautiful Indian Hill Cemetery at Middletown, and his gravestone, designed and placed there by my dear friend, the late Charles Browning, is appropriate and noble. For the doctor was after all a sterling man, @@ -9787,7 +9749,7 @@ Astronomy at the Harvard Observatory, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.<br /> <br /> Athanasius, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<br /> <br /> -Athenæum Press, the, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.<br /> +Athenæum Press, the, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.<br /> <br /> Atomic theory, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -9858,7 +9820,7 @@ Bouquet, Henry, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.<br /> <br /> Bowditch, Nathaniel, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.<br /> <br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>Brébeuf, J., <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>Brébeuf, J., <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.<br /> <br /> Bridge, John, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -9872,7 +9834,7 @@ Brown, Marie, a paradoxer, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>.<br /> <br /> Browning, Charles, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.<br /> <br /> -Büchner, L., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.<br /> +Büchner, L., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.<br /> <br /> Buckle, H. T., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -9966,7 +9928,7 @@ Comparative method, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-35.<br /> Comte, Auguste, his assertion that a stellar astronomy is impossible, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of his philosophy, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</span><br /> <br /> -Conán Maol, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> +Conán Maol, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.<br /> <br /> Congress of American Colonies, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -10021,7 +9983,7 @@ De Morgan, Augustus, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>-419, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a <br /> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>Derby, Earl of, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.<br /> <br /> -Descartes, René, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br /> +Descartes, René, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br /> <br /> Dickens, Charles, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -10414,7 +10376,7 @@ Leibnitz, G. W., <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.<br /> <br /> Leslie, Alexander, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.<br /> <br /> -<i>Levée en masse</i>, system of, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.<br /> +<i>Levée en masse</i>, system of, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.<br /> <br /> Lewes, G. H., <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>-333.<br /> <br /> @@ -10426,7 +10388,7 @@ Lindemann's researches on Pi, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.<br /> <br /> Linguistic Society of Paris, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br /> <br /> -Linnæus, his system of classification, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;<br /> +Linnæus, his system of classification, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">his relation to evolution, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</span><br /> <br /> Little, Brown & Co., <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.<br /> @@ -10563,7 +10525,7 @@ Newton, Sir Isaac, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#P <br /> Noble Savage, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.<br /> <br /> -Nordenskjöld, Baron, Swedish explorer, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.<br /> +Nordenskjöld, Baron, Swedish explorer, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.<br /> <br /> Norton, John, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -10793,7 +10755,7 @@ Russell, Lord John, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.<br /> Rutherford, Samuel, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.<br /> <br /> <br /> -Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br /> +Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br /> <br /> Saint-Hilaire, Isidore Geoffroy, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br /> <br /> @@ -11073,7 +11035,7 @@ CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S. A.<br /> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Morse, <i>What American Zoölogists have done for Evolution</i>, +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Morse, <i>What American Zoölogists have done for Evolution</i>, pp. 37, 39-41, Salem, 1876; <i>Proc. Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Sci.</i>, vol. xxii.</p></div> @@ -11170,7 +11132,7 @@ the rule. See my <i>Dutch and Quaker Colonies</i>, i. 232-237.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Stimson, <i>American Statue Law</i>, §46.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Stimson, <i>American Statue Law</i>, §46.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -11262,7 +11224,7 @@ to imply the contrary. See above, pp. 58-60.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, ninth edition, "Biology," p. +<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, ninth edition, "Biology," p. 686.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -11313,7 +11275,7 @@ circumstances of his marriage, etc.</p></div> <p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The writings of Hippocrates abound in examples, as in his interesting explanation of congestion, extravasation, etc. (<i>De Ventis</i>, -x.-xiv., <i>Opera</i>, ed. Littré, tom. vi. pp. 104-114), to cite one +x.-xiv., <i>Opera</i>, ed. Littré, tom. vi. pp. 104-114), to cite one instance out of a thousand: Επειδαν ουν ες τας παχειας και πολυαιμους των φλεβων πολυς αηρ βριση, βρισας δε μενη, κωλυεται το ἁιμα διεξιεναι τη μεν ουν ενεστηκε, τη δε νωθρως διεξερχεται, τη δε @@ -11355,383 +11317,6 @@ as above described.</p></div> Brother Richards as Spiritual head, or high priest of the Adoni-shomo.</p></div> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Century of Science and Other Essays, by -John Fiske - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A CENTURY OF SCIENCE *** - -***** This file should be named 40590-h.htm or 40590-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/5/9/40590/ - -Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, -Josephine Paolucci and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team at http://www.pgdp.net. 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